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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 18231824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
Ail rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXIV
SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE to SHUTTLE
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
191 1
R
Copyright, in the United States of America. 1911,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. R * ARTHUR ALCOCK RAMBAUT, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (
Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin -< Schonfeld Eduard
and Royal Astronomer of Ireland, 1892-1897.
A. Cy. ARTHUR ERNEST COWLEY, M.A., LiTT.D. [Samaritans;
Sub-Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. \ Seadiah.
A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. r
Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist, J
Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogues of Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, 1 Shark (in part),
and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. L
A. E. H. A. E. HOUGHTON. f Re,,.,, v Domlniruez
Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the { oe "^ no wominguez,
Bourbons in Spain. [ *TaneiSCO.
A. E. J. ARTHUR ERNEST JOLLIFFE, M.A. f
Fellow, Tutor and Mathematical Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Senior -{ Series.
Mathematical Scholar, 1892.
A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. f
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. I
Formerly Assistant-Secretary of the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls' | Schools.
College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. I
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls'
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, l893~-j Sanders, Nicholas.
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. [
A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. f Scotland: Geography and
See the biographical article: GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. \ Geology (in part).
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J Saravia, Adrian;
Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. I Servetus, Michael.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.D., LL.D., Lirr.D. f Sardanapalus; Sargon;
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ Sennacherib; Shalmaneser.
A. H.-S. SIR A. HouTUM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Seistan (in part) ; Shiraz;
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Shushter.
A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J Sentuazint The
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of]
Mysore Educational Service. L
A. L. ANDREW LANG, LL.D. /Scotland: History;
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. | Second Sight.
A. M.* REV. ALLAN MENZIES, D.D. f
Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author J. Scotland, Church of.
of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy.
A. M. Cl. AGNES MUMEL CLAY (Mrs Wilde). f
Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint-author of Sources J Senate
of Roman History, 133-70 B.C.
Sand-grouse; Sandpiper;
Scaup; Scoter; Scrub-bird-,
Secretary-bird; Seriema;
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
Shearwater; Sheath bill;
Sheldrake; Shoe-bill;
Shoveler; Shrike.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
1993
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. No.
A. S. P.-P-
B. R.*
B. S. P.
C. A. G. B.
C. El.
C. F. A.
C. F. B.
C. H.
C. H.*
C. H. Ha.
C. J. F.
C. L. K.
C. M.
ADOLF GOTTHARD NOREEN, PH.D. C
Professor of Scandinavian Languages at the University of Upsala. Author of J coonj!.,,,- t.,,
Geschichte der Nordischen Sprachen; Altislandiscke und Altnorwegische Gram- 1 Scandinavian Languages.
matik; &c. I
ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. (
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford I Scepticism;
Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. | Scholasticism.
Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos ; The Philosophical Radicals ; &c. I
Founder and First President of \ Savin S s Banks:
L United States.
Scandinavian Civilization
HON. BRADFORD RHODES.
Head of Banking Firm of Bradford Rhodes & Co.
34th Street National Bank, New York.
BERTHA SURTEES PHILLPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin).
Formerly Librarian of, Girton College, Cambridge.
SIR CYPRIAN ARTHUR GEORGE BRIDGE, G.C.B.
Admiral. Commander-in-Chief, China Station, 1901-1904. Director of Naval J Sea, Command of the;
IntelHger.ee, 1889-1894. Author of The Art of Naval Warfare; Sea-Power and other 1 Sea-Power
Studies ; &c. [
SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East ~( Saka
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for
German East Africa, 1900-1904.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal { Seven Weeks' War (in part)
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. \_
CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. f
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of J Seiffnioraev
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International \ C1 6"'>"6<'-
Trade ; &c. I
CHARLES HOSE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc. I"
Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly Divisional Resident and Member of thej Sai.au/aif
Supreme Council of Sarawak. Knight of the Prussian Crown. Author of A \
Descriptive Account of the Mammals of Borneo; &c. l
SIR CHARLES HOLROYD.
See the biographical article: HOLROYD, SIR C.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City,
of the American Historical Association.
Short, Francis Job.
Member^ Sforza.
LIEUT.-COL. CHARLES JAMES Fox, F.R.G.S.
Chief Officer, London Salvage Corps. President of Association of Professional Fire
Brigade Officers. Vice-President of National Fire Brigades Union; &c.
CHARLES L,ETHBRIDGE KINCSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S., F.S.A.
Assistant-Secretary to the. Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V.
pf Chronicles of London, and Stow's Survey of London.
Salvage Corps.
Salisbury, Thomas de Monta-
cute, Earl of;
C. Mi. " :
C. M. W.
C. Pf.
C. R. B.
C. W. R.
D. B. Ma.
Editor 1 Shore, Jane;
I Shrewsbury, 1st Earl of.
CARL THEODOR, MIRBT, D.Tn.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik'
im ZeitallerGregor VII.; QueUen zur Geschichte des Papstthums; &c.
CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH.
Senator of 'the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- .
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James', 1895-1900 and 1902-
Sardica, Council of.
Servia.
SIR CHARLES MOORE WATSON, K.C.M.G., C.B. f
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy-Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896- -j Sepulchre, The Holy.
1902. Served under General Gordon in the Soudan, 1874-1875. L
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-is-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux.
Author of J Salic
Law.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A.. D.LiTT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c.
CHARLES WALKER ROBINSON, C.B., D.C.L.
Major-General (retired). Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army,
1890-1892. Lieut.-Governor and Secretary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, '
1895-1898. Author of Strategy of the Peninsular War; &c. L
DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. c
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. I
Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional |
Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. L
Sanuto, Marino;
Schiltberger, Johann.
Salamanca: Baltic, 1812.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
vn
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. (" c c , erzo .
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The-\
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. l_ Serenade.
DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. f
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Fellow Samsun; Sardis;
of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 1903 ; -< Scala Nuova'
1904-1905. Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, oohliomaT V
Ephesus,
1897-1900.
Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
Schliemann, Heinrich.
D. H.
D. 0.
E. A. M.
E. B. T.
E. C. B.
E. F.
E.G.
E. Gr.
E. H. B.
E. H. M.
E. J. D.
E. K. C.
Ed. M.
E. M. T.
DAVID HANNAY.
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona.
Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c.
Author of Short History of the Royal
Saints, Battle of the;
St Vincent, Earl of;
St Vincent, Battle of;
Santa Cruz, Marquis of;
Seamanship;
Seven Years' War:
Naval Operations.
E.G.*
E. R. B.
E. Wa.
DOUGLAS OWEN. f
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer at the Royal Naval War College,
Portsmouth, and at London School of Economics. Hon. Secretary and Treasurer J Shipping
of the Society of Nautical Research. Author of Declaration of War; Belligerents
and Neutrals; Ports and Docks; &c.
EDWARD ALFRED MINCHIN, M.A., F.Z.S. c
Professor of Protozoology in the University of London. Formerly Fellow of Merton J SevDhomedusae
College, Oxford, and Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, | yy
University College, London.
EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT.
RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., Lirr.D.
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius '
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
RT. HON. SIR EDWARD FRY.
See the biographical article: FRY, SIR EDWARD.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
ERNKST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A.
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.
SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895).
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography;
&c.
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A.
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College.
EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., MUS.BAC.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge.
and Works.
, Salutations.
- Servites.
-: Selborne, 1st Earl of.
f Samain, Albert Victor;
\ Sermon.
l Samos (in part).
1 Samos (in part).
J Sarmatae;
I Scythia.
Author of A. Scarlatti: his Life Scarlatti, Alessandro.
EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS.
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval -j Shakespeare.
Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's
Poems; Sec.
EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lrrr., LL.D. c c ,. -.,,
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichle des J , S, oairap,
Allerthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und Hire Nachbarstamme. [ Seleucia; Snapur l.-III.
SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., I.S.O., D.C.L., Lrrr.D., LL.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1898-1909. Sandars Reader in
Bibliography, Cambridge University, 1895-1896. Hon. Fellow of University College,
Oxford. Correspondent of the Institute of France and of the Royal Prussian <
Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography. Editor
of Chronicon Angliae. Joint-editor of publications of the Palaeographical Society,
the New Palaeographical Society, and of the Facsimile of the Laurentian Sophocles.
Seals;
Shorthand: Greek and Roman
Tachygraphy.
EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. r
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Scalp: Surgery;
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of ] Shock.
A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students.
EDWYN ROBERT BEVAN, M.A. f
New College, Oxford. Author of The House of Seleucus; Jerusalem under the High \ Seleucid Dynasty.
Priests.
REV. EDMOND WARRE, M.A., D.D., D.C.L., C.B., C.V.O. f shi Hi . lnrv ln the mention
Provost of Eton. Hon. Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Headmaster of Eton \ st "V- wslorylo the Invention
College, 1884-1905. Author of Grammar of Rowing; &c. {_ o) Steamships.
F. J. G.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. E. Br. REV. FRANK EDWARD BRIGHTMAN, M.A., PH.D., D.Lrrr. f
Fellow and Tutor of Magdalen College, Oxford. Prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. I
Pusey Librarian, Oxford, 1884-1903. Author of Liturgies: Eastern and Western; j
&c. I
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \
F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. .
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, |
London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR FREDERICK JOHN GOLDSMID. Jci*.,/- ,\
See the biographical article : GOLDSMID (family). \ a n (tn ? an >-
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. fsais;
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey Scarab*
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial < _
German Archaeological Institute. Author of Stories of the High Priests of Memphis ; sera P ls 5
&c. [Sesostris.
F. N. M. COL. FREDERIC NATUSCH MAUDE, C.B. f Sedan: Battle of;
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the\ Seven Weeks' War (in part);
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign; &c. I Seven Years' War (in part).
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. /St Helena (in part);
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Unton. l Senegal' Senussi
F. S. FRANCIS STORR.
Trinity College, Cambridge. Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officier < Sand, George.
d'Acaddmie, Paris. L
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Sanohire .
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. {
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I Serpentine.
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOTJLENGER, D.Sc., F.R.S. f
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British 1 Salmon and Salraonidac.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
G. C. T. B. SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER TROUT BARTLEY, K.C.B. (1842-1910). f
Founderof the National Penny Bank. M.P. for North Islington, !885-i9o6. Author^ Savings Banks (in f>nrC\
of Schools fjr the People ; Provident Knowledge Papers ; &c. [
G. D. GEORGE DOBSON. f -, ltvlrB ,, Mioliai ,,
Author of Russia's Railway Advance into Central Asia; &c. \ M'WKOV, BUCHMl.
G. E. D. GEORGE EDWARD DOBSON, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895). f
Army Medical Department, 1868-1888. Formerly Curator of the Royal J .
Victoria Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera, &c. ; 1 Bnrew -
A Monograph of the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical. [
G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f Scotland . / ,>,/,,,.
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days J.
of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots, &c. [ Scott - Alexander.
G. H. Bo. REV. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A. r
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' School, J shekinah
London. Lecturer in the Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 1908-1909. 1
Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah ; &c.
G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. f Saint-Simon, Due de;
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN. ( Sevigne, Madame de.
G. W. R. MAJOR GEORGE WILLIAM REDWAY. / Seven Days' Battle;
Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Fredericksburg: a Study in War. \ Shenandoah Valley Campaigns.
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f shahrastani;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old { QUJ-I*-
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. I SI " s -
H. A. R. HENRY A. ROWLAND. f . ,. -. . ,
See the biographical article: ROWLAND, HENRY AUGUSTUS. \ -* (
Salisbury, Marquess of;
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition.
H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum; and the Analecta Bollandiana.
Shakespeare: The Shakespeare-
Bacon Theory;
Sherbrookc, Viscount.
Sebastian, St;
Sergius, St.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D.
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. Author -s Sauropsida.
of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History; &c.
H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f
Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the
British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece, -j Santorin.
Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the
Geography of Greece ; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
H. L. H.
H. R. T.
I. A.
J. A. M.
J. A. PI.
J. A. R.
J. Bt.
J. B. A.
I.E.
J. E. S.*
J. F. S.
J. G. Fr.
J. G. H.
J. G. K.
J. G. R.
J. G. Sc.
J. G. Si.
J. H. A. H.
J. H. M.
J. H. R.
J. HI. R.
{sepsis.
| Shakespeare: Bibliography.
HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I.
HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A.
Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J Samuel 01 Nehardea;
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short | Shekel.
History of Jewish Literature ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ;&c. I
JAMES ALEXANDER MANSON.
Formerly Literary Editor of the Daily Chronicle, and Chief Editor, Cassell & Co., Ltd. -| Scotland: Geography (in part).
Author of The Bowler's Handbook ; &c. L
JOHN ARTHUR PLATT, M.A. f
Professor of Greek in University College, London. Formerly Fellow of Trinity -s Sappho.
College, Cambridge. Author of editions of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey ; &c. L
VERY REV. JOSEPH ARMITAGE ROBINSON, M.A., D.D.
Dean of Wells. Dean of Westminster, 1902-1911. Fellow of the British
Academy. Chaplain-in-Ordinary to the King. Hon. Fellow of Christ's College,
Cambridge. Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge, 1893-
1899. Author of Some Thoughts on the Incarnation; &c.
JAMES BARTLETT. f Scaffold:
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., King's College, I RA Wera e .
London. Member of Society of Architects, Institute of Junior Engineers, Quantity | * B '
Surveyors' Association. Author of Quantities. I Snoring.
JOSEPH BEAVINGTON ATKINSON. f
Formerly Art-critic of the Saturday Review. Author of An Art Tour in the Northern J. Schadow.
Capitals of Europe; Schools of Modern Art in Germany. \_
H. JULIUS EGGELING, PH.D. f
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, Edinburgh University. Formerly J Sanskrit.
Secretary and Librarian to the Royal Asiatic Society.
JOHN EDWIN SANDYS, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D.
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge.
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy.
Scholarship; &c.
Scillitan Martyrs.
Fellow of St John's College,
Author of History of Classical '
Scaliger (in part).
REV. JOHN FREDERICK SMITH.
Author of Studies in Religion under German Masters; translated G. H. A. von-
Ewald's Commentaries on the Prophets of the Old Testament and the Book of Job.
JAMES GEORGE FRAZER, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., LITT.D.
Professor of Social Anthropology, Liverpool University. Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of The Golden Bough ; &c.
JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c.
Schleiermacher (in part).
Saturn (in part).
Screw.
JOHN GRAHAM KERR, M.A., F.R.S. f
Regius Professor of Zoology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Demonstrator se| ac i.j ftn .
in Animal Morphology in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of Christ's College, J
Cambridge, 1898-1904. Walsingham Medallist, 1898. Neill Prizeman, Royal Shark (in part).
Society of Edinburgh, 1904.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. r
Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J
Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature ; Schiller after "j Schiller.
a Century; &c.
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. f
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma; J Salween: River;
The Upper Burma Gazetteer. [ Shan States
REV. JAMES GILLILAND SIMPSON, M.A. f
Canon of St Paul's, London. Principal of Leeds Clergy School and Lecturer of Leeds J Scotland, Episcopal Church of.
Parish Church, 1900-1910.
JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.
Director I
~\
-! Scribes.
JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., LITT.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896).
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895.
of the Fitzwilham Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South ^
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Sculpture (in part).
Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times.
JOHN HORACE ROUND M.A., LL.D. f c
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family!
History; Peerage and Pedigree. [ Serjeanty.
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. f
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Savarv
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author o/ Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic |
Studies ; The Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. L
X
J. H. V. C.
J. K. I.
J. L. M.
J. M. M.
J. P.-B.
J. S. F.
J. S. R.
J. T. Be.
J. T. C.
J. T. S.*
J.W.
J. W. He.
K. G. J.
K. S.
L. Bo.
L. J. S.
L.V.
L. V.*
H. A. C.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. r
Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of
Canada. Formerly _Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j Shipka Pass.
and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878; &c.
JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D.
See the biographical article: INGRAM, JOHN KELLS.
Author of Epitome of the
/ Say, Jean Baptiste;
I Senior, Nassau.
JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of
Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient I galamis' C\t>rus
Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in the '
University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Church. Author of A History
of Rome ; &c.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. f Sehelling (in part) ;
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London { Shaftesbury, 3rd Earl of
College (University of London). Joint-editor of Grote's History of Greece. [ (in part).
JAMZS GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of the Guardian, London.
-{ Sheraton, Thomas.
JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. fSand; Sandstone;
Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formerly Lecturer J c.,,....!!*.. ID h \
on Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of 1
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L Scnorl.
JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f
Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College,'
Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College. 1 Severus, Lucius Septimius.
Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De
Amicitia; &c.
(St Petersburg (in part) ;
Sakhalin (in part) ; Samara:
Government (in part) ;
Samarkand: City (in part) ;
Saratov: Government (in part).
JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. r
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow I Scaphopoda;
of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | Sea-Serpent (in part).
University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L
JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, PH.D.
Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City.
JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.
All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln
College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c.
JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A.
f Saint-Simon, Comte de
\ (in part).
Seamen, Laws relating to;
Sheriff.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient -j Schmerling, Anton von.
History at
the German
)ueen's College, London.
Empire; &c.
Author of Bismarck and the foundation of
KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE.
Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford.
Author of Vasco da Gama and his Successors.
KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology.
Orchestra.
Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1903. - Salamanca.
Author of The Instruments of the
LioNCE BENEDITE.
Keeper of the Musee National du Luxembourg, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion <
Honour. President of the Societe des Peintres orientalistes francais. Author
Histoire des Beaux Arts; &c.
Sambuca; Saxhorn;
Saxophone; Serpent: Music;
Shawm; Shofar.
f J Sculpture: Modern French.
LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Scapolite;
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the 1 Scolecite.
Mineralogical Magazine. [
LINDA MARY VILLARI.
See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE.
LUIGI VILLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department).
spondent in the East of Europe. Italian Vice-Cons
delphia, 1907, and Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town I
and Country; Sic. I
MAURICE ARTHUR CANNEY, M.A. ("
Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly J cphpnkpl
Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellertpn Hebrew Scholar, 1
Oxford, 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896.
Savonarola.
Formerly Newspaper Corre-
Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906, Phila- -| Savoy, House of.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
M. Be. MALCOLM BELL. r
Author of Pewter Plate ; &c. \ Sheffield Plate.
M. Bt. MICHAEL BRETT. J
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. \ Salvage: Military.
M. D. Ch. SIR MACKENZIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A. ("
Trinity College, Oxford, Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Permanent Under- Secretary I
of State for the Home Department, London, and First Parliamentary Counsel to | Sa' e of Goods
the Treasury. Author of Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange; &c. I
M. Ha. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. f
Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of " Protozoa," in the { Sarcodina.
Cambridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. I
M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. f
Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter-
national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco- I Sculpture (in tart}
British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait] ch~if >> , -,
Painting to the Opening of the iQth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British ' naKes Peare. Portraits.
Sculpture and Sculptors of To-Day; Henriette Ronner; &c.
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. f
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion -\ Shamash
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c.
M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r
Reader in Ancient History in London University. Lecturer in Greek in Birmingham -! Salamis;
University, 1905-1908. [ Samos (in part).
M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. r
Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences).-^ St Nectaire;
Author of L' Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte. (_ St Pol, Counts of.
M. T. H. M. TH. HOUTSMA. f
Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Utrecht. \ Seljuks.
0. A. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. f
H.M Inspector ol Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of Education, J
London. Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 SnaitesDury, 1st Earl of.
Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. l_
f St Petersburg (in part) ;
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. I Sakhalin (in part) ;
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE, P. A. Samara: Government (in part);
Samarkand: City (in part) ;
[ Saratov: Government (in part).
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r
Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. | " eX-
Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c. [
P. G. PERCY GARDNER, LL.D., F.S.A., D.LiTT. /
See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. \ Scopas.
P. G. K. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. r
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. -I Sculpture (in tiarl)
Author of The Art of Walter Crane ; Velasquez, Life and Work ; &c. 1
P. St. PERCY SOMERS TYRINGHAM STEPHENS, J.P. f
Contributor to the Badminton Magazine. \ Shooting.
P. Vi. PAUL VINOGRADOFF, D.C.L., LL.D. J
See the biographical article: VINOGRADOFF, PAUL. "^Serfdom.
P. Wa. SIR PHILLIP WATTS, K.C.B., F.R.S., LL.D.
Director of Naval Construction for the British Navy. Chairman of the Federation J Smp: Hlstor y smc ' e tlte lmen -
of Shipbuilders. Naval Architect and Director of War Shipbuilding Department ] ti n of Steamships;
of Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., 1885-1901. [ Shipbuilding.
R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D. /
See the biographical article : ADAMSON, ROBERT. \ SChellmg (in part).
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. f Samaria'
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Ex-i c
ploration Fund. \ Shechem.
R. A. W. COLONEL ROBERT ALEXANDER WAHAB, C.B., C.M.G., C.I.E. f
Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary Delimitation. Served with Tirah J
Expeditionary Force, 1897-1898, and on the Anglo-Russian Boundary Com- 1 Sana.
mission, Pamirs, 1895. [
R. C. C. RICHARD COPLEY CHRISTIE. /c.u.,,. c * A
See the biographical article: CHRISTIE, RICHARD COPLEY. \ sc
R. D. H. ROBERT DREW HICKS, M.A. f s / ,, t}
Fellow, formerly Lecturer in Classics, Trinity College, Cambridge. \ P
R. G. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. fSarpi, Paolo;
See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. \ Satire.
R. I. P. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. f scornion.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. \
xii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
R. J. M. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's
Gazette (London).
St John, Oliver;
St Leger, Sir Anthony;
Scroggs, Sir William;
Serope Family;
Ship-money;
Shrewsbury, Duke of.
R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of I Seal (in part);
Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer~\ Serow; Sheep (in part}.
of all Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. ' I
R. L. A. SIR REGINALD LAURENCE ANTROBUS, K.C.M.G. f
Crown Agent for the Colonies, London. Assistant Under-Secretary of State for- 1 , St Helena (in part).
the Colonies, 1898-1909. I
R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). c
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: The c.),,.,*...! Uanni
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, J. 8U> " 8 D
1613-1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from Shanrov, Peter.
1460 to 1796 ; &c.
R. P.* ROBERT PEELE. f shaft-sinkinir
Professor of Mining in Columbia University, New York. \ W DKm 6-
R. S. C. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. f
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville 1
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [
R. W. ROBERT WALLACE, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.L.S.
Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh University, and Garton.
Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C., I ghan (I'M -b<iri\
Cirencester, 1882-1885. Author of Farm Live Stock of Great Britain; The Agri-}
culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of
Cape Colony; &c.
S. A. C. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. r
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Samson; Samuel;
Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary o/J Samuel, Books of;
Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Saul; Serpent-worship.
Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. L
S. M. SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. f Saturn* Planet
See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. \
T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LiTT.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of
Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member,
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna.
Salerno; Sardinia;
Sassari; Satrlcum;
Saturnia; Segesta;
Segusio; Selinus;
Sessa Aurunca;
Scveriana, Via.
T. A. A. THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. f
Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. \ Salvian.
T. A. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM M.A., LL.D. / ^ ^^ ( . p( , r()
Trinity College, Dublin. \
T. Ba. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. r
Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I c.,,.,1,
Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- 1
burn, 1910.
T. C. A. SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. r
Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge, and Fejlow of Gonville J Semmelweiss Ignatz
and Caius College. Physician to Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Editor of |
Systems of Medicine. I
T. P. REV. THOMAS FOWLER, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1832-1904). r
President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, 1881-1904. Honorary Fellow of chaftpshurv ^rd Earl of
Lincoln College. Professor of Logic, 1873-1888. Vice-Chancellor of the University J
of Oxford, 1899-1901. Author of Elements of Deductive Logic; Shaftesbury and ( tn P arl >-
Hutcheson ; &c.
T. G. C. THOMAS GILBERT CARVER, M.A., K.C. (1848-1906). f
Formerly Judge of County Courts. Author of On the Law relating to the Carriage J. Salvage.
of Goods by Sea. [
T. K. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. f Saint-Simon, Comte de
Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. ~|_ (,' n part).
T. K. C. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.LITT., D.C.L., D.D. /Seraphim.
See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. \
T. L. H. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., D.Sc. f
Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- ^ Serenus Of Antissa.
bridge. Author of Treatise on Conic Sections ; &c.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Xlll
Th. H.
T.T.
T. W. F.
T. W. R. D.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. D.
W. A. P.
W. Ba.
W. C. D. W.
W. E. A. A.
W. E. Ho.
W. Fr.
W. F. K.
W. Hu.
W. H. Be.
W. H. F.
W. H. Ha.
W. L. F.
W. L. G.
W. L.-W.
THEODOR NSLDEKE.
See the biographical article: NOLDEKE, THEODOR.
SIR TRAVERS Twiss, K.C., D.C.L., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Twiss, SIR TRAVERS.
| Semitic Languages,
I Sea Laws.
THOMAS WILLIAM Fox. r
Professor of Textiles in the University of Manchester. Author of Mechanics ofJ, Shuttle.
Weaving. [
THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. President of the Pali SSnchi;
Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the i Sariputta;
Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-^1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Sasana Vamsa
Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880^1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range
of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and
in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c.
WILLIAM ARCHIBALD DUNNING, PH.D., LL.D.
Lieber Professor of History and Political Philosophy, Columbia University, New
York. Author of Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction ; A History of Political '
Theories.
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, .
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c.
WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D.
Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary, Budapest.
St Gall: Canton; St Gall:
Town; St Gotthard Pass;
St Moritz; Sarnen;
Saussure, Horace Benedict de;
Savoie; Schaffhausen: Canton;
Schaffhausen: Town;
Scheuchzer, Johann;
Schwyz; Sempach.
Sherman, John.
:St John of Jerusalem, Order
of;
Schleswig-Holstein Question.
Shammai.
WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S.
Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Recent Development of Physical Science ; &c.
Author of Theory of Solution ; J. Science.
WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. r
Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary I coif..-.!
Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic 1
name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c.
Director of the J Sea-Serpent (in part).
WILLIAM EVANS HOYLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.Z.S., M.R.C.S.
Christ Church, Oxford. Director of the National Museum of Wales.
Manchester Museum, 1889-1899.
WILLIAM FREAM, LL.D. (d. 1906). f
Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology, University of Edinburgh, and J Sheep (in part).
Agricultural Correspondent of The Times.
WINIFRED F. KNOX.
Author of The Court of a Saint.
J Saladin.
REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., Lrrr.D.
President of the Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of the e-_i- w ci, i
English Church, 597-1066; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; Political'] Bley> slr J-
History of England, 1760-1801.
WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT.
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &c.
SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H.
Hackney Colleges, London. J
Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1
Seth.
t
Seal (in part).
r
WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc.
Principal of Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor c.i.iihai-1
of Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor 1 "
of Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music ; &c.
WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., PH.D. c
Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History J Secession.
of Reconstruction ; &c.
WILLIAM LAWSON GRANT, M.A. r
Professor of History at Queen's University, Kingston, Canada. Formerly Beit] St John: Canada;
Lecturer in Colonial History at Oxford University. Editor of Acts of the Privy] St Pierre and Miquelon.
Council (Colonial Series) ; Canadian Constitutional Development.
SIR WILLIAM LEE- WARNER, M.A., G.C.S.I. C
Member of the Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret J Sayyid Ahmad Khan Sir
Department of the India Office. Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie ; j
Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman ; &c. I
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XIV
W. M. WILLIAM MINTO, M.A.
See the biographical article : MINTO, WILLIAM.
W. M. R. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
W. P. A. LizuT.-CoLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S.
Chief-Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the
Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers.
W. R. S. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R.
W. T. Ca. WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S.
Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.
Author of " Crustacea," in a Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester.
W. W. WILLIAM WALLACE.
See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).
W. W. R.* WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, Lie. THEOL.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen.
Scott, Sir Walter (in part).
f Sebastiano del Piombo;
I Shelley.
St Lawrence: River.
( Salt: Ancient History and
\ Religious Symbolism.
Shrimp.
Schopenhauer (in part).
Saragossa, Councils of.
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
St Vitus's Dance.
Sal Ammoniac.
Salicylic Acid.
Salisbury.
Salt Lake City.
Saltpetre.
Salt.
Salvador.
Salvation Army.
Salzburg.
Samoa.
Samoyedes.
Sanctuary.
San Francisco.
Santo Domingo.
Sarsaparilla.
Saskatchewan.
Savannah.
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
Saxe-Meiningen.
Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach.
Saxony.
Scarlet Fever.
Schleswig-Holstein.
Scilly Isles.
Scipio.
Scrophulariaceae.
Scurvy.
Seal-Fisheries.
Seattle.
Sea-Urchin.
Sedition.
Seismometer.
Selenium.
Selkirkshire.
Senna.
Sennar.
Sequoia.
Serjeant.
Servo-Bulgarian War.
Settlement.
Severn.
Sewing Machines.
Sextant.
Seychelles.
Shadow.
Shakers.
Shamash.
Sheffield.
Shell-heaps.
Shell-money.
Sheridan.
Shetland.
Shoe.
Shorthand (modern).
Shropshire.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXIV
SAINTE-CLAIRE DEVILLE, ETIENNE HENRI (1818-1881), |
French chemist, was born on the nth of March 1818 in the
island of St Thomas, West Indies, where his father was French
consul. Together with his elder brother Charles he was educated
in Paris at the College Rollin. In 1844, having graduated as
doctor of medicine and doctor of science, he was appointed to
organize the new faculty of science at Besancon, where he acted
as dean and professor of chemistry from 1845 to 1851. Return-
ing to Paris in the latter year he succeeded A. J. Balard at the
Ecole Normale, and in 1859 became professor at the Sorbonne
in place of J. B. A. Dumas, for whom he had begun tc lecture
in 1853. He died at Boulogne-sur-Seine on the ist of July 1881.
He began his experimental work in 1841 with investigations of oil
of turpentine and tolu balsam, in the course of which he discovered
toluene. But his most important work was in inorganic and thermal
chemistry. In 1849 he discovered anhydrous nitric acid (nitrogen
pentoxide), a substance interesting as the first obtained of the
so-called " anhydrides " of the monobasic acids. In 1855, ignorant
of what Wohler had done ten years previously, he succeeded in
obtaining metallic aluminium, and ultimately he devised a method
by which the metal could be prepared on a large scale by the aid
of sodium, the manufacture of which he also developed. With
H. J. Debray (1827-1888) he worked at the platinum metals, his
object being on the one hand to prepare them pure, and on the
other to find a suitable metal for the standard metre for the Inter-
national Metric Commission then sitting at Paris. With L. J.
Troost (b. 1825) he devised a method for determining vapour
densities at temperatures up to 1400 C., and, partly with F. Wohler,
he investigated the allotropic forms of silicon and boron. The
artificial preparation of minerals, especially of apatite and isomor-
phous minerals and of crystalline oxides, was another subject in
which he made many experiments. But his best known contribution
to general chemistry is his work on the phenomena of reversible
reactions, which he comprehended under a general theory of " dis-
sociation." He first took up the subject about 1857, and it was in
the course of his investigations on it that he devised the apparatus
known as the " Deville hot and cold tube."
His brother, CHARLES JOSEPH SAINTE- CLAIRE DEVILLE
(1814-1876), geologist and meteorologist, was born in St Thomas
on the 26th of February 1814. Having attended at the ficole
des Mines in Paris, he assisted Elie de Beaumont in the chair
of geology at the College de France from 1855 until he succeeded
him in 1874. He made researches on volcanic phenomena,
t especially on the gaseous emanations. He investigated also
the variations of temperature in the atmosphere and ocean.'
He died at Paris on the loth of October 1876.
His published works include: fctudes geologiques sur les ties de
Teneri/e et de Fogo (1848); Voyage geologique aux Antilles el aux
ties de Tenerife et de Fogo (1848-1859); Recherches sur les princi-
paux phenomenes de meteorologie et de physique generate aux Antilles
(1849); Sur les variations periodiques de la temperature (1866), and
Coup d'ceil historique sur la geologie (1878).
xxrv. i
ST ELMO'S FIRE, the glow accompanying the slow discharge
of electricity to earth from the atmosphere. This discharge,
which is identical with the " brush " discharge of laboratory
experiments, usually appears as a tip of light on the extremities
of pointed objects such as church towers, the masts of ships,
or even the fingers of the outstretched hand: it is commonly
accompanied by a crackling or fizzing noise. St Elmo's fire is
most frequently observed at low levels through the winter
season during and after snowstorms.
The name St Elmo is an Italian corruption through Sant'
Ermo of St Erasmus, a bishop, during the reign of Domitian,
of Formiae, Italy, who was broken on the wheel about the 2nd
of June 304. He has ever been the patron saint of Mediterranean
sailors, who regard St Elmo's fire as the visible sign of his guar-
dianship. The phenomenon was known to the ancient Greeks,
and Pliny in his Natural History states that when there were
two lights sailors called them Castor and Pollux and invoked
them as gods. To English sailors St Elmo's fires were known
as " corposants " (Ital. corpo santo).
See Hazlitt's edition of Brand's Antiquities (1005) under " Castor
and Pollux." .
ST EMILION, a town of south-western France, in the depart-
ment of Gironde, 25 m. from the right bank of the Dordogne
and 27 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906), town,
1091; commune, 3546. The town derives its name from a
hermit who lived here in the 7th and 8th centuries. Pictur-
esquely situated on the slope of a hill, the town has remains
of ramparts of the I2th and i3th centuries, with ditches hewn
in the rock, and several medieval buildings. Of these the chief
is the parish, once collegiate, church of the I2th and i3th
centuries. A Gothic cloister adjoins the church. A fine belfry
(i2th, i3th and isth centuries) commanding the town is built
on the terrace, beneath which are hollowed in the rock the ora-
tory and hermitage of St Emilion, and adjoining them an
ancient monolithic church of considerable dimensions. Remains
of a monastery of the Cordeliers (isth and i7th centuries), of
a building (isth century)known as the Palais Cardinal, and a
square keep (the chief relic of a stronghold founded by Louis
VIII.) are also to be seen. Disused stone quarries in the side
of the hill are used as dwellings by the inhabitants. St Emilion
is celebrated for its wines. Its medieval importance, due to
the pilgrimages to the tomb of the saint and to the commerce
in its wines, began to decline towards the end of the I3th century
owing to the foundation of Libourne. In 1272 it was the first
of the towns of Guyenne to join the confederation headed by
Bordeaux.
SAINTE-PALAYE ST ETIENNE
SAINTE-PALAYE, JEAN BAPTISTE LA.CURNE (or LACXJRNE)
DE (1697-1781), French scholar, was born at Auxerre on the
6th of June 1697. His father, Edme, had been gentleman of
the bed-chamber to the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV.
Sainte-Palaye had a twin brother to whom he was greatly
attached, refusing to marry so as not to be separated from him.
For some time he ' held the same position under the regent
Orleans as his father had under the duke of Orleans. He had
received a thorough education in Latin and Greek, and had a
taste for history. In 1724 he had been elected an associate of the
Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, merely from his
reputation, as nothing had been written by him before that date.
From this time he devoted himself exclusively to the work of
this society. After having published numerous memoirs on
Roman history, he began a series of studies on the chroniclers
of the middle ages for the Historiens des Gaules et de la France
(edited by Dom Bouquet): Raoul Glaber, Helgaud, the Gesta
of Louis VII., the chronicle of Morigny, Rigord and his con-
tinuator, William le Breton, the monk of St Denis, Jean de
Venette, Froissart and the Jouvencel. He made two journeys
into Italy with his brother, the first in 1739-1740, accompanied
by his compatriot, the president Charles de Brosses, who related
many humorous anecdotes about the two brothers, particularly
about Jean Baptiste, whom he called " the bilious Sainte-
Palaye!" On returning from this tour he saw one of Join-
ville's manuscripts at the house of the senator Fiorentini, well
known in the history of the text of this pleasing memorialist.
The manuscript was bought for the king in 1741 and is still
at the Bibliotheque nationale. After the second journey (1749)
Lacurne published a letter to de Brosses, on Le Go&t dans les arts
(1751). In this he showed that he was not only attracted by
manuscripts, but that he could see and admire works of art.
In 1 759 he published the first edition of his Memoires sur I'ancienne
chevalerie, consideree comme un etablissement politique et mililaire,
for which unfortunately he only used works of fiction and ancient
stories as sources, neglecting the heroic poems which would
have shown him the nobler aspects of this institution so soon
corrupted by " courteous " manners; a second edition appeared
at the time of his death (3 vols. 1781, 3rd ed. 1826). He prepared
an edition of the works of Eustache Deschamps, which was never
published, and also made a collection of more than a hundred
volumes of extracts from ancient authors relating to French
antiquities and the French language of the middle ages. His
Glossaire de la languefranc.aise was ready in 1 7 56, and a prospectus
had been published, but the great length of the work prevented
him finding a publisher. It remained in manuscript for more than
a century. In 1 764 a collection of his manuscripts was bought by
the government and after his death were placed in the king's
library; they are still there (fonds Moreau), with the exception
of some which were given to the marquess of Paulmy in exchange,
and were later placed in the Arsenal. Lacurne de Sainte-Palaye
ceased work about 1771; the death of his brother was greatly felt
by him, he became childish, and died on the ist of March 1781.
Sainte-Palaye had been a member of the Academic Francaise since
1758. His life was written for this Acadimie by Chamfort and for
the Academic des Inscriptions by Dupuy; both works are of no
value. See, however, the biography of Lacurne, with a list of his
published works and those in manuscript, at the beginning ^of the
tenth and last volume of the Dictionnaire histonque de I'ancien
langage franc.ois, ou tlossaire de la langue franfoise depuis son origine
jusquau siecle de Louis XIV., published by Louis Favre (1875-
1882).
SAINTES, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Charente-Infeiieure, 47 m. S.E. of La
Rochelle by the railway from Nantes to Bordeaux. Pop. (1906),
town, 13,744; commune, 19,025. Saintes is pleasantly situated
on the left bank of the Charente, which separates it from its
suburb of Les Dames. It is of interest for its Roman remains,
of which the best preserved is the triumphal arch of Germanicus,
dating from the reign of Tiberius. This formerly stood on a
Roman bridge destroyed in 1843, when it was removed and
reconstructed on the right bank of the river. Ruins of baths
and of an amphitheatre are also to be seen. The amphitheatre,
larger than that of Nlmes, and in area surpassed only by the
Coliseum, dates probably from the close of the ist or the beginning
of the 2nd century and was capable of holding 20,000 spectators.
A Roman building known as the Capitol was destroyed after
the capture of the town from the English by Charles of Alenfon,
brother of Philip of Valois, in 1330, and its site is occupied by a
hospital. Saintes was a bishop's see till 1790; the cathedral of
St Peter, built in the first half of the i2th century, was rebuilt
in the isth century, and again after it had been almost destroyed
by the Huguenots in 1 568. The interior has now an unattractive
appearance. The tower (isth century) is 236 ft. high. The
church of St Eutropius (founded at the close of the 6th century,
rebuilt in the nth, and had its nave destroyed in the Wars
of Religion) stands above a very interesting well-lighted crypt
the largest in France after that of Chartres adorned with
richly sculptured capitals and containing the tomb of St
Eutropius (4th or 5th century). The fine stone spire dates from
the 1 5th century. Notre-Dame, a splendid example of the
architecture of the nth and i2th centuries, with a noble clock-
tower, is no longer devoted to religious purposes. The old h&tel
de ville (i6th and i8th centuries) contains a library, and the
present h6tel de ville a museum. Bernard Palissy, the porcelain-
maker, has a statue in the town, where he lived from 1542 to
1562. Small vessels ascend the river as far as Saintes, which
carries on trade in grain, brandy and wine, has iron foundries,
works of the state railway, and manufactures earthenware,
tiles, &c.
Saintes (Mediolanum or Mediolanium) , the capital of the Santones,
was a flourishing; town before Caesar's conquest of Gaul ; in the middle
ages it was capital of the Saintonge. Christianity was introduced
by St Eutropius, its first bishop, in the middle of the 3rd century.
Charlemagne rebuilt its cathedral. The Normans burned the town
in 845 and 854. Richard Coeur de Lion fortified himself within its
walls against his father Henry II., who captured it after a destructive
siege. In 124^2 St Louis defeated the English under its walls and
was received into the town. It was not, however, till the reign of
Charles V. that Saintes was permanentjy recovered from the English.
The Protestants did great damage during the Wars of Religion.
ST 6TIENNE, an industrial town of east-central France, capital
of the department of Loire, 310 m. S.S.E. of Paris and 36 m.
S.S.W. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 130,940; commune,
146,788. St Etienne is situated on the Furens, which flows
through it from S.E. to N.W., partly underground, and is an
important adjunct to the silk manufacture. The town is uni-
formly built, its principal feature being the straight thoroughfare
nearly 4 m. long which traverses it from N. to S. The chief
of the squares is the Place Marengo, which has a statue of F.
Gamier, the explorer, and is overlooked by the town hall and the
prefecture, both modern. The church of St Etienne dates from
the isth century, and the Romanesque church of the abbey of
Valbenoite is on the S.E. outskirts of the town. A valuable collec-
tion of arms and armour, a picture gallery, industrial collections,
and a library with numerous manuscripts are in the Palais des
Arts. St Etienne is the seat of a prefect, and has an important
school of mining, and schools of music, chemistry and dyeing, &c.
The town owes its importance chiefly to the coal-basin which
extends between Firminy and Rive-de-Gier over an area 20 m. long
by S m. wide, and is second only to those of Nord and Pas-de-Calais
in France. There are concessions giving employment to some
18,000 workmen and producing annually between 3,000,000 and
4,000,000 tons. The mineral is of two kinds smelting coal, said
to be the best in France, and gas coal. There are manufactures of
ribbons, trimmings and other goods made from silk and mixtures
of cotton and silk. This industry dates from the early I7th century,
is carried on chiefly in small factories (electricity supplying the
motive power), and employs at its maximum some 50,000 hands.
The attendant industry of dyeing is carried on on a large scale.
The manufacture of steel arid iron and of heavy iron goods such as
armour-plating occupies about 3000 workmen, and about half that
number are employed in the production of ironmongery generally.
Weaving machinery, cycles, automobiles and agricultural imple-
ments are also made. The manufacture of fire-arms, carried on
at the national factory under the direction of artillery officers,
employs at busy times more than 10,000 men, and can turn out
480,000 rifles in the year. Private firms, employing 4500 hands,
make both military rifles and sporting-guns, revolvers, &c. To
these industries must be added the manufacture of elastic fabrics,
glass, cartridges, liqueurs, hemp-cables, &c.
ST EUSTATIUS ST GALL
At the close of the I2th century St Etienne was a parish of
the Pays de Gier belonging to the abbey of Valbenoite. By
the middle of the i4th century the coal trade had reached a
certain development, and at the beginning of the isth century
Charles VII. permitted the town to erect fortifications. The
manufacture of fire-arms for the state was begun at St Etienne
under Francis I. and was put under the surveillance of state
inspectors early in the i8th century. In 1789 the town was
producing at the rate of 12,000 muskets per annum; between
September 1794 and May 1796 they delivered over 170,000; and
100,000 was the annual average throughout the period of the
empire. The first railways opened in France were the line between
St Etienne and Andrezieux on the Loire in 1828 and that between
St Etienne and Lyons in 1831. In 1856 St Etienne became the
administrative centre of the department instead of Montbrison.
ST EUSTATIUS and SABA, two islands in the Dutch West
Indies. St Eustatius lies 12 m. N.W. of St Kitts in 17 50' N.
and 62 40' W. It is 8 sq. m. in area and is composed of several
volcanic hills and intervening valleys. It contains Orangetown,
situated on an open roadstead on the W., with a small export
trade in yams and sweet potatoes. Pop. (1908) 1283.
A few miles to the N.W. is the island of SABA, 5 sq. m. in extent.
It consists of a single volcanic cone rising abruptly from the sea
to the height of nearly 2800 ft. The town, Bottom, standing on
the floor of an old crater, can only be approached from the shore
800 ft. below, by a series of steps cut in the solid rock and known
as the " Ladder." The best boats in the Caribbees are built
here; the wood is imported and the vessels, when complete,
are lowered over the face of the cliffs. Pop. (1908) 2294. The
islands form part of the colony of Curacao (<?..).
SAINT-EVREMOND, CHARLES DE MARGUETEL DE
SAINT-DENIS, SEIGNEUR DE (1610-1703), was born at Saint-
Denis-le-Guast, near Coutances, the seat of his family in
Normandy, on the ist of April 1610. He was a pupil of the
Jesuits at the College de Clermont (now Louis-le- Grand), Paris;
then a student at Caen. For a time he studied law at the
College d'Harcourt. He soon, however, took to arms, and in
1629 went with Marshal Bassompierre to Italy. He served
through great part of the Thirty Years' War, distinguishing
himself at the siege of Landrecies (1637), when he was made
captain. During his campaigns he studied the works of Montaigne
and the Spanish and Italian languages. In 1639 he met Gassendi
in Paris, and became one of his disciples. He was present at
Rocroy, at Nordlingen, and at Lerida. For a time he was person-
ally attached to Conde, but offended him by a satirical remark
and was deprived of his command in the prince's guards in
1648. During the Fronde, Saint-Evremond was a steady royalist.
The duke of Candale (of whom he has left a very severe portrait)
gave him a command in Guienne, and Saint-Evremond, who
had reached the grade of marechal de camp, is said to have saved
50,000 livres in less than three years. He was one of the numerous
victims involved in the fall of Fouquet. His letter to Marshal
Crequi on the peace of the Pyrenees, which is said to have been
discovered by Colbert's agents at the seizure of Fouquet 's
papers, seems a very inadequate cause for his disgrace. Saint-
Evremond fled to Holland and to England, where he was kindly
received by Charles II. and was pensioned. After James II. 's
flight to France Saint-Evremond was invited to return, but he
declined. Hortense Mancini, the most attractive of Mazarin's
attractive group of nieces, came to England in 1670, and set
up a salon for love-making, gambling and witty conversation,
and here Saint-Evremond was for many years at home. He
died on the 2gth of September 1703 and was buried in West-
minster Abbey, where his monument still is in Poet's Corner
close to that of Prior.
Saint-Evremond never authorized the printing of any of his
works during his lifetime, though Barbin in 1668 published an
unauthorized collection. But he empowered Des Maizeaux to
publish his works after his death, and they were published in
London (2 vols., 1705), and often reprinted. His masterpiece in
irony is the so-called Conversation du marechal d'Hocquincourt avec
Ic pere Canaye (the latter a Jesuit and Saint-Evremond's master
at school), which has been frequently classed with the Lettres
provinciates.
His (Euvres melees, edited from the MSS. by Silvestre and Des
Maizeaux, were printed by Jacob Tonson (London. 1705 2 vols
2nd ed., 3 vols., 1709), with a notice by Des Maizeaux. His corre-
spondence with Ninon de Lenclos, whose fast friend he was was
published m 1752; La Comedie des academistes, written in 1641 was
printed in 1650. Modern editions of his works are by Hippeau
.Pans 1852) C.Giraud (Paris, 1865), and a selection (1881) with a
notice by M. de Lescure.
ST FLORENTIN, a town of north-central France, in the depart-
ment of Yonne, 37 m. S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon-Mediter-
ranee railway. Pop. (1906) 2303. It stands on a hill on the
right bank of the Armance, half a mile from its confluence with
the Armancon and the canal of Burgundy. In the highest part
of the town stands the church, begun in the latter half of the
1 5th century, and though retaining the Gothic form, with great
flying buttresses, is mainly in the Renaissance style. It is
approached through a narrow alley up a steep flight of steps
and contains a fine Holy Sepulchre in bas-relief and a choir-
screen and stained glass of admirable Renaissance workmanship.
The nave, left incomplete, was restored and finished between
1857 and 1862. The market-gardens of St Florentin produce
large quantities of asparagus. The town stands on the site of
the Roman military post Castrodunum, the sceneof the martyrdom
in the 3rd century of Saints Florentin and Hilaire, round whose
tomb it grew up. The abbey established here in the gth century
afterwards became a priory of the abbey of St Germain at Auxerre.
The town and its temtory belonged, under the Merovingians, to
Burgundy, and in later times to the counts of Champagne, from
whom it passed to the kings of France. Louis XV. raised it
from the rank of viscounty to that of county and bestowed it
on Louis Phelypeaux, afterwards Due de la Vrilliere.
ST FLOUR, a town of south-central France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Cantal, situated at a height
of 2900 ft. on a basaltic plateau overlooking the Lander, a tributary
of the Truyere, 47 m. E.N.E. of Aurillac by rail. Pop. (1906)
4090. The streets are dark and narrow, but the town has spacious
promenades established in the i8th century. St Flour grew up
round the tomb of St Florus, the apostle of Auvergne, who died
there in the 4th century. The abbey founded there about the
beginning of the nth century became in 1317 an episcopal
chapter, and the town is still the seat of a bishopric. The
cathedral (1396-1466) is the principal building. The manufacture
of coarse woollen fabrics, of earthenware and candles is carried
on. A few miles S.E. of the town the gorge of the Truyere is
spanned by the fine railway viaduct of Garabit over 600 yds.
long and at a height of 400 ft. above the river.
ST GALL (Ger. St Gallen), one of the cantons of north-
east Switzerland, on the border of the Austrian province of the
Vorarlberg and of the independent principality of Liechtenstein.
It entirely surrounds the canton of Appenzell, which, like a great
part of this canton, formerly belonged to the abbots of St Gall,
while the " enclave " of Horn is in the canton of Thurgau.
Its area is 779-3 sq. m., of which 710-1 sq. m. are reckoned " pro-
ductive, forests covering 157-1 sq. m. and vineyards 1-8 sq m
while of the remainder 2-8 sq. m. are occupied by glaciers The
altitude above the sea-level varies from 1306 ft. (the lake of Constance)
to 10 667 ft (the Rmgelspitz). The canton includes portions of
the lake of Constance (21 1 sq. m.), of the Walensee (rather over
7 sq. m.), and of the lake of Zurich (4 sq. m.), and several small lakes
wholly within its limits. Hilly in its N. region, the height gradually
increases towards the S. border, while to its S. W. and E extend
considerable alluvial plains on the banks of the Linth and of the
Rhine. The two rivers just named form in part its frontiers the
principal stream within the canton being the Thur (as regards its
upper course), with the middle reach of its principal affluent the
bitter, both forming part of the Rhine basin. It has ports on the
lake of Constance (Rorschach) and of Zurich (Rapperswil), as well as
Weesen and Walenstadt on the Walensee, while the watering place
of Kagatz (ff.tr.) is supplied with hot mineral waters from Pfafers.
1 he mam railway lines from Zurich past Sargans for Coire, and from
Sargans past Altstatten and Rorschach for Constance.skirtitsborders
while the capital is on the direct railway line from Zurich past Wil
to Rorschach, and communicates by rail with Appenzell and with
hrauenfeld. In 1900 the population of the canton was 250 285
of whom 243,358 were German-speaking, 5300 Italian-speaking and
710 French-speaking, while there were 150,412 " Catholics " (whether
ST GALL SAINT-GAUDENS
Roman or " Old "), 99,114 Protestants and 556 Jews (mostly in the
town of St Gall). Its capital is St Gall, the other most populous places
being Tablat (pop. 12,590), Rorschach (9140), Altstatten (8724),
Straubenzell (8090), Gossau (6055) and Wattwil (4971). In the
southern and more Alpine portion of the canton the inhabitants
mainly follow pastoral pursuits. In 1896 the number of " alps " or
mountain pastures in the canton amounted to 304, capable of sup-
porting 21,744 cows, and of an estimated total value of nearly 14
million francs. In the central and northern regions agriculture is
generally combined with manufactures.
The canton is one of the most industrial in Switzerland. Cotton-
spinning is widely spread, though cloth-weaving has declined. But
the characteristic industry is the manufacture, mostly by machines,
of muslin, embroidery and lace. It is reckoned that the value of
the embroideries and lace exported from the canton amounts to
about one-seventh of the total value of the exports from Switzerland.
The canton is divided into fifteen administrative districts, which
comprise ninety-three communes.
The existing constitution dates from 1890. The legislature or
Grossrat is elected by the communes, each commune of 1500
inhabitants or less having a right to one member, and as many
more as the divisor 1 500, or fraction over 7 50, justifies. Members
hold office for three years. For the election of the seven members
of the executive or Regierungsrat, who also hold office for three
years, all the communes form a single electoral circle. The two
members of the federal Sidnderat are named by the legislature,
while the thirteen members of the federal Nationalrat are chosen
by a popular vote. The right of " facultative referendum " or of
" initiative " as to legislative projects belongs to any 4000
citizens, but in case of the revision of the cantonal constitution
10,000 must sign the demand. The canton of St Gall was
formed in 1803 and was augmented by many districts that had
belonged since 1798 to the canton Linth or Glarus the upper
Toggenburg, Sargans (held since 1483 by the Swiss), Caster and
Uznach (belonging since 1438 to Schwyz and Glarus), Gams
(since 1497 the property of the same two members), Werdenberg
(owned by Glarus since 1517), Sax (bought by Zurich in 1615),
and Rapperswil (since 1712 under the protection of Zurich,
Bern and Glarus).
AUTHORITIES. I. von Arx, Geschichte d. Kant. St Call (3 vols.,
1810-1813); G. J. Baumgartner, Geschichte d. schweiz. Freistaates u.
Kant. St Gall (3 vols., Zurich and Stuttgart, 1868-1890); H. Fehr,
Stoat u. Kirche in St Gall (1899); W. Gotzinger, Die romanischen
Namen d. Kant. St Gall (1891); O. Henne am Rhyn, Geschichte d.
Kant. St Gall von 1861 (1896); Der Kanton St Gall, 1803-1903
(1903): J- Kuoni, Sagen des Kantons St Gallen (St Gall, 1903);
St GaUische Geschichtsquellen, edited by G. Meyer von Kronau;
Milteilungen z. vaterldndischen Geschichte (publ. by the Cantonal Hist.
Soc., from 1861); Th. Schlatter, Romanische Volksnamen und
Venoandtes (St Gall, 1903); T. Schneider, Die Alpwirtschaft im
Kanton St Gall (Soleure, 1896); A. Steinmann, Die ostschweizerische
Slickerei-Induslrie (Zurich, 1905); Urkundenbuch d. Abtei St Gall,
edited by H. Wartmann; H. Wartmann, " Die geschichtliche
Entwickelung d. Stadt St Gall bis 1454 " (article in vol. xvi., 1868,
of the Archiv f. Schweizer Geschichte), and Franz Weidmann,
Geschichte d. Stifts u. Landschaft St Gall (1834). (W. A. B. C.)
ST GALL, capital of the Swiss canton of that name, is situated
in the upland valley of the Steinach, 2195 ft. above the sea-level.
It is by rail 9 m. S.W. of Rorschach, its port on the lake of
Constance, and 53 m. E. of Zurich. The older or central portion
of the town retains the air of a small rural capital, but the newer
quarters present the aspect of a modern commercial centre.
At either extremity considerable suburbs merge in the neighbour-
ing towns of Tablat and of Straubenzell. Its chief building is
the abbey church of the celebrated old monastery. This has been
a cathedral church since 1846. In its present form it was con-
structed in 1756-1765. The famous library is housed in the
former palace of the abbot, and is one of the most renowned in
Europe by reason of its rich treasures of early MSS. and printed
books. Other portions of the monastic buildings are used as the
offices of the cantonal authorities, and contain the extensive
archives both of this monastery and of that of Pfafers. The
ancient churches of St Magnus (Old Catholics) and of St Lawrence
(Protestant) were restored in the igth century. The town
library, which is rich in Reformation and post-Reformation MSS.
and books, is in the buildings of the cantonal school. The
museum contains antiquarian, historical and natural history
collections, while the new museum of industrial art has an
extensive collection of embroideries of all ages and dates. There
are a number of fine modern buildings, such as the Bourse.
The town is the centre of the Swiss muslin, embroidery and lace
trade. About 10,000 persons were in 1900 occupied in and near
the town with the embroidery industry, and about 49,000 in the
canton. Cold and fogs prevail in winter (though the town is
protected against the north wind) , but the heat in summer is
rarely intense. In 1900 the population was 33,116 (having just
doubled since 1870), of whom almost all were German-speaking,
while the Protestants numbered 17,572, the Catholics (Roman
or " Old ") 15,006 and the Jews 419.
The town of St Gall owes its origin to St Gall, an Irish hermit,
who in 614, built his cell in the thick forest which then covered
the site of the future monastery, and lived there, with a few
companions, till his death in 640. Many pilgrims later found
their way to his cell, and about the middle of the 8th century the
collection of hermits' dwellings was transformed into a regularly
organized Benedictine monastery. For the next three centuries
this was one of the chief seats of learning and education in
Europe. About 954 the monastery and its buildings were
surrounded by walls as a protection against the Saracens, and
this was the origin of the town. The temporal powers of the
abbots vastly increased, while in the i3th century the town
obtained divers privileges from the emperor and from the abbot,
who about 1205 became a prince of the Empire. In 1311 St
Gall became a free imperial city, and about 1353 the gilds,
headed by that of the cloth-weavers, obtained the control of the
civic government, while in 1415 it bought its liberty from the
German king Sigismund. This growing independence did not
please the abbot, who struggled long against it and his rebellious
subjects in Appenzell, which formed the central portion of his
dominions. After the victory of the Appenzellers at the battle
of the Stoss (1405) they became (1411) "allies" of the Swiss
confederation, as did the town of St Gall a few months later,
this connexion becoming an " everlasting " alliance in 1454,
while in 1457 the town was finally freed from the abbot. The
abbot, too, became (in 1451) the ally of Zurich, Lucerne, Schwyz
and Glarus. In 1468 he bought the county of the Toggenburg
from the representatives of its counts, a family which had died
out in 1436, and in 1487 built a monastery above Rorschach
as a place of refuge against the turbulent citizens, who, however,
destroyed it in 1489. The Swiss intervened to protect the abbot,
who (1490) concluded an alliance with them which'reduced his
position almost to that of a " subject district." The townsmen
adopted the Reformation in 1524, and this new cause of difference
further envenomed their relations with the abbots. Both abbot
and town were admitted regularly to the Swiss diet, occupying
a higher position than the rest of the " allies " save Bienne, which
was on the same footing. But neither succeeded in its attempts
to be received a full member of the Confederation, the abbot
being too much like a petty monarch and at the same time a kind
of " subject " already, while the town could not help much in
the way of soldiers. In 1798 and finally in 1805 the abbey was
secularized, while out of its dominions (save the Upper Toggen-
burg, but with the Altstatten district, held since 1490 by the
Swiss) and those of the town the canton Santis was formed, with
St Gall as capital. (W. A. B. C.)
SAINT-GAUDENS, AUGUSTUS (1848-1907), American
sculptor, was born in Dublin, Ireland, of a French father (a
shoemaker by trade), and an Irish mother, Mary McGuinness,
on the ist of March 1848, and was taken to America in infancy.
He was apprenticed to a cameo-cutter, studying in the schools
of the Cooper Union (1861) and the National Academy of Design,
New York (1865-1866). His earliest work in sculpture was a
bronze bust (1867) of his father, Bernard P. E. Saint-Gaudens.
In 1868 he went to Paris and became a pupil of Jouffroyj in the
Ecole dcs Beaux- Arts. Two years .later, with his fellow-student
Mercie, he went to Italy, where he spent three years. At Rome
he executed his statues " Hiawatha " and " Silence." He then
settled in New York. In 1874 he made a bust of the statesman,
William M. Evarts, and was commissioned to execute a large
relief for St Thomas's Church, New York, which brought him
ST GAUDENS SAINT-GERMAIN
into prominence. His statue of Admiral Farragut, Madison
Square, New York, was commissioned in 1878, exhibited at the
Paris Salon in 1880 and completed in 1881. It immediately
brought the sculptor widespread fame, which was increased by
his statue of Lincoln (unveiled 1887), for Lincoln Park, Chicago.
In Springfield, Mass., is his " Deacon Chapin," known as " The
Puritan." His figure of " Grief " (also known as " Death " and
" The Peace of God ") for the Adams (Mrs Henry Adams)
Memorial, in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., has been
described as " an idealization complete and absolute, the render-
ing of a simple, natural fact a woman in grief yet with such
deep and embracing comprehension that the individual is
magnified into a type." His Shaw Memorial in Boston, a
monument to Robert G. Shaw, colonel of a negro regiment in the
Civil War, was undertaken in i884and completed in 1897; it is a
relief in bronze, n ft. by 15, containing many figures of soldiers,
led by their young officer on horseback, a female figure in the
clouds pointing onward. In 1903 was unveiled his equestrian
statue (begun in 1892) to General Sherman, at sgth street and
Fifth avenue, New York; preceding the Union commander is a
winged figure of " Victory." This work, with others, formed a
group at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A bronze copy of his
" Amor Caritas " is in the Luxembourg, Paris. Among his other
works are relief medallion portraits of Robert Louis Stevenson
(in St Giles's Cathedral, Edinburgh) and the French painter
Jules Bastien-Lepage; Garfield Memorial, Fairmount Park,
Philadelphia; General Logan, Chicago; the Peter Cooper
Memorial ; and Charles Stewart Parnell in Dublin. Saint-Gaudens
was made an officer of the Legion of Honour and corresponding
member of the Institute of France. He died at Cornish, N.H.,
on the 3rd of August 1907. His monument of Phillips Brooks
for Boston was left practically completed. Saint-Gaudens is
rightly regarded as the greatest sculptor produced by America,
and his work had a most powerful influence on art in the United
States. In 1877 he married Augusta F. Homer and left a son,
Homer Saint-Gaudens. His brother Louis (b. 1854), also a
sculptor, assisted Augustus Saint-Gaudens in some of his works.
See Royal Cortissoz, Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1907) ;Lorado Taft,
History of American Sculpture (1903), containing two chapters de-
voted to Saint-Gaudens ; Kenyon Cox, Old Masters find New (1905) ;
C. Lewis Hind, Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1908).
ST GAUDENS, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Haute-Garonne, i m. from
the left bank of the Garonne, 57 m. S.S.W. of Toulouse, on the
railway to Tarbes. Pop. (1906), town, 4535; commune, 7120.
The church, once collegiate, dates chiefly from the nth and izth
centuries, but the main entrance is in the flamboyant Gothic
style. The town has sawing-, oil- and flour-mills, manufactures
woollen goods, and is a market for horses, sheep and agricultural
produce. St Gaudens derives its name from a martyr of the 5th
century, at whose tomb a college of canons was afterwards
established. It was important as capital of the Nebouzan, as the
residence of the bishops of Comminges and for its cloth industry.
SAINT-GELAIS, MELIN DE (1487-1558), French poet, was
born at Angouleme on the 3rd of November 1487. He was the
natural son of Octavien de St Gelais (1466-1502), afterwards
bishop of Angouleme, himself a poet who had translated the
Aeneid into French. Melin, who had studied at Bologna and
Padua, had the reputation of being doctor, astrologer and
musician as well as poet. He returned to France in 1515, and
soon gained favour at the court of Francis I. by his skill in light
verse. He was made almoner to the Dauphin, abbot of Reclus
in the diocese of Troyes and librarian to the king at Fontaine-
bleau. He enjoyed immense popularity until the appearance of
Du Bellay's Deffense et illustration ... in 1549, where St Gelais
was not excepted from the scorn poured on contemporary poets.
He attempted to ridicule the innovators by reading aloud the
Odes of Ronsard with burlesque emphasis before Henry II.,
when the king's sister, Margaret of Valois, seized the book and
read them herself. Ronsard accepted Saint-Gelais's apology
for this incident, but Du Bellay satirized the offender in the
Poete courtisan. In 1554 he collaborated, perhaps with Francois
Habert (1520-1574?), in a translation of the Sophomsbe of
Trissino which was represented (1554) before Catherine de
Medicis at Blois. Saint-Gelais was the champion of the Style
marotique and the earliest of French sonneteers. He died in 1558.
His CEuvres were edited in 1873 (3 vols., Bibl. elzevirienne) by
Prosper Blanchemain.
SAINT-GEORGES, GEORGES HENRI VERNOY DE (1790-
1875), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of
November 1799. Saint-Louis ou les deux diners (1823), a
vaudeville written in collaboration with Alexandre Tardif,
was followed by a series of operas and ballets. In 1829 he
became manager of the Opera Comique. Among his more
famous libretti are: Le Val d'Andorre (1848) for Halevy, and
La Fille du regiment (1840) for Donizetti. He wrote some fifty
pieces in collaboration with Eugene Scribe, Adolphe de Leuven, or
Joseph Mazillier, and a great number in collaboration with other
authors. Among his novels may be mentioned Un Manage de
prince. Saint-Georges died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875.
SAINT-GERMAIN, COMTE DE (c. 1710-0. 1780) called der
Wundermann, a celebrated adventurer who by the assertion of
his discovery of some extraordinary secrets of nature exercised
considerable influence at several European courts. Of his
parentage and place of birth nothing is definitely known; the
common version is that he was a Portuguese Jew, but various
surmises have been made as to his being of royal birth. It was
also stated that he obtained his money, of which he had abun-
dance, from acting as spy to one of the European courts. But this
is hard to maintain. He knew nearly all the European languages,
and spoke German, English, Italian, French (with a Piedmontese
accent) , Portuguese and Spanish. Grimm affirms him to have been
the man of the best parts he had ever known. He was a musical
composer and a capable violinist. His knowledge of history was
comprehensive, and his accomplishments as a chemist, on which
be based his reputation, were in many ways real and considerable.
He pretended to have a secret for removing flaws from diamonds,
and to be able to transmute metals. The most remarkable of
his professed discoveries was of a liquid which could prolong
life, and by which he asserted he had himself lived 2000 years.
After spending some time in Persia, Saint-Germain is mentioned
in a letter of Horace Walpole's as being in London about 1743,
and as being arrested as a Jacobite spy and released. Walpole
says: " He is called an Italian, a Spaniard, a Pole; a somebody
that married a great fortune in Mexico and ran away with her
jewels to Constantinople; a priest, a fiddler, a vast nobleman."
At the court of Louis XV., where he appeared about 1748, he
exercised for a time extraordinary influence and was employed
on secret missions by Louis XV.; but, having interfered in the
dispute between Austria and France, he was compelled in June
1760, on account of the hostility of the duke of Choiseul, to
remove to England. He appears to have resided in London for
one or two years, but was at St Petersburg in 1762, and is
asserted to have played an important part in connexion with the
conspiracy against the emperor Peter III. in July of that year,
a plot which placed Catherine II. on the Russian throne. He
then went to Germany, where, according to the Memoires
authentiques of Cagliostro, he was the founder of freemasonry,
and initiated Cagliostro into that rite. He was again in Paris
from 1770 to 1774, and after frequenting several of the German
courts he took up his residence in Schleswig-Holstein, where he
and the Landgrave Charles of Hesse pursued together the study
of the " secret " sciences. He died at Schleswig in or about
1780-1785, although he is said to have been seen in Paris in 1789.
Andrew Lang in his Historical Mysteries (1904) discusses the career
of Saint-Germain, and cites the various authorities for it. Saint-
Germain figures prominently in the correspondence of Grimm
and of Voltaire. See also Oettinger, Graf Saint-German (1846) ;
F. Biilau, Geheime Geschichten und rathselhafte Menschen, Band i.
(1850-1860); Lascelles Wraxall, Remarkable Adventures (1863);
and U. Birch in the Nineteenth Century (January 1908).
SAINT-GERMAIN, CLAUDE LOUIS, COMTE DE (1707-1778),
French general, was born on the isth of April 1707, at the
Chateau of Vertamboz. Educated at Jesuit schools, he intended
to enter the priesthood, but at the last minute obtained from
ST GERMAIN-EN-LAYE ST GOTTHARD PASS
Louis XV. an appointment as sub-lieutenant. He left France,
according to the gossip of the time, because of a duel; served
under the elector palatine; fought for Hungary against the
Turks, and on the outbreak of the war of the Austrian Succession
(1740) joined the army of the elector of Bavaria (who later
became emperor under the name of Charles VII.), displaying
such bravery lhat he was promoted to the grade of lieutenant
field-marshal. He left Bavaria on the death of Charles VII.,
and after brief service under Frederick the Great joined Marshal
Saxe in the Netherlands and was created a field-marshal of the
French army. He distinguished himself especially at Lawfeld,
Rancoux and Maastricht. On the outbreak of the Seven Years'
War (1756) he was appointed lieutenant-general, and although
he showed greater ability than any of his fellow-commanders
and was admired by his soldiers, he fell a victim to court intrigues,
professional jealousy and hostile criticism. He resigned his
commission in 1 760 and accepted an appointment as field-marshal
from Frederick V. of Denmark, being charged in 1762 with the
reorganization of the Danish army. On the death of Frederick
in 1766 he returned to France, bought a small estate in Alsace
near Lauterbach, and devoted his time to religion and farming.
A financial crisis swept away the funds that he had saved from
his Danish service and rendered him dependent on the bounty of
the French ministry of war. Saint-Germain was presented at
court by the reformers Turgot and Malesherbes, and was ap-
pointed minister of war by Louis XVI. on the 25th of October
1775. He sought to lessen the number of officers and to establish
order and regularity in the service. His efforts to introduce
Prussian discipline in the French army brought on such opposition
that he resigned in September 1777. He accepted quarters from
the king and a pension of 40,000 livres, and died in his apartment
at the arsenal on the isth of January 1778.
ST GERMAIN-EN-LAYE, a town of northern France, in the
department of Seine-et-Oise, 13 m. W.N.W. of Paris by rail.
Pop. (1006), town, 14,974; commune, 17,288. Built on a hill on
the left bank of the Seine, nearly 300 ft. above the river, and on
the edge of a forest 10,000 to 11,000 acres in extent, St Germain
has a bracing climate, which makes it a place of summer residence
for Parisians. The terrace of St Germain, constructed by
A.Len&tre in 1672, is ij m. long and looft.wide; it was planted
with lime trees in 1745 and affords an extensive view over the
valley of the Seine as far as Paris and the surrounding hills: it
ranks as one of the finest promenades in Europe.
A'monastery in honour of St Germain, bishop of Paris, was built
in the forest of Lave by King Robert. Louis VI. erected a castle
close by. Burned by the English, rebuilt by Louis IX., and again
by Charles V., this castle did not reach its full development till
the time of Francis I., who may be regarded as the real founder
of the building. A new castle was begun by Henry II. and completed
by Henry IV7; it was subsequently demolished, with the exception
of the so-called Henry IV. pavilion, where Thiers died in 1877. The
old castle has been restored to the state in which it was under
Francis I. The restoration is particularly skilful in the case of the
chapel, which dates from the first half of the I3th century. In
the church of St Germain is a mausoleum erected by George IV.
of England (and restored by Queen Victoria) to the memory
of James II. of England, who after his deposition resided in the
castle for twelve years and died there in 1701. In one of the
public squares is a statue of Thiers. At no great distance in the
forest is the Couvent des Loges, a branch of the educational establish-
ment of the Legion of Honour (St Denis). The ffite des Loges (end
of August and beginning of September) is one of the most popular
in the neighbourhood of Paris.
ST GERMANS, a small town in the Bodmin parliamentary divi-
sion of Corn wall, England, pleasant ly situated on the river Lynher,
9$ m. W. by N. of Plymouth by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 2384. It contains a fine church dedicated to St Germanus.
The west front is flanked by towers both of which are Norman in
the lower parts, the upper part being in the one Early English and
in the othei Perpendicular. The front itself is wholly Norman,
having three windows above a porch with a beautiful ornate door-
way. Some Norman work remains in the body of the church,
but the most part is Perpendicular or Decorated. Port Eliot, a
neighbouring mansion, contains an excellent collection of pictures,
notably several works of Sir Joshua Reynolds.
St Germans is supposed to have been the original seat of. the
Cornish bishopric. It was the see of Bishop Burhwold, who
died in 1027. Under Leofric, who became bishop of Crediton
and Cornwall in 1046, the see was removed to Exeter. Bishop
Leofric founded a priory at St Germans and bestowed upon it
twelve of the twenty-four hides which in the time of the Confessor
constituted the bishops' manor of St Germans. There was then
a market on Sundays, but at the time of the Domesday Survey
this had been reduced to nothing owing to a market established
by the count of Mortain on the same day at Trematon castle. In
1302 the grant of infangenethef, assize of bread and ale, waif and
stray by Henry III. was confirmed to the bishop, who in 1311
obtained a further grant of a market on Fridays and a fair at the
feast of St Peter ad Vincula. In 1343 the prior sustained his
claim to a prescriptive market and fair at St Germans. After
the suppression the borough belonging to the priory remained
with the crown until 1610. Meanwhile Queen Elizabeth created
it a parliamentary borough. From 1563 to 1832 it returned two
members to the House of Commons. In 1815 John Eliot was
created earl of St Germans, and in 1905 the first suffragan
bishop of Truro was consecrated bishop of St Germans.
ST GILLES, a town of southern France, in the department of
Gard, on the canal from the Rhone to Cette, 125 m. S.S.E. of
Nimes by road. Pop. (1906) 5292. In the middJe ages St Gilles,
the ancient Vallis Flaviana, was the seat of an abbey founded
towards the end of the 7th century by St Aegidius (St Gilles). It
acquired wealth and power under the counts of Toulouse, who
added to their title that of counts of St Gilles. The church,
which survives, was founded in 1116 when the abbey was at
the height of its prosperity. The lower part of the front (i2th
century) has three bays decorated with columns and bas-reliefs,
and is the richest example of Romanesque art in Provence.
The rest of the church is unfinished, only the crypt (i2th century)
and part of the choir, containing a spiral staircase, being of
interest. Besides the church there is a Romanesque house
serving as presbytery. The decadence of the abbey dates from
the early years of the i3th century when the pilgrimage to the
tomb of the saint became less popular; the monks also lost the
patronage of the counts of Toulouse, owing to the penance
inflicted by them on Raymond VI. in 1209 for the murder of the
papal legate Pierre de Castelnau. St Gilles was the seat of the
first grand priory of the Knights Hospitallers in Europe (i2th
century) and was of special importance as their place of embarka-
tion for the East. In 1226 the countship of St Gilles was united
to the crown. In 1562 the Protestants ravaged the abbey, which
they occupied till 1622, and in 1774 it was suppressed.
ST GIRONS, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Ariege, 29 m. W. of Foix
by rail. Pop. (1906) 5216. The town is situated on the Salat at
the foot of the Pyrenees. There are mineral springs at Audinac
in the vicinity, and the watering-place of Aulus, about 20 m. to
the S.S.E., is reached by road from St Girons. St Lizier-de-
Couserans (g..),an ancient episcopal town, is i m. N.N.W.
ST GOAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province,
on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite St Goarshausen and just
below the famous Lorelei, 1 2 m. above Boppard by the railway
from Coblenz to Mainz. Pop. (1905) 1475. It is in part sur-
rounded by the ruins of its old walls, and contains an Evangelical
church, with some Renaissance monuments, and a Roman
Catholic church with an image of St Goar of Aquitania, around
whose chapel the place originally arose. Below the town, high
on an eminence above the Rhine, stands Schloss Rheinfels, the
property of the king of Prussia, the most perfect of the feudal
castles on the banks of the river. In the later middle ages St
Goar was the capital of the county of Katzenelnbogen, and on
the extinction of this family it passed to Hesse-Cassel. It came
into the possession of Prussia in 1815.
ST GOTTHARD PASS, the principal route from northern
Europe to Italy. It takes its name (it is not known wherefore)
from St Gotthard, bishop of Hildesheim (d. 1038), but does
not seem to be mentioned before the early I3th century, perhaps
because the access to it lies through two very narrow Alpine
ST HELENA
valleys, much exposed to avalanches. The hospice on the
summit is first mentioned in 1331, and from 1683 onwards was
in charge of two Capuchin friars. But in 1775 the buildings
near it were damaged by an avalanche, while in 1799-1800
everything was destroyed by the French soldiery. Rebuilt
in 1834, the hospice was burnt in March 1905. The mule path
(dating from about 1293) across the pass served for many
centuries, for though Mr Greville, in 1775, succeeded in taking
a light carriage across, the carriage-road was only constructed
between 1820 and 1830. Now the pass is deserted in favour of
the great tunnel (pierced in 1872-1880, 9! m. in length, and
attaining a height of 3786 ft.), through which runs the railway
(opened in 1882) from Lucerne to Milan (1755 m.), one of the
greatest engineering feats of the igth century. It runs mainly
along the eastern shore of the Lake of Lucerne, from Lucerne
to Fliielen (325 m.), and then up the Reuss valley past Altdorf
and Wassen, near which is the first of the famous spiral tunnels,
to Goeschenen (56 m. from Lucerne). Here the h'ne leaves the
Reuss valley to pass through the tunnel and so gain, at Airolo,
the valley of the Ticino or the Val Leventina, which it descends,
through several spiral tunnels, till at Biasca (38 m. from
Goeschenen) it reaches more level ground. Thence it runs past
Bellinzona to Lugano (30! m. from Biasca) and reaches Italian
territory at Chiasso, 35 m. from Milan. In 1909 the Swiss
government exercised the right accorded to it by the agreement
of 1879 of buying the St Gotthard Railway from the company
which built it within thirty years of that date. (W. A. B.C.)
ST HELENA, an island and British possession in the South
Atlantic in 15 55' 26" S., 5 42' 30" W. (Ladder Hill Observatory).
It lies 700 m. S.E. of the island of Ascension (the nearest land),
1200 m. W. of Mossamedes (the nearest African port), 1695 N.W.
of Cape Town, and is distant from Southampton 4477 m. It
has an area of about 47 sq. m., the extreme length from S.W.
to N.E. being io| m. and the extreme breadth 8J. The island
is of volcanic formation, but greatly changed by oceanic abrasion
and atmospheric denudation. Its principal feature, a semi-
circular ridge of mountains, open towards the south-east and
south, with the culminating summit of Diana's Peak (2704 ft.)
is the northern rim of a great crater; the southern rim has
disappeared, though its debris apparently keeps the sea shallow
(from 20 to 50 fathoms) for some 2 m. S.E. of Sandy Bay, which
hypothetically forms the centre of the ring. From the crater
wall outwards water-cut gorges stretch in all directions, widening
as they approach the sea into valleys, some of which are 1000 ft.
deep, and measure one-eighth of a mile across at bottom and
three-eighths across the top (Melliss). These valleys contain
small streams, but the island has no rivers properly so called.
Springs of pure water are, however, abundant. Along the enclosing
hillsides caves have been formed by the washing out of the softer
rocks. Basalts, andesites and phonolites, represent the chief
flows. Many dikes and masses of basaltic rock seem to have been
injected subsequently to the last volcanic eruptions from the
central crater. The Ass's Ears and Lot's Wife, picturesque
pinnacles standing out on the S.E. part of the crater ridge, and
the Chimney on the coast south of Sandy Bay, are formed out
of such injected dikes and masses. In the neighbourhood of
Man and Horse (S.W. corner of the island), throughout an
area of about 40 acres, scarcely 50 sq. yds. exist not crossed by a
dyke. On the leeward (northern) side of St Helena the sea-face
is generally formed by cliffs from 600 to 1000 ft. high, and on
the windward side these heights rise to about 2000 ft., as at
Holdfast Tom, Stone Top and Oid Joan Point. The only
practicable landing-place is on the leeward side at St James's
Bay an open roadstead. From the head of the bay a narrow
valley extends for ij m. The greatest extent of level ground
is in the N.E. of the island, where are the Deadwood and Long-
wood plains, over 1700 ft. above the sea.
Climate. Although it lies within the tropics the climate of the
island is healthy and temperate. This is due to the south-east
trade-wind, constant throughout the year, and to the effect of the
cold waters of the South Atlantic current. As a result the tempera-
ture varies little, ranging on the sea level from 68 to 84 in summer
and 57 to 70 in winter. The higher regions are about I o cooler. The
rainfall varies considerably, being from 30 to 50 in. a year in the
hills.
Flora. St Helena is divided into three vegetation zones: (i)
the coast zone, extending inland for I m. to 1$ m., formerly clothed
with a luxuriant vegetation, but now " dry, barren, soilless, lichen-
coated, and rocky,' with little save prickly pears, wire grass and
Mesembryanthemum; (2) the middle zone (400-1800 ft.), extending
about three-quarters of a mile inland, with shallower valleys and
grassier slopes the English broom and gorse, brambles, willows,
poplars, Scotch pines, &c., being the prevailing forms; and (3) the
central zone, about 3 m. long and 2 m. wide, the home, for the most
part, of the indigenous flora. According to W. B. Hemsley (in his
report on the botany of the Atlantic Islands), 1 the certainly in-
digenous species of plants are 65, the probably indigenous 24 and
the doubtfully indigenous 5 ; total 94. Of the 38 flowering plants
20 are shrubs or small trees. With the exception of Scirpus nodosus,
all the 38 are peculiar to the island; and the same is true of 12 of
the 27 vascular cryptogams (a remarkable proportion). Since the
flora began to be studied, two species Melhania melanoxylon and
Acalypha rubra are known to have become extinct; and at least
two others have probably shared the same fate Heliotropium
pennifolium and Demazeria obliterata. Melhania melanoxylon, or
" native ebony," once abounded in parts of the island now barren;
but the young trees were allowed to be destroyed by the goats of the
early settlers, and it is now extinct. Its beautiful congener Melhania
erythroxylon (" redwood ") was still tolerably plentiful in 1810, but
is now reduced to a few specimens. Very rare, too, has become
Pelargonium cotyledonis, called " Old Father Live-for-ever," from
its retaining vitality for months without soil or water. Commi-
dendron robustum (" gumwood "), a tree about 20 ft. high, once the
most abundant in the island, was represented in 1868 by about 1300
or 1400 examples; and Commidendron rugosum (" scrubwood ") is
confined to somewhat limited regions. Both these plants are char-
acterized by a daisy- or aster-like blossom. The affinities of the
indigenous flora of St Helena were described by Sir Joseph Hooker
as African, but George Bentham points out that the Cpmpositae
shows, at least in its older forms, a connexion rather with South
America. The exotic flora introduced from all parts of the world gives
the island almost the aspect of a botanic garden. The oak, thoroughly
naturalized, grows alongside of the bamboo and banana. Among
other trees and plants are the common English gorse ; Rubus pinnatus,
probably introduced from Africa about 1775; Hypochaeris radicata,
which above 1500 ft. forms the dandelion of the country; the
beautiful but aggressive Buddleia Madagascar iensis ; Physalis peru-
viana; the common castor-oil plant; and the pride of India. The
peepul is the principal shade tree in Jamestown, and in Jamestown
valley the date-palm grows freely. Orange and lemon trees, once
common, are now scarce.
Fauna. St Helena possesses no indigenous vertebrate land fauna.
The only land groups well represented are the beetles and the land
shells. T. V. Wollaston, in Coleoptera Sanctae Helenae (1877), shows
that out of a total list of 203 species of beetles 129 are probably
aboriginal and 128 peculiar to the island an individuality perhaps
unequalled in the world. More than two-thirds are weevils and a
vast majority wood-borers, a fact which bears out the tradition of
forests having once covered the island. The Hemiptera and the
land-shells also show a strong residuum ofpeculiar genera and species.
A South American white ant (Termes tennis, Hagen.), introduced
from a slave-ship in 1840, soon became a plague at Jamestown,
where it consumed a large part of the public library and the woodwork
of many buildings, public and private. Practically everything had
to be rebuilt with teak or cypress the only woods the white ant
cannot devour. Fortunately it cannot live in the higher parts of
the island. The honey-bee, which throve for some time after its
introduction, again died out (cf. A. R. Wallace, Island Life, 1880).
Besides domestic animals the only land mammals are rabbits,
rats and mice, the rats being especially abundant and building
their nests in the highest trees. Probably the only endemic land
bird is the wire bird, Aegialitis sanctae Helenae; the averdevat, Java
sparrow, cardinal, ground-dove, partridge (possibly the Indian
chukar),_ pheasant and guinea-fowl are all common. The pea-fowl,
at one time not uncommon in a wild state, is long since exterminated.
There are no freshwater fish, beetles or shells. Of sixty-five species
of sea-fish caught off the island seventeen are peculiar to St Helena ;
economically the more important kinds are gurnard, eel, cod, mackerel,
tunny, bullseye, cavalley, flounder, hog-fish, mullet and skulpin.
Inhabitants. When discovered the island was uninhabited.
The majority of the population are of mixed European (British,
Dutch, Portuguese), East Indian and African descent the
Asiatic strain perhaps predominating; the majority of the
early settlers having been previously members of the crews of
ships returning to Europe from the East. From 1840 onward
for a considerable period numbers of freed slaves of West African
origin were settled here by men-of-war engaged in suppressing
the slave trade. Their descendants form a distinct element
* In the "Challenger" expedition reports, Botany, vol. i. (1885).
8
ST HELENA
in the population. Since the substitution of steamships for
sailing vessels and the introduction of new methods of preserving
meat and vegetables (which made it unnecessary for sailing vessels
to take fresh provisions from St Helena to avoid scurvy) the
population has greatly diminished. In 1871 there were 6444
inhabitants; in 1909 the civil population was estimated at 3553.
The death-rate that year, 6-4 per 1000, was the lowest on record
in the island. The only town, in which live more than half the
total population, is Jamestown. Longwood, where Napoleon
died in 1821, is 3^ m. E. by S. of Jamestown. In 1858 the
house in which he lived and died was presented by Queen
Victoria to Napoleon III., who had it restored to the con-
dition, but unfurnished, in which it was at the time of Bona-
parte's death.
Agriculture, Industries, &c. Less than a third of the area of the
island is suitable for farming, while much of the area which might be
(and formerly was) devoted to raising crops is under grass. The
principal crop is potatoes, which are of very good quality. They
were chiefly sold to ships especially to " passing " ships. They
are now occasionally exported to the Cape. Cattle and sheep were
raised in large numbers when a garrison was maintained, so that
difficulty has been found in disposing of surplus stock now that the
troops have been withdrawn. The economic conditions which
formerly prevailed were entirely altered by the substitution of
steamers for sailing vessels, which caused a great decrease in the
number of ships calling at Jamestown. A remedy was sought
in the establishment of industries. An attempt made in 18691872
to cultivate cinchona proved unsuccessful. Attention was also
turned to the aloe (Furcraea gigantea), which grows wild at mid
elevations, and the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), an intro-
duced plant, for their utilization in the manufacture of fibre. From
1875 to 1881 a company ran a mill at which they turned out both
aloe and flax fibre, but the enterprise proved unremunerative. In
1907 the government, aided by a grant of 4070 from the imperial
exchequer, started a mill at Longwood for the manufacture of
phormium fibre, with encouraging results. Fish curing and lace
making are also carried on to some extent.
Trade is chiefly dependent upon the few ships that call at James-
town now mostly whalers or vessels in distress. There is also some
trade with ships that " pass " without " calling." 1 In thirty years
(1877-1907) the number of ships " calling " at the port sank from
664 with 449,724 tonnage to 57 with 149,182 tonnage. In the last-
named year the imports were valued at 35,614; the exports (ex-
cluding specie) at 1787 but the goods supplied to " passing "
vessels do not figure in these returns. In 1908 fibre and tow (valued
at 3557) were added to the exports, and in 1909 a good trade was
done with Ascension in sheep. St Helena is in direct telegraphic
communication with Europe and South Africa, and there is a regular
monthly mail steamship service.
Government, Revenue, &c. St Helena is a Crown colony. The
island has never had any form of jocal legislative chamber, but the
governor (who also acts as chief justice) is aided by an executive
council. The governor alone makes laws, called ordinances, but
legislation can also be effected by the Crown by order in council.
The revenue, 10,287 m I 95. had fallen in 1909 to 8778 (including
a grant in aid of 2500), the expenditure in each of the five years
(1905-1909) being in excess of the revenue. Elementary education
is provided in government and private schools. St Helena is the seat
of an Anglican bishopric established in 1859. Ascension and Tristan
da Cunha are included in the diocese.
History. The island was discovered on the 2ist of May 1502
by the Portuguese navigator Joao de Nova, on his voyage
home from India, and by him named St Helena. The
Portuguese found it uninhabited, imported live stock, fruit-
trees and vegetables, built a chapel and one or two houses, and
left their sick there to be taken home, if recovered, by the next
ship, but they formed no permanent settlement. Its first known
permanent resident was Fernando Lopez, a Portuguese in India,
who had turned traitor and had been mutilated by order of
Albuquerque. He preferred being marooned to returning to
Portugal in his maimed condition, and was landed at St Helena
in 1513 with three or four negro slaves. By royal command he
visited Portugal some time later, but returned to St Helena,
where he died in 1546. In 1584 two Japanese ambassadors to
Rome landed at the island. The first Englishman known to
have visited it was Thomas Cavendish, who touched there in
June 1 588 during his voyage round the world. Another English
1 " Calling " ships are those which have been boarded by the
harbour master and given pratique. Since 1886 boatmen are allowed
to communicate with ships that have not obtained pratique, and
these are known as " passing " ships.
seaman, Captain Kendall, visited St Helena in 1591, and in 1593
Sir James Lancaster stopped at the island on his way home from
the East. In 1603 the same commander again visited St Helena
on his return from the first voyage equipped by the East India
Company. The Portuguese had by this time given up calling
at the island, which appears to have been occupied by the Dutch
about 1645. The Dutch occupation was temporary and ceased
in 1651, the year before they founded Cape Town. The British
East India Company appropriated the island immediately after
the departure of the Dutch, and they were confirmed in possession
by a clause in their charter of 1661. The company built a fort
(1658), named after the duke of York (James II.), and established
a garrison in the island. In 1673 the Dutch succeeded in obtaining
possession, but were ejected after a few months' occupation.
Since that date St Helena has been in the undisturbed possession
of Great Britain, though in 1706 two ships anchored off James-
town were carried off by the French. In 1673 the Dutch had
been expelled by the forces of the Crown, but by a new charter
granted in December of the same year the East India Company
were declared " the true and absolute lords and proprietors"
of the island. At this time the inhabitants numbered about
icoo, of whom nearly half were negro slaves. In 1810 the
company began the importation of Chinese from their factory
at Canton. During the company's rule the island prospered,
thousands of homeward-bound vessels anchored in the road-
stead in a year, staying for considerable periods, refitting and
revictualling. Large sums of money were thus expended in
the island, where wealthy merchants and officials had their resi-
dence. The plantations were worked by the slaves, who were
subjected to very barbarous laws until 1792, when a new code
of regulations ensured their humane treatment and prohibited
the importation of any new slaves. Later it was enacted that all
children of slaves born on or after Christmas Day 1818 should
be free, and between 1826 and 1836 all slaves were set at
liberty.
Among the governors appointed by the company to rule at
St Helena was one of the Huguenot refugees, Captain Stephen
Poirier (1697-1707), who attempted unsuccessfully to introduce
the cultivation of the vine. A later governor (1741-1742) was
Robert Jenkin (q.v.) of " Jenkin's ear " fame. Dampier visited
the island twice, in 1691 and 1701; Halley's Mount commemor-
ates the visit paid by the astronomer Edmund Halley in 1676-
1678 the first of a number of scientific men who have pursued
their studies on the island.
In 1815 the British government selected St Helena as the place
of detention of Napoleon Bonaparte. He was brought to the
island in October of that year and lodged at Longwood, where
he died in May 1821. During this period the island was strongly
garrisoned by regular troops, and the governor, Sir Hudson
Lowe, was nominated by the Crown. After Napoleon's death
the East India Company resumed full control of St Helena
until the 22nd of April 1834, on which date it was in virtue of
an act passed in 1833 vested in the Crown. As a port of call
the island continued to enjoy a fair measure of prosperity until
about 1870. Since that date the great decrease in the number
of vessels visiting Jamestown has deprived the islanders of their
principal means of subsistence. When steamers began to be
substituted for sailing vessels and when the Suez Canal was
opened (in 1869) fewer ships passed the island, while of those
that still pass the greater number are so well found that it is
unnecessary for them to call (see also Inhabitants). The with-
drawal in 1906 of the small garrison, hitherto maintained by
the imperial government, was another cause of depression.
During the Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902 some thousands of
Boer prisoners were detained at St Helena, which has also served
as the place of exile of several Zulu chiefs, including Dinizulu.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.-!. C. Melliss, St Helena: a Physical, Historical
and Topographical Description of the Island, including its Geology,
Fauna, Flora and Meteorology (London, 1875); E. L. Jackson, St
Helena (London, 1903); T. H. Brooke, History of the Island of St
Helena . . . to 1823 (2nd ed., London, 1824), in this book are cited
many early accounts of the island ; General A. Beatson (governor
of the island 1808-1813), Tracts Relative to the Island of St Helena
ST HELENS ST INGBERT
(London, 1816) ; Extracts from the St Helena Records from 1673 to 1835
(compiled by H- R. Janisch, sometime governor of the island, James-
town, 1885); Charles Darwin, Geological Observations on Volcanic
Islands (1844). For a condensed general account consult (Sir)
C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies (vol. Hi.,
West Africa, 2nd ed., Oxford, 1900). See also M. Danvers, Report
on the Records of the India Office, vol. i. pt. i. (London, 1887); The
Africa Pilot, pt. ii. (5th ed., IQOI); Report on the Present Position
and Prospects of the Agricultural Resources of the Island of St Helena,
by (Sir) D. Morris (1884; reprinted 1906). (R. L. A.; F. R. C.)
ST HELENS, a market town and municipal, county, and parlia-
mentary borough of Lancashire, England, 14 m. E.N.E. from
Liverpool, on the London & North- Western and Great Central
railways. Pop. (1891) 72,413; (1901) 84,410. A canal com-
municates with the Mersey. The town is wholly of modern
development. Besides the town hall arid other public buildings
and institutions there may be mentioned the Gamble Institute,
erected and presented by Sir David Gamble, Bart., for a technical
school, educating some 2000 students, and library. Among
several public pleasure grounds the principal are the Taylor
Park of 48 acres, and the smaller Victoria and Thatto Heath
Parks. This is the principal seat in England for the manufacture
of crown, plate, and sheet glass; there are also art glass works,
and extensive copper smelting and refining works, as well as
chemical works, iron and brass foundries, potteries and patent
medicine works. There are collieries in the neighbourhood.
To the north of the town are a few ecclesiastical ruins, known
as Windleshaw Abbey, together with a well called St Thomas'
well, but the history of the foundation is not known. The
parliamentary borough (1885) returns one member. The county
borough was created in 1888. The town was incorporated in
1868, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen
and 27 councillors. Area 7285 acres.
ST HELIER, the chief town of Jersey, the largest of the Channel
Islands. Pop. (1901) 27,866. It lies on the south coast of the
island on the eastern side of St Aubin's Bay. The harbour
is flanked on the W. by a rocky ridge on which stands Elizabeth
Castle, and commanded on the east by Fort Regent on its lofty
promontory. The parish church is a cruciform building with
embattled tower, dating in part from the I4th century. It
contains a monument to Major Peirson, who on the occasion of
a French attack on Jersey in 1781 headed the militia to oppose
them, and forced them to surrender, but was killed as his followers
were at the point of victory. The French leader, Baron de
Rullecourt, is buried in the churchyard. The spot where
Peirson fell, in what is now called Peirson Place, is marked by
a tablet. A large canvas by John Singleton Copley depicting
the scene is in the National Gallery, London, and a copy is
in the court house of St Helier. This building (la Cohue),
in Royal Square, is the meeting-place of the royal court and
deliberative States of Jersey. Victoria College was opened
in 1852 and commemorates a visit of Queen Victoria and the
prince consort to the island in 1846. A house in Marine
Terrace is distinguished as the residence of Victor Hugo (1851-
1855). Elizabeth Castle, which is connected with the main-
land by a causeway, dates from 1551-1590; and in 1646 and
1649 Prince Charles resided here. In 1649 he was pro-
claimed king, as Charles II., in Jersey by the royalist governor
George Carteret. On actually coming to the throne he gave
the island the mace which is still used at the meetings of the
court and States. Close to the castle are remnants of a chapel
or cell, from which the rock on which it stands is known as the
Hermitage, dating probably from the gth or loth century,
and traditionally connected with the patron saint Helerius.
SAINT-HILAIRE, AUGUSTIN FRANCOIS CfeSAR PROU-
VENQAL DE, commonly known as AUGUSTE DE (1799-1853),
French botanist and traveller, was born at Orleans on the 4th
of October 1799. He began to publish memoirs on botanical
subjects at an early age. In 1816-1822 and in 1830 he travelled
in South America, especially in south and central Brazil, and the
results of his study of the rich flora of the regions through which
he passed appeared in several books and numerous articles in
scientific journals. The works by which he is best known are
the Flora Brasilia* Meridionalis (3 vols., folio, with 192 coloured
plates, 1825-1832), published in conjunction with A. de Jussieu
and J. Cambessedes, Histoire des plantes les plus remarquables du
Bresil et de Paraguay (i vol. 4to, 30 plates, 1824), Plantes usuelles
des Bresiliens (i vol. 4to, 70 plates, 1827-1828), also in con-
junction with De Jussieu and Cambessedes, and Voyage dans
le district des diamants etsur le littoral du Bresil (2vols., 8vo, 1833).
His Lemons de botanique, comprenant principalement la morphologic
vegetale (1840), was a comprehensive exposition of botanical
morphology and of its application to systematic botany. He
died at Orleans on the 3Oth of September 1853.
ST HUBERT, a small town of Belgium in the province of
Luxemburg and in the heart of the Ardennes. Pop. (1904)
3204. It is famous for its abbey church containing the shrine
of St Hubert, and for its annual pilgrimage. According to
tradition the church and a monastery attached to it were founded
in the 7th century by Plectrude, wife of Pippin of Herstal. The
second church was built in the i2th century, but burnt by a
French army under Conde in the i6th century. The present
building is its successor, but has been restored in modern times
and presents no special feature. The tomb of St Hubert a
marble sarcophagus ornamented with bas-reliefs and having four
statuettes of other saints at the angles stands in one of the side
chapels. The legend of the conversion of St Hubert a hunter
before he was a saint by his meeting in the forest a stag with
a crucifix between its antlers, is well known, and explains how he
became the patron saint of huntsmen. The place where he is
supposed to have met the stag is still known as " la comierserie "
and is almost 5 m: from St Hubert on the road to La Roche.
The pilgrimage of St Hubert in May attracts annually between
thirty and fifty thousand pilgrims. The buildings of the old
monastery have been utilized for a state training-school for
waifs and strays, which contains on an average five hundred
pupils. In the middle ages the abbey of St Hubert was one of
the most important in Europe, owning forty villages with an
annual income of over 80,000 crowns. During the French
Revolution, when Belgium was divided into several departments,
the possessions of the abbey were sold for 7 5,000, but the bishop
of Namur was permitted to buy the church itself for 1350.
ST HYACINTHE, a city and port of entry of Quebec, Canada,
and capital of St Hyacinthe county, 32m. E.N.E. of Montreal,
on the left bank of the river Yamaska and on the Grand Trunk,
Canadian Pacific, Intercolonial, and Quebec Southern railways.
Pop. (1901) 9210. It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop,
and contains a classical college, dairy school, two monasteries
and several other educational and charitable institutions. It
has manufactures of organs, leather, woollens and agricultural
implements, and is an important distributing centre for the
surrounding district.
SAINTINE, JOSEPH XAVIER (1798-1865), French novelist
and dramatist, whose real surname was BONIFACE, was born in
Paris on the loth of July 1798. In 1823 he produced a volume
of poetry in the manner of the Romanticists, entitled Poemes,
odes, (pitres. In 1836 appeared Picciola, the story of the comte
de Charney, a political prisoner in Piedmont, whose reason was
saved by his cult of a tiny flower growing between the paving
stones of his prison yard. This story is a masterpiece of the
sentimental kind, and has been translated into many European
languages. He produced many other novels, none of striking
individuality with the exception of Seal (1857), which purported
to be the authentic record of Alexander Selkirk on his desert
island. Saintine was a prolific dramatist, and collaborated in
some hundred pieces with Scribe and others, usually under the
name of Xavier. He died on the 2ist of January 1865.
ST INGBERT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria
on the Rohrbach, 14 m. by rail W. of Zweibriicken. Pop. (1905)
15,521. It has coal-mines and manufactures of glass and
machinery. There are also large iron and steel works in the
town, and other industries are the making of powder, leather,
cigars, soap and cotton. St Ingbert is named after the Irish
saint, St Ingobert, and belonged for 300 years to the electorate
of-Trier.
IO
ST IVES ST JOHN, J. A.
ST IVES, a market town, municipal borough and seaport in the
St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 10 m.
N.N.E. of Penzance, on a branch of the Great Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 6699. It lies near the W. horn of St Ives Bay on
the N. coast. The older streets near the harbour are narrow and
irregular, but on the upper slopes there are modern terraces with
good houses. The small harbour, protected by a breakwater,
originally built by John Smeaton in 1767, has suffered from
the accumulation of sand, and at the lowest tides is dry.
The fisheries for pilchard, herring and mackerel are important.
Boat-building and sail-making are carried on. An eminence south
of the town is marked by a granite monument erected in 1782
by John Knill, a native of the town, who intended to be buried
here; to maintain a quinquennial celebration on the spot he
bequeathed property to the town authorities. The borough is
under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1890 acres.
The town takes name from St Hya, or la, an Irish virgin and
martyr, who is said to have accompanied St Piran on his
missionary journey to Cornwall in the 5th century, and to have
landed near this place. The Patent Rolls disclose an almost
continuous series of trials for piracy and plunder by St Ives
sailors from the beginning of the i4th to the end of the i6th
century. A mere chapelry of Lelant and the less important
member of the distant manor of Ludgvan Leaze, which in
Domesday Book appears as Luduam, it had no fostering hand
to minister to its growth. In order to augment the influence of the
Tudors in the House of Commons, Philip and Mary in 1558
invested it with the privilege of returning 2 members. Its affairs
were at that time administered by a headwarden, who after
1598 appears under the name of portreeve, 12 chief burgesses
and 24 ordinary burgesses. The portreeve was elected by the
24; the 12 by the chief inhabitants. This body had control
over the fishing, the harbour and harbour dues, the fabric of the
church, sanitation and the poor. In 1639 a charter of incorpora-
tion was granted under which the portreeve became mayor, the
12 became aldermen, and the 24 were styled burgesses. Pro-
vision was made for four fairs and for markets on Wednesdays
and Saturdays, also for a grammar school. This charter was
surrendered to Charles II. and a new one granted in 1685, the
latter reducing the number of aldermen to 10 and of burgesses
also to 10. It ratified the parliamentary franchise and the fairs
and markets, and provided a court of pie-powder; it also con-
tained a clause safeguarding the rights of the marquess of
Winchester, lord of the manor of Ludgvan Leaze and Porthia.
In 1835 a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors were invested
with the administration of the borough. In 1832 St Ives lost
one of its members, and in 1885 the other. Both markets are
now held, but only one of the fairs. This takes place on the
Saturday nearest St Andrew's day.
ST IVES, a market town and municipal borough in the northern
parliamentary division of Huntingdonshire, England, mainly
on the left (north) bank of the Ouse, 5 m. E. of Huntingdon by
the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1001) 2910. The river is
crossed by an old bridge said to have been built by the abbots of
Ramsey early in the 15th century. A building over the centre
pier of the bridge was once used as a chapel. The causeway
(1827) on the south side of the river is built on arches so as to
assist the flow of the river in time of flood. The church of All
Saints is Perpendicular, with earlier portions. A curious custom
is practised annually in this church in connexion with a bequest
made by a certain Dr Robert Wilde in 1678: it is the distribution
of Bibles to six boys and six girls of the town. The original
provision was that the Bibles should be cast for by dice on the
Communion table. Oliver Cromwell was a resident in St Ives
in 1634-1635, but the house which he inhabited Slepe Hall
was demolished in the middle of the igth century. St Ives has
a considerable agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor,
4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area 2326 acres.
The manor of " Slepe " is said to have been given by /Ethelstan
" Mannessune " to the abbot of Ramsey and confirmed to him
by King Edgar. It owed its change of name to the supposed
discovery of the grave of St Ive, a Persian bishop, in 1001,
and a priory was founded in the same year by Abbot Ednoth as
a cell to Ramsey. St Ives was chiefly noted for its fair, which
was first granted to the abbot of Ramsey by Henry I. to be held
on Monday in Easter week and eight days following. In the
reign of Henry III. merchants from Flanders came to the fair,
which had become so important that the king granted it to be
continued beyond the eight days if the abbot agreed to pay a
farm of 50 yearly for the extra days. The fair, with a market
on Monday granted to the abbot in 1286, survives, and was
purchased in 1874 by the corporation from the duke of
Manchester. The town was incorporated in 1874.
ST JEAN-D'ANG^LY, a town of western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Charente-Inferieure,
33 m. E. of Rochefort by rail. Pop. (1906) 6242. St Jean lies
on the right bank of the Boutonne, which is navigable for small
vessels. The parish church of St Jean stands on the site of an
abbey church of the I3th century, of which some remains are
left. In 1568 the monastery was destroyed by the Huguenots,
but much of it was rebuilt in the 1 7th and i8th centuries, to which
period belong two towers and the facade of an unfinished church.
St Jean owes the suffix of its name to the neighbouring forest of
Angary (Angeriacum). Pippin I. of Aquitaine in the gth century
established there a Benedictine monastery which was afterwards
reputed to possess the head of John the Baptist. This relic attracted
hosts of pilgrims; a town grew up, took the name of St Jean d'Angeri,
afterwards d'Ang61y, was fortified in 1131, and in 1204 received a
charter from Philip Augustus. The possession of the place was
disputed between French and English m the Hundred Years' War,
and between Catholics and Protestants at a later date. In 1569 it
capitulated to the duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.). Louis
XIII. again took it from the Protestants in 1621 and deprived it of
its privileges and its very name, which he changed to Bourg-Louis.
ST JEAN-DE-LUZ, a coast town of south-western France,
in the department of Basses-Pyrenees, at the mouth of the
Nivelle, 14 m. S.W. of Bayonne on a branch of the Southern
railway. Pop. (1906) 3424. St Jean-de-Luz is situated in the
Basque country on the bay of St Jean-de-Luz, the entrance to
which is protected by breakwaters and moles. It has a 13th-
century church, the chief features of which are the galleries
in the nave, which, according to the Basque custom, are reserved
for men. The Maison Lohobiague, the Maison de PInfante
(both 1 7th cent.), and the h&tel de ville (1657) are picturesque
old buildings. St Jean is well known for its bathing and as a
winter resort. Fishing is a considerable industry.
From the I4th to the I7th century St Jean-de-Luz enjoyed a
prosperity due to its mariners and fishermen. Its vessels were the
first to set out for Newfoundland in 1520. In 1558, owing to the
depredations of its privateers, the Spaniards attacked and burned
the town. In 1627, however, it was able to equip 80 vessels, which
succeeded in saving the island of R6 from the duke of Buckingham.
In 1660 the treaty of the Pyrenees was signed at St Jean-de-Luz,
and was followed by the marriage there of the Infanta Maria Theresa
and Louis XIV. At that time the population numbered 15,000.
The cession of Newfoundland to England in 1713, the loss of Canada,
and the silting-up of the harbour were the three causes which contri-
buted to the decline of the town.
ST JOHN, CHARLES WILLIAM GEORGE (1809-1856),
English naturalist and sportsman, son of General the Hon.
Frederick St John, second son of Frederick, second Viscount
Bolingbroke, was born on the 3rd of December 1809. He was
educated at Midhurst, Sussex, and about 1828 obtained a clerk-
ship in the treasury, but resigned in 1834, in which year he
married a lady with some fortune. He ultimately settled in
the " Laigh " of Moray, " within easy distance of mountain
sport." In 1853 a paralytic seizure deprived him of the use of his
limbs, and for the benefit of his health he removed to the south of
England. He died at Woolston, near Southampton, on the
22nd of July 1856. His works are Wild Sports and Natural
History of the Highlands (1846, 2nd ed. 1848, 3rd ed. 1861);
Tour in Sutherland (1849, 2nd ed., with recollections by Captain
H. St John, 1884); Notes of Natural History and Sport in
Morayshire, with Memoir by C. Innes (1863, 2nd ed. 1884). They
are written in a graphic style, and illustrated with engravings,
many of them from clever pen-and-ink sketches of his own.
ST JOHN, JAMES AUGUSTUS (1801-1875), British author
and traveller, was born in Carmarthenshire, Wales, on the 24th
ST JOHN, O. ST JOHN
1 1
of September 1801. He received private instruction in the
classics, and also acquired proficiency in French, Italian, Spanish,
Arabic and Persian. He obtained a connexion with a Plymouth
newspaper, and when, in 1824, James Silk Buckingham started
the Oriental Herald, St John became assistant editor. In 1827,
together with D. L. Richardson, he founded the London Weekly
Review, subsequently purchased by Colburn and transformed
into the Court Journal. He lived for some years on the Continent
and went in 1832 to Egypt and Nubia, travelling mostly on
foot. The results of his journey were published under the titles
Egypt and Mohammed Ali, or Travels in the Valley of the Nile
(2 vols., 1834), Egypt and Nubia (1844), and I sis, an Egyptian
Pilgrimage (2 vols., 1853). On his return he settled in London,
and for many years wrote political " leaders " for the Daily
Telegraph. In 1868 he published a Life of Sir Walter Raleigh,
based on researches in the archives at Madrid and elsewhere.
He died in London on the 22nd of September 1875.
Besides the works mentioned St John was also the author of
Journal of a Residence in Normandy (1830); Lives of Celebrated
Travellers (1830); Anatomy of Society (1831); History, Manners and
Customs of the Hindus (1831); Margaret Ravenscroft, or Second Love
(3 vols., 1835); The Hellenes, or Manners and Customs of Ancient
Greece (1842); Sir Cosmo Digby, a novel (1844); There and Back
Again in Search of Beauty (1853); The Nemesis of Power (1854);
Philosophy at the Foot of the Cross (1854); The Preaching of Christ
(1855) ; The Ring and the Veil, a novel (1856) ; Life of Louis Napoleon
(1857); History of the Four Conquests of England (1862); and
Weighed in the Balance, a novel (1864). He also edited, with notes,
various English classics.
Of his four sons, all journalists and authors of some literary dis-
tinction Percy Bolingbroke (1821-1889), Bayle, Spenser and
Horace Roscoe (1832-1888) the second, BAYLE ST JOHN (1822-
1869), began contributing to the periodicals when only thirteen.
When twenty he wrote a series of papers for Fraser under the title
" De re vehicular!, or a Comic History of Chariots." To the same
magazine he contributed a series of essays on Montaigne, and
published in 1857 Montaigne the Essayist, a Biography, in 4 volumes.
During a residence of two years in Egypt he wrote The Libyan Desert
(1849). While in Egypt he learnt Arabic and visited the oasis of
Siwa. On his return he settled for some time in Paris and published
Two Years in a Levantine Family (1850) and Views in the Oasis of
Siwah (1850). After a second visit to the East he published Village
Life in Egypt (1852) ; Purple Tints of Paris; Characters and Manners
in the New Empire (1854); The Louvre, or Biography of a Museum
(1855); the Subalpine Kingdom, or Experiences and Studies in
Savoy (1856); Travels of an Arab Merchant in the Soudan (1854);
Maretimo, a Story of Adventure (1856) ; and Memoirs of the Duke of
Saint-Simon in the Reign of Louis XIV. (4 vols., 1857).
ST JOHN, OLIVER (c. 1398-1673), English statesman and
judge, was the son of Oliver St John. There were two branches
of the ancient family to which he belonged, namely, the St Johns
of Bletso in Bedfordshire, and the St Johns of Lydiard Tregoze
in Wiltshire, both descendants of the St Johns of Staunton St
John in Oxfordshire. Oliver St John was a member of the
senior branch, being great-grandson of Oliver St John, who was
created Baron St John of Bletso 1 in 1559, and a distant cousin
of the 4th baron who was created earl of Bolingbroke in 1624, and
who took an active part on the parliamentary side of the Civil
War, being killed at the battle of Edgehill. Oliver was educated
at Queens' College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1626.
He appears to have got into trouble with the court in connexion
with a seditious publication, and to have associated himself with
the future popular leaders John Pym and Lord Saye. In 1638
he defended Hampden on his refusal to pay Ship Money, on
which occasion he made a notable speech. In the same year he
married, as his second wife, Elizabeth Cromwell, a cousin of
Oliver Cromwell, to whom his first wife also had been distantly
related. The marriage led to an intimate friendship with
Cromwell. St John was member for Totnes in both the Short
and the Long Parliament, where he acted in close alliance with
Hampden and Pym, especially in opposition to the impost of Ship
Money (q.v.). In 1641, with a view of securing his support, the
king appointed St John solicitor-general. None the less he
1 This title is still held by the family lineally descended from the
1st baron, said by J. H. Round to be the only peerage family
descended in the male line from an ancestor living in the time of
Domesday Book.
took an active part in promoting the impeachment of Strafford
and in preparing the bills brought forward by the popular party
in the Commons, and was dismissed from office in 1643. On the
outbreak of the Civil War, he became recognized as one of the
parliamentary leaders. In the quarrel between the parliament
and the army in 1647 he sided with the latter, and throughout
this period he enjoyed Cromwell's entire confidence.
In 1648 St John was appointed chief'justice of the common
pleas; and from this time he devoted himself mainly to his
judicial duties. He refused to act as one of the commissioners
for the trial of Charles. He had no hand in Pride's Purge, nor
in the constitution of the Commonwealth. In 1651 he went to
the Hague as one of the envoys to negotiate a union between
England and Holland, a mission in which he entirely failed;
but in the same year he successfully conducted a similar negotia-
tion with Scotland. After the Restoration he published an
account of his past conduct (The Case of Oliver St John, 1660),
and this apologia enabled him to escape any more severe
vengeance than exclusion from public office. He retired to
his country house in Northamptonshire till 1662, when he
went to live abroad. He died on the 3ist of December 1673.
By his first wife St John had two sons and two daughters.
His daughter Johanna married Sir Walter St John of Lydiard
Tregoze and was the grandmother of Viscount Bolingbroke.
By his second wife he had two children, and after her death he
married, in 1645, Elizabeth, daughter of Daniel Oxenbridge.
See the above-mentioned Case of Oliver St John (London, 1660),
and St John's Speech to the Lords, Jan. Jth, 1640, concerning Ship-
money (London, 1640). See also Mark Noble, Memoirs of the Pro-
tectoral House of Cromwell, vol. ii. (2 vols., London, 1787) ; Anthony a
Wood, Fasti Oxoniensis, edited by P. Bliss (A vols., London, 1813);
Edward Foss, The Judges of England, vol. vi. (9 vols., London, 1848) ;
S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War (3 vols., London, 1886-
1891), and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (3 vols.,
London, 1894-1901); Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and
Civil Wars in England (7 vols., Oxford, 1839) ; Thurloe State Papers
(7 vols., London, 1742); Edmund Ludlow, Memoirs, edited by C. H.
Firth (2 vols., Oxford, 1894); Thomas Carlyle, Oliver Cromwell's
Letters and Speeches; C. H. Firth's art. in Diet, of Nat. Biog., vol. 1.
(London, 1897). (R. J. M.)
ST JOHN, the capital of St John county, New Brunswick,
Canada, in 45 14' N., and 66 3' W., 481 m. from Montreal by
the Canadian Pacific railway. Pop. (1901) 40,711. It is situated
at the mouth of the St John river on a rocky peninsula. With it
are incorporated the neighbouring towns of Carleton and (since
1889) Portland. The river, which is spanned by two bridges,
enters the harbour through a rocky gorge, which is passable
by ships for forty-five minutes during each ebb and flow of the
tide. The harbour level at high tide (see FUNDY, BAY or) is
6 to 12 ft. higher than that of the river, but at low tide about as
much below it, hence the phenomenon of a fall outwards and
inwards at every tide. St John is an important station of the
Intercolonial, Canadian Pacific, and New Brunswick Southern
railways, and shares with Halifax the honour of being the chief
winter port of the Dominion, the harbour being deep, sheltered
and free from ice. It is the distributing centre for a large
district, rich in agricultural produce and lumber, and has larger
exports than Halifax, though less imports. It is also the centre
of fisheries which employ nearly 1000 men, and has important
industries, such as saw, grist, cotton and woollen mills, carriage,
box and furniture factories, boiler and engine shops. The beauty
of the scenery makes it a pleasant residential city.
St John was visited in 1604 by the Sieur de Mpnts (i56o-c. 1630)
and his lieutenant Champlain, but it was not until 1635 that Charles
de la Tour (d. 1666) established a trading post, called Fort St Jean
(see Parkman, The Old Regime in Canada), which existed under
French rule until 1758, when it passed into the hands of Britain.
In 1783 a body of United Empire Loyalists landed at St John and
established a city, called Parr Town until 1785, when it was in-
corporated with Conway (Carleton), under royal charter, as the
city of St John. It soon became and has remained the largest town
in the province, but for military reasons was not chosen as the
capital (see FREDERICTON). Its growth has been checked by several
destructive fires, especially that of Tune 1877, when half of it was
swept away, but it has since been rebuilt in great part of more solid
materials. (W. L. G.)
12
ST JOHN ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
ST JOHN, an island in the Danish West Indies. It lies 4 m. E.
of St Thomas, is 10 m. long and 2| m. wide; area 21 sq. m.
It is a mass of rugged mountains, the highest of which is Camel
Mountain (1270 ft.)- Although one of the best watered and most
fertile of the Virgin Group, it has little commerce. It is a free
port, and possesses in Coral Bay the best harbour of refuge in
the Antilles. The village of Cruxbay lies on the northern coast.
Pop. (1901) 925.
ST JOHN, a river of New Brunswick, Canada, rising in two
branches, in the state of Maine, U.S.A., and in the province
of Quebec. The American branch, known as the Walloostook,
flows N.E. to the New Brunswick frontier, where it turns S.E.
and for 80 m. forms the international boundary. A little above
Grand Falls the St John enters Canada and flows through New
Brunswick into the Bay of Fundy at St John. Its total length
is about 450 m. It is navigable for large steamers as far as
Fredericton (86 m.), and in spring and early summer for
smaller vessels to Grand Falls (220 m.), where a series of
falls and rapids form a descent of 70 or 80 ft. Above the falls
it is navigable for 65 m. It drains an area of 26,003 sq. m.,
of which half is in New Brunswick, and receives numerous
tributaries, of which the chief are the Aroostook, Allagash,
Madawaska (draining Lake Temiscouata in Quebec), Tobique
and Nashwaak.
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER OF
THE HOSPITAL OF (Ordo fralrum fiospitalariorum Hierosoly-
mitanorum, Ordo miliiiae Sancti Johannis Baptislae hospitalis
Hierosolymitanf), known also later as the KNIGHTS OF RHODES
and the SOVEREIGN ORDER OF THE KNIGHTS OF MALTA. The
history of this order divides itself naturally into four periods:
(i) From its foundation in Jerusalem during the First Crusade
to its expulsion from the Holy Land after the fall of the Latin
kingdom in 1291; (2) from 1309-1310, when the order was
established in Rhodes, to its expulsion from the island in 1522;
(3) from 1529 to 1798, during which its headquarters were in
Malta; (4) its development, as reconstituted after its virtual
destruction in 1798, to the present day.
Early Developments. Medieval legend set back the beginnings
to the days of the Maccabees, with King Antiochus as the
founder and Zacharias, father of the Baptist, as one of the first
masters; later historians of the order maintained that it was
established as a military order contemporaneously with the
Latin conquest of Jerusalem, and that it had no connexion with
any earlier foundation (so P. A. Paoli, De origine). This view
would now seem to be disproved, and it is clear that the order
was connected with an earlier Hospitale Hierosolymitanum. 1
Such a hospital had existed in the Holy City, with rare interrup-
tions, ever since it had become a centre of Christian pilgrimage.
About 1023 certain merchants of Amalfi had purchased the site
of the Latin hospice established by Charlemagne, destroyed in
1010 with the other Christian establishments by order of the
fanatical caliph Hakim Biamrillah, 2 and had there founded a
hospital for pilgrims, served by Benedictines and later dedicated
to St John the Baptist.' When, in 1087, the crusaders surrounded
the Holy City, the head of this hospital was a certain Gerard or
'Cf. the bull of Pope Celestine II. to Raymond du Puy, in the
matter of the Teutonic order, which describes the Hospital as
" Hospitalem rlomum sancte civitatis Jerusalem, que a longis retro
temporibus Christ! pauperum usibus dedicata, tarn christianorum
quam etiam Sarracenorum tempore . . . . " (Le Roulx, Cartulaire,
i. No. 154).
* This solution of the much debated question of the connexion of
the Hospital with the Benedictine foundation of Sancta Maria
Latina is worked out in much detail by M. Delaville Le Roulx in his
Les Hospitaliers en Terre Sainte, chap. i.
* William of Tyre says that they erected in that place an altar
to St John Eleemon, patriarch of Alexandria, renowned for his
charities. This mistake led to the widespread belief that this
saint, and not St John the Baptist, was the original patron of the
order. A passage in the bull addressed by Pope Paschal to Gerard
(Cartulaire, No. 30) would seem to leave the dedication in doubt:
" Xenodochium, quod . . . juxta beat! Johannis Baptistae ecclesiam
instituisti." The patronage of St John may thus have merely been
the result of this juxtaposition, as the Templars took their name
from the site of the mother-house.
Gerald, 4 who earned their gratitude by assisting them in some
way during the siege. 6 After the capture of the city he used his
popularity to enlarge and reconstitute the hospital. If, as M.
Le Roulx surmises, he had previously been affiliated to the
Benedictines, he now left them and adopted for his order the
Augustinian rule. Donations and privileges were showered upon
the new establishment. Godfrey de Bouillon led the way by
granting to it in Jerusalem itself the casal Hessilia (Es Silsileh)
and two bakehouses. 6 Kings, nobles and prelates followed suit,
not in the Holy Land only, but in Provence, France, Spain,
Portugal, England and Italy: in Portugal a whole province was
in 1114 made over to Gerard and his brethren (Cartid. i. No. 34).
In 1113 Pope Paschal II. took the order and its possessions under
his immediate protection (bull of Feb. isth to Gerard, Carlul. i.
No. 30), his act being confirmed in 1119 by Calixtus II. and
subsequently by other popes. Gerard was indeed, as Pope
Paschal called .him, the "institutor" of the order, if not its
founder. 'It retained, however, during his lifetime its purely
eleemosynary character. The armed defence of pilgrims may
have been part of its functions, but its organization as an aggres-
sive military force was the outcome of special circumstances
the renewed activity of the Saracens and was the work of
Raymond du Puy, who succeeded as grand master on the death
of Gerard (3rd of September 1120).'
Not that Raymond can be proved to have given to his order
anything of its later aristocratic constitution. There is no mention
in his Rule 8 of the division into knights, chaplains and sergeants;
indeed, there is no mention of any military duties whatever. It
merely lays down certain rules of conduct and discipline for the
brethren. They are to be bound by the threefold vow of chastity,
poverty and obedience. They are to claim nothing for themselves
save bread, water and raiment; and this latter is to be of poor
quality, " since our Lord's poor, whose servants we say we are, go
naked and sordid, and it is a disgrace for the servant to be proud
when his master is humble." Finally, the brethren are to wear
crosses on the breast of their capes and mantles, " ut Deusperipsum
vexillum et fidem et pperationem et obedientiam nos custodial." '
Yet that Raymond laid down military regulations for the brethren
is certain. Their underlying principle is revealed by a bull of Pope
Alexander III. addressed (1178-1180) to the grand master Roger des
Moulins, in which he bids him, " according to the custom of Ray-
mond," abstain from bearing arms save when the standard of the
Cross is displayed either for the defence of the kingdom or in an
attack on a " pagan " city. 10
The statesmanlike qualities of Raymond du Puy rendered
his long mastership epoch-making for the order. When it was
decided to fortify Ibelin (Beit-Jibrin) as an outpost against
attacks from the side of Ascalon, it was to the Hospitallers that
the building and defence of the new castle were assigned; and
from 1137 onwards they took a regular part in the wars of the
Cross. It was owing to Raymond's diplomatic skill, too, that
the order was enabled to profit by the bequest made to it by
Alphonso I. of Aragon, who had died childless, of a third of his
kingdom. To have claimed the literal fulfilment of this bequest
would have been to risk losing it all, and Raymond acted wisely
in transferring the bequest, with certain important reservations,
to Raymond Berenger IV., count of Barcelona and regent of
4 In spite of his fame, nothing is known of his origin. The sur-
name " Tune " or " Tonque " often given to him is, as Le Roulx
points out, merely the result of a copyist's error for " Gerardus
tune . . ."
According to the legend, he joined the defenders on _the walls
and, instead of hurling stones, hurled bread at the Christians, who
were short of supplies. Haled before the Mussulman governor, his
accusers were confounded when the incriminating loaves they
produced were discovered to be turned into stones.
" Fours." So the charter of Baldwin I. (Carlul. No. 20; cf.
No. 225). In his Hospitaliers Le Roulx has "tours," '.. two
towers, probably a misprint.
7 The existence of a certain Roger as grand master between
Gerard and Raymond, maintained by some historians, is finally
disproved by Raymond's own testimony: " Rcginmundus, per
gratiam Dei post obitum domini Giraldi factus servus pauperum
Christ! " (Cariul. i. No. 46).
8 The date of this can only be approximately assigned, in so
far as it was confirmed by Pope Eugenius III., who died in 1 153.
* For text see Cartulaire, i. No. 70.
10 Cartul. i. No. 527.
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
Aragon (i6th of September luo). 1 It was probably also during
his sojourn in the West for the above purpose that Raymond
secured from Pope Celestine II. the bull dated December 7th,
1143, subordinating to his jurisdiction the Teutonic hospice,
founded in 1128 by a German pilgrim and his wife in honour of
the Blessed Virgin, which was the nucleus of the Teutonic Order
(q.v.). This order was to remain subordinate to the Hospitallers
actually for some fifty years, and nominally for some thirty
years longer. 2 Raymond took part in the Second Crusade and
was present at the council of the leaders held at Acre, in 1148,
which resulted in the ill-fated expedition against Damascus.
The failure before Damascus was repaired five years later by the
capture of Ascalon (ipth of August 1153), in which Raymond
du Puy and his knights had a conspicuous share.
Meanwhile, in addition to its ever-growing wealth, the order
had received from successive popes privileges which rendered it,
like the companion order of the Temple, increasingly independent
of and obnoxious to the secular clergy. In 1135 Innocent II.
had confirmed to Raymond the privileges accorded by Paschal II.,
Calixtus II. and Honorious II., and in addition forbade the
diocesan bishops to interdict the churches of the Hospitallers,
whom he also authorized, in case of a general interdict, to cele-
brate mass for themselves alone. 3 In 1137 he gave them the
privilege of Christian burial during such interdicts and the right to
open interdicted churches once a year in order to say mass and
collect money. 4 These bulls were confirmed by Eugenius III.
in 1 1 S3 5 and Anastasius IV. in 1154, the latter adding the per-
mission for the order to have its own priest, independent of the
diocesan bishops. 6 In vain the patriarch of Jerusalem, attended
by other bishops, journeyed to Rome in 1155 to complain to
Adrian IV. of the Hospitallers' abuse of their privileges and to
beg him to withdraw his renewal of his predecessor's bull. 7
Far different was the effect produced by Raymond du Puy's
triumphant progress through southern Europe from the spring
of 1157 onward. From the popes, the emperor Frederick I.,
kings and nobles, he received fresh gifts, or the confirmation of
old ones. After the 25th of October 1158, when his presence is
attested at Verona, this master builder of the order disappears
from history; he died some time between this date and 1160,
when the name of another grand master appears.
During the thirty years of his rule the Hospital, which Gerard
had instituted to meet a local need, had become universal. In
the East its growth was beyond calculation: kings, prelates and
laity had overwhelmed it with wealth. In the West, all Europe
combined to enrich it; from Ireland to Bohemia and Hungary,
from Italy and Provence to Scandinavia, men vied with each
other to attract it and establish it in their midst. It was clear
that for this vast institution an elaborate organization was
needed, and this need was probably the occasion of Raymond's
presence in Europe. The priory of St Gilles already existed as the
nucleus of the later system; the development of this system took
place after Raymond's death.
Constitution and Organization. The rule of the Hospital, as
formulated by Raymond du Puy, was based on that of the Augus-
tinian Canons (q.v.). Its further developments, of which only the
salient characteristics can be. mentioned here, were closely analogous
to those of the Templars (q.v.), whose statutes regulating the life
of the brethren, the terms of admission to the order, the maintenance
of discipline, and the scale of punishments, culminating in ex-
pulsion (pert de la maison), nre,mutatis mutandis, closely paralleled
by those of the Hospitallers. These, too, were early (probably in
Raymond's time) divided into three classes: knights (fratres milites),
chaplains (fralres capellani), and Serjeants (fratres servientes armigeri),
with affiliated brethren (confratres) and " donats " (donali, i.e.
regular subscribers, as it were, to the order in return for its privileges
and the ultimate right to enter the ranks of its knights). Similar,
too, was the aristocratic rule which confined admission to the first
1 Cartul. i. No. 136. The arrangement was confirmed by the
pope in 1158 (Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 59).
1 The foundation of the Teutonic Order as a separate organization
was solemnly proclaimed in the palace of the Templars at Tyre
on the 5th of March 1198. Its rule was confirmed by Pope Innocent
III. on Feb. I5th, 1198 (Cartul. i. No. 1072).
Cartul. i. No. 113. 4 Ib. i. No. 122.
6 Ib. i. No. 217. Ib. i. No. 226.
7 This renewal was dated igth of December 1154 (Ib. i. No. 229).
13
class to sons born in lawful wedlock of knights* or members of
knightly families, a rule which applied also to the donats. 9 For the
serieant men-at-arms it sufficed that they should not be serfs.
Below these a host of servientes did the menial work of the houses
of the order, or worked as artisans or as labourers on the farms.
All the higher offices in the order were filled by the knights, except
the ecclesiastical which fell to the chaplains and those of master
of the squires and lurcopolier (commander of the auxiliary light
cavalry), which were reserved for the serjeants-at-arms. Each
knight was allowed three horses, each serjeant two. The fratres
capellani ranked with the knights as eligible for certain temporal
posts; at their head was the "conventual prior" (clericorum
magister et ecclesie custos, prior clericorum Hospitalis).
In two important respects the Knights of St John differed from
the Templars. The latter were a purely military organization ; the
Hospitallers, on the other hand, were at the outset preponderatingly
a nursing brotherhood, and, though this character was subordinated
during their later period of military importance, it never disappeared.
It continued to be a rule of the order that in its establishments it
was for the sick to give orders, for the brethren to obey. The
chapters were largely occupied with the building, furnishing, and
improvement of hospitals, to which were attached learned physicians
and surgeons, who had the privilege of messing with the knights.
The revenues of particular properties were charged with providing
luxuries (e.g. white bread) for the patients, and the various provinces
of the order with the duty of forwarding blankets, clothes, wine and
food for their use. The Hospitallers, moreover, encouraged the
affiliation of women to their order, which the monastic and purely
military rule of the Templars sternly forbade. So early as the First
Crusade a Roman lady named Alix or Agnes had founded at Jerusalem
a hospice for women in connexion with the order of St John. Until
1187, when they fled to Europe, the sisters had devoted themselves
to prayer and sick-nursing. In Europe, however, they developed
into a purely contemplative order. 10
The habit of the order, both in peace and war, was originally a
black cappa clausa (i.e. the long monastic bell-like cloak with a slit
on each side for the arms) with a white, eight-pointed " Maltese "
cross on the breast. As this was highly inconvenient for fighting,
Innocent IV. in 1248 authorized the brethren to wear in locis sus-
pectis a large super-tunic with a cross on the breast (Cartul. ii.
No. 2479), and in 1259 Alexander IV. fixed the habit as, in peace
time, a black mantle, and in war a red surcoat with a white cross
(Cartul. ii. No. 2928).
The unit of the organization of the order was the commandery
(preceptory), a small group of knights and Serjeants living in com-
munity under the rule of a commander, or preceptor," charged with
the supervision of several contiguous properties. The commanderies
were grouped into priories, each under the rule of a prior (styled
unofficially " grand prior," magnus prior), and these again into
provinces corresponding to certain countries, under the authority
of grand commanders. These largest groups crystallized in the
I4th century as national divisions under the name of " langues "
(languages)." At the head of the whole organization was the grand
master. The grand master was elected, from the ranks of the
knights of justice, by the same process as the grand master of the
Templars (q.v.). Alone of the bailifts (bailivi), as the officials of the
order were generically termed, he held office for life. His authority
8 The knights were ultimately distinguished as " Knights of
Justice " (chevaliers de justice) and " Knights of Grace " (chevaliers
de grdce). The former were those who satisfied the conditions as to
birth, and were therefore knights " justly "; the latter were those
who were admitted " of grace " for superlative merits.
An exception was made in favour of the natural sons of counts
and greater personages (Statute 7 of 1270; Cartul. ii. 3396).
10 Their premier house in Europe was at Sigena in Aragon, which
they still occupy. It was granted to them by Sancia of Navarre,
queen of Aragon, in 1184, the order being definitively established
there in 1188. Their rule, which is that of Augustinian Canonesses,
and dates from October 1188, is printed by Le Roulx, Cartulaire, i.
No. 859. There is no word about nursing in it. In England the
most important house was Buckland. The chief Danish house
survives in the Lutheran convent of St John the Baptist at Schleswig,
a Stift for noble ladies, whose superior has the title of prioress. On
solemn occasions a realistic wax head of St John the Baptist on a
charger is still produced.
11 Commander (comandeor, commandeur), with its Latin translation
preceptor, came into use as the title of these officials somewhat late.
In earlier documents they are styled ospitalarius, bajulus (bailiff),
magister (master).
12 Omitting the Anglo-Bavarian langue, created in 1782, the
langues (in the 15th century) were eight in number. They were
(i) Provence (grand priories of St Gilles and Toulouse), (2) Auvergne
(grand priory of Auvergne), (3) France (grand priories of France,
Aquitaine, Champagne), (4) Italy (grand priories of Lombardy,
Rome, Venice, Pisa, Capua, Barletta, Messina), (5) Aragon (castellany
of Amposta, grand priories of Catalonia and Navarre), (6) England
(grand priories of England including Scotland and Ireland),
(7) Germany (grand priories of Germany or Heitersheim, Bohemia,
Hungary, Dacia i.e. Scandinavia and the Bailiwick (Ballei) ol
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
was very great, but not absolute. The supreme legislative and
controlling power was vested in the general chapter of the knights,
at the periodical meetings of which the great officers of the order
had to give an account of their stewardship, and which alone had
the right to pass statutes binding on the order. The executive
power of the grand master, like that of the great dignitaries immedi-
ately subordinate to him, was in the nature of a delegation from the
chapter. He was assisted in its exercise by four councils: (l) the
" convent " or ordinary chapter, a committee of the general chapter, 1
for administrative business; (2) a secret council, for criminal cases
and affairs of state; (3) a full council, to hear appeals from the two
former; 2 and (4) the " venerable chamber of the treasury " for
financial matters. To the' general chapter at headquarters corre-
sponded the chapters of the priories and the commanderies, which
controlled the action of the priors and commanders.
Immediately subordinate to the grand master were the seven
great dignitaries of the order, known as the conventual bailiffs:
the grand preceptor, 3 marshal, draper (Fr. drapier) or grand con-
servator, hospitaller, treasurer, admiral, turcopolier. 4 The grand
preceptor, elected by the chapter at the same time as the grand
master and subject to his approval, was the lieutenant of the Tatter
in his absence, empowered to seal for him and, in the event of his
capture by the enemy, to act as vice-master. The functions of the
marshal, draper, treasurer and turcopolier were practically identical
with those of the officials of the same titles in the order of Knights
Templars. That of hospitaller, on the other hand, was naturally
a charge of exceptional importance in the order of St John ; he had
a seal of his own, and was responsible for everything concerning the
hospitals of the order, the dispensing of hospitality, and of alms.
The admiral, as the name implies, was at sea what the marshal was
on land. The office first appears in 1299 when the knights, after
their expulsion from the Holy Land, had begun to organize their
new sea-power in Cyprus. As to the equipage and suites of the grand
master and the great dignitaries, these were practically on the same
scale and of the same nature as those described in the article TEM-
PLARS for the sister order. The grand master had the right himself
to nominate his companions and the members of his household
(seneschal, squires, secretaries, chaplains, &c.), which, as Le Roulx
points out, was such as to enable him to figure as the equal of the
Icings and princes with whom he consorted.
The grand-mastership of Gilbert d'Assailly was signalized by
the participation of the Hospitallers in the abortive expeditions
of Amalric of Jerusalem into Egypt in 1162, 1168 and 1169.
On the loth of August 1164 also they shared in the disastrous
defeat inflicted by Nur-ed-din at Harran on the count of Tripoli.
The important position occupied by them in the councils of the
kingdom is shown by the fact that the grand preceptor Guy de
Mauny was one of the ambassadors sent in 1 169 to ask aid of the
princes of the West. Another important development was the
bestowal on the order by Bohemund III., prince of Antioch, in
1168, and King Amalric, as regent of Tripoli, in 1170, of con-
siderable territories on the north-eastern frontier, to be held with
almost sovereign power as a march against the Saracens (Cartu-
lairc, i. Nos. 391, 411). The failure of the expedition to Egypt,
however, brought considerable odium on Gilbert d'Assailly, who
Brandenburg), (8) Castile (grand priories of Castile and Leon, and
Portugal). Of the grand priories the most ancient and by far the
most important was that of St Gilles, founded early in the I2th
century, the authority of which extended originally over the whole
of what is now France and a great part of Spain. In the i6th
century its seat was transferred to Aries. Out of this developed the
tongues of Auvergne, France, Aragon and Castile, with their sub-
sidiary priories. The date of the creation of the various grand
commanderies differs greatly: that of Italy was established in the
I3th century, the langue of Germany in 1422, that of Castile was
split off from Aragon in 1462. The castellany of Amposta (founded
1 157) ranked as a priory. The bailiwick of Brandenburg, which had
long been practically independent of the grand prior of Germany,
obtained the right to elect its own bailiff (Herrenmeister) in 1382,
subject to the approval of the grand prior. In the Holy Land there
were no priors; the commanderies were directly under the grand
master, and the commanders (who retained the style of bailli,
bailivus) ranked with the grand priors elsewhere.
1 This seems to have consisted in practice of the great dignitaries
of the order. See Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 314.
1 A peculiarity of the order of St John was the esgart des freres
(esgart, Lat. sguardium court) which could be demanded by any
knight who thought himself wronged by a decision of his superiors,
even of the grand master.
a To be carefully distinguished from the regional grand preceptors
or grand commanders, and also from the grand commander
d'outremer, who represented the grand master in the West generally.
4 To these the grand bailiff (German, langue) and grand chancellor
(Castile) were added later.
resigned the grand-mastership, probably in the autumn of ii7o. 6
Under the short rule of the grand master Jobert (d. 1177) the
question of a renewed attack on Egypt was mooted; but the
confusion reigning in the Latin kingdom and, not least, the
scandalous quarrels between the Templars and Hospitallers,
rendered all aggressive action impossible. In 1179 the growing
power of the two military orders received its first set back when,
at the instance of the bishops, the Lateran Council forbade them
to receive gifts of churches and tithes at the hands of laymen
without the consent of the bishops, ordered them to restore all
" recent" 6 gifts of this nature, and passed a number of decrees
in restraint of the abuse of their privileges.
A more potent discipline was to befall them, however, at the
hands of Saladin, sultan of Egypt, who in 1186 began his sys-
tematic conquest of the kingdom. It was the Hospitallers who,
with the other religious orders, alone offered an organized
resistance to his victorious advance. On the ist of May 1187
occurred the defeat of Tiberias, in which the grand master
Gilbert des Moulins fell riddled with arrows, and this was followed
on the 4th of July by the still more disastrous battle of Hittin.
The flower of the Christian chivalry was slain or captured;
the Hospitallers and Templars who fell into his hands Saladin
massacred in cold blood. On the 2nd of October Jerusalem fell.
Ten brethren of the Hospital were allowed to remain for a year
to look after the sick; the rest took refuge at Tyre. In these
straits Armengaud d'Asp was elected grand master (1188)
and the headquarters of the order were established at Margat
(Markab), near the coast some distance northwards of Tripoli.
In the interior the knights still held some scattered fortresses;
but their great stronghold of Krak 7 was reduced by famine in
September 1188 and Beauvoir in the following January.
The news of these disasters once more roused the crusading
spirit in Europe; the offensive against Saladin was resumed,
the Christians concentrating their forces against Acre in the
autumn of 1189. In the campaigns that followed, of which
Richard I. of England was the most conspicuous hero, and
which ended in the recovery of Acre and the sea-coast generally
for the Latin kingdom, the Hospitallers, under their grand
master Gamier de Naplouse 8 (Neapoli), played a prominent
part. The grand-mastership of Geoffroy de Donjon, who suc-
ceeded Gamier in 1192 and ruled the order till 1202,' was
signalized, not by feats of arms, since the Holy Land enjoyed a
precarious peace, but by a steady restoration and development
of the property and privileges of the order, by renewed quarrels
with the Templars, and in 1198 by the establishment in face
of the protests of the Hospitallers of the Teutonic knights as
a separate order. Under the grand-mastership of the pious
Alphonso of Portugal, and of Geoffrey le Rat, who was elected
on Alphonso's resignation in 1206, the knights took a vigorous
part in the quarrel as to the succession in Antioch; under that
of Garin de Montaigu (elected 1 207) they shared in the expedition
to Egypt (1218-1221), of which he had been a vigorous advocate
(see CRUSADES: The Fifth Crusade). In 1222, at the instance
of the emperor Frederick II., the grand master accompanied
the king of Jerusalem and others to Europe to discuss the
preparation of a new crusade, visiting Rome, proceeding thence
to Paris and London, and returning to the Holy Land in 1225.
The expedition failed of its object so far as the organization of
* See Le Roulx, Hospitallers, p. 76 sqq. The resignation led to
bitter divisions in the order. It was urged that the resignation was
invalid without the consent of the general chapter and the pope;
and a temporary schism was the result. Gilbert was drowned in
1183 crossing from Dieppe to England, whither he had gone at the
invitation of Henry II.
* The words " tempore moderno " were interpreted by Pope
Alexander III. in a bull of the ist of June 1179 as within ten years
of the opening of the council (Cartul. i. No. 566).
7 The stupendous ruins of Krak-des-Chevaliers (at Kerak, S.E. of
the Dead Sea) attest the wealth and power of the knights (for a
restoration see CASTLE, fig. 5). The castle had been given to the
Hospitallers by Guillanme du Crac in 1142. In 1193 it was again in
their hands, and was subsequently greatly enlarged and strengthened.
It was finally captured by the Egyptians under Hibars in 1271.
8 Garnicr had been prior of England and later of France.
So Le Roulx. p. 119.
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
a general crusade was concerned; but the Hospital received
everywhere enormous accessions of property. 1 Garin de
Montaigu died in 1228, after consolidating by his statesmanlike
attitude the position and power of his order, on the eve of
Frederick II. 's crusade. In this crusade, conducted in spite
of a papal excommunication, the Hospitallers took no part,
being rewarded with the approval of Pope Gregory IX., who,
in August 1229, issued a bull to the patriarch of Jerusalem
ordering him to maintain the jurisdiction of the Hospital over
the Teutonic knights, who had dared to assist the German
emperor. 2 In 1233, under the grand master Guerin, the
Hospitallers took a leading part in the successful attack on the
principality of Hamah. The motive of this, however which
was no more than the refusal of the emir to pay them the tribute
due seems to point to an increasing secularization of their
spirit. In 1236 Pope Gregory IX. thought it necessary to
threaten both them and the Templars with excommunication,
to prevent their forming an alliance with the Assassins, 3 and
in 1238 issued a bull in which he inveighed against the
scandalous lives and relaxed discipline of the Hospitallers. 4
Events were soon to expose the order to fresh tests. Under
the grand-mastership of Pierre de Vieille Bride 6 occurred the
brief " crusade " of Richard of Cornwall (nth of October 1240
to 3rd of May 1241). The truce concluded by Richard with the
sultan of Egypt was accepted by the Hospitallers, rejected by
the Templars, and after his departure something like a war
broke out between the two bodies. In the midst of the strife
of parties, in which Richard of Cornwall had recognized the
fatal weakness of the Christian cause to lie, came the news of
the invasion of the Chorasmians. On the 23rd of August the
Tatar horde took and sacked Jerusalem. On the 1 7th of October,
in alliance with the Egyptians under Bibars, it overwhelmed
the Christian host at Gaza. Of the Hospitallers only sixteen
escaped; 325 of the knights were slain; and among the prisoners
was the grand master, Guillaume de Chateauneuf. 6 Amid
the general ruin that followed this defeat, the Hospitallers held
out in the fortress of Ascalon, until forced to capitulate on the
15th of October 1247. Under the vice-master, the grand pre-
ceptor Jean de Ronay, they took part in 1249 in the Egyptian
expedition of St Louis of France, only to share in the crushing
defeat of Mansurah (nth of February 1250). Of the knights
present all were slain, except five who were taken prisoners,
the vice-master and one other. 7 At the instance of St
Louis, after the conclusion of peace, 25 Hospitallers, together
with the grand master Guillaume de Chateauneuf, were
released. 8
On the withdrawal of St Louis from the Holy Land (April
1254), a war of aggression and reprisals broke out between
Christians and Mussulmans; and no sooner was this ended by a
precarious truce than the Christians fell to quarrelling among
themselves. In the war between the Genoese and Venetians
and their respective partisans, the Hospitallers and Templars
fought on opposite sides. In spite of so great a scandal
and of the hopeless case of the Christian cause, the posses-
sions of the order were largely increased during Guillaume de
Chateauneuf's mastership, both in the Holy Land and in
Europe.
Under the grand-mastership of Hugues de Revel, elected
probably in 1255, the menace of a new Tatar invasion led to
serious efforts to secure harmony in the kingdom. In 1258
the Templars, Hospitallers, and Teutonic knights decided to
1 Detailed by Le Roulx, Hospitallers, pp. 149-156.
1 Cartul. ii. No. 1944. The Teutonic knights refused to obey.
In January 1240 Gregory called on them to explain their insub-
ordination (No. 2247) and in March 1241 again ordered them to
submit (No. 2270).
3 Cartul. ii. No. 2149. < Cartul. ii. No. 2186.
6 Not Villebride. The name is a corruption of Vieille Brioude
(Le Roulx, Hasp. p. 183).
6 It has been generally supposed, on the authority of the chronica
majora of Matthew of Paris (iv. 307-31 1), that the grand-master was
killed at Gaza.
7 See the contemporary letter, Cartulaire, ii. No. 2521.
8 Cartul. ii. Nos. 2540-2541.
15
submit their disputes in Syria, Cyprus and Armenia to arbitration,
a decision which bore fruit in 1260 in the settlement of their
differences in Tripoli and Margat. The satisfactory arrangement
was possibly affected by the result of a combined attack made
in 1259 on the Hospitallers by the Templars and the brethren
of St Lazarus and St Thomas, which had resulted in the practical
extermination of the aggressors, possibly also by the crushing
defeat of the Templars and the Syrian barons by the Turcomans
at Tiberias in 1260. However achieved, the concord was badly
needed; for Bibars, having in 1260 driven back the Tatars and
established himself in the sultanate of Egypt, began the series
of campaigns which ended in the destruction of the Latin
kingdom. In 1268 Bibars conquered Antioch, and the Christian
power was confined to Acre, Chateau Pelerin, Tyre, Sidon, and
the castles of Margat, Krak and Belda (Baldeh), in which the
Hospitallers still held out. The respite afforded by the second
crusade of St Louis was ended by his death at Tunis in 1270.
On the 3Oth of March 1271 the great fortress of Krak, the key
to the county of Tripoli, surrendered after a short siege. The
crusade of Prince Edward of England did little to avert the
ultimate fate of the kingdom, and with it that of the Hospitallers
in the Holy Land. This was merely delayed by the preoccupa-
tions of Bibars elsewhere, and by his death in 1277. In 1280
the Mongols overran northern Syria; and the Hospitallers
distinguished themselves by two victories against enormous
odds, one over the Turcomans and one over the emir of Krak
(February 1281). The situation, however, was desperate, and
the grand master Nicolas Lorgne, who had succeeded Hugues
de Revel in 1277, wrote despairing letters of appeal to Edward I.
of England. On the 2$th of May 1285, Margat surrendered
to the sultan Kalaun (Mansur Saifaldin). Not even the strong
character and high courage of Jean de Villiers, who succeeded
Nicolas Lorgne as grand master in 1285, could do more than
stave off the ultimate disaster. The Hospitallers assisted in the
vain defence of Tripoli, which fell on the 26th of April 1289.
On the i8th of May 1291 the Mussulmans stormed Acre, the last
hope of the Christians in the Holy Land. Jean de Villiers,
wounded, was carried on board a ship, and sailed to Limisso
in Cyprus, which became the headquarters of the order. For
the remaining two years of his life Jean de Villiers was occupied
in attempting the reorganization of the shattered order. The
demoralization in the East was, however, too profound to admit
a ready cure. The knights, represented by the grand dignitaries,
addressed a petition to Pope Boniface VIII. in 1295 asking for
the appointment of a permanent council of seven difinitores
to control the grand master, who had become more and more
autocratic. The pope did not consent; but in a severe letter
to the new grand master, Eudes de Pin, he sternly reproved
him for the irregularities of which he had been guilty. 9 In 1 296
Eudes was succeeded by Guillaume de Villaret, grand prior of
St Gilles, who for three years after his election remained in
Europe, regulating the affairs of the order. In 1300, in response
to the urgent remonstrances of the knights, he appeared in
Cyprus. In 1299 an unnatural alliance of the Christians and
Mongols gave a momentary prospect of regaining the Holy Land;
in 1300 the Hospitallers took part in the raid of King Henry II.
(de Lusignan) of Cyprus in Egypt, and gained some temporary
successes on the coast of Syria. Of more advantage for the
prestige of the order, however, were the immense additions of
property and privileges which Guillaume de Villaret had secured
in Europe from the pope and many kings and princes, 10 and the
reform of the rule and drastic reorganization of the order
promulgated in a series of statutes between 1300 and 1304,
the year of Guillaume's death. 11 Of these changes the most
significant was the definition of the powers and status of the
admiral, a new great dignitary created in 1299.
The grand-mastership of Foulques de Villaret, Guillaume's
9 Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4267, 4293; cf. the letter of the chapter-
general to Guillaume de Villaret, iii. No. 4310.
10 Le Roulx, Hospitaliers, p. 259 sqq.
11 These statutes are printed in the Cartulaire, iii. Nos. 4515,
iv. Nos. 4549, 4574, 4612.
i6
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
nephew and successor, 1 was destined to be eventful for the order.
On the sth of June 1305 Bertrand de Got became pope as Clement
V. The new pope consulted the grand master of the Templars
and Hospitallers as to the organization of a new crusade, and
at the same time raised the question of the fusion of the military
orders, a plan which had already been suggested by St Louis, dis-
cussed at the council of Lyons in 1 274, and approved by the pope's
patron Philip IV. of France. The proposal broke down on the
opposition of Jacques de Molay, grand master of the Temple;
but the desired result was obtained by other and more question-
able means, In October 1307 Philip IV. caused all the Templars
in France, including the grand master, to be arrested on charges
of heresy and gross immorality; Pope Clement V., a creature of
the French king, reluctantly endorsed this action, and at his
instance the other sovereigns of Europe followed the example of
Philip. The famous long-drawn-out trial of the Templars followed ,
ending at the council of Vienne in 1314, when Pope Clement
decreed the dissolution of the order of the Temple and at the
same time assigned the bulk of its property to the Hospital. 2
(See TEMPLARS, KNIGHTS.)
Meanwhile an event had occurred which marks an epoch in
the history of the order of the Hospital. In 1306 Foulques de
Villaret, anxious to find a centre where the order would be
untrammelled by obligations to another power as in Cyprus,
came to an agreement with a Genoese pirate named Vignolo de'
Vignoli for a concerted attack on Rhodes and other islands
belonging to the Greek emperor. The exact date of their com-
pleted conquest of the island is uncertain; 3 nor is it clear that
the grand master took a personal part in it. By command of the
pope he had left Cyprus for Europe at the end of 1306 or the
beginning of 1307, and he did not return to the East till late in
1309. He returned, however, not to Cyprus but to Rhodes, and
it is with 1310, therefore, when its headquarters were established
in the latter island, that the second period of the history of the
order of the Hospital opens. 4
The Knights in Rhodes. The history of the order for the next
fifty years is very obscure. Certain changes, however, took place
which profoundly modified its character. The most important
of these was its definitive division into " langues." The begin-
nings of this had been made long before; but the system was only
legalized by the general chapter at Montpellier in 1330. Hitherto
the order had been a cosmopolitan society, in which the French
element had tended to predominate; henceforth it became a
federation of national societies united only for purposes of com-
merce and war. To the headship of each " langue " was attached
one of the great dignitaries of the order, which thus came to
represent, not the order as a whole but the interests of a section. 5
The motive of this change was probably, as Prutz suggests,*
1 M. Le Roulx dates his election between the 23rd of November
1304 and the 3rd of November 1305 (Hasp. p. 268).
2 The Templars' property in the Spanish [peninsula and Majorca
was specially excepted, being subsequently assigned to the sovereigns,
who transferred some of it to the native military orders. Nor did
the Hospitallers receive by any means all of the rest. Philip IV.
charged against the Hospital an enormous bill for expenses incurred
in the trial of the Templars, including, as one item, those for torturing
the knights. In France at least the Hospitallers complained that
they were actually out of pocket. See Finke, PapsUum und Unter-
gang des Tempelherrenordens, \. ad Jin. None the less, the great
accession of territorial property necessitated the subdivision of the
great regional jurisdictions, notably that of the priory of St Gilles,
into new grand priories.
1 The question is discussed in detail by M. Le Roulx, Hospitaliers,
pp. 278 sag. He himself dates the surrender of the castle ol Rhodes
in 1308. Cf. Hans Prutz, " Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos " in
Sitzungsber. derK. Bay.Akad. d. Wisscnschaften (1008), i. Abhandlung.
4 Foulques de Villaret's head seems to have been turned by his
success. His early vigour and statesmanlike qualities gave place
to luxury, debauchery and a tyrannical temper. He was ultimately
deposed, and died at the castle of Teyran in Languedoc in 1327.
The great dignitaries were distributed as follows: Grand
commander of Provence, the grand preceptor; Auvergne, the
grand marshal; France, the grand hospitaller; Italy, the grand
admiral; Aragon, the grand conservator or draper; England, the
turcopolier; Germany, the grand bailiff; Castile, the grand
chancellor.
" Die Anfange der Hospitaliter auf Rhodos."
fear of the designs of Philip IV. of France and his successors
to which point had been given by the fate of the Templars, and
the consequent desire to destroy the preponderance of the French
element. 7
The character and aims of the order were also profoundly
affected by their newly acquired sovereignty for the shadowy
overlordship of the Eastern emperor was soon forgotten and
above all by its seat. The Teutonic order had established its
sovereignty in Prussia, in wide and ill-defined spheres beyond the
north-eastern marches of Germany. The Hospitallers ruled an
island too narrow to monopolize their energies, but occupying
a position of vast commercial and strategic importance. Close
to the Anatolian mainland, commanding the outlet of the
Archipelago, and lying in the direct trade route between Europe
and the East, Rhodes had become the chief distributing point
in the lively commerce which, in spite of papal thunders, Christian
traders maintained with the Mahommedan states; and in the
new capital of the order representatives to every language and
religion of the Levant jostled, haggled and quarrelled. 8 The
Hospitallers were thus divided between their duty as sovereign,
which was to watch over the interests of their subjects, and their
duty as Christian warriors, which was to combat the Infidel.
In view of the fact that the crusading spirit was everywhere
declining, it is not surprising that their policy was henceforth
directed less by religious than by political and commercial
considerations. Not that they altogether neglected their duty
as protectors of the Cross. Their galleys policed the narrow seas;
their consuls in Egypt and Jerusalem watched over the interests
of pilgrims; their hospitals were still maintained for the service of
the sick and the destitute. But, side by side with this, seculariza-
tion proceeded apace. In 1341 Pope Clement VI. wrote to the
grand master denouncing the luxury of the order and the misuse
of its funds; in 1355 Innocent VI. sent the celebrated Juan
Fernandez de Heredia, castellan of Amposta and grand com-
mander of Aragon, as his legate to Rhodes, armed with a bull
which threatened the order with dissolution if it did not reform
itself and effect a settlement in Turkey. In 1348, indeed, the
Hospitallers, in alliance with Venice and Cyprus, had captured
Smyrna; but the chief outcome of this had been commercial
treaties with their allies. Such treaties were, in fact, a matter of
life and death; for the island was not self-supporting, and even
towards the Infidel the attitude of the knights was necessarily
influenced by the fact that their supplies of provisions were
mainly drawn from the Mussulman mainland. By the isth
century their crusading spirit had grown so weak that they even
attempted to negotiate a commercial treaty with the Ottoman
sultan; the project broke down on the refusal of the knights to
accept the sultan's suzerainty.
The earlier history of the Hospitallers bristles with obscure
questions on which modern scholarship (notably the labours of
Delaville Le Roulx) has thrown new light. From 1355 onward,
however, the case is different; the essential facts have been
established by writers who were able to draw on a mass of
well-ordered materials.
Their history during the two centuries of the occupation of
Rhodes, so far as its general interest for Europe is concerned,
is that of a long series of naval attacks and counter-attacks; its
chief outcome, for which the European states owed a debt of
gratitude but ill acknowledged, the postponement for some two
centuries of the appearance of the Ottomans as a first-rate
naval power in the Mediterranean. The seaward advance of
Osman the Turk was arrested by their victories; in 1358 they
successfully defended Smyrna; in 1365 under their grand
master Raymond Beranger (d. 1374), and in alliance with the
king of Cyprus, they captured and burned Alexandria. The
Ottoman peril, however, grew ever more imminent, and in 1395,
under their grand master Philibert de Naillac, the Hospitallers
7 Philip IV. strenuously opposed the change for this reason.
Prutz, Die geistlichen Ritterorden, pp 358 sqq. Compare the division of
the general councils of Basel and Constance into nations."
8 See the regulations made, soon after the capture of the island,
in the Capitula Rodi, a fragment of a code, published by Ewald in
Neues Archiv iv. pp. 265-269
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
shared in the disastrous defeat of Nicopolis. The invasion
followed of Timur the Tatar, invited to his aid by the Eastern
emperor. Sultan Bayezid, the victor of Nicopolis, was over-
thrown; but Timur turned against the Christians and in 1402
captured Smyrna, putting the Hospitallers who defended it to
the sword. It was after this disaster that the knights built, on
a narrow promontory jutting from the mainland opposite the
island of Kos, the fortress of St Peter the Liberator. The castle,
which still stands, its name corrupted into Budrun (from Bedros,
Peter), was long a place of refuge for Christians flying from
slavery. 1 Some years later the position of the order as a Mediter-
ranean sea-power was strengthened by commercial treaties with
Venice, Pisa, Genoa, and even with Egypt (1423). The zenith of
its power was reached a few years later, when, under the grand
master Jean Bonpar de Lastic, it twice defeated an Egyptian
attack by sea (1440 and 1444). A new and more imminent peril,
however, arose with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks
in 1453, for Mahommed II. had announced his intention of
making Rhodes his next objective. The attack was delayed
for twenty-seven years by the sultan's wars in south-eastern
Europe; and meanwhile, in 1476, Pierre d'Aubusson (q.v.), the
second great hero of the order, had been elected grand master.
Under his inspiration, when in June 1480 the Turks, led by three
renegades, attacked the island, the knights made so gallant a
resistance that, in July, after repeated and decisive repulses, the
Turks retreated. In 1503 Pierre d'Aubusson was succeeded by
Aymar d'Amboise, who directed a long series of naval battles.
In 1521 the famous Philippe de Villiers de ITsle d'Adam was
elected grand master, just as the dreaded sultan Suleiman the
Magnificent directed his attack on Rhodes. In 1522 he besieged
the island, reinforcements failed, the European powers sent no
assistance, and in 1523 the knights capitulated, and withdrew
with all the honours of war to Candia (Crete). The emperor
Charles V., when the news was brought to him, exclaimed,
" Nothing in the world has been so well lost as Rhodes! " But
he refused to assist the grand master in his plans for its recovery,
and instead, five years later (1530), handed over to the Hospi-
tallers the island of Malta and the fortress of Tripoli in Africa.
The Knights in Malta. The settlement of the Hospitallers
in Malta was contemporaneous with the Reformation, which
profoundly affected the order. The master and knights of the
bailiwick of Brandenburg accepted the reformed religion, without,
however, breaking off all connexion with the order (see below).
In England, on the other hand, the refusal of the grand prior
and knights to acknowledge the royal supremacy led to the
confiscation of their estates by Henry VIII., and, though not
formally suppressed, the English " langue " practically ceased
to exist. 2 The knights of Malta, as they came to be known,
none the less continued their vigorous warfare. Under Pierre
du Pont, who succeeded Villiers de 1'Isle d'Adam in 1534, they
took a conspicuous part in Charles V.'s attack on Goletta and
Tunis (1535). In 1550 they defeated the redoubtable corsair
Dragut, but in 1551 their position in Tripoli, always precarious,
became untenable and they capitulated to the Turks under
Dragut, concentrating their forces in Malta. In 1557 Jean
Parisot de la Vallette (1494-1548) was elected grand master,
and under his vigorous rule strenuous efforts were made to put
the defences of Malta into a fit state to resist the expected
1 There is a reduction of a photograph of the castle in Bedford
and Holbeche's Order of the Hospital, p. 20. The building materials
were largely taken from the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus.
2 The great priory church at Clerkenwell in London was almost
wholly destroyed by the Protector Somerset, who used the materials
for his palace in the Strand. Only the great gateway, spanning St
John Street, now survives above ground of the priory buildings.
It is the headquarters of the revived English " langue." Sir John
Rawson, prior of Kilmainham, the headquarters of the order in
Ireland, accepted the royal supremacy and was created Lord Clontarf .
In 1679 the duke of Ormonde erected the present hospital on the
site of the ancient priory. The preceptory of Torphichen, head-
quarters of the order in Scotland, was surrendered in 1547 by the
preceptor Sir James Sandilands of Calder, who was created Lord
Torphichen. As " Lord of St John " he had had precedence of all
the barons of Scotland, and this right originally exercised as a
spiritual peer was retained by him and his successors.
Turkish attack. On the i8th of May 1565 the Ottoman fleet,
under Dragut, appeared before the city, and one of the most
famous sieges in history began. 3 It was ultimately raised on
the 8th of September, on the appearance of a large relieving
force despatched by the Spanish viceroy of Sicily, after Dragut
and 25,000 of his followers had fallen. The memory of La
Vallette, the hero of the siege, who died in 1568, is preserved
in the city of Valletta, which was built on the site of the struggle.
In 1571 the knights shared in the victory of Lepanto; but
this crowning success was followed during the I7th century by
a long period of depression, due to internal dissensions and cul-
minating during the Thirty Years' War, the position of the order
being seriously affected by the terms of the peace of Westphalia
(1648). The order was also troubled by quarrels with the popes,
who claimed to nominate its officials (a claim renounced by
Innocent XII. in 1697), and by rivalry with the Mediterranean
powers, especially Venice. In Malta itself there were four rival
claimants to independent jurisdiction: the grand master, the
bishop of Malta, the grand inquisitor, whose office was instituted
in 1572, and the Society of Jesus, introduced by Bishop Gargallo
in 1592. The order, indeed, saw much fighting: e.g. the
frequent expeditions undertaken during the grand-mastership
of Alof de Vignacourt (1601-1622); the defence of Candia
which fell after a twenty years' siege in 1669 under Nicholas
Cottoner, grand master from 1665 to 1680; and, during the
grand mastership of Gregorio Caraffa (1680-1690), a campaign
(1683) with John Sobieski, king of Poland, against the Turks
in Hungary, and the attack in alliance with Venice on the Morea
in 1687, which involved the Hospitallers in the defeat at Negro-
pont in 1689. The decline of the order was hastened by the
practice of electing aged grand masters to ensure frequent
vacancies; such were Luiz Mendez de Vasconcellos (1622-1623)
and Antonio da Paula (1623-1636) and Giovanni Paolo Lascaris
(de Castellar), in 1636, who died twenty-one years later at the
age of ninety-seven. The character of the order at this date
became more exclusively aristocratic, and its wealth, partly
acquired by commerce, partly derived from the contributions
of the commanderies scattered throughout Europe, was enormous.
The wonderful fortifications, planned by French architects
and improved by every grand master in turn, the gorgeous
churches, chapels and auberges, the great library founded in
1650, were the outward and visible sign of the growth of a
corresponding luxury in the private life of the order. Neverthe-
less, under Raymond Perellos de Roccaful (1697-1720) and
Antonio Manoel de Vilhena (1722-1736), the knights restored
their prestige in the Mediterranean by victories over the Turks.
In 1741 Emmanuele Pinto de Fonseca, a man of strong character,
became grand master. He expelled the Jesuits, resisted papal
encroachments on his authority and, refusing to summon the
general chapter, ruled as a despot.
Emanuel, prince de Rohan, who was elected grand master in
succession to Francesco Jimenes de Texada in 1775, made
serious efforts to revive the old spirit of the order. Under
him, for the first time since 1603, a general chapter was convoked;
the orders of St Anthony and St Lazarus were incorporated,
and the statutes were revised and codified (1782). In 1782 also
Rohan, with the approval of George III. established the new
Anglo-Bavarian " langue." The last great expedition of the
Maltese galleys was worthy of the noblest traditions of the
order; they were sent to carry supplies for the sufferers from the
great earthquake in Sicily. They had long ceased to be effec-
tive fighting ships, and survived mainly as gorgeous state barges
in which the knights sailed on ceremonial pleasure trips.
The French Revolution was fatal to the order. Rohan made
no secret of his sympathy with the losing cause in France, and
Malta became a refuge-place for the emigres. In 1792 the vast
possessions of the order in France were confiscated, and six
years later the Directory resolved on the forcible seizure of Malta
1 In Protestant England public prayers were offered for the
success of the knights. Yet a few years later Queen Elizabeth was
seeking^ the alliance of the sultan against Spain, on the ground of
their common religion as against " the idolaters "!
i8
ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM
itself. Rohan had died in 1797, and his feeble successor, Baron
Ferdinand von Hompesch, 1 though fully warned, made no
preparations to resist. In the early summer of 1798, after a
siege of only a few days, he surrendered the island, with its
impregnable fortifications, to Bonaparte, and retired ignomini-
ously to Trieste, carrying with him the precious relics of the
order the hand of St John the Baptist presented by the sultan
Bayezid, the miraculous image of Our Lady of Philermo, and
a fragment of the true cross.
With this the history of the order of St John practically ends.
Efforts were, however, made to preserve it. Many of the knights
had taken refuge at the court of Paul I. of Russia, with whom
in 1797 Hompesch had made an alliance. In October 1798
these elected the emperor Paul grand master, and in the following
year Hompesch was induced to resign in his favour. The half-
mad tsar took his new functions very seriously, but his murder
in 1801 ruined any hope of recovering Malta with Russian
assistance. A chapter of the order now granted the right of
nomination to the pope, who appointed Giovanni di Tommasi
grand master. From his death in 1805 until 1879, when Leo
XIII. restored the title of grand master in favour of Fra Giovanni
Ceschi a Santa Croce, the heads of the order received only the
title of lieutenant master. In 1814 the French knights summoned
a chapter general and elected a permanent commission for the
government of the order, which was recognized by the Italian
and Spanish knights, by the pope and by King Louis XVIII.
In the Italian states much of the property of the order was
restored at the instance of Austria, and in 1841 the emperor
Ferdinand founded the grand priory of Lombardo-Venetia.
Present Constitution oj the Order. The " Sovereign Order of
Malta " is now divided into the Italian and German langues, both
under the Sacred Council (Sagro consiglio) at Rome. The Italian
langue embraces the grand priories of Rome, Lombardy and Venice,
and Sicily; the German langue consists of (l) the grand priory of
Bohemia, (2) the association of the honorary knights (Ehrenritler)
in Silesia, (3) the association of Ehrenritler in Westphalia and the
Rhine country, (4) the association of English knights (not to be
confused with the English order), (5) the knights received in gremio
religionis, i.e. those not attached to any of the preceding divisions.
At the head of the order is the grand master. Each priory has a
certain number of bailiffs (grand commanders, commendatori) ,
commanders, professed knights (i.e. those who have taken the vows),
knights of justice (novices), honorary knights, knights of grace,
donats and chaplains.
Candidates for knighthood have to prove sixteen quarterings of
nobility and, if under age, must be sons of a landowner of the pro-
vince and of a mother born within its limits. If an Austrian subject,
the postulant must obtain the emperor's leave to join the order;
the election is by the chapter, and subject to confirmation by the
pope. Knights of justice take a yearly oath to fulfil the duties laid
on them by the order. After ten years they may take the full
oath as professed knights. At any time before doing so, however,
they are free to retire from the order and may receive the croix de
devotion as honorary knights, their sole obligation being an annual
subscription to the order. The croix de devotion is also bestowed
on ladies of sufficiently impeccable descent. The grand master
also has the right, motu proprio, to bestow the cross on distinguished
people not of noble birth, who are known as knights of grace. The
grand cross* of the order is sometimes given, honoris causa, to
sovereigns and others, who then rank as honorary bailiffs. This is
a gold, white enamelled " Maltese " cross, surmounted by a crown,
which is worn suspended round the neck by a black ribbon. Bailiffs,
professed knights and chaplains wear in addition a white linen cross
sewn on to the left breast. The grand priory of Bohemia has made
the nursing of the sick its speciality, and especially the organization
of military hospitals. The hospice between Bethlehem and Jeru-
salem is under the protection of the Austrian emperor.
Protestant Orders. In addition to the Sovereign Order of the
Knights of Malta, there exist two Orders of St John of Jerusalem
which derive their origin from the same source: the Prussian
Johanniterorden and the English Order of St John of Jerusalem.
Of these the Prussian order has the most interesting history. At
the Reformation the master and knights of the bailiwick of Branden-
burg adopted the new religion. They continued, however, like other
Ritterstifter, to enjoy their corporate rights; they even continued
to acknowledge the jurisdiction of the grand preceptor of the German
langue, in so far as the confirmation of official appointments was
concerned, and to send their contributions to the common fund of
1 He was the only German in the list of grand masters.
1 So called because the dignitaries wore a larger cross than the
generality of the knights.
the order. On the 3Oth of October 1810, under stress of the miseries
of the Napoleonic occupation of Prussia, the order was secularized
and its estates confiscated; in 1812 King Frederick William III.
founded the chivalrous order of St John, to which the expropriated
knights were admitted as honorary knights. In 1853 Frederick
William IV. reversed this action, abolished the new chivalrous
order and reconstituted the bailiwick of Brandenburg, on the
ostensible ground that its maintenance had been guaranteed by the
treaty of Westphalia (1648). The master (Herrenmeister) is elected
by the chapter. All members of the order must be of noble birth
and belong to the Evangelical Church. The cross worn is of white
enamelled gold with four black eagles between the arms; a white
linen cross is also sewn on the left breast of the red tunic which
forms part of the uniform. The order has founded, and supports,
many hospitals, including a hospice at Jerusalem (see Herrlich, Die
Battei Brandenburg, 4th ed., Berlin, 1904).
As already mentioned, the English langue, though deprived of its
lands, was never formally suppressed. In 1826-1827 the comn.ission
instituted by the French knights in 1814, which was ain.ing at
taking advantage of the Greek War of Independence to reconquer
Rhodes or to secure some other island in the Levant, suggested the
restoration of the English langue, obviously with the idea of securing
the help of Great Britain for their project. Certain en inent English-
men, e.g. Sir Sydney Smith, had already been affiliated to the
order by the grand master Baron von Hompesch; the comrr.ission
now placed itself in communication with the Rev. Sir William Peat,
chaplain to King George IV., and other English gentlemen of
position. The negotiations resulted in articles of convention re-
viving the English langue. In 1834 Sir William Peat, elected prior
of the English langue, qualified himself by taking the oath de fidtli
administratione in the court of King's Bench, under the charter
(never repealed) of Philip and Mary re-establishing the order. 3
For fifty years this was all the official recognition obtained by this
curious and characteristic sham-Gothic restoration of the Ron, antic
period. The " English langue," however, though somewhat absurd,
did good service in organizing hospital work, notably in the creation
of the St John's Ambulance Association, and this work was recog-
nized in high quarters, the princess of Wales (afterwards Queen
Alexandra) becoming a lady of justice in 1876 and the duke of
Albany joining the order in 1883. In 1888 Queen Victoria granted
a charter formally incorporating the order, the headquarters of
which had been established in the ancient gate-way of the priory at
Clerkenwell. In 1889 the prince of Wales (King Edward VII.) was
installed as grand prior.
The objects and constitution of the order are practically the
same as those of its Prussian equivalent. The sovereign is its supreme
head and patron, the heir to the throne for the time being its grand
prior. It is essentially aristocratic, though for obvious reasons
proof of sixteen quarterings of nobility is not exacted as a condition
of membership. The cross is the gold, white-enamelled Maltese
cross, differenced by two lions and two unicorns placed between
the arms. The order also gives medals to persons of all ranks
" for service in the cause of humanity." Among other good works,
it supports an ophthalmic hospital at Jerusalem. Unlike the
Prussian order, the members need not be Protestants, though they
must profess Christianity. 4
AUTHORITIES. From the izth century onwards the knights
exercised peculiar care in the preservation of their records, and the
vast archives of the order are still preserved, all but intact, at Malta.
These include not only those of the central establishment but also
a large number of those of the separate commanderies. They in-
clude papal bulls, the records of the general chapter, the statutes of
the grand masters, title deeds, charters, and from 1629 onwards the
special transactions of the Conseil d'etat. These materials were
exploited by several writers in the I7th and l8th centuries. The first
was Giacomo Bpsio, the 3rd edition of whose Istoria delta . . .
illustrissima militia di S. Giov. Gierosolimitano was published in
3 vols. at Rome in 1676. This was followed by S. Pauli's Codice
diplomatico del sacro militare ordine Geros. (2 vols., Lucca, 1733-
1 737) ar >d P. A. Paoli's Dell' origine ed istituto del sacro militar ordine,
Sfc. (Rome, 1781). These are still useful sources as containing
references to, and extracts from, documents since lost. In 1883
J. Delaville Le Roulx published Les Archives del' Ordrede Saint-Jean,
an analysis of the records preserved at Malta. This was followed
in 1904 by his monumental Cartulaire general des Hospitaliers de
Saint-Jean de Jerusalem (l 100-1310), 4 vols. folio. This gives (i) all
documents anterior to 1120, (2) all those emanating from the great
dignitaries of the order, (3) all those emanating from popes, em-
perors, kings and great feudatories, (4) those which fix the date of
the foundation of particular commanderies, (5) those regulating the
relations of the Hospitallers with the lay and ecclesiastical authorities
and with the other military orders, (6) the rules, statutes and
customs of the order. Hitherto unpublished documents (from the
archives of Malta and elsewhere) are published in full ; those already
published, and the place where they may be found, being indicated
in proper sequence. Based on the Cartulaire is Le Roulx's Les
1 See Bedford and Holbeche, Appendix D.
4 The medieval vows are, of course, not taken.
ST JOHNS SAINT JOSEPH
Hospitallers en Terre Sainte et en Chypre (Paris, 1904), an invaluable
work in which many hitherto obscure problems have been solved.
It contains a full list of published authorities. Of English works
may be mentioned John Taaffe's History of the Order of Malta
(1852); J. M. Kemble's Historical introduction to The Knights
Hospitallers in England (Camden Soc., London, 1857); W. Porter,
Hist, of the Knights of Malta (2 vols. 1858, new ed. 1883); Bedford
and Holbeche, The Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem
(1902), for the modern order. (W. A. P.)
ST JOHNS, the capital of Newfoundland, situated on the east
coast of the island, in the peninsula of Avalon, in 47 33' 54" N.,
and 52 40' 1 8" W. It is the most easterly city of America, only
170x3 m. from Queenstown in Ireland, and 2030 from Liverpool.
It stands on rising ground on the north side of a land-locked
harbour, which opens suddenly in the lofty iron-bound coast.
The entrance, known as The Narrows, guarded by Signal Hill
(520 ft.) and South Side Hill (620 ft.), is about 1400 ft. wide,
narrowing to 600 ft. between Pancake and Chain Rocks. At
the termination of the Narrows the harbour trends suddenly to
the west, thus completely shutting out the ocean swell. Vessels
of the largest tonnage can enter at all periods of the tide. There
is good wharf accommodation and a well-equipped dry dock.
St Johns practically monopolizes the commerce of the island (see
NEWFOUNDLAND), being the centre of the cod, seal and whale
fisheries. The chief industries are connected with the fitting out
of the fishing vessels, or with the disposal and manufacture
of their catch. Steamship lines run to Liverpool, New York,
Halifax (N.S.) and Saint Pierre. Nearly all the commerce of the
island is sea-borne, and well-equipped steamers connect St Johns
with the numerous bays and outports. It is the eastern terminus
of the government railway across the island to Port-aux-Basques,
whence there is steamer connexion with the mainland at Sydney.
The finest buildings in the city are the Anglican and Roman
Catholic cathedrals. Education is controlled by the various
religious bodies; many of the young men complete their studies
in Canada or Great Britain. St Johns is not an incorporated
town. A municipal council was abolished after having largely
increased the debt of the city, and it is now governed by com-
missioners appointed by the governor in council.
St Johns was first settled by Devonshire fishermen early in
the i6th century. It was twice sacked by the French, and
captured by them in the Seven Years' War (1762), but recaptured
in the same year, since when it has remained in British possession.
Both in the War of American Independence and in that of 1812
it was the headquarters of the British fleet, and at one time the
western end of the harbour was filled up with American prizes.
The old city, built entirely of wood, was twice destroyed by fire
(1816-1817 an d 1846). Half of it was again swept away in 1892,
but new and more substantial buildings have been erected.
The population, chiefly of the Roman Catholic faith and of
Irish descent, increases slowly. In 1901 the electoral district
of St Johns contained 39,094 inhabitants, of whom 30,486 were
within the limits of the city.
ST JOHNS, a town and port of entry of Quebec, Canada, and
capital of St Johns county, 27 m. S.E. of Montreal by rail, on
the river Richelieu and at the head of the Chambly canal. Pop.
(1901) 4030. A large export trade in lumber, grain and farm
produce is carried on, and its mills and factories produce flour,
silk, pottery, hats, &c. Three railways, the Grand Trunk,
Canadian Pacific and Central Vermont, enter St Johns. On the
opposite bank of the river is the flourishing town of St Jean
d'Iberville (usually known simply as Iberville), connected with
St Johns by several bridges.
SAINT JOHNSBURY, a township and the county-seat of
Caledonia county, Vermont, U.S.A., on the Passumpsic river,
about 34 m. E.N.E. of Montpelier. Pop. (1890) 6567; (1900)
7010; (1910) 8098; of the village of the same name (1900)
5666 (1309 foreign-born); (1910) 6693. Area of the township,
about 47 sq. m. Saint Johnsbury is served by the Boston &
Maine and the Saint Johnsbury & Lake Champlain railways.
The farms of the township are devoted largely to dairying. In
the village are a Y.M.C.A. building (1885); the Saint Johnsbury
Academy (1842); the Saint Johnsbury Athenaeum (1871), with
a library (about 18,000 volumes in 1909) and an art gallery;
the Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science (1891), founded by
Colonel Franklin Fairbanks; St Johnsbury Hospital (1895);
Brightlook Hospital (1899, private); the large scales manu-
factory of the E. & T. Fairbanks Company (see FAIRBANKS,
ERASTUS), and also manufactories of agricultural implements,
steam hammers, granite work, furniture and carriages. There
are two systems of water-works, one being owned by the village.
The township of Saint Johnsbury was granted to Dr Jonathan
Arnold (17411793) and associates in 1786; in the same year a
settlement was established and the place was named in honour of
Jean Hector Saint John de Cr^vecoeur (1731-1813), who wrote
Letters of an American Farmer (1782), a glowing description of
America, which brought thither many immigrants, and who intro-
duced potato planting into France. The township government was
organized in 1790, and the village was incorporated in 1853.
ST JOHN'S WORT, in botany, the general name for species of
Hypericum, especially H . perforatum, small shrubby plants with
slender sterns, sessile opposite leaves which are often dotted with
pellucid glands, and showy yellow flowers. H. Androsaenium
is Tutsan (Fr. tout saine), so called from its healing properties.
H. calycinum (Rose of Sharon), a creeping plant with large almost
solitary flowers 3 to 4 in. across, is a south-east European plant
which has become naturalized in Britain in various places in
hedges and thickets.
SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Berrien county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Lake Michigan at the mouth of the Saint
Joseph river, near the S.W. corner of the state. Pop. (1890)
3733J (1900) 5155, of whom 1183 were foreign-born; (1910
U.S. census) 5936. It is served by the Michigan Central and the
Pere Marquette railways, by electric interurban railway to South
Bend, Indiana, and by a steamboat line to Chicago. Benton
Harbor, about i m. S.W., with which St Joseph is connected by
electric line, is a terminus of the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis railway. The U.S. government has deepened the
harbour channel to 18 ft.; and the St Joseph river has been
made navigable for vessels drawing 3 ft. from St Joseph to
Berrien Springs (25 m. by river). A canal, i m. long, extends
from the upper part of the harbour to Benton Harbor. St
Joseph has a public library. The city is a summer and health
resort; it has mineral (saline sulphur) springs and a large
mineral-water bath house. The general offices and the hospital
(1902) of the Michigan Children's Home Society are here. The
city has an important trade in fruit, and has various manu-
factures, including paper, fruit packages, baskets, motor boats,
gasolene launches, automobile supplies, hosiery and knit goods,
air guns and sashes and blinds. The municipality owns and
operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant.
On or near the site of the present city La Salle built in 1679 Fort
Miami. In the same county, on or near the site of the present city
of Niles (pop. 1910, 5156), French Jesuits established an Indian
mission in 1690, and the French government in 1697 erected Fort
St Joseph, which was captured from the English by the Indians
in 1763, and in 1781 was seized by a Spanish party from St Louis.
Fort Miami has often been confused with this Fort St Joseph, 60 m.
farther up the river. St Joseph was settled in 1829, incorporated
as a village in 1836 and first chartered as a city in 1891.
SAINT JOSEPH, a city and the county-seat of Buchanan
county, Missouri, U.S.A., and a port of entry, situated in the
north-western corner of the state on the E. bank of the Missouri
river. It is the third in size among the cities of the state. Pop.
(1880) 32,431; (1890) 52,324; (1900) 102,979, of whom
8424 were foreign-born and 6260 were negroes; (1910 census)
77,403. St Joseph is a transportation centre of great import-
ance. It is served by six railways, the Atchison, Topeka &
Santa Fe, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago Great
Western, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri
Pacific, and the St Joseph & Grand Island; in addition there
are two terminal railways. A steel bridge across the Missouri
(built in 1872; rebuilt in 1906) connects the city with Elwood,
Kansas (pop. 1910, 636), and is used by two railways. The
city is laid out on hills above the bluffs of the river. The site
was completely remade, however (especially in 1866-1873),
and the entire business portion has been much graded down.
The principal public buildings are the Federal building, the
court house, an auditorium seating 7000, a Union Station and a
20
ST JUNIEN SAINT-JUST
public library. There are six city parks, of which the largest
are Krug Park (30 acres) and Bartlett Park (20 acres). The
State Hospital (No. 2) for the Insane(opened 1874) is immediately
E. of St Joseph; in the city are the Ensworth, St Joseph and
Woodson hospitals, a Memorial Home for needy old people and
the Home for Little Wanderers. South St Joseph, a manu-
facturing suburb, has a library and so has the northern part
of the city. The great stock-yards of South St Joseph are sights
of great interest. In 1909 the state legislature provided for a
commission form of government which took effect in April
1910; a council of five, elected by the city at large, has only
legislative powers; the mayor appoints members of a utilities
commission, a park commission and a board of public works,
and all officers except the city auditor and treasurer; and the
charter provides for the initiative, the referendum and the
recall. The city maintains a workhouse (1882), also two market
houses, and owns and manages an electric-lighting plant. Natural
gas is also furnished to the city from oil-fields in Kansas. A
private company owns the water-works, first built in 1879 and
since greatly improved. The water is drawn from the Missouri,
3 m. above the city, and is pumped thence into reservoirs and
settling basins. Beside the local trade of a rich surrounding
farming country, the railway facilities of St Joseph have enabled
it to build up a great jobbing trade (especially in dry goods),
and this is still the greatest economic interest of the city.
Commerce and transport were the only distinctive basis of the
city's growth and wealth until after 1890, when there was a
great increase in manufacturing, especially, in South St Joseph,
of the slaughtering and meat-packing industry in the last three
years of the decade. In 1900 the manufactured product of the
city and its immediate suburbs was valued at $31,690,736, of
which $19,009,332 were credited to slaughtering and packing.
In the decade of 1890-1900 the increase in the value of manu-
factures (165-9%) was almost five times as great in St Joseph
as in any other of the largest four cities of the state, and this
was due almost entirely to the growth of the slaughtering and
meat-packing business, which is for the most part located outside
the municipal limits. In 1905 the census reports did not include
manufactures outside the actual city limits; the total value of
the factory product of the city proper in 1905 was $11,573,720;
besides slaughtering and packing the other manufactures in
1905 included men's factory-made clothing (valued at $1,556,655)
flour and grist-mill products (valued at $683 ,464) ,saddlery and har-
ness (valued at $524,918), confectionery ($437,096), malt liquors
($407,054), boots and shoes ($350,384) and farm implements.
In 1826 Joseph Robidoux, a French half-breed trader, established
a trading post on the site of St Joseph. Following the purchase
from the Indians of the country, now known as the Platte Purchase,
in 1836, a settlement grew up about this trading post, and in 1843
Robidoux laid out a town here and named it St Joseph in honour
of his patron saint. St Joseph became the county-seat in 1846,
and in 1851 was first chartered as a city. It early became a trading
centre of importance, well known as an outfitting point for miners
and other emigrants to the Rocky Mountain region and the Pacific
coast. During the Civil War it was held continuously by the Unionists,
but local sentiment was bitterly divided. After the war a rapid
development began. In 1885 St Joseph became a city of the second
class. Under the state constitution of 1875 it has had the right,
since attaining a population of 100,000, to form a charter for itself.
In September 1909, at a special election, it adopted the commission
charter described above.
ST JUNIEN, a town of west-central France in the department
of Haute- Vienne, on the right bank of the Vienne, 26 m. W. by
N. of Limoges on the railway from Limoges to Angouleme.
Pop. (1006) town, 8484; commune, 11,400. The I2th century
collegiate church, a fine example of the Romanesque style of
Limousin, contains a richly sculptured tomb of St Junien, the
hermit of the 6th century from whom the town takes its name.
Another interesting building is the Gothic chapel of Notre-Dame,
with three naves, rebuilt by Louis XI., standing close to a
medieval bridge over the Vienne. The town, which ranks second
in the department in population and industry, is noted for
leather-dressing and the manufacture of gloves and straw paper.
SAINT-JUST, ANTOINE LOUIS LEON DE RICHEBOURG
DE (1767-1794), French revolutionary leader, was born at
Decize in the Nivernais on the 25th of August 1767. At the
outbreak of the Revolution, intoxicated with republican ideas,
he threw himself with enthusiasm into politics, was elected an
officer in the National Guard of the Aisne, and by fraud he
being yet under age admitted as a member of the electoral
assembly of his district. Early in 1789 he had published twenty
cantos of licentious verse, in the fashion of the time, under the
title of Organt au Vatican. Henceforward, however, he assumed
a stoical demeanour, which, united to a policy tyrannical
and pitilessly thorough, became the characteristic of his life.
He entered into correspondence with Robespierre, who, flattered
by his worship, admitted him to his friendship. Thus supported,
Saint- Just became deputy of the department of Aisne to the
National Convention, where he made his first speech on the
condemnation of Louis XVI. gloomy, fanatical, remorseless
in tone on the I3th of November 1792. In the Convention,
in the Jacobin Club, and among the populace his relations with
Robespierre became known, and he was dubbed the " St John
of the Messiah of the People." His appointment as a member
of the Committee of Public Safety placed him at the centre of
the political fever-heat. In the name of this committee he was
charged with the drawing up of reports to the Convention upon
the absorbing themes of the overthrow of the party of the Gironde
(report of the 8th of July 1793), of the Herbertists, and finally,
of that denunciation of Danton which consigned him and his
followers to the guillotine. What were then called reports were
rather appeals to the passions; in Saint-Just's hands they
furnished the occasion for a display of fanatical daring, of gloomy
eloquence, and of undoubted genius; and with the shadow of
Robespierre behind him they served their turn. Camille
Desmoulins, in jest and mockery, said of Saint-Just the
youth with the beautiful 'countenance and the long fair locks
" He carries his head like a Holy Sacrament." " And I,"
savagely replied Saint- Just, " will make him carry his like a
Saint Denis." The threat was not vain: Desmoulins accom-
panied Danton to the scaffold. The same ferocious inflexibility
animated Saint-Just with reference to the external policy of
France. He proposed that the National Convention should
itself, through its committees, direct all military movements
and all branches of the government (report of the loth of October
1793). This was agreed to, and Saint-Just was despatched to
Strassburg, in company with another deputy, to superintend
the military operations. It was suspected that the enemy
without was being aided by treason within. Saint-Just's remedy
was direct and terrible: he followed his experience in Paris,
" organized the Terror," and soon the heads of all suspects sent
to Paris were falling under the guillotine. But there were no
executions at Strassburg, and Saint-Just repressed the excesses
of J. G. Schneider (q.v.), who as public prosecutor to the revolu-
tionary tribunal of the Lower Rhine had ruthlessly applied the
Terror in Alsace. Schneider was sent to Paris and guillotined.
The conspiracy was defeated, and the armies of the Rhine and
Moselle having been inspirited by success Saint-Just himself
taking a fearless part in the actual fighting and having effected
a junction, the frontier was delivered and Germany invaded.
On his return Saint-Just was made president of the Convention.
Later, with the army of the North, he placed before the generals
the dilemma of victory over the enemies of France or trial by
the dreaded revolutionary tribunal; and before the eyes of the
army itself he organized a force specially charged with the
slaughter of those who should seek refuge by flight. Success
again crowned his efforts, and Belgium was gained for France
(May, 1794). Meanwhile affairs in Paris looked gloomier than
ever, and Robespierre recalled Saint-Just to the capital. Saint-
Just proposed a dictatorship as the only remedy for the con-
vulsions of society. At last, at the famous sitting of the gth
Thermidor, he ventured to present as the report of the com-
mittees of General Security and Public Safety a document
expressing his own views, a sight of which, however, had been
refused to the other members of committee on the previous
evening. Then the storm broke. He was vehemently inter-
rupted, and the sitting ended with an order for Robespierre's
ST JUST ST LAWRENCE
21
arrest (see ROBESPIERRE). On the following day, the 28th of
July 1794, twenty-two men, nearly all young, were guillotined.
Saint-Just maintained his proud self-possession to the last.
See CEuvres de Saint- Just, precedees d'une notice historique sur so,
vie (Paris, 1833-1834); E. Fleury, Etudes revolutionnaires (2 vols.,
1851), with which cf. articles by Sainte Beuve (Causeries du lundi,
vol. v.), Cuvillier-Fleury {Portraits politiques et revolutionnaires) ;
E. Hamel, Histoire de Saint- Just (1859), which brought a fine to the
publishers for outrage on public decency ; F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs
de la Legislative et de la Convention (2nd ed., Paris, 1905). The
CEuvres completes de Saint-Just have been edited with notes by
C. Vellay (Paris, 1908).
ST JUST (St Just in Penwith), a market town in the St Ives
parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 75 m. by road W.
of Penzance. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5646. This is the
most westerly town in England, lying in a wild district i m.
inland from Cape Cornwall, which is 4 m. N. of Land's End.
The urban district has an area of 7633 acres, and includes the
small industrial colonies near some of the most important mines
in Cornwall. The Levant mine is the chief, the workings extend-
ing beneath the sea. Traces of ancient workings and several
exhausted mines are seen. The church of St Just is Per-
pendicular, with portions of the fabric of earlier date. There are
ruins of an oratory dedicated to St Helen on Cape Cornwall.
ST KILDA, a city of Bourke county, Victoria, Australia,
35 m. by rail S. of, and suburban to, Melbourne. Pop. (1901)
20,544. It is a fashionable watering-place on Hobson's Bay, and
possesses the longest pier in Australia. The esplanade and the
public park are finely laid out; and portions of the sea are
fenced in to protect bathers. The town hall, the public library,
the assembly hall, and the great Anglican church of All Saints
are the chief buildings.
ST KILDA (Gaelic Hirta, " the western land "), the largest
of a small group of about sixteen islets of the Outer Hebrides,
Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is included in the civil parish of
Harris, and is situated 40 m. W. of North Uist. It measures
3 m. from E. to W. and 2 m. from N. to S., has an area of about
3500 acres, and is 7 m. in circumference. Except at the landing-
place on the south-east, the cliffs rise sheer out of dee-p water,
and on the north-east side the highest eminence in the island,
Conagher, forms a precipice 1220 ft. high. St Kilda is probably
the core of a Tertiary volcano, but, besides volcanic rocks, contains
hills of sandstone in which the stratification is distinct. The
boldness of its scenery is softened by the richness of its verdure.
The inhabitants, an industrious Gaelic-speaking community
(no in 1851 and 77 in 1901), cultivate about 40 acres of land
(potatoes, oats, barley), keep about 1000 sheep and a few head
of cattle. They catch puffins, fulmar petrels, guillemots, razor-
birds, Manx shearwaters and solan geese both for their oil and
for food. Fishing is generally neglected. Coarse tweeds and
blanketing are manufactured for home use from the sheep's
wool which is plucked from the animal, not shorn. The houses
are collected in a little village at the head of the East Bay. The
island is practically inaccessible for eight months of the year,
but the inhabitants communicate with the outer world by means
of " sea messages," which are despatched in boxes when a strong
west wind is blowing, and generally make the western islands
or mainland of Scotland in a week.
The island has been in the possession of the Macleods for hundreds
of years. In 1779 the chief of that day sold it, but in 1871 Macleod
ol Macleod bought it back, it is stated, for 3000. In 1724 the popu-
lation was reduced by smallpox to thirty souls. They appear to
catch what is called the " boat-cold " caused by the arrival of strange
boats, and at one time the children suffered severely from a form of
lockjaw known as the " eight days' sickness."
See works by Donald Munro, high dean of the Isles (1585) M
Martin (1698), Rev. K. Macaulay (1764), R. Connell (1887); Miss
Goodnch-Freer, The Outer Isles; Richard and Cherry Kearton,
With Nature and a Camera (1896).
ST KITTS, or ST CHRISTOPHER, an island in the British West
Indies, forming, with Nevis and Anguilla, one of the presidencies
in the colony of the Leeward Islands. It is a long oval with a
narrow neck of land projecting from the south-eastern end;
total length 23 m., area 63 sq. m. Mountains traverse the central
part from N.W. to S.E., the greatest height being Mount Misery
(3771 ft.). The island is well watered, fertile and healthy, and
its climate is cool and dry (temperature between 78 and 85 F.;
average annual rainfall 38 in.). The circle of land formed by
the skirts of the mountains, and the valley of Basseterre con-
stitute nearly the whole of the cultivated portion. The higher
slopes of the hills afford excellent pasturage, while the summits
are crowned with dense woods. Sugar, molasses, rum, salt,
coffee and tobacco are the chief products; horses and cattle are
bred. Primary education is compulsory. The principal towns
are Old Road, Sandy Point and the capital Basseterre, which
lies on the S.W. coast (pop. about 10,000). One good main road,
macadamized throughout, encircles the island. The local
legislature consists of 6 official and 6 unofficial members nomin-
ated by the Crown. St Kitts was discovered by Columbus in
1493 and first settled by Sir Thomas Warner in 1623. Five years
later it was divided between the British and* the French, but at
the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 it was entirely ceded to the British
Crown. Population, mostly negroes, 29,782.
SAINT-LAMBERT, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1716-1803), French
poet, was born at Nancy on the 26th of December 1716. He
entered the army and, when Stanislaus Leszczynski was estab-
lished in 1737 as duke of Lorraine, he became an official at his
court at Luneville. He left the army after the Hanoverian
campaign of 1756-57, and devoted himself to literature, producing
a volume of descriptive verse, Les Saisons (1769), now never
read, many articles for the Encyclopedic, and some miscellaneous
works. He was admitted to the Academy in 1770. His fame,
however, comes chiefly from his amours. He was already high
in the favour of the marquise de Boufflers, Stanislaus's mistress,
whom he addressed in his verses as Doris and Thimire, when
Voltaire in 1748 came to Luneville with the marquise de Chatelet.
Her infatuation for him and its fatal termination are known to
all readers of the life of Voltaire. His subsequent liaison with
Madame d'Houdetot, Rousseau's Sophie, though hardly less
disastrous to his rival, continued for the whole lives of himself
and his mistress. Saint-Lambert's later years were given to
philosophy. He published in 1798 the Principe des nuzurs chez
toutes let nations ou catechisme universel, and published his
CEuvres philosophiques (1803), two years before his death on the
9th of February 1803. Madame d'Houdetot survived until the
28th of January 1813.
See G. Maugras, La Cour de Luneville (1904) and La Marquise de
Boufflers (1907); also the literature dealing with Rousseau and
Voltaire.
ST LAWRENCE. The river St Lawrence, in North America,
with the five fresh- water inland seas (see GREAT LAKES), Superior,
Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario, forms one of the great river
systems of the world, having a length, from the source of the river
St Louis (which rises near the source of the river Mississippi and
falls into the head of Lake Superior) to Cape Gaspe, where it
empties into the Gulf of St Lawrence, of 2100 m. The river is
here considered as rising at the foot of Lake Ontario, in 44 10' N.,
76 30' W., where the name St Lawrence is first applied to it.
The river, to the point where it crosses 45 N. in its north-
westerly course, forms the boundary line between the state of
New York and the province of Ontario; thence to the sea it is
wholly within Canadian territory, running through the province
of Quebec. At Point des Monts, 260 m. below Quebec, it is
26 m. wide, and where it finally merges into the Gulf of St
Lawrence, 150 m. farther on, it is 90 m. wide, this stretch being
broken by the large island of Anticosti, lying fairly in the mouth.
The character of the river banks varies with the geological
formations through which it runs. Passing over the Archaean
rocks of the Laurentian from Kingston to Brockville the shores
are very irregular, and the river is broken up by protrusions of
glaciated summits of the granites and gneisses into a large
number of picturesque islands, " The Thousand Islands,"
greatly frequented as a summer resort. From Brockville to
Montreal the river runs through flat-bedded Cambro-silurian
imestones, with rapids at several points, which are all run by
light-draught passenger boats. For the up trip the rapids are
avoided by canalization. From Montreal to Three Rivers the
course is through an alluvial plain over-lying the limestones,
22
ST LAWRENCE
the river at one point expanding into Lake St Peter, 20 m. long
by 10 m. wide, with a practically uniform depth of 10 ft. Below
Three Rivers the banks grow gradually higher until, after passing
Quebec through a cleft in slate rocks of Cambrian age, the river
widens, washing the feet of the Laurentian Mountains on its
north shore; while a more moderately hilly country, terminating
in the Shickshock Mountains of the Gaspe Peninsula, skirts its
south shore.
From Kingston, at the head of the river, to Montreal, a
distance of 170 m., navigation is limited to vessels of 14 ft.
draught by the capacity of the canals. From Montreal to
Quebec, 160 m., a ship channel has been dredged to a depth of
30 ft.; below Quebec the river is tidally navigable by vessels
of any draught. The canals on the St Lawrence above Montreal
have been enlarged to the capacity of the Welland canal, the
improved system having been opened to commerce in the autumn
of 1899. Instead of enlarging the Beauharnois canal, on the south
side of the river, a new canal, the " Soulanges," was built from
Coteau Landing to Cascades Point, on the north side, the Beau-
harnois canal still being used for small barges. The locks of the
enlarged canals are all 45 ft. wide, with an available depth of
14 ft. and a minimum length of 270 ft. The following table
shows the canalized stretches in this portion of the river:
Name.
From
To
Length
in Miles.
Number
of Locks.
Fall in
Feet.
Galops
Head of Galops Rapids
Iroquois
7i
3
I5l
River .
4
Rapide Plat
Head of Ogden Island
Morrisburg
3f
2
III
River . . .
ioi
Farran Point
Head of Croil Island
Farran Point
i
I
3l
River .
5
Cornwall Canal .
Dickinson Landing
Cornwall
ii
6
48
Lake St Francis
3oi
Soulanges .
Coteau Landing
Cascades Point
14
4
toi
Lake St Louis .
H
Lachine
Lachine
Montreal
8J
5
45
109!
21
206
In the stretch between Montreal and Quebec the ship channel,
begun by the Montreal Harbour Commissioners, has been assumed
by the Dominion government as a national work, and improve-
ments, involving extensive dredging, have been undertaken
with the aim of securing everywhere a minimum depth of
30 ft. with a minimum width of 450 ft. The whole river
from Kingston to the sea is well supplied with aids to navi-
gation. In the dredged portions lights are arranged in pairs
of leading lights on foundations sufficiently high and solid
to resist the pressure of ice movement, and there is an elabo-
rate system of fog alarms, gas-lighted and other buoys, as well
as telegraphic, wireless and telephonic communication, storm
signal, weather and ice reporting stations and a life-saving
service.
Montreal, at the head of ocean navigation, the largest city
in Canada, is an important distributing centre for all points in
western Canada, and enjoys an extensive shipping trade with
the United Kingdom, the sea-going shipping exceeding 1,500,000
tons, and the inland shipping approximating 2,000,000 tons,
annually. Quebec is the summer port used by the largest
steamers in the Canadian trade. There are numerous flourishing
towns on both banks of the river, from 1 Kingston, a grain trans-
ferring port, to the sea. Large quantities of lumber, principally
spruce (fir) and paper pulp, are manufactured at small mills
along the river, and shipped over sea directly from the place
of production. The mail steamers land and embark mails
at Rimouski, to or from which they are conveyed by rail along
the south shore.
The importance to Canada of the river St Lawrence as a
national trade route cannot be over-estimated. As a natural
highway between all points west of the Maritime Provinces and
Europe it is unique in permitting ocean traffic to penetrate
1000 m. into the heart of a country. It is, moreover, the shortest
freight route from the Great Lakes to Europe. From Buffalo
to Liverpool via New York involves rail or 7-ft. canal transport
of 496 m. and an ocean voyage of 3034 nautical miles. Via
Montreal there is a i4-ft. transport of 348 m. and river and
ocean voyage of 2772 nautical miles. From Quebec to Liverpool
by Cape Race is 2801 nautical miles, while the route by Belle
Isle, more nearly a great circle course, usually taken between
July and October, is only 2633 nautical miles. On the other
hand the St Lawrence is not open throughout the year; the
average time between the arrival of the first vessel at Montreal
from sea and the departure of the last ocean vessel is seven
months. From Kingston to Quebec the river freezes over every
winter, except at points where the current is rapid. Below
Quebec, although there is heavy border ice, the river never
freezes over. For a few winters, while the bridge accommodation
at Montreal was restricted to the old single-track Victoria
bridge, railway freight trains were run across the ice bridge on
temporary winter tracks. Efforts have been made to lengthen
the season of navigation by using specially constructed steamers
to break the ice; and it is claimed that the season of navigation
could be materially lengthened, and winter floods prevented
by keeping the river open to Montreal. Winter ferries are
maintained at Quebec, between Prince Edward Island and
Nova Scotia, and between Newfoundland and Sydney, Cape
Breton. In the winter of 1898-1899
an attempt was made to run a winter
steamer from Paspebiac to England,
but it was not successful, principally
because an unsuitable vessel was used.
To pass through the field of ice that
is always present in the gulf, in
greater or lesser quantity, specially
strengthened vessels are required.
The river above tide water is not
subject to excessive flooding, the maxi-
mum rise in the spring and early
summer months, chiefly from northern
tributaries from the Ottawa eastward,
being 10 ft. The Great Lakes serve as
impounding reservoirs for the gradual
distribution of all overflows in the west. At Montreal, soon after the
river freezes over each winter, there is a local rise of about IO ft. in
the level of the water in the harbour, caused by restriction of the
channel by anchor ice; and in the spring of the year, when the volume
of the water is augmented, this obstruction leads to a further rise, in
1886 reaching a height of 27 ft. above ordinary low water. To
Erevent flooding of the lower parts of the city a dike was in 1887
uilt along the river front, which prevented a serious flooding in
1899.
Tides enter the Gulf of St Lawrence from the Atlantic chiefly
through Cabot Strait (between Cape Breton and Newfoundland),
which is 75 m. wide and 250 fathoms deep. The tide entering through
Belle Isle Strait, 10 m. wide and 30 fathoms deep, is comparatively
little felt. The tidal undulation, in passing through the gulf, expands
so widely as to be almost inappreciable in places, as, for example,
at the Magdalen Islands, in the middle of the gulf, where the range
amounts to about 3 ft. at springs, becoming effaced at neaps. There
is also little more tide than this at some points on the north shore
of Prince Edward Island. The greatest range is attained in North-
umberland Strait and in Chaleur Bay, where it amounts to 10 ft.
At the entrance to the estuary at Anticosti it has again the oceanic
range of about 6 ft., and proceeds up the estuary with an ever-
increasing range, which attains its maximum of 19 ft. at the lower
end of Orleans Island, 650 m. from the ocean at Cabot Strait. This
must be considered the true head of the estuary. At Quebec, 30 m.
farther up, the range is nearly as great ; but at 40 m. above Quebec
it is largely cut off by the Richelieu Rapids, and finally ceases to
be felt at Three Rivers, at the lower end of Lake St Peter, 760 m.
from the ocean.
The St Lawrence provides ample water-power, which is being
increasingly used. Its rapids have long been used for milling and
factory purposes; a wing dam on the north side of Lachine Rapids
furnishes electricity to Montreal; the falls of Montmorency light
Quebec and run electric street cars; and from Lake Superior to
the gulf there are numerous points on the tributaries to the St
Lawrence where power could be used.
Nearly all the rivers flowing into the St Lawrence below
Quebec are stocked with salmon (Salmo salar), and are preserved
and leased to anglers by the provincial government. In the salt
ST LEGER ST LEONARDS
water of the gulf and lower river, mackerel, cod, herring, smelt,
sea-trout, striped bass and other fish are caught for market.
The St Lawrence is spanned by the following railway bridges:
(i) A truss bridge built near Cornwall in 1900 by the New York
& Ottawa railroad, now operated by the New York Central
railroad. (2) A truss bridge with a swing, built in 1890 by the
Canada Atlantic railway at Coteau Landing. (3) A cantilever
bridge built in 1887 by the Canadian Pacific railway at Caugh-
nawaga. (4) The Victoria Jubilee bridge, built as a tubular
bridge by the Grand Trunk railway in 1860, and transformed
into a truss bridge in 1897-1898. The new bridge rests on the
piers of the old one, enlarged to receive it, is 6592 ft. long by
67 ft. wide, has 25 spans, double railway and trolley tracks,
driveways and sidewalks, and was erected without interruption
of traffic. (5) A very large cantilever bridge, having a central
span of 1800 ft., crosses the river at a point 7 m. above Quebec.
The southern half of the superstructure, while in course of
erection in August 1907, fell, killing 78 men, and necessitating a
serious delay in the completion of the work.
The river St Lawrence was discovered by Jacques Cartier,
commissioned by the king of France to explore and trade on the
American coast. Cartier entered the strait of Belle Isle in 1534;
but Breton fishermen had previously resorted there in summer
and penetrated as far as Brest, eleven leagues west of Blanc
Sablon, the dividing line between Quebec and Labrador. Cartier
circled the whole gulf, but missed the entrance to the river. On
his second voyage in 1536 he named a bay on the north shore
of the gulf, which he entered on the loth of August, the feast
of St Lawrence, Baye Sainct Laurens, and the name gradually
extended over the whole river, though Cartier himself always
wrote of the River of Canada. Early in September, he reached
" Canada," now Quebec, and on the 2nd of October reached
Hochelaga, now Montreal. No permanent settlement was then
made. The first, Tadousac, at the mouth of the Saguenay, was
established by Champlain in 1603, and Quebec was settled by
him in 1608. Between that time and 1616 Champlain explored
the whole river system as far west as Lake Huron, reaching it
by way of the Ottawa river, and taking possession of the country
in the name of the king of France. It became British by the
treaty of Paris, in 1763.
See S. E. Dawson, The St Lawrence, its Basin and Border Lands
(New York, 1905) (historical); St Lawrence Pilot (7th ed., Hydro-
graphic Office, Admiralty, London, 1906) ; Sailing Directions for
the St Lawrence River to Montreal (United States Hydrographic
Office publication, No. 108 D, Washington, 1907): Annual Reports
of the Canadian Departments of Marine and Fisheries, Public Works,
and Railways and Canals, Ottawa); Transactions (Royal Society,
Canada, 1898-1899), vol. iv. sec. iii.; T. C. Reefer on " Ice Floods
and Winter Navigation of the St Lawrence," Transactions (Canadian
Society of Civil Engineers, Presidential Address of W. P. Anderson,
on improvements to navigation on St Lawrence, 1904).
(W. P. A.)
ST LEGER, SIR ANTHONY (c. 1496-1559), lord deputy of
Ireland, eldest son of Ralph St Leger, a gentleman of Kent, was
educated abroad and at Cambridge. He quickly gained the
favour of Henry VIII., and was appointed in 1537 president of a
commission for inquiring into the condition of Ireland. This
work he carried out with ability and obtained much useful
knowledge of the country. In 1540 he was appointed lord
deputy of Ireland. His first task was to repress disorder, and
he at once proceeded with severity against the Kavanaghs, per-
mitting them, however, to retain their lands, on their accepting
feudal tenure on the English model. By a similar policy he
exacted obedience from the O'Mores, the O'Tooles and the
O'Conors in Leix and Offaly; and having conciliated the O'Briens
in the west and the earl of Desmond in the south, the lord deputy
carried an act in the Irish parliament in Dublin conferring the
title of king of Ireland on Henry VIII. and his heirs. Conn
O'Neill, who in the north had remained sullenly hostile, was
brought to submission by vigorous measures. For the most
part, however, St Leger's policy was one of moderation and
conciliation rather more so, indeed, than Henry VIII. approved.
He recommended The O'Brien, when he gave token of a sub-
missive disposition, for the title of earl of Thomond; O'Neill
was created earl of Tyrone; and administrative council was
instituted in the province of Munster; and in 1544 a levy of
Irish soldiers was raised for service in Henry VIII. 's wars.
St Leger's personal influence was proved by an outbreak of
disturbance when he visited England in 1544, and the prompt
restoration of order on his return some months later. St Leger
retained his office under Edward VI., and again effectually
quelled attempts at rebellion by the O'Conors and O'Byrnes.
From 1548 to 1550 he was in England. He returned charged
with the duty of introducing the reformed liturgy into Ireland.
His conciliatory methods brought upon him the accusation that
he lacked zeal in the cause, and led to his recall in the summer
of 1551. After the accession of Mary he was again appointed
lord deputy in October 1553, but in consequence of a charge
against him of keeping false accounts he was recalled for the
third time in 1556. While the accusation was still under investi-
gation, he died on the i6th of March 1559.
By his wife Agnes, daughter of Hugh Warham, a niece cf
Archbishop Warham, he had three sons, William, Warham and
Anthony. William died in his father's lifetime leaving a son,
Sir Warham St Leger (d. 1600), who was father of Sir William
St Leger (d. 1642), president of Munster. Sir William took part in
" the flight of the earls " (see O'NEILL) in 1607, and spent several
years abroad. Having received a pardon from James I. and
extensive grants of land in Ireland, he was appointed president
of Munster by Charles I. in 1627. He warmly supported the
arbitrary government of Strafford, actively assisting in raising
and drilling the Irish levies destined for the service of the king
against the Parliament. In the great rebellion of 1641 he bore
the chief responsibility for dealing with the insurgents in Munster;
but the forces and supplies placed at his disposal were utterly
inadequate. He executed martial law in his province with the
greatest severity, hanging large numbers of rebels, often without
much proof of guilt. He was still struggling with the insurrection
when he died at Cork on the 2nd of July 1642. Sir William's
daughter Margaret married Murrough O'Brien, i.st earl of Inchi-
quin; his son John was father of Arthur St Leger, created
Viscount Doneraile in 1703.
A biography of Sir Anthony St Leger will be found in Athenae
Cantabrigienses, by C. H. Cooper and T. Cooper (Cambridge, 1858) ;
see also Calendar of State Papers relating to Ireland, Hen. VIII.-Eliz.
Calendar of Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII. ; Calendar
of State Papers (Domestic Series'), Edward VI. James I.; Calendar
of Carew MSS.; J. O'Donovan's edition of Annals of Ireland by the
Four Masters (7 vols., Dublin, 1851); Richard Bagwell, Ireland
under the Tudors (3 vols., London, 1885-1890) ; J. A. Froude, History
of England (12 vols., London, 1856-1870). For Sir William St Leger,
see Strafford' s Letters and Despatches (2 vols., London, 1 739) ; Thomas
Carte, History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormonde (6 vols., Oxford,
1851); History of the Irish Confederation and the War in Ireland,
edited by Sir J. T. Gilbert (Dublin, 1882-1891). (R. J. M.)
ST LEONARDS, EDWARD BURTENSHAW SU6DEN, IST
BARON (1781-1875), lord chancellor of Great Britain, was the son
of a hairdresser of Duke Street, Westminster, and was born on
the 1 2th of February 1781. After practising for some years as a
conveyancer, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1807,
having already published his well-known treatise on the Law
of Vendors and Purchasers (i4th ed., 1862). In 1822 he was made
king's counsel and chosen a bencher of Lincoln's Inn. He was
returned at different times for various boroughs to the House of
Commons, where he made himself prominent by his opposition to
the Reform Bill of 1832. He was appointed solicitor-general in
1829, was named lord chancellor of Ireland in 1834, and again
filled the same office from 1841 to 1846. Under Lord Derby's
first administration in 1852 he became lord chancellor and was
raised to the peerage as Lord St Leonards. In this position he
devoted himself with energy and vigour to the reform of the law;
Lord Derby on his return to power in 1858 again offered him the
same office, which from considerations of health he declined.
He continued, however, to take an active interest especially in the
legal matters that came before the House of Lords, and bestowed
his particular attention on the reform of the law of property.
He died at Boyle Farm, Thames Ditton, on the 29th of January
1875-
ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS ST LOUIS
After his death his will was missing, but his daughter, Miss
Charlotte Sugden, was able to recollect the contents of a most
intricate document, and in the action of Sugden v. Lord St
Leonards (L.R. i P.D. 154) the court accepted her evidence
and granted probate of a paper propounded as containing the
provisions of the lost will. This decision established the pro-
position that the contents of a lost will may be proved by
secondary evidence, even of a single witness.
Lord St Leonards was the author of various important legal
publications, many of which have passed through several editions.
Besides the treatise on purchasers already mentioned, they include
Powers, Cases decided by the House of Lords, Gilbert on Uses, New
Real Property Laws and Handybook of Property Law, Misrepresenta-
tions in Campbell's Lives of Lyndhurst and Brougham, corrected by
St Leonards. See The Times uoth of January 1875); E. Manson,
Builders of our Law (1904); J. R. Atlay, Lives of the Victorian
Chancellors, vol. ii.
ST LIZIER-DE-COUSERANS, a village of south-western
France in the department of Ariege on the right bank of the
Salat, i m. N.N.W. of St Girons. Pop. (1906) 615; commune
1295. St Lizier, in ancient times one of the twelve cities of
Novempopulania under the name of Lugdunum Consoranorum,
was later capital of the Couserans and seat of a bishopric (sup-
pressed at the Revolution) to the holders of which the town
belonged. It has a cathedral of the i2th and i4th centuries with
a fine Romanesque cloister and preserves remarkable remains of
Roman ramparts. The old episcopal palace (i7th century)
and the adjoining church (i4th and iyth centuries), once the
cathedral with its fine chapter-hall (i2th century), form part
of a lunatic asylum. The Salat is crossed by a bridge of the
1 2th or I3th century. The town owes its name to its bishop
Lycerius, who is said to have saved it from the Vandals in the
7th century. The chief event in its history was its devastation
in 1130 by Bernard III., count of Comminges, a disaster from
which it never completely recovered.
ST Ld, a town of north-western France, capital of the depart-
ment of Manche, 47 J m. W. by S. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906)
town 9379; commune, 12,181. St L6 is situated on a rocky
hill on the right bank of the Vire. Its chief building is the
Gothic church of Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the i6th
century. The facade, flanked by two lofty towers and richly
decorated, is impressive, despite its lack of harmony. There is
a Gothic pulpit outside the choir. In the h6tel-de-ville is the
" Torigni marble," the pedestal of an ancient statue, the in-
scriptions on which relate chiefly to the annual assemblies of the
Gallic deputies held at Lyons under the Romans. The modern
church of Sainte-Croix preserves a Romanesque portal which
belonged to the church of an ancient Benedictine abbey. St L6
is the seat of a prefect and has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a training college for masters, a school of drawing,
a branch of the Bank of France, a chamber of arts and manu-
factures, and a government stud. The town has trade in grain,
fat stock, troop-horses and farm produce, and carries on tanning,
wool-spinning and bleaching and the manufacture of woollen
and other fabrics.
St L6, called Briovera in the Gallo-Roman period, owes its present
name to St L6 (Laudus), bishop of Coutances (d. 568). In the middle
ages St L6 became an important fortress as well as a centre for the
weaving industry. It sustained numerous sieges, the last in 1574,
when the town, which had embraced Calvinism, was stormed by
the Catholics and many of its inhabitants massacred. In 1800 the
town was made capital of its department in place of Coutances.
ST LOUIS, the chief city and a port of entry of Missouri, and
the fourth in population among the cities of the United States,
situated on the W. bank of the Mississippi river, about 20 m.
below its confluence with the Missouri, 200 m. above the influx
of the Ohio, and 1270 m. above the Gulf of Mexico, occupying
a land area of 61-37 sq. m. in a commanding central position
in the great drainage basin of the Mississippi system, the richest
portion of the continent. Pop. (1880) 350,518, (1890) 451,770,
(1000) 575,238, (191) 687,029.
The central site is marked by an abrupt terraced rise from the
river to an easily sloping tableland, 4 or 5 m. long and somewhat
less than i m. broad, behind which are rolling hills. The length
of the river-front is about 19 m. The average elevation of the
city is more than 425 ft.; and the recorded extremes of low and
high water on the river are 379 and 428 ft. (both established in
1844). The higher portions of the city lie about 200 ft. above
the river level, and in general the site is so elevated that there
can be no serious interruption of business except by extraordinary
floods. The natural drainage is excellent, and the sewerage
system, long very imperfect, has been made adequate. The street
plan is approximately rectilinear. The stone-paved wharf or
river-front, known as the Levee or Front Street, is 3-7 m. long.
Market Street, running E. and W., is regarded as the central
thoroughfare; and the numbering of the streets is systematized
with reference to this line and the river. Broadway (or Fifth
Street, from the river) and Olive Street are the chief shopping
centres; Washington Avenue, First (or Main) and Second Streets
are devoted to wholesale trade; and Fourth Street is the financial
centre. The most important public buildings are the Federal
building, built of Maine granite; the county court house (1839-
1862, $1,199,872), a semi-classic, plain, massive stone structure,
the Four Courts (1871, $755,000), built of cream-coloured Joliet
stone, and a rather effective city hall (1890-1904, $2,000,000),
in Victorian Gothic style in brick and stone. The chief slave-
market before the Civil War was in front of the Court House. The
City Art Museum, a handsome semi-classic structure of original
design, and the Tudor-Gothic building of the Washington
University, are perhaps the most satisfying structures in the city
architecturally. Among other noteworthy buildings are the Public
Library, the Mercantile Library, the Mercantile, the Mississippi
Valley, the Missouri-Lincoln, and the St Louis Union Trust Com-
pany buildings; the German-Renaissance home of the Mercantile
Club; the florid building of the St Louis Club; the Merchants'
Exchange; the Missouri School for the Blind; the Coliseum,
built in 1897 for conventions, horse shows, &c., torn down in
1907 and rebuilt in Jefferson Avenue, and the Union Station,
used by all the railways entering the city. This last was opened
in 1894, and cost, including the site, $6,500,000; has a train-shed
with thirty-two tracks, covers some eleven acres, and is one of
the largest and finest railway stations in the world. The city
owns a number of markets. In 1907 a special architectural
commission, appointed to supervise the construction of new
municipal buildings, purchased a site adjacent to the City
Hall, for new city courts and jail, which were begun soon
afterwards.
The valley of Mill Creek (once a lake bed, " Chouteau Pond,"
and afterwards the central sewer) traverses the city from W.
to E. and gives entry to railways coming from the W. into the
Union Station. The terminal system for connecting Missouri
with Illinois includes, in addition to the central passenger station,
vast centralized freight warehouses and depots; an elevated
railway along the levee; passenger and freight ferries across
the Mississippi with railway connexions; two bridges across
the river; and a tunnel leading to one of them under the streets
of the city along the river front. The Merchants' Bridge (1887-
1890, $3,000,000), used solely by the railways, is 1366-5 ft.
long in channel span, with approaches almost twice as long.
The Eads Bridge (1868-1874; construction cost $6,536,730,
total cost about $10,000,000) is 3 m. farther down the river;
it carries both wagon ways and railway tracks, is 1627 ft. clear
between shore abutments, and has three spans. Built entirely
of steel above the piers, it is a happy combination of strength
and grace, and was considered a marvel when erected.
St Louis has exceptionally fine residential streets that are
accounted among the handsomest in the world. The most notable
are Portland Place, Westmoreland Place, Vandeventer Place,
Kingsbury Place, &c., in the neighbourhood of Forest Park:
broad parked avenues, closed with ornamental gateways, and
flanked by large houses in fine grounds. The park system of
the city is among the finest in the country, containing in 1910
2641-5 acres (cost to 1909, $6,417,745). Forest Park (1372
acres), maintained mainly in a natural, open-country state,
is the largest single member of the system. In one end of it
was held the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Tower
Grove Park (277 acres) and the Missouri Botanical Gardens
ST LOUIS
(45 acres), probably the finest of their kind in the country,
were gifts to the city from a public-spirited citizen, Henry
Shaw (1800-1889), who also endowed the botanical school of
Washington University. Carondelet (180 acres), O'Fallon (158
acres), and Fairground( 1 29 acres, including a 6s-acre athletic field)
are the finest of the other parks. King's Highway is a boulevard
(partly completed in 1910) from the Mississippi on the S. to the
Mississippi on the N., crossing the western part of the city.
In accord with a general movement in American cities late in
the ipth century, St Louis made a beginning in the provision of
small " neighbourhood parks," intended primarily to better the
lives of the city's poor, and vacation playgrounds for children;
and for this purpose five blocks of tenements were condemned
by the city. In the different parks and public places are statues
of Columbus, Shakespeare (Tower Grove Park) and Humboldt
(Tower Grove Park), by Ferdinand von Mueller of Munich;
a replica of the Schiller monument at Marbach in Germany,
and of Houdon's Washington (Lafayette Park) ; statues of
Thomas Hart Ben ton (Lafayette Park; by Harriet Hosmer),
of Francis Preston Blair (W. W. Gardner) and Edward Bates
(J. W. McDonald), both in Forest Park, and of General Grant
(R. P. Bringhurst) in the City Hall Park; all of these being in
bronze. In the cemeteries of the city of which the largest are
Belief ontaine (350 acres) and Calvary (415 acres) there are
notable monuments to Henry Shaw, and to Nathaniel Lyon,
Sterling Price, Stephen W. Kearny and W. T. Sherman, all
closely associated with St Louis or Missouri. There are various
lake, river and highland pleasure-resorts near the city; and
about 12 m. S. is Jefferson Barracks, a national military post
of the first class. The old arsenal within the city, about which
centred the opening events of the Civil War in Missouri, has
been mainly abandoned, and part of the grounds given to the
municipality for a park.
The annual fair, or exposition, was held in the autumn of each
year except in war time from 1855 to 1902, ceasing with the
preparations for the World's Fair of 1904. One day of Fair
Week (" Big Thursday ") was a city holiday; and one evening
of the week was given over after 1878 to a nocturnal illuminated
pageant known as the Procession of the Veiled Prophet, with
accompaniments in the style of the carnival (Mardi Gras) at
New Orleans; this pageant is still continued.
Among the educational institutions of the city, Washington
University, a largely endowed, non-sectarian, co-educational school
opened in 1857, is the most prominent. Under its control are three
secondary schools, Smith Academy and the Manual Training School
for Boys, and Mary Institute for Girls. The university embraces a
department of arts and sciences, which includes a college and a
school of engineering and architecture, and special schools of law,
medicine (1899), dentistry, fine arts, social economy and botany.
Affiliated with the university is the St Louis School of Social Economy,
called until 1909 the St Louis School of Philanthropy, and in 1906-
1909 affiliated with the university of Missouri. The Russell Sage
Foundation co-operates with this school. In 1909 Washington
University had 1045 students. In 1905 the department of arts
and sciences and the law school were removed to the outskirts of
the city, where a group of buildings of Tudor-Gothic style in red
Missouri granite were erected upon grounds, which with about
$6,000,000 for buildings and endowment, were given to the univer-
sity. St Louis University had its beginnings (1818) as a Latin
academy, became a college in 1820, and was incorporated as a
university in 1832. One of the leading Jesuit colleges of the United
States, it is the parent-school of six other prominent Jesuit colleges
in the Middle West. In 1910 it comprised a school of philosophy
and science ( 1 832 ) , a divinity school ( 1 834) , a medical school ( 1 836) , a
law school (1843), a dental school (1908), a college, three academies
and a commercial department; and its enrolment was 1181. It is
the third largest, and the Christian Brothers' College (1851), also
Roman Catholic, is the fourth largest educational institution in the
state. The Christian Brothers' College had in 1910 30 instructors
and 500 students, most of whom were in the preparatory department.
Besides the Divinity School of St Louis University, there are three
theological seminaries, Concordia (Evangelical Lutheran, 1839),
Eden Evangelical College (German Evangelical Synod of North
America, 1850) and Kenrick Theological Seminary (Roman Catholic,
1894). There are two evening law schools, Benton College (1896)
and Metropolitan College (1901).
The public school system came into national prominence under
the administration (1867-1880) of William T. Harris, and for many
years has been recognized as one of the best in the United States.
The first permanent kindergarten in the country in connexion with
the public schools was established in St Louis in 1 873 by W. T. Harris
(?), then superintendent of schools, and Miss Susan Ellen Blow.
The first public kindergarten training school was established at the
same time. There is a teachers' college in the city school system,
and there are special schools for backward children. Several school
buildings have been successfully used as civic centres. The city
has an excellent educational museum, material from which is avail-
able for object lessons in nature study, history, geography, art,
&c., in all public schools. In the year 1907-1908 the total receipts
for public education were $4,219,000, and the expenditure was
$3,789,604. The City Board of Education was chartered in 1897.
The German element has lent strength to musical and gymnastic
societies. The Museum and School of Fine Arts was established in
1879 as the Art Department of Washington University. In 1908 it
first received the proceeds of a city tax of one-fifth mill per dollar,
and in 1909 it was reorganized as the City Art Museum. In its
building (the " Art Palace," built in 1903-1904 at a cost of $943,000
for the Louisiana Purchase Exposition; now owned by the city)
in Forest Park are excellent collections (largely loaned) of sculpture
and paintings (illustrating particularly the development of American
art) and of art objects. The School of Fine Arts, now separate from
the museum and a part of Washington University, has classes in
painting, drawing, design, illustration, modelling, pottery, book-
binding, &c. Among the libraries the greatest collections are those
of the Mercantile Library (in 1910, 136,000 volumes and pamphlets),
a subscription library founded in 1846, and the public library (1865)
a fine city library since 1894, with 312,000 volumes in 1910 and six
branch libraries, the gift of Andrew Carnegie, who also gave the city
$500,000 towards the new public library, which was begun in 1909
and cost $1,500,000. Other notable collections are those of the St
Louis Academy of Science and of the Missouri Botanical Gardens.
There are at least three newspapers of national repute : the Republic,
established in 1808 as the Missouri Gazette, and in 18221886 called
the Missouri Republican; the Globe-Democrat (1852); and the
Westliche Post (1857).
In trade, industry and wealth St Louis is one of the most
substantial cities of the Union. Its growth has been steady;
but without such " booms " as have marked the history of many
western cities, and especially Chicago, of which St Louis was for
several decades the avowed rival. The primacy of the northern
city was clear, however, by 1880. St Louis has borne a reputa-
tion for conservatism and solidity. Its manufactures aggregate
three-fifths the value of the total output of the state. In 1880
their value was $114,333,375, and in 1890 $228,700,000; the
value of the factory product was $193, 732, 788 in 1900, and in
1905 $267,307,038 (increase 1900-1905, 38%).
Tobacco goods, malt liquors, boots and shoes and slaughtering
and meat-packing products were the leading items in 1905. The
packing industry is even more largely developed outside the city
limits and across the river in East St Louis. St Louis is the greatest
manufacturer of tobacco products among American cities, and
probably in the world; the total in 1905 was 8-96% of the total out-
put of manufactured tobacco in the United States; and the output
of chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff in 1900 constituted
2 3'5% an d in 1905 23-7% of the product of the country. St
Louis is also the foremost producer of white lead, street and railway
cars, and wooden ware; and in addition to these and the items above
particularized, has immense manufactories of clothing, coffee and
spices (roasted), paints, stoves and furnaces, flour, hardware, drugs
and chemicals and clay products. One of its breweries is said to be
the largest in the world.
Aside from traffic in its own products, the central position of the
city in the Mississippi Valley gives it an immense trade in the pro-
ducts of that tributary region, among which grains, cotton, tobacco,
lumber, live stock and their derived products are the staples. In
addition, it is a jobbing centre of immense interests in the distribu-
tion of other goods. The greatest lines of wholesale trade are
dry goods, millinery and notions; groceries and allied lines; boots
and shoes; tobacco; shelf and heavy hardware; furniture; railway
supplies; street and railway cars; foundry and allied products;
drugs, chemicals and proprietary medicines; beer; wooden- ware;
agricultural implements; hides; paints; paint oils and white lead;
electrical supplies; stoves, ranges and furnaces; and furs the
value of these different items ranging from 70 to 10 million dollars
each. 1 According to the St Louis Board of Trade, St Louis is the
largest primary fur market of the world, drawing supplies even from
northern Canada. As a wool market Boston alone surpasses it,
and as a vehicle market it stands in the second or third place. In
the other industries just named, it claims to stand first among the
cities of the Union. It is one of the greatest interior cotton markets
of the country drawing its supplies mainly from Arkansas, Texas
and Oklahoma but a large part of its receipts are for shipment
on through bills of lading, and are not net receipts handled by its
1 These are arranged in the order shown by the Annual Statement
for 1906 reported to the Merchants' Exchange.
26
ST LOUIS
own factors. The gross cotton movement continues to increase, but
the field of supply has been progressively lessened by the development
of Galveston and other ports on the gulf. As a grain and stock
market St Louis has felt the competition of Kansas City and St
Joseph.
River and railway transportation built up in turn the command-
ing commercial position of the city. The enormous growth of
river traffic in the decade before 1860 gave it at the opening of
the Civil War an incontestable primacy in the West. In 1910
about twenty independent railway systems, great and small
(including two terminal roads within the city), gave outlet and
inlet to commerce at St Louis; and of these fifteen are among the
greatest systems of the country: the Baltimore & Ohio South-
western, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago &
Alton, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the St
Louis & San Francisco, the Illinois Central, the Missouri, Kansas
& Texas, the Missouri Pacific, the Pennsylvania, the St Louis
South- Western, the Southern, the Wabash, the Louisville &
Nashville, the Mobile & Ohio, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western.
The construction of the Missouri Pacific Railway system was
begun at St Louis in 1850, and various other roads were started
in the next two years. For several decades railway develop-
ment served only to increase the commercial primacy of the
city in the southern Mississippi Valley, but in more recent years
the concentration of roads at Kansas City enabled that place
to draw from the west and south-west an immense trade once
held by St Louis. River freighting is of very slight importance.
St Louis is a port of entry for foreign commerce; its imports
in 1907 were valued at $7,442,967; in 1909 at $6,362,770.
The population of St Louis in 1840 was 16,469; in 1850 it
was 77,860 (seventh in size of the cities of the country); in 1860,
160,773; in 1870, 310,864 (third in size); in 1880, 350,518;
in 1890, 451,770; in 1900, 575,238; and in 1910, 687,029.
Since 1890 it has been fourth in population among the cities of the
United States. Of the population in 1000 (575,238) 111,356 were
foreign-born and 35,516 were negroes. Of the foreign-born in
1900, 58,781 were Germans, 19,421 were Irish, 5800 were
English, 4785 Russian. In 1900, 154,746 inhabitants of St
Louis were children of German parents.
Under the state constitution of 1875 St Louis, as a city of
100,000 inhabitants, was authorized to frame its own charter,
and also to separate from St Louis county. These rights were
exercised in 1876. The General Assembly of the state holds the
same powers over St Louis as over other cities. The electorate
may pass upon proposed amendments to the charter at any
election, after due precedent publication thereof. The mayor
holds office for four years. In 1823 the mayor was first elected
by popular vote and .the municipal legislature became unicameral.
The bicameral system was again adopted in 1839. The municipal
assembly consists of a Council of 13 chosen at large for four
years half each two years and a House of Delegates, 28 in
number, chosen by wards for two years. A number of chief
executive officers are elected for four years; the mayor and
Council appoint others, and the appointment is made at the
middle of the mayor's term in order to lessen the immediate
influence of municipal patronage upon elections. Single com-
missioners control the parks, streets, water service, harbour and
wharves, and sewers, and these constitute, with the mayor, a
board of public improvement. Under an enabling act of 1907
the municipal assembly in 1909 created a public service com-
mission, of three members, appointed by the mayor. The
measure of control exercised by the state is important, the
governor appointing the excise (liquor-licence) commissioner,
the board of election commissioners, the inspector of petroleum
and of tobacco, and (since 1861) the police board. St Louis is
normally Republican in politics, and Missouri Democratic.
Taxes for state and municipal purposes are collected by the city.
The school board, as in very few other cities of the country, has
independent taxing power. The city owns the steamboat landings
and draws a small revenue from their rental. The heaviest
expenses are for streets and parks, debt payments, police and
education. The bonded debt in 1910 was $27,815,312, and the
assessed valuation of property in that year was $550,207,640.
The city maintains hospitals, a poor-house, a reformatory
work-house, an industrial school for children, and an asylum
for the insane.
The water-supply of the city is derived from the Mississippi, and
is therefore potentially inexhaustible. Settling basins and a coagu-
lant chemical plant (1904) are used to purify the water before
distribution. After the completion of the Chicago drainage canal
the state of Missouri endeavoured to compel its closure, on the
ground that it polluted the Mississippi; but it was established to the
satisfaction of the Supreme Court of the United States that the back-
flush from Lake Michigan had the contrary effect upon the Illinois
river, and therefore upon the Mississippi. Except for sediment the
water-supply is not impure or objectionable. No public utilities,
except the water-works, markets and public grain elevators, are
owned by the city. The street railways are controlled since a state
law of 1899 permitted their consolidation by one corporation,
though a one-fare, universal transfer 5-cent rate is in general opera-
tion. A single corporation has controlled the gas service from 1846
to 1873 and since 1890, though under no exclusive franchise; and
the city has not the right of purchase.
St Louis was settled as a trading post in 1764 by Pierre Laclede
Liguest (1724-1778), representative of a company to which the
French crown had granted a monopoly of the trade of the
Missouri river country. When, by the treaty of Paris of 1763,
the portion of Louisiana E. of the Mississippi was ceded by
France to Great Britain, many of the French inhabitants of the
district of the Illinois removed into the portion of Louisiana W.
of the river, which had passed in 1762 under Spanish sovereignty;
and of this lessened territory of upper Louisiana St Louis became
the seat of government. In 1767 it was a log-cabin village of
perhaps 500 inhabitants. Spanish rule became an actuality in
1770 and continued until 1804, when it was momentarily sup-
planted by French authority existent theoretically since 1800
and then, after the Louisiana Purchase, by the sovereignty of the
United States. In 1780 the town was attacked by Indian allies
of Great Britain. Canadian-French hunters and trappers and
boatmen, a few Spaniards and other Europeans, some Indians,
more half-breeds, and a considerable body of Americans and
negro slaves made up the motley population that became
inhabitants of the United States. The fur trade was growing
rapidly. Under American rule there was added the trade of a
military supply-point for the Great West, and in 1817-1810
steamship traffic was begun with Louisville, New Orleans, and
the lower Missouri river. Meanwhile, in 1808, St Louis was
incorporated as a town, and in 1823 it became a city. The city
charter became effective in March 1823. The early 'thirties
marked the beginning of its great prosperity, and the decade
1850-1860 was one of colossal growth, due largely to the river
trade. All freights were being moved by steamship as early as
1825. The first railway was begun in 1850. At the opening of
the Civil War the commercial position of the city was most
commanding. Its prosperity, however, was dependent upon the
prosperity of the South, and received a fearful set-back in the war.
When the issue of secession or adherence to the Union had been
made up in 1861, the outcome in St Louis, where the fate of the
state must necessarily be decided, was of national importance.
St Louis was headquarters for an army department and con-
tained a great national arsenal. The secessionists tried to
manoeuvre the state out of the Union by strategy, and to seize
the arsenal. The last was prevented by Congressman Francis
Preston Blair, Jr., and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, first a sub-
ordinate and later commander at the arsenal. The garrison
was strengthened; in April the president entrusted Blair and
other loyal civilians with power to enlist loyal citizens, and put
the city under martial law if necessary; in May ten regiments
were ready made up largely of German-American Republican
clubs (" Wide Awakes "), which had been at first purely political,
then when force became necessary to secure election rights to
anti-slavery men semi-military, and which now were quickly
made available for war; and on the loth of May Captain Lyon
surrounded and made prisoners a force of secessionists quartered
in Camp Jackson on the outskirts of the city. A street riot
followed, and 28 persons were killed by the volleys of the
military. St Louis was held by the Union forces throughout
the war.
ST LOUIS ST LUCIA
27
During a quarter century following 1857 the city was the centre
of an idealistic philosophical movement that has had hardly any
counterpart in American culture except New England trans-
cendentalism. Its founders were William T. Harris (q.v.) and
Henry C. Brockmeyer (b. 1828), who was lieutenant-governor
of the state in 1876-1880. A. Bronson Alcott was one of the
early lecturers to the group which gathered around these two,
a group which studied Hegel and Kant, Plato and Aristotle.
Brockmeyer published excellent versions of Hegel's Unabridged
Logic, Phenomenology and Psychology. Harris became the
greatest of American exponents of Hegel. Other members of the
group were Thomas Davidson (1840-1900), Adolph E. Kroeger,
the translator of Fichte, Anna Callender Brackett (b. 1836),
who published in 1886 an English version of Rosenkranz's History
of Education, Denton Jaques Snider (b. 1841), whose best work
has been on Froebel, and William McKendree Bryant (b. 1843),
who wrote Hegel's Philosophy of Art (1879) and Hegel's Educa-
tional Ideas (1896). This Philosophical Society published (1867-
1893) at St Louis The Journal of Speculative Philosophy, the first
periodical of the sort in English.
Since the war the city's history has been signalized chiefly by
economic development. A period in this was auspiciously closed
in 1904 by the holding of a world's fair to celebrate the centennial
of the purchase from France, in 1803, of the Louisiana territory
since then divided into 13 states, and containing in 1900 some
1 2,500,000 inhabitants. Preparations for this Louisiana Purchase
Exposition began in 1898. It was the largest world's fair held
to date, the site covering 1240 acres, of which 250 were under
roof. The total cost, apart from individual exhibitions, was
about $42,500,000, of which the national government contributed
$5,000,000 and the city of St Louis and its citizens $10,000,000.
Altogether 12,804,616 paid admissions were collected (total
admissions 19,694,855) during the seven months that it was
open, and there was a favourable balance at the close of about
$1,000,000.
Up to 1848 St Louis was controlled in politics almost absolutely
by the Whigs; since then it has been more or less evenly con-
tested by the Democrats against the Whigs and Republicans.
The Republicans now usually have the advantage. As men-
tioned before, the state is habitually Democratic; " boss " rule
in St Louis was particularly vicious in the late 'nineties, and
corruption was the natural result of ring rule the Democratic
bosses have at times had great power and of the low pay
only $25 monthly of the city's delegates and councilmen. But
the reaction came, and with it a strong movement for independent
voting. Fire, floods, epidemics, and wind have repeatedly
attacked the city. A great fire in 1849 burned along the levee
and adjacent streets, destroying steamers, buildings, and goods
worth, by the estimate of the city assessor, more than $6,000,000.
Cholera broke out in 1832-1833, 1849-1851, and 1866, causing
in three months of 1849 almost 4000 deaths, or the death of a
twentieth of all inhabitants. Smallpox raged in 1872-1875.
These epidemics probably reflect the one-time lamentable lack
of proper sewerage. Great floods occurred in 1785, 1811, 1826,
1844, 1872, 1885 and 1903; those of 1785 and 1844 being the
most remarkable. There were tornadoes in 1833, 1852 and
1871; and in 1896 a cyclone of 20 minutes' duration, accom-
panied by fire but followed fortunately by a tremendous rain,
destroyed or wrecked 8500 buildings and caused a loss of property
valued at more than $10,000,000.
EAST ST Louis, a city of St Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
on the E. bank of the Mississippi, lies opposite St Louis, Missouri.
Pop. (1880), 9185; (1890), 15,169; (1900), 29,655, of whom
3920 were foreign born (mostly German and Irish); (1910
census) 58,547. It is one of the great railway centres of the
country. Into it enter from the east sixteen lines of railway,
which cross to St Louis by the celebrated steel arch bridge
and by the Merchants' Bridge. It is also served by three inter-
urban electric railways. The site of East St Louis is in the
" American Bottom," little above the high-water mark of the
river. This " bottom " stretches a long distance up and down
the river, with a breadth of 10 or 1 2 m. It is intersected by many
sloughs and crescent-shaped lakes which indicate former courses
of the river. The manufacturing interests of East St Louis are
important, among the manufactories being packing establish-
ments, iron and steel works, rolh'ng-mills and foundries, flour-
mills, glass works, paint works and wheel works. By far the.
most important industry is slaughtering and meat packing:
both in 1900 and in 1905 East St Louis ranked sixth among the
cities of the United States in this industry; its product in 1900
was valued at $27,676,818 (out of a total for all industries
of $32,460,957), and in 1905 the product of the slaughtering
and meat-packing establishments in and near the limits of
East St Louis was valued at $39,972,245, in the same year
the total for all industries within the corporate limits being
only $37,586,198. The city has a large horse and mule market.
East St Louis was laid out about 1818, incorporated as a town
in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1865.
Consult the Encyclopaedia of the History of St Louis (4 vols.,
St Louis, 1899); J. T. Scharf, History of St Louis City and County
. . . including Biographical Sketches (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1883);
E. H. Shepherd, Early History of St Louis and Missouri . . . 1763-
1843 (St Louis, 1870); F. Billon, Annals of St Louis . . . 1804 to
1821 (2 vols., St Louis, 1886-1888); G. Anderson, Story of a Border
City during the Civil War (Boston, 1908); The Annual Statement of
the Trade and Commerce of St Louis . . . reported to the Merchants'
Exchange, by its secretary.
ST LOUIS, the capital of the French colony of Senegal, West
Africa, with a population (1904) of 24,070, or including the
suburbs, 28,469. St Louis, known to the natives as N'dar, is
163 m. by rail N.N.E. of Dakar and is situated on an island
n| m. above the mouth of the Senegal river, near the right
bank, there separated from the sea by a narrow strip of sand
called the Langue de Barbarie. This strip of sand is occupied
by the villages of N'dar Toute and Guet N'dar. Three bridges
connect the town with the villages; and the Pont Faidherbe,
2132 ft. long, affords communication with Bouetville, a suburb
on the left bank, and the terminus of the railway to Dakar.
The houses of the European quarter have for the most part
flat roofs, balconies and terraces. Besides the governor's
residence the most prominent buildings are the cathedral, the
great mosque, the court-house, the barracks and military offices,
and the docks. The round beehive huts of Guet N'dar are
mainly inhabited by native fishermen. N'dar Toute consists
of villas with gardens, and is a summer watering-place. There
is a pleasant public garden, and N'dar Toute is approached by
a magnificent alley of palm-trees. The low-lying position of
St Louis and the extreme heat render it unhealthy, whilst the
sandy nature of the soil causes intense inconvenience. The
mouth of the Senegal being obstructed by a shifting bar of sand,
the steamships of the great European lines do not come up to
St Louis; passengers embark and land at Dakar, on the eastern
side of Cape Verde. Ships for St Louis have often to wait outside
or inside the bar for days or weeks, and partial unloading is
frequently necessary. From July to the end of September
that is during flood-time the water over the bar is, however,
deep enough to enable vessels to reach St Louis without difficulty.
St Louis is believed to have been the site of a European settlement
since the isth century, but the present town was founded in 1626
by Dieppe merchants known as the Cpmpagnie normande. It is the
oldest colonial establishment in Africa belonging to France (see
SENEGAL). Its modern development dates from 1854. The town,
however, did not receive municipal government till 1872. All
citizens, irrespective of colour, can vote. From 1895 to 1903 St
Louis was not only the capital of Senegal, but the residence of the
governor-general of French West Africa. In November of the last-
named year the governor-general removed to Dakar. Small forts
defend St Louis from the land side the surrounding country, the
Cayor, being inhabited by a warlike race, which previously to the
building (1882-1885) f the St Louis- Dakar railway was a continual
source of trouble.
The town carries on a very active trade with all the countries
watered by the Senegal and the middle Niger. St Louis is connected
with Brest by a direct cable, and with Cadiz via the Canary Islands.
ST LUCIA, the largest of the British Windward Islands,
West Indies, in 14 N., 61 W., 24 m. S. of Martinique and 21 m.
N.E. of St Vincent. Its area is 233 sq. m., length 42 m., maximum
breadth 1 2 m., and its coast-line is 1 50 m. long. It is considered
one of the loveliest of all the West Indian islands. It is a mass
28
ST MACAIRE ST MALO
of mountains, rising sheer from the water, their summits bathed
in perpetual mist. Impenetrable forests alternate with fertile
plains, and deep ravines and frowning precipices with beautiful
bays and coves. Everywhere there is luxuriant vegetation.
Les Pitons (2720 and 2680 ft.) are the chief natural feature two
immense pyramids of rock rising abruptly from the sea, their slopes,
inclined at an angle of 60, being clad on three sides with densest
verdure. No connexion has been traced between them and the
mountain system of the island. In the S.W. also is the volcano
of Soufnere (about 4000 ft.), whose crater is 3 acres in size and
covered with sulphur and cinders. The climate is humid, the rain-
fall varying from 70 to 120 in. per annum, with an average tempera-
ture of 80 F. The soil is deep and rich; the main products are
sugar, cocoa, logwood, coffee, nutmegs, mace, kola-nuts and vanilla,
all of which are exported. Tobacco also is grown, but not for export.
The usine or central factory system is established, there being four
government sugar-mills. Snakes, formerly prevalent, have been
almost exterminated by the introduction of the mongoose. Only
about a third of the island is cultivated, the rest being crown land
under virgin forest, abounding in timber suitable for the finest
cabinet work. The main import trade up to 1904 was from Great
Britain; since then, owing to the increased coal imports from the
United States, the imports are chiefly from other countries. The
majority of the exports go to the United States and to Canada.
In the ten years 1898-1907 the imports averaged 322,000 a year;
the exports 195,000 a year. Bunker coal forms a large item both
in imports and exports. Coal, sugar, cocoa and logwood form the
chief exports.
Education is denominational, assisted by government grants. The
large majority of the schools are under the control of the Roman
Catholics, to whom all the government primary schools were handed
over in 1898. There is a government agricultural school. St Lucia
is controlled by an administrator (responsible to the governor of the
Windward Islands) , assisted by an executive council. The legislature
consists of the administrator and a council of nominated members.
Revenue and expenditure in the period 1901 1907 balanced at about
60,000 a year. The law of the island preserves, in a modified form,
the laws of the French monarchy.
Castries, the capital, on the N.W. coast, has a magnificent land-
locked harbour. There is a concrete wharf 650 ft. long with a
depth alongside of 27 ft., and a wharf of wood 552 ft. in length.
It is the principal coaling station of the British fleet in the West
Indies, was strongly fortified, and has been the military headquarters.
(The troops were removed and the military works stopped in 1905.)
It is a port of registry, and the facilities it offers as a port of call are
widely recognized, the tonnage of ships cleared and entered rising
from 1,555,000 in 1898 to 2,627,000 in 1907. Pop. {1901) 7910.
Soufriere, m the south, the only other town of any importance, had
a population of 2394. The Canbs have disappeared from the island,
and the bulk of the .inhabitants are negroes. Their language is a
French patois, but English is gradually replacing it. There is a small
colony of East Indian coolies, and the white inhabitants are mostly
Creoles of French descent. The total population of the island (1901)
is 49.833-
History. St Lucia is supposed to have been discovered by
Columbus in 1502, and to have been named by the Spaniards
after the saint on whose day it was discovered. It was inhabited
by Caribs, who killed the majority of the first white people
(Englishmen) who attempted to settle on the island (1605).
For two centuries St Lucia was claimed both by France and by
England. In 1627 the famous Carlisle grant included St Lucia
among British possessions, while in 1635 the king of France
granted it to two of his subjects. In 1638 some 130 English
from St Kills formed a selllemenl, bul in 1641 were killed or
driven away by Ihe Caribs. The French in 1650 senl seltlers
from Martinique who concluded a treaty of peace with the
Caribs in 1660. Thomas Warner, natural son of the governor
of St Kills, allacked and overpowered Ihe French selllers in
1663, bul Ihe peace of Breda (1667) restored it to France and it
became nominally a dependency of Martinique. The British
still claimed Ihe island as a dependency of Barbadoes, and in
1722 George I. made a granl of il lo the duke of Monlague.
The year following French Iroops from Martinique compelled
the British settlers to evacuate the island. In 1748 both France
and Great Brilain recognized Ihe island as " neutral." In
1762 its inhabitanls surrendered lo Admiral Rodney and General
Moncklon. By Ihe Ireaty of Paris (1763), however, the British
acknowledged the claims of France, and steps were taken lo
develop the resources of Ihe island. French planlers came from
Si Vincenl and Grenada,collon and sugar plantations were formed,
and in 1772 the island was said to have a population of 15,000,
largely slaves. In 1778 it was captured by the British; its
harbours were a rendezvous for the British squadrons and Gros
Ilet Bay was Rodney's starting-point before his victory over
the Comte de Grasse (April 1782). The peace of Versailles (1783)
restored St Lucia to France, but in 1 794 it was surrendered to
Admiral Jervis (Lord St Vincent). Viclor Hugues, a partisan
of Robespierre, aided by insurgent slaves, made a strenuous
resistance and recovered the island in June 1795. Sir Ralph
Abercromby and Sir John Moore, at the head of 1 2,000 troops,
were sent in 1796 to reduce the island, but it was not until 1797
that the revolutionists laid down their arms. By the trealy
of Amiens Si Lucia was anew declared French. Bonaparte
intended to make it the capital of the Antilles, but it once more
capitulated to Ihe Brilish (June 1803) and was finally ceded lo
Greal Brilain in 1814. In 1834, when the slaves were emanci-
pated, there were in Si Lucia over 13,000 negro slaves, 2600 free
men of colour and 2300 whites. The developmenl of Ihe island
half ruined by the revolutionary war has been retarded by
epidemics of cholera and smallpox, by the decline of the sugar-
cane industry and other causes, such as the low level of education.
The depression in Ihe sugar Irade led to the adoption of cocoa
cultivalion. Efforts were also made lo planl settlers on the
crown lands with a fair amount of success. The colony success-
fully surmounted the financial stringency caused by the with-
drawal of the imperial troops in 1905.
Pigeon Island, formerly an importanl mililary port, lies off
Ihe N.W. end of Si Lucia, by Gros Ilel Bay.
See Sir C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography in the British Colonies,
vol. ii., " The West Indies " (2nd ed. revised by C. Atchley, Oxford,
1905), and the works there cited; also the annual reports on St
Lucia issued by the Colonial Office.
ST MACAIRE, a town of south-western France, in the depart-
menl of Gironde, on Ihe Garonne, 29 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by
rail. Pop. (1906), 2085. Si Macaire is imporlanl for ils medieval
remains, which include a Iriple line of ramparls wilh old gale-
ways. There are also several houses of Ihe I3lh and I4lh
cenluries. The imposing church of Si Sauveur (nlh lo islh
cenluries) has a doorway wilh beautiful 13th-century carving
and interesting mural paintings. St Macaire (anc. Ligena) owes
its name to the saint whose relics were preserved in the monastery
of which the church of St Sauveur is the principal remnanl.
ST MAIXENT, a lown of weslern France, in Ihe departmenl
of Deux-Sevres, on the Sevre Niortaise, 15 m. N.E. ofNiortby
rail. Pop. (1906), 4102. The town has a fine abbey church
built from the I2th to the isth century, but in great part
destroyed by the Protestants in the i6th cenlury and rebuill
from 1670 lo 1682 in the flamboyant Golhic style. The chief
parts anterior to this date are the nave, which is Romanesque,
and a lofty isth-cenlury lower over the west front. The crypt
contains the tomb of Saint Maxentius, second abbol of Ihe
monaslery, which was founded about 460. The town has a com-
munal college, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and an
infantry school for non-commissioned officers preparing for the
rank of sub-lieutenant. It was Ihe birthplace of Colonel Denfert-
Rochereau, defender of Belfort in 1870-1871, and has a slalue
to him. The industries include dyeing and the manufacture of
hosiery, muslard and plaster. The prosperity of the lown was
al ils heighl afler Ihe promulgalion of Ihe edicl of Nanles,
when il numbered 12,000 inhabilants.
ST MALO, a seaporl of weslern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in thedeparlment of llle-et-Vilaine, 51 m.N.N.W. of Rennes
by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 8727; commune, 10,647. St Malo
is siluated on the English Channel on the right bank of the
estuary of the Ranee at its mouth. It is a garrison town sur-
rounded by ramparls which include portions dating from the
1 4th, isth and f6th cenluries, bul as a whole were rebuill at
the end of the iyth century according to Vauban's plans, and
restored in the igth cenlury. The mosl importanl of the gales
are lhal of Si Vincenl and Ihe Grande Porte, defended by two
massive isth-cenlury towers. The granite island on which
St Malo stands communicates with the mainland on the north-
east by a causeway known as Ihe " Sillon " (furrow), 650 ft.
long, and al one time only 46 ft. broad, though now three times
that breadth. In the sea round aboul lie other granite rocks,
SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN SAINT-MARTIN
29
which have been turned to account in the defences of the coast;
on the islet of the Grand Bey is the tomb (1848) of Frangois
Auguste, vicomte de Chateaubriand, a native of the town. The
rocks and beach are continually changing their appearance,
owing to the violence of the tides; spring- tides sometimes
rise 50 ft. above low-water level, and the sea sometimes washes
over the ramparts. The harbour of St Malo lies south of the
town in the creek separating it from the neighbouring town
of St Servan. Including the contiguous and connected basins
belonging more especially to St Servan, it comprises an outer
basin, a tidal harbour, two wet-docks and an inner reservoir,
affording a total length of quayage of over 2 m. The wet-docks
have a minimum depth of 1310 15 ft. on sill, but the tidal harbour
is dry at low water. The vessels entered at St Malo-St Servan
in 1906 numbered 1004 of 279,217 tons; cleared 1023 of 298,720
tons. The great bulk of trade is with England, the exports
comprising large quantities of fruit, dairy-produce, early potatoes
and other vegetables and slate. The chief imports are coal and
timber. The London and South-Western railway maintains a
regular service of steamers between Southampton and St Malo.
The port carries on shipbuilding and equips a fleet for the
Newfoundland cod-fisheries. The industries also include iron-
and copper-founding and the manufacture of portable forges
and other iron goods, cement, rope and artificial manures. The
town is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce. Communication between the quays of St
Malo and St Servan is maintained by a travelling bridge.
St Malo is largely frequented for sea-bathing, but not so much
as Dinard, on the opposite side of the Ranee. The town presents
a tortuous maze of narrow streets and small squares lined with
high and sometimes quaint buildings (e.g. the 16th-century
house in which Rene Duguay-Trouin was born). Above all rises
the stone spire (1859) of the cathedral, a building begun in the
1 2th century but added to and rebuilt at several subsequent
periods. The castle (isth cent.), which defends the town
towards the " Sillon," is flanked with four towers, one of which,
the great keep, is an older and loftier structure, breached in 1378
by the duke of Lancaster. St Malo has statues to Chateaubriand,
Duguay-Trouin and the privateer Robert Surcouf (1773-1827),
natives of the town. The museum contains remains of the
ship " La Petite Hermine," in which Jacques Cartier sailed to
the St Lawrence (q.v.), and a natural history collection.
In the 6th century the island on which St Malo stands was the
retreat of Abbot Aaron, who gave asylum in his monastery to
Malo (Maclovius or Malovius), a Cambrian priest, who came
hither to escape the episcopal dignity, but afterwards became
bishop of Aleth (now St Servan); the see was transferred to St
Malo only in the I2th century. Henceforth the bishops of St
Malo claimed the temporal sovereignty over the town, a claim
which was resolutely disputed by the dukes of Brittany. The
policy of the citizens themselves, who thus gained substantial
powers of self-government, was directed by consistent hostility
to England and consequently to the dukes. They took the side
of Bishop Josselin de Rohan and his successor in their quarrel
with dukes John IV. and John V., and it was not till 1424 that
John V., by the agency of Charles VI. of France and with the
sanction of the pope, finally established his authority over the
town. la 1488 St Malo unsuccessfully resisted the French
troops on behalf of the duke. During the troubles of the League
the citizens hoped to establish a republican government, and on
the nth of March 1590 they exterminated the royal garrison
and imprisoned their bishop and the canons. But four years
later they surrendered to Henry IV. of France. During the
following century the maritime power of St Malo attained
some importance. In November 1693 ar| d July 1695 the English
vainly bombarded it. The people of St Malo had in the course of
a single war captured upwards of 1500 vessels (several of them
laden with gold and other treasure) and burned a considerable
number more. Enriched by these successes and by the wealth
they drew from the New World, the shipowners of the town not
only supplied the king with the means necessary for the famous
Rio de Janeiro expedition conducted by Duguay-Trouin in
1711, but also lent him large sums for carrying on the war of the
Spanish Succession. In June 1758 the English sent a third
expedition against St Malo under the command of Charles
Spencer, third duke of Marlborough, and inflicted great loss on the
royal shipping in the harbour of St Servan. But another expedi-
tion undertaken in the following September received a complete
check. In 1778 and during the wars of the Empire the St Malo
privateers resumed their activity. In 1789 St Servan was
separated from St Malo and in 1801 St Malo lost its bishopric.
During the Reign of Terror the town was the scene of sanguinary
executions.
See M. J. Poulain, Hisloire de Saint-Malo . . . d'apres Us docu-
ments inedits (2nd ed., Lille, 1887). '
SAINT-MARC GIRARDIN (1801-1873), French politician and
man of letters, whose real name was MARC GIRARDIN, was born
in Paris on the 22nd of February 1801. After a brilliant uni-
versity career in Paris he began in 1828 to contribute to the
Journal des Debuts, on the staff of which he remained for nearly
half a century. At the accession of Louis Philippe he was
appointed professor of history at the Sorbonne and master of
requests in the Conseil d'Etat. Soon afterwards he exchanged
his chair of history for one of poetry, continuing to contribute
political articles to the Debats, and sitting as deputy in the
chamber from 1835 to 1848. He was charged in 1833 with a
mission to study German methods of education, and issued a
report advocating the necessity of newer methods and of technical
instruction. In 1844 he was elected a member of the Academy.
During the revolution of February 1848 Girardin was for a
moment a minister, but after the establishment of the republic
he was not re-elected deputy. After the war of 1870-71 he was
returned to the Bordeaux assembly by his old department the
Haute Vienne. His Orleanist tendencies and his objections to
the republic were strong, and though he at first supported Thiers,
he afterwards became a leader of the opposition to the president.
He died, however, on the ist of April 1873 at Morsang-sur-Seine,
before Thiers was actually driven from power.
His chief work is his Cours de litterature dramatique (1843-1863),
a series of lectures better described by its second title De I'usage des
passions dans le drame. The author examines the passions, discussing
the mode in which they are treated in ancient and modern drama,
poetry and romance. The book is really a defence of the ancients
against the moderns, and Girardin did not take into account the
fact that only the best of ancient literature hae come down to us.
Against the Romanticists he waged untiring war. Among his other
works may be noticed Essais de litterature (2 vols. 1844), made up
chiefly of contributions to the Debats, his Notices sur I'Allemagne
(1834), and many volumes of collected Souvenirs, Reflexions, &c., on
foreign countries and passing events. His latest works of literary
importance were La Fontaine et les Fabulistes (1867) and an Etude
sur J.-J. Rousseau (1870) which had appeared in the Revue des deux
mondes.
See Ch. Labitte, " Saint-Marc Girardin," in the Revue des deux
mondes (Feb. 1845); Tamisier, Saint-Marc Girardin; etude lilteraire
(1876); Hatzfield and Meunier, Les Critiques litteraires dit XIX'
siede (1894).
SAINT-MARTIN, LOUIS CLAUDE DE (1743-1803), French
philosopher, known as " le philosophe inconnu," the name under
which his works were published, was born at Amboise of a poor
but noble family, on the i8th of January 1743. By his father's
desire he tried first law and then the army as a profession. While
in garrison at Bordeaux he came under the influence of Martinez
de Pasquales, usually called a Portuguese Jew (although later
research has made it probable that he was a Spanish Catholic),
who taught a species of mysticism drawn from cabbalistic
sources, and endeavoured to found thereon a secret cult with
magical or theurgical rites. In 1771 Saint-Martin left the army
to become a preacher of mysticism. His conversational powers
made him welcome in Parisian salons, but his zeal led him to
England, where he made the acquaintance of William Law (<?..),
the English mystic, to Italy and to Switzerland, as well as to the
chief towns of France. At Strassburg in 1788 he met Charlotte
de Boecklin, who initiated him into the writings of Jacob Boehme,
and inspired in his breast a semi-romantic attachment. His
later years were devoted almost entirely to the composition of his
chief works and to the translation of those of Boehme. Although
he was not subjected to any persecution in consequence of his
ST MARTIN SAINT MARYS
opinions, his property was confiscated after the Revolution
because o{ his social position. He was brought up a strict
Catholic, and always remained attached to the church, although
his first work, Of Errors and Truth, was placed upon the Index.
He died at Aunay, near Paris, on the 23rd of October 1803.
His chief works are Lettre a un ami sur la Revolution Franc,aise;
Eclair sur I'association humaine; De I' esprit des chases; Ministere
de I'homme-esprit. Other treatises appeared in his (Euvres posthumes
(1807). Saint-Martin regarded the French Revolution as a sermon
in action, if not indeed a miniature of the last judgment. His ideal
society was " a natural and spiritual theocracy," in which God would
raise up men of mark and endowment, who would regard themselves
strictly as " divine commissioners " to guide the people. All ecclesi-
astical organization was to disappear, giving place to a purely
spiritual Christianity, based on the assertion of a faculty superior
to the reason moral sense, from which we derive knowledge of God.
God exists as an eternal personality, and the creation is an over-
flowing of the divine love, which was unable to contain itself. The
human soul, the human intellect or spirit, the spirit of the universe,
and the elements or matter are the four stages of this divine emana-
tion, man being the immediate reflection of God, and nature in turn
a reflection of man. Man, however, has fallen from his high estate,
and matter is one of the consequences of his fall. But divine love,
united to humanity in Christ, will work the final regeneration.
See J. B. Gence, Notice biographique (1824); L. I. Moreau, Le
Philosophe inconnu (1850); E. M. Caro, Essai sur la vie et la
doctrine de Saint-Martin (1852); Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi,
x. 190; A. J. Matter, Saint-Martin, le philosophe inconnu (1862);
A. Franck, La Philosophie mystique en France d la fin du dix-huitieme
silde (1866) ; A. E. Waite, The Life of Louis Claude de Saint-Martin
(1901). There are English translations of The Ministry of Man the
Spirit (1864) and of Select Correspondence (1863) by E. B. Penny.
ST MARTIN, an island in the West Indies, about 5 m. S. of
the British island of Anguilla in 18 N. and 63 W. It is 38 sq. m.
in area and nearly triangular in form, composed of conical hills,
culminating in Paradise Peak (1920 ft.). It is the only island in
the Antilles owned by two European powers; 17 sq. m. in the
N., belonging to France, fortn a dependency of Guadeloupe,
while the rest of the island, belonging to Holland, is a dependency
of Curacao. Sugar, formerly its staple, has been succeeded by
salt. The chief town of the French area is Marigot, a free port
on the W. coast; of the Dutch, Philipsburg, on the S. St Martin
was first occupied by French freebooters in 1638, but ten years
later the division between France and Holland was peaceably
made. The inhabitants, mostly English-speaking negroes,
number about 3000 in the French part, and in the Dutch the
population in 1908 was 3817.
ST MARY (Santa Maria), an island in the Atlantic Ocean,
belonging to Portugal and forming part of the Azores (?..).
Pop. (1000), 6383; area, 40 sq. m. St Mary is the southernmost
and easternmost of the Azores, lying south of the larger island
of St Michael's, through the medium of which its trade is con-
ducted, as it has no good harbours of its own. It produces wheat
in abundance, of which a considerable quantity is exported.
Various volcanic rocks are the predominant formations, but beds
of limestone also occur, giving rise to numerous stalactite grottoes
all over the island. The chief town is Villa do Porto (2506).
ST MARYLEBONE (commonly called MARYLEBONE), a north-
western metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded
N. by Hampstead, E. by St Pancrasand Holborn,S. by the City
of Westminster, and W. by Paddington. Pop. (1901), 133,301.
It is mainly a rich residential quarter; the most fashionable part
is found in the south, in the vicinity of Cavendish and Portman
Squares, but there are numerous fine houses surrounding Regent's
Park and in the north-western district of St John's Wood.
Oxford Street, with its handsome shops, bounds the borough on
the south, crossing Regent Street at Oxford Circus; Edgware
Road on the west; Marylebone Road crosses from east to west,
and from this Upper Baker Street gives access to Park,
Wellington, and Finchley Roads; and Baker Street leads south-
ward. Poor and squalid streets are found, in close proximity
to the wealthiest localities, between Marylebone Road and
St John's Wood Road, and about High Street in the south, the
site of the original village. The formation of the Great Central
Railway, the Marylebone terminus of which, in Marylebone
Road, was opened in 1899, caused an extensive demolition of
streets and houses in the west central district. St Marylebone
was in the manor of Tyburn, which takes name from the Tyburn,
a stream which flowed south to the Thames through the centre
of the present borough. The church was called St Mary at the
Bourne. The name Tyburn (q.v.) was notorious chiefly as
applied to the gallows which stood near the existing junction of
Edgware Road and Oxford Street (Marble Arch). The manor
at the Domesday Survey was in the possession of the nunnery
at Barking, but the borough includes several estates, such as the
manor of Lyllestone in the west, the name of which is preserved
in Lisson Grove. From 1738 to 1776 Marylebone Gardens (which
had existed under other names from the close of the i7th century)
became one of the most favoured evening resorts in London.
They extended east of High Street as far as Harley Street, but
by 1778 the ground was being built over. Another historic site
is Horace Street near Edgware Road, formerly Cato Street, from
which the conspiracy which bore that name was directed against
the ministry in 1820.
The borough includes almost the whole of Regent's Park, with a
portion of Primrose Hill north of it. These have altogether an area
of 472 acres. The park, originally Marylebone Park, was enclosed by
James I., and received its modern name from the Prince Regent,
afterwards George IV. It contains the Zoological Gardens, one of
the most noteworthy institutions of its kind, attracting numerous
visitors to its splendid collections of living animals. Here are also the
gardens of the Royal Botanic Society, incorporated in 1839. They
are enclosed and beautifully laid out, and contain hot-houses and a
museum. Exhibitions are held each year. The Toxpphilite Society,
founded in 1781, has also occupied grounds here since 1883. The
picturesque lake is supplied by the ancient Tyburn. The Regent's
Canal skirts the north side of the park. Another famous enclosure is
Lord's Cricket Ground, St John's Wood Road. The founder, Thomas
Lord (1814), at first established a cricket ground in the present Dorset
Square, but it was soon moved here. Lord's, as it is called, is the
headquarters of the M.C.C. (Marylebone Cricket Club), the governing
body of the game ; here are played the home matches of this club and
of the Middlesex County Cricket Club, the Oxford and Cambridge,
Eton and Harrow, and other well-known fixtures. The Wallace Art
Collection, Hertford House, Manchester Square, was bequeathed
by Sir Richard Wallace to the nation on the death of his wife in 1897.
The waxwork exhibition named after Madame Tussaud, who founded
it in Paris in 1780, occupies large buildings in Marylebone Road.
The Parkes Museum of the Sanitary Institute is in Margaret Street.
The Queen's Hall, Langham Place, is used for concerts, including a
notable annual series of orchestral promenade concerts StMaryiebone
contains a great number of hospitals, among which are the Middlesex,
Mortimer Street; Throat Hospital and Dental Hospital and School,
Great Portland Street; Lying-in and Ophthalmic Hospitals, Maryle-
bone Road ; Samaritan Hospital for women, Seymour Street ; Con-
sumption Hospital, Margaret Street; and the Home for incurable
children, St John's Wood Road. There are also several industrial
homes. Harley Street, between Marylebone Road and Cavendish
Square, is noted as the residence of medical practitioners Educa-
tional institutions include the Trinity and the Victoria Colleges of
Music, in Manchester Square and Berners Street respectively; the
Bedford College for women, and the Regent's Park Baptist College.
The parliamentary borough of Marylebone has east and west divisions,
each returning one member. The borough council consists of a
mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 1472-8 acres.
SAINT MARYS, a city of Auglaize county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
the Saint Marys river and the Miami & Erie canal, about 85 m.
W.N.W. of Columbus. Pop. (1910) 5732. Saint Marys is served
by the Lake Erie & Western, the Western Ohio (electric), and the
Toledo & Ohio Central railways. About i m. west is a feeding
reservoir of the canal covering about 17,600 acres. Saint Marys
is in the Ohio oil region. The city occupies the site of a former
Shawnee village, in which a trading post was established in
1782 by James Girty, 1 from whom the place was for some years
1 James Girty (1743-1817) was one of the notorious Girty brothers,
the sons of Simon Girty (d. iTSOi an Irish immigrant. The brothers
were taken prisoners by the French and Indian force which in 1756
captured Fort Granville, in what is now Mifflin county, Pennsylvania.
James was adopted by the Shawnees and lived among them for three
years, after which he acted as an interpreter and trader; he fre-
quently accompanied the Indians against the English settlers, and
exhibited the greatest ferocity. He conducted a profitable trading
business with the Indians at St Marys in 1783-1794, when he with-
drew to Canada upon the approach of General Wayne, and again
from 1795 until just before the Warof 1812, when he again withdrew
to Canada, where he died. His brother Simon (17411818), who lived
with the Senecas for several years after his capture, was even more
bloodthirsty; he served against the Indians in Lord Dunmore's
War, and in 1776, during the War of Independence, entered the
ST MARY'S LOCH ST MICHAEL'S
called Girty's Town. Fort St Marys was built in 1784 or 1785
by a detachment of General Anthony Wayne's troops, and in
1812 Ft. Barbee was erected at the instance of General W. H.
Harrison by Colonel Joshua Barbee. During the War of 1812
the place was for some time the headquarters of General
Harrison's army. St Marys was laid out as a town in 1823, and
became a city in 1903 under the general municipal code which
came into effect in that year.
ST MARY'S LOCH, a fresh-water lake of Selkirkshire, Scotland.
It lies in the high land towards the western border, and is visited
from Selkirk (16 m. E. by N.) or Moffat (15 m. S.W.). It is
814 ft. above the sea, is from 80 to 90 ft. deep, 3 m. long, about
i m. wide at its widest, and has a shore-line of 7j m. A narrow
isthmus divides its head from the small Loch of the Lowes
(about i m. long), which is believed to have been once part of it,
the difference of level being only 15 in. St Mary's is emptied by
the Yarrow, and its principal feeder is Megget Water, a noted
angling stream. It takes its name from St Mary's Kirk, the ruins
of which lie near the northern shore. From the I3th century,
when the church is first mentioned, till its destruction in 1557,
it was variously known as the Forest Kirk (in which William
Wallace was elected Warden of Scotland), St Mary's of Farmaini-
shope, an old name of the adjoining lands of Kirkstead, St Mary
of the Lowes, and the Kirk of Yarrow. It had been partly
restored, but gradually fell into decay, its place being taken by
the church of Yarrow farther down the vale. In the graveyard
was buried John Grieve (1781-1836), the Edinburgh hatter,
a poet of some capacity, patron of James Hogg, the Ettrick
Shepherd. At the head of the lake is the celebrated inn opened
by Tibbie Shiel (Mrs Richardson, d. 1878), which was visited by
many distinguished men of letters.
ST MAUR-DES-FOSSfiS, a south-eastern suburb of Paris,
on the right bank of the Marne, 7 m. from the centre of the city.
Pop. (1906), 28,016. St Maur and the residential district sur-
rounding it cover a peninsula formed by a loop in the Marne,
the neck of which is crossed by the canal of St Maur. In the
reign of Clovis II. the monastery of Les Fosses was founded;
the amplification of the name came when the body of St Maurus
was brought there by the monks of St Maur-sur-Loire. About
the same time was inaugurated the pilgrimage of Notre-Dame
des Miracles, which still takes place annually. In 1465 a treaty
of peace, putting an end to the " War of the Public Weal,"
was concluded between Louis XI. and his revolted barons at
St Maur.
ST MAUR-SUR-LOIRE, a village of western France in the
department of Maine-et-Loire on the Loire about 15 m. below
Saumur. Here St Maurus towards the middle of the 6th century
founded the first Benedictine monastery in Gaul. About the
middle of the gth century it was reduced to ruins by the Normans;
in anticipation of the disaster the relics of the saint were trans-
ferred to the abbey of Fosses (afterwards St Maur-des-Fosses :
see above). St Maur-sur-Loire was afterwards restored and
fortified; the extant remains consist of a part of the church
(i2th and I7th centuries) and buildings of the i7th and i8th
centuries.
ST MAWES, a small seaport in the St Austell parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, beautifully situated on an arm
of Falmouth Harbour. Pop. (1901), 1178. The inlet admits only
small vessels to the little harbour, but there is a considerable
fishing industry. A large circular castle, ms-d-vis with that of
Pendennis near Falmouth, and dating from the same period
(Henry VIII.), guards the entrance. Near the shore of the inlet
opposite St Mawes is the small church of St Anthony in Roseland,
an excellent example of Early English work, retaining a good
Norman doorway.
British service as an interpreter, and after the war instigated Indian
attacks on the frontier and fought with the Indians against General
Arthur St Clair and General Anthony Wayne. Another brother,
George Girty (1745-c. 1812), lived among the Delawares for several
years, was also a trade/ and interpreter, and was likewise a renegade.
Thomas (1739-1820), though he associated much with the Indians,
did not participate in their wars. See W. Butterfield's History of the
Girtys (Cincinnati, 1890).
The history of St Mawes is simple. The saint of that name
is said to have made the creek of the Fal a halting-place in the
5th century. The chapel of St Mawes, pulled down in 1812,
was licensed by the bishop in 1381, and both chapel and village
were situated within the manor of Bogullos, which in the i6th
century belonged to the family of Wydeslade. In the i6th
century John Leland speaks of the castle as lately begun and
describes St Mawes as " a quarter of a mile from the castle, a
pretty village or fishertown with a pier called St Mawes and there
is a chapel of the saint and his chair of stone and hard by his
well." The number of houses half a century later did not exceed
twenty, and John Wydeslade, as lord of the manor of Bogullos,
owned the village. For the part which he took in the rebellion
of 1549 Wydeslade was hanged and his lands forfeited, and in
1562 the manor was granted by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Reginald
Mohun of Hall. In the same year St Mawes was incorporated
and invested with the right of returning two members to the
House of Commons, a privilege which it enjoyed until 1832.
In 1607 the portion of the manor of Bogullos which embraced
St Mawes was sold by Sir Thomas Arundell, who had married
a daughter of Sir William Mohun, to Thomas Walker, and by
the latter it was resold to Sir George Parry, who represented
the borough in parliament from 1640 to 1642. Sir George Parry
sold St Mawes to John Tredenham, whose sons, Sir William and
Sir Joseph, and Sir Joseph's son, John Tredenham, became
successively its parliamentary representatives. On the death of
the last named St Mawes passed by sale to John Knight, whose
widow married Robert Nugent, afterwards Earl Nugent, and
until the Reform Act of 1832 the Nugents controlled the elections
at St Mawes. The corporation, founded in 1562, which consisted
of a mayor, or portreeve, and other officers elected by about
twenty free tenants, was dissolved under the Municipal Cor-
porations Act in 1835. Its silver mace now belongs to the
corporation of Wolverhampton, to whom it passed after the
great sale of the effects of the duke of Buckingham at Stowe
in 1848, the duke having obtained it as the heir of the Earls
Nugent.
ST MICHAEL'S (Sao Miguel), the largest island in the
Portuguese archipelago of the Azores. Pop. (1900), 121,340;
area, 297 sq. m. The east end of St Michael's rises from a head-
land 1400 ft. high to the inland peak of Vara (3573 ft.), whence
a central range (2000 to 2500 ft.) runs westward, terminating
on the south coast in the Serra da Agoa do Pau, about half-
way across the island. The range gradually declines in approach-
ing its last point, where it is not more than 100 ft. high. The
middle part of the island is lower, and more undulating, its
western extremity being marked by the conspicuous Serra
Gorda (1572 ft.); its shores on both sides are low, broken and
rocky. The aspect of the western portion of the island is that
of a vast truncated cone, irregularly cut off at an elevation of
about 800 ft., and falling on the north, south and west sides
to a perpendicular coast between 300 and 800 ft. high. In the
highest parts an undergrowth of shrubs gives the mountains
a rich and wooded appearance. Like all volcanic countries,
the island has an uneven surface with numerous ravines, and
streams of semi-vitrified and scoriaceous lava which resist all
atmospheric influences and repel vegetation. Heavy rains
falling on the mountains afford a constant supply of water
to four lakes at the bottom of extinct craters, to a number of
minor reservoirs, and through them, to small rapid streams
on all sides.
Hot springs abound in many parts, and vapour issues from
almost every crevice. But the most remarkable phenomena
are the Caldeiras ("Cauldrons"), or Olhos ("Eyes"), i.e.
boiling fountains, which rise chiefly from a valley called the
Furnas (" Furnaces "), near the western extremity of the island.
The water rises in columns about 12 ft. high and dissolves in
vapour. The ground in the vicinity is entirely covered with
native sulphur, like hoar-frost. At a small distance is the Muddy
Crater, 45 ft. in diameter, on a level with the plain. Its contents
are in a state of continual and violent ebullition, accompanied
with a sound resembling that of a tempestuous ocean. Yet they
ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT ST NECTAIRE
never rise above its level, unless occasionally to throw to a small
distance a spray of the consistence of melted lead. The Furnas
abounds also in hot springs, some of them of a very high tempera-
ture. There is almost always, however, a cold spring near the
hot one. These have long been visited by sufferers from palsy,
rheumatism, scrofula and similar maladies. Bath-rooms and
other buildings have been erected.
The plains of St. Michael's are fertile, producing wheat, barley and
Indian corn; vines, oranges and other fruit trees grow luxuriantly
on the sides of the mountains. The plants are made to spring even
from the interstices of the volcanic rocks, which are sometimes
blasted to receive them. Raised in this manner, these fruits are of
superior quality; but the expense of such a mode of cultivation
necessarily restricts it. The western part of the island yields hemp.
The principal town and seaport is Ponta Delgada (g.r.), with
17,675 inhabitants in 1900. The other chief towns are Arrifes
(5644), Lagoa (7950), Povoacao (5093), Ribeira Grande (8496) and
Villa Franca do Campo (8162). (See also AZORES.)
ST MICHAEL'S MOUNT, a lofty pyramidal island, exhibiting
a curious combination of slate and granite, rising 400 yds.
from the shore of Mount's Bay, in Cornwall, England. It is
united with Marazion by a natural causeway cast up by the sea,
and passable only at low tide. If its identity with the Mictis
of Timaeus and the Ictis of Diodorus Siculus be allowed, St
Michael's Mount is one of the most historic spots in the west
of England. It was possibly held by a body of religious in the
Confessor's time and given by Robert, count of Mortain, to
Mount St Michael, of which Norman abbey it continued to be a
priory until the dissolution of the alien houses by Henry V.,
when it was given to the abbess and Convent of Syon. It was
a resort of pilgrims, whose devotions were encouraged by an in-
dulgence granted by Pope Gregory in the nth century. The
Mount was captured on behalf of Prince John by Henry Pomeroy
in the reign of Richard I. John de Vere, earl of Oxford, seized
it and held it during a siege of twenty-three weeks against 6000
of the king's troops in 1473. Perkin Warbeck occupied the
Mount in 1497. Humphry Arundell, governor of St Michael's
Mount, led the rebellion of 1549. During the reign of Queen
Elizabeth it was given to Robert, earl of Salisbury, by whose
son it was sold to Sir Francis Basset. Sir Arthur Basset, brother
of Sir Francis, held the Mount against the parliament until
July 1646. It was sold in 1659 to Colonel John St Aubyn
and is now the property of his descendant Lord Levan. The
chapel is extra-diocesan and the castle is the residence of Lord
St Levan.
Many relics, chiefly armour and antique furniture, are preserved
in the castle. The chapel of St Michael, a beautiful 15th-century
building, has an embattled tower, in one angle of which is a small
turret, which served for the guidance of ships. Chapel rock, on the
beach, marks the site of a shrine dedicated to the Virgin Mary,
where pilgrims paused to worship before ascending the Mount.
A few houses are built on the hillside facing Marazion, and a
spring supplies them with water. The harbour, widened in 1823
to allow vessels of 500 tons to enter, has a pier dating from the
I5th century, and subsequently enlarged and restored. Pop.
(1901), in.
ST MIHIEL, a town of north-eastern France, in the department
of Meuse, on the right bank of the Meuse and the Canal de 1'Est,
23 m. S. by E. of Verdun by rail. Pop. (1906) of the town,
5943 (not including a large garrison), of the commune, 9661.
St Mihiel is famous for its Benedictine abbey of St Michael,
founded in 709, to which it owes its name. The abbey buildings
(occupied by the municipal offices) date from the end of the i7th
century and the beginning of the 1 8th century, and the church from
the 1 7th century. The latter contains a wooden carving of the
Virgin by the sculptor Ligier Richier, born at St Mihiel in 1506.
Other interesting buildings are the church of St Etienne, chiefly
in the flamboyant Gothic style, which contains a magnificent
Holy Sepulchre by Ligier Richier, and several houses dating
from the isth, i6th and i7th centuries. On the road to Verdun
are seven huge rocks, in one of which a sepulchre (i8th century),
containing a life-sized figure of Christ, has been hollowed. St
Mihiel formerly possessed fortifications and two castles which
were destroyed in 1635 by the royal troops in the course of a
quarrel between Louis XIII. and Charles IV., duke of Lorraine.
The town is the seat of a court of assizes, and has the tribunal
of first instance belonging to the arrondissement of Commercy
and a communal college.
ST MORITZ (in Ladin, San Murezzan), the loftiest (6037 ft.)
and the most populous village of the Upper Engadine in the
Swiss canton of the Grisons. It is built above the north shore
of the lake of the same name (formed by the Inn), and is by rail
56 m. from Coire by the Albula railway, or by road 48! m. from
Martinsbruck (the last village in the Engadine), or by road 30 m.,
over the Maloja Pass, from Chiavenna. In 1900 it had a popula-
tion of 1603, 475 being German-speaking, 433 Ladin-speaking,
and 504 (railway workmen) Italian-speaking, while 837 were
Protestants and 743 Catholics. The village is about i m. north
of the baths, an electric tramway connecting the two. Both are
now much frequented by foreign visitors. The baths (chalybeate,
sparkling with free carbonic acid) were known and much resorted
to in the i6th century, when they were described by Paracelsus;
they were visited in 1779 by Archdeacon W. Coxe. They are
frequented chiefly by non-English visitors in summer, the
English season at St Moritz being mainly the winter, for the sake
of skating and tobogganing. (W. A. B. C.)
ST NAZAIRE, a town of western France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Loire-Inferieure, 40 m. W.N.W.
of Nantes by rail and 29 m. by river. Pop. (1906), 30,345. St
Nazaire, situated on the right bank of the Loire at its mouth,
is a modern town with straight thoroughfares crossing one
another at right angles. It possesses nothing of antiquarian
interest except a granite dolmen 10 ft. long and 5 ft. wide resting
horizontally on two other stones sunk in the soil, above which
they rise 6| ft. The only noteworthy building is a modern church
in the Gothic style of the i4th century. The harbour, which
constitutes the outport of Nantes and is accessible to ships
of the largest size, is separated from the estuary by a narrow
strip of land, and comprises an outer harbour and entrance,
two floating docks (the old dock and the Penhouet dock), three
graving docks, and the extensive shipbuilding yards of the Loire
Company and of the General Transatlantic Company whose
steamers connect St Nazaire with Mexico, the Antilles and the
Isthmus of Panama. Ships for the navy and the mercantile
marine are built, and there are important steel-works, blast-
furnaces, forges, and steam saw-mills. The town is the seat of a
sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade-
arbitration, an exchange, a chamber of commerce, a communal
college, and schools of navigation and industry. Next to British
and French, Spanish, Norwegian and Swedish vessels most
frequent the port. In the decade 1898-1907 the value of imports
greatly fluctuated, being highest in 1898 (2,800,000) and lowest
in 1904 (1,688,000), the average for each of the ten years being
2,280,000. The value of the exports in the same period varied
between 3,724,000 in 1899 and 1,396,000 in 1906, the average
being 2,935,200. Imports include coal and patent fuel, iron
ore and pyrites, timber, rice and hemp; exports include iron
ore, coal and patent fuel, pit wood, sugar, garments and woven
goods, preserved fish, and wine and spirits.
According to remains discovered on excavating the docks, St
Nazaire seems to occupy the site of the ancient Corbilo, placed by
Strabo among the more important maritime towns of Gaul. At the
close of the 4th century the site of Corbilo was occupied by Saxons,
and, their conversion to Christianity being effected one or two hun-
dred years later by St Felix of Nantes, the place took the name of
St Nazaire. It was still only a little " bourg " of some 3000 in-
habitants when under the second empire it was chosen as the site
of the new harbour for Nantes, because the ascent of the Loire was
becoming more and more difficult. In 1868 the sub-prefecture was
transferred to St Nazaire from Savenay.
ST NECTAIRE (corrupted into Sennecterre and Senneterre),
the name of an estate in Auvergne, France, which gave its name
to a feudal house holding distinguished rank in the I3th century.
The eldest branch of this family held the marquisate of La
Fert6 (q.v.), and produced a heroine of the religious wars of the
1 6th century, Madeleine de St Nectaire, who married Guy de St
Exupery, seigneur de Miremont, in 1 548, and fought successfully
at the head of the Protestants in her territory against the troops
of the League. To the same house belonged the branches of the
marquises of Chateauneuf, the seigneurs of Brinon-sur-Sauldre
ST NEOTS SAINTON
33
and St Victour, and the seigneurs of Clavelier and Fontenilles,
all of which are now extinct. (M. P.*)
ST NEOTS (pronounced St Neets), a market town in the
southern parliamentary division of Huntingdonshhe, England,
on the right (east) bank of the Ouse, 51 1 m. N. of London by
the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district, (1901)
3880. A stone bridge crosses the river, built in 1589. from the
ruins of a former priory. The parish church of St Mary is a
fine Perpendicular building of the later isth century. The
original oak roof is noteworthy. Among other buildings may
be mentioned the Victoria museum (1887), the library and
literary institute, and the endowed school (1760). Paper-mills,
breweries, flour-mills, and engineering works furnish the chief
industries of the town.
The name of St Neots is derived from the monastery founded
in the adjoining parish of Eynesbury in the reign of King Edgar
(967-975). St Neot, a priest of Glastonbury Abbey in Somerset,
became a recluse at a place which he named Neotstoke, near
Bodmin in Cornwall, where he died about the end of the gth
century. His shrine at Eynesbury being threatened by the
incursion of the Danes early in the 1 1 th century, the relics were
conveyed to Crowland Abbey, in Lincolnshire, of which he
became one of the patron saints. But in 1112 the monastery
was refounded from that of Bee in Normandy. An Anglo-Saxon
enamelled mosaic in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is
supposed to contain a portrait of St Neot. In 1648 a troop of
Royalists under the command of Villiers, duke of Buckingham,
was routed in St Neots by the Parliamentarians.
ST NICOLAS, a town of Belgium in .the province of East
Flanders, about 12 m. S.W. of Antwerp. Pop. (1904), 32,767.
It is the principal town of Waes, formerly a district of bleak and
barren downs, but now the most productive part of Belgium.
St Nicolas is the centre and distributing point of this district,
being an important junction on the direct line from Antwerp
to Ghent; it has also many manufactures of its own. The
principal church dedicated to St Nicolas was finished in 1696,
but the other public buildings are only of the 1 9th century.
ST NICOLAS, or ST NICOLAS DU PORT, a town of north-eastern
France, in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, on the left bank
of the Meurthe, 8 m. S.E. of Nancy by rail. Pop. (1906), 4796.
The town has a fine Gothic church dating from the end of the
iSth and the first half of the i6th century, and possessing a
finger-joint of St Nicolas formerly the object of pilgrimages
which were themselves the origin of well-known fairs. The
latter became less important after 1635, when the Swedes sacked
the town. There are important salt-workings in the vicinity;
cotton spinning and weaving are carried on. Its port, shared
with Varang6ville on the opposite side of the river, has an active
trade.
ST OMER, a town and fortress of northern France, capital
of the department of Pas-de-Calais, 42 m. W.N.W. of Lille on
the railway to Calais. Pop. (1906), 17,261. At St Omer begins
the canalized portion of the Aa, which reaches the sea at Grave-
lines, and under its walls it connects with the Neuffosse canal,
which ends at the Lys. The fortifications were demolished
during the last decade of the igth century and boulevards and
new thoroughfares made in their place. There are two harbours
outside and one within the city. St Omer has wide streets and
spacious squares, but little animation. The old cathedral
belongs almost entirely to the I3th, i4th and isth centuries.
A heavy square tower finished in 1499 surmounts the west portal.
The church contains interesting paintings, a colossal statue of
Christ seated between the Virgin and St John (i3th century,
originally belonging to the cathedral of Therouanne and presented
by the emperor Charles V.), the cenotaph of St Omer (i3th
century) and numerous ex-votos. The richly decorated chapel
in the transept contains a wooden figure of the Virgin (i2th
century), the object of pilgrimages. Of St Berlin, the church of
the abbey (built between 1326 and 1520 on the site of previous
churches) where Childeric III. retired to end his days, there
remain some arches and a lofty tower, which serve to adorn a
public garden. Several other churches or convent chapels are of
xxrv. 2
interest, among them St Sepulchre (i4th century), which has a
beautiful stone spire and stained-glass windows. A fine collection
of records, a picture-gallery, and a theatre are all accommodated
in the town hall, built of the materials of the abbey of St Bertin.
There are several houses of the i6th and I7th centuries; of
the latter the finest is the H6tel Colbert, once the royal lodging,
and now occupied by an archaeological museum. Among the
hospitals the military hospital is of note as occupying the well-
known college opened by the English Jesuits in 1592. The old
episcopal palace adjoining the cathedral is used as a court-house.
The chief statue in the town is that of Jacqueline Robin (see
below). St Omer is the seat of a sub-prefect, of a court of assizes,
of tribunals of first instance and of commerce, of a chamber
ot commerce, and of a board of trade arbitration. Besides the
lycee, there are schools of music and of art. The industries
include the manufacture of linen goods, sugar, soap, tobacco-
pipes, and mustard, the distilling of oil and liqueurs, dyeing,
salt-refining, malting and brewing. The suburb of Haut Pont
to the north of St Omer is inhabited by a special stock, which has
remained faithful to the Flemish tongue, its original costume
and its peculiar customs, and is distinguished by honesty and
industry. The ground which these people cultivate has been
reclaimed from the marsh, and the legres (i.e. the square blocks
of land) communicate with each other only by boats floated on
the ditches and canals that divide them. At the end of the marsh,
on the borders of the forest of Clairmarais, are the ruins of the
abbey founded in 1140 by Thierry d'Alsace, to which Thomas
Becket betook himself in 1165. To the south of St Omer, on a
hill commanding the Aa, lies the camp of Helfaut, often called
the camp of St Omer. On the Canal de Neuf-Fosse, near the
town, is the Ascenseur des Fontinettes, a hydraulic lift enabling
canal boats to surmount a difference of level of over 40 ft.
Omer, bishop of Therouanne, in the 7th century established
the monastery of St Bertin, from which that of Notre-Dame
was an offshoot. Rivalry and dissension, which lasted till
the Revolution, soon sprang up between the two monasteries,
becoming especially virulent when in 1559 St Omer became a
bishopric and Notre-Dame was raised to the rank of cathedral.
In the 9th century the village which grew up round the mona-
steries took the name of St Omer. The Normans laid the place
waste about 860 and 880, but ten years later found town and
monastery surrounded by walls and safe from their attack.
Situated on the borders of territories frequently disputed by
French, Flemish, English and Spaniards, St Omer long continued
subject to siege and military disaster. In 1071 Philip I. and
Count Arnulf III. of Flanders were defeated at St Omer by
Robert the Frisian. In 1127 the town received a communal
charter from William Clito, count of Flanders. In 1493 it came
to the Low Countries as part of the Spanish dominion. The
French made futile attempts against it between 1551 and 1596,
and again in 1638 (under Richelieu) and 1647. But in 1677, after
seventeen days' siege, Louis XlV. forced the town to capitulate;
and the peace of Nijmwegen permanently confirmed the con-
quest. In 1711 St Omer, on the verge of surrendering to Prince
Eugene and the duke of Marlborough, owing to famine, was
saved by the daring of Jacqueline Robin, who risked her life in
bringing provisions into the place. St Omer ceased to be a
bishopric in 1801.
See L. Deschamps de Pas, Hist, de la ville de Saint-Omer (and ed.,
Arras, 1881). For a full bibliography of other works see U. Chevalier,
Repertoire des sources hist, topo-bibliographie (Montbeliard, 1903),
ii. 2743 seq.
SAINTON, PROSPER PHILIPPE CATHERINE (1813-1890),
French violinist, was the son of a merchant at Toulouse, where
he was born on the 5th of June 1813. He entered the Paris
Conservatoire under Habeneck in 1831, and became professor
of the violin in the Conservatoire of Toulouse. In 1844 he made
his first appearance in England, at a Philharmonic concert
directed by Mendelssohn. Settling in London, he was in 1845
appointed professor at the Royal Academy of Music. In the
early organizations for chamber music which culminated in the
establishment of the Popular concerts, Sainton bore an important
5
34
SAINTON-DOLBY ST PAUL
part; and when the Royal Italian Opera was started at Covent
Garden, he led the orchestra under Costa, with whom he migrated
to Her Majesty's Theatre in 1871. From 1848 to 1855 he was
leader of the Queen's Band, and in 1862 he conducted the music
at the opening of the International Exhibition. In 1860, he
married the famous contralto singer, Miss Charlotte Dolby (see
below). He was leader of the principal provincial festivals for
many years, and gave a farewell concert at the Albert Hall in
1883. He died on the i 7th of October 1890. His method was
sound, his style artistic, and his educational wcrk of great value,
the majority of the most successful orchestral violinists having
been his pupils.
SAINTON-DOLBY, CHARLOTTE HELEN (1821-1885), English
contralto singer, was born in London on the lyth of May 1821,
studied at the Royal Academy of Music from 1832 to 1837,
Crivelli being her principal singing-master. In 1837 she was
elected to a king's scholarship, and first appeared at a Phil-
harmonic concert in 1841. In October 1845 she sang at the
Gewandhaus, Leipzig, through the influence of Mendelssohn,
who had been delighted by her singing in St Paul. The contralto
music in his Elijah was written for her voice, but she did not
appear in that work till the performance at Exeter Hall on the
i6th of April 1847. She married M. Sainton in 1860, and in
1870 she retired from the career of a public singer, but two years
afterwards started a " vocal academy " in London. She made
various successful attempts as a composer, and the cantatas
" The Legend of St Dorothea" (1876), "The Story of the Faithful
Soul "(1879), and " Florimel " (1885), enjoyed considerable
success. Her last public appearance was at her husband's
farewell concert in June 1883, and she died on the i8th of
February 1883. A scholarship in her memory was founded at
the Royal Academy of Music. Her voice was of moderate power
and of fine quality, but it was her dignified and artistic style that
gave her the high place she held for so many years both in
oratorio and ballads.
SAINTONGE, one of the old provinces of France, of which
Saintes (q.v.) was the capital, was bounded on the N.W. by
Aunis, on the N.E. by Poitou, on the E. by Angoumois, on the
S. by Guienne, and on the W. by Guienne and the Atlantic.
It now forms a small portion of the department of Charente and
the greater part of that of Charente Inferieure. In the time of
Caesar, Saintonge was occupied by the Santones, whose capital
was Mediolanum; afterwards it was part of Aquitania Secunda.
The civitas Santonum, which formed the bishopric of Saintes,
was divided into two pagi: Santonicus (whence Sanctonia,
Saintonge) and Alienensis, later Alniensis (Aunis). Halved by
the treaty of 1259, it was wholly ceded to the king of England
in 1360, but reconquered by Du Guesclin in 1371. Up to 1789
it was in the same gouvernement with Angoumois, but from a
judiciary point of view Saintonge was under the parlement
of Bordeaux and Angoumois under that of Paris.
See D. Massiou, Histoire politique, civile et religieuse de la Saintonge
et de I' Aunis (6 vols., 1836-1839; 2nd ed., 1846); P. D. Rainguet,
Biographie saintongeaise (1852). See also the publications of the
Soctile des archives historiques de la Saintonge et de I' Aunis (1874 f'-)-
ST OUEN, an industrial town of northern France, in the
department of Seine, on the right bank of the Seine i m. N.
of the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1906) 37,673. A chateau of
the early igth century occupies the site of a chateau of the
1 7th century bought by Madame de Pompadour in 1745, where
in 1814 Louis XVIII. signed the declaration promising a con-
stitutional charter to France. Previously there existed a chateau
built by Charles of Valois in the early years of the i4th century,
where King John the Good inaugurated the short-lived order of
the Knights of " Notre Dame de la noble maison," called also
the " ordre de 1'etoile." The industries of St Ouen include
metal founding, engineering and machine construction and the
manufacture of government uniforms, pianos, chemical products,
&c. It has important docks on the Seine and a race-course.
ST PANCRAS, a northern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded E. by Islington, S.E. by Finsbury, S. by
Holborn, and W. by St Marylebone and Hampstead, and extend-
ing N. to the boundary of the county of London. Pop. (1901)
2 35.3 I 7- In the south it includes a residential district, contain-
ing boarding-houses and private hotels. In the centre are
Camden Town and Kentish Town, and in the north, where part
of Highgate is included, are numerous villas, in the vicinity of
Parliament Hill, adjoining Hampstead Heath. A thorough-
fare called successively Tottenham Court Road, Hampstead
Road, High Street Camden Town, Kentish Town Road, and
Highgate Road, runs from south to north; Euston Road
crosses it in the south, and Camden Road and Chalk Farm Road
branch from it at Camden Town. Besides the greater part of
Parliament Hill (267 acres), purchased for the public use in
1886, the borough includes a small part of Regent's Park (mainly
in the borough of St Marylebone) and Waterlow Park (29 acres)
on the slope of Highgate Hill. It also contains the termini,
King's Cross, St Pancras, and Euston, of the Great Northern,
Midland, and London and North Western railways, with extensive
goods depots of these companies. The parish church of St
Pancras in the Fields, near Pancras Road, has lost its ancient
character owing to reconstruction, though retaining several
early monuments. The new church in Euston Road (1822) is
a remarkable adaptation of classical models. Among institutions,
University College, Gower Street, was founded in 1826, and
provides education in all branches common to universities
excepting theology. With the department of medicine is con-
nected the University College Hospital (1833) opposite the
College. There are several other hospitals; among them the
Royal Free Hospital (Gray's Inn Road), the North-west London
hospital, Kentish Town, and, in Euston Road, the British
(Forbes Winslow memorial) hospital for mental disorders,
British hospital for skin diseases, and New hospital for women,
administered by female physicians. St Katherine's Hospital,
a picturesque building overlooking Regent's Park, with a chapel
containing some relics of antiquity, was settled here (1825) on
the formation of the St Katherine's Docks near the Tower of
London, where it was founded by Queen Matilda in 1 148. Its
patronage has always been associated with queens, and here
was established the Queen Victoria Home for Nurses of the poor,
founded out of the women's gift of money to the Queen at her
jubilee (1887). Other institutions are the London School of
Medicine for women, the Royal Veterinary College and the
Aldenham technical institute. The Passmore Edwards Settle-
ment, taking name from its principal benefactor, was founded
largely through the instrumentality of Mrs Humphry Ward.
Near Regent's Park is Cumberland Market. The parliamentary
borough of St Pancras has north, south, east and west divisions,
each returning one member. The borough council consists of
a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area, 2694-4 acres.
St Pancras is mentioned in Domesday as belonging to the chapter
of St Paul's Cathedral, in which body the lordship of the manors of
Cantelows (Kentish Town) and Totenhall (Tottenham Court) was
also invested. Camden Town takes name from Baron Camden
(d. 1794), lord chancellor under George III. King's Cross was so
called from a statue of George IV., erected in 1830, greatly ridiculed
and removed in 1845, but an earlier name, Battle Bridge, is tradition-
ally derived from the stand of Queen Boadicea against the Romans,
or from one of Alfred's contests with the Danes. Somers Town,
between King's Cross and Camden Town, was formerly inhabited
by refugees from the French Revolution, many of whom were buried
in St Pancras churchyard. In the locality of Somers Town there
were formerly to be traced earthworks of unknown age, which William
Stukeley argued had belonged to aRoman camp of Julius Caesar.
Attached to the former manor-house of Totenhall was one of the
famous pleasure resorts of the I7th and i8th centuries, and from
c. 1760 to the middle of the igth century the gardens at Bagnigge
Wells (King's Cross Road) were greatly favoured; there were here,
moreover, medicinal springs.
ST PAUL, a volcanic island in the southern Indian Ocean,
in 38 42' 50" S., 77 32' 29" E., 60 m. S. of Amsterdam Island,
belonging to France. The two islands belong to two separate
eruptive areas characterized by quite different products; and
the comparative bareness of St Paul contrasts with the dense
vegetation of Amsterdam. On the north-east of St Paul, which
has an area of 2$ sq. m., is a land-locked bay, representing the
old crater, with its rim broken down on one side by the sea.
ST PAUL
35
The highest ridge of the island is not more than 820 ft. above
the sea. On the south-west side the coasts are inaccessible.
According to Velain, the island originally rose above the ocean
as a mass of rhyolitic trachyte similar to that which still forms
the Nine Pin rock to the north of the entrance to the crater.
Next followed a period of activity in which basic rocks were
produced by submarine eruptions lavas and scoriae of anorthitic
character, palagonitic tuffs, and basaltic ashes; and finally
from the crater, which must have been a vast lake of fire like
those in the Sandwich Islands, poured forth quiet streams of
basaltic lavas which are seen dipping from the centre of the
island towards the cliffs at angles of 20 to 30. The only remain-
ing indications of volcanic activity are the warm springs and
emanations of carbon dioxide.
See C. Velain, Passage de Venus sur IE soleil (Q decembre 1874).
Expedition franfaise aux lies St Paid et Amsterdam (Paris, 1877) ;
Description geologique de la presqu'tte a' Aden . . . Reunion . . . St
Paul et Amsterdam (Paris, 1878) ; and an article in Annales de
geographic, 1893.
ST PAUL, the capital of Minnesota, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Ramsey county, situated on the Mississippi river, about
2150 m. above its mouth, at the practical head of navigation,
just below the Falls of St Anthony. It is about 360 m. N. W.
of Chicago, Illinois, and its W. limits directly touch the limits
of Minneapolis. Pop. (1880) 41,473; (1890) 133,156; (1900)
163,632, of whom 46,819 were foreign-born (12,935 Germans,
9852 Swedes, 4892 Irish, 3557 English-Canadians, 2900
Norwegians, 2005 English, 1488 Austrians, 1343 Bohemians,
1206 Danes, and 1015 French-Canadians), 100,599 of foreign
parentage (i.e. both parents foreign born), and 2263 negroes;
(1910 census) 214,744. Land area (1906) 52-28 sq. m. St
Paul is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago
Great Western, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Northern
Pacific, the Minneapolis, St Paul & Sault Ste Marie, the Chicago
& North-western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Great
Northern, and the Minneapolis & St Louis railways. Five
bridges span the Mississippi, the largest of which, known as
High Bridge, is 2770 ft. long and 200 ft. high. Four interurban
lines connect with Minneapolis.
St Paul is attractively situated 670-880 ft. above sea-level,
on a series of lofty limestone terraces or bluffs, formerly heavily
wooded. It lies on both sides of the river, but the principal part is
on the east bank. In its park system the numerous lakes within
and near the city have been utilized. Of the parks, Como Park
(425 acres; including Lake Como and a fine Japanese garden
and a lily pond), and Phalen Park (600 acres, more than 400 of
which are water area), are the largest. There are also 47 smaller
squares and " neighbourhood parks " aggregating 560 acres.
In Indian Park (135 acres), at the crest of the bluffs (Dayton's
Bluffs), in the east central part of the city, are burial-mounds
of the Sioux. Summit Avenue Boulevard, 200 ft. wide and
extending for 25 m. along the heights, is a fine residential street.
Boulevards along the bluffs on either side of the river connect
with the Minneapolis park system. Harriet Island, in the
Mississippi river opposite the business centre of the city, is
attractively parked, and on it are public paths. Adjoining the
city on the south-west, at the junction of the Minnesota and
Mississippi rivers, is the Fort Snelling U.S. Government Military
Reservation, with a round stone fort, built in 1820. The principal
public building is the State Capitol, completed in 1905. It was
designed by Cass Gilbert (b. 1859), is of Minnesota granite and
white Georgia marble with a massive central white dome, and
has sculptural decorations by D. C. French and interior decora-
tions by John La Farge, E. H. Blashfield, Elmer E. Garnsey
(b. 1862), and Edward Simmons (b. 1852). Other prominent
buildings are the City Hall and Court House, a Gothic greystone
structure; the Federal building, of greystone, opposite Rice
Park; a Young Men's Christian Association building; the
Metropolitan Opera House; the Auditorium, which was built by
public subscription; the St Paul armoury (1905), with a drill
hall; the Chamber of Commerce; and the Union railway station.
Among the principal churches are the Roman Catholic Cathedral,
and the People's, the Central Presbyterian, the Park Congre-
gational, and the First Baptist churches. The wholesale district
is in the lower part of the city near the Union railway station;
the retail shops are mostly in an area bounded by Wabasha,
Seventh, Fourth and Roberts streets.
St Paul has an excellent public school system, which included
in 1909 three high schools, a teachers' training school, a manual
training high school, forty-eight grade schools, and a parental
school. Among other educational institutions are the Freeman
School; St Paul Academy; Barnard School for Boys; St
Paul College of Law (1900); the College of St Thomas (Roman
Catholic, 1885); St Paul Seminary (Roman Catholic, 1894),
founded by James J. Hill as the provincial seminary of the
ecclesiastical province of St Paul with an endowment of $500,000,
40 acres of land, and a library of 10,000 volumes; Luther
Theological Seminary (1885); Hamline University (co-educa-
tional; Methodist Episcopal), chartered in 1854, with a medical
school in Minneapolis (chartered 1883; part of Hamline since
1895), and having in the college and preparatory school, in 1908-
1909, 17 instructors and 384 students; Macalester College
(Presbyterian; co-educational), founded as Baldwin Institute
in 1853, reorganized and renamed in 1874 in honour of a bene-
factor, Charles Macalester (1798-1873) of Philadelphia; and the
School of Agriculture (1888) and the Agricultural Experiment
Station (1887) of the University of Minnesota, in St Anthony
Park, west of Como Park and south of the fair grounds. Among
the libraries are the City Public Library, the State Law Library
and the Minnesota Historical Society Library. The Minnesota
Historical Society, organized in 1849, has an archaeological
collection in the east wing of the Capitcl. In the private residence
of James J. Hill is a notable art gallery, containing one of the
largest and best collections of the Barbizon School in existence.
The principal newspapers are the Dispatch (Independent, 1878)
and the Pioneer- Press, the latter established by James M.
Goodhue (1800-1852) in 1849. Among the hospitals and charit-
able institutions are the City and County, St Joseph's and
St Luke's hospitals, all having nurses' training schools; the
Swedish Hospital, the Scandinavian Orphan Asylum, the Home
for the Friendless, the Magdalen Home and the Women's
Christian Home. Within the city limits (east of Indian Mounds
Park) is the Willowbrook (state) Fish Hatchery, second to none
in the United States in completeness of equipment; and adjoin-
ing the city on the north-west are the extensive grounds (200
acres) and buildings of the State Agricultural Society, where
fairs are held annually.
Although as a manufacturing city St Paul, not possessing
the wonderful water-power of its sister city, does not equal
Minneapolis, yet as a commercial and wholesale distributing
centre it is in some respects superior, and it is the principal
jobbing market of the North-west. Situated at the natural
head of navigation on the Mississippi, it has several competing
lines of river steamboats in addition to the shipping facilities
provided by its railways and the lines of the Minnesota Transfer
Co., a belt line with 62 m. of track encircling St Paul and Minne-
apolis. St Paul is the port of entry for the Minnesota Customs
District, and imports from Canada and from the Orient via the
Pacific railways constitute an important factor in its commercial
life, its imports and exports were valued at $6,154,289 and
$9,909,940 respectively in 1909. Coal and wood, grain, farm
produce and dairy products are important exports. St Paul
is the principal market in the United States for the furs of the
North-west, and there are extensive stock-yards and slaughtering
and packing houses in the neighbouring city of South St Paul
(pop. in 1910, 4510), St Paul ranks second to Minneapolis
among the cities of the state as a manufacturing centre. The
total value of its factory products in 1905 was $38,318,704,
an increase of 27-5% since 1900. The following were among
the largest items: fur goods; printing and publishing book
(especially law-book) and job, newspapers and periodicals;
malt liquors; steam-railway car building .and repairing; boots
and shoes'; foundry and machine-shop products; lumber and
planing-mill products; men's clothing; tobacco, cigars and
cigarettes; and saddlery and harness.
ST PAUL'S CATHEDRAL
St Paul is governed under a charter of 1900, which may be
amended by popular vote on proposals made by a permanent
charter commission. The mayor, comptroller and city treasurer
are elected for two years. The mayor has the veto power and
appoints the members of bpards of police, parks, library, fire,
water-supply and education. The legislature is bicameral,
consisting of an assembly of nine members elected on a general
city ticket and a board of aldermen chosen one from each of the
twelve wards. The water-supply is pumped through 275 m. of
water mains from a group of 'lakes north of the city, and the
system has a capacity of 40,000,000 gallons per day.
History. The earliest recorded visit of a European to the
site of St Paul was that of the Jesuit Louis Hennepin in 1680.
The traders Pierre Le Sueur and Nicholas Perrot visited the
region between 1690 and 1700, and apparently established a
temporary trading post somewhere in the neighbourhood. The
first man of English descent to record his visit was Jonathan
Carver, who, according to his journal, spent some time in the
vicinity in 1767-1768. In 1805 Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike con-
cluded a treaty with the Sioux. The first steamboat made
its way up the river in 1823. The site of St Paul was opened to
settlement by the treaty of Prairie du Chien, negotiated by
Governor Henry Dodge of Wisconsin with the Chippewas in
1837. Two years later (1839) the first permanent settlement
was made by Swiss and Canadian refugees from Lord Selkirk's
Red River colony. In 1841 Father Lucien Gaultier erected a
log mission chapel, which he named St Paul's; from this the
settlement was named St Paul's Landing and finally St Paul.
On the erection of Minnesota Territory in 1849, St Paul was
incorporated as a village and became the Territorial capital. Its
population in 1850 was only 1112. It was chartered as a city
in 1854, and continued as the capital of the new state after its
admission (1858). The first railway connecting St Paul and
Minneapolis was completed in 1862, at which time St Paul's
population exceeded 10,000 and in 1869 through railway con-
nexion with Chicago was effected. The city of West St Paul
was annexed in 1874. The growth of the city had been com-
paratively slow until 1870, in which year the population was
20,030; but the rapid railway construction and the settlement
and clearing of the Western farm lands increased its commercial
and industrial importance as it did that of its sister city, Minne-
apolis. In 1884 the city(limits were .extended to the Minneapolis
line.
See F.^C. Bliss, St Paul, its Past and Present (St Paul, 1888);
C. C. Andrews, History of St Paul, Minnesota (Syracuse, N.Y.,
1890); Warner and Foote, History of Ramsey County and the City of
St Paul (Minneapolis, 1881) ; C. D. Elfelt, " Early Trade and Traders
in St Paul," ana A. L. Larpcnteur, " Recollections of the City and
People of St Paul," both in the Minnesota Historical Society's
Collections, vol. ix. (1901).
ST PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, the cathedral church of the diocese
of London, England, standing in the heart of the City, at the
head of Ludgate Hill. (For plan, &c., see ARCHITECTURE:
Renaissance in England.) The name of a bishop of London,
Restitutus, is recorded in 314, but his individuality and even
his existence are somewhat doubtful, and nothing is known of
the existence of a church until Bede's notice that early in the
7th century one was built here by jEthelberht of Kent at the
instance of the missionary Mellitus, who became bishop. Tradi-
tion placed upon the site a Roman temple of Diana. The church
was dedicated to St Paul, and, after passing through many
vicissitudes, was removed in 1083, when Bishop Maurice, with
the countenance of William the Conqueror, undertook the
erection of a new cathedral. The building was not pressed
forward with vigour, and in 1135 much of it was damaged by
fire. The tower was completed in 1221; an Early English
choir followed shortly after, and was enlarged after 1255 when
Bishop Fulk brought great energy to bear upon the repair and
elaboration of the building. At the close of the century the
cathedral was regarded as finished ; but a new spire was built
early in the i4th century. Much of the Norman work, particu-
larly in the nave, had been left untouched by the Early English
builders (who in other parts merely encased it), and the cathedral
was a magnificent monument of these styles, and of the early
Decorated. Perpendicular additions were not extensive, and the
cathedral remained with little alteration until 1561, when
lightning struck the spire and fired the church. The spire
was never rebuilt. In the time of James I. the fabric had so
far decayed that the king was prevailed upon to make a personal
examination of it, and Inigo Jones was entrusted with the work
of restoration. In accordance with the architectural tendencies
of his time he added a classical portico to the west front, and
made similar alterations to the transepts. Again, however, in
1666 the bad state of the fabric necessitated extensive repair,
and Dr (afterwards Sir) Christopher Wren furnished a scheme
including a central dome. All his plans were complete in August
of that year, but in September the great fire of London almost
destroyed the building, and rendered what was left unsafe and
beyond restoration.
Estimates of the dimensions of the old cathedral differ, Stow
making the extreme length 690 ft., but modern investigations give
596 ft. The internal height of the choir was 101 ft., and that of the
nave, which was of twelve bays, 93 ft., and the extreme breadth
of the building was 104 ft. The summit of the wonderful spire was
489 ft. above the ground. The present building is wider than the
old, and its orientation is more northerly, but its northern, eastern
and southern extremities approximately correspond with those of
old St Paul's, the west front of which, however, with its flanking
towers, lay nearly 100 ft. west of Wren's front. It should be noticed
that the eastern part of the old cathedral incorporated the original
parish church of St Faith after 1255, when part of the new crypt
was allotted to the parish in return. Moreover, the ancient church
of St Gregory by St Paul actually adjoined the cathedral on the
south-west. In the angle west of the south transept lay a cloister,
in the midst of which was the octagonal chapter house, dating from
1332. To the north-east of the cathedral stood Paul's Cross, in an
open space devoted to public meetings; it included a pulpit, and
here religious disputations were held and papal bulls promulgated.
In 1643 it was removed, but a new cross, erected under the will of
H. C. Richards, K.C., M.P., was unveiled in 1910.
The formal provision for the rebuilding of the cathedral was
made in 1668, and the foundation stone was laid in 1675. The
first service was held in it in 1697, and the last stone was set in
place in 1710. The cost is curiously estimated, but was probably
about 850,000, the greater part of which was defrayed by a
duty on sea-borne coal. The material is Portland stone. Wren
had to face many difficulties. He naturally insisted on the style
of the Renaissance, and his first design was for a building in the
form of a Greek cross, but the general desire was that at least
the ground-plan of the old English cathedrals should be followed,
and the form of a Latin cross was forced upon him. He offered
various further designs, and one was accepted, but Wren set
the broadest construction upon the permission granted him to
alter its ornamental details, and luckily so. The extreme length
of the building is 513 ft., the breadth across the transepts 248 ft.,
of the nave 122 ft., of the west front 179 ft. The length of the
nave is 223 ft., and of the choir 168 ft., leaving 122 ft. beneath
the dome at the crossing. The cross at the top of the lantern
above the dome is 363 ft. above the ground.
The cathedral is approached on the west from an open pavement,
on which stands a statue of Queen Anne. There is also an inscription
marking the spot on which Queen Victoria returned thanks on the
occasion of her Diamond Jubilee (1897). A broad flight of steps
leads up to the west front, of two orders, flanked by towers. In the
north tower is a chime of bells; in the south the clock, with the old
great bell (1716), tolled on the death of certain high personages,
and the new great bell, placed in 1882, weighing about 17 tons.
The nave is of four bays, with aisles, and chapels of one bay width
immediately east of the western towers. The transepts are of two
bays, and are entered by north and south porches approached by
circular flights of steps. On the pediment of the south porch is
sculptured a phoenix with the inscription Resurgam (I shall rise
again), in allusion to a famous episode. Wren, planning his site
and desiring to mark in the ground the point of the centre of his
dome, bade a workman bring a piece of stone for the purpose.
He picked up at hazard a fragment of an ancient tombstone bearing
this single word, which Wren adopted as a motto. The choir of four
bays terminates in an apse, but the rich and lofty modern reiedos
stands forward, and the apse is thus divided off from the body of
the church and forms the Jesus chapel. The choir stalls are a fine
example of the work of Grinling Gibbons. The dome is supported
by the four vast piers in the angles of the cross, within which are
small chambers, and by eight inner piers. The spandrels between the
arches which stand upon these piers are ornamented with mosaics,
ST PAUL'S ROCKS ST PETERSBURG
37
from the designs of G. F. Watts and others, executed by Salviati.
Wren had looked forward to a comprehensive scheme of decoration
in mosaic. The later extension of this work was entrusted to Sir
W. B. Richmond. Above the arches is a circular gallery known as
the Whispering Gallery from the fact that a whisper can be easily
heard from one side to the other. Above this there are pilasters,
with square-headed windows, in three out of every four intervening
spaces; and above again, the domed ceiling, ornamented in mono-
chrome by Sir James Thornhill immediately after its completion ;
but the paintings have suffered from the action of the atmosphere
and are hardly to be distinguished from below. The inner wall of
the dome begins to slope inward from the level of the Whispering
Gallery, but this is masked outside by a colonnade, extending up
to a point a little above the top of the internal pilasters. From
this point upward the dome is of triple construction, consisting of (i)
the inner dome of brick, pierced at the top to render the lantern
visible from below; (2) a brick cone, the principal member of the
structure, bearing the lantern; (3) the dome visible from without,
of lead on a wooden frame. The golden gallery at the base of the
Jantern (top of the outer dome) is about 65 ft. above the top of the
inner dome.
The monuments in St Paul's are numerous, though not to be
compared with those in Westminster Abbey. The most notable is
that in the nave to the duke of Wellington (d. 1852) by Alfred
Stevens. In the crypt, which extends beneath the entire building,
are many tombs and memorials that of Nelson in the centre
beneath the dome, those of many famous artists in the so-called
Painters' Corner, and in the south choir aisle that of Wren himself,
whose grave is marked only by a plain slab, with the well-known
inscription ending Si monumentum requiris, circumspice (" If thou
seekest a monument, look about thee "). Above the south-west
chapel in the nave is the chapter library, with many interesting
printed books, MSS. and drawings relating to the cathedral. For
St Paul's School, established by John Colet, dean, and formerly
adjacent to the cathedral, see the article on HAMMERSMITH, whither
it was subsequently removed.
AUTHORITIES. Parentalia or Memoirs (of Sir Christopher Wren),
completed by his son Christopher, now published by his Grandson,
Stephen Wren (London, 1758); Sir William Dugdale, History of St
Paul's (1818); Dean Milman, Annals of St Paul's (1868); William
Longman, The Three Cathedrals dedicated to St Paul (1873); Docu-
ments illustrating the History of St Paul's (Camden Society, 1880);
Rev. W. Sparrow-Simpson, Chapters in the History of Old St Paul's
(1881); Gleanings from Old St Paul's (1889); and St Paul's and Old
City Life (1894); Rev. A. Dimock, St Paul's (in Bell's " Cathedral "
series, 1901); Rev. Canon Benham, Old St Paul's (1902). In this
last work and elsewhere are shown the valuable drawings of Wen-
ceslaus Hollar, showing the old cathedral immediately before the
great fire.
ST PAUL'S ROCKS, a number of islets in the Atlantic, nearly
i N. of the equator and 540 m. from South America, in 29 15'
W. The whole space occupied does not exceed 1400 ft. in length
by about half as much in breadth. Besides sea-fowl the only
land creatures are insects and spiders. Fish are abundant, seven
species (one, Holocentrum sancti pauli, peculiar to the locality)
being collected by the " Challenger " during a brief jtay. Dar-
win (On Volcanic Islands) decided that St Paul's Rocks were
not of volcanic origin; later investigators maintain that they
probably are eruptive.
See Reports of the Voyage of PI. M.S. Challenger: Narrative of the
Cruise, vol. i.
ST PETER, a city and the county-seat of Nicollet county,
Minnesota, U.S.A., on the Minnesota river, about 75 m. S.W. of
Minneapolis. Pop. (1905, state census) 4514 (875 foreign-born);
(ipio) 4176. It is served by the Chicago & North- Western
railway and by steamboat lines on the Minnesota river, which
is navigable for light draft steamboats to this point. The
neighbouring lakes with their excellent fishing attract many
summer visitors. The city has a Carnegie library, and is the seat
of the Minnesota Hospital for the Insane (1866), and of Gustavus
Adolphus College (Swedish Evangelical Lutheran; co-educa-
tional), which was founded in 1862 and has a college, an Academy
and School of Pedagogy, a School of Commerce and a School
of Music. St Peter is an important market for lumber and grain ;
it has stone quarries and various manufactures. Settled about
1852, St Peter was incorporated as a village in 1865, and was
chartered as a city in 1891. In 1857 the legislature, a short time
before its adjournment for the session, passed a bill to remove
the capital of Minnesota to St Peter, but the bill was not pre-
sented to the governor for his signature within the prescribed
e, and when the legislature re-convened a similar bill could
ot be passed.
ST PETER PORT, the chief town of Guernsey, one of the
Channel Islands. Pop. (1901) 18,264. It lies picturesquely on a
steep slope above its harbour on the east coast of the island.
The harbour is enclosed by breakwaters, the southern of which
connects with the shore and continues beyond a rocky islet on
which stands Castle Cornet. It dates from the I2th century
and retains portions of that period. Along the sea-front of the
town there extends a broad sea-wall, which continues north-
ward nearly as far as the small port of St Sampson's, connected
with St Peter Port by an electric tramway. To the south of
the town Fort George, with its barracks, stands high above the
sea. On the quay there is a bronze statue of Albert, Prince
Consort (1862), copied from that on the south side of the Albert
Hall, London. St Peter Port was formerly walled, and the sites
of the five gates are marked by stones. St Peter's, or the town
church, standing low by the side of the quay, was consecrated
in 1312, but includes little of the building of that date. It has,
however, fine details of the i4th and isth centuries, and is, as a
whole, the most noteworthy ecclesiastical building in the islands.
The other principal buildings are the court house, used for the
meetings of the royal court and the states, the Elizabeth College
for boys, founded by Queen Elizabeth, but occupying a house
of the year 1825, and the Victoria Tower, commemorating a
visit of Queen Victoria in 1846. Hauteville House, the residence
of Victor Hugo from 1856 to 1870, is preserved as he left it, and
is open to the public. The harbour is the chief in the island,
and a large export trade is carried on especially in vegetables,
fruit and flowers. The construction of the harbour was ordered
by King Edward I. in 1275.
ST PETERSBURG, a government of north-western Russia,
at the head of the Gulf of Finland, stretching for 130 m. along
its south-east shore and the southern shore of Lake Ladoga, and
bordering on Finland, with an area of 17,221 sq. m. It is hilly
on the Finland border, but flat and marshy elsewhere, with the
exception of a small plateau in the south (Duderhof Hills), 300
to 550 ft. high. It has a damp and cold climate, the average
temperatures being: at St Petersburg, for the year 39 F., for
January 15, for July 64; yearly rainfall, 18-7 in.; at Ser-
maks, at the mouth of the Svir on the E. side of Lake Ladoga
(60 28' N.), for the year 37, for January 13, for July 62;
yearly rainfall, 20-8 in. Numerous parallel ridges of glacier
origin intersect the government towards Lake Peipus and north
of the Neva. Silurian and Devonian rocks appear in the south,
the whole covered by a thick glacial deposit with boulders
(bottom moraine) and by thick alluvial deposits in the valley
of the Neva. The bays of Kronstadt, Koporya, Luga and
Narva afford good anchorage, but the coast is for the most part
fringed with reefs and sandbanks. The chief river is the Neva.
The feeders of Lake Ladoga the Volkhov, the Syas, and the
Svir, the last two forming part of the system of canals connecting
the Neva with the Volga are important channels of commerce,
as also is the Narova. Marshes and forests cover about 45%
of the area (70% at the end of the i8th century). The popula-
tion, which was 635,780 in 1882, numbered 873,043 in 1897,
without the capital and its suburbs; including the latter it was
2,103,965. Of this latter number 466,750 were women and
160,499 lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,510,100.
The average density was 121 per sq. m. The population is chiefly
Russian, with a small admixture of Finns and Germans, and
according to religion it is distributed as follows: Greek Orthodox,
78%; Nonconformists, 1-6%; Lutherans, 17%; and
Roman Catholics, 2-4%. A remarkable feature is the very slow
natural increase of the population. During the 25 years 1867 to
1891 the natural increase was only 867. The government is
divided into eight districts, the administrative headquarters
of which, with their populations in 1897, are: St Petersburg
(q.v.), Gdov (2254 inhabitants), Luga (5687), Novaya Ladoga
(4144), Peterhof (11,300), Schliisselburg (5285), Tsarskoye Selo
(22,353) an( l Yamburg (4166). Most of the towns are summer
resorts for the population of the capital. Till the latter part
of the igth century education stood at a very low level, but
progress has since been made, and now three-quarters of all who
ST PETERSBURG
enter the army from this government are able to read. The
zemstvo (provincial council) has organized village libraries and
lectures on a wide scale. Many improvements have been
made, especially since 1897, in sanitary organization. Generally
speaking, agriculture is at a low ebb. The principal crops are
cereals (rye, oats and barley), potatoes and green crops, the
total area under cultivation being only 13%. These crops,
which are often ruined by heavy rains in the late summer, are
insufficient for the population. Flax is cultivated to some
extent. Nearly 21% of the area consists of meadows and
pasture. Dairy-farming is developing. Timber, shipping, stone-
quarrying and fishing are important industries; the chief
factories are cotton, tobacco, machinery, sugar, rubber and
paper mills, chemical works, distilleries, breweries and printing
works.
ST PETERSBURG, the capital of the Russian empire, situated
at the head of the Gulf of Finland, at the mouth of the Neva,
in 59 56' N., and 30 20' E., 400 m. from Moscow, 696 m. from
Warsaw, 1400 m. from Odessa (via Moscow), and 1390 m. from
Astrakhan (also via Moscow). The Neva, before entering the
Gulf of Finland, forms a peninsula, on which the main part of
St Petersburg stands, and itself subdivides into several branches.
The islands so formed are only 10 or 1 1 ft. above the average
level of the water. Their areas are rapidly increasing, while the
banks which continue them seaward are gradually disappearing.
The mainland is not much higher than the islands. As the river
level rises several feet during westerly gales, extensive portions
of the islands and of the mainland are flooded every winter.
In 1777, when the Neva rose 10-7 ft., and in 1824, when it rose
13-8 ft., nearly the whole of the city was inundated, and the
lower parts were again under water in 1890, 1897 and 1898,
when the floods rose 8 ft. A ship canal, completed in 1875-1888
at a cost of 1,057,000, has made the capital a seaport. Be-
ginning at Kronstadt, it terminates at Gutuyev Island in a harbour
capable of accommodating fifty sea-going ships. It is 23 ft. deep
and 17 J m. long. The Neva is crossed by three permanent
bridges the Nicholas, the Troitsky or Trinity (1897-1903), and
the Alexander or Liteinyi; all three fine specimens of archi-
tecture. One other bridge the Palace across the Great Neva
connects the left bank of the mainland with Vasilyevskiy or
Basil Island; but, being built on boats, it is removed during the
autumn and spring. Several wooden or floating bridges connect
the islands, while a number of stone bridges span the smaller
channels. In winter, when the Neva is covered with ice 2 to 3 ft.
thick, tem|>orary roadways for carriages and pedestrians are made
across the ice and artificially lighted. In winter, too, thousands
of peasants come in from the villages with their small Finnish
horses and sledges to ply for hire.
The Neva continues frozen for an average of 147 days in the
year (25th November to 2ist April). It is unnavigable, however,
for some time longer on account of the ice from Lake Ladoga,
which is sometimes driven by easterly winds into the river at the
end of April and beginning of May. The climate of St Petersburg
is changeable and unhealthy. Frosts are made much more
trying by the wind which accompanies them; and westerly
gales in winter bring oceanic moisture and warmth, and melt the
snow before and after hard frosts. The summer is hot, but
short, lasting barely more than five or six weeks; a hot day, how-
ever, is often followed by cold weather: changes of temperature
amounting to 35 Fahr. within twenty-four hours are not un-
common. In autumn a chilly dampness lasts for several weeks,
and in spring cold and wet weather alternates with a few warm
days.
January.
July.
The Year.
Mean temperature,' Fahr. .
i5-o
64-o
38-6
Rainfall, inches
0-9
2-6
18-8
Prevailing winds ....
s.w!
W.
W.
Average daily range of tempera-
ture, Fahr
2-2
IO-2
7-7
Topography. The greater part of St Petersburg is situated
on the mainland, on the left bank of the Neva, including the best
streets, the largest shops, the bazaars and markets, the palaces,
cathedrals and theatres, as well as all the railway stations,
except that of the Finland railway. From the Liteinyi bridge
to that of Nicholas a granite embankment, bordered by palaces
and large private houses, lines the left bank of the Neva. About
midway, behind a range of fine houses, stands the Admiralty,
the very centre of the capital. Formerly a wharf, on which Peter
the Great caused his first Baltic ship to be built in 1706, it is
now the seat of the ministry of the navy and of the hydrographical
department, the new Admiralty building standing farther down
the Neva on the same bank. A broad square, partly laid out as
a garden (Alexander Garden), surrounds the Admiralty on the
west, south and east. To the west, opposite the senate, stands the
fine memorial to Peter the Great, erected in 1782, and now
backed by the cathedral of St Isaac. A bronze statue, a master-
piece by the French sculptor Falconet, represents the founder
of the city on horseback, at full gallop, ascending a rock and
pointing to the Neva. South of the Admiralty is the ministry
of war and to the east the imperial winter palace, the work of
Rastrelli (1764), a fine building of mixed style; but its admirable
proportions mask its huge dimensions. It communicates by a
gallery with the Hermitage Fine Arts Gallery. A broad semi-
circular square, adorned by the Alexander I. column (1834),
separates the palace from the buildings of the general staff and
the foreign ministry. The range of palaces and private houses
facing the embankment above the Admiralty is interrupted
by the macadamized " Field of Mars," formerly a marsh, but
transformed at incredible expense into a parade-ground,. and the
Lyetniy Sad (summer-garden) of Peter the Great. The Neva
embankment is continued to a little below the Nicholas bridge
under the name of " English embankment," and farther down
by the new Admiralty buildings.
The topography of St Petersburg is very simple. Three long
streets, the main arteries of the capital, radiate from the Admiralty
the ProspektNevskiy(Neva Prospect), the Gorokhovaya, and
the Prospekt Voznesenskiy (Ascension Prospect). Three girdles
of canals, roughly speaking concentric, intersect these three
streets the Moika, the Catherine and the Fontanka; to these
a number of streets run parallel. The Prospekt Nevskiy is a
very broad street, runhing straight east -south-east for 3200 yds.
from the Admiralty to the Moscow railway station, and thence
1650 yds. farther, bending a little to the south, until it again
reaches the Neva at Kalashnikov Harbour, near the vast com-
plex of the Alexander Nevski monastery (1713), the seat of the
metropolitan of St Petersburg. The part of the street first
mentioned owes its picturesque aspect to its width, its alrractive
shops, and still more its animation. But the buildings which
border it are architecturally poor. Neither the cathedra] of the
Virgin of Kazan (an ugly imitation on a small scale of St Peter's
in Rome), nor the still uglier Gostiniy Dvor (a two-storied
quadrilateral building divided into second-rate shops), nor the
Anichkov Palace (which resembles immense barracks), nor even
the Roman Catholic and Dutch churches do any thing to embellish
it. About midway between the public library and the Anichkov
Palace an elegant square hides the old-fashioned Alexandra
theatre; nor does a profusely adorned memorial (1873) to
Catherine II. beautify it much. The Gorokhovaya is narrow
and badly paved, and is shut in between gloomy houses occupied
mostly by artizans. The Voznesenskiy Prospekt, on the con-
trary, though as narrow as the last, has better houses. On the
north, it passes into a series of large squares connected with
that in which the monument of Peter the Great stands.
One of them is occupied by the cathedral of St Isaac (of
Dalmatia), and another by the memorial (1859) to Nicholas I.,
the gorgeousness and bad taste of which contrast strangely
with the simplicity and significance of that of Peter the
Great. The general aspect of the cathedral is imposing both
without and within; but on the whole this architectural
monument, built between 1819 and 1858 according to a plan
of Montferrant, under the personal direction of Nicholas I.,
does not correspond either with its costliness (2,431,300) or
with the efforts put forth for its decoration by the best Russian
artists.
ST PETERSBURG
39
The eastern extremity of Vasilyevskiy Island is the centre of
commercial activity; the stock exchange is situated there as
well as the quays and storehouses. The remainder of the island
is occupied chiefly by scientific and educational institutions
the academy of science, with a small observatory, the university,
the philological institute, the academy of the first corps of cadets,
the academy of arts, the marine academy, the mining institute
and the central physical observatory, all facing the Neva.
Petersburg Island contains the fortress of St Peter and St Paul
(1703-1740), opposite the Winter Palace; but the fortress is
now a state prison. A cathedral which stands within its walls
is the burial-place of the emperors and the imperial family.
The mint and an artillery museum are also situated within the
fortress. The remainder of the island is meanly built, and is
the refuge of the poorer officials (chinovniks) and of the intellectual
proletariat. Its northern part, separated from the main island
by a narrow channel, bears the name of Apothecaries' Island,
and is occupied by a botanical garden of great scientific value
and several fine private gardens and parks. Krestovskiy,
Elagin and Kamennyi Islands, as also the opposite (right) bank
of the Great Nevka (one of the branches of the Neva) are occupied
by public gardens, parks and summer residences. The mainland
on the right bank of the Neva above its delta is known as the
Viborg Side, and is connected with the main city by the Liteinyi
bridge, closely adjoining which are the buildings of the military
academy of medicine and spacious hospitals. The small streets
(many of them unpaved), with numerous wooden houses, are
inhabited by students and workmen; farther north are great
textile and iron factories. Vast orchards and the yards of the
artillery laboratory stretch north-eastwards, while the railway
and the high road to Finland, running north, lead to the park
of the Forestry Institute. The two villages of Okhta, on the
right bank, are suburbs; higher up, on the left bank, are several
factories (Alexandrovsk) which formerly belonged to the crown.
The true boundary of St Petersburg on the south is the Obvodnyi
Canal, running parallel to the three canals already mentioned
and forming a sort of base to the Neva peninsula; but numerous
orchards, cemeteries and factories, and even unoccupied spaces,
are included within the city boundaries in that direction, though
they are being rapidly covered with buildings. Except in a few
principal streets, which are paved with wood or asphalt, the
pavement is usually of granite setts. There are two government
dockyards, the most important of which is the new admiralty
yard in the centre of the city. At this yard there are three
building slips and a large experimental basin, some 400 ft. in
length, for trials with models of vessels. The Galerny Island
yard is a little lower down the river, and is devoted entirely to
construction. There are two building slips for large vessels,
besides numerous workshops, storehouses and so forth. The
Baltic Yard is near the mouth of the Neva, and was taken over
by the ministry of marine in 1894. Since that time the establish-
ment has been enlarged, and a new stone building slip, 520 ft.
in length, completely housed in, has been finished.
Population. The population of St Petersburg proper at the
censuses specified was as follows:
Year.
Total.
Men.
Women.
Proportion of Men
to every 100 Women.
1869
1881
1890
1897
667,207
861,303
954,400
1,132,677
377.3 8 o
473-229
512,718
616,855
289,827
388,074
441,682
515.822
130
122
116
119
A further increase was revealed by the municipal census of 1900,
when the population of the city was 1,248,739, having thus
increased 30-9% in ten years. In 1905 the total population
was estimated to number 1,429,000. The population of the
suburbs was 134,710 in 1897, and 190,635 in 1900. Including
its suburbs, St Petersburg is the fifth city of Europe in point of
size, coming after London, Paris, Berlin and Vienna. The large
proportion of men in its population is due to the fact that great
numbers come from other parts of Russia to work during the
winter in the textile factories, and during the summer at un-
loading the boats. Russians numbered 828, 354 in 1897, or 73-1%
of the population; Germans 43,798, or 3-9%; Poles 22,307,
or 1-9%; Finns, 16,731, or 1.5%; and Jews 10,353, or 0-9%.
The various religions are represented by 84-9% Orthodox
Greeks, 9-9 Protestants, and 3-3 Roman Catholics. The pro-
portion of illegitimate children is ten times higher than in the
rest of Russia, namely 250 to 286 per thousand births. It is
thus nearly the same as in Paris, but lower than in Moscow
(292 per thousand) and Vienna (349 per thousand). The mortality
varies very much in different parts of the city from 12 per
thousand in the best situated, the admiralty quarter, to 16 in
other central parts, and 25 and 27 in the outlying quarters.
The mortality has, however, notably decreased, as it averaged
36 per thousand in the years 1870 to 1874, and only 27 from 1886
to 1895, and 24 in 1897. Infectious diseases, i.e. turberculosis,
diphtheria, inflammation of the lungs, typhoid, scarlet fever
and measles, are the cause of 37 to 38% of all deaths. The
high mortality in certain quarters is largely due to overcrowding
and bad water.
An interesting feature of the Russian capital is the very high
proportion of people living on their own earnings or income
(" independent ") as compared with those who live on the earnings
or income of some one else (" dependent "). Only a few industrial
establishments employ more than twenty workmen, the average
being less than ten and the figure seldom falling below five.
The large factories are beyond the limits of St Petersburg.
Although 36 % of the population above six years old are unable
to read, the workmen are amongst the most intelligent classes
in Russia.
Education, Science and Art. Notwithstanding the hardships and
prosecutions to which it is periodically subjected, the university
(nearly 4000 students) exercises a pronounced influence en the life of
St Petersburg. The medical faculty forms a separate academy,
under military jurisdiction, with about 1500 students. There are,
moreover, a philological institute, a technological institute, a forestry
academy, an engineering academy, two theological academies
(Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic), an academy of arts, five
military academies and a high school of law. Higher instruction for
women is provided by a medical academy, a free university, four
other institutions for higher education, and a school of agriculture.
The scientific institutions include an academy of sciences, opened in
1726, which has rendered 'immense service in the exploration of
Russia. The oft-repeated reproach that it keeps its doors shut to
Russian savants, while opening them too widely to German ones, is
not without foundation. The Pulkovo astronomical observatory,
the chief physical (meteorological) observatory (with branches
throughout Russia and Siberia), the astronomical observatory at
Vilna, the astronomical and magnetical observatory at Peking, and
the botanical garden, are all attached to the academy of sciences.
The Society of Naturalists and the Physical and Chemical Society
have issued most valuable publications. The geological committee
is ably pushing forward the geological survey of the country; the
Mineralogical Society was founded in 1817. The Geographical
Society, with branch societies for West and East Siberia, Caucasus,
Orenburg, the north-western and south-western provinces of
European Russia, is well known for its valuable work, as is also the
Entomological Society. There are four medical societies, and an
archaeological society (since 1846), an historical society, an economical
society, gardening, forestry, technical and navigation societies. The
conservatory of music, with a new building (1891-1896), gives
superior musical instruction. The Musical Society is worthy of
notice. Art, on the other hand, has not freed itself from the old
scholastic methods at the academy. Several independent artistic
societies seek to remedy this drawback, and are the true cradle of
the Russian genre painters.
The imperial public library contains valuable collections of books
(1,000,000) and MSS. The library of the academy of sciences con-
tains more than 500,000 volumes, 13,000 MSS., rich collections of
works on oriental languages, and valuable collections of periodical
publications from scientific societies throughout the world. The
museums of the Russian capital occupy a prominent place among
those of Europe. That of the Academy of Sciences, of the Navy, of
Industrial Art (1896), of the Mineralogical Society, of the Academy
of Arts, the Asiatic museum, the Suvorov museum (1901), with
pictures by Vereshchagin, the Zoological museum and several others
are of great scientific value. The Hermitage Art Gallery contains a
first-rate collection of the Flemish school, some pictures of the
Russian school, good specimens of the Italian, Spanish and old
French schools, invaluable treasures of Greek and Scythian
antiquities, and a good collection of 200,000 engravings. Old
Christian and old Russian arts are well represented in the museums
of the Academy of Arts. The New Michael Palace was in 1895-1898
40
converted into a museum of Russian art the Russian museum; it
is one of the handsomest buildings in the city.
In the development of the Russian drama St Petersburg has played
a far less important part than Moscow, and the stage there has never
reached the same standard of excellence as that of the older capital.
On the other hand, St Petersburg is the cradle of Russian opera and
Russian music. There are in the city only four theatres of import-
ance all imperial two for the opera and ballet, one for the native
drama, and one for the French and German drama.
Industries and -Trade. St Petersburg is much less of a manufactur-
ing city than Moscow or Berlin. The period 1880 to 1890 was very
critical in the history of the northern capital. With the develop-
ment of the railway system the southern and south-western provinces
of Russia began to prosper more rapidly than the upper Volga
provinces; St Petersburg began to lose its relative importance in
Favour of the Baltic ports of Riga and Libau, and its rapid growth
since the Crimean War seemed in danger of being arrested. The
danger, however, passed away, and in the last decade of the igth
century the city continued its advance with renewed vigour. A
great influx of functionaries of all sorts, consequent upon the state
taking into its hands the administration of the railways, spirits, &c.,
resulted in the rapid growth of the population, while the introduction
of a cheap railway tariff, and the subsidizing and encouraging in
other ways of the great industries, attracted to St Petersburg a
considerable number of workers, and favoured the growth of its
larger industrial establishments. St Petersburg is now one of the
foremost industrial provinces in Russia, its yearly returns placing it
immediately after Moscow and before Piotrkow, in Poland. The
chief factories are cottons and other textiles, metal and machinery
works, tobacco, paper, soap and candle factories, breweries, dis-
tilleries, sugar refineries, ship-building yards, printing works,
potteries, carriage works, pastry and confectionery and chemicals.
The export trade of St Petersburg is chiefly in gram (especially rye
and oats), flour and bran, oil seeds, oil cakes, naphtha, eggs, flax and
timber. It shows very great fluctuations, varying in accordance
with the ciops, the range being from 8,000,000 to 10,000,000. The
exports are almost entirely to western Europe by sea (from 5,500,000
to 6,500,o>o), and to Finland (1,500,000 to 3,000,000). The im-
ports consul chiefly of coal, metals, building materials, herrings,
coffee and tea, better-class timber, raw cotton, wood pulp and
cellulose, am' manufactured goods, and amount to about 14,000,000
annually.
Six railways meet at St Petersburg. Two run westwards along
both shores o the Gulf of Finland to Hangoudd and to Port Baltic
respectively; two short lines connect Oranienbaum, opposite
Kronstadt and Tsarskoye Selo (with Pavlovsk) with the capital;
and three great trunk lines run south-west to Warsaw (with
branches to Riga and Smolensk), south-east to Moscow (with
branches to Novgorod and Rybinsk), aud east to Vologda, Vyatka
and Perm. The Neva is the principal channel for the trade of St
Petersburg with the rest of Russia, by means of the Volga and its
tributaries.
Administration. The municipal affairs of the city are in the hands
of a municipality, elected by three categories of electors, and is
practically a department of the chief of the police. The city is under
a separate governor-general, whose authority, like that of the chief
of police, is unlimited.
Environs. St Petersburg is surrounded by several fine residences,
mostly imperial palaces with large and beautiful parks. Tsarskoye
Selo, 15 m. to the south-east, and Peterhof, on the Gulf of Finland,
are summer residences of the emperor. Pavlovsk, 17 m. S. of the
city, has a fine palace and parks, where summer concerts attract
thousands of people. There is another imperial palace at Gatchina,
29 m. S. Oranienbaum, 25 m. W. on the south shore of the Gulf of
Finland, is a rather neglected place. Pulkovo, on a hill 9 m. S. from
St Petersburg, is well known for its observatory; while several
villages north of the capital, such as Pargplovo and Murino, are
visited in summer by the less wealthy inhabitants.
History. The region between Lake Ladoga and the Gulf of
Finland was inhabited in the pth century by Finns and some
Slavs. Novgorod and Pskov made efforts to secure and maintain
dominion over this region, so important for their trade, and in
the i3th and i4th centuries they built the forts of Koporya
(in the present district of Peterhof), Yam (now Yamburg), and
Oryeshek (now Schliisselburg) at the point where the Neva
issues from Lake Ladoga. They found, however, powerful
opponents in the Swedes, who erected the fort of Landskrona
at the junction of the Okhta and the Neva, and in the Livonians,
who had their fortress at Narva. Novgorod and Moscow
successively were able by continuous fighting to maintain their
supremacy over the region south of the Neva throughout the
i6th century; but early in the iyth century Moscow was com-
pelled to cede it to Sweden, which erected a fortress on the Neva
at the mouth of the Okhta. In 1700 Peter the Great began his
wars with Sweden. Oryeshek was taken in 1702, and in the
SAINT-PIERRE, ABBE DE
following year the Swedish fortress on the Neva. Two months
later (291)1 June 1703) Peter laid the foundations of a cathedral
to St Peter and St Paul, and of a fort which received his own
name (in its Dutch transcription, " Piterburgh" ). Next year
the fort of Kronslott was erected on the island of Kotlin, as also
the Admiralty on the Neva, opposite the fortress. The emperor
took most severe and almost barbarous measures for increasing
his newly founded city, which was built on marshy ground, the
buildings resting on piles. Thousands of people from all parts
of Russia were removed thither and died in erecting the fortress
and building the houses. Under Elizabeth fresh compulsory
measures raised the population to 150,000, and this figure was
nearly doubled during the reign of Catherine II. (1762-1796).
The chief embellishments of St Petersburg were effected during
the reigns of Alexander I. (1801-1825) and Nicholas I. (1825-
1855). From the earliest years of Russian history trade had taken
this northern direction. Novgorod owed its wealth to this fact;
and as far back as the i2th century the Russians had their forts
on Lake Ladoga and the Neva. In the i4th and isth centuries
they exchanged their wares with the Danzig merchants at Nu
or Nil now Vasilyevskiy Island. By founding St Petersburg
Peter the Great only restored the trade to its old channels. The
system of canals for connecting the upper Volga and the Dnieper
with the great lakes of the north completed the work; the
commercial mouth of the Volga was thus transferred to the
Gulf of Finland, and St Petersburg became the export harbour
for more than half Russia. Foreigners hastened thither to take
possession of the growing export trade, and to this the Russian
capital is indebted for its cosmopolitan character. The develop-
ment of the railway system and the colonization of southern
Russia now operate, however, adversely to St Petersburg,
while the rapid increase of population in the Black Sea region
is tending to shift the Russian centre of gravity; new centres
of commercial, industrial, and intellectual life are being developed
at Odessa and Rostov. The revival of Little Russia is another
influence operating in the same direction. Since the abolition
of serfdom and in consequence of the impulse given to Russian
thought by this reform, the provinces are coming more and more
to dispute the right of St Petersburg to guide the political life
of the country. It has been often said that St Petersburg is
the head of Russia and Moscow its heart. The first part at least
of this saying is true. In the development of thought and in
naturalizing in Russia the results of west European culture and
philosophy St Petersburg has played a prominent part. It
has helped greatly to familiarize the public with the teachings
of west European science and thinking, and to give to Russian
literature its liberality of mind and freedom from the trammels
of tradition. St Petersburg has no traditions, no history beyond
that of the palace conspiracies, and there is nothing in its past
to attract the writer or the thinker. But, as new centres of
intellectual life and new currents of thought develop again at
Moscow and Kiev, or arise anew at Odessa and in the eastern
provinces, these places claim the right to their own share in
the further development of intellectual life in Russia.
(P. A. K., J. T. BE.)
SAINT-PIERRE, CHARLES IR^N^E CASTEL, (Anm'. I.K
(1658-1743), French writer, was born at the chateau de Saint-
Pierre-l'Eglise near Cherbourg on the i8th of February 1658.
His father was bailli of the Cotentin, and Saint-Pierre was
educated by the Jesuits. In Paris he frequented the salons of
Madame de la Fayette and of the marquise de Lambert. He was
presented to the abbacy of Tiron, and was elected to the
Academy in 1695. In the same year he gained a footing at court
as almoner to Madame. But in 1718, in consequence of the
political offence given by his Discours sur la polysynodie, he was
expelled from the Academy. He afterwards founded the club
of the Entre sol, an independent society suppressed in 1731.
He died in Paris on the 2gth of April 1743.
Saint-Pierre's works are almost entirely occupied with an
acute though generally visionary criticism of politics, law and
social institutions. They had a great influence on Rousseau,
who left elaborate examinations of some of them, and reproduced
SAINT-PIERRE, J. H. B. DE ST POL-DE-LEON
not a few of their ideas in his own work. His Projel de paix
perpetuelle, which was destined to exercise considerable influence
on the development of the various schemes for securing universal
peace which culminated in the Holy Alliance, was published in
1713 at Utrecht, where he was acting as secretary to the French
plenipotentiary, the Abb6 de Polignac, and his Polysynodie
contained severe strictures on the government of Louis XIV.,
with projects for the administration of France by a system of
councils for each department of government. His works include
a number of memorials and projects for stopping duelling,
equalizing taxation, treating mendicancy, reforming education
and spelling, &c. It was not, however, for his suggestions for
the reform of the constitution that he was disgraced, but because
in the Polysynodie he had refused to Louis XIV. the title of le
Grand. Unlike the later reforming abbes of the philosophe
period, Saint-Pierre was a man of very unworldly character and
quite destitute of the Frondeur spirit.
His works were published at Amsterdam in 1738-1740 and his
Annales politiques in London in 1757. A discussion of his principles,
with a view to securing a just estimation of the high value of his
political and economic ideas, is given by S. Siegler Pascal in Un
Contemporain egare au X VIII' siecle. Les Projets de I' abbe de Saint-
Pierre, 1658-1743 (Paris, 1900).
SAINT-PIERRE, JACQUES HENRI BERNARDIN DE (1737-
1814), French man of letters, was born at Havre on the igth of
January 1737. He was educated at Caen and at Rouen, and
became an engineer. According to his own account he served
in the army, taking part in the Hesse campaign of 1760, but
was dismissed for insubordination, and, after quarrelling with
his family, was in some difficulty. He appears at Malta,. St
Petersburg, Warsaw, Dresden, Berlin, holding brief commissions
as an engineer and rejoicing in romantic adventures. But he
came back to Paris in 1765 poorer than he set out. He came
into possession of a small sum at his father's death, and in 1 768
he set out for the Isle of France (Mauritius) with a government
commission, and remained there three years, returning home
in 1771. These wanderings supplied Bernardin with the whole
of his stock-in-trade, for he never again quitted France. On
his return from Mauritius he was introduced to D'Alembert
and his friends, but he took no great pleasure in the company
of any literary man except J. J. Rousseau, of whom in his last
years he saw much, and on whom he formed both his character
and his style. His Voyage a Vile de France, (2 vols., 1773) gained
him a reputation as a champion of innocence and religion, and
in consequence, through the exertions of the bishop of Aix,
a pension of 1000 livres a year. It is soberest and therefore
the least characteristic of his books. The tudes <fc la nature
(3 vols., 1784) was an attempt to prove the existence of God from
the wonders of nature; he set up a philosophy of sentiment to
oppose the materializing tendencies of the Encyclopaedists.
His masterpiece, Paul et Virginie, appeared in 1789 in a supple-
mentary volume of the Andes, and his second great success,
much less sentimental and showing not a little humour, the
Chaumiere indienne, not till 1790. In 1792 he married a very
young girl, Felicite Didot, who brought him a considerable
dowry. For a short time in 1792 he was superintendent
of the Jardin des Plantes, and on the suppression of the office
received a pension of 3000 livres. In 1795 he became a member
of the Institute. After his first wife's death he married in 1800,
when he was sixty-three, another young girl, Desiree Pelleport,
and is said to have been very happy with her. On the 2ist of
January 1814 he died at his house at Eragny, near Pontoise.
Paul et Virginie has been pronounced gaudy in style and unhealthy
in tone. Perhaps Bernardin is not fairly to be judged by this famous
story, in which the exuberant sensibility of the time finds equally
exuberant expression. His merit lies in his breaking away from the
arid vocabulary which more than a century of classical writing has
brought upon France, in his genuine preference for the beauties of
nature, and in his attempt to describe them faithfully. After
Rousseau, and even more than Rousseau, Bernardin was in French
literature the apostle of the return to nature, though both in him and
his immediate follower Chateaubriand there is still much mannerism
and unreality.
Aime Martin, disciple of Bernardin and the second husband of his
ond wife, published a complete edition of his works in 18 volumes
4 1
(Paris, 1818-1820), afterwards increased by seven volumes of
correspondence and memoirs (1826). Paul et Virginie, the Chaumiere
indienne, &c. have ol ten been separately reprinted. See also Arvede
Barin's Bernardin de Saint Pierre (1891).
ST PIERRE and MIQUELON, two islands 10 m. off the south
coast of Newfoundland, united area about 91 sq. m. Both are
rugged masses of granite, with a few small streams and lakes, a
thin covering of soil and scanty vegetation. Miquelon, the larger
of the two, consists of Great Miquelon and Little Miquelon, or
Langlade; previous to 1783 these were separated by a navigable
channel, but they have since become connected by a dangerous
mudbank. St Pierre has a sheltered harbour with about 14 ft. of
water, and a good roadstead for large vessels. Their importance
is due to their proximity to the great Banks, which makes
them the centre of the French Atlantic fisheries. These are kept
up by an elaborate system of bounties by the French government,
which considers them of great importance as training sailors
for the navy. Fishing lasts from May lill October, and is carried
on by nearly five hundred vessels, of which about two-thirds
are fitted out from St Pierre, the remainder coming from St
Malo, Cancale and other French coast towns. The resident
population, which centres in the town of St Pierre, is about 6500,
swelled to over 10,000 for a time each year by extra fishing hands
from France, but is steadily declining owing to emigration into
Canada. Owing to the low rates of duty, vast quantities of goods,
especially French wines and liquors, are imported, and smuggled
to Newfoundland, the United States and. Canada, though of
late years this has been checked by a gradual rise in the
scale of duties, and by the presence since 1904 of a British
consul. St Pierre is connected with Halifax (N.S.) and St Johns
(Newfoundland) by a regular packet service, and is a station
of the Anglo American Cable Co. and the Compagnie fran^aise
des cdbles telegraphiques. Excellent facilities for primary and
secondary education are given, but the attraction of the fisheries
prevents their being fully used.
The islands were occupied by the French in 1660, and fortified
in 1700. In 1702 they were captured by the British, and held
till 1763, when they were given back to France as a fishing
station. They are thus the sole remnant of the French colonies
in North America. Destroyed by the English in 1778, restored
to France in 1783, again captured and depopulated by the English
in 1793, recovered by France in 1802 and lost in 1803, the islands
have remained in undisputed French possession since 1814
(Treaty of Paris).
See Henrique, Les Colonies fran<;aises,t. ii. (Paris, 1889) ; Levasseur,
La France, t. ii. (Paris, 1893); L'Annee colonials, yearly since 1899,
contains statistics and a complete bibliography; P. T. McGrath in
The New England Magazine (May 1903) describes the daily life of the
people. (W. L. G.)
ST POL, COUNTS OF. The countship of St Pol-sur-Ternoise in
France (department of Pas-de-Calais), belonged in the nth
and 1 2th centuries to a family surnamed Candavene. Elizabeth,
heiress of this house, carried the countship to her husband,
Gaucher de Chatillon, in 1205. By the marriage of Mahaut de
Chatillon with Guy VI. of Luxemburg, St Pol passed to the house
of Luxemburg. It was in possession of Louis of Luxemburg,
constable of France, who was beheaded in 1475. The constable's
property was confiscated by Louis XL, but was subsequently
restored in 1488 to his granddaughters, Marie and Franjoise of
Luxemburg. Marie (d. 1542) was countess of St Pol, and married
Frangois de Bourbon, count of Vendome. Their son, Francois de
Bourbon, count of St Pol (1491-1 545), was one of the most devoted
and courageous generals 'of Francis I. Marie, daughter of the
last-mentioned count, brought the countship of St Pol to the
house of Orleans-Longueville. In 1705 Marie of Orleans sold it to
Elizabeth of Lorraine-Lillebonne, widow of Louis de Melun,
prince of Epinoy, and their daughter married the prince of
Roban-Soubise, who thus became count of St Pol. (M. P.*)
ST POL-DE-LfiON, a town of north-western France, in the
department of Finistere, about I m. from the shore of the
English Channel, and 133 m. N. of Morlaix by the railway to
Roscoff. Pop. (1906), town, 3353; commune, 8140. St Pol-de-
Leon is a quaint town with several old houses. The cathedral is
SAINT PRIEST ST QUENTIN
largely in the Norman Gothic style of the i3th and early i4th
centuries. The west front has a projecting portico and two
towers 180 ft. high with granite spires. Within the church there
are beautifully carved stalls of the i6th century and other works
of art. On the right of the high altar is a wooden shrine con-
taining the bell of St Pol de Leon, which was said to cure headache
and diseases of the ear, and at the side of the main entrance
is a huge baptismal font, popularly regarded as the stone
coffin of Conan Meriadec, king of the Bretons. Notre Dame de
Kreizker, dating mainly from the second half of the i4th century,
has a celebrated spire, 252 ft. high, which crowns the central
tower. The north porch is a fine specimen of the flamboyant
style. In the cemetery, which has a chapel of the isth century,
there are ossuaries of the year 1500.
In the 6th century a Welsh monk, Paul, became bishop of
the small town of Leon, and lord of the domain in its vicinity,
which passed to his successors and was increased by them.
In 1793 the town was the centre of a serious but unsuccessful
rising provoked by the recruiting measures of the Convention.
SAINT PRIEST, FRANCOIS EMMANUEL GUIGNARD,
CHEVALIER, then COMTE DE (1735-1821), French statesman, was
born at Grenoble on the i2th of March 1735. He was admitted
a knight (chevalier) of the Order of Malta at five years of age,
and at fifteen entered the army. He left active service in 1763
with the grade of colonel, and for the next four years represented
the court of France at Lisbon. He was sent in 1768 to Constanti-
nople, where he remained with one short interval till 1785,
and married Wilhelmina von Ludolf, daughter of the Neapolitan
ambassador. His Memoires sur I'ambassade de France en
Turguie el le commerce des Franfais dans le Levant, prepared
during a visit to France, were only published in 1877, when they
were edited by C. Schefer. After a few months spent at the court
of the Hague, he joined the ministry of Necker as minister without
a portfolio, and in Necker's second cabinet in 1789 was secretary
of the royal household and minister of the interior. He became
a special object of the popular hatred because he was alleged to
have replied to women begging for bread, " You had enough
while you had only one king; demand bread of your twelve
hundred sovereigns." Nevertheless he held office until December
1790. Shortly after his resignation he went to Stockholm, where
his brother-in-law was Austrian ambassador. In 1795 he joined
the comte de Provence at Verona as minister of the household.
He accompanied the exiled court to Blankenburg and Mittau,
retiring in 1808 to Switzerland. After vainly seeking permission
to return to France he was expelled from Switzerland, and
wandered about Europe until the Restoration. Besides the
memoirs already mentioned he wrote an Examen des assemblies
provinciales (1787).
His eldest son, GUILLAUME EMMANUEL(i77&-l8i4), became major-
general in the Russian service, and served in the campaigns of
Alexander I. against Napoleon. He died at Laon in 1814. The
second, ARMAND EMMANUEL CHARLES (1782-1863), became civil
governor of Odessa, and married Princess Sophie Galitzin. The
third, EMMANUEL Louis MARIE GUIGNARD, yicomte de Saint Priest
(1789-1881), was a godson of Marie Antoinette. Like his elder
brother he took part in the invasion of France in 1814. At the
Restoration he was attached to the service of the duke of AngoulSme,
and during the Hundred Days tried to raise Dauphine in the royal
cause. He served with distinction in Spain in 1823, when he was
promoted lieutenant-general. After two years at Berlin he became
French ambassador at Madrid, where he negotiated in 1828 the settle-
ment of the Spanish debt. When the revolution of July compelled
his retirement, Frederick VII. made him a grandee of Spain, with
the title of duke of Almazan, in recognition of his services. He then
joined the circle of the duchess of Berry at Naples, and arranged
her escapade in Provence in 1832. Saint Priest was arrested, and
was only released after ten months' imprisonment. Having arranged
for an asylum in Austria for the duchess, he returned to Paris, where
he was one of the leaders of legitimist society until his death, which
occurred at Saint Priest, near Lyons, on the 26th of February 1881.
ALEXIS GUIGNARD, comte de Saint Priest (1805-1851), was the
son of Armand de Saint Priest and Princess Galitzin. Educated in
Russia, he returned to France with his father in 1822, and soon made
his mark in literary circles. His most important works were Histoire
de la royaute consideree dans ses origines jusqu'a la formation des
principales monarchies de V Europe (2 vols., 1842); Histoire de la
chute des Jesuites (1844); Histoire de la conquete de Naples (4 vols.,
1847-1848). He was elected to the Academy in January 1849
Meanwhile he had departed from the legitimist tradition of his
family to become a warm friend to the Orleans monarchy, which
he served between 1833 and 1838 as ambassador in Brazil, at Lisbon
and at Copenhagen. He died, while on a visit to Moscow, on the 29th
of September 1851.
SAINT PRIVAT, a village of Lorraine, 7 m. N.W. of Metz.
The village and the slopes to the west played a great part in
the battle of Gravelotte (August 18, 1870). (See METZ and
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR.) At St Privat occurred the famous
repulse of the Prussian Guard by Marshal Canrobert's corps.
ST QUENTIN, a manufacturing town of northern France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Aisne, 32 m.
N.N.W. of Laon by rail. Pop. (1906) 49,305. The town stands
on the right bank of the Somme, at its junction with the St
Quentin Canal (which unites the Somme with the Scheldt)
and the Ciozat Canal (which unites it with the Oise). The port
carries on an active traffic in building materials, coal, timber,
iron, sugar and agricultural produce. Built on a slope, with a
southern exposure, the town is dominated by the collegiate
church of St Quentin, one of the finest Gothic buildings in the
north of France, erected during the I2th, i3th, i4th and isth
centuries. The church, which has no west facade, terminates
at that end in a tower and portal of Romanesque architecture;
it has double transepts. Its length is 436 ft. and the height
of the nave 124 ft. The choir (i3th century) has a great re-
semblance to that of Reims; like the chapels of the apse it is
decorated with polychromic paintings. There are remains of a
choir-screen of the I4th century. Under the choir is a crypt of
the nth century, rebuilt in the i3th century, and containing the
tombs of St Quentin (Quintin) and his fellow-martyrs Victoricus
and Gentianus. The Champs Elysees, an extensive promenade,
lies east of the cathedral. The h6tel-de-ville of St Quentin is a
splendid building of the I4th, I5th and 1 6th centuries, with a
flamboyant facade, adorned with curious sculptures. The
council-room is a fine hall with a double wooden ceiling and
a huge chimneypiece, partly Gothic partly Renaissance. A
monument commemorates the siege of 1557 (see below), and
another close to the river the part played by the town in 1870
and 1871. A building of the zoth century is appropriated to the
law court, the learned societies, the museum and the library.
St Quentin is the seat of a sub-prefect, of tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, and of a board of trade-arbitration, and has
an exchange, a chamber of commerce and lycees for both sexes.
The town is the centre of an industrial district which manufactures
cotton and woollen fabrics. St Quentin produces chiefly piqu6
and window-curtains, and carries on the spinning and preliminary
processes and the bleaching and finishing. Other industries are
the making of embroideries by machinery and by hand, and
the manufacture of iron goods and machinery. Trade is in
grain, flax, cotton and wool.
St Quentin (anc. Augusta. Veromanduorum) stood at the
meeting-place of five military roads. In the 3rd century it was
the scene of the martyrdom of Gaius Quintinus, who had come
thither from Italy as a preacher of Christianity. The date of
the foundation of the bishopric is uncertain, but about 532
it was transferred to Noyon. Towards the middle of the 7th
century St Eloi (Eligius), bishop of Noyon, established a collegiate
chapter at St Quentin's tomb, which became a famous place of
pilgrimage. The town thus gained an importance which was
increased during the middle ages by the rise of its cloth manu-
facture. After it had been thrice ravaged by the Normans, the
town was surrounded by walls in 883. It became under Pippin,
grandson of Charlemagne, one of the principal domains of the
counts of Vermandois, and in 1080 received from Count Herbert
IV. a charter which was extended in 1103 and is the earliest of
those freely granted to the towns of northern France. From
1420 to 1471 St Quentin was occupied by the Burgundians.
In 1557 it was taken by the Spaniards (see below). Philip
commemorated the victory over the relieving force under the
Constable Montmorency by the foundation of the Escurial.
Two years later the town was restored to the French, and
in 1560 it was assigned as the dowry of Mary Stuart. The
SAINT-REALSAINTS, BATTLE OF THE
fortifications erected under Louis XIV. were demolished
between 1810 and 1820. During the Franco-Prussian War
St Quentin repulsed the German attacks of the 8th of October
1870; and in January 1871 it was the centre of the great
battle fought by General Faidherbe (below).
1. Battle of 1557. An army of Spaniards under Emmanuel
Philibert of Savoy, invading France from the Meuse, joined an allied
contingent of English troops under the walls of St Quentin, which was
then closely besieged. Admiral Coligny threw himself on to the
town, and the old Constable Montmorency prepared to relieve it.
On St Lawrence's Day, loth August, the relieving column reached
the town without difficulty, but time was wasted in drawing off the
garrison, for the pontoons intended to bridge the canal had marched
at the tail of the column, and when brought up were mismanaged.
The besiegers, recovering from their surprise, formed the plan of
cutting off the retreat of the relieving army. Montmorency had
thrown out the necessary protective posts, but at the point which
the besiegers chose for their passage the post was composed of poor
troops, who fled at the first shot. Thus, while the constable was
busy with his boats, the Spanish army filed across the Bridge of
Rouvroy, some distance above the town, with impunity, and Mont-
morency, in the hope of executing his mission without fighting,
refused to allow the cavalry under the due de Nevers to charge them,
and miscalculated his time of freedom. The Spaniards, enormously
superior in force, cut off and destroyed the French gendarmerie
who formed the vanguard of the column, and then headed off the
slow-moving infantry south of Essigny-le-Grand. Around the
10,000 French gathered some 40,000 assailants with forty-two guns.
The cannon thinned their ranks, and at last the cavalry broke in and
slaughtered them. Yet Coligny gallantly held St Quentin for
seventeen days longer, Nevers rallied the remnant of the army
and, garrisoning Peronne, Ham and other strong places, entrenched
himself in front of Cpmpiegne, and the allies, disheartened by a war
of sieges and skirmishes, came to a standstill. Soon afterwards
Philip, jealous of the renown of his generals and unwilling to waste
his highly trained soldados in ineffective fighting, ordered the army
to retreat (i7th October), disbanded the temporary regiments and
dispersed the permanent corps in winter quarters.
2. The Battle of 1871 was fought between the German I. army
under General von Goeben and the French commanded by General
Faidherbe. The latter concentrated about St Quentin on the 1 8th
of January, and took up a defensive position on both sides of the
Somme Canal. The Germans, though inferior in numbers, were
greatly superior in discipline and training, and General von Goeben
boldly decided to attack both wings of the French together on the
igth. The attack took the customary enveloping form. After
several hours' fighting it was brought to a standstill, but Goeben,
using his reserves in masterly fashion, drove a wedge into the centre
of the French line between the canal and the railway, and followed
this up with another blow on the other bank of the canal, along the
Ham road. This was the signal for a decisive attack by the whole
of the left wing of the Germans, but the French offered strenuous
resistance, and it was not until four o'clock that General Faidhei be
made up his mind to retreat. By skilful dispositions and orderly
movement most of his infantry and all but six of his guns were
brought off safely, but a portion of the army was cut off by the
victorious left wing of the Germans, and the defeat, the last act in a
long-drawn-out struggle, was sufficiently decisive to deny to the
defenders any hope of taking the field again without an interval of
rest and reorganization. Ten days later the general armistice was
signed.
SAINT-REAL, CESAR VICHARD DE (1639-1692), French
historian, was born in Savoy, but educated in Paris by the
Jesuits. Varillas gave him his taste for history and served as
his model; he wrote hardly anything but historical novels.
The only merit of his Don Carlos (1673) is that of having furnished
Schiller with several of the speeches in his drama. In the
following year he produced the Conjuration des Espagnols centre
la Republique de Venise en 1618, which had a phenomenal
success, but is all the same merely a literary pastiche in the
style of Sallust. This work and his reputation as a free-thinker
brought him to the notice of Hortense Mancini, duchesse de
Mazarin, whose reader and friend he became, and who took
him with her to England (1675). The authorship of the duchess's
Memoires has been ascribed to him, but without reason. Among
his authentic works is included a short treatise De la critique
(1691), directed against Andry de Boisregard's Reflexions sur
la langue framboise. His (Euvres completes were published
in 3 volumes (1745); a second edition (1757) reached 8 volumes,
but this is due to the inclusion of some works falsely attributed
to him. Saint-Real was, in fact, a fashionable writer of his
period; the demand for him in the book-market was similar
43
to that for Saint-Evremond, to whom he was inferior. He
wrote in an easy and pleasant, but mediocre style.
See P6re Lelong, Bibliotheque historique de la France, No. 48, 122;
Barolo, Memorie spetlanti alia vita di Saint-Rial (1780; Saint-Real
was an associate of the Academy of Turin) ; Sayous, Histbire de la
litterature fran^aise a I'etranger.
ST REMY, a town of south-eastern France in the department
of Bouches-du-Rhone, 15 m. N.E. of Aries by road. Pop. (1906),
town, 3668; commune, 6148. It is prettily situated to the
north of the range of hills named the Alpines or Alpilles in a
valley of olive trees. The town has a modern church with a
lofty 14th-century spire. About a mile to the south are Gallo-
Roman relics of the ancient Glanum, destroyed about 480.
They comprise a triumphal arch and a fine three-storied
mausoleum of uncertain date. Near by is the old priory of St
Paul-de-Mausole with an interesting church and cloister of
Romanesque architecture. In the vicinity of St Remy there
are quarries of building stone, and seed-cultivation is an
important industry.
ST RIQUIER, a town of northern France, in the department
of Somme, 8 m. N.E. of Abbeville by rail. Pop. (1906) 1158.
St Riquier (originally Centula) was famous for its abbey, founded
about 625 by Riquier (Richarnis), son of the governor of the town.
It was enriched by King Dagobert and prospered under the
abbacy of Angilbert, son-in-law of Charlemagne. The buildings
(i8th century) are occupied by an ecclesiastical seminary. The
church, a magnificent example of flamboyant Gothic architecture
of the isth and i6th centuries, has a richly sculptured west
front surmounted by a square tower. In the interior the fine
vaulting, the Renaissance font and carved stalls, and the frescoes
in the treasury are especially noteworthy. The treasury,
among other valuable relics, possesses a copper cross said to be
the work of St Eloi (Eligius). The town has a municipal belfry
of the i3th or i4th centuries. In 1536 St Riquier repulsed an
attack by the Germans, the women especially distinguishing
themselves. In 1544 it was burnt by the English, an event
which marks the beginning of its decline.
See HiSnocque, " Hist, de 1'abbaye et de la ville de St Ricjuier," in
Mem. soc. anliq. Picardie. Documents inedits, ix.-xi. (Paris, 1880-
SAINTS, BATTLE OF THE. This battle is frequently called
by the date on which it took place the i2th of April 1782.
The French know it as the battle of Dominica, near the coast
of which it was fought. The Saints are small rocky islets in
the channel between the islands of Dominica and Guadaloupe
in the West Indies. The battle is of exceptional importance in
naval history; it was by far the most considerable fought
at sea in the American War of Independence, and was to Great
Britain of the nature of a deliverance, since it not only saved
Jamaica from a formidable attack, but after the disasters in
North America went far to restore British prestige. The comte
de Grasse,with 33 sail of the line, was at Fort Royal in Martinique.
His aim was to effect a combination with a Spanish force from
Cuba, and invade Jamaica. A British fleet (36 sail of the line),
commanded by Sir George, afterwards Lord Rodney (q.v.), was
anchored in Gros Islet Bay, Santa Lucia. On the 8th of April
the British lookout frigates reported that the French were
at sea, and Rodney immediately sailed in pursuit. Light and
variable sea or land breezes made the movements of both fleets
uncertain. Some of the ships of each might have a wind, while
others were becalmed. On the gth of April eight ships of the
British van, at some distance from the bulk of their fleet, and
nearly opposite the mountain called the Morne au Diable in
Dominica, were attacked by fifteen of the French. The comte
de Grasse, whose own ships were much scattered and partly
becalmed, and who moreover was hampered by the transports
carrying soldiers and stores, did not press the attack home.
His chief wish was to carry his fleet through the channel between
Dominica and Guadaloupe, while Rodney was anxious to force a
battle. During the night of the nth-i2th the greater part
of the French had cleared the channel, but a collision took place
between two of their ships by which one was severely damaged.
The crippled vessel was seen and pursued by four ships of the
SAINT-SAENS
British van. The comte de Grasse recalled all his vessels, and
bore down towards the British. Rodney ordered the last of his
ships to lead into action, the others following her in succession,
and the detached ships falling in behind as they returned from
the pursuit. The two fleets in line of battle passed one another,
the French steering in a southerly, the British in a northerly
direction.- Both were going very slowly. Fire was opened
about 8 o'clock, and by 10 o'clock the leading British ship had
passed the last of the French. While the action was in progress,
one of the variable winds of the coast began to blow from the
south, while the northern extremities of the fleets were in an
easterly breeze. Confusion was produced in both forces, and
a great gap was created in the French line just ahead of the
"Formidable" (100), Rodney's flagship. The captain of the fleet,
Sir Charles Douglas, called his attention to the opening, and
urged him to steer through it. The fighting instructions then
in force made it incumbent on an admiral to preserve the order
in which he began the action unchanged. Rodney hesitated to
depart from the traditional order, but after a few moments
of doubt accepted the suggestion. The "Formidable" was
steered through the opening, followed by six of those immediately
behind her. The ships towards the rear passed through the
disordered French in the smoke, which was very thick, without
knowing what they had done till they were beyond the enemy.
About i o'clock the British had all either gone beyond the French
or were to the east of them. The French were broken into
three bodies, and were completely disordered. The comte de
Grasse, in his flagship the " Ville de Paris," with five other
vessels, was isolated from his van and rear. Rodney directed his
attack on these six vessels, which were taken after a very gallant
resistance. It was the general belief of the fleet that many more
would have been captured if Rodney had pursued more vigorously,
but he was content with the prizes he had taken. Two more
of the French were captured by Sir Samuel Hood, afterwards
Lord Hood, in the Mona Passage on the igth of April.
See Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs (London, 1804), vol. 5;
and a careful analysis from the French side by Chevalier, Histoirc
de la marine franyiise pendant la guerre de I' independence americaine
(Paris, 1877). (D. H.)
SAINT-SAENS, CHARLES CAHILLE (1835- ), French
composer, was born in Paris on the 3rd of October 1835. After
having as a child taken lessons on the piano, and learned the
elements of composition, he entered the Paris Conservatoire in
the organ class, then presided over by Eugene Benoist, obtaining
the second prize in 1849, and the first two years later. For a
short time he studied composition under Halevy, and in 1852,
and again in 1864, competed without success for the Grand Prix
de'Rome. Notwithstanding these unaccountable failures, Saint-
Saens worked indefatigably. In 1853, when only eighteen, he
was appointed organist at the Church of St Merry, and from .
1861 to 1877 was organist at the Madeleine, in succession to
Lefebure-W61y. An overture entitled " Spartacus," which has
remained unpublished, was crowned at a competition instituted
in 1863 by the Societ6 Sainte Cecile of Bordeaux. The greatest
triumph of his early career was, however, attained in 1867, when
the prize was unanimously awarded to him for his cantata " Les
Noces de Prom6th6e " in the competition organized during the
International Exhibition of that year a prize competed for by
over two hundred musicians.
Though he had acquired a great name as a pianist, and had
made successful concert tours through Europe, he had not
succeeded in reaching the ears of the larger public by the produc-
tion of an opera, which in France counts for more than anything
else. After the tragic events of 1870, when Saint-Saens did his
duty as a patriot by serving in the National Guard, the oppor-
tunity at last offered itself, and a one-act opera from his pen,
La Princesse jaune, with words by Louis Gallet, was produced
at the Opera Comique with moderate success on the 1 2th of June
1872. Le Timbre d'argent, a four-act opera performed at the
Theatre Lyrique in 1877, was scarcely more successful. In the
meanwhile his " symphonic poems" " Le Rouet d'Omphale,"
" Danse Macabre," " Phaeton " and " La Jeunesse d'Hercule "
obtained for him a world-wide celebrity. These admirable
examples of " programme music " count among his best known
works.
At last, through the influence of Liszt, his Biblical opera Samson
el Dalila was brought out at Weimar in 1877. This work, gener-
ally accepted as his operatic masterpiece, had been begun as far
back as 1869, and an act had been heard at one of Colonne's
concerts in 1875. Notwithstanding its great success at Weimar,
its first performance on French soil took place at Rouen in 1890.
The following year it was given in Paris at the Eden Theatre, and
finally in 1892 was produced at the Grand Opera, where it has
remained one of the most attractive works of the repertoire. Its
Biblical subject stood in the way of its being performed on the
London stage until 1909, when it was given at Covent Garden
with great success. None of his works is better calculated
to exemplify the dual tendencies of his style. The first act, with
its somewhat formal choruses, suggests the influence of Bach and
Handel, and is treated rather in the manner of an oratorio. The
more dramatic portions of the opera are not uninfluenced by
Meyerbeer, while in the mellifluous strains allotted to the
temptress there are occasional suggestions of Gounod. Of
Wagner there is but little trace, save in the fact that the com-
poser has divided his work into scenes, thus avoiding the old-
fashioned denominations of " air," " duet," " trio," &c. The
score, however, is not devoid of individuality. The influences
mentioned above, possibly excepting that of Bach in the earlier
scenes, are rather of a superficial nature, for Saint-Saens has
undoubtedly a style of his own. It is a composite style, certainly,
and all the materials that go towards forming it may not be
absolutely his; that is, the eclecticism of his mind may lead him
at one moment to adopt an archaic form of expression, at another
to employ the current musical language of his day, and sometimes
to blend the two. It is perhaps in the latter case that he shows
most individuality; for although his works may denote the
varied influences of such totally dissimilar masters as Bach,
Beethoven, Liszt and Gounod, he ever contrives to put in some-
thing of his own.
After the production of Samson et Dalila Saint-Saens stood
at the parting of the ways looked at askance by the reactionary
section of the French musicians, and suspected of harbouring
subversive Wagnerian ideas, but ready to be welcomed by the
progressive party. Both sides were doomed to disappointment,
for in his subsequent operas Saint-Saens attempted to effect a
compromise between the older and the newer forms of opera.
He had already entertained the idea of utilizing the history of
France for operatic purposes. The first and only result of this
project has been tienne Marcel, an opera produced at Lyons in
1879. Although of unequal merit, owing partly to its want of
unity of style, this work contains much music of an attractive
kind, and scarcely deserves the neglect into which it has fallen.
Forsaking the history of France he now composed his opera
Henry VIII., produced at the Paris Grand Opera in 1883. The
librettists had concocted a piece that was sufficiently well knit
and abounded in dramatic contrasts. While adhering to his
system of compromise by retaining certain conventional operatic
features, Saint-Saens had in this instance advanced somewhat
by employing leit motivs in a more rigorous fashion than hitherto,
although he had not gone so far as to discard airs cut after the
old pattern, duets and quartets. Henry VIII., which was given
at Covent Garden in 1898, occupies an honourable place among
the composer's works. Proserpine, a lyrical drama produced at
the Paris Opera Comique in 1887, achieved a succes d'estime and
no more. A not much better fate befell Ascanio, an opera
founded on Paul Meurice's drama Benvenuto Cellini, and brought
out at the Grand Opera in 1890. Phryne, however, a two-act
trifle of a light description, produced at the Opera Comique in
1893, met with success. In 1895 Fredigonde, an opera begun by
Ernest Guiraud and completed by Saint-Saens, was produced in
Paris. The " lyrical drama " Les Barbares, given at the Grand
Opera in 1901, was received with marked favour.
Saint -SaSns worked successfully in every field of his art. Besides
the operas above alluded to, he composed the following oratorios
SAINTSBURY SAINT-SIMON, COMTE DE
45
and cantatas: "Oratorio de Noel," " Les Noces de Prome'thee,"
Psalm " Coeli cnarrant," " Le Deluge," " La Lyre et la harpe '' ;
three symphonies; four symphonic poems (" Le Rouet d'Omphale,"
"Phaeton," " Danse Macabre," "La Jeunesse d'Hercule'); five
pianoforte concertos; three violin concertos; two suites, marches,
and other works for orchestra; the ballet Zavotte; music to the
drama Dejanire, given at the open-air theatre of Beziers; a quintet
for piano and strings, a quartet for piano and strings, two trios for
piano and strings, a string quartet, a septet, violoncello sonata, two
violin sonatas; a Mass, a Requiem, besides a quantity of piano and
organ music, and many songs, duets and choruses. He also published
three books, entitled Harmonic et melodie, Portraits et souvenirs, and
Problkmes et mystkres, besides a volume of poems, Rimes familibres.
The honorary degree of Doctor of Music was conferred upon him by
Cambridge University in 1893.
SAINTSBURY, GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN (1845- ),
English man of letters, was born at Southampton on the 23rd
of October 1845. He was educated at King's College School,
London, and at Merton College, Oxford (B.A., 1868), and spentsix
years in Guernsey as senior classical master of Elizabeth College.
From 1874 to 1876 he was headmaster of the Elgin Educational
Institute. He began his literary career in 1875 as a critic for the
Academy, and for ten years was actively engaged in journalism,
becoming an important member of the staff of the Saturday
Review. Some of the critical essays contributed to the literary
journals were afterwards collected in his Essays in English
Literature, 1780-1860 (2 vols., 1890-1895), Essays on French
Novelists (1891), Miscellaneous Essays (1892), Corrected Impres-
sions (1895). His first book, A Primer of French Literature
(1880), and his Short History of French Literature (1882; 6th
ed., Oxford, 1901), were followed by a series of editions of French
classics and of books and articles on the history of French litera-
ture, which made him the most prominent English authority on
the subject. His studies in English literature were no less
comprehensive, and included the valuable revision of Sir Walter
Scott's edition of Dryden's Works (Edinburgh, 18 vols., 1882-
1893), Dryden (1881) in the " English Men of Letters " series,
History of Elizabethan Literature (1887), History of Nineteenth
Century Literature (1896), A Short History of English Literature
(1898, 3rd ed. 1903), an edition of the Minor Caroline Poets of
the Caroline Period (2 vols., 1905-1906), a collection of rare poems
of great value, and editions of English classics. He edited the
series of " Periods of European Literature," contributing the
volumes on The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory
(1897), and The Earlier Renaissance (1901). In 1895 he became
professor of rhetoric and English literature at Edinburgh univer-
sity, and subsequently produced two of his most important
works, A History of Criticism (3 vols., 1900-1904), with the
companion volume Loci Crilici, Passages Illustrative of Critical
Theory and Practice (Boston, U.S.A., and London, 1903), and
A History of English Prosody from the izth Century to the
Present Day (i., 1906; ii., 1908; in., 1910); also The Later
Nineteenth Century (1909).
ST SERVAN, a town of western France, in the department of
Ille-et-Vilaine, on the right bank of the Ranee, south of St Malo,
from which it is separated by the Anse des Sablons, a creek
i m. wide (see ST MALO). Pop. (1906) 9765. It is not enclosed
by walls, and with its new nouses, straight wide streets and
numerous gardens forms a contrast to its neighbour. North of
the town there is a wet-dock, 27 acres in extent, forming part
of the harbour of St Malo. The creek on which it opens is dry at
low water, but at high water is 30 to 40 ft. deep. The dock is
used chiefly by coasting and fishing vessels, a fleet starting
annually for the Newfoundland cod-fisheries. Two other ports
on the Ranee, south-west of the town at the foot of the tower
of Solidor, are of small importance. This stronghold, erected
towards the close of the i4th century by John IV., duke of
Brittany, for the purpose of contesting the claims to the temporal
sovereignty of the town of Josselin de Rohan, bishop of St Malo,
consists of three distinct towers formed into a triangle by loop-
holed and machicolated curtains. To the west St Servan termi-
nates in a peninsula on which stands the " cite," inhabited by
work-people, and the "fort de la cite"; near by is a modern
chapel which has replaced the cathe.dral of St Peter of Aleth,
the seat of a bishopric from the 6th to the I2th century. The
parish church is modern (1742-1842). St Servan has a com-
munal college. It carries on steam-sawing, boat-building, rope-
making and the manufacture of ship's biscuits.
The " Cite " occupies the site of the city of Aleth, which at the
close of the Roman empire supplanted Corseul as the capital of the
Curiosolites. Aleth was a bulwark of Druidism in those regions and
was not Christianized till the 6th century, when St Malo became its
first bishop. On the removal of the bishopric to St Malo Aleth
declined and was almost destroyed by St Louis in 1235; the houses
that remained standing became the nucleus of a new community,
originating from St Malo, which placed itself underthe patronageof
St Servan, apostle of the Orkneys. It was not till the Revolution
that St Servan became a separate commune from St Malo with a
municipality and police of its own.
ST SEVER, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Landes, n m. S.S.W. of
Mont, de Marsan on the Southern railway between that town
and Bayonne. Pop. (1906) town, 2508; commune, 4644. St
Sever stands on an eminence on the left bank of the Adour in
the district of the Chalosse. Its streets, bordered in places by
old houses, are narrow and winding. The promenade of Morlanne
laid out on the site of a Roman camp called Palestrion com-
mands a fine view of the Adour and the pine forests of the
Landes. The church of St Sever, a Romanesque building of the
1 2th century, with seven apses, once belonged to the Bene-
dictine abbey founded in the loth century. The public in-
stitutions of the town include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of
first instance, and a practical school of agriculture and viticulture
which occupies a former Dominican convent. There is trade in
the agricultural products of the Chalosse, especially geese.
SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE DE ROUVROY, Due DE (1607-
1693), French courtier, was born in August 1607, being the second
son of Louis de Rouvroi, seigneur du Plessis (d. 1643), who had
been a warm supporter of Henry of Guise and the League. With
his elder brother he entered the service of Louis XIII. as a page
and found instant favour with the king. Named first equerry
in March 1627 he became in less than three years captain of the
chateaux of St Germain and Versailles, master of the hounds,
first gentleman of the bed-chamber, royal councillor and governor
of Meulan and of Blaye. On the fall of La Rochelle he received
lands in the vicinity valued at 80,000 livres. About three
years later his seigniory of Saint-Simon in Vermandois was
erected into a duchy, and he was created a peer of France. He
was at first on good terms with Richelieu and was of service on
the Day of Dupes (nth of November 1630). Having suffered
disgrace for taking the part of his uncle, the baron of Saint-
Leger, after the capture of Catelet (isth of August 1636), he
retired to Blaye. He fought in the campaigns of 1638 and 1639,
and after the death of Richelieu returned to court, where he was
coldly received by the king (i8th of February 1643). Thence-
forth, with the exception of siding with Conde during the Fronde,
he took small part in politics. He died in Paris on the 3rd of
May 1693. By his first wife, Diane de Budos de Portes, a
relative of Conde, whom he married in 1644 and who died in
1670, he had three daughters. By his second wife, Charlotte
de 1'Aubespine, whom he married in 1672, he had a son Louis,
the " author of the memoirs " (see below).
SAINT-SIMON, CLAUDE HENRI DE ROUVROY, COMTE DE
(1760-1825), the founder of French socialism, was born in Paris
on the 1 7th of October 1760. He belonged to a younger branch
of the family of the due de Saint-Simon (above). His education
was directed by D'Alembert. At the age of nineteen he assisted
the American colonies in their revolt against Britain. From
his youth Saint-Simon felt the promptings of an eager ambition.
His valet had orders to awake him every morning with the
words, " Remember, monsieur le comte, that you have great
things to do." Among his early schemes was one to unite the
Atlantic and the Pacific by a canal, and another to construct
a canal from Madrid to the sea. Although he was imprisoned
in the Luxembourg during the Terror, he took no part of
any importance in the Revolution, but profited by it to
amass a little fortune by land speculation not on any selfish
account, however, as he said, but to facilitate his future projects.
SAINT-SIMON, COMTE DE
Accordingly, when he was nearly forty years of age he went
through a varied course of study and experiment, in order to
enlarge and clarify his view of things. One of these experiments
was an unhappy marriage undertaken merely that he might
have a salon which, after a year's duration, was dissolved by
mutual consent. The result of his experiments was that he
found himself completely impoverished, and lived in penury
for the remainder of his life. The first of his numerous writings,
Lettres d'un habitant de Geneve, appeared in 1802; but his early
writings were mostly scientific and political. In 1817 he began
in a treatise entitled L'lndustrie to propound his socialistic
views, which he further developed in L'Organisateur (1819), a
periodical on which Augustin Thierry and Auguste Comte
collaborated. The first number caused a sensation, but it brought
few converts. In 1821 appeared Du systeme industriel, and in
1823-1824 Calechisme des industriels. The last and most im-
portant expression of his views is the Nouveau Christianisme
(1825), which he left unfinished. For many years before his
death in 1825 (at Paris on the igth of May), Saint-Simon had
been reduced to the greatest straits. He was obliged to accept
a laborious post, working nine hours a day for 40 a year, to
live on the generosity of a former valet, and finally to solicit
a small pension from his family. In 1823 he attempted suicide
in despair. It was not till very late in his career that he
attached to himself a few ardent disciples.
As a thinker Saint-Simon was entirely deficient in system,
clearness and consecutive strength. But his great influence
on modern thought is undeniable, both as the historic founder
of French socialism and as suggesting much of what was after-
wards elaborated into Comtism. Apart from the details of his
socialistic teaching, which are vague and unsystematic, we find
that the ideas of Saint-Simon as to the reconstruction of society
are very simple. His opinions were conditioned by the French
Revolution and by the feudal and military system still prevalent
in France. In opposition to the destructive liberalism of the
Revolution he insisted on the necessity of a new and positive
reorganization of society. So far was he from advocating fresh
social revolt that he appealed to Louis XVIII. to inaugurate
the new order of things. In opposition, however, to the feudal
and military system, the former aspect of which had been
strengthened by the restoration, he advocated an arrangement
by which the industrial chiefs should control society. In place
of the medieval church the spiritual direction of society should
fall to the men of science. What Saint-Simon desired, therefore,
was an industrialist state directed by modern science in which
universal association should suppress war. In short, the men
who are fitted to organize society for productive labour are
entitled to bear rule in it. The social aim is to produce things
useful to life. The contrast between labour and capital so much
emphasized by later socialism is not present to Saint-Simon,
but it is assumed that the industrial chiefs, to whom the control
of production is to be committed, shall rule in the interest of
society. Later on the cause of the poor receives greater atten-
tion, till in his greatest work, The New Christianity, it takes
the form of a religion. It was this development of his teaching
that occasioned his final quarrel with Comte. Previous to the
publication of the Nouveau Christianisme, Saint-Simon had not
concerned himself with theology. Here he starts from a belief
in God, and his object in the treatise is to reduce Christianity to
its simple and essential elements. He does this by clearing it
of the dogmas and other excrescences and defects which have
gathered round the Catholic and Protestant forms of it. He
propounds as the comprehensive formula of the new Christianity
this precept " The whole of society ought to strive towards
the amelioration of the moral and physical existence of the
poorest class; society ought to organize itself in the way best
adapted for attaining this end." This principle became the
watchword of the entire school of Saint-Simon.
During his lifetime the views of Saint-Simon had very little
influence; and he left only a few devoted disciples, who
continued to advocate the doctrines of their master, whom they
revered as a prophet. Of these the most important were
Olinde Rodrigues, the favoured disciple of Saint-Simon, and
Barthelemy Prosper Enfantin (q.v.), who together had received
Saint-Simon's last instructions. Their first step was to establish
a journal, Le Producteur, but it was discontinued in 1826. The
sect, however, had begun to grow, and before the end of 1828,
had meetings not only in Paris but in many provincial towns.
An important departure was made in 1828 by Amand Bazard,
who gave a " complete exposition of the Saint-Simonian faith"
in a long course of lectures at Paris, which were well attended.
His Exposition de la doctrine de St Simon (2 vols., 1828-1830),
which is by far the best account of it, won more adherents. The
second volume was chiefly by Enfantin, who along with Bazard
stood at the head of the society, but who was superior in meta-
physical power, and was prone to push his deductions to
extremities. The revolution of July (1830) brought a new freedom
to the socialist reformers. A proclamation was issued demanding
the community of goods, the abolition of the right of inheritance,
and the enfranchisement of women. Early next year the school
obtained possession of the Globe through Pierre Leroux (q.v.),
who had joined the school, which now numbered some of the
ablest and most promising young men of France, many of the
pupils of the Ecole Polytechnique having caught its enthusiasm.
The members formed themselves into an association arranged
in three grades, and constituting a society or family, which lived
out of a common purse in the Rue Monsigny. Before long,
however, dissensions began to arise in the sect. Bazard, a man
of logical and more solid temperament, could no longer work in
harmony with Enfantin, who desired to establish an. arrogant
and fantastic sacerdotalism with lax notions as to marriage and
the relation of the sexes. After a time Bazard seceded and many
of the strongest supporters of the school followed his example.
A series of extravagant entertainments given by the society
during the winter of 1832 reduced its financial resources and
greatly discredited it in character. They finally removed to
Menilmontant, to a property of Enfantin, where they lived in a
communistic society, distinguished by a peculiar dress. Shortly
after the chiefs were tried and condemned for proceedings
prejudicial to the social order; and the sect was entirely broken
up (1832). Many of its members became famous as engineers,
economists, and men of business.
In the school of Saint-Simon we find a great advance on the vague
and confused views of the master. In the philosophy of history they
recognize epochs of two kinds, the critical or negative and the
organic or constructive. The former, in which philosophy is the
dominating force, is characterized by war, egotism and anarchy; the
latter, which is controlled by religion, is marked by the spirit of
obedience, devotion, association. The two spirits of antagonism
and association are the two great social principles, and on the degree
of prevalence of the two depends the character of an epoch. The
spirit of association, however, tends more and more to prevail over
its opponent, extending from the family to the city, from the city to
the nation, and from tne nation to the federation. This principle of
association is to be the keynote of the social development of the
future. Under the present system the industrial chief exploits the
proletariat, the members of which, though nominally free, must
accept his terms under pain of starvation. The only remedy for this
is the abolition of the law of inheritance, and the union of all the
instruments of labour in a social fund, which shall be exploited by
association. Society thus becomes sole proprietor, intrusting to
social groups and social functionaries the management of the various
properties. The right of succession is transferred from the family
to the state. The school of Saint-Simon insists strongly on the
claims of merit ; they advocate a social hierarchy in which each man
shall be placed according to his capacity and rewarded according to
his works. This is, indeed, a most special and pronounced feature of
the Saint-Simon socialism, whose theory of government is a kind of
spiritual or scientific autocracy, degenerating into the fantastic
sacerdotalism of Enfantin. With regard to the family and the relation
of the sexes the school of Saint-Simon advocated the complete
emancipation of woman and her entire equality with man. The
" social individual " is man and woman, who arc associated in the
exercise of the triple function of religion, the state and the family. In
its official declarations the school maintained the sanctity of the
Christian law of marriage. Connected with these doctrines was their
famous theory of the " rehabilitation of the flesh," deduced from the
philosophic theory of the school, which was a species of Pantheism,
though they repudiated the name. On this theory they rejected the
dualism so much emphasized by Catholic Christianity in its penances
and mortifications, and held that the body should be restored to its
SAINT-SIMON, DUG DE
47
due place of honour. It is a vague principle, of which the ethical
character depends on the interpretation ; and it was variously inter-
preted in the school of Saint-Simon. It was certainly immoral as
held by Enfantin, by whom it was developed into a kind of sensual
mysticism, a system of free love with a religious sanction.
An excellent edition of the works of Saint-Simon and Enfantin
was published by the survivors of the sect (47 vols., Paris, 1865-
1878). See, in addition to the works cited above, L. Reybaud,
Htudes sur les reformateurs contemporains (7th edition, Paris, 1864);
Paul Janet, Saint-Simon et le Saint-Simonisme (Paris, 1878); A. J.
Booth, Saint-Simon and Saint-Simonism (London, 1871); Georges
VVeill, Un Precurseur du socialisme, Saint-Simon et son ceuvre (Paris,
1894), and a history of the Ecole Saint- Simonienne, by the same
author (1896); G. Dumas, Psychologic de deux messies positivistes
St Simon et Comte (1905); E. Levasseur's Etudes sociales sous la
Restauration, contains a good section on Saint-Simon.
(T. K. ; J. T. S. )
SAINT-SIMON, LOUIS DE ROUVROY, Due DE (1675-1755),
French soldier, diplomatist and writer of memoirs, was born at
Versailles on the i6th of January 1675. The peerage granted
to his father, Claude de St Simon (q.v.), is the central fact in his
history. The French peerage under the old regime was a very
peculiar thing, difficult to comprehend at all, but quite certain
to be miscomprehended if any analogy of the English peerage
is imported into the consideration. No two things could be more
different in France than ennobling a man and making him a
peer. No one was made a peer who was not ennobled, but men
of the noblest blood in France and representing their houses
might not be, and in most cases were not, peers. Derived at
least traditionally and imaginatively from the douze pairs of
Charlemagne, the peers were supposed to represent the chosen
of the noblesse, and gradually, in an indefinite and constantly
disputed fashion, became associated with the parlement of Paris
as a quasi-legislative (or at least law-registering) and directly
judicial body. But the peerage was further complicated by the
fact that not persons but the holders of certain fiefs were made
peers. Strictly speaking, neither Saint-Simon nor any one
else in the same case was made a peer, but his estate was raised
to the rank of a duchepairieor a comtt pairie as the case might
be. Still the peers were in a way a standing committee repre-
sentative of the entire body of nobles, and it was Saint-Simon's
lifelong ideal, and at times his practical effort to convert them
into a sort of great council of the nation.
His mother, Charlotte de 1'Aubespine, belonged to a family not
of the oldest nobility but one which had been distinguished
in the public service at least since the time of Francis I. Her
son Louis was well educated, to a great extent by herself, and
he had had for godfather and godmother Louis XIV. and the
queen. After some tuition by the Jesuits (especially by Sanadon,
the editor of Horace), he joined the mousquetaires gris in 1692.
He was present at the siege of Namur, and the battle of Neer-
winden. But it was at this very time that he chose to begin
the crusade of his life by instigating, if not bringing, an action
on the part of the peers of France against Luxembourg, his
victorious general, on a point of precedence. He fought, how-
ever, another campaign or two (not under Luxembourg), and in
1695 married Gabrielle de Durfort, daughter of the marechal
de Lorges, under whom he latterly served. He seems to have
regarded her with a respect and affection not very usual between
husband and wife at the time; and she sometimes succeeded
in modifying his aristocratic ideas. But as he did not receive
the promotion he desired he flung up his commission in 1702.
Louis took a dislike to him, and it was with difficulty that he was
able to keep a footing at court. He was, however, intensely
interested in all the transactions of Versailles, and by dint of a
most heterogeneous collection of instruments, ranging from
dukes to servants, he managed to obtain the extraordinary
secret information which he has handed down. His own part
appears to have been entirely subordinate. He was appointed
ambassador to Rome in 1705, but the appointment was cancelled
before he started. At last he attached himself to the duke of
Orleans and, though this was hardly likely to conciliate Louis's
goodwill to him, it gave him at least the status of belonging
to a definite party, and it eventually placed him in the position
of tried friend to the acting chief of the state. He was able,
moreover, to combine attachment to the duke of Burgundy with
that to the duke of Orleans. Both attachments were no doubt
all the more sincere because of his undying hatred to " the
bastards," that is to say, the illegitimate sons of Louis XIV.
It does not appear that this hatred was founded on moral reasons
or on any real fear that these bastards would be intruded into
the succession. The true cause of his wrath was that they had
precedence of the peers.
The death of Louis seemed to give Saint-Simon a chance of
realizing his hopes. The duke of Orleans was at once acknowledged
regent, and Saint-Simon was of the council of regency. But no
steps were taken to carry out his favourite vision of a France
ruled by the nobles for its good, and he had little real influence
with the regent. He was indeed gratified by the degradation of
" the bastards," and in 1721 he was appointed ambassador to
Spain to arrange for the marriage (not destined to take place)
of Louis XV. and the infanta. His visit was splendid; he received
the grandeeship, and, though he also caught the smallpox,
he was quite satisfied with the business. After his return he had
little to do with public affairs. His own account of the cessation
of his intimacy with Orleans and Dubois, the latter of whom
had never been his friend, is, like his own account of some other
events of his life, obscure and rather suspicious. But there can
be little doubt that he was practically ousted by the favourite.
He survived for more than thirty years; but little is known of
his life. His wife died in 1743, his eldest son a little later; he
had other family troubles, and he was loaded with debt. When
he died, at Paris on the 2nd of March 1755, he had almost entirely
outlived his own generation (among whom he had been one of
the youngest) and the prosperity of his house, though not its
notoriety. This last was in strange fashion revived by a distant
relative born five years after his own death, Claude Henri,
comte de Saint-Simon (q.v.).
It will have been observed that the actual events of Saint-Simon's
life, long as it was and high as was his position, are neither numerous
nor noteworthy. He is, however, an almost unique example of a
man who has acquired great literary fame entirely by posthumous
publications. He was an indefatigable writer, and he began very
early to set down in black and white all the gossip he collected, all
his interminable legal disputes of precedence, and a vast mass of
unclassified and almost unclassifiable matter. Most of his manu-
scripts came into the possession of the government, and it was
long before their contents were published in anything like fulness.
Partly in the form of notes on Dangeau's Journal, partly in that of
original and independent memoirs, partly in scattered and multi-
farious tracts and disquisitions, he had committed to paper an
immense amount of matter. But the mere mass of these productions
is their least noteworthy feature, or rather it is most remarkable as
contrasting with their character and style. Saint-Simon, though
careless and sometimes even ungrammatical, ranks among the most
striking memoir-writers of France, the country richest in memoirs
of any in the world. His pettiness, his absolute injustice to his
private enemies and to those who espoused public parties with which
he did not agree, the bitterness which allows him to give favourable
portraits of hardly any one, his omnivorous appetite for gossip, his
lack of proportion and perspective, are all lost sight of in admiration
of his extraordinary genius for historical narrative and character-
drawing of a certain sort. He has been compared to Tacitus, and
for once the comparison is just. In the midst of his enormous mass
of writing phrases scarcely inferior to the Roman's occur frequently,
and here and there are passages of sustained description equal, for
intense concentration of light and life, to those of Tacitus or of any
other historian. As may be expected from the vast extent of his
work, it is in the highest degree unequal. But he is at the same time
not a writer who can be " sampled " easily, inasmuch as his most
characteristic phrases sometimes occur in the midst of long stretches
of quite uninteresting matter. A few critical studies of him,
especially those of Sainte-Beuye, are the basis of much, if not most,
that has been written about him. Yet no one is so little to be taken
at second-hand. Even his most famous passages, such as the
account of the death of the dauphin or of the Bed of Justice jwhere
his enemy the duke of Maine was degraded, will not give a fair idea
of his talent. These are his gallery pieces, his great " machines," as
French art slang calls them. Much more noteworthy as well as more
frequent are the sudden touches which he gives. The bishops are
" cuistres violets " ; M. de Caumartin " porte sous son manteau toute
la fatuit^ que M. de Villeroy 6tale sur son baudrier"; another
politician has a " mine de chat fache." In short, the interest of the
Memoirs, independent of the large addition of positive knowledge
which they make, is one of constant surprise at the novel and adroit
use of word and phrase. Some of Macaulay's most brilliant portraits
ST THOMAS
and sketches of incident are adapted and sometimes almost literally
translated from Saint-Simon.
The first edition of Saint-Simon (some scattered pieces may have
been printed before) appeared in 1788. It was a mere selection in
three volumes and was much cut down before it was allowed to
appear. Next year four more volumes made their appearance, and
in 1791 a new edition, still further increased. The whole, or rather
not the whole, was printed in 1829-1830 and reprinted some ten
years later. The real creator of Saint-Simon, as far as a full and exact
text is concerned, was M . CheVuel, whose edition in 20 volumes dates
from 1856, and was reissued again revised in 1872. So immense,
however, is the mass of Saint-Simon's MSS. that still another
recension was given by M. de Boislisle in 1882, with M. Cheruel's
assistance, while a newer edition, yet once more revised from the
MS., was begun in 1904. It must, however, be admitted that the
matter other than the Memoirs is of altogether inferior interest and
may be pretty safely neglected by any one but professed anti-
quarian and historical students. For criticism on Saint-Simon there
is nothing better than Sainte-Beuve's two sketches in the 3rd and
I5th volumes of the Causeries du lundi. The latter was written to
accompany M. Cheruel's first edition. In English by far the most
accurate treatment is in a Lothian prize essay by E. Cannan (Oxford
and London, 1885). (G. SA.)
ST THOMAS, an incorporated city and port of entry of Ontario,
Canada, capital of Elgin county, on Kettle creek, 13 m. S. of
London and 8 m. N. of Lake Erie. Pop. (1901) 11,485. It is
an important station on the Grand Trunk, Michigan Central,
Lake Erie & Detroit River, and Canadian Pacific railways.
It has numerous schools, a collegiate institute, and Alma ladies'
college. The Michigan Central railway shops, car-wheel foundry,
flour, flax and planing mills are the principal industries.
ST THOMAS (SAo THOME), a volcanic island in the Gulf of
Guinea immediately north of the equator (o 23' N.) and in
6 40' E. With the island of Principe (Prince's Island), it forms
the Portuguese province of St Thomas. From the Gabun, the
nearest point of the mainland of Africa, St Thomas is distant
166 m., and from Cameroon 297 m. The extreme length of the
island is 32 m. the breadth W. to E. 21 m.; the area is about
400 sq. m.
From the coast the land rises towards lofty verdant mountains
(St Thomas over 7000 ft.). At least a hundred streams, great and
small, descend the mountain-sides through deep-cut ravines, many of
them forming beautiful waterfalls, such as those of Blu-blu on the
Agua Grande. The island during its occupation by the Netherlands
acquired the name of " The Dutchman's Churchyard," and the death-
rate is still very high. Malaria is common in the lower regions, but
the unhealthiness of the island is largely due to the absence of hygienic
precautions. During the dry season (June to September) the
temperature ranges in the lower parts between 66-2 and 80-6 F.,
and in the higher parts between 57/2 and 68; in the rainy season
it ranges between 69-8" and 89-6 in the lower parts, and between
64-4 and 80-6 in the higher parts. On Coffee Mount (2265 ft.) the
mean of ten years was 68-9, the maximum 90-5 and the minimum
47-3. The heat is tempered by the equatorial ocean current. The
rainfall is very heavy save on the north coast.
The soil is exceedingly fertile and a considerable area is densely
forested. Among the products are oranges, lemons, figs, mangoes,
and in the lower districts the vine, pineapple, guava and banana.
The first object of European cultivation was sugar, and to this the
island owed its prosperity in the i6th century; sugar has been
displaced by coffee and, principally, cocoa, introduced in 1795 and
1822 respectively. In 1907 the export of cocoa (including that from
Principe) was over 24,000 tons, about a sixth of the world's supply.
The cocoa zone lies between 650 and 2000 ft. above the sea. Vanilla
and cinchona bark both succeed well, the latter at altitudes of from
1800 to 3300 ft. Rubber, quinine, cinnamon, camphor and the
kola-nut are also produced, but since 1890 -when the production was
under 3000 tons cocoa has been almost exclusively grown. About
175 sq. m. were in 1910 under cultivation. The value of the imports
was 175,000 in 1896 and 708,000 in 1908; that of the exports was
398,000 in 1896 and 1,760,000 in 1908. The shipping trade (190
vessels of 490,000 tons in 1908) is chiefly in the hands of the Portu-
guese. The revenue (1909-1910) was about 195,000, the expendi-
ture 162,000.
At the census of 1900 the inhabitants were returned at 37,776, of
whom 1012 were whites (mainly Portuguese). The town of St
Thomas, capital and chief port of the province, residence of the
governor and of the Curador (the legal guardian of the servicaes, i.e.
labourers), is situated on Chaves Bay on the N.E. coast. It is the
starting-point of a railway 9 m. long, which connects with the
Decauville railways on the cocoa estates. The inhabitants, apart
from the Europeans, consist (i ) of descendants of the original settlers,
who were convicts from Portugal, slaves and others from Brazil and
negroes from the Gabun and other parts of the Guinea coast. They
number about 8000, are a brown-skinned, indolent race, and occupy
rather than cultivate about one-eighth of the island. They are
known as " natives " and use a Negro-Portuguese " lingua de S
ThomeV' (2) On the south-west coast are Angolares some 3000 in
number descendants of two hundred Angola slaves wrecked at Sete
Pedras in 1544. They retain their Bunda speech and customs, and
are expert fishermen and canoemen. (3) Contract labourers from
Cape Verde, Kabinda, &c., and Angola. These form the bulk of the
population. In 1891, before the great development of the cocoa
industry, the population was only 22,ooo. 1
St Thomas was discovered on the 2ist of December 1470 by
the Portuguese navigators Joao de Santarem and Pero de
Escobar, who in the beginning of the following year discovered
Annobom (" Good Year "). They found St Thomas uninhabited.
The first attempts at colonization were Joao de Paiva's in 1485;
but nothing permanent was accomplished till 1493, when a body
of criminals and of young Jews taken from their parents to be
baptized were sent to the island, and the present capital was
founded by Alvaro de Carminha. In the middle of the i6th
century there were over 80 sugar mills on the island, which
then had a population of 50,000; but in 1567 the settlement
was attacked by the French, and in 1574 the Angolares began
raids which only ended with their subjugation in 1693. In
1595 there was a slave revolt; and from 1641 to 1644 the Dutch,
who had plundered the capital in 1600, held possession of the
island. The French did great damage in 1709; the sugar
trade had passed to Brazil and internal anarchy reduced St
Thomas to a deplorable state. It was not until the later half
of the igth century that prosperity began to return.
The greatly increased demand for cocoa which arose in the
last decade of the century led to the establishment of many
additional plantations, and a very profitable industry was
developed. Planters, however, were handicapped by the scarcity
of labour, for though a number of Cape Verde islanders, Krumen
and Kabindas sought employment on short-term agreements,
the " natives " would not work. The difficulty was met by the
recruitment of indentured natives from Angola, as many as
6000 being brought over in one year. The mortality among these
labourers was great, but they were very well treated on the
plantations. No provision was, however, made for their repa-
triation, while the great majority were brought by force from
remote parts of Central Africa and had no idea of the character
of the agreement into which they were compelled to enter.
From time to time governors of Angola endeavoured to remedy
the abuses of the system, which both in Portugal and Great
Britain was denounced as indistinguishable from slavery, not-
withstanding that slavery had been legally abolished in the
Portuguese dominions in 1878. In March 1909 certain firms,
British and German, as the result of investigations made in
Angola and St Thomas, refused any longer to import cocoa
from St Thomas or Principe Islands unless the recruitment of
labourers for the plantations was made voluntary. Repre-
sentations to Portugal were made by the British government,
and the Lisbon authorities stopped recruitment entirely from
July 1909 to February 1910, when it was resumed under new
regulations. British consular agents were stationed in Angola
and St Thomas to watch the working of these regulations. (See
statement by Sir E. Grey reported in The Times, July 2nd, 1910).
As one means of obviating the difficulties encountered in Angola
the recruitment of labourers from Mozambique was begun in
1908, the men going out on a yearly contract.
PRINCIPE ISLAND lies 90 m. N.E. of St Thomas, has an area
of 42 sq. m. and is also of volcanic origin. Pop. (1900) 4327.
The tsetse fly (which is not found in St Thomas) infests the
wooded part of the island, and through it sleeping sickness has
been spread among the inhabitants. The principal industry
is the cultivation of cocoa. The chief settlement is St Antonio.
See A. Negreiros, Historia ethnographica da Ilha de S Thomi
(Lisbon, 1895) and lie de San Thome (Paris, 1901); C. Gravier
" Mission scientifique 4 l'!le de San Thom6 " Nouv. Arch. Miss.
Scient. t. xv. (Paris, 1907) ; A. Pinto de Miranda Guedes, " Viacao em
S, Thom6 " in B.S.G. Lisboa (1902) pp. 299-357; E. de Campos
1 According to Aug. Chevalier (in 0. Occidents, May zoth, 1910) the
population of St Thomas and Principe combined in Dec. 1909 was
68,221, the " natives " being given at over 23,000.
ST THOMAS ST VINCENT, EARL OF
49
" S. Thome 1 " B.S.G. Lisboa (1908), pp. 113-134; W. A. Cadbury,
Labour in Portuguese West Afnca (2nd ed., London, 1910); A illia
de S Thom6 (Lisbon, 1907); The Boa Entrada Plantations
(Edinburgh, 1907) ; and British Consular reports.
ST THOMAS, an island in the Danish West Indies. It belongs
to the Virgin Island group, and lies 40 m. E. of Porto Rico,
in 18 20' N. and 64 55' W. Pop. (1901) 11,012, mostly negroes.
It is 13 m long, varies in width from i m. to 4 m. and has an
area of 33 m. It consists of a single mountain ridge, the peaks of
a submerged range, culminating in West Mountain (1555 ft.).
St Thomas stands on a prolongation of the range which supports
the Greater Antilles, and is built up of much disintegrated eruptive
rock (porphyry and granite). The climate is tropical, varying
in temperature between 70 F. and 80 F., modified, however, by
the sea breezes. The average yearly rainfall is about 45 in.,
earthquakes are not unknown, and hurricanes at times sweep
over the island. The only town, Charlotte Amalie (pop. 8540),
lies in the centre of the S coast, at the head of one of the finest
harbours in the West Indies. This consists of an almost land-
locked basin, about \ m. across, varying in depth from 27 to
36 ft., and entered by a narrow channel only 300 yds. wide.
It is equipped with a floating dock, which can accommodate
ships up to 3000 tons, a patent slip for smaller vessels and a
repairing yard. Danish is the official language, but English
predominates, while French, Spanish and Dutch are also spoken.
St Thomas was once the greatest distributing centre in the West
Indies, but the introduction of steamships and cables led to its
decline, and the removal of the Royal Mail Steamship Company's
headquarters to Barbados in 1885 was the final blow. The pro-
duction of sugar, which decayed gradually after the abolition of
slavery, is practically extinct. Aloes, fibrous plants and fruit
are grown. St Thomas is the seat of government for the Danish
West Indies (St Thomas, St John and St Croix), a crown colony
administered by a governor, who is assisted by a colonial council.
The governor resides for half the year in St Thomas, and in St
Croix for the rest. The chief importance of St Thomas lies in
the fact that it is a coaling station for ships plying to and from
the West Indies.
The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and first
colonized by the Dutch in 1657. After their departure in 1667
the island came into the hands of the British, and it was
held by them till 1671, when it passed into the hands of the
Danish West India Company, which was succeeded in 1685
by the so-called Brandenburg Company, the shareholders of
which were mainly Dutch. The king of Denmark having taken
over the island in 1754, declared it a free port, and during the
European wars of the i8th century the neutrality of Denmark
gave a great impetus to the trade of St Thomas. It was during
this period that the distributing trade of the island grew up. It
was held by the British in 1801 and again from 1807 to 1815,
during which it was the great rendezvous of British merchant
vessels waiting for convoy. In 1867, when the islands were
governed at a loss to the mother country, a treaty was concluded
under which the United States agreed to buy them for i\ million
dollars, but, although the suggestion first emanated from the
United States, its Senate refused to ratify the treaty. In 1902
another treaty of cession was signed by which the United States
was to buy the islands for 5 million dollars, but the Danish
parliament rejected it. The importance of the islands to the
United States consists in their suitability as a West Indian naval
base.
ST TROND, a town of Belgium in the province of Limburg
about 18 m. N.W. of Liege. Pop. (1904) 15,116. It occupies
an important strategical position with regard to the N.E. frontier
of Belgium, and General Brialmont recommended its fortifica-
tion. In the middle ages it was a fortified town belonging to
the bishops of Liege, and Charles the Bold captured it in 1467.
In 1566 the Assembly of Compromise met at St Trond.
SAINT-VICTOR, PAUL BINS, COMTE DE (1827-1881), known
as Paul de Saint- Victor, French author, was born in Paris on
the nth of July 1827. His father Jacques B. M. Bins, comte
de Saint-Victor (1772-1858), is remembered by his poem
L'Esperance, and by an excellent verse translation of Anacreon.
Saint-Victor, who ceased to use the title of count as being out
of keeping with his democratic principles, began as a dramatic
critic on the Pays in 1851, and in 1885 he succeeded Theophile
Gautier on the Presse. In 1866 he migrated to the Liberte,
and in 1869 joined the staff of the Monileur uniiiersd. In 1870,
during the last days of the second empire, he was made inspector-
general of fine arts. Almost all Saint- Victor's work consists of
articles, the best known being the collection entitled Hommes
et dieux (1867). His death interrupted the publication of
Les Deux Masques, in which the author intended to survey the
whole dramatic literature of ancient and modern times. Saint-
Victor's critical faculty was considerable, though rather one-
sided. He owed a good deal to Theophile Gautier, but he carried
ornateness to a pitch far beyond Gautier's. Saint-Victor died
in Paris on the gth of July 1881.
See also Deljant, Paul de Saint-Victor (1887).
ST VINCENT, JOHN JERVIS, EARL OF (1735-1823), British
admiral, was the second son of Swynfen Jervis, solicitor to the
admiralty, and treasurer of Greenwich hospital. He was born
at Meaford in Staffordshire on the 9th of January 1735, and
entered the navy on the 4th of January 1749. He became
lieutenant on the igth of February 1755, and served in that
rank till 1759, taking part in the conquest of Quebec. He was
made commander of the " Scorpion " sloop in 1759, and post-
captain in 1 760. During the peace he commanded the " Alarm "
32 in the Mediterranean, and when he was put on half pay he
travelled widely in Europe, taking professional notes everywhere.
While the War of American Independence lasted, he commanded
the " Fourroyant " (80) in the Channel, taking part in the battle
of Ushant on the 27th of July 1778 (see KEPPEL, VISCOUNT)
and in the various reliefs of Gibraltar. His most signal service
was the capture of the French " Pegase " (74) after a long chase
on the iQth of April 1782, for which he was made K.B. In
1783 he entered parliament as member for Launceston, and in
the general election of 1784 as member for Yarmouth. In politics
he was a strong Whig. On the 24th of September 1787 he attained
flag rank, and was promoted vice-admiral in 1793. From
1793 till 1795 he was in the West Indies co-operating with the
army in the conquest of the French islands. On his return he
was promoted admiral. In November 1795 he took command
in the Mediterranean, where he maintained the blockade of
Toulon, and aided the allies of Great Britain in Italy.
But in 1796 a great change was produced by the progress of
the French armies on shore and the alliance of Spain with France.
The occupation of Italy by the French armies closed all the ports
to his ships, and Malta was not yet in the possession of Great
Britain. Then the addition of the Spanish fleet to the French
altered the balance of strength in the Mediterranean. The
Spaniards were very inefficient, and Jervis would have held his
ground, if one of his subordinates had not taken the extraordinary
course of returning to England, because he thought that the
dangerous state of the country required that all its forces should
be concentrated at home. He was therefore obliged to act on
the instructions sent to him and to retire to the Atlantic, with-
drawing the garrisons from Corsica and other places. His
headquarters were now on the coast of Portugal, and his chief
duty was to watch the Spanish fleet at Cadiz. On the i4th of
February 1797 he gained a most complete victory against
heavy odds (see ST VINCENT, BATTLE OF). The determination
to fight, and the admirable discipline of his squadron, which was
very largely the fruit of his own care in preparation, supply
the best proof that he was a commander of a high order. For
this victory, which came at a very critical time, he was made
an earl and was granted a pension of 3000. His qualities as
a disciplinarian were soon to be put to a severe test. In 1797
the grievances of the sailors, which were of old standing, and had
led to many mutinies of single ships, came to a head in the great
general mutinies at Spithead and the Nore. Similar movements
took place on the coast of Ireland and at the Cape of Good
Hope (see the article NAVY: History). The spirit spread to
the fleet under St Vincent, and there was an undoubted danger
that some outbreak would take place in his command. The
ST VINCENT ST VINCENT, BATTLE OF
peril was averted by his foresight and severity. He had always
taken great care of the health of his men, and was as strict with
the officers as with sailors. It must in justice be added that he
was peculiarly fitted for the work. We have ample evidence
from his contemporaries that he found a pleasure in insulting
officers whom he disliked, as well as in hanging and flogging
those of his men who offended him. He carried his strictness
with his officers to an extent which aroused the actual hatred
of many among them, and exasperated Sir John Orde (1751-
1824) into challenging him to fight a duel. Yet he cannot be
denied the honour of having raised the discipline of the navy to
a higher level than it had reached before; he was always ready
to promote good officers, and the efficiency of the squadron
with which Nelson won the battle of the Nile was largely due
to him. His health broke down under the strain of long cruising,
and in June 1709 he resigned his command.
When the earl's health was restored in the following year he
took the command of the Channel fleet, into which he introduced
his own rigid system of discipline to the bitter anger of the
captains. But his method was fully justified by the fact that
he was able to maintain the blockade of Brest for 121 days with
his fleet. In 1801 he became first lord and held the office till
Pitt returned to power in 1803. His administration is famous
in the history of the navy, for he now applied himself to the very
necessary task of reforming the corruptions of the dockyaids.
Naturally he was fiercely attacked in and out of parliament.
His peremptory character led him to do the right thing with the
maximum of dictation at Whitehall as on the quarter-deck of
his flagship. He also gave an opening to his critics by devoting
himself so wholly to the reform of the dockyards that he neglected
the preparation of the fleet for war. He would not recognize
the possibility that the peace of Amiens would not last. Pitt
made himself the mouthpiece of St Vincent's enemies, mainly
because he considered him as a dangerous member of the party
which was weakening the position of England in the face of
Napoleon. When Pitt's second ministry was formed in 1803,
St Vincent refused to take the command of the Channel fleet at
his request. After Pitt's death he resumed the duty with the
temporary rank of admiral of the fleet in 1806, but held it only
till the following year. After 1810 he retired to his house at
Rochetts in Essex. The rank of admiral of the fleet was conferred
on him in 1821 on the coronation of George IV., and he died on
the i4th of March 1823. Lord St Vincent married his cousin
Martha Parker, who died childless in 1816. There is a monument
to the earl in St Paul's Cathedral, and portraits of him at different
periods of his life are numerous. The earldom granted to Jervis
became extinct on his death, but a viscounty, created for him
in 1801, passed by special remainder to Edward Jervis Ricketts
(1767-1857), the second son of his sister Mary who had married
William Henry Ricketts, of Longwood, Hampshire. The 2nd
viscount took the name of Jervis, and the title is still held by
his descendants.
See Life by J. S. Tucker (2 vols.), whose father had been the
admiral's secretary (marred by excessive eulogy). The life by
Captain Brenton is rather inaccurate. The Naval Career of Admiral
John Markham contains an account of the reforms in the navy.
His administrations produced a swarm of pamphlets. Many
mentions of him will be found in the correspondence of Nelson.
(D. H.)
ST VINCENT, one of the British Windward Islands in the
West Indies, lying about 13 15' N., 61 10' W., west of Barbados
and south of St Lucia. It is about 18 m. long by n in extreme
width, and has an area of 140 sq. m. A range of volcanic hills
forms the backbone of the island; their slopes and spurs are
beautifully wooded, and the valleys between the spurs are
fertile and picturesque. The culminating point is the volcano
called the Soufriere (35 ft.) in the north, the disastrous eruption
of which in May 1902 devastated the most fertile portion of the
island, a comparatively level tract lying to the north, called the
Carib Country (see below). The climate of St Vincent is fairly
healthy and in winter very pleasant; the average annual rainfall
exceeds 100 in., and the temperature ranges from 88 F. in August
to 66 in December and January. Hurricanes are not uncommon.
The capital of the island is Kingstown, beautifully situated on
the south-west coast near the foot of Mount St Andrew (2600 ft.).
The population of the island in 1891 was 41,054 (2445 white,
7554 coloured, 31,055 black); in 1906 it was estimated at 44,000.
There were about 3300 East Indian coolies, a large number of whom .
were introduced in 1861 and following years, but on the expiry of
their indentures mostly returned home; there were also a few
Caribs of mixed blood, the majority of the aboriginal Caribs having
been deported to British Honduras in 1797. Kingstown has a
population of about 4000. The principal products of the island are
sugar (but the sugar-industry has here, as elsewhere, undergone
various vicissitudes), arrowroot and rum; and the cultivation of Sea
Island cotton, introduced about 1903, has been successfully de-
veloped by the government, which established a ginnery at Kings-
town. Other articles of export are cacao, cotton, spices, fruit,
vegetables, live stock and poultry. The average annual value of
exports in 1896-1906 was 63,157 (in 19031904, the year following
that of the great eruption.it was 38,174, and in 1905-1906 it was
53,078) and of imports, 80,467. In 1905-1906 the value of im-
ports from the United Kingdom was 25,471, and that of exports
to the United Kingdom 24,405.
The present constitution dates from 1877, when the legislative
council, consisting of four official and four nominated unofficial
members, was formed. In 1899 an important scheme was entered
upon, by means of a grant of 15,000 from the Imperial treasury, for
settling the labouring population, distressed by the failures of the
sugar industry, in the position of peasant proprietors. Estates were
acquired from private owners for this purpose, and besides this a
number of small holdings on crown lands (which are situated mainly
in the high-lying central parts of the island) have been sold. Educa-
tion is carried on in 27 state-aided schools, and there are at Kings-
town a grammar school and an agricultural school. The Anglican,
Wesleyan and Roman Catholic churches are well represented, and
there are some Presbyterians.
St Vincent is generally stated to have been discovered on
St Vincent's day, the 22nd of January 1498 by Columbus. Its
Carib inhabitants, however, remained undisturbed for many
years. In 1627 Charles I. granted the island to the earl of
Carlisle; in 1672 it was re-granted to Lord Willoughby, having
been previously (1660) declared neutral. In 1722 a further
grant of the island was made, to the duke of Montague, and now
for the first time a serious effort at colonization was made, but
the French insisted on the maintenance of neutrality, and this
was confirmed by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). In 1762,
however, General Monckton captured the island; the treaty of
Paris in 1763 confirmed the British possession, and settlement
proceeded in spite of the refusal of the Caribs to admit British
sovereignty. Recourse was had to arms, and in 1773 a treaty
was concluded with them, when they were granted lands in the
north of the island as a reserve. In 1779 the island was sur-
rendered to the French, but it was restored to Britain by the
treaty of Versailles (1783). In 1795 the Caribs rose, assisted
by the French, and were only put down after considerable
fighting by Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1796, after which the
majority of them were deported. The emancipation of negro
slaves in the island took place in 1838; in 1846 the first Portu-
guese labourers were introduced, and in 1861 the first East
Indian coolies. St Vincent suffered from a terrific hurricane
in 1780, and the Soufriere was in eruption in 1821. Severe
distress was occasioned by the hurricane of the i ith of September
1898, from which the island had not recovered when it was visited
by the eruption of the Soufriere in 1902. This eruption was
synchronous with that of Mont Pelfi in Martinique (q.v.). There
had been signs of activity since February 1901, but the most
serious eruption took place on the 6th/7th of May 1902. There
were earthquakes in the following July, and further eruptions
on the 3rd of September and the isth of October, and on the
zzndof March 1903. Many sugar and arrowroot plantations were
totally destroyed, and the loss of life was estimated at 2000.
A Mansion House Fund was at once started in London for
the relief of the sufferers, and subscriptions were sent from all
parts of the civilized world, and notably from the United
States.
ST VINCENT, BATTLE OF, fought on the I4th of February
1797, between the British and Spanish fleets, the most famous
and important of many encounters which have taken place at
the same spot. The battle of 1797 is of peculiar significance in
British naval history, not only because it came at a vital moment,
ST VITUS'S DANCE
5 1
but because it first revealed the full capacity of Nelson, which
was well known in the navy, to all his countrymen. In the course
of 1796 the Spanish government had made the disastrous
alliance with the French republic, which reduced its country
to the level of a pawn in the game against England. The Spanish
fleet, which was in a complete state of neglect, was forced to sea.
It consisted of 27 sail of the line under the command of Don Jose
de Cordoba fine ships, but manned in haste by drafts of soldiers,
and of landsmen forced on board by the press. Even the flagships
had only about eighty sailors each in their crews. Don Jose
de Cordoba, who had gone out with no definite aim, was in
reality drifting about with his unmanageable ships in two
confused divisions separated from one another, in light winds
from the W. and W.S.W., at a distance of from 25 to 30 m. S.W.
of the Cape. While in this position he was sighted by Sir John
Jervis, of whose nearness to himself he was ignorant, and who
had sailed from Lisbon to attack him with only 15 sail of the
line. Jervis knew the inefficient condition of the Spaniards,
and was aware that the general condition of the war called for
vigorous exertions. He did not hesitate to give battle in spite
of the numerical superiority of his opponent. Six of the Spanish
ships were to the south of him, separated by a long interval from
the others which were to the south west. The British squadron
was formed into a single line ahead, and was steered to pass
between the two divisions of the Spaniards. The six vessels
were thus cut off. A feeble attempt was made by them to
molest the British, but being now to leeward as Jervis passed
to the west of them, and being unable to face the rapid and well
directed fire to which they were exposed, they sheered off. One
only ran down the British line, and passing to the stern of the
last ship succeeded in joining the bulk of her fleet to windward.
As the British line passed through the gap between the Spanish
divisions the ships were tacked in succession to meet the wind-
ward portion of the enemy. If this movement had been carried
out fully, all the British ships would have gone through the gap
and the Spaniards to windward would have been able to steer
unimpeded to the north, and perhaps to avoid being brought
to a close general action. Their chance of escape was baffled
by the independence and promptitude of Nelson. His ship, the
" Captain " (74), was the third from the end of the British line.
Without waiting for orders he made a sweep to the west, threw
himself across the bows of the Spaniards. His movement was
seen and approved by Jervis, who then ordered the other ships
in his rear to follow Nelson's example. The British force was
thrown bodily on the enemy. As the Spanish crews were too
utterly unpractised to handle their ships, and could not carry
out the orders of their officers which they did not understand,
their ships were soon driven into a herd, and fell on board of
one another. Their incompetence as gunners enabled the
" Captain " to assail their flagship, the huge " Santisima Trinidad "
(130), with comparative impunity. The " San Josef " (112), and
the " San Nicolas " (80), which fell aboard of one another, were
both carried by boarding by the " Captain." Four Spanish
ships, the " Salvador del Mundo " and " San Josef " (112), the
" San Nicolas " (80), and the " San Isidro " (74), were taken.
The " Santisima Trinidad " is said to have struck, but she
was not taken possession of. By about half-past three the
Spaniards were fairly beaten. More prizes might have been
taken, but Sir John Jervis put a stop to the action to secure the
four which had surrendered. The Spaniards were allowed to
retreat to Cadiz. Sir John Jervis was made Earl St Vincent (q.v.)
for his victory. The battle, which revealed the worthlessness
of the Spanish navy, relieved the British government from a
load of anxiety, and may be said to have marked the complete
predominance of its fleet on the sea.
AUTHORITIES. A very interesting account of the battle of Cape
St Vincent, A Narrative of the Proceedings of the British Fleet, &c.
(London, 1797), illustrated by plans, was published immediately
afterwards by Colonel Drinkwater Bethune, author of the History
of the Siege of Gibraltar, who was an eyewitness from the " Lively "
frigate. See also James's Naval History (London, 1837); and
Captain Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power on the French Revolution
and Empire (London, 1892). (D. H.)
ST VITUS'S DANCE, 1 or CHOREA, a disorder of the nervous
system occurring for the most part in children, and characterized
mainly by involuntary jerking movements of the muscles
throughout almost the entire body (see NEUROPATHOLOGY).
Among the predisposing causes age is important, chorea being
essentially an ailment of childhood and particularly during the
period of the second dentition between the ages of nine and twelve.
It is not often seen in very young children nor after puberty;
but there are many exceptions. It is twice as frequent with
girls as with boys. Hereditary predisposition to nervous troubles
is apt to find expression in this malady, especially if the general
health becomes lowered. Of exciting causes strong emotions,
such as fright, ill-usage or hardship of any kind, insufficient
feeding, overwork or anxiety, are among the most common;
while, again, some distant source of irritation, such as teething
or intestinal worms, appears capable of giving rise to an attack.
It is an occasional but rare complication of pregnancy. The
connexion of chorea with rheumatism is now universally recog-
nized, and is shown not merely by its frequent occurrence before,
after or during the course of attacks of rheumatic fever in young
persons, but even independently of this by the liability of the
heart to suffer in a similar way in the two diseases. Poynton
and Paine have demonstrated a diplococcus, which they regard
as the specific micro-organism of rheumatism, and which has
been found in the lymph spaces in the cortex in chorea. An
attempt has recently been made to demonstrate the infectious
nature of the chorea.
The symptoms of St Vitus's dance sometimes develop
suddenly as the result of fright, but much more frequently they
come on insidiously. They are usually preceded by changes
in disposition, the child becoming sad, irritable and emotional,
while at the same time the general health is somewhat impaired.
The first thing indicative of the disease is a certain awkwardness
or fidgetiness of manner together with restlessness. In walking,
too, slight dragging of one limb may be noticed. The convulsive
muscular movements usually first show themselves in one part,
such as an arm or a leg, and in some instances they may remain
localized to that limited extent, while in all cases there is a tend-
ency for the disorderly symptoms to be more marked on one
side than on the other. When fully developed the phenomena
of the disease are very characteristic. The child when standing
or sitting is never still, but is constantly changing the position
of the body or limbs or the facial expression in consequence
of the sudden and incoordinate action of muscles or groups of
them. These symptoms are aggravated when purposive move-
ments are attempted or when the child is watched. Speech is
affected both from the incoordinate movements of the tongue
and from phonation sometimes taking place during an act of
inspiration. The taking of food becomes a matter of difficulty,
since much of it is lost in the attempts to convey it to the mouth,
while swallowing is also interfered with owing to the irregular
action of the pharyngeal muscles. When the tongue is protruded
it comes out in a jerky manner and is immediately withdrawn,
the jaws at the same time closing suddenly and sometimes with
considerable force. In locomotion the muscles of the limbs
act incoordinately and there is a marked alteration of the gait,
which is now halting and now leaping, and the child may be
tripped by one limb being suddenly jerked in front of the other.
In short, the whole muscular system is deranged in its operations,
and the term " insanity of the muscles " not inaptly expresses
the condition, for they no longer act in harmony or with purpose,
but seem, as Trousseau expresses it, each to have a will of its own.
The muscles of organic life (involuntary muscles) appear scarcely,
1 This name was originally employed in connexion with those
remarkable epidemic outbursts of combined mental and physical
excitement which for a time prevailed among the inhabitants of some
parts of Germany in the middle ages. It is stated that sufferers from
this dancing mania were wont to resort to the chapels of St Vitus
(more than one in Swabia), the saint being believed to possess the
power of curing them. The transference of the name to the disease
now under consideration was a manifest error, but so closely has the
association now become that the original application of the term has
been comparatively obscured.
SAINT-WANDRILLE SAISSET, B.
if at all, affected in this disease, as, for example, the heart, the
rhythmic movements of which are not as a rule impaired. But
the heart may suffer in other ways, especially from inflammatory
conditions similar to those which attend upon rheumatism and
which frequently lay the foundation of permanent heart-disease.
In severe cases of St Vitus's dance the child comes to present
a distressing appearance, and the physical health declines.
Usually, however, there is a remission of the symptoms during
sleep. The mental condition of the patient is more or less
affected, as shown in emotional tendencies, irritability and a
somewhat fatuous expression and bearing, but this change is
in general of transient character and ceases with convalescence.
This disease occasionally assumes a very acute and aggravated
form, in which the disorderly movements are so violent as to
render the patient liable to be injured, and to necessitate forcible
control of the limbs, or the employment of anaesthetics to produce
unconsciousness. Such cases are of very grave character, if,
as is common, they are accompanied with sleeplessness, and
they may prove rapidly fatal by exhaustion. In the great
majority of cases, however, complete recovery is to be anticipated
sooner or later, the symptoms usually continuing for from one
to two months, or even sometimes much longer.
The remedies proposed have been innumerable, but it is doubtful
whether any of them has much control over the disease, which
under suitable hygienic conditions tends to recover of itself. These
conditions, however, are all-important, and embrace the proper
feeding of the child with nutritious light diet, the absence of all
sources of excitement and annoyance, and the rectification of any
causes of irritation and of irregularities in the general health. For
a time, and especially if the symptoms are severe, confinement to
the house or even to bed may be necessary, but as soon as possible
the child should be taken out into the open air and gently exercised
by walking. Ruhrah, recognizing the importance of rest, recom-
mends a modified Weir-Mitchell treatment. Of medicinal remedies
the mst serviceable appear to be zinc, arsenic and iron, especially
the last two, which act as tonics to the system and improve the
condition of the blood. In view of the connexion of chorea with
rheumatism, Koplik and Dr D. B. Lees recommend saiicylate of soda
in large doses. Recently ergot, hot packs and monobromate of
camphor have found advocates, while cessation of the movements has
followed the application of an ether spray to the spine twice daily.
As sedatives in cases of sleeplessness, bromide of potassium and
chloral are of use. In long-continued cases of the disease much
benefit will be obtained by a change of air as well as by the employ-
ment of moderate gymnastic exercises. The employment of massage
and of electricity is also likely to be beneficial. After recovery the
general health of the child should for a long time receive attention,
and care should be taken to guard against excitement, excessive
study or any exhausting condition, physical or mental, from the fact
that the disease is apt to recur, and that other nervous disorders still
more serious may be developed from it.
In theTare instances of the acute form of this malady, where the
convulsive movements are unceasing and violent, the only measures
available are the use of chloral or chloroform inhalation to produce
insensibility and muscular relaxation, but the effect is only palliative.
SAINT-WANDRILLE, a village of north-western France,
in the department of Seine-Inferieure, 28 m. W.N.W. of Rouen
by rail. It is celebrated for the ruins of its Benedictine abbey.
The abbey church belongs to the I3th and I4th centuries;
portions of the nave walls supported by flying buttresses are
standing, and the windows and vaulting of the side aisles are in
fair preservation. The church communicates with a cloister,
from which an interesting door of the Renaissance period opens
into the refectory. Beside this entrance is a richly ornamented
lavabo of the Renaissance period. The refectory is a room over
100 ft. long, lighted by graceful windows of the same period.
The abbey was founded in the yth century by St Wandrille, aided
by the donations of Clovis II. It soon became renowned for
learning and piety. In the i3th century it was burnt down,
and the rebuilding was not completed till the beginning of the
i6th century. Later in the same century it was practically
destroyed by the Huguenots, and again the restoration was not
finished for more than a hundred years. The demolition of the
church was begun at the time of the Revolution, but proceeded
slowly and in 1832 was entirely stopped.
SAINT YON, a family of Parisian butchers in the I4th and
iSth century. Guillaume de Saint Yon is cited as the richest
butcher of the Grande Boucherie in the i4th century. The
family played an important r61e during the quarrels of the
Armagnacs and Burgundians. They were among the leaders
of the Cabochian revolution of 1413. Driven out by the
Armagnacs, they recovered their influence after the return of
the Burgundians to Paris in 1418, but had to flee again in 1436
when the constable, Arthur, earl of Richmond, took the city.
Gamier de Saint Yon was echevin of Paris in 1413 and 1419;
Jean de Saint Yon, his brother, was valet de chambre of the
dauphin Louis, son of King Charles VI. Both were in the service
of the king of England during the English domination. Richard
de Saint Yon was master of the butchers of the Grande Boucherie
in 1460.
See A. Langnon, Paris pendant la domination anglaise (Paris,
1878); A. Colville, Les Cabochiens el I'ordonnance de 1413.
ST YRIEIX, a town of west central France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Haute-Vienne, on the
left bank of the Loue, 26 m. S. of Limoges on the railway to
Brive. Pop. (1906) town 3604, commune 7916. The town
possesses a church in the early Gothic style known as Le Moutier,
dating from the i2th and I3th centuries, and a tower of the i2th
century which is a relic of its fortifications. Its quarries of
kaolin discovered in 1765 were the first known in France. The
town owes its name to Aredius (popularly St Yrieix) who in the
6th century founded a monastery to which its origin was due.
SAIS (Egyptian Sai), an ancient city of the Egyptian Delta,
lying westward of the Thermuthiac or Sebennytic branch of the
Nile. It was capital of the 5th nome of Lower Egypt and must
have been important from remote times. In the 8th century
B.C. Sais held the hegemony of the Western Delta, while
Bubastite families ruled in the east and the kings of Ethiopia
in Upper Egypt. The Ethiopians found their most vigorous
opponents in the Saite princes Tefnachthus and his son
Bocchoris " the Wise " of the XXIVth Dynasty. After reigning
six years the latter is said to have been burnt alive by Sabacon,
the founder of the Ethiopian XXVth Dynasty. At the time
when invasions by the Assyrians drove out the Ethiopian
Taracus again and again, the chief of the twenty princes to whom
Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal successively entrusted the
government was Niku, king of Sais and Memphis. His son
Psammetichus (q.v.) was the founder of the XXVIth Dynasty.
Although the main seat of government was at Memphis, Sais
remained the royal residence throughout this flourishing dynasty.
Neith, the goddess of Sais, was identified with Athena, and
Osiris was worshipped there in a great festival.
The brick enclosure wall of the temple is still plainly visible near
the little village of Sa el hagar (Sa of stone) on the east bank of the
Rosetta branch, but the royal tombs and other monuments of Sais,
some of which were described by Herodotus, and its inscribed records,
have all gone. Only crude brick ruins and rubbish heaps remain on
the site, but a few relics conveyed to Alexandria and Europe in the
Roman age have come down to our day, notably the inscribed
statue of a priest of Neith who was high in favour with Psam-
metichus III., Cambyses and Darius. Bronze figures of deities are
now the most interesting objects to be found at Sa el haear.
(f. LL. G.)
SAISSET, BERNARD (d. c. 1314), French bishop, was abbot
of Saint Antonin de Pamiers in 1268. Boniface VIII., detaching
the city of Pamiers from the diocese of Toulouse in 1295, made
it the seat of a new bishopric and appointed Saisset to the see.
Of a headstrong temperament, Saisset as abbot energetically
sustained the struggle with the counts of Foix, begun two
centuries before, for the lordship of the city of Pamiers, which
had been shared between the counts and abbots by the feudal
contract of pariage. The struggle ended in 1297 by an agree-
ment between the two parties as to their common rights, and
when the pope raised the excommunication incurred by the count,
Saisset absolved him in the refectory of the Dominican monastery
in Pamiers (1300). Saisset is, however, famous in French history
for his opposition to King Philip IV. As an ardent Languedocian
he hated the French, and spoke openly of the king in disrespectful
terms. But when he tried to organize a general rising of the south,
he was denounced to the king, perhaps by his old enemies the count
of Foix and the bishop of Toulouse. Philip IV. charged Richard
Leneveu, archdeacon of Auge in the diocese of Lisieux, and
SAISSET, E. E. SAKE
53
Jean de Picquigni, vidame of Amiens, to make an investigation,
which lasted several months. Saisset was on the point of
escaping to Rome when the vidame of Amiens surprised him
by night in his episcopal palace. He was brought to Senlis,
and on the 24th of October 1301 appeared before Philip and
his court. The chancellor, Pierre Flotte, charged him with high
treason, and he was placed in the keeping of the archbishop of
Narbonne, his metropolitan. Philip IV. tried to obtain from
the pope the canonical degradation of Saisset. Boniface VIII.,
instead, ordered the king in December 1301 to free the bishop,
in order that he might go to Rome to justify himself. At the
same time, he sent the famous bulls Salvalor tnundi, a sort of
repetition of Clericis laicos, and Ausculta fili, which opened a
new stage of the quarrel between the pope and king. In the
heat of the new struggle Saisset was forgotten. He had been
turned over in February 1302 into the keeping of Jacques des
Normands, the papal legate, and was ordered to leave the kingdom
at once. He lived at Rome until after the incident at Anagni.
In 1308 the king pardoned him, and restored him to his see.
He died, still bishop of Pamiers, about 1314.
There is no proof for the legend that Bernard Saisset earned
Philip IV. 's hatred in 1300-1301 by boldly sustaining the pope's
demand for the liberation of the count of Flanders, and by
publicly proclaiming the doctrine of papal supremacy.
See Dom Vaissete, Histoire generate de Languedoc, ed. Privat, t. ix.
pp. 216-310; Histoire litteraire de la France, t. xxvi. pp. 54 "547 1
E. de Roziere, Le Passage de Pamiers, in Bibliotheque de 1'Ecole
des Charles (1871); Ch. V. Langlois in Lavisse's Histoire de France,
t. iii., pt. ii., pp. 142-146.
SAISSET, EMILE EDMOND (1814-1863), French philosopher,
was born at Montpellier on the i6th of September 1814, and
died at Paris on the iyth of December 1863. He studied
philosophy in the school of Cousin, and carried on the eclectic
tradition of his master along with Ravaisson and Jules Simon.
He was professor of philosophy at Caen, at the Ecole Normale
in Paris and later at the Sorbonne.
His chief works are a monograph on Aenesidemus the Sceptic
(1840); Le Scepticisms: Mnesideme, Pascal, Kant (1845); a trans-
lation of Spinoza (1843); Precurseurs et disciples de Descartes
(1862) ; Discours de la philosophic de Leibnitz (1857) a work which
had great influence on the progress of thought in France; Essai de
philosophic religieuse (1859) ; Critiqueet histoiredelaphihsophie(i86$).
SAKA, or SHAKA, the name of one or more tribes which invaded
India from Central Asia. The word is used loosely, especially
by Hindu authors, to designate all the tribes which from time
to time invaded India from the north, much as all the tribes
who invaded China are indiscriminately termed Tatars. Used
more accurately, it denotes the tribe which invaded India
130-140 B.C. They are the Sacae and Sakai of classical authors
and the Se of the Chinese, which may represent an original
Sek or Sok. The Chinese annalists state that they were a pastoral
people who lived in the neighbourhood of the modern Kashgar.
About 160 B.C. they were driven southward by the advance of
the Yue-Chi from the east. One portion appears to have settled
in western Afghanistan, hence called Sakasthana, in modern
Persian Sejistan. The other section occupied the Punjab and
possessed themselves of the territory which the Graeco-Bactrian
kings had acquired in India, that is Sind, Gujarat and Malwa.
The rulers of these provinces bore the title of Satrap (Kshatrapa
or Chhatrapa) and were apparently subordinate to a king who
ruled over the valley of Kabul and the Punjab. In 57 B.C. the
Sakas were attacked simultaneously by Parthians from the west
and by the Malava clans from the east and their power was
destroyed. It should be added that what we know of Saka
history is mostly derived from coins and inscriptions which admit
of various interpretations and that scholars are by no means
agreed as to names and dates. In any case their power, if it
lasted so long, must have been swept away by the Kushan
conquest of Northern India.
Nothing is known of the language or race of the Sakas. Like
most of the invaders of India at this period they adopted
Buddhism, at least partially. They can be traced to the neigh-
bourhood of Kashgar, but not like the Yue-Chi to the frontiers
of China. They may have been Turanians akin to that tribe,
or they may have been Iranians akin to the Iranian element
in Transoxiana and the districts south of the Pamirs. They
cannot be the same as the Scythians of Europe, though the name
and original nomadic life are points in common.
See Vincent Smith, Early History of India (1908) ; O. Franke,
Beitrdge aus chinesischen Quellen zur Kenntnis der Tiirkvolker und
Skythen (1904) ; P. Gardner, Coins of Greek and Scythian Kings
in India (1886); and various articles by Vincent Smith, Fleet,
Cunningham, A Stein, Sylvain Levi and others in the Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society, Journal asiatique, Indian Antiquary,
Zeitsch. der Deutschen Morgenldndischen Gesellschajt, &c. (C. EL.)
SAKAI, an aboriginal people of the Malay peninsula found
chiefly in south Perak, Selangor and Pahang. Representatives
are widely scattered among Malayan villages, but these are so
crossed with the Malays as to be no longer typical. An attempt
has been made to identify the Sakai with the Mon-Annam group
of races, i.e. the tribes which till 600 years ago possessed what
is now Siam, and some of whom still occupy Pegu and Cambodia.
Professor Virchow suggested that the Sakai belong to what
he calls the Dravido-Australian race, the chief representatives
of which he finds in the Veddahs of Ceylon, the civilized Tamils
of south India and the aborigines of Australia. In essential
characteristics of hair and head there is a remarkable agreement.
The difficulty in accepting the theory is in the colour of the skin,
which among the Sakais is often a light shade of yellowish brown,
whereas among Tamils black is the prevailing colour. Virchow
meets this by pointing out that Sinhalese, though admittedly
Aryans, are often so dark as to be practically black. The
Sakais are, however, it is now generally held, kinsmen of their
Negrito neighbours, the Semangs (q.v.), and are, like the latter,
dwarfish, seldom exceeding 4 ft. 9 in. Their skins are usually
a darkish brown, but showing a reddish tinge about the breast
and extremities. The head is long, and the hair a black brown,
rather wavy then woolly. The face inclines to be long, and
would be hatchet-shaped but for the breadth of the cheek bones.
The chin is long and pointed, the forehead high and flat, the
brows often beetling. The nose is small, slightly tilted or
rounded off at the tip, but broad and with deep-set nostrils.
The beard is usually scanty. The arm-stretch is almost always
greater than their height. Their food is varied; the wilder
tribes living on jungle fruits and game they hunt with the blow-
pipe, while the more civilized grow yams, sweet potatoes, maize,
sugar cane, rice and tapioca. The Sakai blow-pipe is a tube
6 to 8 ft. long formed of a single joint of a rare species of bamboo
(Bambusa Wrayi). This tube is inserted into another for protec-
tion. The darts are made of fine slivers from the mid-rib of the
leaf of certain palms, and are about the size of a knitting needle.
The point is usually coated with poison compounded from the
sap of the Upas tree (Antiaris toxicaria) and of a species of
strychnos. Each dart is carried in a separate reed, thirty to
fifty of these latter being rolled up and carried in a bamboo
quiver. The Sakais can kill at thirty paces with these blow-pipes.
They are nomads, building mere leaf-shelters in or under the
trees. Their dress is of bark-cloth and they scar their faces, as
do the Semangs. They are skilful in mat-making and basket-
work, but they have no kind of weaving or pottery. They are
musical, using a rough lute of bamboo and a nose-flute, and they
sing well in chorus. They have in common with the Semangs
curious marriage ceremonies. The dead are slung from a pole
and carried to a distant spot in the jungle. Here, wrapped in
new bark-cloth, the body is buried in a shallow trench, the
clothes worn by the deceased being burned in a fire lighted near
the grave. When filled up, rice is sown on the grave and watered,
and some herbs and bananas are planted round it for the soul
to feed on. Afterwards a three-cornered hutch, not unlike a
doll's-house but mounted on high piles, is built at the foot, in
which the soul may live. This soul-house is about 15 ft. high,
is thatched with leaves and has a ladder by which the soul can
climb in.
SAKE, the national beverage of Japan. In character it
stands midway between beer and wine. It is made chiefly
from rice (see BREWING). Sake contains 12 to 15% of alcohol
and about 3% of solid matter (extractives), 0-3% of lactic
54
SAKHALIN SALA
acid, a small quantity of volatile acid, 0-5% of sugar and 0-8%
of glycerin. There are about 20,000 sake breweries in Japan,
and the annual output is about 150 million gallons. Sake is a
yellowish-white liquid, its flavour somewhat resembling that of
madeira or sherry. It is warmed prior to consumption, as the
flavour is thereby improved and it is rendered more digestible.
The name is said to be derived from the town of Osaka which,
from time immemorial, has been famous for its sake. According
to Morewood it is probable that the wine called " sack " in
England derived its name from the Japanese liquor, being
introduced by Spanish and Portuguese traders (see WINE).
SAKHALIN, or SAGHALIEN, a large elongated island in the
North Pacific, lying between 45 57' and 54 24' N., off the coast
of the Russian Maritime Province in East Siberia, divided
between the Russian and Japanese empires. Its proper Ainu
name, Karafuto or Karaftu, has been restored to the island by the
Japanese since 1905. Sakhalin is separated from the mainland
by the narrow and shallow Strait of Tartary or Mamiya Strait,
which often freezes in winter in its narrower part, and from Yezo
(Japan) by the Strait of La Perouse. The island is 600 m. long,
and 16 to 105 broad, with an area of 24,560 sq. m.
Its orography and geological structure are imperfectly known.
Two, or perhaps three, parallel ranges of mountains traverse it from
north to south, reaching 2000 to 5000 ft. (Mt. Ichara, 4860 ft.) high,
with two or more wide depressions, not exceeding 600 ft. above the
sea. Crystalline rocks crop out at several capes; Cretaceous lime-
stones, containing an abundant and specific fauna of gigantic
ammonites, occur at Dui on the west coast, and Tertiary conglomer-
ates, sandstones, marls and clays, folded by subsequent upheavals,
in many parts of the island. The clays, which contain layers of
good coal and an abundant fossil vegetation, show that during the
Miocene period Sakhalin formed part of a continent which com-
prised north Asia, Alaska and Japan, and enjoyed a comparatively
warm climate. The Pliocene deposits contain a mollusc fauna more
arctic than that which exists at the present time, indicating probably
that the connexion between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans was
broader than it is now. Only two rivers are worthy of mention.
The Tym, 250 m. long and navigable by rafts and light boats for
50 m., flows north and north-east with numerous rapids and shallows,
and enters the Sea of Okhotsk. The Poronai flows south-south-east
to the Gulf of Patience or Shichiro Bay, on the south-east coast.
Three other small streams enter the wide semicircular Gulf of Aniva
or Higashifushimi Bay at the southern extremity of the island.
Owing to the influence of the raw, foggy Sea of Okhotsk, the
climate is very cold. At Dui the average yearly temperature is only
33-pFahr. (January 3-4; July 61-0), 35-0 at Kusunai and 37-6 at
Aniva (January, 9-5; July, 60-2). At Alexandrovsk near Dui the
annual range is from 81 in July 10-38 in January, while at Rykovsk
in the interior the minimum is -49 Fahr. The rainfall averages
22\ in. Thick clouds for the most part shut out the sun; while the
cold current from the Sea of Okhotsk, aided by north-east winds,
brings immense ice-floes to the east coast in summer. The whole
of the island is covered with dense forests, mostly coniferous. The
Ayan spruce (Abies ayanensis), the Sakhalin fir (Abies sachalensis)
and the Daurian larch are the chief trees; on the upper parts of the
mountains are the Siberian rampant cedar (Cembra pumila) and the
Kurilian bamboo (Arundinaria kurilense). Birch, both European
and Kamchatkan (Betula alba and B. Ermani), elder, poplar, elm,
wild cherry (Prunus padus), Taxus baccata and several willows arc
mixed with the conifers; while farther south the maple, mountain
ash and oak, as also the Japanese Panax ricinifolium, the Amur cork
(Philodendron amurense), the spindle tree (Euonymus macropterus)
and the vine ( Vitis thunbcrgii) make their appearance. The under-
woods abound in berry-bearing plants (e.g. cloudberry, cranberry,
crowberry, red whortleberry), berried elder (Sambucus racemosa),
wild raspberry and Spiraea. Bears, foxes, otters and sables are
numerous, as also the reindeer in the north, and the musk deer,
hares, squirrels, rats and mice everywhere. The avi-fauna is the
common Siberian, and the rivers swarm with fish, especially species
of salmon (Oncorhynchus). Numerous whales visit the sea-coast.
Sea-lions, seals and dolphins are a source of profit.
Sakhalin was inhabited in the Neolithic Stone Age. Flint
implements, exactly like those of Siberia and Russia, have been
found at Dui and Kusunai in great numbers, as well as polished
stone hatchets, like the European ones, primitive pottery with
decorations like those of Olonets and stone weights for nets.
Afterwards a population to whom bronze was known left traces
in earthen walls and kitchen-middens on the Bay of Aniva.
The native inhabitants consist of some 2000 Gilyaks, 1300 Ainus,
with 750 Orochons, 200 Tunguses and Some Yakuts. The
Gilyaks in the north support themselves by fishing and hunting.
The Ainus inhabit the south part of the island. There are also
32,000 Russians, of whom over 22,150 are convicts. A little
coal is mined and some rye, wheat, oats, barley and vegetables
are grown, although the period during which vegetation can
grow averages less than 100 days. Fishing is actively prosecuted,
especially by th'e Japanese in the south.
History. Sakhalin, which was under Chinese dominion until
the i gth century, became known to Europeans from the travels
of Martin Gerritz de Vries in the I7th century, and still better
from those of La Perouse (1787) and Krusenstern (1805). Both,
however, regarded it as a peninsula, and were unaware of the
existence of the Strait of Tartary, which was discovered in 1809
by a Japanese, Mamiya Rinzo. The Russian navigator Nevelskoi
in 1849 definitively established the existence and navigability
of this strait. The Russians made their first permanent settle-
ment on Sakhalin in 1857; but the southern part of the island
was held by the Japanese until 1875, when they ceded it to
Russia. By the treaty of Portsmouth (U.S.A.) of 1905 the
southern part of the island below 50 N. was re-ceded to Japan,
the Russians retaining the other three-fifths of the area.
See C. H. Hawes, In the Uttermost East (London, 1903).
(P. A. K. ; J. T._BE.)
SAKI, the native name of a group of tropical American
monkeys nearly allied to those known as uakaris (see UAKARI),
with which they agree in the forward inclination of the lower
incisor teeth, the depth of the hinder part of the lower jaw, and
the non-prehensile tail. The sakis, which form the genus
Pithecia, are specially characterized by their long and generally
bushy tails, distinct whiskers and beard, and the usually elon-
gated hair on the crown of the head, which may either radiate
from a point in the centre, or be divided by a median parting.
They are very delicate animals, difficult to keep in confinement,
and in that state exhibiting a gentle disposition, and being
normally silent (see PRIMATES).
S AKURA-J1M A, a Japanese island, oval in shape and measur-
ing 7 m.by 5 m., lying in the northern part of the Bay of Kagoshima
(31 40' N., 130 35' E.). It has a volcano 3743 ft. high (of which
an eruption was recorded in 1779), and is celebrated for its hot
springs, its oranges and its giant radishes (daikon), which some-
times weigh as much as 70 ft.
SALA, GEORGE AUGUSTUS HENRY (1828-1895), English
journalist, was born in London, on the 24th of November 1828.
His father, Augustus John James Sala (1792-1828), was the son
of Claudio Sebastiano Sala, an Italian, who came to London to
arrange ballets at the theatres; his mother, Henrietta Simon
(1789-1860), was an actress and teacher of singing. Sala was
at school in Paris and studied drawing in London. In his earlier
years he did odd jobs in scene-painting and book illustration.
He wrote a tragedy in French, Fredtgonde, before he was ten
years old, and in 1851 attracted the attention of Charles Dickens,
who published articles and stories by him in Household Words
and All the Year Round, and in 1856 sent him to Russia as a
special correspondent. About the same time he got to know
Edmund Yates, with whom, in his earlier years, he was constantly
connected in his journalistic ventures. From 1860 to 1886,
over his own initials, he wrote " Echoes of the Week " for the
Illustrated London News. Afterwards they were continued in a
syndicate of weekly newspapers almost to his death. Thackeray,
when editor of the Cornhill, published articles by him
on Hogarth in 1860, which were issued in volume form in
1866. In 1 860 he started Temple Bar, which he edited till 1866
when the magazine was taken over by Messrs Bentley. Mean-
while he had become in 1857 a contributor to the London Daily
Telegraph, and it was in this capacity that he did his most
characteristic work, whether as a foreign correspondent in all
parts of the world, or as a writer of leaders or special articles.
His literary style was highly coloured, bombastic, egotistic
and full of turgid periphrases, but his articles were invariably
full of interesting matter and helped to make the reputation of
the paper. He collected a large library and had an elaborate
system of commonplace-books, so that he could bring into his
articles enough show or reality of special information to make
SALAAM SALADIN
55
excellent reading for a not very critical public; he had an
extraordinary faculty for never saying the same thing twice
in the same way. He earned a large income from the Telegraph
and other sources, but he never could keep his money. In 1863
he started on his first tour as special foreign correspondent to
his paper. He spent the year 1864 in America and published
a Diary of the war. Expeditions to Algiers, to Italy during
Garibaldi's 1866 campaign, to Metz during the Franco-German
war, to Spain in 1875 at the end of the Carlist war, were among
his early journalistic enterprises, the long list of which closed
with his journey through America and Australia in 1885. In
1892, when his reputation was at its height, he started a weekly
paper called Sala's Journal, but it was a disastrous failure;
and in 1895 he had to sell his library of 13,000 volumes. Lord
Rosebery gave him a civil list pension of 100 a year, but he
was a broken-down man, and he died at Brighton on the 8th
of December 1895. Sala published many volumes of fiction,
travels and essays, and edited various other works, but his
metier was that of ephemeral journalism.
See The Life and Adventures of George Augustus Sala, written by
himself (2 vols., 1895).
SALAAM (Arab, salam, "peace"), the Oriental term for a
salutation. The word is used for any act of salutation, as of an
ambassador to a monarch, and so in a secondary sense of a
compliment. Properly it is the oral salutation of Mahommedans
to each other; but it has acquired the special meaning of an
act of obeisance.
SALAD (Med. Lat. salala, salted, pickled, salare, to sprinkle
with salt), a dish, originally dressed with salt, of green uncooked
herbs, such as lettuce, endive, mustard, cress, &c., usually served
with a flavouring of onion, garlic or leeks, and with a dressing of
vinegar, oil, mustard, pepper and salt, or with a cream, for
which there are many receipts; hard-boited eggs, radishes and
cucumber are also added.
SALADE, SALLET or SALET, a head-piece introduced in the
early isth century replacing the heavy helmet. Its essential
features are its smooth rounded surface, like an inverted bowl,
and its long projecting neck guard. Usually there was no movable
vizor, but the front fixed part covered most of the face, a slit
being left for the eyes. The word is said to come through
the Old Fr. from the Span, celada, Ital. celala, Lat. caelata.
sc. cassis, engraved helmet, caelare, to engrave, chase (see
HELMET).
SALADIN (Arab. Sala-ud-din, " Honouring the Faith") (1138-
1193), first Ayyubite sultan of Egypt, was born at Tekrit in
1138. The brilliance of his career was only made possible
by the condition of the East in the I2th century. Such authority
as remained to the orthodox caliph of Bagdad (see CALIPHATE)
or the heretical Fatimites (q.v.) of Cairo was exercised by their
viziers. The Seljukian empire had, after 1076, been divided
and subdivided among Turkish atabegs. The Latin kingdom
of Jerusalem had existed r>ince 1089 only because it was a
united force in the midst ot disintegration. Gradually, however,
Christian enthusiasm had aroused a counter enthusiasm among
the Moslems. Zengi, atabeg of Mosul, had inaugurated the
sacred war by his campaigns in Syria (1137-1146). Nur-ed-din,
his son, had continued his work by further conquests in Syria
and Damascus, by the organization of his conquered lands,
and, in 1157, by " publishing everywhere the Holy War." The
opportunity of Saladin lay therefore in the fact that his lifetime
covers the period when there was a conscious demand for political
union in the defence of the Mahommedan faith. By race
Saladin was a Kurd of Armenia. His father, Ayyub (Job), and
his uncle Shirkuh, sons of a certain Shadhy of Ajdanakan near
Dawin, were both generals in Zengi's army. In 1139 Ayyub
received Baalbek from Zengi, in 1146 he moved, on Zengi's
death, to the court of Damascus. In 1154 his influence secured
Damascus to Nur-ed-din and he was made governor. Saladin
was therefore educated in the most famous centre of Moslem
learning, and represented the best traditions of Moslem culture.
His career falls into three parts, his conquests in Egypt 1164-
1174, the annexation of Syria 1174-1187, and lastly the destruc-
tion of the Latin kingdom and subsequent campaigns against
the Christians, 1187-1192. The conquest of Egypt was essential
to Nur-ed-din. It was a menace to his empire on the south, the
occasional ally of the Franks and the home of the unorthodox
caliphs. His pretext was the plea of an exiled vizier, and
Shirkuh was ordered to Egypt in 1164, taking Saladin as his
lieutenant. The Christians under Count Amalric immediately
intervened and the four expeditions which ensued in 1164, 1167,
1168 and 1169 were duels between Christians and Saracens.
They resulted in heavy Christian losses, the death of Shirkuh and
the appointment of Saladin as vizir. His relations towards the
unorthodox caliph Nur-ed-din were marked by extraordinary
tact. In 1171 on the death of the Fatimite caliph he was
powerful enough to substitute the name of the orthodox caliph
in all Egyptian mosques. The Mahommedan religion was
thus united against Christianity. To Nur-ed-din he was invari-
ably submissive, but from the vigour which he employed in
adding to the fortifications of Cairo and the haste with which he
retreated from an attack on Montreal (1171) and Kerak (1173)
it is clear that he feared his lord's jealousy.
In 1174 Nur-ed-din died, and the period of Saladin's conquests
in Syria begins. Nur-ed-din's vassals rebelled against his
youthful heir, es-Salih, and Saladin came north, nominally to his
assistance. In 1174 he entered Damascus, Emesa and Hamah;
in 1175 Baalbek and the towns round Aleppo. The next step
was political independence. He suppressed the name of es-Salih
in prayers and on the coinage, and was formally declared sultan
by the caliph 1175. In 1176 he conquered Saif-ud-din of Mosul
beyond the Euphrates and was recognized as sovereign by the
princes of northern Syria. In 1177 he returned by Damascus
to Cairo, which he enriched with colleges, a citadel and an
aqueduct. From 1177 to 1180 he made war on the Christians
from Egypt, and in 1180 reduced the sultan of Konia to sub-
mission. From 1181-1183 he was chiefly occupied in Syria. I D
1183 he induced the atabeg Imad-ud-din to exchange Aleppo for
the insignificant Sinjar and in 1186 received the homage of the
atabeg of Mosul. The last independent vassal was thus subdued
and the Latin kingdom enclosed on every side by a hostile
empire.
In 1187 a four years' truce was broken by the brilliant brigand
Renaud de Chatillon and thus began Saladin's third period of
conquest. In May he cut to pieces a small body of Templars
and Hospitallers at Tiberias, and, on July 4th, inflicted a
crushing defeat upon the united Christian army at Hittin. He
then overran Palestine, on September 2oth besieged Jerusalem
and on October 2nd, after chivalrous clemency to the Christian
inhabitants, crowned his victories by entering and purifying the
Holy City. In the kingdom only Tyre was left to the Christians.
Probably Saladin made his worst strategical error in neglect-
ing to conquer it before winter. The Christians, had thus a
stronghold whence their remnant marched to attack Acre in
June 1189. Saladin immediately surrounded the Christian army
and thus began the famous two years' siege.
Saladin's lack of a fleet enabled the Christians to receive
reinforcements and thus recover from their defeats by land.
On the 8th of June 1191 Richard of England arrived, and on the
1 2th of July Acre capitulated without Saladin's permission.
Richard followed up his victory by an admirably ordered march
down the coast to Jaffa and a great victory at Arsuf. During
1191 and 1192 there were four small campaigns in southern
Palestine when Richard circled round Beitnuba and Ascalon
with Jerusalem as objective. In January 1192 he acknowledged
his impotence by renouncing Jerusalem to fortify Ascalon.
Negotiations for peace accompanied these demonstrations, which
showed that Saladin was master of the situation. Though in
July Richard secured two brilliant victories at Jaffa, the treaty
made on the 2nd of September was a triumph for Saladin. Only
the coast line was left to the Latin kingdom, with a free passage
to Jerusalem; and Ascalon was demolished. The union of the
Mahommedan East had beyond question dealt the death-blow
to the Latin kingdom. Richard returned to Europe, and
Saladin returned to Damascus, where on the 4th of March 1193,
,SALAMANCA
after a few days' illness, he died. He was buried in Damascus
and mourned by the whole East.
The character of Saladin and of his work is singularly vivid. In
many ways he was a typical Mahommedan, fiercely hostile _towards
unbelievers " Let us purge the air of the air they breathe " was his
aim for the demons of the Cross, intensely devout and regular in
prayers and fasting. He showed the pride of race in the declaration
that " God reserved this triumph for the Ayyubites before all others."
His generosity and Hospitality were proved in his gifts^to Richard
and his treatment of captives. He had the Oriental's power of
endurance, alternating with violent and emotional courage. Other
virtues were all his own, his extreme gentleness, his love for children,
his flawless honesty, his invariable kindliness, his chivalry to women
and the weak. Above all he typifies the Mahommedan's utter self-
surrender to a sacred cause. His achievements were the inevitable
expression of his character. He was not a statesman, for he left no
constitution or code to the East ; his empire was divided among his
relatives on his death. As a strategist, though of great ability, he
cannot be compared to Richard. As a general, he never organized
an army. " My troops will do nothing," he confessed, " save when I
ride at their head and review them. His fame lives in Eastern
history as the conqueror who stemmed the tide of Western conquest
on the East, and turned it definitely from East to West, as the hero
who momentarily united the unruly East, and as the saint who
realized in his personality the highest virtues and ideals of
Mahommedanism.
AUTHORITIES. The contemporary Arabian authorities are to be
found in Michaud's Recited des historiens des Croisades (Paris. 1876).
This contains the work of Baha-ud-din (1145-1234), diplomatist,
and secretary of Saladin, the general history of Ibn-Athir (1160-
1233), the eulogist of the atabegs of Mosul but the unwilling admirer
of Saladin, and parts of the general history of Abulfeda. The
biography of the poet Osema ibn Murkidh (1095-1188), edited by
Derenbourg (Paris, 1886), gives an invaluable picture of Eastern life.
Later Arabian authorities are Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and Abu-
Shama (born 1267). Of Christian authorities the following are
important, the history of William of Tyre (1137-1185), the Iliner-
anum peregrinorum, probably the Latin version of the Carmen
Ambrosii (ed. by Stubbs, " Rolls " series, London, 1864), and the
Chronique d'outremer, or the French translation of William of Tyre's
history and its continuation by Ernoul, the squire of Balian, seigneur
of I be Jin, 1228. The best modern authority is Stanley Lane-Poole's
Saladin (" Heroes of the Nations " series, London, 1903). See also the
bibliography to CRUSADES. (W. F. K.)
SALAMANCA, a frontier province of eastern Spain, formed
in 1833 out of the southern part of the ancient kingdom of Leon,
and bounded on the N. by Zamora and Valladolid, E. by Avila,
S. by Caceres and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 320,765; area,
4829 sq. m. Salamanca belongs almost entirely to the basin of
the Duero (Portuguese Douro, <?..), its principal rivers being the
Tormes, which follows the general slope of the province towards
the north-west, and after a course of 135 m. flows into the Duero,
which forms part of the north-west boundary; the Yeltes and
the Agueda, also tributaries of the Duero; and the Alagon, an
affluent of the Tagus. The northern part of the province is
flat, and at its lowest point (on the Duero) is 488 ft. above sea-
level. The southern border is partly defined along the crests of
the Gr6dos and Gata ranges, but the highest point is La Alberca
(5692 ft.) in the Sierra de Pena Francia, which rises a little farther
north. The rainfall is irregular; but where it is plentiful the
soil is productive and there are good harvests of wine, oil, hemp,
and cereals of all kinds. Forests of oak, pine, beech and
chestnut cover a wide area in the south and south-west; and
timber is sent in large quantities to other parts of Spain. Sheep
* and cattle also find good pasturage, and out of the forty-nine
Spanish provinces only Badajoz, Caceres and Teruel have a
larger number of live stock. Gold is found in the streams, and
iron, lead, copper, zinc, coal and rock crystal in the hills, but the
mines are only partially developed, and it is doubtful if the
deposits would repay exploitation on a larger scale. The manu-
factures of the province are few and mostly of a low class, in-
tended for home consumption, such as frieze, coarse cloth, hats
and pottery. The capital, Salamanca (pop. 1900, 25,690), and
the town of Ciudad Rodrigo (8930) are described in separate
articles. Bejar (9488) is the only other town of more than 5000
inhabitants. The railways from Zamora, Medina, Plasencia and
Pefiaranda converge upon the capital, whence two lines go west-
ward into Portugal one via Barca d'Alva to Oporto, the other
via Villar Formoso to Guarda. Few Spanish provinces lose so
small a number of emigrants, and the population tends gradually
to increase. See also LEON.
SALAMANCA (anc. Salmantica or Elmanlica), the capital of
the Spanish province of Salamanca, on the right bank of the
river Tormes, 2648 ft. above sea-level and 172 m. by rail N.W.
of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 25,690. Salamanca is the centre of a
network of railways which radiate N. to Zamora, N.E. to Medina,
E. to Pefiaranda, S. to Plasencia, W.S.W. to Guarda in Portugal,
and W. to Oporto in Portugal. The river is here crossed by a
bridge 500 ft. long built on twenty-six arches, fifteen of which are
of Roman origin, while the remainder date from the i6th century.
The city is still much the same in outward appearance as when
its tortuous streets were thronged with students. The university
was naturally the chief source of wealth to the town, the popula-
tion of which in the i6th century numbered 50,000, 10,000 of
whom were students. Its decay of course reacted on the towns-
folk, but it fortunately also arrested the process of modernization.
The ravages of war alone have wrought serious damage, for the
French in their defensive operations in 1811-1812 almost
destroyed the western quarter. The ruins still remain, and give
an air of desolation which is not borne out by the real condition
of the inhabitants, however poverty-stricken they may appear.
Side by side with the remains of a great past are the modern
buildings: two theatres, a casino, bull-ring, town hall and
electric light factory. The magnificent Plaza Mayor, built by
Andres Garcia de Quinones at the beginning of the i8th century,
and capable of holding 20,000 people to witness a bull-fight, is
one of the finest squares in Europe. It is surrounded by an
arcade of ninety arches on Corinthian columns, one side of the
square being occupied by the municipal buildings. The decora-
tions of the facades are in the Renaissance style, and the plaza
as a whole is a fine sample of Plateresque architecture.
The University. Salamanca is still rich in educational estab-
lishments. It still keeps up its university, with the separate
faculties of letters, philosophy, sciences, law and medicine;
its university and provincial public library, with 80,000 volumes
and 1000 MSS.; its Irish college, provincial institute, superior
normal school, ecclesiastical seminary (founded in 1 778) , economic
and other learned societies, and very many charitable founda-
tions. The city has still its 25 parishes, 25 colleges, and as many
more or less ruinous convents, and 10 yet flourishing religious
houses. The university, the oldest in the Peninsula, was founded
about 1230 by Alphonso IX. of Leon, and refounded in 1242
by St Ferdinand of Castile. Under the patronage of the learned
Alphonso X. its wealth and reputation greatly increased (1252-
1282), and its schools of canon law and civil law attracted students
even from Paris and Bologna. In the isth and i6th centuries
it was renowned throughout Europe. Here Columbus, to whom
a statue was erected in 1891, lectured on his discoveries, and
here the Copernican system was taught long before it had won
general acceptance. But soon after 1550 a period of decline
set in. The university statutes were remodelled in 1757, but
financial troubles and the incessant wars which checked almost
every reform in Spain prevented any recovery up to 1857, when a
fresh reorganization was effected. At the beginning of the 2oth
century the number of students was about 1200, and the number
of professors 19 fewer than in any other Spanish university.
Principal Buildings. The chief objects of interest in the city are
the old and new cathedrals. The old cathedral is a cruciform
building of the I2th century, begun by Bishop Jer6nimo, the con-
fessor of the Cid (q.v.). Its style of architecture is that Late Roman-
esque which prevailed in the south of France, but the builder showed
much originality in the construction of the dome, which covers the
crossing of the nave and transepts. The inner dome is made to spring,
not from immediately above the arches, but from a higher stage of a
double arcade pierced with windows. The thrust of the vaulting is
borne by four massive pinnacles, and over the inner dome is an outer
pointed one covered with tiles. The whole forms a most effective
and graceful group. On the vault of the apse is a fresco of Our Lord
in Judgment by the Italian painter Nicolas Florentine (isth
century). The reredos, which has the peculiarity of fitting the curve
of the apse, contains fifty-five panels with paintings mostly by the
same artist. There are many fine monuments in the south transept
and cloister chapels. An adjoining building, the Capilla de Talavcra,
is used as a chapel for service according to the Mozarabic rite, which
SALAMANCA
57
is celebrated there six times a year. On the north of and adjoining
the old church stands the new cathedral, built from designs by Juan
Gil de Ontanon. Though begun in 1509 the work of construction
made little progress until 1513, when it was entrusted to Ontanon
under Bishop Francisco de Bobadilla; though not finished till
1734, it is a notable example of the late Gothic and Plateresque
styles. Its length is 340 ft. and its breadth 160 ft. The interior is
fairly Gothic in character, but on the outside the Renaissance spirit
shows itself more clearly, and is fully developed in the dome. Every-
where the attempt at mere novelty or richness results in feebleness.
The main arch of the great portal consists of a simple trefoil, but the
label above takes an ogee line, and the inner arches are elliptical.
Above the doors are bas-reliefs, foliage, &c., which in exuberance of
design and quality of workmanship are good examples of the latest
efforts of Spanish Gothic. The church contains paintings by J. F. de
Navarrete (1526-1579) and L. de Morales (c. 1509-1586), and some
pverrated statues by Juan de Juni (i6th century). The treasury is
very rich, and amongst other articles possesses a custodia which is a
masterpiece of goldsmith's work, and a bronze crucifix of undoubted
Authenticity, which was borne before the Cid in battle. The great
bell weighs over 23 tons. Of the university buildings the facade of
the library is a peculiarly rich example of late 15th-century Gothic.
The cloisters are light and elegant; the grand staircase ascending
from them has a fine balustrade of foliage and figures. The Colegio
de Nobles Irlandeses, formerly Colegio de Santiago Apostol, was built
in 152 1 from designs by Pedro de Ibarra. The double arcaded cloister
is a fine piece of work of the best period of the Renaissance. The
Jesuit College is an immense and ugly Renaissance building begun in
1614 by Juan Gomez de Mora. The Colegio Viejo, also called San
Bartolome, was rebuilt in the i8th century, and now serves as the
governor's palace. The convent of Santo Domingo, sometimes called
San Esteban, shows a mixture of styles from the I3th century
onwards. The church is Gothic with a Plateresque facade of great
lightness and delicacy. It is of purer design than that of the cathe-
dral ; nevertheless it shows the tendency ofthe period. The reredos,
one of the finest Renaissance works in Spain, contains statues by
Salvador Carmona, and a curious bronze statuette of the Virgin and
Child on a throne of champleve enamel of the 1 2th century. The
chapter-house, built by Juan Moreno in 1637, and the staircase and
sacristy are good examples of later work. The convent of the
Augustinas Recoletas, begun by Fontana in 1616, is in better taste
than any other Renaissance building in the city. The church is rich
in marble fittings and contains several fine pictures of the Neapolitan
school, especially the Conception by J. Ribera (1588-1656) over the
altar. The convent of the Espirita Santo has a good door by A.
Berruguete (c. 1480-1561). There is also a rather effective portal to
the convent of Las Duenas. The church of S. Marcos is a curious
circular building with three eastern apses; and the churches of S.
Martin and S. Matteo have good early doorways. Many of the
private houses are untouched examples of the domestic architecture of
the prosperous times in which they were built. Such are the Casa de
las Conchas, the finest example of its period in Spain; the Casa de
la Sal, with a magnificent courtyard and sculptured gallery; and
the palaces of Maldonado, Monterey and Espinosa.
In the middle ages the trade of Salamanca was not insignificant,
and the stamped leather-work produced there is still sought after.
Its manufactures are now of little consequence, and consist of china,
cloth and leather. The transport trade is, however, of more import-
ance, and shows signs of increasing, as a result of the extension of
railway communication between 1875 and 1900. During this period
the population increased by nearly 7000.
History. The town was of importance as early as 222 B.C.,
when it was captured by Hannibal from the Vettones; and it
afterwards became under the Romans the ninth station on the
Via Lata from Merida to Saragossa. It passed successively
under the rule of the Goths and the Moors, till the latter were
finally driven out about 1055. About noo many foreign settlers
were induced by Alphonso VI. to establish themselves in the
district, and the city was enlarged and adorned by Count Ray-
mond of Burgundy and his wife, the Princess Urraca. The
Fuero de Salamanca, a celebrated code of civil law, probably
dates from about 1200. Thenceforward, until the second half
of the i6th century, the prosperity of the university rendered
the city one of the most important in Spain. But in 1593 the
establishment of an independent bishopric at Valladolid (then
the seat of the court), which had previously been subject to the
see of Salamanca, dealt a serious blow to the prestige of the city;
and its commerce was shattered by the expulsion of the Moriscos
in 1610 and the wars of the iSth and ipth centuries.
See Villar y Macias, Hislpria de Salamanca (3 vols., Salamanca,
1887) ; H. Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, vol. ii.
pt. I. (London, 1895); Lapunya, La Universidad de Salamanca y la
cultura espanola en el siglo XIII. (Paris, 1900). (K. G. J.)
Battle of Salamanca, 1812. (For the operations which preceded
this battle see PENINSULAR WAR.) On the 22nd of July 1812 the
Allied army under Wellington (abo'ut 46,000 with 60 guns) was drawn
up south of Salamanca, the left resting on the river Tormes at Santa
Marta, with a division under Pakenham and some cavalry on the
north bank at Cabrerizos ; the right near the village of Arapiles and
two hills of that name. Wellington's object was to cover Salamanca
and guard his communications through Ciudad Rodrigo with
Portugal. The French under Marshal Marmont (about 42,000 with
70 guns) were collecting towards Wellington's right, stretching
southwards from Calvariza de Ariba. The country generally is
undulating, but crossed by some marked ridges and streams.
Until the morning of the battle it had been uncertain whether
Marmont wished to reach Salamanca by the right or left bank of the
Tormes, or to gain the Ciudad Rodrigo road, but Wellington now
felt that the latter was his real objective. At daylight there was a
rush by both armies for the two commanding hills of the Arapiles;
the Allies gained the northern (since termed the " English "), and
the French the southern (since termed the "French") Arapiles.
While Marmont was closing up his forces, a complete change of
position was carried out by Wellington. Pakenham was directed
to march through Salamanca, crossing the Tormes, and move under
cover to a wood near Aldea Tejada, while Wellington, holding the
village of Arapiles and the northern hill, took up a line with four
infantry divisions, a Portuguese brigade (Bradford), a strong force
of cavalry, and Don Carlos's Spanish brigade, under cover of a ridge
between Arapiles and Aldea Tejada. By noon his old right had
become his left, and he was nearer to the Ciudad Rodrigo road,
flanking Marmont should he move towards it.
Redrawn from Maj.-Gen. C. W. Robinson's Wellington's Campaigns,
by permission of Hugh Rees, Ltd.
It was not Wellington's wish (Despatches, July 21, 1812) to fight
a battle " unless under very advantageous circumstances." He knew
that large reinforcements were nearing the French, and, having
determined to fall back towards Portugal, he began to pass his
baggage along the Ciudad Rodrigo road. Marmont, about 2 P.M.,
seeing the dust of his baggage column, ignorant of his true position,
and anxious to intercept his retreat, ordered two divisions under
Maucune, the leading one of which became afterwards Thomieres', 1
to push westward, while he himself attacked Arapiles. Maucune
moved off, flanked- by some cavalry and fifty guns, leaving a gap
between him and the rest of the French. Wellington instantly took
advantage of this. Directing Pakenham to attack the head of the
leading French division, and a Portuguese brigade (Pack) to occupy
the enemy by assaulting the south (or French) Arapiles, he prepared
to bear down in strength upon Maucune's right flank. The French
attack upon Arapiles was after hard fighting repulsed ; and, at about
5 P.M., Maucune's force, when in confusion from the fierce attack of
Pakenham and Wellington in front and flank and suffering severely,
was suddenly trampled down " with a terrible clamour and dis-
turbance" (Napier) by an irresistible charge of LeMarchant's and
Anson's cavalry under Sir Stapleton Cotton. This counterstroke
decided the battle, Marmont's left wing being completely broken.
The French made a gallant but fruitless effort to retrieve the day,
and repulsed Pack's attack upon the French Arapiles; but, as the
light waned, Clausel, Marmont being wounded, drew off the French
army towards Alba de Tormes and retired to Valladolid. Both
armies lost heavily, the Allies about 6000, the French some 15,000
men, 12 guns, 2 eagles and several standards. The rout would have
been even more thorough had not the castle and ford at Alba de
1 Some authorities differ as to this (see The Salamanca Campaign,
by Captain A. H. Marindin, 1906, appendix, pp. 51-59).
SALAMANCA SALAMIS
Tormes been evacuated by its Spanish garrison without Wellington's
knowledge.
Salamanca was a brilliant victory, and followed as it was by the
capture of Madrid, it severely shook the French domination in
Spain. (C- W. R.)
SALAMANCA, a village in Cattaraugus county, New York,
U.S.A., in the township of Salamanca, about 52 m. S. by E.
of Buffalo. Pop. (1900), 4251, of whom 789 were foreign-
born; (1910, census), 5792. Salamanca is served by the Erie,
the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg and the Pennsylvania
railways, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Olean,
N. Y., Bradford, Pennsylvania, and Little Valley (pop in 1910,
1368), the county-seat, about 8 m. N. The village is built on
both sides of the Allegany river. The agricultural and industrial
development of the region has been retarded by its being within
the Allegany Indian Reservation (allotted originally to the
Seneca Indians by the Big Tree Treaty of 1798 and still including
the valley of the Allegany river for several miles above and
below Salamanca) ; but land is now held under a 99 year lease
authorized by Congress in 1892. The village is a railway centre
and division terminal, and has repair shops of the Erie and the
Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways. The first settlement
in the district (which was included within the " Holland
Purchase" of 1792-1793) was made in 1815 near the site of
West Salamanca (pop. in 1910, 530), ij m. W. of Salamanca,
and in the same township. Salamanca (until 1873 known as
East Salamanca) was incorporated in 1879, taking its name
from the township, which was erected in 1854 as Buck Tooth
Township and in 1862 was renamed in honour of a Spanish
banker who was a large stockholder of the Atlantic & Great
Western railway, built through the township this year, and later
merged with the Erie railway.
See History of Cattaraugus County, New York (Philadelphia,
Pa., 1879).
SALAMANDER. Salamanders in the restricted sense (genus
Salamandra of N. Laurent!) are close allies of the newts, but of
exclusively terrestrial habits, indicated by the shape of the tail,
which is not distinctly compressed. The genus is restricted in
its habitat to the western parts of the Palaearctic region and
represented by four species only: the spotted salamander,
S. maculosa, the well-known black and yellow creature inhabiting
Central and Southern Europe, North- West Africa and South-
western Asia; the black salamander, 5. alra, restricted to the
Alps; 5. caucasica' from the Caucasus, and 5. luschani from
Asia Minor. Salamanders, far from being able to withstand the
action of fire, as was believed by the ancients, are only found
in damp places, and emerge in misty weather only or after
thunderstorms, when they may appear in enormous numbers
in localities where at other times their presence would not be
suspected. They are usually much dreaded by country people,
and although they are quite harmless to man, the large glands
which are disposed very regularly on their smooth, shiny bodies,
secrete a very active, milky poison which protects them fiom
the attacks of many enemies.
The breeding habits of the two well-known European species are
highly interesting. They pair on land, the male clasping the female
at the arms, and the impregnation is internal. Long after pairing
the female gives birth to living young. 5. maculosa, which lives in
plains or at low altitudes (up to 3000 ft.), deposits her young, ten to
fifty in number, in the water, in springs or cool rivulets, and these
young at birth are of small size, provided with external gills and four
limbs, in every way similar to advanced newt larvae. S. atra, on
the other hand, inhabits the Alps between 2000 and 9000 ft. altitude.
Localities at such altitudes not being, as a rule, suitable for larval
fife in the water, the young are retained in the uterus, until the
completion of the metamorphosis. Only two young, rarely three or
four, are born, and they may measure as much as 50 mm. at birth,
the mother measuring only 120. The uterine eggs are large and
numerous, as in 5. maculosa, but as a rule only one fully develops in
each uterus, the embryo being nourished on the yolk of the other
etgs, which more or less dissolve to form a large mass of nutrient
matter. The embryo passes through three stages (i) still en-
closed within the egg and living on its own yolk; (2) free, within the
yitelline mass, which is directly swallowed by the mouth; (3) there
is no more vitelline mass, but the embryo is possessed of long ex-
ternal gills, which serve for a'n exchange of nutritive fluid through
the maternal uterus, these gills functioning in. the same way as the
chorionic villi of the mammalian egg. Embryos in the second stage,
if artificially released from the uterus, are able to live in water, in
the same way as similarly developed larvae of 5. maculosa. But
the uterine gills soon wither and are shed, and are replaced by other
gills differing in no respect from those of its congener.
AUTHORITIES. Marie von Chauvin, Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. xxix.
(1877), p. 324; P. Kammerer, Arch. f. Entwickel. xvii. (1904),
p. i ; Mme. Phisalix-Picot, Recherches embryologiques, histologiques
et physiologiques sur Us glandes a venin de la salamandre terrestre
(Paris, 1900, 8vo).
SALAMIS, an island of Greece in the Saronic Gulf of the
Aegean Sea, extending along the coasts of Attica and Megaris,
and enclosing the Bay of Eleusis between two narrow straits
on the W. and S. Its area is 36 sq. m., its greatest length in
any direction 10 m.; its extremely irregular shape gives rise
to the modern popular name KouXXoDpi, i.e. baker's crescent.
In Homer Salamis was the home of the Aeginetan prince Telamon
and his sons Ajax and Teucer, and this tradition is confirmed
by the position of the ancient capital of the island opposite
Aegina. It subsequently passed into the hands of the Megarians,
but was wrested from them about 600 B.C. by the Athenians
under Solon (q.v.) and definitely awarded to Athens by Sparta's
arbitration. Though Attic tradition claimed Salamis as an ancient
possession the island was not strictly Athenian territory; a
6th-century inscription shows that it was treated either as a
cleruchy or as a privileged foreign dependency. The town of
Salamis was removed to an inlet of the E. coast opposite Attica.
In 480 Salamis became the base of the allied Greek fleet after
the retreat from Artemisium, while the Persians took their
station along the Attic coast off Phalerum. Through the stratagem
of the Athenian Themistocles the Greeks were enclosed in the
straits by the enemy, who had wheeled by night across the
entrance of the E. channel and detached a squadron to block
the W. outlet. The Greeks had thus no resource but to fight,
while the Persians could not utilize their superior numbers, and
as thev advanced into the narrow neck of the east strait were
thrown into confusion. The allies, among whom the Athenians
and Aeginetans were conspicuous, seized this opportunity to
make a vigorous attack which probably broke the enemy's
line. After waging a. losing fight for several hours the Persians
retreated with the loss of 200 sail and of an entire corps landed
on the islet of Psyttaleia in the channel; the Greeks lost only
40 ships out of more than 300. During the Peloponnesian War
Salamis served as a repository for the country stock of Attica.
About 350 Salamis obtained the right of issuing copper coins.
In 318 Cassander placed in it a Macedonian garrison which was
finally withdrawn through the advocacy of the Achaean states-
man Aratus (232). The Athenians thereupon supplanted
the inhabitants by a cleruchy of their own citizens. By the
2nd century A.D. the settlement had fallen into decay. In
modern times Salamis, which is chiefly peopled by Albanians,
has regained importance through the transference of the
naval arsenal to Ambelaki near the site of the ancient capital.
Excavations in this region have revealed large numbers of
late Mycenaean tombs.
AUTHORITIES. Strabo pp. 383, 393-394; Pausanias i. 35-36;
Plutarch, Solon, 8-10; Aeschylus, Persae, 337-471 ; Herodotus viii.
40-95; Diodorus xi. 15-19; Plutarch, Themistocles, 11-15; W.
Goodwin, Papers of the American School of Classical Studies at
Athens, I. p. 237 ff. (Boston, 1885); G. B. Grundy, Great Persian
War (London, 1901), ch. ix. ; B. V. Head, Historia numorum
(Oxford, 1887), pp. 328-329; A. Wilhelm in Athenische Mitteilungen
(1898), pp. 466-486; W. Judeich, tWd.(i8oo), pp. 321-338; C. Horner.
Ouaestiones Salaminiae (Basle, 1901); H. Raase, Die Schlacht bei
Salamis (Rostock, 1904); R. W. Macan, Appendix to Herodotus
vii.-ix. (London, 1908); J. Beloch in Klio (1908). (M. O. B. C.)
SALAMIS, the principal city of ancient Cyprus, situated on
the east coast a little north of the river Pedias (Pediaeus). It
had a good harbour, well situated for commerce with Phoenicia,
Egypt and Cilicia, which was replaced in medieval times by
Famagusta (Ammochostos), and is wholly silted now. Its trade
was mainly in corn, wine and oil from the midland plain
(Mesaoria),and in salt from the neighbouring lagoons. Tradition-
ally, Salamis was founded after the Trojan War (c. 1180 B.C.)
by Teucer from Salamis, the island off Attica, but there was an
important Mycenaean colony somewhat earlier. The spoils
of its tombs excavated in 1896 are in the British Museum.
SAL AMMONIAC SALARIA, VIA
59
A king Kisu of Silna (Salamis) is mentioned in a list of tributaries
of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 B.C., and Assyrian influence is
marked in the fine terra-cotta figures from a shrine at Toumba
excavated in 1890-1891. The revolts of Greek Cyprus against
Persia in 500 B.C., 386-380 B.C. and 352 B.C. were led respectively
by kings Onesilaus, Evagoras (q.v.) and Pnytagoras, who seem to
have been the principal Hellenic power in the island. In 306
Demetrius Poliorcetes won a great naval victory here over Ptolemy I.
of Egypt. Under Egyptian and Roman administration Salamis
flourished greatly, though under the Ptolemaic priest-kings and under
Rome the seat of government was at New Paphos (see PAPHOS).
But it was greatly damaged in the Jewish revolt of A.D. 116-117; '*
also suffered repeatedly from earthquakes, and was wholly rebuilt
by Constantius II. under the name Constantia. There was a large
Jewish colony in Ptolemaic and early Roman times, and a Christian
community founded by Paul and Barnabas in A.D. 4546. Barnabas
was himself a Cypriote, and his reputed tomb, discovered in A.D. 477,
is still shown, a little inland, near the monastery of Ai Barnaba.
St Epiphanius was archbishop A.D. 367-402. The Greek city was
destroyed by the Arabs under the Caliph Moawiya in 647, and does
not seem to have revived. In later times the site was plundered for
the building of Famagusta; it is now covered by sandhills, and its
plan is imperfectly known. The market-place and a few public
buildings were excavated in 1890-1891, but nothing of importance
was found.
See W. H. Engel, Kypros (Berlin, 1841 : classical allusions) ; J. A. R.
Munro and H. A. Tubbs, Journ. Hellenic Studies, xii. 59 ff., 298 ff.
(site and monuments); British Museum, Excavations in Cyprus
(London, 1900; Mycenaean tombs); G. F. Hill, Brit. Mus. Cat.
Coins of Cyprus (London, 1904; coins). (J. L. M.)
SAL AMMONIAC, 1 or AMMONIUM CHLORIDE, NrL,Cl, the
earliest known salt of ammonia (q.v.), was formerly much used
in dyeing and metallurgic operations.
The name Hammoniacus sal occurs in Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxi. 39),
who relates that it was applied to a kind of fossil salt found below the
sand, in a district of Cyrenaica. The general opinion is, that the sal
ammoniac of the ancients was the same as that of the moderns; but
the imperfect description of Pliny is far from being conclusive.
The native sal ammoniac of Bucharia, described by Model and
Karsten, and analysed by M. H. Klaproth, has no resemblance to the
salt described by Pliny. The same remark applies to the sal ammoniac
of volcanoes. Dioscorides (v. 126), in mentioning sal ammoniac,
makes use of a phrase quite irreconcilable with the description of
Pliny, and rather applicable to rock-salt than to our sal ammoniac.
Sal ammoniac, he says, is peculiarly prized if it can be easily split into
rectangular fragments. Finally, we have no proof whatever that
sal ammoniac occurs at present, either near the temple ot Jupiter
Ammon, or in any part of Cyrenaica. Hence we conclude that the
term sal ammoniac was applied as indefinitely by the ancients as
most of their other chemical terms. It may have been given to the
same salt which is known to the moderns by that appellation, but
was not confined to it.
In any case there can be no doubt that it was well known to the
alchemists as early as the I3th century. Albertus Magnus, in his
treatise_De alchymia, informs us that there were two kinds of sal
ammoniac, a natural and an artificial. The natural was sometimes
white, and sometimes red; the artificial was more useful to the
chemist. He does not tell us how it was prepared, but he describes
the method of subliming it, which can leave no doubt that it was real
sal ammoniac. In the Opera mineralia of Isaac Hollandus the elder,
there is likewise a description of the mode of subliming sal ammoniac.
Basil Valentine, in his Currus triumphalis antimonii, describes some
of the peculiar properties of sal ammoniac in, if possible, a still less
equivocal manner.
Egypt is the country where sal ammoniac was first manu-
factured, and from which Europe for many years was supplied
with it. This commerce was first carried on by the Venetians,
and afterwards by the Dutch. Nothing was known about the
method employed by the Egyptians till the year 1719. In 1716
C. J. Geoffrey read a paper to the French Academy, showing
that sal ammoniac must be formed by sublimation; but his
opinion was opposed so violently by W. Homberg and N.
Lemery, that the paper was not printed. In 1719 D. Lemaire,
the French consul at Cairo, sent the Academy an account of
the mode of manufacturing sal ammoniac in Egypt. The salt,
it appeared, was obtained by simple sublimation from soot.
In the year 1760 Linnaeus communicated to the Royal Society
a correct detail of the whole process, which he had received from
Dr F. Hasselquist, who had travelled in that country as a
1 Some derive the name sal ammoniac from Jupiter Ammon, near
whose temple it is alleged to have been found; others, from a
district of Cyrenaica called Ammonia. Pliny's derivation is from
the sand (fi/i/ios) in which it occurred.
naturalist (Phil. Trans., 1760, p. 504). The dung of black cattle,
horses, sheep, goats, &c., which contains sal ammoniac ready
formed, is collected during the first four months of the year,
when the animals feed on the spring grass, a kind of clover.
It is dried, and sold to the common people as fuel. The soot
from this fuel is carefully collected and sold to the sal ammoniac
makers, who work only during the months of March and April,
for it is only at that season of the year that the dung is fit for
their purpose.
The composition of this salt seems to have been first discovered
by J. P. Tournefort in 1700. The experiments of C. J. Geoffrey
in 1716 and 1723 were still more decisive, and those of H. L.
Duhamel de Monceau, in 1735, left no doubt upon the subject.
Dr Thomson first pointed out a process by synthesis, which has
the advantage of being very simple, and at the same time rigidly
accurate, resulting from his observation that when hydrochloric
acid gas and ammonia gas are brought in contact with each
other, they always combine in equal volumes.
The first attempt to manufacture sal ammoniac in Europe
was made, about the beginning of the i8th century, by Mr
Goodwin, a chemist of London, who appears to have used the
mother ley of common salt and putrid urine as ingredients.
The first successful manufacture of sal ammoniac in Great
Britain was established in Edinburgh about the year 1760.
It was first manufactured in France about the same time by
A. Bailme. Manufactories of it were afterwards established in
Germany, Holland and Flanders.
It is now obtained from the ammoniacal liquor of gas works by
distilling the liquor with milk of lime and passing the ammonia so
obtained into hydrochloric acid. The solution of ammonium
chloride so obtained is evaporated and the crude ammonium chloride
purified by sublimation. The subliming apparatus consists of two
parts: (i)-a hemispherical stoneware basin placed within a close-
fitting iron one, or an enamelled iron basin, and (2) a hemispherical
lead or stoneware lid, or dome, cemented on the top of the basin to
prevent leakage. The dome has a small aperture in the top which
remains open to preclude accumulation of pressure. The carefully
dried crystallized salt is pressed into the basin, and, after the lid
has been fitted on, is exposed to a long-lasting moderate heat.
The salt volatilizes (mostly in the form of a mixed vapour of
the two components, which reunite on cooling), and condenses in
the dome in the form of a characteristically fibrous and tough
crust.
The pure salt has a sharp saline taste and is readily soluble
in water. It readily volatilizes, and if moisture be rigorously
excluded, it does not dissociate, but in the presence of mere
traces of water it dissociates into ammonia and hydrochloric
acid (H. B. Baker, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1895, 6 S> P- 6l2 )-
Sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride, British and United States
pharmacopoeiae) as used in medicine is a white crystalline odourless
powder having a saline taste. It is soluble in I in 3 of cold water and
in I in 50 of 90% alcohol. It is incompatible with carbonates of the
alkalis. The dose is 5 to 20 grs. Ammonium chloride has a different
action and therapeutic use from the rest of the ammonium salts.
It possesses only slight influence over the heart and respiration, but
it has a specific effect on mucous membranes as the elimination of
the drug takes place largely through the lungs, where it aids in
loosening bronchial secretions. This action renders it of the utmost
value in bronchitis and pneumonia with associated bronchitis.
The drug may be given in a mixture with glycerine or liquorice to
cover the disagreeable taste or it may be used in a spray by means of
an atomizer. The inhalation of the fumes of nascent ammonium
chloride by filling the room with the gas has been recommended in
foetid bronchitis. Though ammonium chloride has certain irritant
properties which may disorder the stomach, yet if its mucous mem-
brane be depressed and atonic the drug may improve its condition,
and it has been used with success in gastric and intestinal catarrhs
of a subacute type and is given in doses of 10 grains half an hour
before meals in painful dyspepsia due to hyperacidity. It is also an
intestinal and hepatic stimulant and a feeble diuretic and dia-
phoretic, and has been considered a specific in some forms of
neuralgia.
SALARIA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, which ran from
Rome by Reate and Asculum to Castrum Truentinum (Porto
d'Ascoli) on the Adriatic coast, a distance of 151 m. Its first
portion must be of early origin, and was the route by which the
Sabines came to fetch salt from the marshes at the mouth of
the Tiber. Gi its course through the Apennines considerable
remains exist.
6o
SALAR JUNG, SIR SALE, G.
See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 3-38;
N. Persichetti, Viaggio archeologico sulla Via Solaria nel Circondario
di Cittaducale (Rome, 1893); and in Romische Mitteilungen (1903),
276 seq.
SALAR JUNG, SIR (1829-1883), Indian statesman of
Hyderabad, born in 1829, descendant of a family which had held
various appointments, first under the Adil Shahi kings of Bijapur,
then under the Delhi emperors and lastly under the Nizams.
While he was known to the British as Sir Salar Jung, his personal
name was Mir Turab Ali, he was styled by native officials of
Hyderabad the Mukhtaru '1-Mulk, and was referred to by the
general public as the Nawab Sahib. He succeeded his uncle
Suraju '1-Mulk as prime minister in 1853. The condition of the
Hyderabad state was at that time a scandal to the rest of India.
Salar Jung began by infusing a measure of discipline into the
Arab mercenaries, the more valuable part of the Nizam's army,
and employing them against the rapacious nobles and bands of
robbers who had annihilated the trade of the country. He then
constituted courts of justice at Hyderabad, organized the police
force, constructed and repaired irrigation works, and established
schools. On the outbreak of the Mutiny he supported the British,
and although unable to hinder an attack on the residency, he
warned the British minister that it was in comtemplation. The
attack was repulsed; the Hyderabad contingent remained loyal,
and their loyalty served to ensure the tranquillity of the Deccan.
Salar Jung took advantage of the preoccupation of the British
government with the Mutiny to push his reforms more boldly,
and when the Calcutta authorities were again at liberty to consider
the condition of affairs his work had been carried far towards
completion. During the lifetime of the Nizam Afzulu'd-dowla,
Salar Jung was considerably hampered by his master's jealous
supervision. When Mir Mahbub Ali, however, succeeded his
father in 1869, Salar Jung, at the instance of the British govern-
ment, was associated in the regency with the principal noble of
the state, the Shamsu '1-Umara or Amir Kabir, and enjoyed an
increased authority. In 1876 he visited England with the object
of obtaining the restoration of Berar. Although he was un-
successful, his personal merits met with full recognition. He died
of cholera at Hyderabad on the 8th of February 1883. He was
created G. C.S.I, on the 28th of May 1870, and received the
honorary degree of D.C.L. from the University of Oxford on the
zist of June 1876. His grandson enjoyed an estate of 1486
sq. m., yielding an income of nearly 60,000.
See Memoirs of Sir Salar Jung, by his private secretary, Syed
Hossain Bilgrami, 1883.
SALARY, a payment for services rendered, usually a stipulated
sum paid monthly, quarterly, half-yearly or yearly, and for a
permanent or lengthy term of employment. It is generally
contrasted with " wages," a term applied to weekly or daily
payment for manual services. As laid down by Bowen, L. J., In
re Shine (1892)) i Q.B. 529, " Salary means a definite payment for
personal services under some contract and computed by time."
The Latin solarium meant originally salt money (Lat. sal, salt),
i.e. the sum paid to soldiers for salt. In post-Augustan Latin
the word was applied to any allowance, pension or stipend.
SALAS, or SAN MARTIN DE SALAS, a town of southern Spain,
in the province of Oviedo; on the road from Tineo to Grado,
and on a small sub-tributary of the river Narcea. Pop. (1900),
17,147. The official total of the inhabitants includes not only
the actual residents in the town, but also the population of the
district of Salas, a mountainous region in which coal-mining and
agriculture are the principal industries. The products of this
region are sent for export to Cudillero, a small harbour on the
Bay of Biscay.
SALAS BARBADILLO, ALONSO JER6NIMO DE (c. 1580-
1635), Spanish novelist and playwright, born at Madrid about
1580, and educated at Alcala de Henares and Valladolid. His
first work, La Patrona de Madrid reslituida (1609), is a dull
devout poem, which forms a strange prelude to La Hija de
Celestina (1612), a malicious transcription of picaresque scenes
reprinted under the title of La Ingeniosa Elena. This was
followed by a series of similar tales and plays, the best of which
are El Cavallero puntual (1614), La Casa de placer honesto (1620),
Don Diego de Noche (1623) and a most sparkling satirical volume
of character-sketches, El Curioso y Sabio Alexandra (1634). He
died in poverty at Madrid on the zoth of July 1635. Some of
his works were translated into English and French, and Scarron's
Hypocrites is based on La Ingeniosa Elena; he deserved the
vogue which he enjoyed till late in the I7th century, for his
satirical humour, versatile invention and pointed style are an
effective combination.
SALDANHA BAY, an inlet on the south-western coast of
South Africa, 63 m. by sea N. by W. of Cape Town, forming a
land-locked harbour. The northern part of the inlet is known as
Hoetjes Bay. It has accommodation for a large fleet with deep
water close inshore, but the arid nature of the country caused
it to be neglected by the early navigators, and with the growth
of Cape Town Saldanha Bay was rarely visited. Considerable
deposits of freestone in the neighbourhood attracted attention
during the later igth century. Proposals were also made to
create a port which could be supplied by water from the Berg
river, 20 m. distant. From Kalabas Kraal on the Cape Town-
Clanwilliam railway, a narrow gauge line runs via Hopefield to
Hoetjes Bay 126 m. from Cape Town.
Saldanha Bay is so named after Antonio de Saldanha, captain of
a vessel in Albuquerque's fleet which visited South Africa in 1503.
The name was first given to Table Bay, where Saldanha's ship cast
anchor. On Table Bay being given its present name (1601) the older
appellation was transferred to the bay now called after Saldanha.
In 1781 a British squadron under Commodore George Johnstone
I 73 I ~ I ?87) seized six Dutch East Indiamen, which, fearing an
attack on Cape Town, had taken refuge in Saldanha Bay. This was
the only achievement, so far as South Africa was concerned, of the
expedition despatched to seize Cape Town during the war of 1781-
1783-
SALDERN, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH VON (1719-1785),
Prussian soldier and military writer, entered the army in 1735,
and (on account of his great stature) was transferred to the
Guards in 1739. As one of Frederick's aides-de-camp he was
the first to discover the approach of Neipperg's Austrians at
Mollwitz. He commanded a guard battalion at Leuthen, again
distinguished himself at Hochkirch and was promoted major-
general. In 1760 at Liegnitz Frederick gave him four hours in
which to collect, arrange and despatch the spoils of the battle,
6000 prisoners, 100 wagons, 82 guns and 5000 muskets. His
complete success made him a marked man even in Frederick's
army. At Torgau, Saldern and Mollendorf (q.v.) with their
brigades converted a lost battle into a great victory by their
desperate assault on the Siptitz Heights. The manoeuvring
skill, as well as the iron resolution, of the attack, has excited the
wonder of modern critics, and after Torgau Saldern was accounted
the " completest general of infantry alive " (Carlyle). In the
following winter, however, being ordered by Frederick to sack
Hubertusburg, Saldern refused on the ground of conscience.
Nothing was left for him but to retire, but Frederick was well
aware that he needed Saldern's experience and organizing
ability, and after the peace the general was at once made inspector
of the troops at Magdeburg. In 1766 he became lieutenant-
general. The remainder of his life was spent in the study of
military sciences in which he became a pedant of the most
pronounced type. In one of his works he discussed at great
length the question between 76 and 75 paces to the minute as the
proper cadence of infantry. There can be no question that
" Saldern-tactics " were the most extreme form of pedantry to
which troops were ever subjected, and contributed powerfully
to the disaster of Jena in 1806. His works included Taklik der
Infanlerie (Dresden, 1784) and Taklische Grundsdlze (Dresden,
1786), and were the basis of the British " Dundas " drill-book.
See Ktister, Charakterzuge des Generalleutenants von Saldern
(Berlin, 1792).
SALE, GEORGE (c. 1697-1736), English orientalist, was the
son of a London merchant. In 1720 he was admitted a student
of the Inner Temple, but subsequently practised as a solicitor.
Having studied Arabic for some time in England, he became,
in 1726, one of the correctors of the Arabic version of the New
Testament, begun in 1720 by the Society for Promoting Christian
Knowledge, and subsequently took the principal part in the
SALE, SIR R. H. SALEM
61
work. He made an extremely paraphrastic, but, for his time,
admirable English translation of the Koran (1734 and often
reprinted), and had a European reputation as an orientalist.
He died on the i3th of November 1736. His collection of oriental
manuscripts is now in the Bodleian library, Oxford.
SALE, SIR ROBERT HENRY (1782-1845), British soldier,
entered the 36th Foot in 1795, and went to India in 1798, as a
lieutenant of the i2th Foot. His regiment formed part of Baird's
brigade of Harris's army operating against Tippoo Sahib, and
Sale was present at Mallavelly (Mallawalli) and Seringapatam,
subsequently serving under Colonel Arthur Wellesley in the
campaign against Dhundia. A little later the 1 2th was employed
in the difficult and laborious attack on Paichi Raja. Promoted
captain in 1806, Sale was engaged in 1808-1809 against the
Raja of Travancore, and was at the two actions of Quilon, the
storm of Travancore lines and the battle of Killianore. In 1810
he accompanied the expedition to Mauritius, and in 1813
obtained his majority. After some years he became major in
the i3th, with which regiment he was for the rest of his life
associated. In the Burmese War he led the i3th in all the actions
up to the capture of Rangoon, in one of which he killed the
enemy's leader in single combat. In the concluding operations of
the war, being now lieutenant-colonel, he commanded a brigade,
and at Malown (1826) he was severely wounded. For these
services he received the C.B. In 1838, on the outbreak of the
Afghan War, Brevet-Colonel Sale was assigned to the command
of the ist Bengal brigade of the army assembling on the Indus.
His column arrived at Kandahar in April 1839, and in May it
occupied the Herat plain. The Kandahar force next set out on
its march to Kabul, and a month later Ghazni was stormed,
Sale in person leading the storming column and distinguishing
himself in single combat. The place was well provisioned, and
on its supplies the army finished its march to Kabul easily. For
his services Sale was made K.C.B. and received the local rank
of major-general, as well as the Shah's order of the Duranee
Empire. He was left, as second-in-command, with the army of
occupation, and in the interval between the two wars conducted
several small campaigns ending with the action of Parwan
which led directly to the surrender of Dost Mahommed. By
this time the army had settled down to the quiet life of canton-
ments, and Lady Sale and her daughter came to Kabul. But
the policy of the Indian government in stopping the subsidy to
the frontier tribes roused them into hostility, and Sale's brigade
received orders to clear the line of communication to Peshawar.
After severe fighting Sale entered Jalalabad on the I2th of
November 1841. Ten days previously he had received news of
the murder of Sir Alexander Burnes, along with orders to return
with all speed to Kabul. These orders he, for various reasons,
decided to ignore; suppressing his personal desire to return
to protect his wife and family, he gave orders to push on, and on
occupying Jalalabad at once set about making the old and half-
ruined fortress fit to stand a siege. There followed a close and
severe investment rather than a siege, and the garrison's sorties
were made usually with the object of obtaining supplies. At
last Pollock and the relieving army appeared, only to find that
the garrison had on the 7th of April 1842 relieved itself by a
brilliant and completely successful attack on Akbar's lines.
Sir Robert Sale received the G.C.B.; a medal was struck for
all ranks of defenders, and salutes fired at every large canton-
ment in India. Pollock and Sale after a time took the offensive,
and after the victory of Haft Kotal, Sale's division encamped
at Kabul again. At the end of the war Sale received the thanks
of parliament. In 1845, as quartermaster-general to Sir H.
Cough's army, Sale again took the field. At Moodkee (Mudki)
he was mortally wounded, and he died on the 2ist of December
1845. His wife, who shared with him the dangers and hardships
of the Afghan war, was amongst Akbar's captives. Amongst
the few possessions she was able to keep from Afghan plunderers
was her diary (Journal of the Disasters in Afghanistan, London,
1843)-
See Gleig, Sale's Brigade in Afghanistan (London, 1846)- Kaye,
Lives of Indian Officers(London, 1867) ; W. Sale, Defence of Jellalabad
(London, 1846) ; Regimental History of the I3th Light Infantry.
SALE, a town of Tanjil county, Victoria, Australia, the
principal centre in the agricultural Gippsland district, on the
river Thomson, \i~]\ m. by rail E.S.E. of Melbourne. Pop.
(1901), 3462. It is the seat of the Anglican bishop of Gippsland,
and contains the cathedral of the Roman Catholic bishop of
Sale. Attached to its mechanics' institute are schools of mines,
art and technology, and a fine free library. The finest buildings,
excluding a number of handsome churches, are the Victoria
Hall and the convent of Notre Dame de Sion. The Agricultural
Society has excellent show grounds, in which meetings are
annually held. Sale is the head of the Gippsland lakes naviga-
tion, the shipping being brought from the lakes to the town
by canal. Daily communication is maintained with Cunningham
at the lakes' entrance, and ocean-going steamers ply frequently
between Sale and Melbourne.
SALE, an urban district in the Altrincham parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, 5 m. S.W. of Manchester. Pop.
(1901), 12,088. It is served by the Manchester, South Junction &
Altrincham and the London & North-Western railways, and
the Cheshire Lines, and has become a large residential suburb
of Manchester. At the beginning of the igth century the greater
part of the township was still waste and unenclosed. There are
numerous handsome villas. Market gardening is carried on in
the neighbourhood; and there are large botanical gardens.
SALEM, a city and district of British India, in the Madras
presidency. The city is on both banks of the river Tirumani-
muttar, 3 m. from a station on the Madras railway, 206 m. S.W.
of Madras city. Pop. (1901), 70,621. There is a considerable
weaving industry and some manufacture of cutlery. Its situa-
tion in a green valley between the Shevaroy and Jarugumalai
hills is picturesque.
The DISTRICT OF SALEM has an area of 7530 sq. m. Except
towards the south it is hilly, with extensive plains lying between
the several ranges. It consists of three distinct tracts, formerly
known as the Talaghat, the Baramahal and the Balaghat.
The Talaghat is situated below the Eastern Ghats on the level
of the Carnatic generally; the Baramahal includes the whole
face of the Ghats and a wide piece of country at their
base; and the Balaghat is situated above the Ghats on the
tableland of Mysore.
The western part of the district is mountainous. Amongst the
chief ranges (5000-6000 ft.) are the Shevaroys, the Kalrayans, the
Melagiris, the Kollimalais, the Pachamalais and the Yelagiris. The
chief rivers are the Cauvery with its numerous tributaries, and the
Ponniar and Palar; the last, however, only flows through a few
miles of the north-western corner of the district. The forests are of
considerable value. The geological structure of the district is mostly
gneissic, with a few irruptive rocks in the form of trap dikes and
granite veins. Magnetic iron ore is common in the hill regions, and
corundum and chromate of iron are also obtainable. The qualities
of the soil differ very much ; in the country immediately surrounding
the town of Salem a thin layer of calcareous and red loam generally
prevails, through which quartz rocks appear on the surface in many
places. The climate, owing to the great difference of elevation, varies
considerably ; on the hills it is cool and bracing, and for a great part
of the year very salubrious; the annual rainfall averages about
32 in.
The population in 1901 was 2,204,974, showing an increase of
12% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, rice, other
food grains and oil-seeds, with a little cotton, indigo and tobacco.
Coffee is grown on the Shevaroy hills. The chief irrigation work
is the Barur tank system. Salem suffered severely from' the
famine of 1877-1878. The Madras railway runs through the
district, with two narrow-gauge branches. The chief industry
is cotton-weaving, and there is some manufacture of steel from
magnetic iron ore. There are many saltpetre refineries, but no
large industries. The district was acquired partly by the treaty
of peace with Tippoo Sultan in 1792 and partly by the partition
treaty of Mysore in 1799. By the former the Talaghat and
Baramahal were ceded, and by the latter the Balaghat or what
is now the Hosur taluk.
SALEM, a city and one of the county-seats (Lawrence is the
other) of Essex county, Massachusetts, about 15 m. N.E. of
Boston. Pop. (1900), 35,956, of whom 10,902 were foreign-born
(including 4003 French Canadians, 3476 Irish, and r 585 English
SALEM
Canadians), 23,038 were of foreign parentage (one or the other
parent foreign-born) and 156 were negroes; (1910), 43,697.
Area, 8-2 sq. m. Salem is served by the Boston & Maine
and by interurban electric railways westward to Peabody,
Danvers and Lawrence, eastward to Beverly, and southward
to Marblehead, Swampscott, Lynn and Boston. It occupies
a peninsula projecting toward the north-east, a small island
(Winter Island) connected with the neck of the peninsula (Salem
Neck) by a causeway, and some land on the mainland. Salem
has many historical and literary landmarks. There are three
court-houses, one of granite (1830-1841) with great monolithic
Corinthian pillars, another (1862), adjoining it, of brick, and a
third (1908-1909) of granite, for the probate court. The City
Hall was built in 1837, and enlarged in 1876. The Custom House
(1818-1819) is described in the introduction to Hawthorne's
Scarlet Letter, and in it Hawthorne worked as surveyor of the port
in 1845-1849. The public library building (1888) was given
to the city by the heirs of Captain John Bertram.
The Essex Institute (1848) is housed in a brick building (1851)
with freestone trimmings and in old Plummer Hall (1857); its
museum contains some old furniture and a collection of portraits; it
has an excellent library and publishes quarterly (1859 sqq.) Historical
Collections. The Peabody Academy of Science, founded by the gift in
1867 of $140,000 from George Peabody and incorporated in 1868, is
established in the East India Marine Hall (1824), bought for this
purpose from the Salem East India Marine Society. The Marine
Society was organized in 1799, its membership being limited to
" persons who have actually navigated the seas beyond the Cape of
Good Hope or Cape Horn, as masters or supercargoes of vessels
belonging to Salem " ; it assists the widows and children of members.
Its museum, like the ethnological and natural history collection of the
Essex Institute, was bought by the Peabody Academy of Science,
whose museum now includes Essex county collections (natural
history, mineralogy, botany, prehistoric relics, &c.), type collections
of minerals and fossils; implements, dress, &c. of primitive peoples,
especially rich in objects from Malaysia, Japan and the South Seas ;
and portraits and relics of famous Salem merchants, with models
and pictures of Salem merchant vessels. The Salem Athenaeum
(1810), the successor of a Social Library (1760) and a Philosophical
Library (1781) is housed in Plummer Hall (1908), a building in the
southern Colonial style, named in honour of a benefactor of the
Athenaeum, Caroline Plummer (d. 1855), who endowed the Plummer
Professorship of Christian Morals at Harvard. Some of the old
houses were built by ship-owners before the Warof Independence,
and more were built during the first years of the loth century when
Salem privatetrsmen made so many fortunes. Many of the finest
old houses are of the gambrel type ; and there are many beautiful
doorways, doorheads and other details. Nathaniel Hawthorne's
birthplace was built before 1692; another house now recon-
structed and used as a social settlement is pointed out as the
original " house of seven gables." The Corwin or " Witch " house,
so called from a tradition that Jonathan Corwin, one of the judges in
the witchcraft trials, held preliminary examinations of witches here,
is said to have been the property of Roger Williams. The Pickering
house, built before 1660, was the homestead of Timothy Pickering
and of other members of that family. Among the other buildings and
institutions are Hamilton Hall (1805); the Franklin Building (1861)
of the Salem Marine Society ; a large armoury ; a state normal school
(1854); an orphan asylum (1870, under the Sisters of the Grey
Nuns; the Association for the Relief of Aged and Destitute Women
(1860), occupying a fine old brick house formerly the home of
Benjamin W. Crowninshield (1772-1851), a member of the national
House of Representatives in 1824-1831 and Secretary of the Navy
in 1814; the Bertram Home for Aged Men (1877) in a house built in
1806-1807; the Plummer Farm School for Boys (incorporated 1855,
opened 1870), another charity of Caroline Plummer, on Winter
Island; the City Almshouse (1816) and the City Insane Asylum
(1884) on Salem Neck; a home for girls (1876); the Fraternity
(1869), a club-house for boys; the Marine Society Bethel and the
Salem Seamen's Bethel; the Seamen's Orphan and Children's
Friend Society (1839); an Associated Chanties (1901), and the
Salem Hospital (1873).
Among the _ Church organizations are: the First (Unitarian;
originally Trinitarian Congregational), which dates from 1629 and
was the first Congregational church organized in America ; the
Second or East Church (Unitarian) organized in 1718; the North
Church (Unitarian), which separated from the First in 1772; the
Third or Tabernacle (Congregational), organized in 1735 from the
First Church; the South (Congregational), which separated from
the Third in 1774; several Baptist churches; a Quaker society, with
a brick meeting-house (1832); St Peter's, the oldest Episcopalian
church in Salem, with a building of English Gothic erected in l8.
and Grace Church (1858).
Washington Square or the Common (8 acres) is in the centre of the
city. The Willows is a 3O-acre park on the Neck shore, and in North
Salem is Liberty Hill, another park. On a bluff projecting into
South river is the old " Burying Point," set apart in 1637, and the
oldest cemetery in the city ; its oldest stone is dated 1673 ; here are
buried Governor Simon Bradstreet, Chief-Justice Benjamin Lynde
(1666-1745) and Judge John Hathorne (1641-1717) of the witch-
craft court. The Broad Street Burial Ground was-laid out in 1655.
On Salem Neck is Fort Lee and on Winter Island is Fort Pickering
(on the site of a fort built in 1643), near which is the Winter Island
Lighthouse.
The main trade of Salem is along the coast, principally in the
transhipment of coal; and the historic Crowninshield's or India
wharf is now a great coal pocket. The harbour is not deep enough
for ocean-going vessels, and manufacturing is the most important
industry. In 1905 the total value of the factory products was
$12,202,217 (13-9 % more than in 1900), and the principal manu-
factures were boots and shoes and leather. The largest single
establishment is the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company, which has
2800 looms and about 1500 mill-hands. Another large factory is
that of the silversmiths, Daniel Low & Co.
History. Salem was settled in 1626 by Roger Conant (1593-
1679) and a company of " planters," who in 1624 (under the
Sheffield patent of 1623 for a settlement on the north shore of
Massachusetts Bay) had attempted a plantation at Cape Ann,
whither John Lyford and others had previously come from
Plymouth through " dissatisfaction with the extreme separation
from the English church." Conant was not a separatist, and
the Salem settlement was a commercial venture, partly agri-
cultural and partly to provide a wintering place for Banks
fishermen so that they might more quickly make their spring
catch. Cape Ann was too bleak, but Naumkeag was a " pleasant
and fruitful neck of land," which they named Salem in June 1629,
probably in allusion to Psalm Ixxvi. 2. In 1628 a patent for
the territory was granted by the New England Council to the
Dorchester Company, in which the Rev. John White of Dor-
chester, England, was conspicuous, and which in the same year
sent out a small company under John Endecott as governor.
Under the charter for the Colony of Massachusetts Bay (1629),
which superseded the Dorchester Company patent, Endecott
continued as governor until the arrival in 1630 of John
Winthrop, who soon removed the seat of government from
Salem first to Charlestown and then to Boston. In July or
August 1629 the first Congregational Church (see CONGREGA-
TIONALISM, American) in America was organized here; its
"teacher" in 1631 and 1633 and its pastor in 1634-1635 was
Roger Williams, a close friend of Governor Endecott and always
popular in Salem, who in 1635 fled thence to Rhode Island to
escape arrest by the officials of Massachusetts Bay. In 1686,
fearing that they might be dispossessed by a new charter, the
people of Salem for 20 secured a deed from the Indians to the
land they then held. Although not strictly Puritan the character
of Salem was not essentially different from that of the other
Massachusetts towns. The witchcraft delusion of 1692 centred
about Salem Village, now in the township of Danvers, but then
a part of Salem. Ten girls, aged nine to seventeen years, two
of them house servants, met during the winter of 1691-1692
in the home of Samuel Parris, pastor of the Salem Village church,
and after learning palmistry and various " magic " tricks from
Parris's West Indian slave, Tituba, and influenced doubtless
by current talk about witches, accused Tituba and two old
women of bewitching them. The excitement spread rapidly,
many more were accused, and, within four months, hundreds
were arrested, and many were tried before commissioners of
oyer and terminer (appointed on the 27th of May 1692, including
Samuel Sewall, q.v., of Boston, and three inhabitants of Salem,
one being Jonathan Corwin); nineteen were hanged, 1 and one
was pressed to death in September for refusing to plead when
he was accused. All these trials were conducted in accordance
with the English law of the time; there had been an execution
for witchcraft at Charlestown in 1648; there was a case in Boston
in 1655; in 1680 a woman of Newbury was condemned to death
for witchcraft but was reprieved by Governor Simon Bradstreet ;
in England and Scotland there were many executions long
after the Salem delusion died out. The reaction came suddenly
in Salem, and in May 1693 Governor William Phips ordered
1 There is nothing but tradition to identify the place of execution
with what is now called Gallows Hill, between Salem and Peabody.
SALEM SALE OF GOODS
the release from prison of all then held on the charge of
witchcraft.
Salem was an important port after 1670, especially in the
India trade, and Salem privateers did great damage in the Seven
Years' War, in the War of Independence (when 158 Salem
privateers took 445 prizes), and in the War of 1812. On this
foreign trade and these rich periods of privateering the prosperity
of the place up to the middle of the ipth century was built.
The First Provincial Assembly of Massachusetts met in Salem
in 1774. On the 2oth of February 1775 at the North Bridge
(between the present Salem and Danvers) the first armed resist-
ance was offered to the royal troops, when Colonel Leslie with the
64th regiment, sent to find cannon hidden in the Salem " North
Fields," was held in check by the townspeople. Salem was the
birthplace of Nathaniel Hawthorne, W. H. Prescott, Nathaniel
Bowditch, Jones Very and W. W. Story.
Marblehead was separated from Salem township in 1049-,
Beverly in 1668, a part of Middleton in- 11728, and the district
of Danvers in 1752. Salem was chartered as a city in 1836.
See Charles S. Osgood and Henry M. Batchelder, Historical Sketch of
Salem, 1626-1879 (Salem, 1879); Joseph B. Felt, Annals of Salem
(ibid., 1827; and ed., 2 vols., 1845-1849); Charles W. Upham,
Salem Witchcraft (2 vols., Boston, 1867); H. B. Adams, Village
Communities of Cape Ann and Salem (Baltimore, 1883); Eleanor
Putnam (the pen-name of Mrs Arlo Bates), OldSalem (Boston, 1886);
C. H. Webber and W. S. Nevins, Old Naumkeag (Salem, 1877) ; R. D.
Paine, Ships and Sailors of Old Salem (New York, 1909), and Visitor's
Guide to Salem (Salem, 1902) published by the Essex Institute.
SALEM, a city and the county-seat of Salem county, New
Jersey, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state, on Salem Creek,
about 38 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900), 5811, of whom
263 were foreign-born and 809 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census),
6614. It is served by the West Jersey & Seashore railroad,
and has steamer connexion with Philadelphia. Among its
institutions is the John Tyler Library, established as Salem
Library in 1804 and said to be the third oldest public library
in the state. In Finn's Point National Cemetery, about 4 m.
N. of Salem, there are buried some 2460 Confederate soldiers,
who died during the Civil War while prisoners of war at Fort
Delaware, on an island in Delaware river nearly opposite the
mouth of Salem Creek. Salem lies in a rich agricultural region.
Among the city's manufactures are canned fruits and vegetables,
condiments, glass-ware, brass and iron-work, hosiery, linoleum
and oil-cloth. Near the present site in 1643 colonists from
Sweden built Fort Elfsborg; but the Swedish settlers in 1655
submitted to the Dutch at New Amsterdam, and the latter in
turn surrendered to the English in 1664. In 1675 John Fenwicke,
an English Quaker, entered the Delaware river and founded
the first permanent English settlement on the Delaware (which
he called Salem). After purchasing lands from the Indians,
Fenwicke attempted to maintain an independent government,
but in 1682 he submitted to the authority of the proprietors
of West Jersey. During the War of Independence Salem was
plundered on the i7th of March 1778 by British troops under
Colonel Charles Mawhood, and on the following day a portion
of these troops fought a sharp but indecisive engagement at
Quinton's Bridge, 3 m. S. of the town, with American militia
under Colonel Benjamin Holmes. Salem was incorporated as a
town in 1695, and was chartered as a city in 1858.
SALEM, a city of Columbiana county, Ohio, U.S.A., 67 m.
N.W. of Pittsburg and about the same distance S.E. of Cleveland.
Pop. (1900), 7582, including 667 foreign-born and 227 negroes;
(1910) 8943. Salem is served by the Pennsylvania (the Pittsburg,
Fort Wayne & Chicago division) and the Youngstown & Ohio
River railways, and by an interurban electric line to Canton.
The city has a Carnegie library (1896), two beautiful cemeteries,
a park, and a Home for Aged Women. It is situated in a fine
agricultura'l region; coal is mined in the vicinity; natural gas
is obtained in abundance; and the city has various manu-
factures. It was settled by Friends in 1806, incorporated as a
town in 1830 and as a village in 1852, and chartered as a city in
1887. For several years preceding the Civil War it was a station
on the " underground railway " and the headquarters of " the
Western Anti-Slavery Society," which published here the Anti-
Slavery Bugle.
SALEM, the capital of Oregon, U.S.A., and the county-seat of
Marion county, on the east bank of the Willamette river, 52 m.
S.S.W. of Portland. Pop. (1900), 4258, including 522 foreign-
born; (1910) 14,094. It is served by the Southern Pacific railway,
by the Oregon Electric line (to Portland), and by a steamship line
to Portland. The city is in the centre of the Willamette Valley,
a rich farming and fruit-growing country. It has wide, well-
shaded streets, and two public parks. Among thepublic buildings
and institutions are the State Capitol, the State Library, a city
public library, the county court-house, the Federal building,
the state penitentiary and several charitable institutions.
Salem is the seat of Willamette University (Methodist Episcopal,
1844), an outgrowth of the mission work of the Methodist
Episcopal church begun in 1834 about 10 m. below the site of the
present city; of the Academy of the Sacred Heart (Roman
Catholic, 1860) and of two business colleges. Immediately
north of the city at Chemawa is the Salem (non-reservation)
government school for Indians, with an excellently equipped
hospital. Water power is derived (in part, by an 18 m. canal)
from the Santiam, an affluent of the Willamette river. The city
is a market for the produce of the Willamette Valley. The
settlement here, gathering about the Methodist mission and
'school, began to grow in the decade 1840-1850. Salem was
chartered as a city in 1853, an d in 1860 was made the capital of
the state. It grew rapidly after 1900, and its territory was
increased in 1903.
SALEM, a town and the county-seat (since 1838) of Roanoke
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the Roanoke river, about 60 m.
W. by S. of Lynchburg. Pop. (1900), 3412, including 798
negroes; (1910) 3849. It is served by the Norfolk & Western and
the Virginian railways, and has electric railway connexion with
Roanoke, about 6 m. E. The town is a summer resort about
1000 ft. above the sea, surrounded by the Alleghany and Blue
Ridge mountains. There are chalybeate and sulphur springs in
the vicinity. Salem is the seat of a Lutheran Orphan Home
(1888), of the Baptist Orphanage of Virginia (1892) and of
Roanoke College (co-educational; Lutheran; chartered, 1853).
The town is in a dairying, agricultural and fruit-growing region.
The Roanoke river provides water-power. The water supply is
obtained from a spring within the town limits, from which there
flows about 576,000 gallons a day, and from an artesian well.
This part of Roanoke county was granted in 1767 to General
Andrew Lewis, to whom there is a monument in East Hill
Cemetery, where he is buried. Salem, laid out in 1802, was
incorporated as a town in 1813.
SALE OF GOODS. Sale (O.Eng. sola, sellan, syllan, to hand
over, deliver) is commonly defined as the transfer of property
from one person to another for a price. This definition requires
some consideration in order to appreciate its full scope., The law
of sale is usually treated as a branch of the law of contract,
because sale is effected by contract. Thus Pothier entitles his
classical treatise on the subject, Traite du central de venle, and
the Indian Contract Act (ix. of 1872) devotes a chapter to the
sale of goods. But a completed contract of sale is something
more. It is a contract plus a transfer of property. An agreement
to sell or buy a thing, or, as lawyers call it, an executory contract
of sale, is a contract pure and simple. A purely personal bond
arises thereby between seller and buyer. But a complete or
executed contract of sale effects a transfer of ownership with all
the advantages and risks incident thereto. By an agreement
to sell a, jus in personam is created; by a sale a. jus in rem is trans-
ferred. The essence of sale is the transfer of property for a price.
If there be no agreement for a price, express or implied, the
transaction is gift, not sale, and is regulated by its own peculiar
rules and considerations. So, too, if commodity be exchanged for
commodity, the transaction is called barter and not sale, and the
rules relating to sales do not apply in their entirety. Again, a
contract of sale must comtemplate an absolute transfer of the
property in the thing sold or agreed to be sold. A mortgage may
be in the form of a conditional sale, but English law regards the
SALE OF GOODS
substance and not the form of the transaction. If in substance
the object of the transaction is to secure the repayment of a debt,
and not to transfer the absolute property in the thing sold, the
law at once annexes to the transaction the complex consequences
which attach to a mortgage. So, too, it is not always easy to
distinguish a contract for the sale of an article from a contract
for the supply of work and materials. If a man orders a set of
false teeth from a dentist the contract is one of sale, but if he
employs a dentist to stop one of his teeth with gold the contract
is for the supply of work and materials. The distinction is of
practical importance, because very different rules of law apply
to the two classes of contract. The property which may be the
subject of sale may be either movable or immovable, tangible or
intangible. The present article relates only to the sale of goods
that is to say, tangible movable property. By the laws of all
nations the alienation of land or real property is, on grounds of
public policy, subject to special regulations. It is obvious that
the assignment of " things in action," such as debts, contracts
and negotiable instruments, must be governed by very different
principles from those which regulate the transfer of goods, when
the object sold can be transferred into the physical possession of
the transferee.
In 1847, when Mr Justice Story wrote his work on the sale of
personal property, the law of sale was still in process of development.
_ Cod Many rules were still unsettled, especially the rules re-
offssj lating to implied conditions and warranties. But for
several years the main principles have been well settled.
In 1891 the subject seemed ripe for codification, and Lord Herschell
introduced a codifying bill which two years later passed into law as
the Sale of Goods Act, 1893 (56 & 57 Viet. c. 71). Sale is a consen-
sual contract. The parties to the contract may supplement it with
any stipulations or conditions they may see fit to agree to. The code
in no wise seeks to fetter this discretion. It lays down a few positive
rules such, for instance, as that which reproduces the 1 7th section
of the Statute of Frauds. But the main object of the act is to provide
clear rules for those cases where the parties have either formed no
intention or have failed to express it. When parties enter into a
contract they contemplate its smooth performance, and they seldom
provide for contingencies which may interrupt that performance
such as the insolvency of the buyer or the destruction of the thing
sold before it is delivered. It is the province of the code to provide
for these contingencies, leaving the parties free to modify by express
stipulation the provisions imported by law. When the code was in
contemplation the case of Scotland gave rise to difficulty. Scottish
law varies widely from English. To speak broadly, the Scottish
law of sale differs from the English by adhering to the rules of Roman
law, while the English common law has worked out rules of its own.
Where two countries are so closely connected in business as Scotland
and England, it is obviously inconvenient that their laws relating to
commercial matters should differ. The Mercantile Law Commission
of 1855 reported on this question, and recommended that on certain
points the Scottish rule should be adopted in England, while on
other points the English rule should be adopted in Scotland. The
recommendations of the Commission were partially and rather
capriciously adopted in the English and Scottish Mercantile Law
Amendment Acts of 1856. Certain rules were enacted for England
which resembled but did not really reproduce the Scottish law, while
other rules were enacted for Scotland which resembled but did not
really reproduce the English law. There the matter rested for many
years. The Codifying Bill of 1891 applied only to England, but on
the advice of Lord Watson it was extended to Scotland. As the
English and Irish laws of sale were the same, the case of Ireland gave
rise to no difficulty, and the act now applies to the whole of the
United Kingdom. As regards England and Ireland very little
change in the law has been effected. As regards Scotland the
process of assimilation has been carried further, but has not been
completed. In a few cases the Scottish rule has been saved or re-
enacted, in a few other cases it has been modified, while on other
points, where the laws were dissimilar, the English rules have been
adopted.
Now that the law has been codified, an analysis of the law resolves
itself into an epitome of the main provisions of the statute. The act
is divided into six parts, the first dealing with the formation of the
contract, the second with the effects of the contract, the third with
the performance of the contract, the fourth with the rights of an
unpaid seller against the goods, and the fifth with remedies for breach
of contract, the sixth part is supplemental. The 1st section, which
may be regarded as the keystone of the act, is in the following
terms: " A contract of sale of goods is a contract whereby the
seller transfers or agrees to transfer the property in goods to the
buyer for a money consideration called the price. A contract of
sale may be absolute or conditional. When under a contract of sale
the property in the goods is transferred from the seller to the buyer
the contract is called a ' sale,' but when the transfer of the property
in the goods is to take place at a future time or subject to some
condition thereafter to be fulfilled the contract is called an ' agree-
ment to sell." An agreement to sell becomes a sale when the time
elapses or the conditions are fulfilled subject to which the property
in the goods is to be transferred." This section clearly enunciates
the consensual nature of the contract, and this is confirmed by
section 55, which provides that " where any right, duty or liability
would arise under a contract of sale by implication of law," it may
be negatived or varied by express agreement, or by the course of
dealing between the parties, or by usage, if the usage be such as to
bind both parties to the contract. The next question is who can sell
and buy. The act is framed on the plan that if the law of contract
were codified, this act would form a chapter in the code. The question
of capacity is therefore referred to the general law, but a special
provision is inserted (section 2) relating to the supply of necessaries
to infants and other persons who are incompetent to contract.
Though an infant cannot contract he must live, and he can only get
goods by paying for them. The law, therefore, provides that he is
liable to pay a reasonable price for necessaries supplied to him, and
it defines necessaries as " goods suitable to the condition in life of
such minor or other person, and to his actual requirements at the
time of the sale and delivery."
The 4th section of the act reproduces the famous 1 7th section of
the Statute of Frauds, which was an act " for the prevention of
frauds and perjuries." The object of that statute was to prevent
people from setting up bogus contracts of sale by requiring material
evidence of the contract. The section provides that " a contract
for the sale of any goods of the value of ten pounds or upwards shall
not be enforceable by action unless the buyer shall accept part of the
goods so sold, and actually receive the same, or give something in
earnest to bind the contract, or in part payment, or unless some note
or memorandum in writing of the contract be made and signed by
the party to be charged, or his agent in that behalf." It is a much
disputed question whether this enactment has done more good or
harm. It has defeated many an honest claim, though it may have
prevented many a dishonest one from being put forward. When
judges and juries have been satisfied of the bona fides of a contract
which does not appear to satisfy the statute, they have done their
best to get round it. Every expression in the section has been the
subject of numerous judicial decisions, which ran into almost
impossible refinements, and illustrate the maxim that hard cases
make bad law. It is to be noted that Scotland is excluded from the
operation of section 4. The Statute of Frauds has never been
applied to Scotland, and Scotsmen appear never to have felt the
want of it.
As regards the subject-matter of the contract, the act provides
that it may consist either of existing goods or " future goods " that
is to say, goods to be manufactured or acquired by the seller after
the making of the contract ( 5). Suppose that a man goes into a
gunsmith's shop and says, " This gun suits me, and if you will make
or get me another like it I will buy the pair." This is a good contract,
and no question as to its validity would be likely to occur to the lay
mind. But lawyers have seriously raised the question, whether there
could be a valid contract of sale when the subject-matter of the
contract was not in existence at the time when the contract was
made. The price is an essential element in a contract of sale. It
may be either fixed by the contract itself, or left to be determined in
some manner thereby agreed upon, e.g. by the award of a third party.
But there are many cases in which the parties intend to effect a sale,
and yet say nothing about the price. Suppose that a man goes into
a hotel and orders dinner without asking the price. How is it to be
fixed? The law steps in and says that, in the absence of any agree-
ment, a reasonable price must be paid ( 8). This prevents ex-
tortion on the part of the seller, and unreasonableness or fraud on
the part of the buyer.
The next question dealt with is the difficult one of conditions and
warranties ( loand II). The parties may insert what stipulations
they like in a contract of sale, but the law has to interpret w
them. The term" warranty "has a peculiar and technical
meaning in the law of sale. It denotes a stipulation which the law
regards as collateral to the main purpose of the contract. A breach,
therefore, does not entitle the buyer to reject the goods, but only to
claim damages. Suppose that a man buys a particular horse, which
is warranted quiet to ride and drive. If the horse turns out to be
vicious, the buyer's only remedy is to claim damages, unless he has
expressly reserved a right to return it. But if, instead of buying a
particular horse, a man applies to a dealer to supply him with a
quiet horse, and the dealer supplies him with a vicious one, the
stipulation is a condition. The buyer can either return the horse, or
keep it and claim damages. Of course the right of rejection must be
exercised within a reasonable time. In Scotland no distinction has
been drawn between conditions and warranties, and the act preserves
the Scottish rule by providing that, in Scotland, " failure by the
seller to perform any material part of a contract of sale " entitles the
buyer either to reject the goods within a reasonable time after
delivery, or to retain them and claim compensation ( II (2)). In
England it is a very common trick for the buyer to keep the goods,
and then set up in reduction of the price that they are of inferior
quality to what was ordered. To discourage this practice in Scotland
the act provides that, in that country, the court may require the buyer
who alleges a breach of contract to bring the agreed price into court
SALE OF GOODS
pending the decision of the case (| 59). It seems a pity that this
sensible rule was not extended to England.
In early English law caveat emptor was the general rule, and it was
one well suited to primitive times. Men either bought their goods in
the open market-place, or from their neighbours, and buyer and seller
contracted on a footing of equality. Now the complexity of modern
commerce, the division of labour and the increase of technical skill,
have altogether altered the state of affairs. The buyer is more and
more driven to rely on the honesty, skill and judgment of the seller
or manufacturer. Modern law has recognized this, and protects the
buyer by implying various conditions and warranties in contracts of
sale, which may be summarized as follows: First, there is an
implied undertaking on the part of the seller that he has a right to
sell the goods ( 12). Secondly, if goods be ordered by description,
they must correspond with that description ( 13). This, of course, is
a universal rule Si aes pro auro veneat, non valet. Thirdly, there is
the case of manufacturers or sellers who deal in particular classes of
goods. They naturally have better means of judging of their
merchandise than the outside public, and the buyer is entitled within
limits to rely on their skill or judgment. A tea merchant or grocer
knows more about tea than his customers can, and so does a gun-
smith about guns. In such cases, if the buyer makes known to the
seller the particular purpose for which the goods are required, there
is an implied condition that the goods are reasonably fit for it, and if
no particular purpose be indicated there is an implied condition that
the goods supplied are of merchantable quality (S) 14). Fourthly, in
the case of a sale by sample, there is " an implied condition that the
bulk shall correspond with the sample in quality," and that the
buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity of comparing the bulk with
the sample (15)-
The main object of sale is the transfer of ownership from seller to
buyer, and it is often both a difficult and an important matter to
determine the precise moment at which the change of
ownership is effected. According to Roman law, which is
still the foundation of most European systems, the property
in a thing sold did not pass until delivery to the buyer. Traditionibus
et usucapionibus dominia rerum, non nudis pactis, transferuntut .
English law has abandoned this test, and has adopted the principle
that the property passes at such time as the parties intend it to pass.
Express stipulations as to the time when the property is to pass are
very rare. The intention of the parties has to be gathered from their
conduct. A long train of judicial decisions has worked out a more or
less artificial series of rules for determining the presumed intention
of the parties, and these rules are embodied in sections 16 to 20 of the
act. The first rule is a negative one. In the case of unascertained
goods, i.e. goods defined by description only, and not specifically
identified, " no property in the goods is transferred to the buyer unless
and until the goods are ascertained." If a man orders ten tons of
scraf) iron from a dealer, it is obvious that the dealer can fulfil his
contract by delivering any ten tons of scrap that he may select,
and that until the ten tons have been set apart, no question of
change of ownership can arise. But when a specific article is bought,
or when goods ordered by description are appropriated to the
contract, the passing of the property is a question of intention. De-
livery to the buyer is strong evidence of intention to change the
ownership, but it is not conclusive. Goods may be delivered to the
buyer on approval, or for sale or return. Delivery to a carrier for
the buyer operates in the main as a delivery to the buyer, but the
seller may deliver to the carrier, and yet reserve to himself a right of
disposal. On the other hand, when there is a sale of a specific
article, which is in a fit state for delivery, the property in the article
prima facie passes at once, even though delivery be delayed. When
the contract is for the sale of unascertained goods, which are ordered
by description, the property in the goods passes to the buyer, when,
with the express or implied consent of the parties, goods of the
required description are " unconditionally appropriated to the
contract." The cases which determine what amounts to an appro-
priation of goods to the contract are numerous and complicated.
Probably they could all be explained as cases of constructive delivery,
but at the time when the law of appropriation was worked out the
doctrine of constructive delivery was not known. It is perhaps to
be regretted that the codifying act did not adopt the test of delivery,
but it was thought better to adhere to the familiar phraseology of the
cases. Section 20 deals with the transfer of risk from seller to buyer,
and lays down the prima facie rule that " the goods remain at the
seller's risk until the property therein is transferred to the buyer,
but when the property therein is transferred to the buyer, the goods
are at the buyer's risk whether delivery has been made or not."
Res peril domino is therefore the maxim of English, as well as of
Roman law.
In the vast majority of cases people only sell what they have a
right to sell, but the law has to make provision for cases where a man
Tla sells goods which he is not entitled to sell. An agent may
misconceive or exceed his authority. Stolen goods may
be passed from buyer to buyer. Then comes the question, Which of
two innocent parties is to suffer? Is the original owner to be
permanently deprived of his property, or is the loss to fall on the
innocent purchaser? Roman law threw the loss on the buyer, Nemo
plus juris in alium transferre potest quam ipse habet. French law,
m deference to modern commerce, protects the innocent purchaser
XXIV. 3
and throws the loss on the original owner. " En fait de meubles,
possession vaut titre " (Code civil, ait. 1599). English law is a
compromise between these opposing theories. It adopts the Roman
rule as its guiding principle, but qualifies it with certain more or
less arbitrary exceptions, which cover perhaps the majority of the
actual cases which occur ( 21 to 26). In the first place, the pro-
visions of the Factors Act, 1889 (52 and 53 Viet. c. 45, extended to
Scotland by 53 and 54 Viet. c. 40), are preserved. That act validates
sales and other dispositions of goods by mercantile agent acting
within the apparent scope of their authority, and also protects
innocent purchasers who obtain goods from sellers left in possession,
or from intending buyers who have got possession of the goods while
negotiations are pending. In most cases a contract induced by fraud
is voidable only, and not void, and the act provides, accordingly,
that a voidable contract of sale shall be avoided to the prejudice
of an innocent purchaser. The ancient privilege of market overt 1
is preserved intact, section 22 providing that " where goods are sold
in market overt, according to the usage of th-> market, the buyer
acquires a good title to the goods provided he buys them in good
faith, and without notice of any defect or want of title on the part
of the seller." The section does not apply to Scotland, nor to the
law relating to the sale of horses which is contained in two old
statutes, 2 & 3 Phil, and Mar. c. 7, and 31 Eliz. c. 12. The minute
regulations of those statutes are never complied with, so their
practical effect is to take horses out of the category of things which
can be sold in market overt. The privilege of market overt applies
only to markets by prescription, and does not attach to newly-
created markets. The operation of the custom is therefore fitful and
capricious. For example, every shop in the City of London is within
the custom, but the custom does not extend to the greater London
outside. If then a man buys a stolen watch in Fleet Street, he may
get a good title to it, but he cannot do so if he buys it a few doors off
in the Strand. There is, however, a qualification of the rights
acquired by purchase even in market overt. When goods have been
stolen and the thief is prosecuted to conviction, the property in the
goods thereupon revests in the original owner, and he is entitled to
get them back either by a summary order of the convicting court or
by action. This rule dates back to the statute 21 Hen. VIII. c. II.
It was probably intended rather to encourage prosecutions in the
interests of public justice than to protect people whose goods were
stolen.
Having dealt with the effects of sale, first, as between seller and
buyer, and, secondly, as between the buyer and third parties,
the act proceeds to determine what, in the absence of ..*.
convention, are the reciprocal rights and duties of the
parties in the performance of their contract ( 27 to 37). aace -
It is the duty of the seller to deliver the goods and of the buyer to
accept and pay for them in accordance with the terms of the contract
of sale " ( 27). In ordinary cases the seller's duty to deliver the
goods is satisfied if he puts them at the disposal of the buyer at the
place of sale. The normal contract of sale is represented by a cash
sale in a shop. The buyer pays the price and takes away the goods:
" Unless otherwise agreed, delivery of the goods and payment of the
price are concurrent conditions " (27). But agreement, express or
implied, may create infinite variations on the normal contract. It
is to be noted that when goods are sent to the buyer which he is
entitled to reject, and does reject, he is not bound to send them back
to the seller. It is sufficient if he intimate to the seller his refusal to
accept them ( 36).
The normal theory of sale is cash against delivery, but in the great
majority of actual cases, especially in commercial transactions,
this theory is departed from in practice. The interests of
the seller are therefore protected by two rules namely, * ightsof
those as to lien and as to stoppage in transitu. In the c a
absence of any different agreement, as, for instance, where
there is a stipulation for sale on credit, the unpaid seller has a right
to retain possession of the goods until the price is paid or tendered.
The right may, of course, be waived, even when it is not negatived
by the contract. It is to be noted that when the seller takes a bill of
exchange or other negotiable instrument for the price, the instru-
ment operates as conditional payment. On the dishonour of the
instrument the seller's rights revive ( 38-43). If the buyer becomes
insolvent the unpaid seller has a further right founded on ancient
mercantile usage. He may have parted with both the property in
and possession of the goods sold, but he can attach the goods as long
as they are in the hands of a carrier or forwarding agent, and have
not reached the actual possession of the seller or his immediate agent.
" Subject to the provisions of this Act, when the buyer of goods
becomes insolvent, the unpaid seller who has parted with the
possession of the goods has the right of stopping them in transitu
that is to say, he may resume possession of the goods as long as they
are in course of transit, and may retain them until payment or
tender of the price " ( 44). The right of stoppage, however, cannot
be exercised to the prejudice of third parties to whom the bill of
lading or other document of title to goods has been lawfully trans-
ferred for value ( 47).
The ultimate sanction of a contract is the legal remedy for its
1 That is, " open market," where the goods on sale are exposed to
view.
66
SALEP SALESBURY
breach. Seller and buyer have each their appropriate remedies.
If the property in the goods has passed to the buyer, or if, under the
contract, " the price is payable on a day certain irrespec-
f< "" tive of delivery, the seller's remedy for breach of the con-
and"seUer tract ' s an act ' on f r tne price ( 49). In other cases his
' remedy is an action for damages for non-acceptance. In
the case of ordinary goods of commerce the measure of damages is
the difference between the contract price and the market or current
price at the time when the goods ought to have been accepted.
But this test is. often applicable. For instance, the buyer may have
ordered some article of special manufacture for which there would
be no market. The convenient market-price rule is therefore sub-
ordinate to the general principle that " the measure of damages is
the estimated loss directly and naturally resulting in the ordinary
course of events from the buyer's breach of contract " ( 56). Similar
considerations apply to the buyer's right of action for non-delivery of
the goods ( 51). Section 52 deals with a peculiar feature of English
law. In Scotland, as a general rule, a party who complains of a
breach of contract is entitled to claim that the contract shall be
specifically performed. In England a court of common law could
only award damages, and apart from certain recent statutes, a claim
for specific performance could only be entertained by a court of
equity in a very narrow class of cases when the remedy by damages
wasdeemed inadequate. But now, underthe act of 1893, " in any
action for breach of contract to deliver specific or ascertained goods
the court may, if it thinks fit, direct that the contract shall be per-
formed specifically without giving the defendant the option of re-
taining the goods on payment of damages." The buyer who com-
plains of a breach of warranty on the part of the seller has two
remedies. He may either set up the breach of warranty in reduction
of the price, or he may pay the price and sue for damages. The prima
facie measure of damages is the difference between the value of the
goods at th^ time of delivery and the value they would have had if
they had answered to the warranty ( 53).
The sixth part of the act is supplemental, and is mainly con-
cerned with drafting explanations, but section 58 contains some
rules for regulating sales by auction. It prohibits secret bidding on
behalf of the seller to enhance the price, but is silent as to combina-
tion by buyers to reduce the price. Such a combination, commonly
known as a " knock out," is left to be dealt with by the ordinary
law of conspiracy.
The Sale of Goods Act 1893 was the third attempt made by
the English parliament to codify a branch of commercial law. It
would be out of place here to discuss the policy of mercantile
codification, but it may be noted that there are very few reported
cases on the construction of the act, so that its interpretation
does not seem to have given rise to difficulty. As has been noted
above, the act preserves some curious anomalies and distinctions
between English and Scottish law. But the amendments re-
quired to remove them would be few and simple, should the
legislature ever think it worth while to undertake the task.
United States. The law as to the sale of real estate agrees gener-
ally with English law. It is considerably simplified by a system of
registration. The covenant of warranty, unknown in England, is
the principal covenant for title in the United States. It corresponds
generally to the English covenant for quiet enjoyment. The right of
judicial sale of buildings under a mechanic's lien for labour and
materials is given by the law of many states. The sale of public
lands is regulated by Act of Congress. In the law of sale of personal
property American law is also based upon English law. The principal
differences are that the law of market overt is not recognized by the
United States, and that an unpaid vendor is the agent of the vendee
to resell on non-payment, and is entitled to recover the difference
between the contract price and the price of resale. Warranty of title
is not carried as far as in England. United States decisions draw a
distinction between goods in the possession and goods not in the
possession of the vendor at the time of 'sale. There is no warranty of
title of the latter. The Statute of Frauds has been construed in some
respects differently from the English decisions. As to unlawful sales,
it has been held that a sale in a state where the sale is lawful is
valid in a state where it is un-lawful by statute, even though the
goods are in the latter state.
The ordinary text-books on the law of sale are constantly re-edited
and brought up to date. The following among the others may be
consulted: Benjamin's Sale of Personal Property; Blackburn's
Contract of Sale; Campbell's Law of Sale and Mercantile Agency;
Brown's Sale of Goods Act (Scotland); Chalmers's Sale of Goods Act;
Moyle's Contract of Sale in the Civil Law; E. J. Schuster s Principles
of German Civil Law; Beddarride's Des achats et ventes commer-
cials; Story's Sale of Personal Property (United States).
(M. D. CH.)
SALEP (Arab, sahleb, Gr. Spx)> a drug extensively used in
oriental countries as a nervine restorative and fattener, and also
much prescribed in paralytic affections. It probably owed its
original popularity to the belief in the " doctrine of signatures."
It is not used in European medicine. It consists of the tuberous
roots of various species of Orchis and Ettlophia, which are decorti-
cated, washed, heated until horny in appearance, and then dried.
Its most important constituent is a mucilaginous substance
which it yields with cold water to the extent of 48%.
SALERNO (anc. Salernum), a seaport and archiepiscopal
see of Campania, Italy, capital of the province of Salerno, on
the west coast, 33 m. by rail S.E. of Naples. Pop. (1901),
28,936 (town); 45,313 (commune). The ruins of its old Norman
castle stand on an eminence 905 ft. above the sea with a back-
ground of graceful limestone hills. The town walls were destroyed
in the beginning of the i9th century; the seaward portion has
given place to the Corso Garibaldi, the principal promenade.
The chief buildings are the theatre, the prefecture, and the
cathedral of St Matthew (whose bones were brought from
Paestum to Salerno in 954), begun in 1076 by Robert Guiscard
and consecrated in 1084 by Gregory VII. In front is a beautiful
quadrangular court (112 by 102 ft.), surrounded by arcades
formed of twenty-eight ancient pillars mostly of granite from
Paestum, and containing twelve sarcophagi of various periods;
the middle entrance into the church is closed by remarkable
bronze doors of nth-century Byzantine work. The nave and
two aisles end in apses. Two magnificent marble ambones,
the larger dating from 1175, a large nth-century altar frontal
in the south aisle, having scenes from the Bible carved on thirty
ivory tablets, with 13th-century mosaics in the apse, given by
Giovanni da Procida, the promoter of the Sicilian Vespers,
and the tomb of Pope Gregory VII., and that of Queen Margaret
of Durazzo, mother of King Ladislaus, erected in 1412, deserve
to be mentioned. In the crypt is a bronze statue of St Matthew.
The cathedral possesses a fine Exultet roll. S. Domenico near
it has Norman cloisters, and several of the other churches contain
paintings by Andrea Sabbatini da Salerno, one of the best of
Raphael's scholars. A fine port constructed by Giovanni da
Procida in 1260 was destroyed when Naples became the capital
of the kingdom, and remained blocked with sand till after
the unification of Italy, when it was cleared; but it is now
unimportant. The chief industries are silk and cotton-spinning
and printing. Good wine is produced in the neighbourhood. A
branch railway runs'N. up the Irno valley to Mercato S. Severino
on the line from Naples to Avellino.
A Roman colony (Salernum) was founded in 194 B.C. to keep the
Picentini in check. It was captured by the Samnites in the Social
War. It was the point at which the coast road to Paestum diverged
from the Via Popillia, rejoining it again E. of Buxentum. In the 4th
century the correctores of Lucania and the territory of the Bruttii
resided here, but it did not attain its full importance till after the
Lombard conquest. Dismantled by order of Charlemagne, it became
in the gth century the capital of an independent principality, the
rival of that of Benevento, and was surrounded by strong fortifica-
tions. The Lombard princes, who had frequently defended their
city against the Saracens, succumbed before Robert Guiscard, who
took the castle after an eight months' siege and made Salerno the
capital of his new territory. The removal of the court to Palermo
and the sack of the city by the emperor Henry VI. in 1194 put a stop
to its development. The medical school of the Civitas Hippo-
cratica (as it called itself on its seals) held a high position in medieval
times. Salerno university, founded in 1 150, and long one of the great
seats of learning in Italy, was closed in 1817.
See A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Italia Meridionale (Naples, 1902), i.
371 sqq- (T. As.)
SALERS, a village of central France, in the department of
Cantal, 30 m. N. of Aurillac by road. Pop. (1906), 659. Salers
dates from the gth or loth century and its lords were already
powerful in the nth century. It is finely situated on a plateau
overlooking the valley of the Maronne. It is a quaint old town
with a church of the i3th and isth centuries, remains of its
ancient ramparts and many houses of the isth and i6th centuries.
Salers has given its name to a celebrated breed of red cattle
raised in the district.
SALESBURY (or SALISBURY), WILLIAM (c. i^o-c. 1600),
Welsh scholar, was a native of Denbighshire, being the son of
Foulke Salesbury, who belonged to a family said to be descended
from a certain Adam of Salzburg, a member of the ducal house
of Bavaria, who came to England in the I2th century. Salesbury
was educated at Oxford, where he accepted the Protestant
SALEYER SALFORD
67
faith, but he passed most of his life at Llanrwst, working at
his literary undertakings. The greatest Welsh scholar of his
time, Salesbury was acquainted with nine languages, including
Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and was learned in philology and
botany. He died about 1600. About 1546 he edited a collection
of Welsh proverbs (Oil synwyr pen kembero), probably the first
book printed in Welsh, and in 1547 his Dictionary in Englyshe
and Welshe was published (facsimile edition, 1877). In 1563
the English parliament ordered the Welsh bishops to arrange
for the translation of the Scriptures and the book of common
prayer into Welsh. The New Testament was assigned to Sales-
bury, who had previously translated parts of it. He received valu-
able assistance from Richard Davies, bishop of St Davids, and
also from Thomas Huet, or Hewett (d. 1591), but he himself did
the greater part of the work. The translation was made from the
Greek, but Latin versions were consulted, and in October 1567
the New Testament was published for the first time in Welsh.
This translation never became very popular, but it served as the
basis for the new one made by Bishop William Morgan (c. 1547-
1604). Salesbury and Davies continued to work together, translat-
ing various writings into Welsh, until about 1576 when the literary
partnership was broken. After this event, Salesbury, although
continuing his studies, produced nothing of importance.
Other noteworthy members of the family (the modern spelling is
Salusbury) are: JOHN SALESBURY (c. 1500-1573), who held many
preferments under the Tudor sovereigns and was bishop of Sodor
and Ma.i from 1571 to 1573; THOMAS SALESBURY (c. 1555-1586), an
associate of Anthony Babington, who was executed for conspiring
against Queen Elizabeth; HENRY SALESBURY (1561-0. 1637), the
author of a Welsh grammar published in 1593; THOMAS SALESBURY
(d. 1643), a poet, who probably fought for Charles I. at Edgehill;
and another royalist, WILLIAM SALESBURY (c. is8o-c. 1659), governor
of Denbigh Castle, which, in 1646, he gallantly defended in the
interests of the king.
SALEYER (Dutch, Saleijer), a group of islands belonging
to the government of Celebes and its dependencies in the
Dutch East Indies, numbering altogether 73, the principal
being Saleyer, Tambalongang, Pulasi and Bahuluwang; between
5 36' and 7 25' S. and 119 50' and 121 30' E. The mainisland,
Saleyer, is over 50 m. long and very narrow; area, 248 sq. m.
The strait separating it from Celebes is more than 100 fathoms
deep and, running in a strong current, is dangerous for native
ships to navigate. The strata of the island are all sedimentary
rocks: coralline limestone, occasionally sandstone; everywhere,
except in the north and north-west, covered by a fertile soil.
The watershed is a chain running throughout the island from N.
to S., reaching in Bontona Haru 5840 ft., sloping steeply to the
east coast.
The population, mainly a mixed race of Macassars, Buginese, the
natives of Luvu and Buton, is estimated at 57,000 on the main island
and 24,000 on the dependent isles. They use the Macassar language,
are for the most part nominally Mahommedans (though many
heathen customs survive), and support themselves by agriculture,
fishing, seafaring, trade, the preparation of salt (on the south coast)
and weaving. Field work is largely performed by a servile class.
Raw and prepared cotton, tobacco, trepang, tortoise-shell, coco-nuts
and coco-nut oil, and salt are exported. There are frequent emigra-
tions to Celebes and other parts of the archipelago. For that reason,
and also on account of its excellent horses and numerous buffaloes,
Saleyer is often compared with Madura, being of the same import-
ance to Celebes as is Madura to Java.
SALFORD, a municipal, county -and parliamentary borough
of Lancashire, England, 189 m. N.W. by N. of London and
31 m. E. by N. of Liverpool. Pop. (1908 estimate), 239,234.
Salford also gives its name to the hundred of south-west Lanca-
shire in which Manchester is situated; probably because when
the district was divided into hundreds Manchester was in a
ruinous condition from Danish ravages. The parliamentary
and municipal boundaries of Salford are identical; area, 5170
acres. The parliamentary borough has three divisions, each
returning a member. The borough, composed of three townships
identical with the ancient manors of Salford, Pendleton and
Broughton, is for the most part separated from Manchester by
the river Irwell, which is crossed by a series of bridges. The
valley of the Irwell, now largely occupied by factories, separates
the higher ground of Broughton from that of Pendleton, and
is flattest at the south where it joins the Manchester boundary.
At the other extremity of Salford it joins the borough of Eccles.
The chief railway station is Exchange station, which is in Salford,
but has its main approach in Manchester. The Lancashire
& Yorkshire and the London & North-Western railways serve
the town.
Until 1634 Salford was entirely dependent upon Manchester in its
ecclesiastical arrangements. In that year Sacred Trinity Church
("Salford Chapel ) was built and endowed under the will of
Humphrey Booth the elder, who also founded charities which have
grown greatly in value. The yearly income of more than 17,000 is
disposed of in pensions and in hospital grants. His grandson,
Humphrey Booth the younger, left money for the repair of the
church and the residue is distributed amongst the poor. The yearly
revenue is about 1400. Salford is the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishopric, and its cathedral, St John's, with its spire of 240 ft., is the
most noteworthy ecclesiastical building in the borough. Salford
has been to a large extent overshadowed by Manchester, and the two
boroughs, in spite of their separate government, are so closely con-
nected as to be one great urban area. Many of the institutions in
Manchester are intended for the service also of Salford, which,
however, has resisted all attempts at municipal amalgamation.
The chief public buildings are the museum and art gallery at Peel
Park, the technical school, the education offices and the Salford
Hospital. The town hall, built in 1825, is no longer adequate for
municipal needs. Broughton and Pendleton have each a separate
town hall. The large and flourishing technical school was developed
from a mechanics' institution. Peel Park, bought by public sub-
scription in 1846, was the first public recreation ground in the borough.
In the grounds are Langwortny Gallery and a museum. In the park
are statues of Queen Victoria, the Prince Consort, Sir Robert Peel,
Joseph Brotherton and Richard Cobden. The only other monu-
ment a South African War memorial is outside and almost
opposite Peel Park. Other parks are at Seedley, Albert and Buile
Hill; the last contains a museum, the contents of which have been
transferred from Peel Park. There is also Kersal Moor, 21 acres of
Moorland, crossed by a Roman road, which has been noticed for the
variety of its flora, and for the capture of the Oecophara Woodiella,
of which there is no other recorded habitat. The David Lewis
recreation ground at Pendleton may also be named. Altogether
Salford has thirty parks and open spaces having a total area of 217
acres. The corporation have also provided two cemeteries.
When the municipal museum was founded in 1849 a reference
library formed part of the institution, and from this has developed a
free library system in which there are also nine lending libraries.
The commercial and industrial history of Salford is closely bound
up with that of Manchester. It is the seat of extensive cotton, iron,
chemical and allied industries. It owes its development to the
steam-engine and the factory system, and in recent years has shared
in the increase of trade owing to the construction of the Manchester
Ship Canal, which has added greatly to its prosperity. This will be
seen by an examination of the rateable value of the three townships
now comprised in the borough. This in 1692 was 1404; in 1841,
244,853; in 1884, 734,220; in 1901, 967,727; in 1908-1909,
1,022,172.
The municipal government is in the hands of a town council con-
sisting of 16 aldermen and 48 councillors elected in 16 wards. The
water-supply is from Manchester. The corporation have an excellent
tramway service. There are also municipal baths. Salford has a
separate commission of the peace.
There are no certain figures as to the population before 1773, when
at the instance of Dr Thomas Percival a census was taken of
Manchester and Salford. The latter had then 4755 inhabitants.
Census returns show that its population in 1801 was 14,477; in
1851, 63,850; and in 1901, 220,956. The death-rate in 1906 was
18-5 per thousand.
Within the present borough area there have been found neo-
lithic implements and British urns, as well as Roman coins.
In 1851 traces of a Roman road were still visible. Domesday
Book mentions Salford as held by Edward the Confessor and as
having a forest three leagues long and the same broad. At the
Conquest it was part of the domain granted to Roger of Poitou,
but reverted to the crown in 1 102. After successively belonging
to the earls of Chester and of Derby it passed to Edward Crouch-
back, earl of Lancaster. It was erected into a duchy and county
palatine in 1353, and when the house of Lancaster succeeded to
the throne their Lancashire possessions were kept separate.
Salford and Pendleton are still parts of the ancient duchy of
Lancaster, belonging to the English crown. In 1231 Ranulf
de Blundeville, earl of Chester, granted a charter constituting
Salford a " free borough." But the government notwithstanding
was essentially manorial and not municipal. In the Civil Wars
between Charles I. and the parliament, Salford was royalist,
68
SALICETI SALIC LAW
and the unsuccessful siege of Manchester was conducted from
its side of the Irwell. Its later history is mainly identical with
that of Manchester (q.v.). In 1844 it received a municipal
charter and became a county borough in 1889.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. There is no separate history ofSalford; see
publications named under MANCHESTER. The MS. records of the
Portmote or Court Leet, 1597-1669, were edited by J. G. Mandley for
the Chetham Society, but others still remain in manuscript in the
State Paper Office. (W. E. A. A.)
SALIC2TI, ANTOINE CHRISTOPHE (1757-1809), French
revolutionist, was born at Saliceto, in Corsica, on the 26th of
August 1757, of a family of Piacenza. After studying law in
Tuscany, he became an avocat at the upper council of Bastia,
and was elected deputy of the Third Estate to the French
states-general in 1789. As deputy to the Convention, Saliceti
voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent to Corsica
on mission to oppose the counter-revolutionary intrigues. But
the success of his adversaries compelled him to withdraw to
Provence, where he took part in repressing the revolts at
Marseilles and Toulon. It was on this mission that he met and
helped his compatriot Bonaparte. On account of his friendship
with Robespierre, Saliceti was denounced at the revolution of
9 Thermidor, and was saved only by the amnesty of the year IV.
He subsequently organized the army of Italy and the two
departments into which Corsica had been divided, was deputy
to the Council of the Five Hundred, and accepted various offices
under the Consulate and the Empire, being minister of police
and of wai at Naples under Joseph Bonaparte (1806-1809).
He died at Naples on the 23rd of December 1809 it has been
alleged by poison.
SALICIN, SALICINUM, C,iH,,07, the bitter principle of
willow-bark, discovered by Leroux in 1831. It exists in most
species of Salix and Popttlus, and has been obtained to the extent
of 3 or 4% from the bark of 5. helix and 5. pentandra.
Salicin is prepared from a decoction of the bark by first precipitat-
ing the tannin by milk of lime, then evaporating the filtrate to a soft
extract, and dissolving out the salicin by alcohol. As met with in
commerce it is usually in the form of glossy white scales or needles.
It is neutral, odourless, unaltered by exposure to the air, and has a
bitter taste. It is soluble in about 30 parts of water and 80 parts of
alcohol at the ordinary temperature, and in 0-7 of boiling water or in
2 pans of boiling alcohol, and more freely in alkaline liquids. It is
also soluble in acetic acid without alteration, but is insoluble in
chloroform and benzol. From phloridzin it is distinguished by its
ammoniacal solution not becoming coloured when exposed to the air.
Chemically, it is a glucoside derived from glucose and saligenin
(o-oxy-benzyl alcohol), into which it is decomposed by the enzymes
ptyalme and emulsin. Oxidation converts it into helicin (salicyl-
aldehyde-glucose). Populin, a benzoyl salicin, is a glucoside found
in the leaves and bark of Populus tremula.
Salicin is used in medicine for the same purposes as salicylic acid
and the salicylates. It is also used as a bitter tonic, i.e. a gastric
stimulant, in doses of five grains. The ordinary dose may go up to
forty grains or more with perfect safety, though the British Pharma-
copoeia limits it to twenty. The remote action of the drug is that of
salicylic acid or the numerous compounds that contain it (see
SALICYLIC ACID).
SALIC LAW, and OTHER PRANKISH LAWS. The Salic Law
is one of those early medieval Frankish laws which, with other
early Germanic laws (see GERMANIC LAWS), are known collect-
ively as leges barbarorum. It originated with the Salian Franks,
often simply called Salians, the chief of that conglomeration of
Germanic peoples known as Franks.
The Salic Law has come down to us in numerous MSS. and in
divers forms. The most ancient form, represented by Latin MS.
No. 4404 in the Biblioth&jue Nationale at Paris, consists of 65
chapters. The second form has the same 65 chapters, but contains
interpolated provisions which show Christian influence. The third
text ^consists of 99 chapters, and is divided into two groups, ac-
cording as the MSS. contain or omit the " Malberg glosses."' The
1 Some of the MSS. contain words in a barbarian tongue and often
preceded by the word " malb." or " malberg." These are admitted
to be Frankish words, and are known as the Malberg glosses.
Opinions differ as to the true import of these glosses; some scholars
hold that the Salic Law was originally written in the Frankish
vernacular, and that these words are remnants of the ancient text,
while others regard them as legal formulae such as would be used
either by a plaintiff in introducing a suit, or by the judge to denote
the exact composition to be pronounced. It is more probable,
however, that these words served the Franks, who were ignorant of
Latin, as clues to the general sense of each paragraph of the law.
fourth version, as emended by Charlemagne, consists of 70 chapters
with the Latinity corrected and without the glosses. Though he
added some new provisions, Charlemagne respected the ancient ones,
even those which had long fallen into disuse. The last version,
published by B. J. Herold at Basel in 1557 (Originum ac Germani-
carum antiquilatum libn) from a MS. now lost, is founded on the
second recension, but contains additions of considerably later date.
The law is a compilation, the various chapters were composed at
different periods, and we do not possess the original form of the
compilation. Even the most ancient text, that in 65 chapters,
contains passages which a comparison with the later texts shows to
be interpolations. It is possible that chapter i., De mannire, was
taken from a Merovingian capitulary and afterwards placed at the
beginning of the Salic Law. This granted, internal evidence would
go to show that the first compilation dates back to the timeof Clovis,
and doubtless to the last years of his reign, after his victory over the
Visigoths (507-511). Many facts combine to preclude the assign-
ment of an earlier date to the compilation of the law. The Germanic
tribes had no need to use the Latin language until they had coalesced
with the Gallo-Roman population. The scale of judicial fines is
given in the denarius (" which makes so many solidi "), and it is
known that the monetary system of the solidus did not appear until
the Merovingian period. Even in its earliest form the law contains
no trace of paganism a significant fact when we consider how closely
law and religion are related in their origins. As pointed out by
H. Brunner in his Deutsche Rechtsgeschickte (i. 438), the Salic Law
contains imitations of the Visigothic laws of Euric (466-485).
Finally, chapter xlvii. seems to indicate that the Frankish power
extended south of the Loire, since it speaks of men dwelling " trans
Legerem " being summoned to the mallus (judicial assembly) and
being allowed eighty nights for their journey. On the other hand, it is
impossible to place the date of compilation later. The Romans are
clearly indicated in the law as subjects, but as not yet forming part
of the army, which consists solely of the antrustions, i.e. Frankish
warriors of the king's bodyguard. As yet the law is not impregnated
with the Christian spirit ; this absence of both Christian and Pagan
elements is due to the fact that many of the Franks were still
heathens, although their king had been converted to Christianity.
Christian enactments were introduced gradually into the later
versions. Finally, we find capitularies of the kings immediately
following Clovis being gradually incorporated in the text of the law
e.g. the Pactum pro tenore pads of Childebert Land Clotaire I. (511-
558), and the Ediclum Chilperici (561-584), chapter iii. of which
cites and emends the Salic Law.
The law as originally compiled underwent modifications of varying
importance before it took the form known to us in Latin MS. No.
4404, to which the edict of Childebert I. and Clotaire I. is already
appended. The classes of MSS. distinguished above give evidence of
further changes, the law being supplemented by other capitularies
and sundry extravagantia, prologues and epilogues, which some
historians have wrongly assumed to be parts of the main text.
Finally, Charlemagne, who took a keen interest in the ancient
documents, had the law emended, the operation consisting in
eliminating the Malberg glosses, which were no longer intelligible,
correcting the Latinity of the ancient text, omitting a certain number
of interpolated chapters, and adding others which had obtained
general sanction.
The Salic Law is a collection of ancient customs put into
writing by order of the prince. In the sense that they already
existed and came ready-made to the prince's hand, it is legitimate
to speak of these customs as a popular law, a Volksrechl; but it
was the prince who gave them force of law, emended them,
and rejected such of the ancient usages as appeared to him
antiquated. The king, moreover, had the right to add provisions
to the law; and we find capitularies of Charlemagne and Louis
the Pious in the form of additamenta to the Salic Law.
From this it will be seen that the Salic Law is not a political
law; it is in no way concerned with the succession to the throne
of France, and it is absolutely false to suppose that it was the
Salic Law that was invoked in 1316 and 1322 to exclude the
daughters of Louis X. and Philip V. from the succession to the
throne. The Salic Law is pre-eminently a penal code, which
shows the amount of the fines for various offences and crimes,
and contains, besides, some civil law enactments, such as the
famous chapter on succession to private property (de alode),
which declares that daughters cannot inherit land. The text
is filled with valuable information on the state of the family
and property in the 6th century, and it is astonishing to find
Montesquieu describing the Salic Law as the law of a people
ignorant of landed property. The code also contains abundant
information on the organization of the tribunals (tribunal
of the hundred and tribunal of the king) and on procedure.
Like all the barbarian laws, the law of the Salian Franks
SALICYLIC ACID
69
was a personal law; it applied only to the Salian Franks. As
the Salians, however, were the victorious race, the law acquired
an authority in excess of the other barbarian laws, and in the
additions made to the Ripuarian, Lombard, and other allied
laws, the Carolingians endeavoured to bring these laws into
harmony with the Salic Law. Moreover, many persons, even of
foreign race, declared themselves willing to live under the Salic
Law. The principle of personality, however, gradually gave way
to that of territoriality; and in every district, at least north ot
the Loire, customs were formed in which were combined in
varying proportions Roman law, ecclesiastical law and the
various Germanic laws. So late as the loth and nth centuries
we find certain texts invoking the Salic Law, but only in a
vague and general way; and it would be rash to conclude from
this that the Salic Law was still in force.
Of the numerous editions of the Salic Law only the principal ones
can be mentioned: J. M. Pardessus, Loi salique (Paris, 1843), 8
texts; G. Waitz, Das alte Recht der salischen Franken (1846), text of
the first version; J. F. Behrend, Lex Salica (1873; 2nd ed., Weimar,
1897); J. H. Hessels, Lex Salica: the Ten Texts with the Glosses, and
the Lex Emendata, with notes on the Prankish words in the Lex
Salica by H. Kern (1880), the various texts shown in synoptic tables ;
A. Holder, Lex Salica (1879 seq.), reproductions of all the MSS. with
all the abbreviations; H. Geffcken, Lex Salica (Leipzig, 1898), the
text in 65 chapters, with commentary paragraph by paragraph, and
appendix of additamenta; and the edition undertaken by Mario
Krammer for the Man. Germ. hist. For further information see the
dissertations prefixed to the editions of Pardessus, Waitz and Hessels ;
Jungbohn Clement, Forschungen tiber das Recht der salischen Franken
(Berlin, 1876); R. Sohm, Der Process der Lex Salica (Weimar,
1867; French trans, by M. Th6venin) and Die frankische Reichs-
und Gerichtsverfassung (Weimar, 1876); J. J. Thonissen, L'Organisa-
tion judiciaire, le droit penal el la procedure de la loi salique (2nd ed.,
Brussels and Paris, 1882); P. E. Fahlbeck, La Royaule el la droit
royal francs (Lund, 1883); Mario Krammer, " Kntische Untersu-
chungen zur Lex Salica " in the Neues Archiv, xxx. 263 seq.; H.
Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906), i. 427 seq.
The Lex Ripuaria was the law of the Ripuarian Franks, who
dwelt between the Meuse and the Rhine, and whose centre
was Cologne. We have no ancient MSS. of the law of the
Ripuarians; the 35 MSS. we possess, as well as those now lost
which served as the basis of the old editions, do not go back
beyond the time of Charlemagne (end of 8th century and gth
century). In all these MSS. the text is identical, but it is a
revised text in other words, we have only a lex emendata.
On analysis, the law of the Ripuarians, which contains 89
chapters, falls into three heterogeneous divisions. Chapters i.-
xxxi. consist of a scale of compositions; but, although the fines
are calculated, not on the unit of 15 solidi, as in the Salic Law,
but on that of 18 solidi, it is clear that this part is, already
influenced by the Salic Law. Chapters xxxii.-lxiv. are taken
directly from the Salic Law; the provisions follow the same
arrangement; the unit of the compositions is 15 solidi; but
capitularies are interpolated relating to the affranchisement
and sale of immovable property. Chapters Ixv.-lxxxix. consist
of provisions of various kinds, some taken from lost capitularies
and from the Salic Law, and others of unknown origin. The
compilation apparently goes back to the reign of Dagobert I.
(629-630), to a time when the power of the mayors of the palace
was still feeble, since we read of a mayor being threatened with
the death penalty for taking bribes in the course of his judicial
duties. It is probable, however, that the first two parts are
older than the third. Already in the Ripuarian Law the diverg-
ences from the old Germanic law are greater than in the Salic
Law. In the Ripuarian Law a certain importance attaches
to written deeds; the clergy are protected by a higher wergild
600 solidi for a priest, and 900 for a bishop; on the other hand,
more space is given to the cojuralores (sworn witnesses); and
we note the appearance of the judicial duel, which is not men-
tioned in the Salic Law.
There is an edition of the text of the Ripuarian Law in Man. Ger.
hist. Leges (1883), v. 185 seq. by R. Sohm, who also brought out a
separate edition in 1885 for the use of schools. For further informa-
tion see the prefaces to Sohm's editions; Ernst Mayer, Zur
Entstehung der Lex Ribuariorum (Munich, 1886); Julius Ficker,
" Die Heimat der Lex Ribuaria " in the Mitteilunge.n fur osterrei-
chische Geschichtsforschung (supplt., vol. v.); H. Brunner, Deutsche
Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906), i., 442.
Lastly, we possess a judicial text in 48 paragraphs, which
bears the title of Notitia vel commemoratio de ilia ewa (law),
quae se ad Amor em habet. This was in use in the district along
the Yssel formerly called Hamalant. The name Hamalant
is unquestionably derived from the Prankish tribe of the Chamavi,
and the document is often called Lex Francorum Chamavorum.
This text, however, is not a law, but rather an abstract of the
special usages obtaining in those regions what the Germans call
a Weistum. It was compiled by the itinerant Prankish officials
known as the missi Dominici, and the text undoubtedly goes back
to the time of Charlemagne, perhaps to the years 802 and 803,
when the activity of the missi was at its height. In certain
chapters it is possible to discern the questions of the missi and
the answers of the inhabitants.
Theie is an edition of this text by R. Sohm in Man. Germ. hist.
Leges, v. 269, and another appended to the same writer's school
edition of the Lex Ribuaria. For further information see E. T. Gauprj,
Lex Francorum Chamavorum (Breblau, 1855; French trans, in vol. i.
of the Revue historique de droit }ran$ais et etranger); Fustel de
Coulanges, Nouvelles Recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire
(Paris, 1891), pp. 399-414; H. Froidevaux, Recherches sur la lex
dicta Francorum Chamavorum (Paris, 1891). (C. PF.)
SALICYLIC ACID (ortho-hydroxybenzoic acid), an aromatic
acid, C 6 IL.(OH)(CO 2 H), found in the free state in the buds of
Spiraea Ulmaria and, as its methyl ester, in gaultheria oil and
in the essential oil of Andromeda Leschenaullii. It was discovered
in 1838 by Piria as a decomposition product of salicin. It may
be obtained by the oxidation of saligenin and of salicylic aldehyde;
by the distillation of copper benzoate; by the decomposition
of anthranilic acid with nitrous acid; by fusion of ortho-chlor
or ortho-brom benzoic acid with potash; by heating ortho-
cyanphenol with alcoholic potash; by heating a mixture of
phenol, carbon tetrachloride and alcoholic potash to 100 C.
(F. Tiemann and K Reimer, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 1285); and by
the action of sodium on a mixture of phenol and chlorcarbonic
ester (T. Wilm and G. Wischin, Zeit.f. Chemie, 1868, 6).
It is manufactured by Kolbe's process or by some modification of
the same. Sodium phenolate is heated in a stream of carbon
dioxide in an iron retort at a temperature of 180-220 C., when half
the phenol distils over and a basic sodium salicylate is left. The
sodium salt is dissolved in water and the free acid precipitated by
hydrochloric acid (H. Kolbe, Ann., 1860, 115, p. 201). R. Schmitt
(Jour. prak. Chem., 1885 (2), 31, p. 407) modified the process by
saturating sodium phenolate at 130 C. with carbon dioxide, in an
autoclave, sodium phenyl carbonate CjH&OCOzNa being thus
formed; by continuing the heating under pressure this carbonate
gradually changes into mono-sodium salicylate. S. Manasse (German
patent 73,279) prepared an intimate mixture of phenol and potassium
carbonate, which is then heated in a closed vessel with carbon
dioxide, best at 130-160 C. The Chemische Fabrik vorm. Hofmann
and Schotensack decompose a mixture of phenol (3 molecules) and
sodium carbonate (4 mols.) with carbonyl chloride at 140-200 C.
When 90 % of the phenol has distilled over, the residue is dissolved
and hydrochloric acid added, any phenol remaining is blown over in
a current of steam, and the salicylic acid finally precipitated by
hydrochloric acid. The acid may also be obtained by passing carbon
monoxide over a mixture of sodium phenolate and sodium carbonate
at200C.:Na 2 CO 3 + C 6 H 2 ONa+CO = C 7 H 4 O 2 Na 2 + HCO 2 Na;and
by heating sodium phenolate with ethyl phenyl carbonate to 200 C. :
C6H 6 O-CO 2 C 2 H+C6H 6 ONa = HO-CeH4COjNa-|-CeH 6 -C 2 H5. It isto
be noted in the Kolbe method of synthesis that potassium pheno-
late may be used in place of the sodium salt, provided that the
temperature be kept low (about 1 50 C) , for at the higher temperature
(220 C.) the isomeric para-oxybenzoic acid is produced.
Salicylic acid crystallizes in small colourless needles which
melt at 155 C. It is sparingly soluble in cold water, but readily
dissolves in hot. It sublimes, but on rapid heating decomposes
into carbon dioxide and phenol. It is volatile in steam. Ferric
chloride colours its aqueous solution violet. Potassium bichro-
mate and sulphuric acid oxidize it to carbon dioxide and water;
and potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid to chloranil.
On boiling with concentrated nitric acid it yields picric acid.
When heated with nesorcin to 200 C. it gives trioxybenzophenone.
Bromine water in dilute aqueous solution gives a white pre-
cipitate of tribromophenol-bromide CeH 2 Br 3 -OBr. Sodium
reduces salicylic acid in boiling amyl alcohol solution to
w-pimelic acid (A. Einhorn and R. Willstatter, Ber., 1893, 26, pp.
2, 913; 1894, 27 p. 331). Potassium persulphate oxidizes it
in alkaline solution, the product on boiling with acids giving
7
SALIERI SALII
hydroquinone carboxylic acid (German Patent 81,297). When
boiled with calcium chloride and ammonia, salicylic acid gives a
precipitate of insoluble basic calcium salicylate, CeKU <^ Q 2 ^> Ca,
a reaction which serves to distinguish it from the isomeric meta-
and para-hydroxybenzoic acids. It yields both esters and
ethers since it is an acid and also a phenol.
Methyl Salicylate, CH 4 (OH)-COjCH,, found in oil of wintergreen,
in the oil of Viola tricolor and in the root of varieties of Polygala, is
a pleasant-smelling liquid which boils at 222 C. On passing dry
ammonia into the boiling ester, it gives salicylamide and dimethylam-
ine. When boiled with aniline it gives methylaniline and phenol.
Ethyl salicylate, C,H4(OH)-CO 2 CtH s , is obtained by boiling salicylic
acid with alcohol and a little sulphuric acid, or by dropping an alco-
holic solution of salicylic acid into 0-naphthalene sulphonic acid at a
temperature of 140-150 C. (German Patent 76,574). It is a pleasant-
smelling liquid which boils at 233 C. It is practically unchanged
when boiled with aniline. Phenyl salicylate, CH4(OH)-C-OjC 5 H 5>
or salol, is obtained by heating salicylic acid, phenol and phosphorus
oxychloride to 120-125 C. ; by heating salicylic acid to 220 C.; or
by heating salicyl metaphosphoric acid and phenol to 140-150 C.
(German Patent 85,565). It crystallizes in rhombic plates which
melt at 42 C. and boil at 172 C. (12 mm.). Its sodium salt is
transformed into the isomeric CH(OC 6 H S ) CO 2 Na when heated to
300. When heated in air for many hours it decomposes, yielding
carbon dioxide, phenol and xanthone. Acetyl-salicylic acid (salacetic
acid), CeH 4 (O-COCH,)-COsH, is obtained by the action of acetyl
chloride on the acid or its sodium salt (K. Kraut, Ann., 1869, 150,
p. 9). It crystallizes in needles and melts at 132 C. (with decom-
position). Hydrolysis with baryta water gives acetic and salicylic
acids. It is used in medicine under the names aspirin, acetysal,
aletodin, saletin, xaxa, &c. It has the same action as salicylic acid
and salicylates, but is said to be much freer from objectionable
secondary effects. Salicylo-salicylic acid O- (C,H 4 COjH)j is obtained
by continued heating of salicylic acid and acetyl chloride to 130-
140 C. It is an amorphous yellow mass which is easily soluble in
alcohol.
Applications. The addition of a little of the acid to glue
renders it more tenacious; skins to be used for making leather
do not undergo decomposition if steeped in a dilute solution;
butter containing a small quantity of it may be kept sweet for
months even in the hottest weather. It also prevents the
mouldiness of preserved fruits and has been found useful in the
manufacture of vinegar. The use of salicylic acid as a food
preservative, was, however, condemned in the findings of the
commission appointed by the government of the United States
of America, in 1904.
Medicine. The pharmacopeial dose of the acid is 5-20 grains,
but it is so unrelated to experience and practice that it may be
ignored. The British Pharmacopeia contains only one prepara-
tion, an ointment containing one part of acid to 49 of white
paraffin ointment. Salicylic acid is now never given internally,
being replaced by its sodium salt, which is much cheaper, more
soluble and less irritating to mucous membranes. The salt
has a sweet, mawkish taste.
Salicylic acid and salicin (j[.r.) share the properties common to the
group of aromatic acids, which, as a group, are antiseptic without
being toxic to man a property practically unique ; are unstable in
the Body; are antipyetic and analgesic; and diminish the excretion
of urea by the kidneys. As an antiseptic salicylic acid is somewhat
less powerful than carbolic acid, but its insolubility renders it un-
suitable for general use. It is much more powerful than carbolic
acid in its inhibitory action upon unorganized ferments such as
pepsin or ptyalin. Salicyclic acid is not absorbed by the skin, but
it rapidly kills the cells of the epidermis, without affecting the im-
mediately subjacent cells of the dermis (" true skin "). It has a very
useful local anhidrotic action. Salicylic acid is a powerful irritant
when inhaled or swallowed in a concentrated form, and even when
much diluted it causes pain, nausea and vomiting. When salicin ia
taken internally no irritant action occurs, nor is there any antisepsis.
Whatever drug of this group be taken, the product absorbed by the
blood is almost entirely sodium salicylate. When the salt is taken
by the mouth, absorption is extremely rapid, the salt being present
in the peripheral blood within ten minutes.
Sodium salicylate circulates in the blood unchanged, decom-
position occurring in the kidney, and probably in tissues suffering
from the Diplococcus rheumaticus of Poynton and Paine. It used to
be stated that these drugs are marked cardiac depressants; and the
heart being invariably implicated in rheumatic fever, it is supposed
that these drugs must be given with great caution. It has now been
established that, provided the kidneys be healthy, natural salicylic
acid, sodium salicylate prepared from the natural acid, and salicin,
are not cardiac depressants. Of the two latter, 300 grains may be
given in a dose and ij oz. in twenty-four hours, without any toxic
symptoms. The artificial acid and its salt contain ortho-, para- and
meta-cresotic acids, which are cardiac depressants. The vegetable
product which is extremely expensive must be prescribed or
the synthetic product guaranteed ' physiologically pure," i.e. tested
upon animals and found to have no toxic properties. Salicylates
are the next safest to quinine of all antipyretics, whilst being much
more powerful in all febrile states except malaria. Sodium sali-
cylate escapes from the blood mainly by the kidneys, in the secretion
of which sodium salicylate and salicyluric acid can be detected
within fifteen minutes of its administration. After large doses
haematuria has been observed in a few cases. The rapid excretion
by the kidneys is one of the cardinal conditions of safety, and also
necessitates the very frequent administration of the drug.
Therapeutics. Salicylic acid is used externally for the removal
of corns and similar epidermic thickenings. It causes some pain, so
that a sedative should be added. A common formula has II parts
of the acid, 3 of extract of Indian hemp, and 86 of collodion. There
is probably no better remedy for corns. Perspiration of the feet
cannot be attacked locally with more success than by a powder
consisting of salicylic acid, starch and chalk.
These drugs are specific for acute rheumatism (rheumatic fever).
The drug is not a true specific, as quinine is for malaria , since it
rarely, if ever, prevents the cardiac damage usually done by rheu-
matic fever; but it entirely removes the agonizing pain, shortly
after its administration, and, an hour or two later, brings down the
temperature to normal. In thirty-six hours no symptoms are left.
If the drug be now discontinued, they will return in over ox>% of
cases. In acute gonorrhoeal arthritis, simulating rheumatic fever,
salicylates are useless. They may thus afford a means of diagnosis.
In rheumatic hyperpyrexia, where the poison has attacked the central
nervous system, salicylates almost always fail. The mode of their
administration in rheumatic fever is of the utmost importance. At
first 20 grains of sodium salicylate should be given every hour: the
interval being doubled as soon as the pain disappears, and extended
to three hours when the temperature becomes normal. The patient
should continue to take about 100 grains a day for at least a fortnight
after he is apparently convalescent, otherwise a recrudescence is
very probable.
Salicylate of soda may occasionally be of use in cases of gallstone,
owing to its action on the bile. It often relieves neuralgia, especially
when combined with caffeine and quinine.
Salicylism, or salicylic poisoning, occurs in a good many cases of
the use of these drugs. Provided the kidneys be healthy, the
symptoms may be ignored. If nephritis be present, it may be
seriously aggravated, and the drug must therefore be withheld.
The headache, deafness, ringing in the ears and even delirium of
salicylism, are practically identical with the symptoms of cinchonism.
The drug must be at once withheld if haemorrhages (subcutaneous,
retinal, &c.) are observed. As in the case of quinine, the administra-
tion of small doses of hydrobromic acid often relieve the milder
symptoms.
SALIERI, ANTONIO (1750-1823), Italian composer, was born
at Legnano, on the igth of August 1750. His father was a mer-
chant who died a bankrupt. Through the family of Mocenigo
he obtained free admission to the choir school of St Mark's,
Venice. In 1766 he was taken to Vienna by F. L. Gassmann,
who introduced him to the emperor Joseph. His first
opera, Le Donne letter ate, was produced at the Burg-Theater
in 1770. Others followed in rapid succession, and his Armida
(1771) was a triumphant success.
On Gassmann's death in 1774, he became Kapellmeister and, on
the death of Bonno in 1788, H of kapellmeister. He held his offices for
fifty years, though he made frequent visits to Italy and Paris, and
composed music for many European theatres. His chefd'osuvre
was Tarare (afterwards called Axur, re d'Ormus), a work which was
preferred by the public of Vienna to Mozart's Don Giovanni. It was
first produced at Vienna on the 8th of June 1787, and was revived
at Leipzig in 1846, though only for a single representation. His last
opera was Die Neger, produced in 1804. After this he devoted
himself to the composition of church music, for which he had a very
decided talent. Salieri lived on friendly terms with Haydn, but
was a bitter enemy to Mozart, whose death he was suspected of
having produced by poison; but no evidence was ever forthcoming
to give colour to the accusation. He retired from office on his full
salary in 1824, and died at Vienna on the 7th of May 1825. Salieri
gave lessons in composition to Cherubim and to Beethoven, who
dedicated to him his " Three Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin,"
See also Albert von Hermann, Antonio Salieri, eine Studie (1897);
J. F. Edler von Mosel, Ober das Leben und die Werke des Antonio
Salieri (Vienna, 1827).
SALII, the " dancers," an old Italian priesthood, said to have
been instituted by Numa for the service of Mars, although later
tradition derived them from Greece. They were originally
twelve in number, called Salii Palatini to distinguish them from
SALIMBENE SALISBURY, EARLS OF
a second college of twelve, Salii Agonales or Collini, said to have
been added by Tullus Hostilius; the Palatini were consecrated
to Mars, the Collini to Quirinus. All the members were patricians,
vacancies being filled by co-optation from young men whose
parents were both living; membership was for life, subject to
certain exceptions. The officials of the college were the
magister, the praesul, and the vates (the leaders in dance and
song).
Each college had the care of twelve sacred shields called ancilia.
According to the story, during the reign of Numa a small oval shield
fell from heaven, and Numa, in order to prevent its being stolen,
had eleven others made exactly like it. They were the work of a
smith named Mamurius Veturius, probably identical with the god
Mamers (Mars) himself. These twelve shields (amongst which was
the original one) were in charge of the Salii Palatini. The greater
part of March (the birth-month of Mars), beginning from the 1st,
on which day the ancile was said to have fallen from heaven and the
campaigning season began, was devoted to various ceremonies con-
nected with the Salii. On the 1st, they marched in procession
through the city, dressed in an embroidered tunic, a brazen breast-
plate and a peaked cap ; each carried a sword by his side and a short
staff in his right hand, with which the shield, borne on the left arm,
was struck from time to time. A halt was made at the altars and
temples, where the Salii, singing a special chant, danced a war dance.
Every day the procession stopped at certain stations (mansiones),
where the shields were deposited for the night, and the Salii partook
of a banquet (see Horace, Odes, i. 37. 2). On the next day the pro-
cession passed on to another mansio; this continued till the 24th,
when the shields were replaced in their sacrarium. During this
period the Salii took part in certain other festivities: the Equirria
(Ecurria) on the I4th, a chariot race in honour of Mars on the Campus
Martius (in later times called Mamuralia, in honour of Mamurius),
at which a skin was beaten with staves in imitation of hammering;
the Quinquatrus on the igth, a one-day festival, at which the shields
were cleansed; the Tubilustrium on the 23rd, when the trumpets
of the priests were purified. On the igth of October, at the Armi-
lustrium or purification of arms, the ancilia were again brought out
and then put away for the winter. The old chant of the Salii, called
axamenta, was written in the old Saturnian metre, in language so
archaic that even the priests themselves could hardly understand it.
See Quintilian, Instil, i. 6. 40; also J. Wordsworth, Fragments
and Specimens of Early Latin (1874). The best account of the Salii
generally will be found in Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltimg, iii.
(1885) pp. 427-438-
SALIMBENE, or more usually SALIMBENE OF PARMA (1221-
c. 1290), the name taken by the Italian writer, Ognibene di
Guido di Adamo. The son of a crusader, Gui di Adamo, and
born at Parma on the pth of October 1221, Ognibene entered
the order of the Minorites in 1238, and was known as brother
Salimbene. He passed some years in Pisa and other Italian
towns; then in 1247 he was sent to Lyons, and from Lyons
he went to Paris, returning through France to Genoa, where
he became a priest in 1249. From 1249 to 1256 he resided at
Ferrara, engaged in writing and in copying manuscripts, but
later he found time to move from place to place. His concluding
years were mainly spent in monastic retirement in Italy, and
he died soon after 1 288.
Salimbene was acquainted with many of the important personages
of his day, including the emperor Frederick II., the French king St
Louis and Pope Innocent IV. ; and his Chronicon, written after 1 281,
is a work of unusual value. This covers the period 1167-1287.
Salimbene is a very discursive and a very personal writer, but he
gives a remarkably vivid picture of life in France and Italy during
the I3th century. The manuscript of the chronicle was found
during the i8th century, and passed into the Vatican library, where
it now remains. The part of the Chronicon dealing with the period
between 1212 and 1287 was edited by A. Bertani and published at
Parma in 1857. This edition, however, is very defective, but an
excellent and more complete one has been edited by O. Holder-
Egger, and is printed in Band xxxii. of the Monumenta Germaniae
kistorica. Scriptores (Hanover, 1905).
See U. Balzani, Le Croniche italiane net media evo (Milan, 1884) ;
L. Clexlat, De fratre Salimbene et de ejus chronicae aucloritate (Paris,
1878); E. Michael, Salimbene und seine Chronik (Innsbruck, 1889);
A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (1903);
D. W. Duthie, The Case of Sir John Fastolf and other Historical
Studies (1907); G. G. Coulton, From St Francis to Dante (1906).
SALINA, a city and the county-seat of Saline county, Kansas,
U.S.A., on the Smoky Hill river, near the mouth of the Saline
river, about 100 m. W. of Topeka. Pop. (1905) 7829; (1910)
9688. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Missouri Pacific and the
Union Pacific railways. Salina has a Carnegie library, and is
the seat of Kansas Wesleyan University (Methodist Episcopal;
chartered in 1885, opened in 1886) and of St John's Military
School (Protestant Episcopal) . The city is the see of a Protestant
Episcopal bishop. Salina is the central market of a fertile farming
region. Power is furnished by the river, and among the manu-
factures are flour, agricultural implements, foundry products
and carriages. The first settlement on the site of Salina was
made in 1857. Its first railway, the Union Pacific, came through
in 1867. Salina was first chartered as a city in 1870.
SALINA CRUZ, a seaport of Mexico, in the state of Oaxaca,
at the southern terminus of the Tehuantepec National Railway.
It is situated near the mouth of the Tehuantepec river, on the
open coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and has no natural
harbour. There was only a small Indian village here before
Salina Cruz was chosen as the Pacific terminus of the railway.
Since then a modern town has been laid out and built on adjacent
higher ground. The new port was opened to traffic in 1907
and in 1909 its population was largely composed of labourers.
A costly artificial harbour has been built by the Mexican govern-
ment to accommodate the traffic of the Tehuantepec railway.
It is formed by the construction of two breakwaters, the western
3260 ft. and the eastern 1900 ft. long, which curve toward each
other at their outer extremities and leave an entrance 635 ft.
wide. The enclosed space is divided into an outer and inner
harbour by a double line of quays wide enough to carry six
great warehouses with electric cranes on both sides and a number
of railway tracks. Connected with the new port works is one
of the largest dry docks in the world 610 ft. long and 89 ft.
wide, with a depth of 28 ft. on its sill at low water. The works
were planned to handle an immense volume of transcontinental
freight, and before they were finished four steamship lines had
arranged regular calls at Salina Cruz; this number has since
been largely increased.
SALINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of Jura,
on a branch line of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4293.
Salins is situated in the narrow valley of the Furieuse, between
two fortified hills, while to the north rises Mont Poupet (2798 ft.).
The town possesses an interesting Romanesque church (which
has been well restored) and an hotel de ville of the i8th century.
A Jesuit chapel of the I7th century contains a library (established
in 1 593) and a museum. Salins owes its name to its saline waters,
used for bathing and drinking. There are also salt workings and
gypsum deposits.
The territory of Salins, which was enfeoffed in the loth century
by the abbey of Saint Maurice in Valais to the counts of M&con,
remained in possession of their descendants till 1175. Maurette de
Salins, heiress of this dynasty, left the lordship to the house of
Vienne, and her granddaughter sold it in 1225 to Hugh IV., duke of
Burgundy.who ceded it in 1237 to John of Chalon (d.1267) in exchange
for the countship of Chalon-sur-Sa&ne. John's descendants counts
and dukes of Burgundy, emperors and kings of the house of Austria
bore the title of sire de Salins. In 1477 Salins was taken by the
French and temporarily made the seat of the parlement of Franche-
Comte' by Louis XI. In 1668 and 1674 it was retaken by the French
and thenceforward remained in their power. In 1825 the town was
almost destroyed by fire. In 1871 it successfully resisted the German
troops.
SALISBURY, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Salisbury was
first created about 1149, when it was conferred on Patrick de
Salisbury (sometimes from an early date called in error Patrick
Devereux), a descendant of Edward de Salisbury, mentioned in
Domesday as vicecomes of Wiltshire. His granddaughter Isabella
became countess of Salisbury suojure on the death of her father,
William the 2nd earl, without male heirs, in 1196, and the title
was assumed by her husband, William de Longespee (d. 1226),
illegitimate son of King Henry II. possibly by Rosamond Clifford
(" The fair Rosamond "). Isabella survived her husband, and
outlived both her son and grandson, both called Sir William de
Longespee, and on her death in 1261 her great-granddaughter
Margaret (d. 1310), wife of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln,
probably became suojure countess of Salisbury; she transmitted
the title to her daughter Alice, who married Thomas Plantagenet,
earl of Lancaster. Lancaster having been attainted and
beheaded in 1322, the countess made a surrender of her lands
SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF
and titles to Edward II., the earldom thus lapsing to the
crown.
The earldom of Salisbury was granted in 1337 by Edward III.
to William de Montacute, Lord Montacute (1301-1344), in whose
family it remained till 1400, when John, 3rd earl of this line,
was attainted and his titles forfeited. His son Thomas (1388-
1428) was restored in blood in 1421; and Thomas's daughter
and heiress, Alice, married Sir Richard Neville (1400-1460),
a younger son of Ralph Neville, ist earl of Westmorland and a
grandson of John of Gaunt, who sat in parliament in right of his
wife as earl of Salisbury; he was succeeded by his son Richard,
on whose death without male issue in 1471 the earldom fell into
abeyance. George Plantagenet, duke of Clarence, brother of
Edward IV., who married Richard's daughter and co-heiress,
Isabel, became by a separate creation earl of Salisbury in I47>,
but by his attainder in 1478 this title was forfeited, and immedi-
ately afterwards was granted to Edward Plantagenet, eldest
son of Richard duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., on
whose death in 1484 it became extinct.
Richard III.'s queen, Anne, was a sister of the above-mentioned
Isabel, duchess of Clarence, and co-heiress with her of Richard
Neville, earl of Salisbury. On the death of Queen Anne in
1485 the abeyance of the older creation terminated, Edward
Plantagenet, eldest son of George duke of Clarence by Isabel
Neville, becoming earl of Salisbury as successor to his mother's
right. He was attainted in 1504, five years after his execution,
but the earldom then forfeited was restored to his sister Margaret
(1474-1541), widow of Sir Richard Pole, in 1513. This lady
was also attainted, with forfeiture of her titles, in 1539.
Sir Robert Cecil, second son of the ist Lord Burghley (q.v.),
was created earl of Salisbury (1605), having no connexion in blood
with the former holders of the title. (See SALISBURY, ROBERT
CECIL, IST EARL OF.) In his family the earldom has remained
till the present day, the 7th earl of the line having been created
marquess of Salisbury in 1 789.
See G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (1896).
SALISBURY, ROBERT ARTHUR TALBOT GASCOYNE-
CECIL, 3RD MARQUESS OF (1830-1903), British statesman,
second son of James, 2nd marquess, by his first wife, Frances
Mary Gascoyne, was born at Hatfield on the 3rd of February
1830, and was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
where he took his degree in 1850. At Oxford he was an active
member of the Union Debating Society. The first few years
after leaving the university were spent by Lord Robert Cecil
(as he then was) in travel, as far afield as New Zealand; but
in 1853 he was returned unopposed to the House of Commons
as Conservative member for Stamford, being elected in the same
year a fellow of All Souls. He made his maiden speech in
Parliament on the 7th of April 1854, in opposition to Lord John
Russell's Oxford University Bill. The speech- was marked
by scepticism as to the utility of reforms, and Lord Robert
prophesied that if the wishes of founders were disregarded,
nobody would in future care to found anything. In 1857 he
Burly appeared as the author of his first Bill for establishing
year* la the voting-paper system at parliamentary elections;
and in the same year he married Georgina Caroline,
daughter of Sir Edward Holt Alderson, a baron of the
Court of Exchequer, a large share of whose great intellectual
abilities she inherited. Lord Robert Cecil continued to be
active not only in politics, but, for several years, in journalism,
the income he earned by his pen being then a matter of pecuniary
importance to him. One of his contemporaries at Oxford had
been Thomas Hamber of Oriel, who became editor of the Standard,
and during these years Cecil was an occasional contributor of
" leaders " to that paper. He also contributed to the Saturday
Review, founded in 1855 by his brother-in-law Beresford Hope,
and edited by his friend Douglas Cook; not infrequently he
wrote for the Quarterly (where, in 1867, he was to publish his
famous article on " the Conservative Surrender ") ; and in
1858 he contributed to Oxford Essays a paper on " The Theories of
Parliamentary Reform, "giving expression to the more intellectual
and aristocratic antagonism to doctrinaire Liberal views on the
Parlia-
ment,
subject, while admitting the existence of many anomalies in the
existing electoral system. In February of the next year, when
Disraeli introduced his Reform Bill with its " fancy franchises,"
the member for Stamford was prominent among its critics from
the Tory point of view. During the seven years that followed
Lord Robert was always ready to defend the Church, or the
higher interests of Conservatism and property; and his speeches
then, not less than later, showed a caustic quality and a tendency
to what became known as " blazing indiscretions." For example,
when the repeal of the paper duty was being discussed in 1861,
he asked whether it " could be maintained that a person of any
education could learn anything worth knowing from a penny
paper " a question the answer to which has been given by the
powerful, highly organized, and admirable Conservative penny
press of a subsequent day. A little later he declared the proceed-
ings of the Government " more worthy of an attorney than
of a statesman "; and on being rebuked, apologized to the
attorneys. He also charged Lord John Russell with adopting
" a sort of tariff of insolence " in his dealings with foreign Powers,
strong and weak.
It was not, however, till the death of Palmerston and the
removal of Lord John Russell to the House of Lords had brought
Gladstone to the front that Lord Robert Cecil who
became Lord Cranborne by the death of his elder
brother on the I4th of June 1 865 began to be accepted the
as a politician of the first rank. His emergence Franchise
coincided with the opening of the new area in British
politics, ushered in by the practical steps taken to
extend the parliamentary franchise. On the I2th of
March 1866 Gladstone brought forward his measure to establish
a 7 franchise in boroughs and a 14 franchise in counties, which
were calculated to add 400,000 voters to the existing lists. Lord
Cranborne met the Bill with a persistent opposition, his rigorous
logic and merciless hostility to clap-trap tending strongly to
reinforce the impassioned eloquence of Robert Lowe. But
though he attacked the Government Bill both in principle and
detail, he did not absolutely commit himself to a position of
hostility to Reform of every kind; and on the defeat of Glad-
stone's Ministry no surprise was expressed at his joining the
Cabinet of Lord Derby as secretary of state for India, even when
it became known that a settlement of the Reform question was
part of the Tory programme. The early months of the new
Government's tenure were marked by the incident of the Hyde
Park riots; and if there had been members of the Cabinet and
party who believed up to that time that the Reform question
was not urgent the action of the Reform League and the London
populace forced them to a different conclusion. On the nth of
February Disraeli informed the House of Commons that the
Government intended to ask its assent to a series of thirteen
resolutions; but when, on the 26th of February, the Liberal
leaders demanded that the Government should produce a Bill,
Disraeli at once consented to do so. The introduction of a Bill
was, however, delayed by the resignation of Lord Cranborne,
General Peel and Lord Carnarvon. The Cabinet had been
considering two alternative measures, widely different in kind
and extent, and the final decision between the two was taken in
ten minutes (whence the nickname of the " Ten Minutes Bill ")
at an informal gathering of the Cabinet held just before Derby
was engaged to address a general meeting of the party. At a
Cabinet council held on the 23rd of February measure A had
been agreed upon, the three doubtful ministers having been
persuaded that the checks and safeguards provided were sufficient;
in the interval between Saturday and Monday they had come
to the conclusion that the checks were inadequate; on Monday
morning they had gone to Lord Derby and told him so; at two
o'clock the rest of the Cabinet, hastily 'summoned, had been
informed of the new situation, and had there and then, before
the meeting at half-past two, agreed, in order to retain their
three colleagues, to throw over measure A, and to present
measure B to the country as the fruit of their matured and
unanimous wisdom. Derby at the meeting, and Disraeli a few
hours later in the House of Commons, explained their new
SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF
73
measure a measure based upon a 6 franchise; but their
own side did not like it, the Opposition were furious, and
the moral sense of the country was revolted by the undisguised
adoption of almost the very Bill which the Conservatives had
refused to accept from their opponents only a year before. The
result was that the Government reverted to measure A, and
the three ministers again handed in their resignations. In the
. debate on the third reading of the Bill, when its passage through
the House of Commons without a division was assured, Lord
Cranborne showed with caustic rhetoric how the " precautions,
guarantees, and securities " with which the Bill had bristled on
its second reading had been dropped one after another at the
bidding of Gladstone.
In countries where politics are conducted on any other than the
give-and-take principles in vogue in England, such a breach as
that which occurred in 1867 between Lord Cranborne
* , and his former colleagues, especially Disraeli, would
have been beyond repair. But Cranborne, though an
aristocrat both by birth and by conviction, was not
impracticable; moreover, Disraeli, who had himself risen to
eminence through invective, admired rather than resented that
gift in others; and their common opposition to Gladstone was
certain to reunite the two colleagues. In the session of 1868
Gladstone announced that he meant to take up the Irish question,
and to deal especially with the celebrated " Upas tree," of which
the first branch was the Established Church. By way of giving
lull notice to the electorate, he brought in a series of resolutions
on this question; and though the attitude adopted by the
official Conservatives towards them was not one of serious
antagonism, Lord Cranborne vigorously attacked them. This
was his last speech in the House of Commons, for on the i zth of
April his father died, and he became 3rd marquess of Salisbury.
In the House of Lords the new Lord Salisbury's style of eloquence
terse, incisive and wholly free from false ornament found an
even more appreciative audience than it had met with in the
House of Commons. The questions with which he was first
called upon to deal were questions in which his interest was keen
the recommendations of the Ritual Commission and, some time
kter, the Irish Church Suspensory Bill. Lord Salisbury's argu-
ment was that the last session of an expiring parliament was
not the time in which so grave a matter as the Irish Church
Establishment should be judged or prejudged; that a Suspensory
Bill involved the question of disestablishment; and that such
a principle could not be accepted by the Lords until the country
had pronounced decisively in its favour. Even then there were
those who raised the cry that the only business of the House of
Lords was to register the decisions of the Commons, and that if
they refused to do so it was at their peril. Lord Salisbury met
this cry boldly and firmly:
" When the opinion of your countrymen has declared itself, and you
sec that their convictions their firm, deliberate, sustained convic-
tions are in favour of any course, I do not for a moment deny that
it is your duty to yield."
In the very next session Lord Salisbury was called upon to put
his view into practice, and his influence went far to persuade the
peers to pass the Irish Church Disestablishment Bill. In his
opinion the general election of the autumn of 1868 had been
fought on this question; his friends had lost, and there was
nothing for them to do but to bow to the necessities of the situa-
tion. The story of his conduct in the matter has been told in
some fulness in the Life of Archbishop Tail, with whom Salisbury
acted, and who throughout those critical weeks played a most
important part as mediator between the two extreme parties
those of Lord Cairns (representing Ulster) and Gladstone.
October 1869 saw the death of the old Lord Derby, who was still
the titular leader of his party; and he was succeeded as leader
of the House of Lords by Cairns. For the dignified post of
chancellor of the university of Oxford Convocation unanimously
chose as Derby's successor the marquess of Salisbury. Derby
had translated the Iliad very well, but his successor was far more
able to sympathize with the academic mind and temper. He
was at heart a student, and found his best satisfaction in scientific
research and in scientific speculation; while still a young man
he had made useful contributions to the investigation of the flora
of Hertfordshire, and at Hatfield he had his own laboratory,
where he was able to satisfy his interest in chemical and electrical
research. As regards his connexion with Oxford may be men-
tioned in particular his appointment, in 1877, of a second
University Commission, and his appearance, in September 1894,
in the Sheldonian Theatre as president of the British Association.
It is not necessary to dwell at any length upon the part taken
by Lord Salisbury between 1869 and 1873 in respect of the other
great political measures of Gladstone's Government
the Irish Land Act, the Act Abolishing Purchase in
the Army, Forster's Education Act, &c. Nor does of 1874.
his attitude towards the Franco-German War of 1870-
71 call for any remark; a British leader of Opposition is bound,
even more than a minister, to preserve a discreet silence on such
occasions. But early in 1874 came the dissolution, suddenly
announced in Gladstone's famous Greenwich letter, with the
promise of the abolition of the income-tax. For the first time
since 1841 the Conservatives found themselves in office with a
large majority in the House of Commons. In Disraeli's new
Cabinet in 1874 Salisbury accepted his old position at the India
Office. The first task with which the new secretary of state had
to deal was one of those periodical famines which are the great
scourge of India; he supported the action of Lord Northbrook,
the viceroy, and refused to interfere with private trade by
prohibiting the export of grain. This attitude was amply
justified, and Lord Salisbury presently declared that the action
of the Government had given so much confidence to private
traders that, by their means, " grain was pouring into the dis-
tressed districts at a greater rate than that which was being
carried by the public agency, the amount reaching nearly 200x3
tons a day." The Public Worship Regulation Bill of 1874 was
the occasion of a famous passage of arms between Salisbury and
his chief. The Commons had inserted an amendment which,
on consideration by the Lords, Salisbury opposed, with the
remark that it was not for the peers to attend to the " bluster "
of the lower House merely because a small majority there had
passed the amendment. The new clause was accordingly rejected,
and the Commons eventually accepted the situation; but Disraeli,
banteringly criticizing Salisbury's use of the word " bluster,"
alluded to him as " a man who does not measure his phrases.
He is one who is a great master of gibes and flouts and jeers."
From the middle of 1876 the Government was occupied with
foreign affairs. In regard to the stages of Eastern fever through
which the nation passed between the occurrence
of the Bulgarian "atrocities" and the signature of e
the Treaty of Berlin, the part played by Salisbury qu lsttoa.
was considerable. The excesses of the Bashi-Bazouks
took place in the early summer of 1876, and were recorded in
long and highly-coloured despatches to English newspapers;
presently there followed Gladstone's pamphlet on Bulgarian
Horrors, his speech on Blackheath and his enunciation of a
" bag-and-baggage " policy towards Turkey. The autumn
went by, Servia and Montenegro declared war upon Turkey
and were in imminent danger of something like extinction.
On the 3ist of October Russia demanded an armistice, which
Turkey granted; and Great Britain immediately proposed a
conference at Constantinople, at which the powers should
endeavour to make arrangements with Turkey for a genera)
pacification of her provinces and of the inflammable communities
adjoining. At this conference Great Britain was represented
by Lord Salisbury. It met early in December, taking for its
basis the British terms, namely, the status quo ante in Servia
and Montenegro; a self-denying ordinance on the part of all
the powers; and the independence and territorial integrity of
the Ottoman empire, together with large administrative reforms
assured by guarantees. General Ignatieff , the Russian ambassador,
was effusively friendly with the British envoy; but though
the philo-Turkish party in England professed themselves
scandalized, Salisbury made no improper concessions to Russia,
and departed in no way from the agreed policy of the British
74
SALISBURY, SRD MARQUESS OF
Cabinet. On the zoth of January the conference broke up,
Turkey having declared its recommendations inadmissible;
and Europe withdrew to await the inevitable declaration of
war. Very early in the course of that war the intentions of
Great Britain were clearly indicated in a despatch of Lord Derby
to the British representative at St Petersburg, which announced
that so long as the struggle concerned Turkish interests alone
Great Britain would be neutral, but that such matters as Egypt,
the Suez Canal, the regulations affecting the passage of the
Dardanelles, and the possession of Constantinople itself would
be regarded as matters to which she could not be indifferent.
For some nine months none of these British interests appeared
to be threatened, nor had Lord Salisbury's own department
to concern itself very directly with the progress of the belligerents.
Once or twice, indeed, the Indian secretary committed himself
to statements which laid him open to a good deal of attack, as
when he rebuked an alarmist by bidding him study the Central
Asian question " in large maps. " But with the advance of
Russia through Bulgaria and across the Balkans, British anxiety
grew. In mid-December explanations were asked from the
Russian Government as to their intentions with regard to
Constantinople. On the 23rd of January the Cabinet ordered
the fleet to sail to the Dardanelles. Lord Carnarvon resigned,
and Lord Derby handed in his resignation, but withdrew it.
The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on the 3rd of March;
and three weeks later, when its full text became known, the
Succeed* Cabinet decided upon measures which finally induced
Lord Derby Lord Derby, at the end of the month, to retire from
"latter" the F^'S 11 Office, his place being immediately filled
by Lord Salisbury. The new foreign secretary at
once issued the famous " Salisbury circular" to the British
representatives abroad, which appeared in the newspapers on
the 2nd of April. This elaborate and dignified State paper was
at once a clear exposition of British policy, and practically an
invitation to Russia to reopen the negotiations for a European
congress. These negotiations, indeed, had been proceeding
for several weeks past; but Russia having declared that she
would only discuss such points as she pleased, the British
Cabinet had withdrawn, and the matter for the time was at an
end. The bulk of the document consisted of an examination
of the Treaty of San Stefano and its probable effects, Lord
Salisbury justifying such an examination on the ground that as
the position of Turkey and the other countries affected had been
settled by Europe in the Treaty of Paris in 1856, the powers
which signed t hat treaty had the right and the duty to see that
no modifications of it should be made without their consent.
The effect of the circular was great and immediate. At
home the Conservatives were encouraged, and many moderate
Liberals rallied to the Eastern policy of the Govern-
COO//YM.
ment . Abroad it seemed as if the era of divided
councils was over, and the Russian Government
promptly recognized that the circular meant either a congress
or war with Great Britain. For the latter alternative it was by
no means prepared, and very soon negotiations were reopened,
which led to the meeting of the congress at Berlin on the i3th
of June. The history of that famous gathering and of its results
is narrated under EUROPE. Lord Beaconsfield on two or three
subsequent occasions referred to the important part that his
colleague had played in the negotiations, and he was not using
merely the language of politeness. Rumours had appeared
in the London press as to a supposed Anglo-Russian agreement
that had been signed between Salisbury and the Russian
ambassador, Count Shuvaloff, and these rumours or statements
were described by the foreign secretary in the House of Lords,
just before he left for Berlin, as " wholly unauthentic." But
on the I4th of June what purported to be the full text of the
agreement was published by the Globe newspaper through a
certain Charles Marvin, at that time employed in occasional
transcribing work at the Foreign Office, and afterwards known
by some strongly anti-Russian books on the Central Asian
question. Besides the general inconvenience of the disclosure,
the agreement, which stipulated that Batum and Kars might
be annexed by Russia, made it impossible for the congress to
insist upon Russia entirely withdrawing her claim to Batum,
though at the time of the meeting of the congress it was known
to some of the negotiators that she was not unwilling to do so.
In one respect Salisbury's action at the congress was unsuccessful.
Much as he disliked Gladstone's sentimentalism, he was not
without a certain sentimentalism of his own, and at the Berlin
Congress this took the form of an unexpected and, as it happened,
useless pushing of the claims of Greece. But in the main Salisbury
must be held to deserve, almost equally with his great colleague,
the credit for the Berlin settlement. Great, however, as was the
work done at Berlin, and marked the relief to all Europe which
was caused by the signing of the treaty, much work, and of no
pleasant kind, remained for the British Foreign Office and for
the Indian Government before the Beaconsfield parliament
ended and the Government had to render up its accounts to
the nation. Russia, foreseeing a possible war with Great Britain,
had during the spring of 1878 redoubled her activity in Central
Asia, and, almost at the very time that the treaty was being
signed, her mission was received at Kabul by the Amir Sher Ali.
Out of the Amir's refusal to receive a counterbalancing British
mission there grew the Afghan War; and though he had
ceased to control the India Office, Salisbury was naturally held
responsible for some of the preliminary steps which, in the
judgment of the Opposition, had led to these hostilities. But
the Liberals entirely failed to fix upon Salisbury the blame for
a series of events which was generally seen to be inevitable. A
defence of the foreign policy of the Government during the year
which followed the Berlin Treaty was made by Salisbury in a
speech at Manchester (October 1879), which had a great effect
throughout Europe. In it he justified the occupation of Cyprus,
and approved the beginnings of a league of central Europe for
preserving peace.
In the spring of 1880 the general election overthrew Beacons-
field's Government and replaced Gladstone in power, and the
country entered upon five eventful years, which were Leader
to see the consolidation of the Parnellite party, the of Con-
reign of outrage in Ireland, disasters in Zululand and * crv ve
the Transvaal, war in Egypt, a succession of costly
mistakes in the Sudan, and the final collapse of Gladstone's
Government on a trifling Budget question. The defeat of 1880
greatly depressed Beaconsfield, who till then had really believed
in that " hyperborean " theory upon which he had acted in 1867
the theory that beyond and below the region of democratic
storm and violence was to be found a region of peaceful conser-
vatism and of a dislike of change. After the rude awakening of
April 1880 Beaconsfield seems to have lost heart and hope, and
to have ceased to believe that wealth, birth and education would
count for much in future in England. Salisbury, who on Beacons-
field's death a year later was chosen, after the claims of Cairns
had been withdrawn, as leader of the Conservative peers (Sir
Stafford Northcote continuing to lead the Opposition in the
lower House), was not so disposed to counsels of despair. After
the Conservative reaction had come in 1886, he was often taunted
with pessimism as regards the results, and he certainly spoke
on more than one occasion in a way which appeared to justify
the caricatures which appeared of him in the Radical press in his
character of Hamlet; but in the days of Liberal ascendancy
Salisbury was confident that the tide would turn. We may pass
briefly over the years of Opposition between 1880 and 1885;
the only policy that could then wisely be followed by the Con-
servative leaders was that of giving their opponents sufficient
rope. In 1884 a new Reform Bill was introduced, extending
household suffrage to the counties; this was met in the Lords
by a resolution, moved by Cairns, that the peers could not pass
it unaccompanied by a Redistribution Bill. The Government,
therefore, withdrew their measure. In the summer and autumn
there was a good deal of agitation; but in November a redistribu-
tion scheme was settled between the leaders of both parties,
and the Bill passed. When, in the summer of 1885, Gladstone
resigned, it became necessary for the country to know whether
Salisbury or Northcote was the real Conservative leader; and
SALISBURY, 3RD MARQUESS OF
75
Minister,
ISSS.
the Queen settled the matter by at once sending for Lord Salis-
bury, who became prime minister for the first time in 1885.
The " Forwards " among the Conservatives, headed by Lord
Randolph Churchill, brought so much pressure to bear that
Northcote was induced to enter the House of Lords
as earl of Iddesleigh, while Sir Michael Hicks Beach
was made leader of the House of Commons, Lord
Randolph Churchill secretary for India, and Mr Arthur
Balfour president of the Local Government Board. The new
Government had only to prepare for the general election in the
autumn. The ministerial programme was put forward by
Salisbury on the 7th of October in an important speech addressed
to the Union of Conservative Associations assembled at Newport,
in Monmouthshire; and in this he outlined large reforms in
local government, poured scorn upon Mr Chamberlain's Radical
policy of " three acres and a cow," but promised cheap land
transfer, and opposed the disestablishment of the Church as a
matter of life or death to the Conservative party. In this Lord
Salisbury was declaring war against what seemed to be the
danger should Mr Chamberlain's " unauthorized programme "
succeed; while the comparative slightness of his references to
Ireland showed that he had no more suspicion than anybody
else of the event which was about to change the whole face of
British politics, to break up the Liberal party and to change
the most formidable of the advanced Radicals into an ally
and a colleague. The general election took place, and there were
returned to parliament 335 Liberals, 249 Conservatives and 86
Home Rulers; so that if the last two parties had combined,
they would have exactly tied with the Liberals. The Conservative
Government met parliament, and after a short time were put
into a minority of 79 on a Radical land motion, brought in by
Mr Chamberlain's henchman, Mr Jesse Collings. Mr Gladstone's
Unionism- ret - urn to office, and his announcement of a Bill giving
Prime ' a separate parliament to Ireland, were quickly followed
Minister, by the secession of the Unionist Liberals; the defeat of
the Bill; an appeal to the country; and the return
of the Unionist party to power with a majority of 1 18. Salisbury
at once offered to make way for Lord Hartington, but the
suggestion that the latter should form a Government was declined;
and the Conservatives took office alone, with an Irish policy
which might be summed up, perhaps, in Salisbury's words as
" twenty years of resolute government." For a few months,
until just before his sudden death on the I2th of January 1887,
Lord Iddesleigh was foreign secretary; but Salisbury, who
meantime had held the post of lord privy seal, then returned to
the Foreign Office. Meanwhile the increasing friction between
him and Lord Randolph Churchill, who, amid many qualms
on the part of more old-fashioned Conservatives, had become
chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons,
had led to the latter's resignation, which, to his own surprise,
was accepted; and from that date Salisbury's effective primacy
in his own party was unchallenged.
Only the general lines of Salisbury's later political career
need here be sketched. As a consequence of the practical
1886-1902. m n opoly of political power enjoyed by the Unionist
party after the Liberal disruption of 1886 for even
in the years 1892-1895 the situation was dominated by the
permanent Unionist majority in the House of Lords Salisbury's
position became unique. These were the long-looked-for days of
Conservative reaction, of which he had never despaired. The
situation was complicated, so far as Salisbury personally was
concerned, by the coalition with the Liberal Unionists, which
was confirmed in 1895 by the inclusion of the duke of Devonshire,
Mr Chamberlain, and other Liberal Unionists in the Cabinet.
But though it appeared anomalous that old antagonists like
Lord Salisbury and Mr Chamberlain should be working together
in the same ministry, the prime minister's position was such that
he could disregard a superficial criticism which paid too little
heed to his political faculty and his patriotic regard for the
requirements of the situation. Moreover, the practical work
of reconciling Conservative traditions with domestic reform
depended rather on Salisbury's nephew, Mr Balfour, who led
the House of Commons, than on Salisbury, who devoted himself
almost entirely to foreign affairs. The new Conservative move-
ment, moreover, in the country at large, was, in any case, of a
more constructive type than Salisbury himself was best fitted
to lead, and he was not the real source of the political inspiration
even of the Conservative wing of the Unionist party during this
period. He began to stand to some extent outside party and
above it, a moderator with a keenly analytic and rather sceptical
mind, but still the recognized representative of the British
empire in the councils of the world, and the trusted adviser of his
sovereign. Though himself the last man to be selected as the
type of a democratic politician for his references to extensions
of popular government, even when made by his own party, were
full of mild contempt Salisbury gradually acquired a higher
place in public opinion than that occupied by any contemporary
statesman. His speeches which, though carelessly composed,
continued to blaze on occasion with their old fire and their some-
what mordant cynicism were weightier in tone^ and became
European events. Without the genius of Disraeli or the personal
magnetism of Gladstone, he yet inspired the British public with
a quiet confidence that under him things would not go far wrong,
and that he would not act rashly or unworthily of his country.
Even political opponents came to look on his cautious and
balanced conservatism, and his intellectual aloofness from
interested motives or vulgar ambition, as standing between
them and something more distasteful. Moreover, in the matter
of foreign affairs his weight was supreme. He had lived to
become, as was indeed generally recognized, the most experienced
working diplomatist in Europe. His position in this respect
was shown in nothing better than in his superiority to criticism.
In foreign affairs many among his own party regarded him as
too much inclined to " split the difference " and to make " grace-
ful concessions " as in the case of the cession of Heligoland to
Germany in which it was complained that Great Britain got the
worst of the bargain. But though occasionally, as in the with-
drawal of British ships from Port Arthur in 1898, such criticism
became acute, the plain fact of the preservation of European
peace, often in difficult circumstances, reconciled the public to
his conduct of affairs. His patience frequently justified itself,
notably in the case of British relations with the United States,
which were for a moment threatened by President Cleveland's
message concerning Venezuela in 1895. And though his loyalty
to the European Concert in connexion with Turkey's dealings
with Armenia and Crete in 1895-1898 proved irritatingly in-
effectual the pace of the concert, as Lord Salisbury explained,
being rather like that of a steam-roller- no alternative policy
could be contemplated as feasible in any other statesman's
hands. Salisbury's personal view of the new situation created
by the methods of the sultan of Turkey was indicated not only
by a solemn and unusual public warning addressed to the sultan
in a speech at Brighton, but also by his famous remark that
in the Crimean War Great Britain had " put her money on the
wrong horse. " Among his most important strokes of diplomacy
was the Anglo-German agreement of 1890, delimiting the British
and German spheres of influence in Africa. The South African
question from 1896 onwards was a matter for the Colonial Office,
and Salisbury left it in Mr Chamberlain's hands.
A peer premier must inevitably leave many of the real problems
of democratic government to his colleagues in the House of
Commons. In the Upper House Lord Salisbury was paramount.
Yet while vigorously opposing the Radical agitation for the
abolition of the House of Lords, he never interposed a non
possumus to schemes of reform. He was always willing to
consider plans for its improvement, and in May 1888 himself
introduced a bill for reforming it and creating life peers; but he
warned reformers that the only result must be to make the
House stronger. To abolish it, on the other hand, would be
to take away a necessary safeguard for protecting " Philip
drunk " by an appeal to " Philip sober. "
Lord Salisbury suffered a severe loss by the death in 1900 of
his wife, whose influence with her husband had been great, as
her devotion had been unswerving. Her protracted illness was
7 6
SALISBURY, IST EARL OF
one among several causes, including his own occasional ill-health,
which after 1895 made him leave as much as possible of the work
of political leadership to his principal colleagues Mr Arthur
Balfour more than once acting as foreign secretary for several
weeks while his uncle stayed abroad. But for some years it was
felt that his attempt to be both prime minister and foreign
secretary was a mistake; and after the election of 1900 Salisbury
handed over the seals of the foreign office to Lord Lansdowne,
remaining himself at the head of the government as lord privy
seal. In 1902, upon the conclusion of peace in South Africa,
he felt that the time had come to retire from office altogether;
and on the nth of July his resignation was accepted by the
king, and he was succeeded as prime minister by Mr Arthur
Balfour.
From this moment he remained in the political background,
and his ill-health gradually increased. He died at Hatfield on
the zznd of August 1903, and was succeeded in the marquessate
by his eldest son Lord Cranborne (b. 1861), who entered the
house of commons for the Darwen division of Lancashire (1885-
1892) and since 1893 had been member for Rochester. The new
marquess had been under-secretary for foreign affairs since
1900, and in October 1903 he became lord privy seal in Mr
Balfour's ministry. Of the other four sons, Lord Hugh Cecil
(b. 1869) became a prominent figure in parliament as Conserva-
tive member for Greenwich (1895-1906), first as an ardent and
eloquent High Churchman in connexion with the debates on
education, &c., and then as one of the leaders of the Free-Trade
Unionists opposing Mr Chamberlain; and his elder brother Lord
Robert Cecil (b. 1864), who had at first devoted himself to the
bar and become a K.C., entered parliament in 1906 for Maryle-
bone, holding views in sympathy with those of Lord Hugh, who
had been defeated through the opposition of a Tariff Reform
Unionist in a triangular contest at Greenwich, which gave the
victory to the Radical candidate. In the elections of January
1910 Lord Robert Cecil resigned his candidature for Marylebone,
owing to' the strong opposition of the Tariff Reformers, which
threatened to divide the party and lose the seat; he stood for
Blackburn as a Unionist Free Trader and was defeated. On
the other hand Lord Hugh Cecil was returned for Oxford
University in place of the Rt. Hon. J. G. Talbot. Lord Hugh's
candidature, which was announced in 1909 simultaneously with
the resignation of the sitting member, was opposed by many
who disagreed with his fiscal views and his attitude on Church
questions; but it was found that he had the support of the great
majority of the electors, and he was ultimately returned un-
opposed. ( H. CH. )
SALISBURY, ROBERT CECIL, IST EARL OF (c. 1565-1612),
English lord treasurer, the exact year of whose birth is unrecorded,
was the youngest son of William Cecil, ist Lord Burghley,
and of his second wife Mildred, daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke,
of Gidea Hall in Essex. He was educated in his father's house
and at Cambridge University. In 1584 he was sent to France,
and was returned the same year to parliament, and again in
1586, as member for Westminster. In 1588 he accompanied
Lord Derby in his mission to the Netherlands to negotiate peace
with Spain, and sat in the parliamentof 1588, and in the assemblies
of 1593, 1597 and 1601 for Hertfordshire. About 1589 he appears
to have entered upon the duties of secretary of state, though he
did not receive the official appointment till 1596. On the 20th
of May 1591 he was knighted, and in August sworn of the privy
council. In 1597 he was made chancellor of the duchy of
Lancaster, and in 1598 despatched on a mission to Henry IV.
of France, to prevent the impending alliance between that
country and Spain. The next year he succeeded his father as
master of the court of wards. On Lord Burghley's death on
the 4th of August both Essex and Bacon desired to succeed him
in the supreme direction of affairs, but the queen preferred the
son of her last great minister. On Essex's disgrace, consequent
on his sudden and unauthorized abandonment of his command
in Ireland, Cecil's conduct was worthy of high praise. " By
employing his credit with Her Majesty in behalf of the Earl,"
wrote John Petit (June 14, 1600), " he has gained great credit
to himself both at home and abroad." At this period began
Cecil's secret correspondence with James in Scotland. Hitherto
Cecil's enemies had persuaded James that the secretary was
unfavourable to his claims to the English throne. An under-
standing was now effected by which Cecil was able to assure
James of his succession, ensure his own power and predominance
in the new reign against Sir Walter Raleigh and other competitors,
and secure the tranquillity of the last years of Elizabeth, the
conditions demanded by him being that all attempts of James
to obtain parliamentary recognition of his title should cease,
that an absolute respect should be paid to the queen's feelings,
and that the communications should remain a profound secret.
Writing later in the reign of James, Cecil says: " If Her Majesty
had known all I did, how well these (? she) should have known
the innocency and constancy of my present faith, yet her age
and orbity, joined to the jealousy of her sex, might have moved
her to think ill of that which helped to preserve her." 1
Such was the nature of these secret communications, which,
while they aimed at securing for Cecil a fresh lease of power
in the new reign, conferred undoubted advantages on the country.
Owing to Cecil's action, on the death of Elizabeth on the 24th of
March 1603, James was proclaimed king, and took possession
of the throne without opposition. Cecil was continued in his
office, was created Baron Cecil of Essendon in Rutlandshire
on the i3th of May, Viscount Cranborne on the 2oth of August
1604, and earl of Salisbury on the 4th of May 1605. He was
elected chancellor of the University of Cambridge in February
1601, and obtained the Garter in May 1606. Meanwhile Cecil's
success had completed the discontent of Raleigh, who, exasperated
at his dismissal from the captaincy of the guard, became involved
whether innocently or not is uncertain in the treasonable
conspiracy known as the " Bye Plot." Cecil took a leading
part in his trial in July 1603, and, though probably convinced
of his guilt, endeavoured to ensure him a fair trial and rebuked
the attorney-general, Sir Edward Coke, for his harshness towards
the prisoner. On the 6th of May 1608 the office of lord treasurer
was added to Salisbury's other appointments, and the whole
conduct of public affairs was placed solely in his hands. His
real policy is not always easy to distinguish, for the king con-
stantly interfered, and Cecil, far from holding any absolute or
continuous control, was often not even an adviser but merely
a follower, simulating approval of schemes opposed to his real
judgment. In foreign affairs his aim was to preserve the balance
of power between France and Spain, and to secure the independ-
ence of the Netherlands from either state. He also hoped, like
his father, to make England the head of the Protestant alliance
abroad; and his last energies were expended in effecting the
marriage in 1612 of the princess Elizabeth, James's daughter,
with the Elector Palatine. He was in favour of peace, preoccupied
with the state of the finances at home and the decreasing revenue,
and, though sharing Raleigh's dislike of Spain, was instrumental
in making the treaty with that power in 1604. In June 1607
he promised the support of the government to the merchants
who complained of Spanish ill-usage, but declared that the
commons must not meddle with questions of peace and war.
In 1611 he disapproved of the proposed marriage between the
prince of Wales and the Infanta. His bias against Spain and
his fidelity to the national interests render, therefore, his accept-
ance of a pension from Spain a surprising incident in his career.
At the conclusion of the peace in 1604 the sum Cecil received was
1000, which was raised the following year to 1500; while in
1609 he demanded an augmentation and to be paid for each
piece of information separately. If. as has been stated, 2 he
received a pension also from France, it is not improbable that,
like his contemporary Bacon, who accepted presents from
suitors on both sides and still gave an independent decree,
Cecil may have maintained a freedom from corrupting influences,
while his acceptance of money as the price of information
concerning the intentions of the government may have formed
1 Correspondence of King James VI. of Scotland with Sir R. Cecil,
ed. by J. Bruce (Camden Soc., 1861), p. xl.
1 Gardiner, History of England, i. 214.
SALISBURY, IST EARL OF
77
part of a general policy of cultivating good relations with the
two great rivals of England (one advantage of which was the
communication of plots formed against the government), and
of maintaining the balance of power between them. It is difficult ,
however, in the absence of complete information, to understand
the exact nature and signification of these strange relations.
As lord treasurer Salisbury showed considerable financial
ability. During the year preceding his acceptance of that
office the expenditure had risen to 500,000, leaving, with an
ordinary revenue of about 320,000 and the subsidies voted by
parliament, a yearly deficit of 73,000. Lord Salisbury took
advantage of the decision by the judges in the court of exchequer
in Bates's case in favour of the king's right to levy impositions;
and (on the 28th of July 1608) imposed new duties on articles
of luxury and those of foreign manufacture which competed with
English goods, while lowering the dues on currants and tobacco.
By this measure, and by a more careful collection, the ordinary
income was raised to 460,000, while 700,000 was paid off
the debt, leaving at the beginning of 1610 the sum of 300,000.
This was a substantial reform, and if, as has been stated, the
" total result of Salisbury's financial administration " was " the
halving of the debt at the cost of doubling the deficiency,"
the failure to secure a permanent improvement must be ascribed
to the extravagance of James, who, disregarding his minister's
entreaties and advice, continued to exceed his income by 149,000.
But a want of statesmanship had been shown by Salisbury
in forcing the king's legal right to levy impositions against the
remonstrances of the parliament. In the " great contract,"
the scheme now put forward by Salisbury for settling the finances,
his lack of political wisdom was still more apparent. The
Commons were to guarantee a fixed annual subsidy, on condition
of the abandonment of impositions and of the redress of grievances
by the king. An unworthy and undignified system of higgling
and haggling was initiated between the crown and the parlia-
ment. Salisbury could only attribute the miscarriage of his
scheme to the fact " that God did not bless it." But Bacon
regarded it with severe disapproval, and in the parliament of
1613, after the treasurer's death, he begged the king to abandon
these humiliating and dangerous bargainings, " that your
majesty do for this parliament put off the person of a merchant
and contractor and rest upon the person of a king." In fact,
the vicious principle was introduced that a redress of grievances
could only be obtained by a payment of subsidies. The identity
of interests between the crown and the nation which had made
the reign of Elizabeth so glorious, and which she herself had
consummated on the occasion of her last public appearance
by a free and voluntary concession of these same impositions,
was now destroyed, and a divergence of interests, made patent
by vulgar bargaining, was substituted which stimulated the
disastrous struggle between sovereign and people, and paralysed
the national development for two generations.
This was scarcely a time to expect any favours for the Roman
Catholics, but Salisbury, while fearing that the Roman Church
in England would become a danger to the state, had always been
averse from prosecution for religion, and he attempted to dis-
tinguish between the large body of law-abiding and loyal Roman
Catholics and those connected with plots and intrigues against
the throne and government, making the offer in October 1607
that if the pope would excommunicate those that rebelled against
the king and oblige them to defend him against invasion, the
fines for recusancy would be remitted and they would be allowed
to keep priests in their houses. This was a fair measure of
toleration. His want of true statesmanship was shown with
regard to the Protestant Nonconformists, towards whom his
attitude was identical with that afterwards maintained by Laud,
and the same ideal pursued, namely that of material and outward
conformity, Salisbury employing almost the same words as the
archbishop later, that " unity in belief cannot be preserved
unless it is to be found in worship." 2
' Bacon's disparaging estimate of his cousin and rival was
1 Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 276.
* Gardiner, History of England, i. 199.
probably tinged with some personal animus, and instigated by
the hope of recommending himself to James as his successor;
but there is little doubt that his acute and penetrating description
of Salisbury to James as one " fit to prevent things from growing
worse but not fit to make them better," as one " greater in
operatione than in opere," is a true one. 3 Elsewhere Bacon
accuses him "of an artificial animating of the negative " in
modern language, of official obstruction and " red tape." But in
one instance at least, when he advised James not to press forward
too hastily the union of England and Scotland, a measure which
especially appealed to Bacon's imagination and was ardently
desired by him, Salisbury showed a prudence and judgment
superior to his illustrious critic. It can scarcely be denied that
he rendered substantial services to the state in times of great
difficulty and perplexity, and these services would probably have
been greater and more permanent had he served a better king and
in more propitious times. Both Elizabeth and James found a
security in Salisbury's calm good sense, safe, orderly official mind
and practical experience of business, of which there was no
guarantee in the restlessness of Essex, the enterprise of Raleigh
or the speculation of Bacon. On the other hand, he was neither
guided nor inspired by any great principle or ideal, he contributed
nothing towards the settlement of the great national problems,
and he precipitated by his ill-advised action the disastrous
struggle between crown and parliament.
Lord Salisbury died on the 24th of May 1612, at the parsonage
house at Marlborough, while returning to London from taking the
waters at Bath. During his long political career he had amassed
a large fortune, besides inheriting a considerable portion of Lord
Burghley's landed estate. In 1607 he exchanged, at the king's
request, his estate of Theobalds in Hertfordshire for Hatfield.
Here he built the magnificent house of which he himself conceived
the plans and the design, but which he did not live to inhabit,
its completion almost coinciding with his death. In person and
figure he was in strange contrast with his rivals at court, being
diminutive in stature, ill-formed and weak in health. Elizabeth
styled him her pygmy; his enemies delighted in vilifying his
" wry neck," " crooked back" and " splayfoot," and in Bacon's
essay on " Deformity," it was said, " the world takes notice that
he paints out his little cousin to the life." 4 Molin, the Venetian
ambassador in England, gives a similar description of his person,
but adds that he had "a noble countenance and features."'
Lord Salisbury wrote The State and Dignitie of a Secretaire of
Estate's Place (publ. 1642, reprinted in Harleian Miscellany, ii.
and Somers Tracts (1809), v.; see also Harleian MSS. 305 and
354), and An Answer to Certain Scandalous Papers scattered
abroad under Colour of a Calholick Admonition (1606), justifying
his attitude towards recusants after the discovery of the Gun-
powder Plot (Harl. Misc. ii.; Somers Tracts, v.). He married
Elizabeth, daughter of William Brooke, sth Baron Cobham,
by whom, besides one daughter, he had William (1591-1668), his
successor as 2nd earl.
No complete life of Robert Cecil has been attempted, but the
materials for it are very extensive, including Hist. MSS. Comm.
Series, Marquis of Salisbury's MSS. (superseding former reports in
the series), from which MSS. selections were published in 1740 by
S. Haynes, by Wm. Murdin in 1759, by John Bruce, in The Corre-
spondence of King James VI. with Sir Robert Cecil, in 1861 (Camden
Society), and by Ed. Lodge, in Illustrations of English History, in 1838.
The 2nd earl of Salisbury, who sided with the parliament
during the Civil War and represented his party in negotiations
with the king at Uxbridge and at Newport, was succeeded by his
grandson James (1648-1683) as 3rd earl. James's descendant,
James, the 7th earl (1748-1823), who was lord chamberlain of
the royal household from 1783 to 1804, was created marquess of
Salisbury in 1789. ' His son and successor, James Brownlow
William, the 2nd marquess (1791-1868), married Frances Mary,
daughter of Bamber Gascoyne of Childwall Hall, Lancashire,
and took the name of Gascoyne before that of Cecil. He was
lord privy seal in 1852 and lord president of the council in 1858-
1859; his son and heir was the famous prime minister.
* Spedding, Life and Letters of Bacon, iv. 278 note, 279.
4 Chamberlain to Carleton, Birch's Court of King James, i. 214.
6 Col. of State Papers: Venetian, x. 515.
SALISBURY, 4 TH EARL OF SALISBURY
SALISBURY, THOMAS DE MONTACUTE, 4x11 EARL OF
(1388-1428), was son of John, the third earl, who was executed
in 1400 as a supporter of Richard II. Thomas was granted part
of his father's estates and summoned to parliament in 1409,
though not fully restored till 1421. He was present throughout
the campaign of Agincourt in 1415, and at the naval engagement
before Harfleur in 1416. In the expedition of 1417-18 he served
with increasing distinction, and especially at the siege of Rouen.
During the spring of 1419 he held an independent command,
capturing Fecamp, Honfleur and other towns, was appointed
lieutenant-general of Normandy, and created earl of Perche.
In 1420 he was in chief command in Maine, and defeated the
Marechal de Rieux near Le Mans. When Henry V. went home
next year Salisbury remained in France as the chief lieutenant
of Thomas, duke of Clarence. The duke, through his own rash-
ness, was defeated at Bauge on the 2ist of March 1421. Salisbury
came up with the archers too late to retrieve the day,but recovered
the bodies of the dead, and by a skilful retreat averted further
disaster. He soon gathered a fresh force, and in June was able to
report to the king " this part of your land stood in good plight
never so well as now." (Foedera, x. 131). Salisbury's success
in Maine marked him out as John of Bedford's chief lieutenant
in the war after Henry's death. In 1423 he was appointed
governor of Champagne, and by his dash and vigour secured one
of the chief victories of the war at Cravant on the 3oth of July.
Subsequent operations completed the conquest of Champagne,
and left Salisbury free to join Bedford at Verneuil. There on
the 1 7th of August, 1424, it was his " judgment and valour "
that won the day. During the next three years Salisbury was
employed on the Norman border and in Maine. After a year's
visit to England he returned to the chief command in the field in
July, 1428. Against the judgment of Bedford he determined
to make Orleans his principal objective, and began the siege on
the 1 2th of October. Prosecuting it with his wonted vigour
he stormed Tourelles, the castle which protected the southern end
of the bridge across the Loire, on the 24th of October. Three
days later whilst surveying the city from a window in Tourelles
he was wounded by a cannon-shot, and died on the 3rd of
November 1428. Salisbury was the most skilful soldier on the
English side after the death of Henry V. Though employed on
diplomatic missions both by Henry V. and Bedford, he took no
part in politics save for a momentary support of Humphrey,
duke of Gloucester, during his visit to England in 1427-1428.
He was a patron of John Lydgate, who presented to him his
book The Pilgrim (now Harley MS. 4826, with a miniature of
Salisbury, engraved in Strutt's Regal Antiquities). By his first
wife Eleanor Holand, daughter of Thomas, earl of Kent, Salisbury
had an only daughter Alice, in her right earl of Salisbury, who
married Richard Neville, and was mother of Warwick the King-
maker. His second wife Alice was grand-daughter of Geoffrey
Chaucer, and after his death married William de la Pole, duke of
Suffolk.
The chief accounts of Salisbury's campaigns are to be found in the
Gesta Henrici Quinti, edited by B. Williams for the Eng. Hist. Soc.
(London, 1850) in the Vita Henrici Quinti (erroneously attributed to
Thomas of Elmham), edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); the
Chronique of E. de Monstrelet, edited by L. D. d'Arcq (Paris, 1857-
1862) ; the Chroniques of Jehan de Waurin, edited by W. and
E. L. C. P. Hardy (London, 1864-1801); and the Chronique de la
Pucette of G. Cousinot, edited by Vallet de Viriville (Pans, 1859).
For modern accounts see Sir J. H. Ramsay, Lancaster and York
(Oxford, 1892); and C. Oman, Political History of England, 1377-
1485 (London, 1906). (C L. K.)
SALISBURY, WILLIAM LONGSWORD (or LONGESPE),
EARL OF (d. 1226), was an illegitimate son of Henry II. In
1198 he received from King Richard I. the hand of Isabella, or
Ela (d. 1 261), daughter and heiress of William, earl of Salisbury,
and was granted this title with the lands of the earldom. He
held many high offices under John, and commanded a section
of the English forces at Bouvines (1214), when he was made a
prisoner. He remained faithful to the royal house except for
a few months in 1216, when John's cause seemed hopelessly
lost. He was also a supporter of Hubert de Burgh. In 1225
he went on an expedition to Gascony, being wrecked on the
Isle of Re on the return voyage. The hardships of this adventure
undermined his health, and he died at Salisbury on the 7th of
March 1226, and was buried in the cathedral there. The eldest
of Longsword's four sons, William (.1212-1250) did not receive
his father's earldom, although he is often called earl of Salisbury.
In 1247 he led the English crusaders to join the French at
Damietta and was killed in battle with the Saracens in February
1250.
SALISBURY, a township of Litchfield county, in the north-
western corner of Connecticut, U.S.A. Pop. (1910) 3522. Area,
about 58 sq. m. Salisbury is served by the Central New England,
and the New York, New Haven & Hartford railways. In the
township are several villages, including Salisbury, Lakeville,
Lime Rock, Chapinville and Ore Hill. Much of the township is
hilly, and Bear Mountain (2355 ft.), near the Massachusetts
line, is the highest elevation in the state. The Housatonic
river forms the eastern boundary. The township is a summer
resort. In it are the Scoville Memorial Library (about 8000
volumes in 1910); the Hotchkiss preparatory school (opened in
1892, for boys); the Salisbury School (Protestant Episcopal,
for boys), removed to Salisbury from Staten Island in 1901 and
formerly St Austin's school; the Taconic School (1896, for girls);
and the Connecticut School for Imbeciles (established as a private
institution in 1858). Among the manufactures are charcoal,
pig-iron, car wheels and general castings at Lime Rock, cutlery
at Lakeville, and knife-handles and rubber brushes at Salisbury.
The iron mines are among the oldest in the country; mining
began probably as early as 1731.
The first settlement within the township was made in 1720 by
Dutchmen and Englishmen, who in 1719 had bought from the Indians
a tract of land along the Housatonic, called " Weatogue " an
Indian word said to mean " the wigwam place." In 1732 the
township was surveyed with its present boundaries, and in 1738 the
land (exclusive of that held under previous grants) was auctioned
by the state at Hartford. In that year the present name was
adopted, and in 1741 the township was incorporated.
See Malcolm D. Rudd, An Historical Sketch of Salisbury, Con-
necticut (New York, 1899); and Ellen S. Bartlett, "Salisbury," in
The Connecticut Quarterly, vol. iv. No. 4, pp. 345 sqq. (Hartford,
Conn., 1898).
SALISBURY, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough,
and the county town of Wiltshire, England, 83^ m. W. by S.
of London, on the London and South-Western and Great Western
railways. Pop. (1901) 17,117. Its situation is beautiful.
Viewed from the hills which surround it the city is seen to lie
among flat meadows mainly on the north bank of the river
Avon, which is here joined by four tributaries. The magnificent
cathedral stands close to the river, on the south side of the city,
the streets of which are in part laid out in squares called the
" Chequers." To the north rises the bare upland of Salisbury
Plain.
The cathedral church of St Mary is an unsurpassed example of
Early English architecture, begun and completed, save its spire and
a few details, within one brief period (1220-1266). There is a tradi-
tion, supported by probability, that Elias de Derham, canon of the
cathedral (d. 1245), was the principal architect. He was at Salisbury
in 1220-1229, and had previously taken part in the erection of the
shrine of Thomas i Becket at Canterbury. The building is 473 ft.
in extreme length, the length of the nave being 229 ft. 6 in., the
choir 151 ft., and the lady chapel 68 ft. 6 in. The width of the
nave is 82 ft. and the height 84 ft. The spire, the highest in England,
measures 404 ft. (For plan, see ARCHITECTURE: Romanesque and
Gothic in England.) The cathedral, standing in a broad grassy close,
consists of a nave of ten bays, with aisles and a lofty north porch,
main transepts with eastern aisles, choir with aisles, lesser transepts,
presbytery and lady chapel. The two upper storeys of the tower
and the spire above are early Decorated. The west front, the last
portion of the original building completed, bears in its rich -orna-
mentation signs of the transition to the Decorated style. The perfect
uniformity of the building is no less remarkable within than without.
The frequent use of Purbeck marble for shafts contrasts beautifully
with the delicate grey freestone which is the principal building
material. In the nave is a series of monuments of much interest,
which were placed here by James Wyatt, who, in an unhappy
restoration of the cathedral (1782-1791), destroyed many magnificent
stained-glass windows which had escaped the Reformation, and also
removed two Perpendicular chapels and the detached belfry which
stood to the north-west of the cathedral. One of the memorials is a
SALISBURY
79
small figure of a bishop in robes. This was long connected with the
ceremony of the " boy bishop," which, as practised both here and
elsewhere until its suppression by Queen Elizabeth, consisted in the
election of a choir-boy as " bishop during the period between St
Nicholas' and Holy Innocents' Days. The figure was supposed to
represent a boy who died during his tenancy of the office. But such
small figures occur elsewhere, and have been supposed to mark
the separate burial-place of the heart. The lady chapel is the earliest
part of the original building, as the west end is the latest. The
cloisters, south of the church, were built directly after its completion.
The chapter-house is of the time of Edward I., a very fine octagonal
example, with a remarkable series of contemporary sculptures.
The library contains many valuable MSS. and ancient printed books.
The diocese covers nearly the whole of Dorsetshire, the greater part
of Wiltshire and very small portions of Berkshire, Hampshire,
Somersetshire and Devonshire.
There are three ancient parish churches: St Martin's, with square
tower and spire, and possessing a Norman font and Early English
portions in the choir; St Thomas's (of Canterbury), founded in 1240
as a chapel to the cathedral, and rebuilt in the ith century; and St
Edmund's, founded as the collegiate church of secular canons in
1268, but subsequently rebuilt in the Perpendicular period. The
residence of the college of secular priests is occupied by the modern
ecclesiastical college of St Edmund's, founded in 1873. St John's
chapel, founded by Bishop Robert Bingham in the I3th century, is
occupied by a dwelling-house. There is a beautiful chapel attached
to the St Nicholas hospital. The poultry cross, or high cross, an
open hexagon with six arches and a central pillar, was erected by
Lord Montacute before 1335. In the market-place is Marochetti's
statue to Sidney Herbert, Lord Herbert of Lea. The modern public
buildings include the court-house, market, corn exchange and theatre.
A park was laid out in 1887 to commemorate the jubilee of Queen
Victoria, and in the same year a statue was erected to Henry Fawcett,
the economist, who was born at Salisbury. Among remaining
specimens of ancient domestic architecture may be mentioned the
banqueting-hall of John Halle, wool merchant, built about 1470;
and Audley House, belonging also to the isth century, and repaired
in 1881 as a diocesan church house. There are a large number of
educational and other charities, including the bishop's grammar
school, Queen Elizabeth's grammar school, the St Nicholas hospital
and Trinity hospital, founded by Agnes Bottenham in 1379. Brew-
ing, tanning, carpet-making and the manufacture of hardware and
of boots and shoes are carried on, and there is a considerable agricul-
tural trade. The city is governed by a mayor, 7 aldermen and 21
councillors. Area, 1710 acres.
History. The neighbourhood of Salisbury is rich in anti-
quities. The famous megalithic remains of Stonehenge (q.v.) are
not far distant. From Milford Hill and Fisherton
many prehistoric relics have been brought to the fine
Blackmore Museum in the city. But the site most
intimately associated with Salisbury is that of Old Sarum, the
history of which forms the preface to that of the modern city.
This is a desolate place, lying a short distance north of Salisbury,
with a huge mound guarded by a fosse and earthworks. The
summit is hollowed out like a crater, its rim surmounted by
a rampart so deeply cut away that its inner side rises like
a sheer wall of chalk 100 ft. high.
Old Sarum was probably one of the chief fortresses of the early
Britons and was known to the Romans as Sorbiodunum. Cerdic,
founder of the West Saxon kingdom, fixed his seat there in the
beginning of the 6th century. Alfred strengthened the castle,
and it was selected by Edgar as a place of national assembly
to devise means of checking the Danes. Under Edward the
Confessor it possessed a mint. The ecclesiastical importance
of Old Sarum begins with the establishment of a nunnery by
Edward the Confessor. Early in the 8th century Wiltshire had
been divided between the new diocese of Sherborne and that of
Winchester. About 920 a bishopric had been created at Rams-
bury, east of Savernake Forest ; to this Sherborne was joined in
1058 and in 1075/6 Old Sarum became the seat of a bishopric,
transferred hither from Sherborne. Osmund, the second bishop,
revised the form of communion service in general use, compiling
a missal which forms the groundwork of the celebrated " Sarum
Use." The "Sarum Breviary" was printed at Venice in 1483,
and upon this, the most widely prevalent of English liturgies,
the prayer-books of Edward VI. were mainly based. Osmund
also built a cathedral, in the form of a plain cross, and this was
traceable in the very dry summer of 183-4. Old Sarum could
have afforded little room for a cathedral, bishop's palace,
garrison and townsfolk. The priests complained of their bleak
New
S.vum.
and waterless abode, and still more of its transference to the
keeping of lay castellans. Soldiers and priests were at perpetual
feud ; and after a licence had been granted by Pope Honorius
III., it was decided to move down into the fertile Avon valley.
In 1 102 the notorious bishop, Roger Poore, by virtue of his
office of sheriff, obtained custody of the castle and the grant of
a comprehensive charter from Henry I. which confirmed and
extended the possessions of the ecclesiastical establishment,
annexed new benefactions and granted perpetual freedom in
markets and fairs from all tolls and customs. This was confirmed
by Henry II., John, and Henry III. With the building of New
Sarum in the i3th century and the transference to it of the see,
Old Sarum lapsed to the crown. It has since changed hands
several times, and under James I. formed part of the property
of the earldom of Salisbury. By the i6th century it was almost
entirely in ruins, and in 1608 it was ordered that the town walls
should be entirely demolished. The borough returned two
members to parliament from 1295 until 1832 when it was de-
prived of representation by the Reform Act, the privilege of
election being vested in the proprietors of certain free burgage
tenures. In the I4th century the town appears to have been
divided into aldermanries, the will of one John atte Stone, dated
1361, including a bequest of land within the aldermanry of
Newton. In 1102 Henry I. granted a yearly fair for seven days,'
on August 14 and for three days before and after. Henry III.
granted another fair for three days from June 28, and Richard-
II. for eight days from September 30.
The new city, under the name of New Sarum (New Saresbury,
Salisbury) immediately began to spring up round the cathedral
close. A charter of Henry III. in 1227 recites the
removal from Old Sarum, the king's ratification and
his laying the foundation-stone of the church. It
then grants and confirms to the bishops, canons and citizens,
all liberties and free customs previously enjoyed, and declares
New Sarum to be a free city and to constitute forever part of the
bishop's demesne. During the three following centuries periodical
disputes arose between the bishop and the town, ending generally
in the complete submission of the latter. One of these resulted
in 1472 in the grant of a new charter by Edward IV. empowering
the bishop to enforce the regular election of a mayor, and to
make laws for governing the town. In 1611 the city obtained
a charter of incorporation from James I. under the title of
" mayor and commonalty " of the city of New Sarum, the
governing body to consist of a mayor, recorder and twenty-
four aldermen, with power to make by-laws. This charter was
renewed by Charles I. and confirmed by Cromwell in 1656.
The latter recites that since the deprivation of archbishops
and bishops, by parliament, the mayor and commonalty have
bought certain possessions of the late bishop of New Sarum,
together with fairs and markets. These it confirms, constitutes
the town a city and county, subjects the close to its jurisdiction
and invests the bailiff with the powers of a sheriff. In 1659
with the restoration of the bishops, the ancient charter of the
city was revived and that of 1656 cancelled. In 1684 during the
friction between Charles II. and the towns, Salisbury surrendered
its charter voluntarily. Four years later in 1688 James II.
restored to all cities their ancient charters, and the bishop
continued to hold New Sarum as his demesne until 1835. The
Municipal Corporations Act of that year reported that Salisbury
was still governed under the charter of 1611, as modified by later
ones of Charles II., James II. and Anne.
In 1221 Henry III. granted the bishop a fair for two days from
August 14, which in 1227 was prolonged to eight days. Two
general fairs were obtained from Cromwell in 1656, on the
Tuesday before^Whit-Sunday and on the Tuesday in the second
week before Michaelmas. In 1792 the fairs were held on the
Tuesday after January 6, on the Tuesday and Wednesday after
March 2 5, on Whit-Monday, on the second Tuesday in September,
on the second Tuesday after October 10, and on the Tuesday
before Christmas Day; in 1888 on July 15 and October 18; and
now on the Tuesdays after January 6 and October 10. A large
pleasure-fair was held until recently on Whit-Monday and
8o
SALISBURY SALLUST
Tuesday, but in 1888 this was reported as of bad character and
it is now discontinued. A grant of a weekly market on Tuesday
was obtained from Henry III. in 1227. In 1240 this privilege
was being abused, a daily market being held, which was finally
prohibited in 1361. In 1316 a market on Saturday was granted
by Edward II. and in 1656 another on every second Tuesday
by Cromwell. In 1769 a wholesale cloth market was appointed
to be held yearly on August 24. In 1888 and 1891 the market
days were Tuesday and Saturday. A great corn market is now
held every Tuesday, a cattle market on alternate Tuesdays, and
a|cheese market on the second Thursday in the month. Salisbury
returned two members to parliament until 1885 when the number
was reduced to one. As early as 1334 the town took part in
foreign trade and was renowned for its breweries and woollen
manufactories, and the latter industry continued until the i7th
century, but has now entirely declined. Commercial activity
gave rise to numerous confraternities amongst the various trades,
such as those of the tailors, weavers and cutlers. The majority
originated under Edward IV., though the most ancient that
of the tailors was said to have been formed under Henry VI.
and still existed in 1835. The manufacture of cutlery, once a
flourishing industry, is now decayed.
See Victoria County History. Wiltshire; Sir R. C. Hoare, History
of New Sarum (1843) ; and History of Old Sarum (1843).
SALISBURY, a town and the county-seat of Wicomico county,
Maryland, U.S.A., on the Wicomico river, about 23 m. from its
mouth. Pop. (1900) 4277, including 1006 negroes; (1910) 6690.
It is served by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic (which has
shops here), and the New York, Philadelphia & Norfolk
railways, and by steamers on the Wicomico river, which
has a channel 9 ft. deep; Salisbury is the head of navigation.
Grain, vegetables and lumber are shipped along the coast.
Salisbury was founded in 1732, organized as a town in 1812,
and incorporated in 1854 and again in 1888.
SALISBURY, a city and the county-seat of Rowan county,
North Carolina, U.S.A., about 120 m. W. by S. of Raleigh.
Pop. (1890) 4418; (1900) 6277 (2408 negroes); (1910) 7153.
Salisbury is served by the Southern railway, which has repair
shops here. It is the seat of Livingstone College (African
Methodist Episcopal, removed from Concord to Salisbury in
1882, chartered 1885). There is a national cemetery here,
in which 12,147 Federal soldiers are buried. The city has various
manufactures and is the trade centre of the surrounding farming
country. Salisbury was founded about 1753, was first incorpo-
rated as a town in 1755 and first chartered as a city in 1770.
During the Civil War there was a Confederate military prison
here. On the I2th of April 1865 the main body of General
George Stoneman's cavalry encountered near Salisbury a force
of about 3000 Confederates under General William M. Gardner,
and captured 1364 prisoners and 14 pieces of artillery.
SALISHAN, the name of a linguistic family of North American
Indian tribes, the more important of which are the Salish (Flat-
heads), Bellacoola, Clallam,Colville, Kalispel, Lummi, Nisqually,
Okinagan, Puyallup, Quinault, Sanpoil, Shushwap, Skokomish,
Songeesh, Spokan and Tulalip. They number about 20,000,
and live in the southern part of British Columbia, the coast of
Oregon, and the north-west of Washington, Montana and Idaho.
SALLI (Sid), a seaport on the Atlantic coast of Morocco, on
the north side of the Bu Ragrag opposite Rabat (q.v). Pop.
about 30,000. The shrine of Sidi Abd Allah Hasun in Salli
is so sacred as to close the street in which it stands to any but
Moslems. Outside the town walls there is no security for life
or property. A bar at the mouth of the river excludes vessels
of more than two hundred tons; steamers lie outside, communi-
cating with the port by lighters of native build manned by
descendants of the pirates known as "Salli Rovers." (See
BARBARY PIRATES.)
SALLO, DENIS DE, Sieur de la Coudraye [pseudonym Siewr
d'Hedonville] (1626-1669), French writer, and founder of the
first French literary and scientific journal, was born at Paris
in 1626. In 1665 he published the first number of the Journal
des savants. The Journal, under his direction, was suppressed
after the thirteenth number, but was revived shortly afterwards.
He died in Paris on the I4th of May 1669.
SALLUST [GAius SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS] (86-34 B.C.), Roman
historian, belonging to a well-known plebeian family, was born
at Amiternum in the country of the Sabines. After an ill-spent
youth he entered public life, and was elected tribune of the
people in 52, the year in which Clodius was killed in a street
brawl by the followers of Milo. Sallust was opposed to Milo
and to Pompey's party and to the old aristocracy of Rome.
From the first he was a decided partisan of Caesar, to whom
he owed such political advancement as he attained. In 50 he
was removed from the senate by the censor Appius Claudius
Pulcher on the ground of gross immorality, the real reason
probably being his friendship for Caesar. In the following year,
no doubt through Caesar's influence, he was reinstated and
appointed quaestor. In 46 he was praetor, and accompanied
Caesar in his African campaign, which ended in the decisive
defeat of the remains of the Pompeian party at Thapsus. As
a reward for his services, Sallust was appointed governor of the
province of Numidia. In this capacity he was guilty of such
oppression and extortion that only the influence of Caesar
enabled him to escape condemnation. On his return to Rome
he purchased and laid out in great splendour the famous gardens
on the Quirinal known as the Horli Sallustiani. He now retired
from public life and devoted himself to historical literature.
His account of the Catiline conspiracy (De conjuratione Calilinae
or Bellum Calilinarium) and of the Jugurthine War (Bellum
Jugurlhinum) have come down to us complete, together with
fragments of his larger and most important work (Historiae),
a history of Rome from 78-67, intended as a continuation of
L. Cornelius Sisenna's work. The Catiline Conspiracy (his first
published work) contains the history of the memorable year 63.
Sallust adopts the usually accepted view of Catiline, and describes
him as the deliberate foe of law, order and morality, without
attempting to give any adequate explanation of his views and
intentions. Catiline, it must be remembered, had supported
the party of Sulla, to which Sallust was opposed. There may be
truth in Mommsen's suggestion that he was particularly anxious
to clear his patron Caesar of all complicity in the conspiracy.
Anyhow, the subject gave him the opportunity of showing off
his rhetoric at the expense of the old Roman aristocracy, whose
degeneracy he delighted to paint in the blackest colours. On
the whole, he is not unfair towards Cicero. His Jugurthine War,
again, though a valuable and interesting monograph, is not a
satisfactory performance. We may assume that he had collected
materials and put together notes for it during his governor-
ship of Numidia. Here, too, he dwells upon the feebleness of
the senate and aristocracy, too often in a tiresome, moralizing
and philosophizing vein, but as a military history the work is
unsatisfactory in the matter of geographical and chronological
details. The extant fragments of the Histories (some discovered
in 1886) are enough to show the political partisan, who took
a keen pleasure in describing the reaction against the dictator's
policy and legislation after his death. The loss of the work
is to be regretted, as it must have thrown much light on a very
eventful period, embracing the war against Sertorius, the
campaigns of Lucullus against Mithradates of Pontus, and the
victories of the great Pompey in the East. Two letters (Duae
epistolae de republica ordinanda), letters of political counsel
and advice addressed to Caesar, and an attack upon Cicero
(Invectiva or Dedamatio in Ciceronem), frequently attributed
to Sallust, are probably the work of a rhetorician of the first
century A.D., also the author of a counter-invective by Cicero.
Sallust is highly spoken of by Tacitus (Annals, iii. 30) : and
Quintilian (ii. 5, x. i), who regards him as superior to Livy,
does not hesitate to put him on a level with Thucydides. On
the whole the verdict of antiquity was favourable to Sallust
as an historian. He struck out for himself practically a new
line in literature, his predecessors having been little better than
mere dry-as-dust chroniclers, whereas he endeavoured to explain
the connexion and meaning of events, and was a successful
delineator of character. The contrast between his early life
SALMASIUS SALMERON Y ALFONSO
81
and the high moral tone adopted by him in his writings was
frequently made a subject of reproach against him; but there
is no reason why he should not have reformed. In any case,
his knowledge of his own former weaknesses may have led him
to take a pessimistic view of the morality of his fellow-men, and
to judge them severely. His model was Thucydides, whom he
imitated in his truthfulness and impartiality, in the introduction
of philosophizing reflections and speeches, and in the brevity
of his style, sometimes bordering upon obscurity. His fondness
for old words and phrases, in which he imitated his contemporary
Cato, was ridiculed as an affectation; but it was just this
affectation and his rhetorical exaggerations that made Sallust
a favourite author in the 2nd century A.D. and later.
Editions and translations in various languages are numerous.
Editio princeps (1470); (text) R. Dietsch (1874); H. Jordan
(1887); A. Eussner (1887); (text and notes) F. D. Gerlach (1823-
1831); F. Kritz (1828-1853; ed. minor, 1856); C. H. Frotscher
(1830); C. Merivale (1852); F. Jacobs, H. Wirz (1894); G. Long,
revised by J. G. Frazer, with chief fragments of Histories (1884);
W. W. Capes (1884); English translation by A. W. Pollard (1882).
There are many separate editions of the Catilina and Jugurtha,
chiefly for school use. The fragments have been edited by F. Kritz
(1853) and B. Maurenbrecher (1891-1893); and there is an Italian
translation (with notes) of the supposititious letters by G. Vittori
(1897). On Sallust generally J. W. Lobell's Zur Beurtheilung des S.
(1818) should still be consulted; there are also treatises by T. Vogel
(1857) and M. Jager (1879 and 1884), T. Rambeau (1879); L.
Constans, De sermone Sallustiano (1880); P. Bellezza, Dei fonti e
dell' autorild storica di Sallustio (1891); and special lexicon by
O. Eichert (1885). The sections in Teuffel-Schwabe's History of
Roman Literature are full of information; see also bibliography of
Sallust for 1878-1898 by B. Maurenbrecher in C. Bursian, Jahres-
bericht iiber die Fortschritte der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft
(1900).
SALMASIUS, CLAUDIUS, the Latinized name of CLAUDE
SAUMAISE (1588-1653), French classical scholar, born at Semur-
en-Auxois in Burgundy on the I5th of April 1588. His father,
a counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, sent him, at the age of
sixteen, to Paris, where he became intimate with Casaubon.
He proceeded in 1606 to the university of Heidelberg, where he
devoted himself to the classics.
Here he embraced Protestantism, the religion of his mother; and
his first publication (1608) was an edition of a work by NilusCabasilas,
archbishop of Thessalonica, in the I4th century, against the primacy
of the pope (De primatu Papae), and of a similar tract by the Cala-
brian monk Barlaam (d. c. 1348). In 1609 he brought out an edition
of Florus. He then returned to Burgundy, and qualified for the
succession to his father's post, which he eventually lost on account of
his religion. In 1620 he published Casaubon's notes on the Augustan
History, with copious additions of his own. In 1623 he married Anne
Mercier, a Protestant lady of a distinguished family; the union
was by no means a happy one, his wife being represented as a second
Xanthippe. In 1629 Salmasius produced his magnum opus as a
critic, his commentary on Solinus's Polyhislor, or rather on Pliny, to
whom Solinus is indebted for the most important part of his work.
Greatly as this commentary may have been overrated by his con-
temporaries, it is a monument of learning and industry. Salmasius
learned Arabic to qualify himself for the botanical part of his task.
After declining overtures from Oxford, Padua and Bologna, in 1631
he accepted the professorship formerly held by Joseph Scaliger at
Leiden. Although the appointment in many ways suited him, he
found the climate trying; and he was persistently attacked by a
jealous clique, led by Daniel Heinsius, who as university librarian
refused him access to the books he wished to consult. Shortly after
his removal to Holland, he composed at the request of Prince
Frederick of Nassau, his treatise on the military system of the Romans
(De re militari Romanorum), which was not published until 1657.
Other works followed, mostly philological, but including a denuncia-
tion of wigs and hair-powder, and a vindication of moderate and
lawful interest for money, which, although it drew down upon him
many expostulations from lawyers and theologians, induced the
Dutch Church to admit money-lenders to the sacrament. His
treatise De primatu Papae (1645), accompanying a republication of
the tract of Nilus Cabasilas, excited a warm controversy in France,
but the government declined to suppress it.
In November 1649 appeared the work by which Salmasius
is best remembered, his Defensio regia pro Carolo I. His advice
had already been sought on English and Scottish affairs, and,
inclining to Presbyterianism or a modified Episcopacy, he had
written against the Independents. It does not appear by whose
influence he was induced to undertake the Defensio regia, but
Charles II. defrayed the expense of printing, and presented the
author with 100. The first edition was anonymous, but the
author was universally known. A French translation which
speedily appeared under the name of Claude Le Gros was the
work of Salmasius himself. This celebrated work, in our day
principally famous for the reply it provoked from Milton, even
in its own time added little to the reputation of the author. His
reply to Milton, which he left unfinished at his death, and which
was published by his son in 1660, is insipid as well as abusive.
Until the appearance of Milton's rejoinder in March 1651 the
effect of the Defensio was no doubt considerable; and it probably
helped to procure him the flattering invitation from Queen
Christina which induced him to visit Sweden in 1650. Christina
loaded him with gifts and distinctions, but upon the appearance
of Milton's book was unable to conceal her conviction that he
had been worsted by his antagonist. Milton, addressing Christina
herself, ascribes Salmasius's withdrawal from Sweden in 1651
to mortification at this affront, but this appears to be negatived
by the warmth of Christina's subsequent letters and her pressing
invitation to return. The claims of the university of Leiden and
dread of a second Swedish winter seem fully adequate motives.
Nor is there any foundation for the belief that Milton's invectives
hastened his death, which took place on the 3rd of September
1653, from an injudicious use of the Spa waters.
As a commentator and verbal critic, Salmasius is entitled to very
high rank. His notes on the Augustan History and Solinus display
not only massive erudition but massive good sense as well; his
perception of the meaning of his author is commonly very acute,
and his corrections of the text are frequently highly felicitous.
His manly independence was shown in many circumstances, and the
bias of his mind was liberal and sensible. He was accused of sour-
ness of temper; but the charge, if it had any foundation, is extenu-
ated by the wretched condition of his health.
The life of Salmasius was written at great length by Philibert de
la Mare, counsellor of the parlement of Dijon, who inherited his MSS.
from his son. Papillon says that this biography left nothing to
desire, but it has never been printed. It was, however, used by
Papillon himself, whose account of Salmasius in UsBibliotheque des
auteurs de Bourgogne (Dijon, 1745) is by far the best extant, and con-
tains an exhaustive list of his works, both printed and in MS. There
is an eloge by A. Clement prefixed to his edition of Salmasius's
Letters (Leiden, 1656), and another by C. B. Morisot, inserted in his
own Letters (Dijon, 1656). See also E. Haag, La France protestante,
(ix. 149-173); and, for the Defensio regia, G. Masson's Life of
Milton.
SALMERON Y ALFONSO, NICOLAS (1838-1908), Spanish
statesman, was born at Alhama la Seca in the province of Almeria,
on the loth of April 1838. He was educated at Granada and
became assistant professor of literature and philosophy at
Madrid. The last years of the reign of Isabella II. were times
of growing discontent with her bad government and with the
monarchy. Salmeron joined the small party who advocated
the establishment of a republic. He was director of the Opposi-
tion paper La Discusion, and co-operated with Don Emilio
Castelar on La Democracia. In 1865 he was named one of the
members of the directing committee of the Republican party.
In 1867 he was imprisoned with other suspects. When the
revolution of September 1868 broke out, he was at Almeria
recovering from a serious illness. Salmeron was elected to the
Cortes in 1871, and though he did not belong to the Socialist
party, defended its right to toleration. When Don Amadeo of
Savoy resigned the Spanish crown on the nth of February 1873
Salmeron was naturally marked out to be a leader of the party
which endeavoured to establish a republic in Spain. After
serving as minister of justice in the Figueras cabinet, he was
chosen president of the Cortes, and then, on the i8th of July
1873, president of the republic, in succession to Pi Margall.
He became president at a time when the Federalist party had
thrown all the south of Spain into anarchy. Salmeron was
compelled to use the troops to restore order. When, however,
he found that the generals insisted on executing rebels taken in
arms, he resigned on the ground that he was opposed to capital
punishment (7th September). He resumed his seat as president
of the Cortes on the 8th of September. His successor, Castelar,
was compelled to restore order by drastic means. Salmeron
took part in the attack made on him in the Cortes on the 3rd of
January 1874, which provoked the generals into closing the
SALMON, G. SALMON AND SALMONIDAE
chamber and establishing a provisional military government
Salmeron went into exile and remained abroad till 1881, when
he was recalled by Sagasta. In 1886 he was elected to the
Cortes as Progressive deputy for Madrid, and unsuccessfully
endeavoured to combrne the jarring republican factions into a
party of practical moderate views. On the i8th of April 1907
he was shot at, but not wounded, in the streets of Barcelona
by a member of the more extreme Republican party. He died
at Pau on the 2ist of September 1908.
SALMON, GEORGE (1810-1904), British mathematician and
divine, was born in Dublin on the 25th of September 1819 and
educated at Trinity College in that city. Having become
senior moderator in mathematics and a fellow of Trinity, he
took holy orders, and was appointed regius professor of divinity
in Dublin University in 1866, a position which he retained
until 1888, when he was chosen provost of Trinity College. He
was provost until his death on the 22nd of January 1904. As
a mathematician Salmon was a fellow of the Royal Society, and
was president of the mathematical and physical section of the
British Association in 1878. He was a D.C.L. of Oxford and an
LL.D. of Cambridge.
His published mathematical works include: Analytic Geometry of
Three Dimensions (1862), Treatise on Conic Sections (4th ed., 1863)
and Treatise on the Higher Plane Curves (2nd ed., 1873); these
books are of the highest value, and have been translated into several
languages. As a theologian he wrote Historical Introduction to the
Study of the New Testament (1885), The Infallibility of the Church
(1888), Non- Miraculous Christianity (1881) and The Reign of Law
(1873)-
SALMON and SALMONIDAE. 1 The Salmonidae are an im-
portant family of fishes belonging to the Malacopterygian
Teleosteans, characterized as follows: Margin of the upper
jaw formed by the premaxillaries and the maxillaries supra-
occipital in contact with the frontals, but frequently overlapped
by the parietals, which may meet in a sagittal suture; opercular
bones all well developed. Ribs sessile, parapophyses very short
or absent; epineurals, sometimes also epipleurals, present.
Post-temporal forked, the upper branch attached to the epiotic,
the lower to the opisthotic; postclavicle, as usual, applied to the
inner side of the clavicle. A small adipose dorsal fin. Air-bladder
usually present, large. Oviducts rudimentary or absent, the
ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before extrusion.
The Salmonidae are very closely related to the Clupeidae, or
herring family, from which they are principally distinguished
by the position of the postclavicle and by the presence of a
rayless fin on the back, at a considerable distance from the true
or rayed dorsal fin; this so-called adipose fin is an easy recogni-
tion-mark of this family, so far as British waters are concerned,
for, if it is present in several other families, these have no repre-
sentatives in the area occupied by the fresh-water salmonids,
with the exception of the North American Siluridae and Percop-
sidae, which are readily distinguished by the pungent spine or
spines which precede the rays of the first dorsal fin. The imper-
fect condition of the oviducts, quite exceptional among fishes,
owing to which the large ripe eggs may be easily squeezed out of
the abdomen, is a feature of great practical importance, since
it renders artificial impregnation particularly easy, and to it is
due the fact that the species of Salmo have always occupied the
first place in the annals of fish-culture.
The Salmonidae inhabit mostly the temperate and arctic zones
of the northern hemisphere, and this is the case with all fresh-
water forms, with one exception, Retropinna, a smelt-like fish
from the coasts and rivers of New Zealand. A few deep-sea
forms (Argentina, Microstoma, Nansenia, Balhylagus) are known
from the Arctic ocean, the Mediterranean and the Antarctic
ocean, down to 2000 fathoms. The question has been discussed
whether the salmonids, so many of which live in the sea, but
resort to rivers for breeding purposes, were originally marine or
fresh-water. The balance of opinion is in favour of the former
hypothesis, which is supported by the fact that the overwhelm-
ing majority of the members of the suborder of which the
salmonids form part permanently inhabit the sea. The clupeids,
1 The Latin name salmo possibly means literally " the leaper,"
from salire, to leap, jump.
for instance, which are their nearest allies, are certainly of
marine origin, as proved by their abundance in Cretaceous seas,
yet a few, like the shads, ascend rivers to spawn, in the same way
as the salmon does, without this ever having been adduced as
evidence in favour of a fresh-water origin of the genus Clupea to
which they belong.
No remains older than Miocene (Osmerus, Frothy mallus,
Thaumaturus) are certainly referable to this family, the various
Cretaceous forms originally referred to it, such as Osmeroides
and Pachyrhizodus, being now placed with the Elopidae. There
is probably no other group of fishes to which so much attention
has been paid as to the Salmonidae, and the species have been
unduly multiplied by some writers. Perhaps not more than 80
should be regarded as valid, but some of them fall into a number
of local forms which are distinguished as varieties or subspecies
by some authors, whilst others would assign them full specific
rank. These differences of opinion prevail whether we deal with
Salmo proper or with Coregonus.
Classification. The recent genera may be arranged in five groups:
The first, which includes Salmo, Brachymystax , Stenodus, Coregonus,
Phylogephyra and Thymallus, has 8 to 20 branchiostegal rays, 9 to
13 rays in the ventral fin, the pyloric appendages more or less
numerous (17 to 200) and breeding takes place in fresh water.
The second group, ,with the single genus Argentina, is, like the follow-
ing, marine, and is characterized by 6 branchiostegal rays, n to 14
ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages in moderate
numbers (12 to 20). The third group, genera Osmerus, Thaleichthys ,
Mallotus, Plecoglossus, Hypomesus, has 6 to 10 branchiostegal rays,
6 to 8 ventral rays, the stomach caecal, with pyloric appendages few
(2 to i i) or rather numerous. The fourth group, genera Microstoma,
Nansenia, Bathylagus, deep-sea forms with the branchiostegal rays
reduced to 3 or 4, ventral rays 8 to 10, the stomach caecal and
pyloric appendages absent ; whilst the fifth group, with the genera
Retropinna and Salanx, is distinguished from the preceding in having
no air-bladder, branchiostegal rays 3 to 6, ventral rays 6 or 7,
stomach siphonal and pyloric appendages absent.
The genus Salmo, the most important from the economical and
sporting points of view, is characterized by small smooth scales,
which at certain seasons may become embedded in the slimy skin, a
moderately high dorsal fin with 10 to 12 well-developed rays, and a
large mouth provided with strong teeth, which are present not only
in the jaws and on the palate, but also on the tongue, the maxillary
or posterior bone of the upper jaw extends to below or beyond the
eye. Young specimens (see PARR) are marked with dark vertical
bars on the sides (parr-marks), which in some trout are retained
throughout life, and have the caudal fin more or less deeply forked
or marginate, the form of the fin changing with the age and sexual
development of the fish. Adult males have the jaws more produced
in front than females, and both snout and chin may become curved
and hooked. As pointed out by A. Gunther, who was the first to
make a profound study of the members of this genus, and especially
of the British forms, there is probably no other group of fishes which
offers so many difficulties to the ichthyologist with regard to the
distinction of species, as well as to certain points in their life-history,
the almost infinite variations which they undergo being dependent
on age, sex and sexual development, food and the properties of the
water. The difficulties in their study have rather been increased
by the excessive multiplication of so-called specific forms. Opinions
also vary as to the importance to be attached to the characters
which serve to group trie principal species into natural divisions.
Whilst A. Gunther admitted two genera, Salmo and Oncorhynchus,
D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann go so far as to recognize five,
Oncorhynchus, Salmo, Hucho, Cristivomer and Salvelinus. The latter
arrangement is certainly the more logical, the difference between
the first genus and the second being of rather less importance than
that between the second and the third. However, considering the
slightness of the distinctive characters on which these divisions are
based, and the complete passage which obtains between them, the
writer of this article thinks it best to maintain the genus Salmo in
the wide sense, whilst retaining the divisions as subordinate divisions
or sub-genera, with the following definitions:
Oncorhynchus (Pacific salmon). Vomer flat, toothed along the
shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 12 to 17 well-developed
rays.
Salmo (true salmon and trout). Vomer flat, toothed along the
shaft, at least in the young; anal fin with 8 to 12 well-developed rays.
Salvelinus (char). Vomer boat-shaped, the shaft strongly de-
Dressed behind the head, which alone is toothed, the teeth forming
an isolated fascicle; anal fin with 8 to 10 well-developed rays.
Hucho (huchens). Vomer as in the preceding, but teeth forming a
single arched transverse series continuous with the palatine teeth;
anal fin with 8 to 10 well-developed rays.
The salmon itself (Salmo salar), the type of the family, is a
arge fish, attaining a length of 4 or 5 ft., and living partly in the
SALMON AND SALMONIDAE
sea, partly in fresh water, breeding in the latter. Fish which thus
ascend rivers to spawn are called " anadromous." It may be
briefly defined as of silvery coloration, with small black spots
usually confined to the side above the lateral line, with the teeth
on the shaft of the vomer disappearing in the adult, with 18 to
22 gill-rakers on the first branchial arch, with n or 12 well-
developed rays in the dorsal fin, no to 125 scales in the lateral
line, and n or 12 (exceptionally 13) between the latter and the
posterior border of the adipose fin. The young, called "parr"
or "samlet," characterized by a smaller mouth, the maxillary
bone not extending much beyond the vertical of the centre of the
eye, the presence of an alternating double or zigzag series of teeth
on the shaft of the vomer, the presence of dark vertical bars on
the sides of the body, together with more or less numerous small
red spots, is hatched in the spring, and usually remains for about
two years in the rivers, descending at the third spring to the sea,
where it is known as "smolt." In the sea it soon assumes a
more uniform silvery coloration and from this state, or " grilse,"
develops its sexual organs and re-enters rivers to breed, after
which operation, much emaciated and unwholesome as food, it is
known as " kelt," and returns to the sea to recuperate. It has
now been ascertained by the investigations instituted in Norway
by K. Dahl that the smolts, immediately after leaving the rivers,
make for the open sea, and do not return to the coast until
they have reached the grilse stage. Thus specimens measuring
between 8 and 18 in. hardly ever fall into the hands of the angler.
The salmon inhabits the North Atlantic and its tributary
waters. It is known to extend as far north as Scandinavia,
Lapland, Iceland, Greenland and Labrador, and as far south as
the north-west of Spain and the state of Connecticut. It ascends
the Rhine as far as Basel. There are land-locked forms in
Scandinavia and in Canada and Maine, which are regarded by
some authors as distinct species (5. hardinii from Lake Wener,
5. sebago from Sebago Lake in Maine, 5. ouananiche from Lake
St John, Canada and neighbouring waters). These non-
migratory forms are smaller than the typical salmon, never
exceeding a weight of 25 Ib, the ouananiche, the smallest of all,
rarely weighing iffi> and averaging 35. Although spending their
whole life in fresh waters, the habits of these fish are very similar
to those of the sea salmon, ascending tributary streams to spawn
in their higher ranges, and then returning to the deep parts of
the lakes, which are to them what the sea is to the anadromous
salmonids.
The salmon breeds in the shallow running waters of the upper
streams of the rivers it ascends. The female, when about to deposit
her eggs, scoops out a trough in the gravel of the bed of the stream.
This she effects by lying on her side and ploughing into the gravel
by energetic motions of her body. She then deposits her eggs in
the trough; while she is engaged in these operations she is attended
by a male, who sheds milt over the eggs as the female extrudes them,
fertilization being, as in the great majority of Teleostei, external.
The parent fish then fill up the trough and heap up the gravel over
the eggs until these are covered to a depth of some feet. The gravel
heap thus formed is called a " redd." The period of the year at
which spawning takes place in the British Isles, and in similar
latitudes of the northern hemisphere, varies to a certain extent with
the locality, and in a given locality may vary in different years;
but, with rare exceptions, spawning is confined to the period between
the beginning of September and the middle of January.
The eggs are spherical and non-adhesive; they are heavier than
water, and are moderately tough and elastic. The size varies
slightly with the age of the parent fish, those from full-sized females
being slightly larger than those from very young fish. According
to rough calculations made at salmon-breeding establishments, there
are 25,000 eggs to a gallon ; the diameter is about a quarter of an inch.
It is usually estimated that a female salmon produces about 900 eggs
for each pound of her own weight; but this average is often exceeded.
The time between fertilization and hatching, or the escape of
the young fish from the egg-membrane, varies considerably with
the temperature to which the eggs are exposed. It has been found
that at a constant temperature of 41 F. the period is 97 days;
but the period may be as short as 70 days and as long as 150 days
without injury to the health of the embryo. It follows therefore
that in the natural conditions eggs deposited in the autumn are
hatched in the early spring. The newly hatched fish, or " alevin,"
is provided with a very large yolk-sac, and by the absorption of
the yolk is nourished for some time; although its mouth is fully
formed and open, it takes no food. The alevin stage lasts for about
six weeks, and at the end of it the young fish is about ij in. long.
The grilse, after spawning in autumn, return again to the sea in
the winter or following spring, and reascend the rivers as mature
spawning salmon in the following year. Both salmon and grilse
after spawning are called " kelts.' The following recorded experi-
ment illustrates the growth of grilse into salmon: a grilse-kelt
of 2 Ib was marked on March 31, 1858, and recaptured on August 2
of the same year as a salmon of 81b.
The ascent of rivers by adult salmon is not so regular as that
of grilse, and the knowledge of the subject is not complete. Although
salmon scarcely ever spawn before the month of September, they do
not ascend in shoals just before that season; the time of ascent
extends throughout the spring and summer. A salmon newly
arrived in fresh water from the sea is called a clean salmon, on account
of its bright, well-fed appearance; during their stay in the rivers the
fish lose the brilliancy of their scales and deteriorate in condition.
The time of year at which clean salmon ascend from the sea varies
greatly in different rivers; and rivers are, in relation to this subject,
usually denominated early or late. The Scottish rivers flowing into
the German Ocean and Pentland Firth are almost all early, while
those of the Atlantic slope are late. The Thurso in Caithness and
the Naver in Sutherlandshire contain fresh-run salmon in December
and January; the same is the case with the Tay. In Yorkshire
salmon commence their ascent in July, August or September if the
season is wet, but if it is dry their migration is delayed till the
autumn rains set in. In all rivers more salmon ascend immediately
after a spate or flood than when the river is low, and more with the
flood tide than during the ebb. In their ascent salmon are able to
pass obstructions, such as waterfalls and weirs of considerable
height, and the leaps they make in surmounting such impediments
and the persistence of their efforts are very remarkable.
We reproduce here, with additions, Professor Noel Paton's
summary (published first in the loth edition of this Encyclopaedia)
of observations on the life-history of the salmon. Important ad-
vances in our knowledge of the life-history of the salmon have been
made through the investigations of Professor F. Miescher on the
Rhine at Basel, of Professor P. P. C. Hoek in Holland, of Mr Archer
as lessee of the river Sands in Norway and as inspector of salmon
fisheries for Scotland in conjunction with Messrs Gray and Tosh,
and of a number of workers in the laboratory of the Royal College
of Physicians of Edinburgh. With regard to the food of salmon,
the enormously rapid growth of smolts to grilse and of salmon from
year to year shows that they feed in the sea. In a few months a
smolt will increase from a few ounces to 4 or 5 Ib; while Archer's
weighings of 1 6 salmon which had been marked and recaptured in
the following year showed an average gain of 36%, reckoned on
from kelt stage to kelt stage. During the season of 1895 Tosh, at
Berwick-on-Tweed, opened between March and August 514 fish,
and found food in the stomachs of 76, or over 14% of the whole.
As to the nature of the food, it was found to be as follows:
. 36 or 47%
18%
H%
10%
97-
Herring
Crustacea, amphipods, &c 14
Sand eels 1 1
Haddock and whiting 8
Feathers and vegetable matter ... 7
Excluding the feathers and vegetable matter, which are not really
of the nature of food, all the material found in the stomach was of
marine origin. Hoek, out of 2000 fish examined by him, found 7
with food in the stomach, and, curiously enough, 4 of these were
taken on the same day. In each case marine fish constituted the
food. As to where salmon go to feed in the sea, our information
is still very deficient, but the prevalence of herring in the stomach
would seem to indicate that they must follow the shoals of these
fish which approach the coast during the summer months. While
there can be no doubt that salmon feed in the sea, the question of
whether they feed in fresh water has been much debated. It is
difficult for the popular mind to conceive of an active fish like the
salmon subsisting for several months without food, and the fact that
the fish so frequently not only takes into its mouth but actually
swallows worms and various lures has still further tended to confirm
many people in the conviction that salmon do feed in fresh water?
In discussing the question it is well clearly to understand what is
meant by feeding. It is the taking, digesting and absorbing of
material of use in the economy in such quantities as to be of benefit
to the individual. Accepting this definition, it may at once be said
that all the evidence we possess is entirely opposed to the view that
salmon feed when in fresh water. Miescher examined the stomachs
of about 2000 salmon captured at Basel, about 500 m. from the
mouth of the Rhine, and in only two did he find any indication of
feeding. These two fish were male kelts. One contained the
remains of a cyprinoid fish, and the other had a dilated stomach
with an acid secretion, but no food remains. Hoek, who, as already
stated, examined about 2000 fish, found food of marine origin in 7,
but in none food derived from fresh water. Of the 132 stomachs
of salmon from the estuaries and upper waters of Scottish rivers
examined in the laboratory of the College of Physicians not one
contained any food remains. The stomach of salmon captured in
fresh water is collapsed and shrunken. Its mucous membrane is
thrown into folds, and it contains a small amount of mucus of a
neutral reaction. The intestine, which usually contains numerous
SALMON AND SALMONIDAE
tape- worms, is full of a greenish-yellow viscous material which,
when examined under the microscope, is found to consist of mucus
with shed epithelial and other cells and with masses of crystals of
carbonate of lime. In no case does the microscope reveal any food
remains such as fish-scales, plates of Crustacea or bristles of worms
or annelids. In the fish taken in the estuaries up to the month of
August the gall-bladder is distended ; in those taken later in the year
it is empty. In all the fish from the upper waters the gall-bladder
is empty and collapsed. According to the investigations of Hoek
and of Gulland, the. lining membrane of the stomach and intestine
degenerates while the fish is in the river, but the correctness of these
observations has been denied by F. B. Brown and J. Kingston
Barton. Gillespie finds that the activity of the digestive processes
is low in fish taken from the rivers, and that micro-organisms,
which would be killed by the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice
were it actively secreted, flourish in the intestines of the fish from
the upper waters. Those who believe that the salmon feeds in fresh
water explain the fact that the stomach is always found empty by
the supposition that the fish vomits any food when it is captured,
and several descriptions of cases in which this has been observed
might be quoted; but such observations must be accepted with
caution, and the contracted state of the stomach, the absence of
the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, and lastly the absence
of any traces of digested food remains in the contents of the intestine,
negative this explanation.
The question may be presented in another way. Is there any
reason why the salmon should feed while in fresh water? The
investigations carried on in the laboratory of the College of Physicians
have definitely shown that the salmon leaves the sea with an enormous
supply of nourishment stored in its muscles, and that during its
sojourn in fresh water it gets its energy and builds up its rapidly
growing ovaries and testes from this stored material. Briefly stated,
th"se investigations show that the supply of albuminous material
and fats stored in the muscles and used while the fish is in the river
is amply sufficient for the greatest requirements of the fish. The
amount of energy liberated from the fats and albuminous material
is 570 times more than is required to raise the fish from the level of
the estuary to that of the upper waters! These analyses further
show that all the materials required for the construction of the
ovaries and the testes are found in sufficient quantity in the muscles,
with the exception of iron, which is, however, abundantly present
in the blood.
It is a very common opinion that kelts feed voraciously while
still in fresh water, and this has been used as an argument that they
should be destroyed. It is not easy to bring forward such satis-
factory evidence as has been adduced in the case of unspawned
salmon, since it is illegal to kill kelts; but none of the 25 kelts
procured by the Scottish Fishery Board, and examined in the College
of Physicians' laboratory, contained any food, and Mr Anderson,
formerly of Dunkeld, informs Professor Paton that in the old days,
when kelts were habitually killed when captured, he has opened a
large number and never found any trace of food in the stomach.
Some fishers declare that they have seen kelts devouring salmon fry,
but it is not easy to make accurate observations in deep water.
According to Dr Gulland's investigations, the mucous membrane
of the stomach and intestine is completely regenerated while the
gall-bladder contains bile, and the digestive activity of the alimentary
canal is greater than in salmon before spawning. Kelts thus appear
at least to be capable of feeding.
The rate of growth of the genitalia has been carefully studied by
Miescher, Archer and Hoek. From January till about the end of
May the growth of the ovaries is slow. In Hoek's series of obser-
vations, which are the most complete, they increased from -35 to
85% of the body weight. After this they enlarge more rapidly,
and by the end of August are about 3% in salmon taken at the
mouth of the Tweed, about 4% in the salmon from the mouth of
the Rhine and about 8% in the salmon from the Basel fisheries.
By November they have risen to 20% in the Tweed and in Holland,
and to 23 % in the upper reaches of the Rhine. According to
Archer's observations, the development of the ovaries in grilse in
the earlier months somewhat lags behind that in the salmon. The
growth of the testes has been chiefly investigated by Archer and
Tosh in the Tweed and by Miescher at Basel. From March to the
middle of July in the Tweed these organs increase from about -ip
to -35% of the weight of the fish. In July their rate of growth
increases, and they reach their maximum development at the end
of September, when they are about 6% of the body weight. In
the Rhine in March they weigh about I %, and they reach their
maximum development of about 5% in October.
What leads to the migration of salmon from sea to river and river
to sea ? It is usually supposed that they come to the river to
spawn; that it is the nisus generativus that drives them from the
sea, where their ova will not develop, to the fresh water where develop-
ment is possible. But it is found that salmon are passing from sea
to river at all seasons of the year, and with their genitalia in all
stages of development some fish, running in March with ovaries
only i % of the body weight, other fish not running till October
with ovaries 15 or 16% of the body weight. It is difficult, then, to
accept the theory that the sexual act is the governing factor. That
it is a secondary factor seems to be indicated by the great run of
May
July
Oct.
Nov. 1
Feb.
Mar.
April.
and
and
and
Kelts.
June.
Aug.
Nov.
Muscles
2481
2214
2355
2599
2210
2270
1750
946
Ovaries
23
24
24
33
47
72
545
9
Total
2504
2238
2379
2632
2257
2342
2295
955
fish in June, July and August, when the genitalia are most rapidly
growing. There is one respect, however, in which all the fish
leaving the sea for the river agree, and that is in the amount of stored
material accumulated in their bodies. In the early running fish this
material is largely confined to the muscles, but in the later coming
fish it is more eqitally distributed between muscles and genitalia.
The amount of stored material may be measured by the amount of
solids, and if we express the results of all the fish examined in terms
of fish of uniform size loo cm. in length the following results are
obtained :
It would thus appear that, when the salmon has in the sea accumu-
lated a certain definite amount of nourishment, it ceases to feed,
and returns to the river irrespective of the state of its genital organs.
Nutrition, and not the nisus generativus, appears to be the motive
power. That the fish after spawning returns to the sea in search of
food is fully recognized by all.
Course of Migration. It is well known that while salmon run all
the year through in greater or lesser numbers, the run of grilse takes
place in the summer months, from May to August. But it is further
possible to divide the salmon into classes the so-called winter
salmon of the Rhine, large fish running from October to February,
with unripe ovaries and testes; and the summer salmon, running
for the most part from March to October, with genitalia more or less
ripe. These summer fish are small in the early months, but increase
in size as the autumn advances. The winter salmon, along with the
early summer or spring fish, appear to pass directly to the upper
reaches of the river, and to spawn there, while the larger late-coming
fish appear to populate the lower waters. This seems to be indicated
by the comparison of upper-water and estuary fish throughout the
year. The period at which male and female fish enter the rivers
also appears to be somewhat different. The observations of Tosh,
Mtescher and Hoek show that throughout the year the female fish
exceed the males in number, and, secondly, that during the earlier
months of the year female fish run in much larger numbers than do
male fish. It is only in September that anything like an equality
between the two sexes is established. But in Great Britain it is not
until the end of August that the nets are removed, and one cannot
but believe that the destruction of such a very large proportion of
females as are captured during the early months of the season must
have a most prejudicial effect upon the breeding stock.
Rate of Migration. By a comparison of the first appearance of
winter salmon and of grilse in the markets of Holland and of Basel
500 m. up the river Miescher gives some data for the determination
of the average rate at which salmon ascend an unobstructed stream.
It was found that winter salmon appeared at Basel about 54 days
after their appearance in Holland, which would give a rate of passage
of about ip m. per diem. From a smaller number of observations
on grilse, it appears that they travel at a somewhat slower rate.
It is, however, doubtful how far these figures are of value in deciding
the rate at which fish pass up the lower reaches of the river.
Great difficulties have been experienced in ascertaining the age
and rate of growth of salmon. The practice has long ago been
resorted to of " marking " salmon, the most satisfactory mark
being a small oblong silver label, oxidized or blackened, bearing
distinctive letters and numbers, to the dorsal fin. But of late the
structure of the scales has been studied with the object of obtaining
indications of the age, growth and spawning habit. H. W. Johnston
in 1905 contributed an interesting paper on the subject. The
scales bear concentric lines, which vary in number and relative
distance according to the growth of the fish, and during the feeding
periods these lines are added with more rapidity and a greater degree
of separation than at other times. Johnston has endeavoured to
ascertain their meaning in Tay salmon, and he has shown that the
number of lines external to their last annual ring gives some clue to
the time at which they left the sea; he is thus able to distinguish
among ascending salmon such as are on their first return from such
as have made the journey once or oftener before.
The group of Pacific salmon, or king salmon, commonly desig-
nated as Oncorhynchus, contains the largest and commercially the
most important of the Salmonidae. They are anadromous species
inhabiting the North Pacific and entering the rivers of America as
well as of Asia. The best known and most valuable is the quinnat
(5. quinnat), ascending the large rivers in spring and summer,
spawning from July to December. They die after the breeding
season is over, and never return to the sea. For the important Sal-
monidae known as TROUT, CHAR,WHITEFISH,SMELT,GRAYLING,&C.,
see the separate articles. The huchen (5. hucho) of the Danube is
an elongate, somewhat pike-like form, growing to the same size
1 Winter fish not due to spawn till following November.
SALMONEUS SALONICA
as the salmon, of silvery coloration, with numerous small black dots,
extending on the dorsal fin. Allied to it are 5. fluviatilis from
Siberia and S. perryi or blackistoni from the northern island of Japan.
The genus Stenodus is intermediate between Salmo and Cpregonus
(whitefish). S. leucichthys is an anadromous species, inhabiting the
Caspian Sea and ascending the Volga and the Ural; it is also found
in the Arctic ocean, ascending the Ob, Lena, &c. It grows to a
length of 5 ft. A second species occurs in Arctic North America;
this is the " Inconnu," 5. mackenzii, from the Mackenzie river and
its tributaries.
The capelin (Mallotus mllosus, so called from the villous bands
formed by the scales of mature males) is a salmonid of the coasts of
Arctic America and north-eastern Asia; it deposits its eggs in the
sand along the shores in incredible numbers, the beach becoming
a quivering mass of eggs and sand. Plecoglossus, a salmonid from
Japan and Formosa, is highly remarkable for its lamellar, comb-like,
lateral teeth. The siel-smelts, Argentina, are deep-sea salmonids,
of which examples have occasionally been taken off the coasts of
Scotland and Ireland. Bathylagus,^ another salmonid discovered by
the " Challenger " expedition, is still better adapted for life at great
depths (down to 1700 fathoms), the eyes being of enormous size.
AUTHORITIES. On the systematic and life histories : A. Giinther,
Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum, vol. vi. (1866) ; F. Day,
British and Irish Salmonidae (London, 1887); F. A. Smitt, Kritisk
Forteckning ofver de i Riksmuseum befintliga Salmonider (Stockholm,
1886); V. Fatio, Faune des vertebres de la Suisse, vol. v. (1890);
D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann, Fishes of North America, vol. i.
(1896), and American Food and Game Fishes (London and New York,
1902); F. F. Kavraisky, Die Lachse der Kaukasuslander (Tiflis,
1896). On growth and migrations: Die hislochemischen und physio-
logischen Arbeiten von Friedrich Miescher, Band ii., pp. 116, 192,
304, 325 (Leipzig, 1897); P. P. C. Hoek, Statische und biologische
Untersuchungen an in den Niederlandern gefangenen Lachsen (Char-
lottenburg, 1895) ; Annual Reports of the Fishery Board for Scotland,
part ii., " Report on Salmon Fisheries," Nos. II, 12, 13, 14 (1893-
1 894-95-96) ; Report of Investigations on the Life-History of the Salmon
to the Fishery Board for Scotland, edited by Noel Paton, presented
to parliament and published 1898; K. Dahl, Orret og unglo.hs samt
lovgivningens forhold til dem (Christiania, 1902) ; H. W. Johnston,
" The Scales of Tay Salmon as indicative of Age, Growth and
Spawning Habit," Ann. Rep. Fish. Board, Scotland, xxiii., appendix ii.
(1905). Introduction in Tasmania and New Zealand: M. Allport,
Proc. Zool. Soc. (1870), pp. 14 and 750; A. Nichol, Acclimatization
of the Salmonidae at the Antipodes (London, 1882); W. Arthur,
" History of Fish Culture in New Zealand," Tr. N. Zeal. Inst. xiv.
(1881) p. 180; P. S. Seager, " Concise History of the Acclimatization
of the Salmonids in Tasmania," Proc. R. Soc. Tasm. (1888) p. I ;
also R. M. Johnston, I.e. p. 27. On the salmon disease: T. H.
Huxley, Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci. xxii. (1882) p. 311. (G. A. B.)
SALMONEUS, in Greek mythology, son of Aeolus (king of
Magnesia in Thessaly, the mythic ancestor of the Aeolian race),
grandson of Hellen and brother of Sisyphus. He removed to
Elis, where he built the town of Salmone, and became ruler of the
country. His subjects were ordered to worship him under the
name of Zeus; he built a bridge of brass, over which he drove
at full speed in his chariot to imitate thunder, the effect being
heightened by dried skins and caldrons trailing behind, while
torches were thrown into the air to represent lightning. At last
Zeus smote him with his thunderbolt, and destroyed the town
(Apollodorus i. 9. 7; Hyginus, Fab. 60, 61; Strabo viii.
p. 356; Manilius, Astronom. 5, 91; Virgil, Aen. vi. 585, with
Heyne's excursus). Joseph Warton's idea that the story is
introduced by Virgil as a protest against the Roman custom of
deification is not supported by the general tone of the Aeneid
itself. According to Frazer (Early History of the Kingship, 1905 ;
see also Golden Bough, i., 1900, p. 82), the early Greek kings,
who were expected to produce rain for the benefit of the crops,
were in the habit of imitating thunder and lightning in the
character of Zeus. At Crannon in Thessaly there was a bronze
chariot, which in time of drought was shaken and prayers offered
for rain (Antigonus of Carystus, Historiae mirabiles, 15). S.
Reinach (Revue archeologique, 1903, i. 154) suggests that the
story that Salmoneus was struck by lightning was due to the
misinterpretation of a picture, in which a Thessalian magician
appeared bringing down lightning and rain from heaven ; hence
arose the idea that he was the victim of the anger or jealousy of
Zeus, and that the picture represented his punishment.
SALOME, in Jewish history the name borne by several women
of the Herod dynasty, (i) Sister of Herod the Great, who became
the wife successively of Joseph, Herod's uncle, Costobar, governor
of Idumaea, and a certain Alexas. (2) Daughter of Herod by
Elpis, his eighth wife. (3) Daughter of Herodias by her first
husband Herod Philip. She was the wife successively of Philip
the Tetrarch and Aristobulus, son of Herod of Chalcis. This
Salome is the only one of the three who is mentioned in the
New Testament (Matt. xiv. 3 sqq.; Mark vi. i7sqq.) and only in
connexion with the execution of John the Baptist. Herod
Antipas, pleased by her dancing, offered her a reward " unto
the half of my kingdom "; instructed by Herodias, she asked
for John the Baptist's " head in a- charger ' u (see HEROD II.
ANTIPAS).
Salome is also the name of one of the women who are mentioned
as present at the Crucifixion (Mark xv. 40), and afterwards in
the Sepulchre (xvi. i). Comparison with Matt, xxvii. 56 suggests
that she was also the wife of Zebedee (cf. Matt. xx. 20-23).
It is further conjectured that she was a sister of Mary the mother
of Jesus, in which case James and John would be cousins of
Jesus. In the absence of specific evidence any such identifica-
tion must be regarded with suspicion.
SALON, a town of south-eastern France, in the department of
Bouches-du-Rhone, 40 m. N.N.W. of Marseilles by rail. Pop.
(1906), town, 9927; commune, 14,050. Salon is situated on the
eastern border of the plain of Crau and on the irrigation canal
of Craponne, the engineer of which, Adam de Craponne (1510-
1559, has a statue in the town, where he was born. The chief
buildings are the church of St Laurent (i4th century), which
contains the tomb of Michael Nostradamus, the famous astrologer,
who died at Salon in 1565, and the church of St Michel (i2th
century), with a fine Romanesque portal. The central and oldest
part of the town preserves a gateway of the isth century and
the remains of fortifications. There are remains of Roman walls
near Salon, and in the hotel-de-ville (i?th century) there is a
milestone of the 4th century. The town carries on an active
trade in oil and soap, which are the chief of its numerous manu-
factures. Olives are largely grown in the district, and there is
a large trade in them and in almonds.
SALONICA, SALONIKA or SALONIKI (anc. Tkessalonica, Turkish
Selanik, Slav. Solun); the capital of the Turkish vilayet of
Salonica, in western Macedonia, and one of the principal seaports
of south-western Europe. Pop. (1905) about 130,000, including
some 60,000 Sephardic Jews, whose ancestors fled hither in the
1 6th century to escape religious persecution in Spain and
Portugal: their language is a corrupt form of Spanish, called
Ladino (i.e. Latin), and spoken to some extent by other com-
munities in the city. Salonica lies on the west side of the Chalcidic
peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Salonica (Sinus Thermaicus),
on a fine bay whose southern edge is formed by the Calamerian
heights, while its northern and western side is the broad alluvial
plain produced by the discharge of the Vardar and the Bistritza,
the principal rivers of western Macedonia. Built partly on the
low ground along the edge of the bay and partly on the hill to
the north (a compact mass of mica schist), the city with its white
houses enclosed by white walls runs up along natural ravines
to the castle of the Heptapyrgion, or Seven Towers, and is
rendered picturesque by numerous domes and minarets and the
foliage of elms, cypresses and mulberry trees. The commercial
quarter of the town, lying to the north-west, towards the great
valleys by which the inland traffic is conveyed, is pierced by broad
and straight streets paved with lava. There are electric tram-
ways and a good water-supply, but most of the older houses
are fragile wooden structures coated with lime or mud, and the
sanitation is defective. Apart from churches, mosques and
synagogues, there are a few noteworthy modern buildings, such
as the Ottoman Bank, the baths, quarantine station, schools
and hospitals; but the chief architectural interest of Salonica
is centred in its Roman and Byzantine remains.
Antiquities. The Via Egnatia of the Romans (mod. Jassijol
or Grande Rue de Vardar) traverses the city from east to west,
between the Vardar Gate and the Calamerian Gate. Two Roman
triumphal arches used to span the Via Egnatia. The arch near
the Vardar Gate a massive stone structure probably erected
towards the end of the ist century A.D., was destroyed in 1867
1 Charger, a large flat plate (see CHARGE).
86
SALONICA
to furnish material for repairing the city walls; an imperfect
inscription from it is preserved in the British Museum. The other
arch, popularly called-the arch of Constantine, but with greater
probability assigned to the reign of Galerius (A.D. 305-311),
is built of brick and partly faced with sculptured marble. A
third example of Roman architecture the remains of a white
marble portico supposed to have formed the entrance to the
hippodrome is known by the Judaeo-Spanish designation of
Las Incantadas, from the eight Caryatides in the upper part
of the structure. There are also numerous fragments of Roman
inscriptions and statuary. The conspicuous mosques of Salonica
are nearly all of an early Christian origin; the remarkable
preservation of their mural decorations makes them very im-
portant for the history of Byzantine architecture. The principal
are those dedicated to St Sophia, St George and St Demetrius.
St Sophia (Aya Sofia), formerly the cathedral, and probably
erected in the 6th century by Justinian's architect Anthemius, was
converted into a mosque in 1589. It is cased with slabs of white
marble. The whole length of the interior is _no ft. The nave,
forming a Greek cross, is surmounted by a hemispherical dome, the
600 sq. yds. of which are covered with a rich mosaic representing
the Ascension. St Demetrius, which is probably older than the time
of Justinian, consists of a long nave and two side aisles, each ter-
minating eastward in an atrium the full height of the nave, in a
style not known to occur in any other church. The columns of the
aisles are half the height of those in the nave. The internal decoration
is all produced by slabs of different-coloured marbles. St George's,
conjecturally assigned to the reign of Constantine (d. 337), is circular
in plan, measuring internally 80 ft. in diameter. The external wall
is 1 8 ft. thick, and at the angles of an inscribed octagon are chapels
formed in the thickness of the wall, and roofed with wagon-headed
vaults visible on the exterior; the eastern chapel, however, is en-
larged and developed into a bema and apse projecting beyond the
circle, and the western and southern chapels constitute the two
entrances of the building. The dome, 72 yds. in circumference, is
covered throughout its entire surface of 800 sq. yds. with what
is the largest work in ancient mosaic still extant, representing a series
of fourteen saints standing in the act of adoration in front of temples
and colonnades. The Eski Juma, or Old Mosque, is another interest-
ing basilica, evidently later than Constantine, with side aisles and
an apse without side chapels. The churches of the Holy Apostles
and of St Elias also deserve mention. Of the secular buildings,
the Caravanserai, usually attributed to Murad II. (1422-1451),
probably dates from Byzantine times.
Salonica is the see of an Orthodox Greek archbishop. Each
religious community has its own schools and places of worship, among
the most important being the Jewish high-school, the Greek and
Bulgarian gymnasia, the Jesuit college, a high-school founded in
1860 and supported by the Jewish Mission of the Established
Church of Scotland, a German school, dating from 1887, and a
college for boys and a secondary school for girls, both managed by
the French Mission La'ique and subsidized since 1905 by the French
government.
Railways, Harbour and Commerce. Salonica is the principal
Aegean seaport of the Balkan Peninsula, the centre of the import
trade of all Macedonia and two-thirds of Albania, and the natural
port of shipment for the products of an even larger area. It is the
terminus of four railways. One line goes north to Nish in Servia,
where it meets the main line (Paris- Vienna-Constantinople) of the
Oriental railways; another, after following the same route as far as
I -.kul i in Macedonia, branches off to Mitrovitza in Albania; the
extension of this line to Serajevo in Bosnia was projected in 1908
in order to establish direct communication between Austria and
Salonica. A third line, intended ultimately to reach the Adriatic,
extends westward from Salonica to Monastir. A fourth, the Con-
stantinople junction railway to Constantinople, is of great strategic
importance; during the war with Greece in 1897 it facilitated the
rapid concentration of Ottoman troops on the borders of Thessaly,
and in 1908 it helped to secure the triumph of the Young Turks by
bringing the regiments favourable to their propaganda within
striking distance of Constantinople.
The new harbour, which was opened to navigation in December
1901, allows the direct transhipment of all merchandise whatever
may be the direction of the wind, which was previously apt to
render shipping operations difficult. The harbour works consist of
a breakwater 1835 ft. long, with 28 ft. depth of water on its landward
side for a width of 492 ft. Opposite the breakwater is a quay
'475 ft- long, which was widened in 19031907 to a breadth of
306 ft. ; at each end of the quay a pier 656 ft. long projects into the
sea. Between the extremities of these two piers and those of the
breakwater are the two entrances to the harbour. The average
number of ships, including small coasters, which entered the port in
each of the three years 1905-1907 was 3400, of 930,000 tons. Salonica
exports grain, flour, bran, silk cocoons, chrome, manganese, iron,
hides and ukins, cattle and sheep, wool, eggs, opium, tobacco and
fennel. The average yearly value of the imports from 1900 to 1905
was 2,500,000, and that of the exports 1,200,000. The imports
consist principally of textiles, iron goods, sugar, tobacco, flour,
coffee and chemicals. The volume of the export trade tended to
decrease in the first decade of the 2Oth century. The making of
morocco leather and other leather-work, such as saddlery, harness
and boots and shoes, affords employment to a large number of
persons. Other industries are cotton-spinning, brewing, tanning,
iron-founding, and the manufacture of bricks, tiles, soap, flour,
ironmongery and ice. The spirit called mastic or raki is largely
produced.
History. Thessalonica was built on the site of the older Greek
city of Therma, so called in allusion to the hot-springs of the
neighbourhood. It was founded in 315 B.C. by Cassander, who
gave it the name of his wife, a sister of Alexander the Great.
It was a military and commercial station on a main line of com-
munication between Rome and the East, and had reached its
zenith before the seat of empire was transferred to Constantinople.
It became famous in connexion with the early history of Christ-
ianity through the two epistles addressed by St Paul to the
community which he founded here; and in the later defence
of the ancient civilization against the barbarian inroads it played
a considerable part. In 390 7000 citizens who had been guilty
of insurrection were massacred in the hippodrome by command
of Theodosius. Constantine repaired the port, and probably
enriched the town with some of its buildings. During the
iconoclastic reigns of terror it stood on the defensive, and
succeeded in saving the artistic treasures of its churches: in
the Qth century Joseph, one of its bishops, died in chains for his
defence of image-worship. In the 7th century the Macedonian
Slavs strove to capture the city, but failed even when it was
thrown into confusion by a terrible earthquake. It was the
attempt made to transfer the whole Bulgarian trade to Thes-
salonica that in the close of the gth century caused the invasion
of the empire by Simeon of Bulgaria. In 904 the Saracens
from the Cyrenaica took the place by storm; the public
buildings were grievously injured, and the inhabitants to the
number of 22,000 were carried off and sold as slaves throughout
the countries of the Mediterranean. In 1185 the Normans of
Sicily took Thessalonica after a ten days' siege, and perpetrated
endless barbarities, of which Eustathius, then bishop of the see,
has left an account. In 1 204 Baldwin, conqueror of Constanti-
nople, conferred the kingdom of Thessalonica on Boniface,
marquis of Montferrat; but in 1222 Theodore, despot of Epirus,
one of the natural enemies of the new kingdom, took the city
and had himself there crowned by the patriarch of Macedonian
Bulgaria. On the death of Demetrius, who had been supported
in his endeavour to recover his father's throne by Pope Honorius
III., the empty title of king of Salonica was adopted by several
claimants. In 1266 the house of Burgundy received a grant of
the titular kingdom from Baldwin II. when he was titular
emperor, and it was sold by Eudes IV. to Philip of Tarentum,
titular emperor of Romania, in 1320. The Venetians to whom the
city was transferred by one of the Palaeologi, were in power when
Murad II. appeared, and on the ist of May 1430, in spite of the
desperate resistance of the inhabitants, took the city, which had
thrice previously been in the hands of the Turks. They cut to
pieces the body of St Demetrius, the patron saint of Salonica,
who had been the Roman proconsul of Greece, under Maximian,
and was martyred in A.D. 306. In 1876 the French and German
consuls at Salonica were murdered by the Turkish populace.
On the 4th of September 1890 more than 2000 houses were
destroyed by fire in the south-eastern quarters of the city.
During the early years of the 2oth century Salonica was the
headquarters of the Committee of Union and Progress, the
central organization of the Young Turkey Party, which carried
out the constitutional revolution of 1908. Before this event the
weakness of Turkey had encouraged the belief that Salonica
would ultimately pass under the control of Austria-Hungary
or one of the Balkan States, and this belief gave rise to many
political intrigues which helped to delay the solution of the
Macedonian Question.
Vilayet. The vilayet of Salonica has an area of 13,510 sq. m.
and an estimated population of 1,150,000. It is rich in minerals,
including chrome, manganese, zinc, antimony, iron, argentiferous
SALOON SALT
lead, arsenic and lignite, but some of these are unworked. The
chief agricultural products are grain, rice, beans, cotton, opium and
poppy seed, sesame, fennel, red pepper, and much of the finest
tobacco grown in Europe; there is also some trade in timber, live-
stock, skins, furs, wool and silk cocoons. The growth of commerce
has been impeded by the ignorance of cultivators, the want of good
roads and the unsettled political condition of Turkey. Apart from
the industries carried on in the capital, there are manufactures of
wine liqueurs, sesame oil, cloth, macaroni and soap. The principal
towns, Seres (pop. 30,000), Vodena (25,000) and Cavalla (24,000),
are described in separate articles; Tikvesh (21,000) is the centre of
an agricultural region, Caraferia (14,000) a manufacturing town,
and Drama (13,000) one of the centres of tobacco cultivation.
SALOON, a large room for the reception of guests in a mansion.
The French salon itself is formed from salle, Ger. Saal, hall,
reception-room, represented in Old English by the cognate seel,
hall, properly " abiding-place," from the root seen in Gothic
saljan, to dwell, cf. Russ. selo, village. The word in its proper
sense has now a somewhat archaistic flavour, being chiefly used
of the 1 8th century, and it has come principally to be used (i)
of the large rooms on passenger steamers; (2) on English
railways of carriages for the accommodation of large parties
not divided into compartments, and in the United States of the
so-called " drawing-room cars "; and (3) of a bar or place for
the sale of intoxicants.
SALSAFY, or SALSIFY, Tragopogon porrifolius, a hardy
biennial, with long, cylindrical, fleshy, esculent roots, which, when
properly cooked, are extremely delicate and wholesome; it
occurs in meadows and pastures in the Mediterranean region,
and in Britian is confined to the south of England, but is not
native. The salsafy requires a free, rich, deep soil, which should
be trenched in autumn, the manure used being placed at two
spades' depth from the surface. The first crop should be sown
in March, and the main crop in April, in rows a foot from each
other, the plants being afterwards thinned to 8 in. apart. In
November the whitish roots should be taken up and stored in
sand for immediate use, others being secured in a similar way
during intervals of mild weather. The genus Tragopogon belongs
to the natural order Compositae, and is represented in Britain by
goat's beard, T. pratmsis, found in meadows, pastures and waste
places. The flowers close at noon, whence the popular name
" John-go-to-bed-at-noon."
SALSETTE ( = " sixty-six villages "), a large island in British
India, N. of Bombay city, forming part of Thana district.
Area, 246 sq. m. It is connected with Bombay Island and also
with the mainland by bridge and causeway. Salsette is a
beautiful, well-wooded tract, its surface being diversified by hills
and mountains, some of considerable height, while it is rich in
rice fields. In various parts of the island are ruins of Portuguese
churches, convents and villas; while the cave temples of Kanheri
form a subject of interest. There are 109 Buddhist caves,
which date from the end of the 2nd century A.D., but are not so
interesting as those of Ajanta, Ellora and Karli. Salsette is
crossed by two lines of railway, which have encouraged the
building of villa residences by the wealthier merchants of Bombay.
The population in 1901 was 146,933. The island was taken
from the Portuguese by the Mahrattas in 1739, and from them
by the British in 1774; it was formally annexed to the East
India Company's dominions in 1782 by the treaty of Salbai.
There is another Salsette in the Portuguese settlement of Goa, a
district with a population (1900) of 113,061.
SALSOMAGGIORE, a village of Emilia, Italy, in the province
of Parma, 6 m. S.W. of Borgo San Donnino by steam tramway.
Pop. (1901) 1387 (village); 7274 (commune). It is situated
525 ft. above sea-level at the foot of the Apennines, and is a
popular watering-place, the baths being especially frequented.
The water is strongly saline.
SALT, SIR TITUS, BART.(i8o3-i876), English manufacturer,
was born on the 2Oth of September 1803, at Morley, Yorkshire.
In 1820 he was apprenticed to learn wool-stapling at Bradford,
and his father, having followed him there and started in that
business, took him into partnership in 1824. His success in intro-
ducing the coarse Russian wool (donskoi) into English worsted
manufacture, due to special machinery of his own devising,
gave his firm a great impetus. In 1836 he solved the difficulties
of working alpaca (q.v.) wool, created an enormous industry
n the production of the staple goods for which that name was
retained, and became one of the richest manufacturers in Brad-
ford. In 1853 he opened, a few miles out of the city on the Aire,
the extensive works and model manufacturing town of Saltaire.
From 1859-1861 Salt was M. P. for Bradford, of which city he had
oeen mayor in 1848, and in 1869 he was created a baronet.
He died on the 2oth of September 1876, and was accorded a
public funeral. After his death his many benevolent institutions
at Saltaire, at first continued by his widow, were transferred to a
trust.
See R. Balgarnie, Sir Titus Salt, his Life and its Lessons.
SALT (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch zout, Ger. Salz,
Scand. salt; cognate with Gr. aXs, Lat. sal). In chemistry
the term salt is given to a compound formed by substituting the
bydrogen of an acid by a metal or a radical acting as a metal, or,
what comes to the same thing, by eliminating the elements of
water between an acid and a base (see ACID; CHEMISTRY).
Common Salt.
Common salt, or simply salt, is the name given to the native
and industrial forms of sodium chloride, NaCl. Pure sodium
chloride, which may be obtained by passing hydrochloric acid
gas into a saturated solution of the commercial salt, whereupon
it is precipitated, forms colourless, crystalline cubes (see also
below under Rock salt) which melt at 815.4, and begins to
volatilize at slightly higher temperatures. It is readily soluble
in water, 100 parts of which dissolve 35-52 parts at o and
39.16 parts at 100. The saturated solution at 109.7 contains
40-35 parts of salt to 100 of water. On cooling a saturated
solution to -10, or by cooling a solution in hot hydrochloric acid,
the hydrate NaCl. 2H 2 O separates; on further cooling an aqueous
solution to -20 a cryohydrate containing 23-7% of the salt is
deposited. The consideration of this important substance falls
under two heads, relating respectively to sea salt or " bay " salt
and " rock " salt or mineral salt. The one is probably derived
from the other, most rock salt deposits bearing evidence of having
been formed by the evaporation of lakes or seas.
Sea Salt. Assuming that each gallon of sea water contains
0-2547 Ib of salt, and allowing an average density 2-24 for rock-
salt, it has been computed that the entire ocean if dried up would
yield no less than four and a half million cubic miles of rock-salt,
or about fourteen and a half times the bulk of the entire continent
of Europe above high-water mark. The proportion of sodium
chloride in the water of the ocean, where it is mixed with small
quantities of other salts, is on the average about 3.33%, ranging
from 2-9% for the polar seas to 3-55% or more at the equator.
Enclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean, the Red Sea, the
Black Sea, the Dead Sea, the Caspian and others, are dependent
of course for the proportion and quality of their saline matter
on local circumstances (see OCEAN).
At one time almost the whole of the salt in commerce was
produced from the evaporation of sea water, and indeed salt so
made still forms a staple commodity in many countries possessing
a seaboard, especially those where the climate is dry and the
summer of long duration. In Portugal there are salt works at
Setubal, Alcacer do Sal, Figueira and Aveiro. Spain has salt
works at the Bay of Cadiz, the Balearic Islands, &c.; Italy at
Sicily, Naples, Tuscany and Sardinia. France has its " marais
salants du midi " and also works on the Atlantic seaboard;
whilst Austria has " Salzgarten " at various places on the Adriatic
(Sabbioncello, Trieste, Pirano, Capo d'Istria,&c.). In England
and Scotland the industry has greatly fallen off under the
competition of the rock-salt works of Cheshire.
The process of the spontaneous evaporation of sea water was
studied by Usiglio on Mediterranean water at Cette. The density
at first was 1-02. Primarily but a slight deposit is formed (none
until the concentration arrives at specific gravity 1-0509), this
deposit consisting for the most part of calcium carbonate and ferric
oxide. This goes on till a density of 1-1315 isattained, when hydrated
calcium sulphate begins to deposit, and continues till specific
gravity 1-2646 is reached. At a density of 1-218 the deposit becomes
augmented by sodium chloride, which goes down mixed with a
little magnesium chloride and sulphate. At specific gravity 1-2461 a
88
SALT
little sodium bromide has begun also to deposit. At specific gravity
1-311 the volume of the water contained
Magnesium sulphate .... 11-45%
Magnesium chloride .... 19-53 %
Sodium chloride 15-98%
Sodium bromide 2-04%
Potassium chloride .... 3-30 %
Up to the time then that the water became concentrated to
specific gravity 1-218 only 0-150 of deposit had formed, and that
chiefly composed of lime and iron, but between specific gravity
1-218 and 1-313 there is deposited a mixture of
Calcium sulphate .
Magnesium sulphate
Magnesium chloride
Sodium chloride
Sodium bromide
0-0283 %
0-0624%
0-0153%
2-7107%
O-O222 %
2-8389%
Of this about 95% is sodium chloride. Up to this point the
separation of the salts has taken place in a fairly regular manner,
but now the temperature begins to exert an influence, and some of
the salts deposited in the cold of the night dissolve again partially
in the heat of the day. By night the liquor gives nearly pure mag-
nesium sulphate; in the day the same sulphate mixed with sodium
and potassium chlorides is deposited. The mother-liquor now falls
to a specific gravity of 1-3082 to 1-2965, and yields a very mixed
deposit of magnesium bromide and chloride, ootassium chloride
and magnesium sulphate, with the double magnesium and potassium
sulphate, corresponding to the kainite of Stassfurt. There is also
deposited a double magnesium and potassium chloride, similar to
the carnallite of Stassfurt, and finally the mother-liquor, which has
now again risen to specific gravity 1-3374, contains only pure mag-
nesium chloride.
The application of these results to the production of salt from sea
water is obvious. A large piece of land, barely above high-water
mark, is levelled, and if necessary puddled with clay. In tidal seas
a " jas " (or storage reservoir) is constructed alongside, similarly
rendered impervious, in which the water is allowed to settle and
concentrate to a certain extent. In non-tidal seas this storage
basin is not required. The prepared land is partitioned off into
large basins (adernes or muants) and others (called in France aires,
eeuillets or tables salantcs) which get smaller and more shallow in
proportion as they are intended to receive the water as it becomes
more and more concentrated, just sufficient fall being allowed from
one set of basins to the other to cause the water to flow slowly
through them. The flow is often assisted by pimping. The sea
salt thus made is collected into small heaps on the paths around
the basins or the floors of the basins themselves, and here it under-
goes a first partial purification, the more deliquescent salts (especially
the magnesium chloride) being allowed to drain away. From these
heaps it is collected into larger ones, where it drains further, and
becomes more purified. The salt is collected from the surface by
means of a sort of wooden scoop or scraper, but in spite of every
precaution some of the soil on which it is produced is inevitably
taken up with it, communicating a red or grey tint.
Generally speaking this salt, which may contain up to 15%
of impurities, goes into commerce just as it is, but in some cases
it is taken first to the refinery, where it either is simply washed
and then stove-dried before being sent out, or is dissolved in
fresh water and then boiled down and crystallized like white salt
from rock-salt brine. The salt of the " salines du midi " of the
south-east of France is far purer, containing about 5% of
impurities. In northern Russia and in Siberia sea water is
concentrated by freezing, the ice which separates containing
little salt ; the brine is then boiled down when an impure sea salt
is deposited.
Rock-salt. To mineralogists rock-salt is often known as
halite a name suggested in 1847 by E. F. Glocker from the
Greek &Xs (salt). The word halite, however, is sometimes
used not only for the species rock-salt but as a group-name to
include a series of haloid minerals, of which that species is the
type. Halite or rock-salt crystallizes in the cubic system,
usually in cubes, rarely in octahedra; the cubes being solid,
unlike the skeleton-cubes obtained by rapid evaporation of
brine. The mineral has perfect cubic cleavage. Percussion-
figures, readily made on the cleavage-faces, have rays parallel
to faces of the rhombic dodecahedron; whilst figures etched
with water represent the four-faced cube. Rock-salt commonly
occurs in cleavable masses, or sometimes in laminar, granular
or fibrous forms, the finely fibrous variety being known as
"hair-salt." The hardness is 2 to 2-5 and the spec. grav.
2-1 to 2-6. Rock-salt when pure is colourless and transparent,
but is usually red or brown by mechanical admixture with ferric
oxide or hydroxide. The salt is often grey, through bituminous
matter or other impurity, and rarely green, blue or violet.
The blue colour, which disappears on heating or dissolving
the salt, has been variously ascribed to the presence of sodium
subchloride, sodium, sulphur or of a certain compound of iron,
or again to the existence of minute cavities with parallel walls.
Halite occasionally exhibits double refraction, perhaps due to
natural pressure. It is remarkably diathermanous, or capable
of transmitting heat-rays, and has therefore been used in certain
physical investigations. Pure halite consists only of sodium
chloride, but salt usually contains certain magnesium ccmpounds
rendering it deliquescent. Minute vesicular cavities are not
infrequently present, sometimes as negative cubes, and these
may contain saline solutions or carbon dioxide or gaseous
hydrocarbons. Some salt decrepitates on solution (Knistersah),
the phenomenon being due to the escape of condensed gases.
Halite may occur as a sublimate on lava, as at Vesuvius
and some other volcanoes, where it is generally associated with
potassium chloride; but its usual mode of occurrence is in
bedded deposits, often lenticular, and sometimes of great thick-
ness. The salt is commonly associated with gypsum, often also
with anhydrite, and occasionally with sylvite, carnallite and other
minerals containing potassium and magnesium. Deposits of
rock-salt have evidently been formed by the evaporation of
salt water, probably in areas of inland drainage or enclosed
basins, like the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah, or
perhaps in some cases in an arm of the sea partially cut off,
like the Kara Bughaz, which forms a natural salt-pan on the east
side of the Caspian. Such beds of salt are found in strata of
very varied geological age; the Salt Range of the Punjab, for
instance, is probably of Cambrian age, while the famous salt-
deposits of Wieliczka, near Cracow, have been referred to the
Pliocene period. In many parts of the world, including the
British area, the Triassic age offered conditions especially
favourable for the formation of large salt -deposits.
In England extensive deposits of rock-salt are found near the base
of the Keuper marl, especially in Cheshire. The mineral occurs
generally in lenticular deposits, which may reach a thickness of
more than 100 ft. ; but it is mined only to a limited extent, most of
the salt being obtained from brine springs and wells which derive
their saline character from deposits of salts. Much salt is obtained
from north Lancashire, as also from the brine pits of Staffordshire,
Worcestershire, Yorkshire, Durham and the Isle of Man (Point of
Ayre). The salt of N.E. Yorkshire and S. Durham is regarded 1 by
some authorities as Permian, but that near Carrickfergus ir Co.
Antrim, Ireland, is undoubtedly of Triassic age. The Antrim salt
was discovered in 1850 during a search for coal: one of the beds at
Duncrue mine has a thickness of 80 ft. Important deposits of rock-
salt occur in the Keuper at Berchtesgaden, in the Bavarian Alps;
at Hall in Tirol and at Hallcin, Hallstatt, Ischl and Aussee in the
Sajzkammergut in Austria. Salt occurs in the Muschelkalk at
Friedrichshall and some other localities in Wurttemberg and Thur-
ingia; and in the Bunter at Sch&ningcn near Brunswick.
The Permian system (Zechstein) yields the great salt-deposits
worked at Stassfurt and at Halle in Prussian Saxony. The Stassfurt
deposits are of special importance for the sake of the associated salts
of potassium and magnesium, such as carnallite and kainite. These
deposits, in addition to having a high commercial importance,
present certain problems which have received much attention, more
particularly at the hands of van't Hoff and his collaborators, whose
results are embodied in his Zur Bildung der ozeanischen Salzab-
lagerungen, vol. i. (1905), vol. ii. (1909). (A summary is given in
A. W. Stewart, Recent Advances in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry,
1909; see also van't Hoff, Lectures on Theoretical and Physical
Chemistry, vol. i.) A typical section is as follows: Beneath the
surface soil of sandstone there is a layer up to 100 ft. in thickness
of carnallite, MgClj-KCl-6H 2 O, mixed with a little salt; this is
followed by a thicker deposit of kieserite, MgSOi-HjO, containing
rather more salt than the upper bed. Deeper down there are suc-
cessively strata of polyhahte, MgSO<-K 2 SO 4 -2CaSO4-2H a O, and
anhydrite, CaSC>4, interspersed with regular layers of rock-salt;
whilst below the anhydrite we have the main rock-salt deposits.
A bed of rock-salt in the Zechstein at Spercnberg near Berlin has
been proved by boring to have a thickness of upwards of 4000 ft.
The salt of Bex in Switzerland is Jurassic, whilpt Cretaceous salt
occurs in Westphalia and Algiers. Important deposits of salt are
developed in many parts of trie Tertiary strata. At Cardona, near
Barcelona, Tertiary salt forms hill-masses, while the Carpathian
SALT
89
sandstone in Galicia and Transylvania is rich in salt. The extensive
mines at Wieliczka are in this rock-salt, as also is the salt of Kalusz
in Galicia, which is associated with sylvite, KC1.
In North America salt is widely distributed at various geological
horizons. In New York it occurs in the Salina beds of the Ononclaga
series, of Silurian age; and Silurian salt is found also in parts of
Michigan and in Ontario, Canada. Some of the salt of Michigan is
regarded as Carboniferous. Rock-salt is mined in several states,
as New York, Kansas and Louisiana; but American salt is mostly
obtained from brine. Deposits of salt, regarded as either Cretaceous
or Tertiary, occur in the island of Petite Anse, west of Vermilion
Bay, in Louisiana. Salt often occurs in association with petroleum
and natural gas, and extensive beds were discovered in the Wyoming
valley in boring for petroleum. In the dry regions of the West
salt occurs as an incrustation on the surface of the soil a mode of
occurrence found in desert areas in various parts of the world.
Cubic pseudomorphs representing rock-salt are sometimes seen in
strata which have been deposited in shallow water, especially on the
margin of a salt-lake. The salt has been dissolved out of its original
matrix, and the cavity so formed has then been filled with fine clayey
or other mineral matter, forming a cubic cast. Such casts are not
infrequent in the Keuper marls and sandstones, and in the Purbeck
beds of England.
Manufacture. The chief centres of manufacture in England are at
Northwich, Middlewich, Winsford and Sandbach in Cheshire,
Weston-on-Trent in Staffordshire, Stoke Prior and Droitwich in
Worcestershire and Middlesbrough in Yorkshire. 1 The Cheshire
and Worcestershire salt deposits are by far the most important.
Although brine springs have been known to exist in both these
counties ever since the Roman occupation, and salt had been made
there from time immemorial, it was not till 1670 that rock-salt
about 30 yds. thick was discovered at Marbury near Northwich
by some men exploring for coal, at a depth of 34 yds. In 1779
three beds of rock-salt were discovered at Lawton, separated from
one another by layers of indurated clay. The old Marston or Marston
Rock mine is the largest and perhaps the oldest in England. It
was worked for about a hundred years in only its upper bed, 'but in
1781, after traversing a layer of indurated clay intersected with
small veins of salt 10^ yds. thick, a layer of rock-salt 33 to 37 yds.
thick was found. Beneath it are others, but they are thin and im-
pure. The total depth of the mine to the bottom of the lower level
is 120 yds. At Winsford, where the same formation seems to recur,
it is 159 yds. from the surface. The Marston mine covers an area of
about 40 acres. The salt is first reached at 35-40 yds. in the North-
wich district, and the upper layer is 25-50 yds. in thickness (Marston
23-26 yds.) ; it has above it, apparently lying in the recesses of its
surface, a layer of saturated brine. This is the brine which is raised
at the various pumping stations in Northwich and elsewhere around,
and which serves to produce white salt. The beds are reached by
sinking through the clays and variegated marls typical of this for-
mation. The salt is blasted out with gunpowder. The Middles-
brough deposit was discovered by Bolckow and Vaughan in boring
for water in 1862 at a depth of 400 yds., but was not utilized, and
was again found by Messrs Bell Brothers at Port Clarence at a depth
of 376 yds. In Cheshire the surface-water trickling through the
overlying strata dissolves the salt, which is subsequently pumped
as brine, but at Middlesbrough the great depth and impermeability
of the strata precludes this, so another method has been resorted to.
A bore is made into the salt, and lined with tubing, and this tube
where it traverses the salt is pierced with holes. Within this is hung
loosely a second tube of much smaller dimensions so as to leave an
annular space between the two. Through this space the fresh surface
water finds its way, and dissolving the salt below rises in the inner
tube as brine, but only to such a level that the two columns bear to
one another the relation of ten to twelve, this being the inverse ratio
of the respective weights of saturated brine and fresh water. For
the remaining distance the brine is raised by a pump. The fresh
water, however, as it descends rises to the surface of the salt, tending
rather to dissolve its upper layers and extend superficially, so that
after a time the superincumbent soil, being without support, falls in.
These interior landslips, besides choking the pipes and breaking the
communication, often produce sinkings at the surface. The same
inconvenience is felt in the environs of Nancy, and a similar one
produces on a larger scale the sinking and subsidences at Winsford
and Northwich.
In the United States extensive deposits and brine springs are
worked, and also incrustations (see above). Canada also is a pro-
ducer. South America possesses several salt deposits and brine
springs. Asiatic Russia is very abundantly supplied with salt, as
likewise is China; and Persia is perhaps one of the countries most
abundantly endowed with this natural and useful product. In
India there is the great salt range of the Punjab, as well as the
Sambhur Lake, and salt is obtained from sea water at many places
along its extensive seaboard.
1 The termination " wich " in English place-names often points to
ancient salt manufacture-^the word " wich " (creek, bay; Icel.
vik) having acquired a special sense in English usage. In Germany
the various forms of the non-Teutonic words Hall, Halle occurring
in place-names point in the same way to ancient salt-works.
Rock-salt is the origin of the greater part of the salt manufactured
in the world. It occurs in all degrees of purity, fAjm that of mere
salty clay to that of the most transparent crystals. In the former
case it is often difficult to obtain the brine at a density even approach-
ing saturation, and chambers and galleries are sometimes excavated
within the saliferous beds to increase the dissolving surface, and
water let down fresh is pumped up as brine. Many brine springs
also occur in a more or less saturated condition. In cases where the
atmospheric conditions are suitable the brine is run into large tanks
and concentrated merely by solar heat, or it may be caused to
trickle over faggots arranged under large open sheds called " gradua-
tion houses " (Gradirhauser), whereby a more extensive surface of
evaporation is obtained and the brine becomes rapidly concentrated.
After settling it is evaporated in iron pans. The use, however, of
the "graduation houses" is dying out, as both their construction
and their maintenance are expensive. The purer rock-salt is often
simply ground for use, as at Wieliczka and elsewhere, but it is more
frequently pumped as brine, produced either by artificial solution as
at Middlesbrough and other places, or by natural means, as in
Cheshire and Worcestershire. One great drawback to the use of
even the purest rock-salt simply ground is its tendency to revert
to a hard unwieldy mass, when kept any length of time in sacks.
As usually made, white salt from rock-salt may be classified into two
groups: (i) boiled: known as fine, table, lump, stoved lump,
superfine, basket, butter and cheese salt (Fr. set Jin-fin, sel d la
minute, &c.); (2) unboiled: common, chemical, fishery, Scotch
fishery, extra fishery, double extra fishery and bay salt (Fr. sel de
12, 24, 48, 60 and 72 heures). All these names are derived from the
size and appearance of the crystals, their uses and the modes of their
production. The boiled salts, the crystals of which are small, are
formed in a medium constantly agitated by boiling. The fine or
stoved table salts are those white masses with which we are all
familiar. Basket salt takes its name from the conical baskets from
which it is allowed to drain when first it is " drawn " from the pan.
Butter and cheese salts are not stove-dried, but left in their more or
less moist condition, as being thus more easily applied to their
respective uses. Of the unboiled salts the first two, corresponding
to the Fr. sel de 12 heures and sel de 24 heures, show by their English
names the use to which they are applied, and the others merely
depend for their quality on the length of time which elapses between
successive " drawings, ' and the temperature of the evaporation.
The time varies for the unboiled salts from twelve hours to three or
four weeks, the larger crystals being allowed a longer time to form,
and the smaller ones being formed more quickly. The temperature
varies from 55 to 180 F.
One difference between the manufacture of salt from rock-salt
brine as carried on in Britain and on the Continent lies in the use
in the latter case of closed or covered pans, except in the making of
fine salt, whereas in Britain open ones are employed. With open
pans the vapour is free to diffuse itself into the atmosphere, and the
evaporation is perhaps more rapid. When covered pans are used,
the loss of heat by radiation is less, and the salt made is also cleaner.
It has also been proposed to concentrate the brines under diminished
pressure. In S. Pick's system a triple effect is obtained by evapora-
ting in these connected vessels, so that the steam from one heats the
second into which it is led (see Soc. of Eng., 1891, p. 115).
In Britain the brine is so pure that, keeping a small stream of it
running into the pan to replace the losses by evaporation and the
removal of the salt, it is only necessary occasionally (not often) to
reject the mother-liquor when at last it becomes too impure with
magnesium chloride ; but in some works the mother-liquor not only
contains more of this impurity but becomes quite brown from
organic matter on concentration, and totally unfit for further
service after yielding but two or three crops of salt crystals. Some-
times, to get rid of these impurities, the brine is treated in a large
tub (bessoir) with lime; on settling it becomes clear and colourless,
but the dissolved lime forms a skin on its surface in the pan, retards
the evaporation and impedes the crystallization. At times sodium
sulphate is added to the brine, producing sodium chloride and mag-
nesium sulphate by double decomposition with the magnesium
chloride. A slight degree of acidity seems more favourable to the
crystallization of salt than alkalinity; thus it is a practice to add a
certain amount of alum, 2 to 12 ft per pan of brine, especially when,
as in fishery salt, fine crystals are required. The salt is " drawn "
from the pan and placed (in the case of boiled salts) in small conical
baskets hung round the pan to drain, and thence moulded in square
boxes and afterwards stove-dried, or (in case of unboiled salts)
" drawn " in a heap on to the " hurdles," on which it drains, and
thence is carried to the store.
In most European countries a tax is laid on salt; and the coarser
as well as the finer crystals are therefore often dried so as not to
pay duty on more water than can be helped.
The brine used in the salt manufacture in England is very nearly
saturated, containing 25 or 26% of sodium chloride, the utmost
water can take up being 27%; and it ranges from 38 to 42 oz. of
salt per gallon. In some other countries the brine has to be concen-
trated before use.
Saltmaking is by no means an unhealthy trade, some slight
soreness of the eyes being the only affection sometimes complained
of; indeed the atmosphere of steam saturated with salt in which
9 o
SALTA
the workmen live seems specially preservative against colds, rheu-
matism, neuralgia, &c.
A parliamentary commission was appointed in 1881 to investigate
the causes of the disastrous subsidences which are constantly taking
place in all the salt districts, and the provision of a remedy. It led
to no legislative action; but the evil is recognized as a grave one.
At Northwich and Winsford scarcely a house or a chimney stack
remains straight. Houses are keyed up with " snaps," " face plates "
and " bolts," and only kept from falling by leaning on one another.
The doors and windows have become lozenge-shaped, the walls
bulged and the floors crooked. Buildings have sunk some of them
disappearing altogether. Lakes have been formed where there was
solid ground before, and incalculable damage done to property in
all quarters. At the same time it is difficult to see how this grievance
can be remedied without inflicting serious injury, almost ruin, upon
the salt trade. The workings in Great Britain represent the annual
abstraction of rather more than a mass of rock equal to a foot in
thickness spread over a square mile. The table gives the outputs in
metric tons of the most important producers in 1900 and 1905 (from
Rothwell, Mineral Industry, 1908).
Salt Production in Metric Tons.
1900.
1905.
Austria
330.277
343.375
France
1,088,634
1,130,000
Germany ....
1,514,027
1.777,557
Hungary ....
189.363
I95,4io
India
i ,02 1 ,426
1,212,600
Italy
367,255
437.699
Japan
669,694
483,506
Russia
1,768,005
1,844,678
Spain ....
450,041
493-451
United Kingdom .
1,873,601
1,920,149
United States .
2,651,278
3,297,285
See F. A. Purer, Salzbergbau- und Salinenkunde (Braunschweig,
1900) ; J. O. Freiherr von Buschmann, Das Salz: dessen Vorkommen
und Verwertung (Leipzig, vol. I, 1909, vol. 2, 1906). (X.)
Ancient History and Religious Symbolism. Salt must have been
quite unattainable to primitive man in many parts of the world.
Thus the Odyssey (xi. 122 seq.) speaks of inlanders (in Epirus ?) who
do not know the sea and use no salt with their food. In some parts
of America, and even of India (among the Todas), salt was first intro-
duced by Europeans; and there are still parts of central Africa
where the use of it is a luxury confined to the rich. Indeed, where
men live mainly on milk and flesh, consuming the latter raw or
roasted, so that its salts are not lost, it is not necessary to add
sodium chloride, and thus we understand how the Numidian nomads
in the time of Sallust and the Bedouins of Hadramut at the present
day never eat salt with their food. On the other hand, cereal or
vegetable diet calls for a supplement of salt, and so does boiled meat.
The important part played by the mineral in the history of commerce
and religion depends on this fact ; at a very early stage of progress
salt became a necessary of life to most nations, and in many cases
they could procure it only from abroad, from the sea-coast, or from
districts like that of Palmyra where salty incrustations are found
on the surface of the soil. Sometimes indeed a kind of salt was
got from the ashes of saline plants (e.g. by the Umbrians, Aristotle,
Met. ii. p. 4^59), or by pouring the water of a brackish stream over
a fire of (saline) wood and collecting the ashes, as was done in ancient
Germany (Tac. Ann. xiii. 57), in Gaul and in Spain (Plin. H.N.
xxxi. 7. 82 seq.) ; but these were imperfect surrogates. Among inland
peoples a salt spring was regarded as a special gift of the gods. The
Chaonians in Epirus had one which flowed into a stream where there
were no fish; and the legend was that Heracles had allowed then-
forefathers to have salt instead of fish (Arist. ut supra). The Ger-
mans waged war for saline streams, and believed that the presence of
salt in the soil invested a district with peculiar sanctity and made it
a place where prayers were most readily heard (Tac. ut sup.). That
a religious significance was attached to a substance so highly prized
and which was often obtained with difficulty is no more than natural.
And it must also be remembered that the habitual use of salt is
intimately connected with the advance from nomadic to agricultural
life, i.e. with precisely that step in civilization which had most
influence on the cults of almost all ancient nations. The gods were
worshipped as the givers of the kindly fruits of the earth, and, as all
over the world " bread and salt " go together in common use and
common phrase, salt was habitually associated with offerings, at
least with all offerings which consisted in whole or in part of cereal
elements. This practice is found alike among the Greeks and Romans
and among the Semitic peoples (Lev. ii. 13); Homer calls salt
" divine," and Plato names it " a substance^ dear to the gods "
(Timaeus, p.. 60; cf. Plutarch, Sympos. v. ip). As covenants were
ordinarily made over a sacrificial meal, in which salt was a necessary
element, the expression " a covenant of salt " (Numb, xviii. 19) is
easily understood; it is probable, however, that the preservative
qualities of salt were held to make it a peculiarly fitting symbol of
an enduring compact, and influenced the choice of this particular
element of the covenant meal as that which was regarded as sealing
an obligation to fidelity. Among the ancients, as among Orientals
down to the present day, every meal that included salt had a certain
sacred character and created a bond of piety and guest friendship
between the participants. Hence the Greek phrase iXos eU
rpaiftfav irapaftalixiy, the Arab phrase " there is salt between us,"
the expression " to eat the salt of the palace " (Ezra iv. 14, R.V.),
the modern Persian phrase namak haram, " untrue to salt," i.e.
disloyal or ungrateful, and many others. Both early in the history of
the Roman army and in later times an allowance of salt was made to
officers and men. In imperial times, however, this solarium was an
allowance of money for salt (see SALARY).
It has been conjectured that some of the oldest trade routes
were created for traffic in salt; at any rate salt and incense, the
chief economic and religious necessaries ot the ancient world, play
a great part in all that we know of the ancient highways of commerce.
Thus one of the oldest roads in Italy is the Via Solaria, by which the
produce of the salt pans of Ostia was carried up into the Sabine
country. Herodotus s account of the caravan route uniting the salt-
oases of the Libyan desert (iv. 181 seq.) makes it plain that this was
mainly a salt-road, and to the present day the caravan trade of the
Sahara is largely a trade in salt. The salt of Palmyra was an im-
portant element in the vast trade between the Syrian ports and the
Persian Gulf (see PALMYRA), and long after the glory of the great
merchant city was past " the salt of Tadmor " retained its reputation
(Mas'udi viii. 398). In like manner the ancient trade between the
Aegean and the coasts of southern Russia was largely dependent
on the salt pans at the mouth of the Dnieper and on the salt fish
brought from this district (Herod, iv. 53 ; Dio Chrys. p. 437). In
Phoenician commerce salt and salt fish the latter a valued delicacy
in the ancient world always formed an important item. The vast
salt mines of northern India were worked before the time of Alexander
(Strabo v. 2, 6, xv. I, 30) and must have been the centre of a wide-
spread trade. The economic importance of salt is further indicated
by the almost universal prevalence in ancient and medieval times,
and indeed in most countries down to the present day, of salt taxes
or of government monopolies, which have not often been directed,
as they were in ancient Rome, to enable every one to procure so
necessary a condiment at a moderate price. In Oriental systems
of taxation high imposts on salt are seldom lacking and are often
carried out in a very oppressive way, one result of this being that the
article is apt to reach the consumer in a very impure state largely
mixed with earth. " The salt which has lost its savour " (Matt.
v. 13) is simply the earthy residuum of such an impure salt after the
sodium chloride has been washed out.
Cakes of salt have been used as money in more than one part of
the world for example, in Abyssinia and elsewhere in Africa, and
in Tibet and adjoining parts. See the testimony of Marco Polo
(bk. ii. ch. 48) and Colonel Yule's note upon analogous customs
elsewhere and on the use of salt as a medium of exchange in the
Shan markets down to our own time, in his translation of Polo ii.
48 seq. In the same work interesting details are given as to the
importance of salt in the financial system of the Mongol emperors
(ii. 200 seq.). (W. R. S.)
SALTA, a N.W. province of Argentina, bounded N. by Bolivia
and the province of Jujuy, E. by the territories of Formosa
and the Chaco, S. by Santiago del Estero and Tucuman, and W.
by the Los Andes territory and Bolivia. Area, 62,184 sq. m.;
pop. (1904, estimated) 136,059. The western part of the province
is mountainous, being traversed from N. to S. by the eastern
chains of 'the Andes. Indenting these, however, are large
valleys, or bays, of highly fertile and comparatively level land,
like that in which the city of Salta is situated. The eastern
part of the province is chiefly composed of extensive areas of
alluvial plains belonging to the Chaco formation, whose deep,
fertile soils are among the best in Argentina. This part of the
province is well wooded with valuable construction timbers
and furniture woods. The drainage to the Paraguay is through
the Bermejo, whose tributaries cover the northern part of the
province; and through the Pasage or Juramento, called Salado
on its lower course, whose tributaries cover the southern part
of the province and whose waters are discharged into the Parana.
The climate is hot, and the year is divided into a wet and a dry
season, the latter characterized by extreme aridity. Irrigation
is necessary in a great part of the province, though the rainfall
is abundant in the wet season, about 21 in. Fever and ague,
locally called chucho, is prevalent on the lowlands, but in the
mountain districts the climate is healthy. There is considerable
undeveloped mineral wealth, including gold, silver and copper,
but its inhabitants are almost exclusively agriculturist. Its
principal products are sugar, rum (aguardiente), wine, wheat,
Indian corn, barley, tobacco, alfalfa and coffee. The Cafayate
wines are excellent, but are chiefly consumed in the province.
SALTA SALT-CELLAR
9 1
Various tropical fruits are produced in abundance, but are not
sent to market on account of the cost of transportation. Stock-
raising is carried on to a limited extent for the home and Bolivian
markets. The province is traversed by a government railway
(the Central Northern) running northward from Tucuman to
the Bolivian frontier, with a branch from General Guemes
westward to the city of Salta (q.v.), the provincial capital.
The principal towns are Oran (1904, 3000) on a small tributary
(the Zenta) of the Bermejo, in the northern part of the province,
formerly an important depot in the Bolivian trade, and nearly
destroyed by earthquakes in 1871 and 1873; Rosario de Lerma
(pop. 1904, 2500), 3om. N.W. of Salta in the great Lerma valley;
and Rosario de la-Frontera (pop. 1904, 1200) near the Tucuman
frontier, celebrated for its hot mineral baths and gambling
establishment.
Salta was at one time a part of the great Inca empire, which
extended southward into Tucuman and Rioja. It was overrun by
adventurers after the Spanish conquest. The first Spanish settle-
ment within its borders was made by Hernando de Lerma in 1582.
Salta was at first governed from Tucuman, but in 1776 was made
capital of the northern intendencia, which included Catamarca,
Jujuy and Tucuman. After the War of Independence there was a
new division, and Salta was given its present boundaries with the
exception of the disputed territory on the Chilean frontier, now the
territory of Los Andes.
SALTA, a city of Argentina, capital of a province of the same
name, and see of a bishopric, on a small tributary (the Arias)
of the Pasage, or Juramento, 976 m. by rail N.N.W. of Buenos
Aires. Pop. (1904, estimated) 18,000. Salta is built on an open
plain 3560 ft. above the sea, nearly enclosed with mountains.
The climate is warm and changeable, malarial in summer. The
city is laid out regularly, with broad, paved streets and several
parks. Some of the more important public buildings face on
the plaza mayor. There are no manufactures of importance.
Salta was once largely interested in the Bolivian trade, and is
still a chief distributing centre for the settlements of the Andean
plateau. Near the city is the battlefield where General Belgrano
won the first victory from the Spanish forces (1812) in the War
of Independence. There is a large mestizo element in the popula-
tion, and the Spanish element still retains many of the character-
istics of its colonial ancestors. In Salta Spanish is still spoken
with the long-drawn intonations and melodious " 11 " of southern
Spain.
Salta was founded in 1582 by Governor Abreu under the title of
San Clemente de Nueva Sevilla, but the site was changed two
years later and the new settlement was called San Felipe de Lerma.
In the 1 7th century the name Salta came into vogue.
SALTA (Italian for "Jump!"), a table-game for two intro-
duced at the end of the igth century, founded on the more
ancient game of Halma. It is played on a board containing
too squares, coloured alternately black and white. Each player
has a set of 15 pieces, one set being green, the other pink. These
are placed upon the black squares of the first three rows nearest
the player, and are classified in these rows as stars,
moons and suns. The pawns move forward one square at a
time, except when a pawn is situated in front of a hostile
piece with an unoccupied space on the further side , in which
case the hostile pawn must be jumped, as at draughts, but without
removing the jumped pawn from the board. The object of the
game is to get one's pieces on the exact squares corresponding
to their own on the enemy's side, the stars in the star-line, the
moons in the moon-line, &c. Salta tournaments have taken place
in which chess masters of repute participated.
See Salta, by Schubert (Leipzig, 1900).
SALTASH, a municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary
division of Cornwall, England, 5 m. N.W. of Plymouth, on the
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 33S7- It is beautifully
situated on the wooded shore of the Tamar estuary, on the lower
part of which lies the great port and naval station of Plymouth.
Local communications are maintained by river steamers. At
Saltash the Royal Albert bridge (1857-1859) carries the railway
across the estuary. It was built by Isambard Brunei at a cost
of 230,000, and is remarkable for its great height. The church
of St Nicholas and St Faith has an early Norman tower, and part
of the fabric is considered to date from before the Conquest;
but there was much alteration in the Decorated and Perpendi-
cular periods. The church of St Stephen, outside the town,
retains its ornate Norman font. The fisheries for which Saltash
was famous have suffered from the chemicals brought down by
the Tamar; but there is a considerable seafaring population,
and the town is a recruiting ground for the Royal Navy. The
borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area,
194 acres.
The Sunday market established by the count of Mortain at his
castle of Trematon, which ruined the bishop of Exeter's market at
St Germans, was probably held at Saltash a short distance from the
castle. Saltash (Esse, 1297; Ash, 1302; Assheburgh, 1392) belonged
to the manor of Trematon and the latter at the time of the Domesday
Survey .was held by Reginald de Valletort of the count. Reginald's
descendant and namesake granted a charter (undated) to Saltash
about 1190. It confirms to his free burgesses of Esse the liberties
enjoyedj by them under his ancestors, viz.: burgage tenure,
exemption from all jurisdiction save the " hundred court of the said
town," suit of court limited to three times a year, a reeve of their
own election, pasturage in his demesne lands on certain terms, a
limited control of trade and shipping, and a fair in the middle of the
town. This charter was confirmed in the fifth year of Richard II.
Roger de Valletort, the last male heir of the family, gave the honour
of Trematon and with it the borough of Saltash to Richard, king of
the Romans and earl of Cornwall. Thenceforth, in spite of attempts
to set aside the grant, the earls and subsequently the dukes of
Cornwall were the lords of Saltash. It was probably to this relation
that the burgesses owed the privilege of parliamentary representation,
conferred by Edward VI. In 1584 Queen Elizabeth granted a charter
of incorporation to Saltash. This was superseded by another in
1683 under which the governing body was to consist of a mayor
and six aldermen. In 1774, the corporation being in danger of
extinction, burgesses were added, but it was not until 1886 that
the ratepayers acquired the right of electing representatives to the
council, the right up to that time having been exercised by the
members of the corporation. The parliamentary franchise was
enjoyed by the mayor, aldermen and the holders of burgage tene-
ments. In 1814 they numbered 120. In 1832 Saltash was deprived
of its two members. The count of Mortain's Sunday market had
given place in 1337 to 'one on Saturday and this is still held. Queen
Elizabeth's charter provided for one on Tuesday also, but this has
disappeared. A fair on the feast of St Faith yielded 6s. 8d. in 1337.
This is no longer held, but fairs at Candlemas and St James, of
ancient but uncertain origin, remain. Saltash was sufficiently con-
siderable as a port in the i6th century to furnish a frigate at the
town's expense against the Armada. This probably represents the
zenith of its prosperity.
SALTBURN BY THE SEA, a seaside resort in the Cleveland
parliamentary division of the North Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 21 m. E. of Middlesbrough by a branch of the North
Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2578. A frm
sandy beach extends westward to Redcar and the mouth of the
Tees, while eastward towards Whitby the cliffs become very fine,
Boulby Cliff (666 ft.) being the highest sea cliff in England.
Several fishing villages occur along this coast, of which none is
more picturesque than Staithes, lying in a steep gully in the cliff.
There are brine baths supplied from wells near Middlesbrough,
a pier, gardens and promenades. Inland the county is hilly
and picturesque, though in part defaced by the Cleveland iron
mines.
SALT-CELLAR, a vessel containing salt, placed upon the table
at meals. The word is a combination of "salt" and " saler,"
assimilated in the i6th and 1 7th centuries to "cellar" (Lat.
cellarium, a storehouse). " Saler " is from the Fr. (Mod. salihe),
Lat. solarium, that which belongs to salt, cf. " salary." Salt
cellar is, therefore, a tautological expression. There are two
types of salts, the large ornamental salt which during the medieval
ages and later was one of the most important pieces of household
plate, and the smaller " salts," actually used and placed near the
plates or trenchers of the guests at table; they were hence
styled " trencher salts." The great salts, below which the
inferior guests sat, were, in the earliest form which survives,
shaped like an hour-glass and have a cover. New College,
Oxford, possesses a magnificent specimen, dated 1493. Later
salts take a square or cylindrical shape. The Elizabethan salt,
kept with the regalia in the Tower of London, has a cover with
numerous figures. The London Livery Companies possess many
salts of a still later pattern, rather low in height and without a
SALTER SALT LAKE CITY
cover. The " trencher salts " are either of triangular or circular
shape, some are many-sided. The circular silver salt with legs
came into use in the i8th century.
SALTER, JOHN WILLIAM (1820-1869), English naturalist and
palaeontologist, was born on the isth of December 1820. He
was apprenticed in 1835 to James de Carle Sowerby, and was
engaged in drawing and engraving the plates for Sowerby's
Mineral Conchology, the Supplement to his English Botany, and
other Natural History works. In 1842 he was employed for a
short time by Sedgwick in arranging the fossils in the Wood-
wardian Museum at Cambridge, and he accompanied the professor
on several geological expeditions (1842-1845) into Wales. In
1846 he was appointed on the staff of the Geological Survey and
worked under Edward Forbes until 1854; he was then appointed
palaeontologist to the survey and gave his chief attention to the
palaeozoic fossils, spending much time in Wales and the border
counties. He contributed the palaeontological portion to A. C.
Ramsay's Memoir on the Geology of North Wales (1866), assisted
Murchison in his work on Siluria (1854 and later editions), and
Sedgwick by preparing A Catalogue of the Collection of Cambrian
and Silurian Fossils contained in the Geological Museum of the
University of Cambridge (1873). Salter prepared several of the
Decades of the Geological Survey and became the leading
authority on Trilobites, contributing to the Palaeontographical
Society four parts of A Monograph of British Trilobites (1864-
1867). He resigned his post on the Geological Survey in 1863,
and died on the 2nd of August 1869.
SALTILLO, a city and the capital of the state of Coahuila,
Mexico, about 615 m. by rail N. by W. of the city of Mexico.
Pop. (1900) 23,996. Saltillo is on the Mexican National railway
and another railway connects it with the important mining and
industrial town of Torreon, on the Mexican Central. The city
is on the great central plateau of Mexico, about 5200 ft. above
sea-level. It has a cool and healthy climate, and is a resort in
summer for the people of the tropical coast districts, and in winter
for invalids from the north. The city is laid out in regular
squares, with shady streets and plazas. The residences are of the
Spanish colonial type, with heavy walls and large rooms to insure
coolness during the heat of the day. Among its public institu-
tions are a national college, an athenaeum, the Madcro Institute
with a good library, some fine churches, and the charitable
institutions common to all Mexican cities. Saltillo is an active
commercial and manufacturing town, and an important railway
centre. Its manufactures include cotton and woollen fabrics,
knitted goods and flour. The woollen " zarapes " or " ponchos"
of Saltillo are among the finest produced in Mexico. There are
undeveloped coal deposits in the vicinity.
Saltillo was founded in 1586 as an outpost against the Apache
Indians. It became an incorporated city in 1827. In 1824 the
capital of the state of Coahuila and Texas was at Saltillo. A partisan
controversy removed the seat of government to Monclova in 1833,
but it was returned to Saltillo in 1835. The battle of Bucna Vista
was (ought near Saltillo on the 22nd-23rd of February 1847. After
leaving San Luis Potosf, President Juarez established his capital at
Saltillo for a brief period.
SALT LAKE CITY, the capital city of Utah and the county-seat
of Salt Lake county, in the N.W. part of Utah, immediately E.
of the Jordan river in the Salt Lake Valley, near the base of the
Wasatch mountains, at an altitude of about 4350 ft., about n m.
S.E. of the Great Salt Lake, about 710 m. W. by N. of Denver
and about 930 m. E. of San Francisco. Pop. (1860) 8236;
(1900) S3,53i; (1910 census) 92,777. Area, 51-25 sq. m.
Of the total population in 1000, 12,741 (nearly one-fourth) were
foreign-born, including 5157 English, 1 1687 Swedes, 965 Danes,
963 Germans and 912 Scotch; 35,152 were of foreign-parentage
(one or the other parent foreign-born); 278 were negroes,
214 Chinese, 22 Japanese. Salt Lake City is served by the
Denver & Rio Grande, the Union Pacific, the Western Pacific, the
Oregon Short Line, and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake
railways; it is also a terminus of shorter roads to Ogden, to Los
Angeles and to Mercur, a mining town in the Oquirrh mountains
1 The early Mormon missions in England were very successful,
and many of the leaders of the church and those otherwise prominent
in Salt Lake City have been of English birth.
(S. of Great Salt Lake) whose ores are reduced by the cyanide pro-
cess. The Oregon Short Line and the San Pedro, Los Angeles &
Salt Lake have a union railway station (1909), and the Denver &
Rio Grande and the Western Pacific also have a large union rail-
way station (1910). The street railway system is excellent;
electric cars were introduced in 1889; and the street railways
were reorganized by E. H. Harriman, who bought a controlling
interest in them.
The situation of the city is striking, with views of mountains and
of the Great Salt Lake, and the climate is dry and salubrious. The
city is the headquarters of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day
Saints (see MORMONS). The streets are laid out, according to the
plan of Brigham Young, with city blocks of 10 acres each (660 ft. sq.)
and streets 132 ft. wide, and well shaded with trees planted along
irrigating ditches, fed by mountain streams. Brighain (or Soutn
Temple) Street is a fine boulevard running 3 m. from the Temple
to Fort Douglas. Most of the streets are numbered and named
" East " or " West," " North " or " South," from their direction
from the centre of the city, the Temple Block. State Street is the
official name of First East Street ; and East Temple Street is called
Main, and South Temple Street (east of the Temple block) is called
Brigham. The only developed parks are Pioneer and City Hall,
both small, and Liberty Park (up acres), in which Brigham Young
built a grist mill in 1852 and which was bought from his estate by
the city in 1880. There are bathing parks on the shores of Great
Salt Lake, 11-15 m. W. of the city the best known being Saltair,
which has a Moorish pavilion ; and 5 m. S. is Wandamere (formerly
Calder's) Park (64 acres). Three miles E. of the city is Fort Douglas,
established as Camp Douglas in 1862 by Colonel P. Edward Connor
(1820-1891), afterwards prominently connected with the develop-
ment of the mineral resources of Utah ; the fort overlooks the city,
being more than 4900 ft. above sea-level. In the city there are
medicinal and thermal springs, and water at a temperature of 98-
104 F. is piped to a large bath-house (1850) in the N. part of the city.
The most prominent buildings are those of the Church of Latter-
Day Saints, particularly, in Temple Square, the Temple, Tabernacle,
and Assembly Hall. The great Mormon Temple (1853-1893) has
grey granite walls 6 ft. thick, is 99 X 186 ft., and has six spires,
the highest (220 ft.) having a copper statue of the angel Moroni.
The elliptical Tabernacle (1870) has a rounded, turtle-shell shaped
roof, unsupported by pillars or beams, seats nearly 10,000, and has
a large pipe organ (5000 pipes). The Assemby Hall (1880), also of
granite, has an auditorium which seats about 2500. In 1909 a
bishopric building, with many of the business offices of the church,
was built. Other buildings connected with the history of the
Mormon church are three residences of Brigham Young, called the
Lion House, the Beehive (the beehive is the symbol of the industry
of the Mormon settlers in the desert and appears on the state seal),
and the Amelia Palace or Gardo House (1877), which is now privately
owned and houses an excellent private art gallery. Three blocks E.
of the Temple is St Mary's, the Roman Catholic cathedral (1909,
100-200 ft.; with two towers 175 ft. high). Other large churches
are: St Mark's Cathedral (1869, Protestant Episcopal) and the
First Presbyterian Church (1909). There is a large city and county
building (1894), built of rough grey sandstone from Utah county;
it has a dome on the top of which is a statue of Columbia; over its
entrances are statues of Commerce, Liberty and -Justice; its bal-
conies command views of the neighbouring country apd of the Great
Salt Lake; the interior is decorated with Utah onyx. Other
buildings are: the Federal building; the Packard Library, the public
library of the city (1905), one block E. of Temple Block, which housed
in 1910 about 40,000 volumes; and several business buildings.
Typical of the city is the great building of the Zion's Co-operative
Mercantile Institution, a concern established by Brigham Young
in 1868 there are several large factories connected with it, and
its annual sales average more than $5,000,000. A monument to
Brigham Young and the Utah Pioneers, crowned by a statue of
Brigham Young, by C. E. Dallin, was unveiled in 1897, at the
intersection of Main and Brigham Streets. The city has numerous
hospitals and charities, and there is a state penitentiary here.
In the S.E. part is the Judge Miner's Home and Hospital (Roman
Catholic), a memorial to John Judge, a successful Utah miner.
Salt Lake City has a good public school system In the city is the
University of Utah, chartered in 1850 as the University of the state
of Deseret and opened in November 1850; it was practically dis-
continued from 1851 until 1867, and then was scarcely more than a
business college until 1869; its charter was amended in 1884 and a
new charter was issued in 1894, when the present style of the cor-
poration was assumed; in 1894 60 acres from the Fort Douglas
reservation were secured for the campus. _ In 1909-1910 the
university consisted of a school of arts and sciences, a state school
of mines (1901), a normal school, and a preparatory department.
Other institutions of learning are : the Latter-Day Saints University
(1887) and the Latter-Day Saints High School, St Mary's Academy
(1875; under the Roman Catholic Sisters of the Holy Cross), All
Hallows College (1886; Roman Catholic), Gordon Academy (1870;
Congregational),Rowland Hall Academy ( 1 880 ; Protestant Episcopal)
SALTO SALTPETRE
93
and Westminster College (1897; Presbyterian). There is a state
Art Institute, which gives an annual exhibition, provides for a course
of public lectures on art, and houses in its building the state art
collection. The city has always been interested in music and the
drama: the regular choir of 500 voices of the Mormon Tabernacle
(organized in 1890) is one of the best choruses in the country, and
closely connected with its development are the Symphony Orchestra
and the Salt Lake Choral Society. Brigham Young was an admirer
of the drama, and the Salt Lake Theatre (1862) has had a brilliant
history. There is a Young Men's Christian Association (organized
in 1890). The principal clubs are the Alta, University, Commercial,
Country, and Women's. There are a Masonic Temple and buildings
of the Elks and Odd Fellows.
Salt Lake City is the great business centre of Utah and one of the
main shipping points of the West for agricultural products, live stock
(especially sheep), precious metals and coal; and the excellent
railway facilities contribute greatly to the commercial importance
of the city. In 1905 the value of the factory products was $7,543,983,
being 76-3% more than in 1900 and being nearly one-fifth of the
total value of the factory products of all Utah. There are three large
steam-car repair shops in the city. Among the more valuable
manufactures are: newspapers, books, &c. ($924,495 in 1905), malt
liquors, confectionery, flour, foundry and machine-shop products,
dairy products, salt, knit goods, mattresses, sugar, cement, &c.
Electricity is largely used in the newer factories, the power being
derived from Ogden river, near Ogden, about 35 m. away, and from
cataracts in Cottonwood canyon and other canyons.
The city is governed under a charter of 1851. The government is
in the hands of a mayor, elected for two years, and of a unicameral
municipal council, consisting of 15 members, elected from the five
wards of the city for two years or for four years. The municipality
owns the water works. In 1909 the assessed valuation, real and
personal, was $52,180,789; the tax levy was $677,411; and the
city debt was $4,399,400 (exclusive of $1,528,000, the bonded in-
debtedness of the city schools).
The history of the city is largely that of the Mormons (q.v.)
and in its earlier years that of Utah (q.v.). The Mormons first
came here in 1847; an advance party led by Orson Pratt and
Erastus Snow entered the Salt Lake Valley on the 22nd of July.
President Brigham Young upon his arrival on the 24th approved
of the site, saying that he had seen it before in a vision; on the
28th of July he chose the site for the temple. In August the
city was named " the City of the Great Salt Lake," and this
name was used until 1868 when the adjective was dropped by
legislative act. In the autumn the major body of the pioneers
arrived. The first government was purely ecclesiastical, the
city being a " stake of Zion " under a president; " Father "
Joseph Smith was the first president. The gold excitement of
1849 and the following years was the source of the city's first
prosperity: the Mormons did not attempt to do any mining
Brigham Young counselled them not to abandon agriculture
for prospecting but they made themselves rich by outfitting
those of the gold-seekers who went to California overland and
who stopped at the City of the Great Salt Lake, the westernmost
settlement of any importance. On the 4th of March 1849 a
convention met here which appointed a committee to draft
a constitution; the constitution was immediately adopted, the
independent state of Deseret was organized and on the I2th
of March the first general election was held. In 1850 the city
had a population of 6000, more than half the total number of
inhabitants of the Great Salt Lake Valley, which, as well as the
rest of Utah, was largely settled from Salt Lake City. In January
1851 the general assembly of the state of Deseret chartered the
city; and the first municipal election was held in April of the
same year; the charter was amended in 1865. Immigration
from Europe and especially from England was large in the earlier
years of the city, beginning in 1848. Salt Lake City was promin-
ently identified with the Mormon church in its struggle with the
United States government; in 1858 it was entirely deserted upon
the approach of the United States troops. Since the Civil War,
the non-Mormon element (locally called " Gentile ") has steadily
increased in strength, partly because of industrial changes and
partly because the city is the natural point of attack on the
Mormon church of other denominations, which are comparatively
stronger here than elsewhere in Utah.
See the bibliography under MORMONS and under UTAH; and
particularly E. W. Tullidge, History of Salt Lake City (Salt Lake
City, 1886). the famous descriptions in Captain Stansbury's report
(1850), and in R. F. Burton's The City of the Saints (1861), and H. H.
Bancroft, History of Utah (San Francisco, 1890).
SALTO, a town and river port of Uruguay and capital of a
department of the same name, on the Uruguay river 60 m.
above Paysandu. Pop. (1900, estimate) 12,000. It has railway con-
nexion with Montevideo via Paysandu and Rio Negro (394 m.),
and with Santa Rosa, on the Brazilian frontier (113 m.).
It is also connected with Montevideo and Buenos Aires by river
steamers, Salto being at the head 4>f high water navigation for
large vessels. There are reefs and rocks in the river between
Paysandu and Salto that make navigation dangerous except
at high water. Above Salto the river is obstructed by reefs
all the way up to the Brazilian frontier, about 95 m., and is
navigable for light-draft vessels only at high water. Farther
up, the river is freely navigable to Santo Tom6 (Argentina) a
distance of about 1 70 m. Travellers wishing to ascend the river
above Salto usually cross to Concordia, Entre Rios, and go up
by railway to Ceibo, near Monte Caseros, from which point small
steamers ascend to Uruguayana, Itaqui, and other river ports.
The streets of Salto are well paved and lighted with electricity,
and there are some good public buildings. The town has two
meat-curing establishments (saladeros) and is the shipping port
for north-western Uruguay and, to some extent, for western
Rio Grande do Sul (Brazil). Behind Salto lies a rich, undulating
grazing country, whose large herds supply its chief exports.
The department of Salta area, 4866 sq. m., pop. (1900) 40,589,
(1907, estimate) 53,154 is an undulating, well-watered region
occupying the north-west angle of Uruguay. Its industries are
almost exclusively pastoral About one-third of its population are
foreigners, chiefly Brazilians.
SALTPETRE (from the Lat. sal, salt, petra, a rock), the
commercial name given to three naturally occurring nitrates,
distinguished as (i) ordinary saltpetre, nitre, or potassium
nitrate, (2) Chile saltpetre, cubic nitre, or sodium nitrate, (3)
wall-saltpetre or calcium nitrate. These nitrates generally occur
as efflorescences caused by the oxidation of nitrogenous matter
in the presence of the alkalies and alkaline earths.
i. Ordinary Saltpetre or Potassium Nitrate, KNOs, occurs,
mingled with other nitrates, on the surface and in the superficial
layers of the soil in many countries, especially in certain parts
of India, Persia, Arabia and Spain. The deposits in the great
limestone caves of Kentucky, Virginia and Indiana have been
probably derived from the overlying soil and accumulated by
percolating water; they are of no commercial value. The
actual formation of this salt is not quite clear; but it is certainly
conditioned by the simultaneous contact of decaying nitrogenous
matter, alkalies, air and moisture. The demand for saltpetre
as an ingredient of gunpowder led to the formation of saltpetre
plantations or nitriaries, which at one time were common in
France, Germany, and other countries; the natural conditions
were simulated by exposing heaps of decaying organic matter
mixed with alkalies (lime, &c.) to atmospheric action. The salt
is obtained from the soil in which it occurs naturally, or from
the heaps in which it is formed artificially, by extracting with
water, and adding to the solution wood-ashes or potassium
carbonate. The liquid is filtered and then crystallized. Since
potassium nitrate is generally more serviceable than the sodium
salt, whose deliquescent properties inhibit its use for gunpowder
manufacture, the latter salt, of which immense natural deposits
occur (see below (2) Chile saltpetre), is converted into ordinary
saltpetre in immense quantities. This is generally effected by
adding the calculated amount of potassium chloride (of which
immense quantities are obtained as a by-product in the Stassfurt
salt industry) dissolved in hot water to a saturated boiling
solution of sodium nitrate; the common salt, which separates
on boiling down the solution, is removed from the hot solution,
and on cooling* the potassium nitrate crystallizes out and is
separated and dried.
As found in nature, saltpetre generally forms aggregates of
delicate acicular crystals, and sometimes silky tufts; distinctly
developed crystals are not found in nature. When crystallized
from water, crystals belonging to the orthorhombic system,
and having a prism angle of 61 10', are obtained; they are
often twinned on the prism planes, giving rise to pseudo-hexagonal
groups resembling aragonite. There are perfect cleavages
94
SALT RANGE SALUTATIONS
parallel to the dome (on). The hardness is 2, and the specific
gravity 2-1. It is fairly soluble in water; 100 parts at o dis-
solving 13-3 parts of the salt, and about 30 parts at 20; the
most saturated solution contains 327-4 parts of the salt in 100
of water; this solution boils at 114-1. It fuses at 339 to a
colourless liquid, which solidifies on cooling to a white fibrous
mass, known in pharmacy as sal prunella. It is an energetic
oxidizing agent, and on this property its most important applica-
tions depend. At a red heat it evolves oxygen with the formation
of potassium nitrite, which, in turn, decomposes at a higher
temperature. Heated with many metals it converts them into
oxides, and with combustible substances, such as charcoal,
sulphur, &c., a most intense conflagration occurs. Its chief
uses are in glass-making to promote fluidity, in metallurgy to
oxidize impurities, as a constituent of gunpowder and in
pyrotechny; it is also used in the manufacture of nitric acid.
Potassium nitrate was used at one time in many different
diseased conditions, but it is now never administered internally,
as its extremely depressant action upon the heart is not com-
pensated for by any useful properties which are not possessed
by many other drugs. One most valuable use it has, however,
in the treatment of asthma. All nitrites (e.g. sodium nitrite,
ethyl nitrite, amyl nitrite) cause relaxation of involuntary
muscular fibre and therefore relieve the asthmatic attacks,
which depend upon spasm of the involuntary muscles in the
bronchial tubes. Saltpetre may be made to act as a nitrite
by dissolving it in water in the strength of about fifty grains
to the ounce, soaking blotting-paper in the solution and letting
the paper dry. Pieces about 2 in. square are then successively
put into a jar and lighted. The patient inhales the fumes, which
contain a considerable proportion of nitrogen oxides. This
treatment is frequently very successful indeed in relaxing the
bronchial spasm upon which the most obvious features of an
attack depend.
2. Chile saltpetre, cubic nitre or sodium nitrate, NaNOj, occurs
under the same conditions as ordinary saltpetre in deposits covering
immense areas in South America, which are known locally as caliche
or terra salitrosa, and abound especially in the provinces of Tarapaca
and Antofagasta in Chile. The nitrate fields are confined to a
narrow strip of country, averaging 2j m. in width, situated on the
eastern slopes of the coast ranges and extending from north to south
for 260 geographical miles, between the latitudes 25 45' and 19 12' S.
The nitrate forms beds, varying in thickness from 6 in. to 12 ft.,
under a covering of conglomerate locally known as lostra, which is
itself overlain by a loose sandy soil. The conglomerate consists of
rock fragments, sodium chloride and various sulphates, cemented
together by gypsum to form a hard compact mass 6 to 10 ft. in
thickness. The caliche has often a granular structure, and is yellowish-
white, bright lemon-yellow, brownish or violet in colour. It contains
from 48 to 75% of sodium nitrate and from 20 to 40% of common
salt, which are associated with various minor saline components,
including sodium iodate and more or less insoluble mineral, and also
some organic matter, e.g. guano, which suggests the idea that the
nitrate was formed by the nitrification of this kind of excremental
matter. The caliche is worked up in loco for crude nitrate by ex-
tracting the salts with hot water, allowing the suspended earth to
settle, and then transferring the clarified liquor, first to a cistern
where it deposits part of its sodium chloride at a high temperature,
and then to _another where, on cooling, it yields a crop of crystals
of purified nitrate. The nitre thus refined is exported chiefly from
Valparaiso, whence the name of " Chile saltpetre." The mother
liquors used to be thrown away, but are now utilized for the extrac-
tion of their iodine (q.v.).
Chemically pure sodium nitrate can be obtained by repeated
recrystallization of Chile saltpetre or by synthesis. It forms colour-
less, transparent rhombohedra, like those of Iceland spar; the angles
are nearly equal to right angles, being 73 30', so that the crystals
look like cubes: hence the name of cubic saltpetre." There are
perfect cleavages parallel to the rhombohedral faces, and the crystals
exhibit a strong negative double refraction, like calcite. One hundred
parts of water at o and at 100 dissolve 72-9 and 180 parts of the
salt; at 120" the boiling-point of the saturated solution, 216 parts.
The salt fuses at 316"; at higher temperatures it loses oxygen (more
readily than the corresponding potassium salt) with the formation
of nitrite which, at very high temperatures, is reduced ultimately
to a mixture of peroxide, Na,Oj, and oxide, NasO. The chief
applications of Chile saltpetre are in the nitric acid industry, and in
the manufacture of ordinary saltpetre for making gunpowder,
ordinary Chile saltpetre being unsuitable by reason of its deliquescent
nature, a property, however, not exhibited by the perfectly pure
salt. It is also employed as a manure. For references to memoirs
descriptive of the Chilian nitrate deposits, see G. P. Merrill, The
Non-Metallic Minerals (New York, 1904).
3. Wall-saltpetre or lime saltpetre, calcium nitrate, Ca(NOj) 2 , is
found as an efflorescence on the walls of stables; it is now manu-
factured in large quantities by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, i.e. by
passing a powerful electric arc discharge through moist air and
absorbing the nitric acid formed by lime. Its chief applications are
as a manure and in the nitric acid industry.
SALT RANGE, a hill system in the Punjab and North-Wcst
Frontier Provinces of India, deriving its name from its extensive
deposits of rock-salt. The range commences in Jhelum district
in the lofty hill of Chel (3701 ft.), on the right bank of the river
Jhelum, traverses Shahpur district, crosses the Indus in Mianwali
district, thence a southern branch forms the boundary between
Bannu and Dera Ismail Khan until it finally merges in the
Waziristan system of mountains. The salt range contains the
great mines of Mayo, Warcha and Kalabagh, which yield an
inexhaustible supply of salt, and supply the wants of all Northern
India. Coal of an inferior quality is also found.
SALTYKOV (STCHEDRIN), MICHAEL EVGRAFOVICH (1826-
(1889), Russian satirist, was born on his father's estate in the
province of Tula, isth (27th) January 1826. His early education
was completely neglected, and his youth, owing to the severity
and the domestic quarrels of his parents, was full of the most
melancholy experiences. Left entirely to himself, he developed
a love for reading; but the only book in his father's house
was the Bible, which he studied with deep attention. At ten
years of age he entered the Moscow Institute for the sons of the
nobility, and subsequently the Lyceum at St Petersburg, where
Prince Lobanov Rostofski, afterwards minister for foreign affairs,
was one of his schoolfellows. While there he published poetry,
and translations of some of the works of Byron and Heine; and
on leaving the Lyceum he obtained employment as a clerk in the
Ministry of War. In 1884 he published Zaputennoye Dyelo
(" A Complicated Affair "), which, in view of the revolutionary
movements at that time in France and Germany, was the cause
of his banishment to Vyatka, where he spent eight years as a
minor government official. This experience enabled him to study
the life and habits of civil servants in the interior, and to give
a clever picture of Russian provincial officials in his Gubernskie
Otcherki (" Provincial Sketches "). On] his return to St Peters-
burg as he was quickly promoted to administrative posts of con-
siderable importance. After making a report on the condition
of the Russian police, he was appointed deputy governor, first
of Ryazan and then of Tver. His predilection for literary work
induced him to leave the government service, but pecuniary
difficulties soon compelled him to re-enter it, and in 1864 he
was appointed president of the local boards of taxation succes-
sively at Penza, Tula and Ryazan. In 1868 he finally quitted
the civil service. Subsequently he wrote his principal works,
namely, Poshekftonskaya Starina (" The Old Times of Poshek-
hona "), which possesses a certain autobiographical interest;
Istoria odnavo Goroda (" The History of a Town ") ; A Satirical
History of Russia; Messieurs et Mesdames Pompadours; and
Messieurs Golovlof. At one time, after the death of the poet
Nekrasov, he acted as editor of a leading Russian magazine,
the Contemporary. He died in St Petersburg on the 3oth of
April (i2th May) 1889. (G. D.)
SALUS, in Roman mythology the personification of health
and prosperity. In 302 B.C. a temple was dedicated to Salus on
the Quirinal (Livy x. i); and in later times public prayers were
offered to her on behalf of the emperor and the Roman people
at the beginning of the year, in time of sickness, and on the
emperor's birthday. In 180 B.C., on the occasion of a plague,
vows were made to Apollo, Aesculapius and Salus (Livy xl. 37).
Here the special attribute of the goddess appears to be health ;
and in later times she was identified with the Greek goddess of
health, Hygieia.
SALUTATIONS, or GREETINGS, the customary forms of kindly
or respectful address, especially on meeting or parting or on
occasions of ceremonious approach. Etymologically the word
salutation (Lat. salutatio, " wishing health ") refers only to
words spoken.
SALUTATIONS
95
Forms of salutation frequent among savages and barbarians
may last on almost unchanged in civilized custom. The habit
of affectionate clasping or embracing is seen at the meetings
of the Andaman islanders and Australian blacks, or where
the Fuegians in friendly salute hug "like the grip of a bear." 1
This natural gesture appears in old Semitic and Aryan custom :
" Esau ran to meet him (Jacob) and embraced him, and fell on his
neck, and kissed him, and they wept " (Gen. xxxiii. 4) ; so,
when Odysseus makes himself known, Philoetius and Eumaeus
cast their arms round him with kisses on the head, hands and
shoulders (Odyss. xxi. 223).
The idea of the kiss being an instinctive gesture is negatived
by its being unknown over half the world, where the prevailing
salute is that by smelling or sniffing (often called by travellers
" rubbing noses ") , which belongs to Polynesians, Malays, Burmese
and other Indo-Chinese, Mongols, &c., extending thence
eastward to the Eskimo and westward to Lapland, where
Linnaeus saw relatives saluting by putting their noses together. 2
This seems the only appearance of the habit in Europe. On
the other hand the kiss, the salute by tasting, appears constantly
in Semitic and Aryan antiquity, as in the above cases from the
book of Genesis and the Odyssey, or in Herodotus's description
of the Persians of his time kissing one another if equals on the
mouth, if one was somewhat inferior on the cheek (Herod, i. 134).
In Greece in the classic period it became customary to kiss the
hand, breast or knee of a superior. In Rome the kisses of in-
feriors became a burdensome civility (Martial xii. 59). The
early Christians made it the sign of fellowship: "greet all the
brethren with an holy kiss" (i Thess. v. 26; cf. Rom. xvi.
16, &c.). It early passed into more ceremonial form in the kiss
of peace given to the newly baptized and in the celebration of the
Eucharist; 3 this is retained by the Oriental Church. After a
time, however, its indiscriminate use between the sexes gave
rise to scandals, and it was restricted by ecclesiastical regulations
men being only allowed to kiss men, and women women, and
eventually in the Roman Church the ceremonial kiss at the
communion being only exchanged by the ministers, but a relic
or cross called an osculatorium or pax being carried to the people
to be kissed. 4 While the kiss has thus been adopted as a re-
ligious rite, its original social use has continued. Among men,
however, it has become less effusive, the alteration being marked
in England at the end of the I7th century by such passages
as the advice to Sir Wilfull by his London-bred brother: " in
the country, where great lubberly brothers slabber and kiss one
another when they meet; . . . 'T is not the fashion here."'
Court ceremonial keeps up the kiss on the cheek between
sovereigns and the kissing of the hand by subjects, and the
pope, like a Roman emperor, receives the kiss on his foot. A
curious trace which these osculations have left behind is that
when ceasing to be performed they are still talked of by way of
politeness: Austrians say, " Ktiss d'Hand!" and Spaniards,
"Beso a Vd. las manos!" "I kiss your hands!"
Strokings, pattings and other caresses have been turned to use as
salutations, but have not a wide enough range to make them im-
portant. Weeping for joy, often occurring naturally at meetings,
is sometimes affected as a salutation ; but this seems to be different
from the highly ceremonious weeping performed by several rude
races when, meeting after absence, they renew the lamentations over
those friends who have died in the meantime. The typical case is
that of the Australian natives, where the male nearest of kin presses
his breast to the new comer's, and the nearest female relative, with
piteous lamentations, embraces his knees with one hand, while with
the other she scratches her face till the blood drops. 6 Obviously this
is no joy-weeping, but mourning, and the same is true of the New
Zealand tangi, which is performed at the reception of a distinguished
visitor, whether he has really dead friends to mourn or not. 7
Cowering or crouching is a natural gesture of fear or inability to
resist that belongs to the brutes as well as man ; its extreme form is
lying prostrate face to ground. In barbaric society, as soon as
1 W. P. Snow in Trans. Ethnol. Soc., n.s., i. 263.
^ J. E. Smith, Linnaeus's Tour in Lapland, i. 315.
3 Bingham, Antiquities of the Chr. Church, bk. xii. c. 4, xv. c. 3.
4 The latter term has supplied the Irish language with its term for
a kiss, pog, Welsh poc ; see Rhys, Revue Celtique, vi. 43.
5 Congreve's Way of the World, act iii.
6 Grey, Journals, ii. 255.
7 A. Taylor, New Zealand, p. 221.
distinctions are marked between master and slave, chief and com-
moner, these tokens of submission become salutations. The sculp-
tures of Egypt and Assyria show the lowly prostrations of the ancient
East, while in Dahomey or Siam subjects crawl before the king, and
even Siberian peasants grovel and kiss the dust before a noble. A
later stage is to suggest, but not actually perform, the prostration,
as the Arab bends his hand to the ground and puts it to his lips or
forehead, or the Tongan would touch the sole of a chief's foot, thus
symbolically placing himself under his feet. Kneeling prevails in
the middle stages of culture, as in the ceremonial of China ; Hebrew
custom sets it rather apart as an act of homage to a deity (i Kings
xix. 18; Isa. xlv. 23); medieval Europe distinguishes between
kneeling in worship on both knees and on one knee only in homage,
as in the Boke of Curlasye (ith century) :
" Be curtayse to god, and knele doun
On bothe knees with grete deuocioun;
To mon {>ou shalle knele opon be ton,
|>e tojier to y self ou halde alofi."
Bowing, as a salute of reverence, appears in its extreme in Oriental
custom, as among the ancient Israelites: " bowed himself to the
ground seven times " (Gen. xxxiii. 3).* The Chinese according to
the degree of respect implied bow kneeling or standing. 9 The
bowing salutation, varying in Europe from something less than the
Eastern salaam down to the slightest inclination of the head, is
interesting from being given mutually, the two saluters each making
the sign of submission to the other, which would have been absurd
till the sign passed into mere civility. Uncovering is a common
mode of salutation, originally a sign of disarming or defencelessness
or destitution in the presence of a superior. Polynesian or African
chiefs require more or less stripping, such as the uncovering to the
waist which Captain Cook describes in Tahiti. 10 Taking off the hat
by men has for ages been the accepted mode in the Western world.
Modern usage has moderated this bowing and scraping (the scrape
is throwing back the right leg as the body is bent forward), as well as
the curtseys (courtoisie) of women. Some Eastern nations are apt
to see disrespect in baring the head, but insist on the feet being un-
covered. Burma was agitated for years by " the great shoe question,"
whether Europeans should be called on to conform to native custom
rather than their own, by taking off their shoes to enter the royal
presence. 11 Grasping hands is a gesture which makes its appearance
m antiquity as a legal act symbolic of the parties joining in compact,
peace or friendship; this is well seen in marriage, where the hand
grasp was part of the ancient Hindu ceremony, as was the " dex-
trarum junctio " in Rome, which passed on into the Christian rite.
In the classic world we see it passing into a mere salutation, as where
the tiresome acquaintance met by Horace on his stroll along the Via
Sacra seizes his hand (Hor., Sat. i. 9).
Giving the right hand of fellowship (Gal. ii. 9) passed naturally
into a salutation throughout Christendom, and spread, probably
from Byzantium, over the Moslem world. The emphatic form of the
original gesture in " striking hands " is still used to make the greeting
more hearty. The variety called in English " shaking hands " (Ger.
Hande-schulteln) only appears to have become usual in the middle
ages. 12 In the Moslem legal form of joining hands the parties press
their thumbs together. 13 This has been adopted as a salute by
African tribes.
As to words of salutation, it is found even among the lower races
that certain ordinary phrases have passed into formal greetings.
Thus among the Tupis of Brazil, after the stranger's silent arrival
in the hut, the master, who for a time had taken no notice of him,
would say "Ereioube?" that is, "Art thou come?" to which the
proper reply was, "Yes, I am come"! 14 Many formulas express
difference of rank and consequent respect, as where the Basuto
salute their chiefs with Tamo, sevata I i.e. " Greeting, wild beast ! "
Congo negroes returning from a journey salute their wives with an
affectionate Okowe I but they meekly kneeling round him may not
repeat the word, but must say Ka 1 ka 1 16 Among cultured nations,
salutations are apt to be expressions of peace and goodwill, as in the
Biblical instances, " Is it well with thee ? " (2 Kings iv. 26) ; " Peace
to thee, and peace to thine house," &c. (i Sam. xxv. 6; see Ezra iv.
17). Such formulas run on from age to age, and the latter may be
traced on to the Moslem greeting, Salam 'alaikumt "The peace be
on you," to which the reply is Wa-'alaikum as-salam 1 " And
on you be the peace (sc. of God) ! " This is an example how a greeting
may become a pass-word among fellow-believers, for it is usually
held that it may not be used by or to an infidel. From an epigram
of Meleager (Anth., ed. Jacobs vii. 119; cf. Plautus, Poen. v.
passim) we learn that, while the Syrian salutation was Shelom
(" Peace ! "), the Phoenicians greeted by wishing life ('nxnn, the
8 See the Egyptian bow with one hand to the knee ; Wilkinson,
Anc. Eg.
S. Wells Williams, Middle Kingdom, i. 801.
10 See references to these customs in Tylor, Early History of
Mankind, ch. iii.
11 Shway Yoe, The Burman, ii. 158, 205.
"See Tylor in Macmillan's Mag. (May 1882), p. 76.
13 Lane, Mod. Eg. i. 219.
14 Jean de Lery, part ii. p. 204.
16 Magyar, Reise in Siid-Afrika.
9 6
SALUZZO SALVADOR
Kin, &c., of Neo-Punic gravestones). The cognate Babylonian
form, " O king, live for ever!" (Dan. iii. 9), represents a series of
phrases which continue still in the Vivat rexl " Long live the king! "
The Greeks said xoTpe, " Be joyful!" both at meeting and parting;
the Pythagorean vytalvtiv and the Platonic D irp&TTfiv, wish
health; at a later time Aairdfo^ai, "I greet!" came into fashion.
The Romans applied Salve I " Be in health!" especially to meeting,
and Valet " Be well!" to parting. In the modern civilized world,
everywhere, the old inquiry after health appears, the " How do you
do ? becoming so formal as often to be said on both sides without
either waiting For-an answer. Hardly less wide in range is the set of
phrases " Good day ! " " Good night ! " &c., varying according to
the hour and translating into every language of Christendom.
Among other European phrases, some correspond to our " welcome!"
and "farewell! " while the religious element enters into another
class, exemplified by our "Good-bye!" ("God be with you!"),
and French Adieut Attempts have been made to shape European
greetings into expressions of orthodoxy, or even tests of belief, but
they have had no great success. Examples are a Protestant German
salutation "Lobe Jesum Christuml" answered by "In Ewigkeit,
Ament" and the formula which in Spain enforces the doctrine of
the Immaculate Conception, " Ave Maria purisima!" answered by
"Sin pecado concebidal" On the whole, though the half-meaning-
less forms of salutation may often seem ridiculous, society would not
carry them on so universally unless it found them useful. They serve
the purpose of keeping up social intercourse, and establishing relations
between the parties in an interview, of which their tone may strike
the keynote. (E. B. T.)
SALUZZO, a city and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in
the province of Cuneo, 42 m. S. of Turin by rail, 1296 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,306 (town), 16,208 (commune). The
upper town preserves some part of the fortifications which pro-
tected it when, previous to the plague of 1630, the city had
upwards of 30,000 inhabitants. The old castle of the marquises
of Saluzzo now serves as a prison. Besides the Gothic cathedral
(1480-1511), with the tombs of the marquises, the churches of
San Giovanni (formerly San Domenico), San Bernardo and the
Casa Cavazza, now the municipal museum, are noteworthy.
Railways run to Cuneo and Airasca (the latter on the Turin-
Pinerolo line) and steam tramways in various directions. The
castle of Manta, in the vicinity, contains interesting 15th-century
frescoes by a French artist (see P. d'Ancona in L'Arte for 1905;
94, p. 184).
The line of the marquises of Saluzzo began (1142) with Manfred,
son of Boniface, marquis of Savona, and continued till 1548, when
the city and territory were seized by the French. The marquises
being opponents of the house of Savoy, and taking part in the
struggles between France and the empire, the city often suffered
severely from the fortunes of war. Henry IV. restored the marquis-
ate to Charles Emmanuel I. of Savoy at the peace of Lyons in 1601.
Among the celebrities of Saluzzo are Silvio Pellico, Bodoni, the
famous printer of Parma of the late 1 8th and early igth centuries,
and Casalis the historian of Sardinia. The history of the marquisate
was written by Delfino Muletti (5 vols., 1829-1833).
SALVADOR, or SAN SALVADOR (RepHblica del Salvador), the
smallest but most densely peopled of the republics of Central
America, bounded on the N. and E. by Honduras, S. by the
Pacific Ocean, and W. by Guatemala. (For map, see CENTRAL
AMERICA.) Pop. (1906) 1,116,253; area, about 7225 sq. m.
Salvador has a coastline extending for about 160 m. from the
mouth of the Rio de la Paz to that of the Goascoran in the Bay
of Fonseca (q.v.). Its length from E. to W. is 140 m., and its
average breadth about 60 m.
Physical Features. With the exception of a comparatively
narrow seaboard of low alluvial plains, the .country consists
mainly of a plateau about 2000 ft. above the sea, broken by a large
number of volcanic cones. These are geologically of more
recent origin than the main chain of the Cordillera which rises
farther N. The principal river of the republic is the Rio Lempa,
which, rising just beyond the frontier of Guatemala and crossing
a corner of Honduras, enters Salvador N. of Citala. After
receiving the surplus waters of the Laguna de Guija, it flows
E. through a magnificent valley between the plateau and the
Cordillera, and then turning S. skirts the base of the volcano
of Siguatepeque and reaches the Pacific in 88 40' W. Among
its numerous tributaries are the Rio Santa Ana, rising near
the city of that name, the Asalguate, which passes the capital
San Salvador, the Sumpul, and the Torola, draining the N.E.
of Salvador and part of Honduras. The Lempa is for two-thirds
of its course navigable by small steamers. The Rio San Miguel
drains the country between the bay of Fonseca and the
basin of the Lempa. The volcanic mountains do not form a
chain but a series of clusters: the Izalco group in the W.
including Izalco (formed in 1770), Marcelino, Santa Ana,
Naranjos, Aguila, San Juan de Dios, Apaneca, Tamajaso and
Lagunita; the San Salvador group, about 30 m. E.; Cojute-
peque to the N.E. and the San Vicente group to the E. of the
great volcanic lake of Ilopango; the Siguatepeque summits
to the N.E. of San Vicente; and the great S.E. or San Miguel
group San Miguel, Chinameca, Buenapa, Usulatan, Tecapa,
Taburete. Cacaguateque and Sociedad volcanoes in the N.E.
belong to the inland Cordillera. Santa Ana (8300 ft.) and San
Miguel (7120 ft.) are the loftiest volcanoes in the country.
The neighbourhood of the capital is subject to earthquakes.
San Miguel is described as one of the most treacherous burning
mountains in America, sometimes several years in complete
repose and then all at once bursting out with terrific fury. In
1870-1880 the Lake of Ilopango was the scene of a remarkable
series of phenomena. With a length of 55 m. and a breadth of
45, it forms a rough parallelogram with deeply indented sides,
and is surrounded in all directions by steep mountains except
at the points where the villages of Asino and Apulo occupy
little patches of level ground. Between the 3ist of December
1879 and the nth of January 1880 the lake rose 4 ft. above its
level. The Jiboa, which flows out at the S.E., became, instead
of a very shallow stream 20 ft. broad, a raging torrent which
soon scooped out for itself in the volcanic rocks a channel
30 to 35 ft. deep. A rapid subsidence of the lake was thus
produced, and by the 6th of March the level was 34! ft. below
its maximum. Towards the centre of the lake a volcanic centre
about 500 ft. in diameter rose 150 ft. above the water, surrounded
by a number of small islands.
Climate. The lowlands are generally hot and, on the coast,
malarial; but on the tablelands and mountain slopes of the
interior the climate is temperate and healthy. There are only
two seasons: the wet, which Salvadorians call winter, from
May to October; and the dry, or summer, season, from November
to April. In July and August there are high winds, followed by
torrents of rain and thunderstorms; in September and October
the rain, not heavy, is continuous. For an account of the
geology, fauna and flora of Salvador, see CENTRAL AMERICA.
Inhabitants. The population in 1887 was stated to be 664,513,
(1901) 1,006,848, (1906) 1,116,253. The number of Ladinos
(whites and persons of mixed blood) is about 775,000 and of
Indians about 230,000. The various elements were, before 1901,
estimated as follows, and the proportion still holds good in the
main: whites (creoles and foreigners) 10%, half-castes 50%,
Indians 40%, and a very small proportion of negroes. The
whites of pure blood are very few, a liberal estimate putting the
proportion at 2-5%. There is no immigration into the country,
and the rapid increase with which the population is credited
can be due only to a large surplus of births over deaths. The
chief towns, which are described in separate articles, comprise
San Salvador the capital (pop. 1905, about 60,000), Santa Ana
(48,000), San Miguel (25,000), San Vicente (18,000), Sonsonate
(17,000), Nueva San Salvador or Santa Tecla (18,000) and the
seaport of La Union (4000). For the ancient Indian civilization
of Salvador, see CENTRAL AMERICA: Archaeology, and MEXICO:
History.
Agriculture. The only industry extensively carried on is
agriculture, but the methods employed are still primitive. The
more important products are coffee, sugar, indigo and balsam.
The country is rich in medicinal plants. Peruvian balsam
(Myrospermum Salvatorense or Myroxylon Pereirae) is an indi-
genous balm, rare except on the Balsam Coast, as the region about
Cape Remedies is named. It is not cultivated in Peru, but owes
its name to the fact that, during the early period of Spanish
rule, it was forwarded to the Peruvian port of Callao for tran-
shipment to Europe. Rubber is collected; tobacco is grown
in small quantities; cocoa, rice, cereals and fruits are cultivated.
The government seeks to encourage cotton-growing, and has
SALVAGE
97
established in the suburbs of the capital an agricultural college
and model farm.
Mining. In the Cordillera, which runs through Salvador, there
are veins of various metals gold, silver, copper, mercury and
lead being found mostly in the E., and iron in the W. Coal has
been discovered at various points in the valley of the Lempa.
In the republic there are about 180 mining establishments,
about half of them [being in the department of Morazan; they
are owned by British, United States and Salvadorian companies.
Only gold and silver are worked. The output, chiefly gold,
was valued at 250,000 in 1907.
Commerce. The trade of Salvador is almost entirely confined
to the import of cotton goods, woollen goods, sacks and
machinery, and to the export of coffee and a few other agricul-
tural products. In 1900 the formation of a statistical office was
decreed. The average yearly value of the imports for the five
years 1904-1908 was 804,000, of the exports 1,250,000. The
coffee exported in 1908 was valued at 830,000. The imports,
comprising foodstuffs, hardware, drugs, cottons, silk and yarn,
come (in order of value) chiefly from Great Britain, the United
States, France and Germany; the exports are mostly to the
United States and France.
Shipping and Communications. Until 1855 the roads of
Salvador were little better than bridle-paths, and fords or ferries
were the sole means of crossing the larger rivers. During the
next half-century about 2000 m. of highways were built, and the
rivers were bridged. The first railway, a narrow-gauge line,
between the port of Acajutla and Sonsonate, was opened in 1882,
and afterwards extended to Ateos on the E. and Santa Ana on
the N.W. A railway from the capital to Niieva San Salvador
was also constructed, and in 1900 was linked to the older system
by a line from Ateos to San Salvador. In 1903, a concession
was granted for an extension from Nueva San Salvador to the
port of La Libertad. From 350 to 450 vessels annually entered
and cleared at Salvadorian ports (chiefly Acajutla, La Libertad
and La Union), during the years 1895 to 1905. The old port of
Acajutla has been closed, and a new port opened in a more
sheltered position about i m. N., where an iron pier, warehouses
and custom-house have been erected. Salvador joined the postal
union in 1879.
Currency and Credit. In 1910 there were three commercial
banks and an agricultural bank within the republic. In 1897 a
law was passed adopting a gold standard. The currency of the
country in 1910 consisted entirely of silver pesos, the fractional
money under -900 fine having, by arrangement with the govern-
ment, been all exported by the banks. The peso or dollar at par
is valued at four shillings; its actual value was about is. 8d. in
1910. The metric system of weights and measures was adopted by
decree of January 1886, but the old Spanish weights and measures
still continue in general use.
Finance. The revenue is mainly derived from import and
export duties, but considerable sums are also obtained from
excise, and smaller amounts from stamps and other sources. The
principal branches of expenditure are the public debt, defence
and internal administration. The official figures showing the
revenue and expenditure for the five years 1904-1908 are as
follows (pesos being converted into sterling at the rate of 12
to !):-
Years.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
675,000
711,000
707,000
728,000
1,064,000
734,000
837,000
i ,024,000
886,000
1,019,000
The foreign debt, amounting to 726,420 (240,000 of a 6% loan
of 1889, and 485,720 of another of 1892) was in 1899 converted
into 5 % mortgage debentures of the Salvador Railway Company
Limited, to which the government has guaranteed, for eighteen
years from the ist of January 1899, a fixed annual subsidy of
24,000. In March 1908 a new foreign loan was raised, amount-
ing to 1,000,000. The bonds were issued at 86, and bore 6%
xxrv. t.
interest, secured partly upon the special import duty of $3.60
(American gold) on every kilogramme of imported merchandise,
partly upon the export duty of 40 c. (American gold) on every
quintal (100 Ib) of coffee up to 500,000 Ib. The 4% internal
debt amounted in 1905 to 840,170.
Government. The constitution proclaimed in 1824, and
modified in 1859, 1864, 1871, 1872, 1880, 1883 and 1886, vests
the legislative power in a chamber of 70 deputies, including
42 landowners (3 for each department), all chosen by the direct
vote of the people. The president and vice-president are likewise
chosen by direct popular vote, and they hold office for 4 years.
The president is not eligible for the presidency or vice-presidency
during the following presidential term. He is assisted by 4
ministers. Local government is carried on in each of the 14
departments by governors appointed by the central executive.
The municipalities are administered by officers (alcaldes, regi-
dores, &c.) elected by the inhabitants.
Religion and Education. The Roman Catholic religion
prevails throughout the republic, but there is complete religious
freedom, so far as is compatible with public order. Civil marriage
is legal, monastic institutions are prohibited, and education is in
the hands of laymen. Primary education is gratuitous and
obligatory. For secondary instruction there are about 20 higher
schools, including 3 technical institutes, and 2 schools for
teachers, one for men and the other for women these five
institutions being supported by the government. At San
Salvador there is a national college for the higher education of
women. Superior and professional instruction is provided at
the national university in the capital.
Justice is administered by a supreme court, and in district,
circuit and local courts. The active ' army consists of about
3000 men, and the militia, of about 18,000. In time of war all
males between the ages of eighteen and sixty are liable for
service. The navy consists of one customs cruiser.
History. Salvador received its name from Pedro de Alvarado,
who conquered it for Spain in 1525-26. Its independence of
the Spanish Crown dates from 1822; (see CENTRAL AMERICA:
History). Revolutions have been frequent. In July 1906 war
broke out between Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, but was
terminated within the month by the arbitration of the United
States president (see as above). In 1907 Salvador supported
Honduras (q.v.) against Nicaragua; its prosperity was not,
however, seriously impaired by the defeat of its ally.
See E. G. Squier, The States of Central America (London, 1868);
D. Guzman, Apuntamientos sobre la topografia fisica de la republica
del Salvador (San Salvador, 1883) ; D. Gonzalez, Datos sobre la
republica de El Salvador (San Salvador, 1961 ) ; No. 58 of the
Bulletins of the Bureau of American Republics (Washington, 1892);
annual reports of the Council of the Corporation of Foreign Bond-
holders (London) and of the British Foreign Office.
SALVAGE (from Lat. salvus, safe). There is no general
rule or principle of law which entitles one who saves the life or
property of another to be rewarded by him. But in certain
special classes of cases the law does require the appointed courts
to reward those who by their exertions have rescued lives or
property from probable damage or destruction. The reward so
given is called salvage and the same word is often used to denote
the service rewarded. Apart from the application of the term
by analogy to the saving of property from fire on land, the
recovery of property from destruction by the aid of voluntary
payments (as in the case of payments to prevent the forfeiture of
an insurance policy), or a solicitor's charges for property recovered
by his means, the subject of salvage divides into (i) civil salvage,
(2) military salvage.
i. Civil Salvage in English law is defined as such a service as
may become the ground of a reward in the (admiralty) court on
the civil side of its jurisdiction, and consists in the preservation
of life or property from some of the dangers of the sea. The
jurisdiction to give it is an admiralty jurisdiction. But the
right to reward was recognized in the courts of common law before
the admiralty court became, as it now is, a part of the High Court
of Justice, e.g. by enforcing a possessory lien of the salvor over
the salved property. The origin of the rule has been traced
9 8
SALVAGE
to the doctrine of Roman law that " spontaneous services "
in the protection of lives and property should be rewarded.
But that doctrine has not found a place in English law except,
as part of the maritime law administered hi the court of admiralty.
Thus services on land, say in rescuing lives or houses or goods
from fire, do not entitle the person rendering those services to
reward, unless he has acted under some contract or employment.
But at sea the right to reward springs from the service itself if
it has been rendered to a ship, or her passengers, crew or cargo,
or to property which has been thrown or washed out of her.
And such a service entitles to salvage though the ship may be
in harbour, or within a river, or even in a dock. This connexion
of the lives or property with a ship seems essential. The right
does not arise upon saving goods which have got adrift in river
or harbour, even if they have been washed out to sea, nor upon
saving property of other kinds which may be in peril on the sea
or on the seashore. Thus a claim to reward for saving a gas-
buoy or beacon, which had broken from its moorings in the
Upper Humber, and was aground on the Lincolnshire coast,
was disallowed by the House of Lords, affirming the court of
appeal, in the case of the gas-float " Whitton No. 2," 1897, A.C.
337-
The definite right to salvage for saving lives from ships is the
creation of modern statutes. Formerly the Admiralty judges
treated the fact that lives had been saved as enhancing the
merit of a salvage of property by the same salvors, where the
two could be connected; and so indirectly gave life salvage.
And this is still the position in cases where the Merchant Shipping
Act of 1894 does not apply. This act (544) applies to all cases
in which the " services are rendered wholly or in part within
British waters in saving life from any British or foreign vessel,
or elsewhere in saving life from any British vessel." Also
( 545) it can be applied, by Order in Council, to life salvage
from ships of any foreign country whose government " is willing
that salvage should be awarded by British courts for services
rendered in saving life from ships belonging to that country
where the ship is beyond the limits of British jurisdiction."
By section 544 the life salvage is made payable " by the owner
of the vessel, cargo or apparel saved"; and is to be paid in
priority to all other claims for salvage. Where the value of the
vessel, cargo and apparel saved is insufficient to pay the life
salvage, the Board of Trade may in their discretion make up the
deficiency, in whole or in part, out of the Mercantile Marine
Fund. The effect of the act is to impose a common responsibility
upon the owners of ship and cargo to the extent of their property
saved. Whatever is saved becomes a fund out of which life
salvors may be rewarded, and to which they are entitled in
priority to other salvors. In the case of the cargo ex "Schiller"
(1877, 3 P.D. 145) salvage was allowed out of specie raised by
divers from the sunken wreck, to persons who had saved some
of the passengers and crew.
This limitation of liability to the amount of the property
salved is also true with regard to salvage of property. The
ordinary remedy of the salvor is against the property itself; by
proceedings in rent, to enforce the maritime lien given him by
the law upon that property. This enables him to arrest the
property, if within the jurisdiction, into whose hands soever
it may have come; and, if necessary, to obtain a sale, and
payment of his claim out of the proceeds. The salvor has also
a remedy in personam, used only in exceptional cases, against
the owners or others interested in the property saved (Five
steel barges, 15 P.D. 142); but it seems certain that that depends
upon property having been saved, and having come to the
owner's hands; and that the amount which can be awarded is
limited by the value of that property.
An essential condition is that the lives or property saved
must have been in danger either in immediate peril, or in a
position of "difficulty and reasonable apprehension." Danger
to the salvor is not essential, though it enhances his claim to
reward; but to constitute a salvage service there must have been
danger to the thing salved. Again, the service must have
helped usefully towards saving the lives or property. Ineffectual
efforts, however strenuous and meritorious, give rise to no
claim. But the service need not be completely successful. If it
has contributed to an ultimate rescue it will be rewarded, though
that may have been accomplished by others. And as we have
seen, there must have been ultimate success. Some of the
property involved in the adventure must have been saved. And
the value of that, or the fund realized by its sales, limits the
total of the awards to all the salvors. Cases, of course, occur
in which services at sea are employed by ships in danger: as
where a steamer with a broken propeller shaft employs another
steamer to tow her; or where a vessel which has lost her anchors
employs another to procure anchors for her from shore. In such
cases the conditions of reward above set out may not apply.
Reward may be payable, notwithstanding entire failure of
success, by the express or implied terms of the employment.
But such a reward is not truly " salvage."
Services rendered in the performance of a duty owed do not
entitle to salvage. The policy of the law is to stimulate voluntary
effort, not to weaken obligation. Thus the crew cannot (while
still the crew) be salvors of the ship or cargo; nor can the
passengers, unless they have voluntarily stayed on the ship
for the purpose of saving her. Nor can a pilot employed as such
be salvor, unless he has boarded her in such exceptional circum-
stances that his doing so for pilotage fees could not reasonably
be required; or unless the circumstances of the service, entered
upon as pilotage, have so changed as to alter its character;
and it may be doubted whether such a change of circumstances
is a valid ground for a claim of salvage remuneration by the
pilot where he has had no opportunity of leaving the ship. So
again of the owners and crew of a tug employed to tow a ship.
They cannot claim salvage for rescuing her from a danger which
may arise during the towage, unless circumstances have super-
vened which were not contemplated, and are such as to require
extraordinary aid from the tug, or to expose her to extraordinary
risk. Officers and crew of a ship of the royal navy may have
salvage where they have rendered services outside the protec-
tion which their ship ought to afford. But by the Merchant
Shipping Act 1894, 557, such a claim must be with consent of
the Admiralty; and no claim can be made in respect of the
ship herself.
The kinds and degrees of service are very various. The
rewards given vary correspondingly. Regard is paid, first, to
the degree of the danger to the property salved, to its value,
and to the effect of the services rendered; next, to the risks
run by the salvors, the length and severity of their efforts, the
enterprise and skill displayed, and to the value and efficiency
of the vessel or apparatus they have used, and the risks to
which they have exposed her. In a modern case (the "Glengyle,"
1898, A.C. 519) a specially large award was given to vessels
kept constantly ready for salving operations in Gibraltar Bay.
It was owing to that readiness that the rescue had been possible.
On the other hand, any negligent or improper conduct of the
salvors will be considered in diminution of the award: as where
they have negligently exposed the ship to damage, or have
plundered the cargo, or dealt with it contrary to the owner's
interests. And where the rescue has been from a danger which
was brought about by the negligent or improper conduct of those
who effected the rescue, no salvage is allowed. So that where
two colliding ships were both to blame for the collision, the
master and crew of one of them were not allowed salvage for
services in saving cargo of the other (cargo ex " Capella," L.R.
i A. and E. 356).
In apportioning the total award given for a salvage service
among the owners, master and crew of the vessel by means
of which it has been rendered, the special circumstances of each
case have to be considered. In nearly all cases a large portion
goes to the owners, and as in recent times the value and efficiency
of ships (especially of steamships) have increased, so the propor-
tion of the whole usually awarded to the owners has also increased.
In an ordinary case of salvage by a steamship towing a distressed
ship into safety, the share of the owners is usually about three-
fourths; of the remainder the master usually gets about one-third,
SALVAGE
99
and the officers and crew divide the rest in proportion to their
ratings. But where the salving ship has sustained special
damage in the service, or her owners have been put to loss by it,
that is taken into account. On the other hand, where special
personal services have been rendered by members of the crew
they are specially rewarded.
As an illustration take the case of the " Rasche " (L.R. 4 A. and E.
127). The brigantine " Rasche," derelict, was fallen in with by the
ship " Scythia " (carrying a very valuable cargo) 220 m. N. of the
Lizard. The mate and three hands of the " Scythia " were put
on board, and in circumstances of much hardship and danger
they brought her after eighteen days safely to Liverpool. After
deducting expenses incurred by the owners of the " Scythia," the
value of the property saved was 6294. Sir R. Phillimore awarded
3290; and of this he gave 600 to the mate, 510 to each of the
three men who had accompanied him; 500 to the owners of the
" Scythia " ; and 350 to her other officers and crew.
AD agreement as to the salvage to be paid is sometimes made
at the time the assistance is given. When made fairly the court
will act upon it, though it may turn out to be a bad bargain
for one or other of the parties. But if the facts were not correctly
apprehended by one or both, or if the position was one of such
difficulty that those salved had no real option as to accepting
the salvor's terms, the courts will set the agreement aside.
This happened, for instance, where the salving ship refused to
rescue 550 wrecked pilgrims from the Parkin Rock in the Red
Sea for a less sum than 4000. An agreement had in consequence
been signed for their conveyance for that sum to Jedda, two or
three days' sail. The Parkin Rock stands 6 ft. above the water,
and had bad weather come on the lives would have been in great
danger. It was held that the sum asked for was exorbitant; and
that the agreement, made under practical compulsion, could not
stand (the " Medina," 2 P.D. 5). On the other hand, an agreement
to tow, for a fixed sum, a vessel which had suffered considerable
damage, was set asjde, and salvage awarded, on the ground that
the damaged condition had not been disclosed to the tug when the
contract was made (the " Kingaloch," I Spink, 265).
The award of salvage is generally made in one sum against
ship, freight and cargo; and those interests contribute to the
amount in proportion to the value saved. No distinction is
made between the degree of service rendered to one interest and
another. But, with a possible exception in the case of life
salvage, there is not a joint liability of the several interests.
Each is liable to the salvors for his own share, and for no more.
The ship cannot be made to pay the cargo's share, nor the cargo
the ship's. If, however, the shipowner pays the cargo's share,
he has a lien upon it for the amount. In practice the liabilities
for salvage are ordinarily adjusted as part of general average.
Strictly, however, there is a difference. The liability to pay
salvage is a direct liability to the salvors, arising at once, e.g. at
the port of refuge, and proportional to the values there; whereas
the liability to contribute to a general average loss or expenditure
is postponed until the completion or break up of the adventure,
and depends upon the values of the interests which have arrived
there; which may be very different. (See AVERAGE, INSURANCE,
Marine, and also ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION.)
AUTHORITIES. Kennedy, On the Law of Civil Salvage (London,
1907); Abbott, Law of Merchant Ships and Seamen (i4th ed,,
London, 1901); Carver, Carriage by Sea (sth ed., London, 1909).
(T. G. C.)
2. Military Salvage is analogous to civil salvage. It is defined
as such a service as may become the ground for the demand of a
reward in the court as a prize court, and consists in the rescue
of property from the enemy in time of war. Such cases almost
invariably relate to ships and their cargoes; and they have
always been dealt with by courts having Admiralty jurisdiction,
sitting as prize courts. They involve the determination of two
questions : first, whether the property is to be restored to its
original owner or condemned as prize to the recaptor ; and
second, what amount of salvage, if any, is to accompany restitu-
tion. Generally speaking, the first question depends upon the
law of nations, which may be taken to be that where a ship has
been carried by an enemy infra praesidia, and especially after a
sentence of condemnation, the title of the original owner is
divested, and does not revest upon recapture by third parties.
In such a case, therefore, jure gentium restitution cannot be
claimed. The municipal law of civilized countries, however,
does not encourage subjects to " make reprisals upon one
another " (the " Renard," Marr. Adm. Dec. 222), and laws are
generally found, as in England, which as between subjects of that
particular state provide for restitution irrespective of any change
in the title to the subject matter which may have occurred. But
(speaking henceforth of England) in cases which do not fall
strictly within these acts, the old maritime law, which was in
unison with the general kw of nations, is applied by the courts.
Moreover, the English Prize Acts do not apply to foreign owners
of recaptured prizes, and therefore no award can be made
against them unless in accordance with the law of nations. In
practice the courts have acted upon the " rule of reciprocity "
where recaptures have been made of the property of formal allies,
dealing with them as the allied state would have dealt with
English property. In the case of neutral recaptures restitution
is always ordered. An exception to the rule of restitution as
between British subjects is made in the case of a British ship
which has been " set forth as a ship of war " by the captor, and
subsequently retaken by a British ship. Such a ship is not liable
to restoration, but is the prize of the recaptor. This exception,
the object of which is to encourage the capture of armed ships,
dates from 1793, previous acts having provided for restitution
upon payment of a moiety as salvage. The condition of setting
forth as a ship of war is satisfied, where under a fair semblance
of authority, which is not disproved, the ship " has been used in
the operations of war, and constituted a part of the naval force
of the enemy " (the " Ceylon," i Dod. 105). Such a user perma-
nently obliterates the ship's original character, and extinguishes
all future ckims to restitution (" L'Actif," Edw. 185).
As to the right to salvage and the amount which will be
allowed, this is also a question of the jus gentium, though usually
governed by municipal law. The right was recognized so long
ago as the nth century, when the " Consolato del Mare " (see
CONSULATE OF THE SEA) laid down elaborate provisions on the
subject. In England the first statutory recognition of the right
occurs in 1648, when an act of the Commonwealth, which in its
outline has been the model for all subsequent Prize Acts, provides
that British vessels captured by an enemy and retaken by British
ships shall be restored upon payment of one-eighth of the value
of the property in lieu of salvage, or one-half in the case of a
prize " set forth as a ship of war." From that date until 1864,
the date of the act now in force, there have been thirteen Prize
Acts dealing with recapture, each of which, except that of 1864,
has been passed to meet a particular occasion, and has expired
with the cessation of the then existing hostilities. Since the first
act, and down to the act of 1805 inclusive, a distinction has always
been drawn between a recapture effected by one of the royal
ships of war and a recapture by a privateer or other vessel. In
the former case the allowance has always been one-eighth, in the
latter it varied, but was usually one-sixth. In the act of 1692 a
clause taken from a Dutch law gave salvage to a privateer, rising
in amount from one-eighth to one-half according to the number
of hours the prize had been in the enemy's possession, but this
clause has disappeared since 1756. There is no provision in the
present act for the payment of salvage, except in case of re-
capture by one of His Majesty's ships, but it seems beyond
question that recaptors are entitled at law to salvage, although
they may hold no commission from the crown. " It is the duty
of every subject of the king to assist his fellow-subjects in war,
and to retake their property in the possession of the enemy: no
commission is necessary to give a person so employed a title to the
reward which the policy of the law allots to that meritorious act
of duty " (the " Helen," 3 C. Rob. 226, per Sir W. Scott). Though
it is improbable that privateers will figure in any future war,
it may reasonably be anticipated that recaptures may be made
by private vessels, and in such cases salvage would probably be
awarded, the proportion lying in the discretion of the court.
Similarly, salvage is awarded in the case of recapture from
pirates or from a mutinous crew. In the case of royal ships the
present act allows one-eighth salvage, which in cases of " special
difficulty or danger " the court may increase to a quarter. The
latter provision is an innovation.
IOO
SALVAGE CORPS SALVATION ARMY
It may appear that the grant of salvage to ships of war, the
duty of whose commanders it is, according to the naval instruc-
tions, " if possible, to rescue any British vessel which he may
find attacked or captured by the enemy, " needs some justifica-
tion. Objections on this ground have never been seriously
treated, it being urged that it is politic to encourage the under-
taking of such enterprises, even where they coincide with the
path of duty. Where, however, a transport was rescued from
under the guns of an enemy by a ship of war, under whose charge
she sailed, salvage was refused on the ground that the salvor was
only doing what he was bound to do (the " Belle, " Edw. 66). So
no salvage is due to a crew who rescue a ship from mutineers, this
being only their duty under a subsisting contract (the " Governor
Raffles," 2 Dod. 14). On the other hand, a crew who rescue their
ship from the prize crew of a belligerent are entitled to salvage,
since the capture discharges them from their contract with the
owner, and they act as volunteers (the " Two Friends," i C. Rob.
271). In the case of a neutral captured by one belligerent and
recaptured by the other, which has been already alluded to, no
salvage is as a rule allowed, upon the supposition that if the
vessel had been carried into the port of the enemy justice would
have been done and the vessel restored. In the case of the
French war at the opening of the igth century no such supposi-
tion existed, and salvage was usually awarded on the recapture
of neutral property from the French. (M. Bx.)
SALVAGE CORPS. The London Salvage Corps is maintained
by the fire offices of London. The corps was first formed in
1865 and began operations in March 1866. The staff of the corps
when first formed consisted of 64. Since that time, owing to
the many improvements that have taken place in the system
of dealing with salvage, and the increase in the work to be done,
the corps has necessarily been strengthened, and the staff now
numbers over 100. The various stations of the corps are well
placed, and the Metropolis has been mapped out so that when a
fire takes place it may be attended to at the earliest possible
moment. The headquarters are situated at Watling Street,
which is called the No. i station, and this station protects the
City of London enclosed by the Euston Road, Tottenham Court
Road, City Road and the river Thames; this is known as the
" B " district. No. 2 station is at Commercial Road, and attends
to the whole of the E. and N.E. portion of London to the N.
of the Thames, and is known as the " C " district. No. 3 station,
opposite the headquarters of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade
Station in the Southwark Bridge Road, protects the whole of
S. London, and is known as the " D " district. No. 4 station,
at Shaftesbury Avenue, is called the " A " district, and covers
the West End and Kensington. Finally, No. 5 station, in Upper
Street, Islington, guards the parish of Islington. The working
staff, which is mainly recruited from the royal navy, consists
of the chief officer and a superintendent, foreman and crew of
men at each station. The stations of the corps are connected
by telephone with the fire brigade stations from whence the
" calls " are received. In addition to the home staff, there is
also a staff constantly employed during the day time in inspecting
docks, wharves, Manchester goods and uptown warehouses,
and reports are made weekly to the committee.
Generally speaking, the work of the Corps may be divided into
two distinct classes (i) services at fires; (2) watching and
working salvage.
(i) Services at Fires form the most important feature of the
work. Much depends upon the method of dealing with the
salvage. If, for instance, a large Manchester goods warehouse
was on fire in the top part, it would be very little advantage to
the offices interested in the risk if the 'men were set to work
removing the stock off the ground floor. The best method
would be to cover up with tarpaulin all goods there, and prevent
the water from collecting on the lower floors. It will be gathered
that the most important work of the corps is to prevent damage
to goods, and that water is mostly looked after. The damage
from fire is left almost entirely to the fire brigade. The traps,
which immediately on receipt of an alarm proceed to the scene
of the fire with their crew of men, carry every kind of appliance
for the saving of goods from destruction by fire or damage by
water, as well as lime-light apparatus for use in working after the
fire has been extinguished, thus enabling the men to note the
position of dangerous walls, &c.; and a portable coal-gas
apparatus, which can be employed in the interior of buildings
when the ordinary means of illumination has failed; in addition
to ambulance appliances for emergencies.
(2) Working Salvage. When a fire takes place, a man is left
behind in charge of the salvage if the property is insured; or
if that fact cannot be ascertained, but it appears probable that
itis,a man is left until the information is obtained later. Theduty,
if an important one, is divided into a day and night duty. This
enables an experienced man to be sent on day duty to meet the
surveyor, and to carry out his instructions regarding the working
out of the salvage; and a junior man at night. The day man,
if working out salvage, would employ a number of men called
strangers, over whom he acts as a kind of foreman. The " working
out " may take the form of dividing up damaged goods into
lots ready for a sale to be held by the surveyor, or of sifting over
the debris to find remains of certain articles claimed for. If,
for instance, a large fire occurred at a pianoforte manufacturer's,
and the debris was all in one common heap, the London Salvage
Corps might have to arrange certain quantities of pegs and wires
in order to give an idea of the number of pianos before the fire.
The watching continues until the loss is settled, when the charge
of the premises is given over to the assured.
There are also salvage corps on similar lines, but on a smaller
scale, in Liverpool and Glasgow. (C. J. F.)
SALVANDY, NARCISSE ACHILLE (1795-1856), French
politician, was born at Condom (Gers)on the nth of June 1795,
of a poor family Irish by extraction. He entered the army in
1813, and next year was admitted to the household troops of
Louis XVIII. A patriotic pamphlet on La Coalition el la
France (1816) attracted the attention of Decazes, who employed
him to disseminate his views in the press, and he waged war
against the Villele ministry of 1822-1828. Under the July
monarchy he sat almost continuously in the Chamber of Deputies
from 1830 till 1848, giving his support to the Conservative party.
Minister of education in the Mole cabinet of 1837-1839, and again
in 1845, he superintended the reconstitution of the Council of
Education, the foundation of the French School at Athens
and the restoration of the Ecole des Charles. For short periods
in i84r and 1843 he was ambassador at Madrid and at Turin,
and became a member of the French Academy in 1 83 5. Under the
Empire he took no part in public affairs, and died at Graveron
(Eure) on the i6th of December 1856.
SALVATION ARMY, a religious philanthropic organization
founded by William Booth (q.v.), who in 1865 began to hold
meetings for preaching in the streets in London and in tents,
music halls, theatres and other hired buildings. Large numbers
attended, many of whom had never entered a place of worship,
and presently an organized society was formed called " The
Christian Mission." Booth was assisted by his wife, Catherine
Booth, a woman of remarkable gifts, who won for the new
movement the sympathy of many among the cultured classes.
In 1878 the Mission, which had spread beyond London, was
reorganized on a quasi-military basis, and the title of " The
Salvation Army " was definitely adopted in June 1880. The
local societies became " Corps," and their evangelists " Field
Officers," with Booth as " General " of the whole body. The
spiritual operations of the Army at once rapidly expanded in
spite of much disorderly opposition in some places. In 1878
there were 75 corps and 120 officers in the United Kingdom,
the amount contributed by the outside public being 1925.
Since then the number of corps and officers has greatly increased.
Very large numbers who have " professed conversion " are
reported annually. No figures of membership, however, are
published. In doctrine, the Army is in harmony with the main
principles of the evangelical bodies, " as embodied in the three
creeds of the Church." Its preaching is practical and direct,
asseverating the reality of Sin, " the everlasting punishment
of the wicked," and Redemption. The Army proclaims the
SALVATION ARMY
101
supreme duty of self-sacrifice for the sake of the salvation of
others.
The Army is under the control of the General for the time
being, who issues all orders and regulations. Large powers
devolve upon other officers, such as the " Chief of the Staff,"
the " Foreign Secretary," and the " Chancellor," who direct
affairs from the " International Headquarters " in London. The
system of government is autocratic, " unquestioning obedience "
being required throughout all ranks. The Army is divided,
usually in harmony with national boundaries, into " territories,"
each under a " Commissioner," with headquarters in the capital
of the country. The Territories are generally divided into
" Provinces " and these again into " Divisions," which include
a number of corps, each supporting its own " Captain " and
" Lieutenant." The " soldiers " or members are drawn from all
classes of the community. The property of the Army in the
United Kingdom is held by the General for the time being, for
the benefit of the Army exclusively, he being constituted the sole
trustee of the property, in the disposal of which and in the appoint-
ment of his successor he is placed under the government of a
deed poll, executed by Booth while the body was still known as
" The Christian Mission," and enrolled in the Court of Chancery
in August 1878. In other countries various modifications have
been necessary, but the General's ultimate con-
trol has been practically assured. A further deed
poll providing for the removal of a General in the
contingency of " mental incapacity " or other
" unfitness," and for the election of a successor,
was executed by Booth in July 1904.
Funds are raised from 'the voluntary offerings
of the corps, from open-air and other collections,
from friends interested in evangelical and chari-
table work, and from the profits on publications
and general trading. The financial statements of
the various national headquarters funds are an-
nually published, certified by public accountants,
in each country. In 1909 the general income
and expenditure account of International Head-
quarters in London dealt with a total of 64,345.
Details of the aggregate income raised in the
United Kingdom by the corps are not pub-
lished. The annual Self-Denial offering (Great
Britain) was 12,663 in 1888, 72,562 in 1906
and 69,034 in 1910. The value of the assets
of the spiritual work in the United Kingdom
increased from 558,992 in 1891 to 1,357,706
in 1909, the liabilities on account of loans upon mortgage
and otherwise amounting at the latter date to 662,235.
The assets of the Trade Departments were valued at 110,657
in 1909.
Statistics of Spiritual Operations
(Compiled from the " S.A. Year Book, 1910 ").
and was started with subscriptions amounting to over 100,000.
A separate deed poll, making the General sole trustee, was
executed by Booth in regard to the property and funds of this
branch of work. Since then, both in Great Britain and abroad,
the scheme has been actively carried on. The amount received
in the year ending 3oth September 1909 for cheap food and
lodging in the United Kingdom was returned at 42,022 for the
men's work, and 6417 for the women's. Large numbers of
unemployed, ex-criminal and other needy persons have been
aided or dealt with. In the year ending 3oth September 1909,
the number of persons received into the " elevators " or factories
was reported as 6425, of women and girls received into rescue
homes as 2559. The farm colony at Hadleigh in Essex has a
large acreage under cultivation, with fruit and market gardens
and various industrial undertakings. The emigration depart-
ment, although a development of the Darkest England Scheme,
has no connexion with the rescue work; in 1907 the passage
money received amounted to 85,014, and in 1909 to 38,179.
An " anti-suicide bureau " was opened in 1907, and at Boxted,
near Colchester, a scheme for Small Holdings has been initiated.
In 1909 the value of the property held under the Darkest England
Scheme in the United Kingdom was returned at 329,645, and
the income of the central fund at 50,594.
Summary of Social Operations throughout the World
(Compiled from the " S.A. Year-Book, 1910 ").
Number of Institutions.
TYit-al
United
Kingdom.
Abroad.
Total.
1 ( )1 1 1 1
Accommo-
dation.
Men's Work
Shelters and Food Depots .
3i
156
187
18,531
Labour Bureaus ....
8
5
58
Labour Homes and Factories .
28
117
H5
4.936
Ex-criminal Homes
i
18
18
486
Farm Colonies ....
2
15
17
Women's Work
Rescue and Maternity Homes .
32
107
139
3.469
Shelters and Food Depots
10
20
3
1.934
Children's Homes and Creches .
2
57
59
Slum Posts ....
44
103
147
Other Social Institutions . .
17
87
104
Total Institutions
174
730
904
29.356
Total number of officers engaged exclusively in social work, 2520.
lorn ex-criminals are now received in the ordinary labour
Corps and
Outposts.
Officers
and Cadets.
The British Isles
1447
3,i9i '
The United States ....
871
2,983
South America and West Indies
128
1 88
Canada and Newfoundland
465
950
Australasia and Java ....
1283
1,721
India, Ceylon, Japan and Korea .
2584
1,626
South Africa and St Helena .
"3
278
France, Belgium, Switzerland and
Italy .
374
499
Germany and Holland
248
772
Sweden, Norway, Finland Denmark
and Iceland . . .
1067
1,513
Gibraltar and Malta .
2
5
Total .
8582
13.726
Employees (without rank), 6269.
1 Officers and employees (British Isles), 7538.
Booth's scheme for Social Relief, described in In Darkest
England, and the Way Out (1890), attracted wide-spread interest,
There are a number of subsidiary branches of work, such as
the Young People's Legion, and the Naval and Military League
for work among men in the military, naval and merchant services.
In England there is a bank (the Reliance Bank, Ltd.) and a Life
Assurance Society, the funds of the latter amounting to 566,309
in 1909. All officers and many of the rank and file wear a
uniform. Music is universally employed. While the organiza-
tion has succeeded in securing recognition and favour in high
places both in England and abroad, it has been seriously
criticized at times, notably by Huxley and others in 1890-1891,
and more recently by J. Manson in The Salvation Army and
the Public, a work which led to much public discussion of the
Army's religious, social and financial operations and methods.
In 1910 some resignations took place among the higher
officials.
AUTHORITIES. William Booth, Orders and Regulations for Soldiers ;
Orders and Regulations for Field Officers; Orders and Regulations for
Staff Officers; Salvation Soldiery; Interview with W. E. Gladstone;
In Darkest England and the Way Out (1890); Bramwell Booth,
Social Reparation; Servants of All (1899); Booth-Tucker, The Life
of Catherine Booth (1892); Railton, Heathen England; Twenty-one
Years' Salvation Army; Arnold White, Truth about the Salvation
Army (1892, 1900 and 1906); The Great Idea (1909; 2nd ed., 1910);
T. F. G. Coates, The Life Story of General Booth (2nd ed., 1906);
Harold Begbie, Broken Earthenware (1909); various reports and
accounts; The War Cry, The Social Gazette, The Salvation Army
Year Book, &c. Criticism; Thomas H. Huxley, "Social Diseases
and Worse Remedies" in Collected Essays, vol. ix. (1895); John
102
SALVER SALVIAN
Manson, The Salvation Army and the Public (1906; 3rd ed., 1908);
Salvation Army Headquarters, A Calumny Refuted: A Reply to the
Unfounded Charges of Sweating, &c. (1908) ; United Workers' Anti-
Sweating Committee, Salvation Army Sweating: A Reply to the
Mis-statements of General Booth and his Officials (1908; 2nd ed.,
1910); Reports of the Trades Union Congress (1907 to 1910).
SALVER, a flat tray of silver or other metal used for carrying
or serving glasses, cups, dishes, &c., at table or for the presenting
of a letter or card by a servant. In a royal or noble household
the fear of poisoning led to the custom of tasting the food or drink
before it was served to the master and his guests; this was known
as the " assay " of meat and drink, and in Spanish was called
salva (salvor, to preserve from risk, Lat. salvare, to save).
The term salva was also applied to the dish or tray on which the
food or drink was presented after the tasting process. There
seems no doubt that this Spanish word is the source of the
English " salver "; a parallel is found in the origin of the term
" credence-table," which is from the Ital. credenza, Lat. credere,
to believe, trust (see CREDENCE AND CREDENCE-TABLE).
SALVIA, a large genus belonging to the natural order Labiatae
(q.v.), containing about 500 species in the temperate and warmer
regions of both hemispheres. The name is derived from the Lat.
salvo, from the healing properties of sage, 5. officinalis (see figure
under LABIATAE). S. verbenaea, Clary, is a native of Britain
found in dry pastures and waste places.
Some of the Salvias are among the most showy of the soft-wooded
winter-flowering plants, the blossoms being of a bright glowing
scarlet. The three most useful species are 5. splendens, S. Heerii
and 5. gesneriflora, the first beginning to flower early in the autumn
and lasting till Christmas, while the others follow immediately in
succession, and continue in full beauty till April. Young plants
should be propagated annually about February, and after nursing
through the spring should be grown outdoors in a fully exposed
situation, where they can be plunged in some non-conducting
material, such as half-decomposed leaves. The young shoots
should be stopped to secure bushy plants, but not later than the
middle of August. The most suitable compost for them is a mixture
From Struburger's Ltkrbuek da Balanik. by permission of Gustav Fischer.
Pollination of Salvia Pratensis.
4, The staminal apparatus at
rest, with connective en-
closed within the upper lip.
3, The same when disturbed by
the entrance of the proboscis
of the bee in the direction of
the arrow.
/, Filament.
c. Connective. [anther.
s, The obstructing half of the
1, Flower visited by a bumble-
bee, showing the projection
of the curved connective
from the helmet-shaped
upper lip and the deposition
of the pollen on the back of
the bumble-bee.
2, Older flower, with connective
drawn back, and elongated
style.
of mellow fibry loam enriched with a little mild thoroughly decom-
|)osed manure, made sufficiently porous by the addition of sand or
Krit. In spring, and during the blooming period, the temperature
should be intermediate between that of a stove and greenhouse.
There are other very ornamental species of easy growth, increased
by cuttings in spring, and succeeding well in ordinary rich loamy
soil. Of these S. anguslifolia bears spikes of fine bright-blue flowers
in May or June; S. chamaedryoides, a dwarfish subject, has deep-
blue flowers in August ; 5. fulgens produces scarlet flowers . in
August; and 5. involucrata produces fine red flowers during the
autumn. 5. patens is a lovely blue free-blooming sort, flowering in
August, the colour being unique.
SALVIAN, a Christian writer of the sth century, was born
probably at Cologne (De gub. Dei, vi. 8, 13), some time between
400 and 405. He was educated at the school of Treves and
seems to have been brought up as a Christian. His writings
appear to show that he had made a special study of the law;
and this is the more likely as he appears to have been of noble
birth and could describe one of his relations as being " of no small
account in her own district and not obscure in family " (Ep. i.).
He was certainly a Christian when he married Palladia, the
daughter of heathen parents, Hypatius and Quieta, whose dis-
pleasure he incurred by persuading his wife to retire with him to
a distant monastery, which is almost certainly that founded by
St Honoratus at Lerins. For seven years there was no communi-
cation between the two branches of the family, till at last, when
Hypatius had become a Christian, Salvian wrote him a most
touching letter in his own name, his wife's, and that of his little
daughter Auspiciola, begging for the renewal of the old affection
(Ep. iv.). This whole letter is a most curious illustration of
Salvian's reproach against his age that the noblest man at once
forfeited all esteem if he became a monk (De gub. iv. 7; cf.
viii. 4).
It was presumably at Lerins that Salvian made the acquaint-
ance of Honoratus (ob. 429), Hilary of Aries (ob. 449), and
Eucherius of Lyons (ob. 449). That he was a friend of the former
and wrote an account of his life we learn from Hilary ( Vita Hon.,
ap. Migne, 1. 1260). To Eucherius's two sons, Salonius and
Veranus, he acted as tutor in consort with Vincent of Lerins.
As he succeeded Honoratus and Hilary in this office, this date
cannot well be later than the year 426 or 427, when the former
was called to Aries, whither he seems to have summoned Hilary
before his death in 429 (Eucherii Instructio ad Salonium, ap.
Migne, 1. 773; Salv., Ep. ii.). Salvian continued his friendly
intercourse with both father and sons long after the latter had
left his care; it was to Salonius (then a bishop) that he wrote his
explanatory letter just after the publication of his treatise Ad
ecclesiam; and to the same prelate a few years later he dedicated
his great work, the De gubernatione Dei. If French scholars are
right in assigning Hilary's Vita Honorati to 430, Salvian, who is
there called a priest, had probably already left Lyons for Mar-
seilles, where he is known to have spent the last years of his life
(Gennadius, ap. Migne, Iviii. 1099). It was probably from
Marseilles that he wrote his first letter presumably to Lerins
begging the community there to receive his kinsman, the son of
a widow of Cologne, who had been reduced to poverty by the
barbarian invasions. It seems a fair inference that Salvian had
divested himself of all his property in favour of that society
and sent his relative to Lerins for assistance (Ep. i., with which
compare Ad eccles. ii. 9, 10; iii. 5). It has been conjectured
that Salvian paid a visit to Carthage; but this is a mere infer-
ence based on the minute details he gives of the state of this
city just before its fall (De gub. vii. viii.). He seems to have
been still living at Marseilles when Gennadius wrote under the
papacy of Gelasius (492-496).
Of Salvian's writings there are still extant two treatises, entitled
respectively De gubernatione Dei (more correctly De praesenti
juaicio) and Ad ecclesiam, and a series of nine letters. The De
gubernatione, Salvian's greatest work, was published after the
capture of Litorius at Toulouse (439), to which he plainly alludes in
vii. 40, and after the Vandal conquest of Carthage in the same year
(vi. 12), but before Attila's invasion (450), as Salvian speaks of the
Huns, not as enemies of the empire, but as serving in the Roman
armies (vii. 9). The words " proximum bcllum " seem to denote a
year very soon after 439. In this work, which furnishes a valuable
if prejudiced description of life in 5th-century Gaul, Salvian deals
with the same problem that had moved the eloquence of Augustine
and Orosius. Why were these miseries falling on the empire?
Could it be, as the pagans said, because the age had forsaken its old
S>ds? or, as the semi-pagan creed of some Christians taught, that
od did not constantly overrule the world he had created (i. i)?
With the former Salvian will not argue (iii. i). To the latter he
replies by asserting that, " just as the navigating steersman never
looses the helm, so does God never remove his care from the world."
Hence the title of the treatise. In books i. and ii. Salvian sets himself
to prove God's constant guidance, first by the facts of Scripture
history, and secondly by the enumeration of special texts declaring
this truth. Having thus " laid the foundations " of his work, he
declares in book iii. that the misery of the Roman world is all due
to the neglect of God's commandments and the terrible sins of every
class of society. It is not merely that the slaves are thieves and
runaways, wine-bibbers and gluttons the rich are worse (iv. 3).
It is their harshness and greed that drive the poor to join the Bagaudae
and fly for shelter to the barbarian invaders (v. 5 and 6). Every-
where the taxes are heaped upon the needy, while the rich, who have
the apportioning of the impost, escape comparatively free (v. 7).
The great towns are wholly given up to the abominations of the
SALVINI SAL WEEN
103
circus and the theatre, where decency is wholly set at nought, and
Minerva, Mars, Neptune and the old gods are still worshipped (vi. 1 1 ;
cf. vi. 2 and viii. 2). Treves was almost destroyed by the barbarians ;
yet the first petition of its few surviving nobles was that the emperor
would re-establish the circus games as a remedy for the ruinecf city
(vi. 15). And this was the prayer of Christians, whose baptismal
oath pledged them to renounce " the devil and his works . . . the
pomps ana shows (spectacula) " of this wicked world (vi. 6). Darker
still were the iniquities of Carthage, surpassing even the unconcealed
licentiousness of Gaul and Spain (iv. 5) ; and more fearful to Salvian
than all else was it to hear men swear " by Christ " that they would
commit a crime (iv. 15). It would be the atheist's strongest argu-
ment if God left such a state of society unpunished (iv. 12)
especially among Christians, whose sin, since they alone had the
Scriptures, was worse than that of barbarians, even if equally wicked,
would be (v. 2). But, as a matter of fact, the latter had at least some
shining virtues mingled with their vices, whereas the Romans were
wholly corrupt (vii. 15, iv. 14). With this iniquity of the Romans
Salvian contrasts the chastity of the Vandals, the piety of the Goths,
and the ruder virtues of the Franks, the Saxons, and the other tribes
to whom, though heretic Arians or unbelievers, God is giving in
reward the inheritance of the empire (vii. 9, n, 21). It is curious
that Salvian shows no such hatred of the heterodox barbarians as
was rife in Gaul seventy years later. It is difficult to credit the
universal wickedness adduced by Salvian, especially in face of the
contemporary testimony of Symmachus, Ausonius and Sidonius.
Salvian was a sth-century socialist of the most extreme type, and
a zealous ascetic who pitilessly scourged everything that fell short
of an exalted morality, and exaggerated, albeit unconsciously, the
faults that he desired to eradicate.
Ad ecclesiam is explained by its common title, Contra avaritiam.
It strongly commends meritorious almsgiving to the church. It is
quoted more than once in the De gubernatione. Salvian published
it under the name of Timothy, and explained his motives for so doing
in a letter to his old pupil, Bishop Salonius (Ep. ix.). This work is
chiefly remarkable because in some places it seems to recommend
parents not to bequeath anything to their children, on the plea that
it is better for the children to suffer want in this world than that their
parents should be damned in the next (iii. 4). Salvian is very clear
on the duty of absolute self-denial in the case of sacred virgins, priests
and monks (ii. 8-10). Several works mentioned by Gennadius,
notably a poem " in morem Graecorum " on the six days of creation
(hexaemeron), and certain homilies composed for bishops, are now
lost (Genn. 67).
The Ad ecclesiam was first printed in Sichard's Antidoton (Basel,
1528); the De gubernatione by Brassican (Basel, 1530). The two
appeared in one volume at Paris in 1575. Pithoeus added variae
lectiones and the first seven letters (Paris, 1580) ; Ritterhusius
made various conjectural emendations (Altorf, 1611), and Baluze
many more based on MS. authority (Paris, 1663-1669). Numerous
other editions appeared from the i6th to the i8th century, all of
which are now superseded by the excellent ones of C. Halm (Berlin,
1877) and F. Pauly (Vienna, 1883). The two oldest MSS. of the De
gubernatione belong to the loth century (Cod. Paris, No. 13,385) and
the I3th (Brussels, 10,628); of the Ad ecclesiam to the loth (Paris,
2172) and the nth (Paris, 2785); of Epistle IX. to the 9th (Paris,
2785) ; of Epistte VIII. to the 7th or 8th century (Paris, 95,559) and
to the gth or ipth century (Paris, 12,237, 12,236). Of the first seven
epistles there is only one MS. extant, of which one part is now at
Bern (No. 219), the other at Paris (No. 3791). See Histoire litte-
raire de France, vol. ii.; Zschimmer's Salvianus (Halle, 1875).
Salvian's works are reprinted (after Baluze) in Migne's Cursus
patrologiae, ser. lat. vol. liii. For bibliography, see T. G. Schoene-
mann's Bibliotheca patrum (ii. 823), and the prefaces to the editions
of C. Halm (Monum. Germ., 1877) and F. Pauly (Vienna, Corp. scr.
eccl. Lat., 1883). Gennadius, Hilary and Euchenus may be consulted
in Migne, vols. Iviii. and 1. See also S. Dill, Roman Society in the
Last Century of the Western Empire, pp. 115-120. (T. A. A.)
SALVINI, TOMMASO (1820- ), Italian actor, was born at
Milan on the ist of January 1829. His father and mother were
both actors, and Tommaso first appeared when he was barely
fourteen as Pasquino in Goldoni's Donne curiose. In 1847 he
joined the company of Adelaide Ristori, who was then at the
beginning 'of her brilliant career. It was with her as Elettra
that he won his first success in tragedy, playing the title role in
Alfiero's Oreste at the Teatro Valle in Rome. He fought in the
cause of Italian independence in 1849; otherwise his life was an
unbroken series of successes in his art. He acted frequently in
England, and made five visits to America, his first in 1873 and
his last in 1889. In 1886 he played there Othello to the lago of
Edwin Booth. Apart from Othello, which he played for the
first time at Vicenza in June 1856, his most famous impersona-
tions included Conrad in Paolo Giacometti's La Morte civile,
Egisto in Alfieri's Merope, Saul in Alfieri's Saul, Paolo in Silvio
Pellico's Francesco, da Rimini, Oedipus in Nicolini's play of that
name, Macbeth and King Lear. Salvini retired from the stage
in 1890, but in January 1902 took part in the celebration in
Rome of Ristori's eightieth birthday (see the Century Magazine
for June 1902, vol. Ixiii.). Salvini published a volume entitled
Ricordi, anedotti ed impressioni (Milan, 1895). Some idea of his
career may be gathered from Leaves from the Autobiography of
Tommaso Salvini (London, 1893).
His son Allessandro (1861-1896), also an actor, had several
notable successes in America, particularly as D'Artagnan in The
Three Guardsmen.
SALWEEN, a river of Burma. This river, called Nam Kong by
the Shans, Thanlwin by the Burmese, Lu Kiang, or Nu Kiang,
or Lu Tzu Kiang by the Chinese, is the longest river in Burma,
and one of the wildest and most picturesque streams in the
world. Its sources are still undetermined, but there seems little
doubt that it rises in the Tanla mountains, S. of the Kuen Lun,
somewhere in 32 or 33 N., and that perhaps it draws some
of its water from the Kara Nor. It is thus a much longer river
than the Irrawaddy. From the time it leaves Tibet it has a very
narrow basin, and preserves the character of a gigantic ditch,
or railway cutting, with for long stretches no other affluents
than the mountain torrents from the hills, which rise from 3000
to 5000 or 6000 ft. .above the level of the river-bed. In
the dry season the banks are alternate stretches of blinding
white, fine sand, and a chaos of huge boulders, masses and slabs
of rock, with here and there, usually where a tributary enters,
long stretches of shingle. In the rains all these disappear, and
the water laps against forest trees and the abrupt slope of the
hills. The average difference between high and low water level
of the Salween throughout the Shan States is between 50 and
60 ft., and in some places it is as much as 90. There are many
rapids, caused by reefs of rock running across the bed, or by a
sudden fall of from one to several feet, which produce very
rough water below the swift glide; but the most dangerous
places for navigation are where a point juts out into the stream,
and the current, thrown back, causes a violent double back-
water. Nevertheless, long stretches of the river, extending to
scores of miles, are habitually navigated by native boats. The
current is extremely variable, from m. an hour to ten knots.
Launches ply regularly from Moulmein to the mouth of the
Yonzalin, in Lower Burma. The worst part of the whole Salween,
so far as is known, is the gorge between the mouth of the Yonzalin
and Kyaukhnyat. It is quite certain that steam launches could
ply over very long sections of the river above that, perhaps as far
as the Kaw ferry, or even the Kunlong ferry. In British territory,
however, there are very few settlements on the river itself, and
frequently the ferry villages are built 1000 ft. above the river.
The Chinese believe the Salween valley to be deadly to all strangers,
but it is in Chinese territory particularly in the Lu Kiang, or Mong
Hko state that there is the largest population on the river until
Lower Burma is reached. A description of the Salween resolves itself
into a list of the ferries at which it can be crossed, for no one marches
up the river. The river is bridged by the Chinese on the main route
from Teng Yiieh (Momien) and Bhamo to Tali-fu. There are two
spans; these are not in a straight line, but parallel to one another at
the distance of the breadth of the central pillar. Each span is formed
by twelve or fourteen massive iron chains, with planks laid across
them. There was a bridge some 20 m. lower down, but this was
destroyed in 1894. In British territory there are no bridges, and the
ferries are the same as those maintained before annexation. There
are a great number of these ferries, but only a few are used, except
by the local people. From Ta Hsang Le large trading boats ply
regularly to Kyaukhnyat, whence the traders make their way by
land over the hill to Papun, and so down the Yonzalin.
The chief tributaries of the Salween in British territory are the
Nam Yu and the Nam Oi or Nam Mwe on the right bank, and the
Hsipa Haw on the left. These are short but fair-sized streams.
Near the Kunlong ferry the Nam Nim, on the right bank, and the
Nam Ting, on the left, are considerably longer, and the Nam Ting
is navigable by native craft for considerable stretches up to Meng
Ting and farther. To the S. the next tributary is the Nam Kyek, on
the right bank, down the valley of which the railway will reach the
Salween. Below this are two streams called Nam Ma, one entering
on the right bank, the other on the left, at no great distance from one
another, but of no great length. A little below is the Nam Nang, on
the left bank, coming from the Wa country. The Nam Kao enters in
a cascade of nearly 200 ft. in the cold weather from the right, and
then there are no affluents till the Nam Hka comes in on the left.
IO4
SALWEEN SALZBURG
This has a great volume of water, but is unnavigable because of its
steep gradient and many gorges. After the Hwe Long, entering from
the left at Ta Kaw, is passed, the Nam Pang comes in 22 m. lower
down on the right bank. This is probably the largest tributary of the
Salween; some distance above its mouth, at Keng Hkam, it is 400
yds. wide and quite unfordable. The next important tributary is
the Nam Hsim, on the left bank, rising in the latitude of Keng Tung.
It is a large but quite unnavigable stream. Except the Me Sili and
Me Sala, From opposite sides, and the Nam Hang, which burrows its
way through a range of hills from the E., and the Nam Pan, coming
from the W., there is no considerable tributary till 19 52' N., where
the Nam Teng comes in on the right from the central Shan States.
This is a considerable river, and navigable for long stretches in its
upper course, but the last few miles before it enters the Salween are
little better than a cataract. Below this the only large affluent is
the Nam Pawn, which drains all Karenni and a considerable por-
tion of the Shan States, but is quite unnavigable. Below this the
tributaries are again only mountain streams till the Thaung-yin
comes in from the S.E. Thirty m. lower down is Kyodan, the great
timber depot. Here a cable, stretched across the river, catches all
the timber, which is then made up into rafts and floated down to
Kado, near Moulmein, where the revenue is collected. The Yonzalin
enters the Salween from the right about 10 m. below Kyodan. Boats
can ply from Kyodan S., and light draught steamers ascend as far as
Shwegon, 63 m. from Moulmein. The Salween cuts the British Shan
States nearly in half, and is a very formidable natural obstacle. It
seems probable, however, that long stretches of it can be opened to
trade. It is certainly no less navigable than the Middle Mekong or the
Yangtsze-kiang above I-chang. (J. G. Sc.)
SALWEEN, a district in the Tenasserim division of Lower
Burma. Area, 2666 sq.m. Pop. (1901) 37,837, consisting largely
of aboriginal tribes, Karens (33,448) and Shans (2816). Nearly
the whole district is a maze of mountains intersected by deep
ravines, the only level land of any considerable extent being
found in the valley of the Yonzalin, while the country is covered
with dense forest, of which 1 28 sq. m. are reserved. The district
is drained by three principal rivers, the Salween, Yonzalin and
Bilin, fed by mountain torrents. The Yonzalin, which rises in
the extreme N., is navigable with some difficulty in the dry
season as far as Papun; the Bilin is not navigable within the
limits of the district except by small boats and rafts. The
district is in charge of a superintendent of police, with head-
quarters at Papun. The total rainfall in 1905 was 114-48 in.,
recorded at Papun. Apart from cotton-weaving, there are no
manufactures. A considerable trade is carried on with Siam by
bridle paths across the mountains.
SALYANY, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern-
ment of Baku, 80 m. S.S.W. from Baku, on the river Kura, and
on an island of the same name. In 1897 itspopulation was 10,168,
chiefly Tatars. It is a fishing centre, where thousands of workers
gather from all parts of Russia during the season. Salyany was
annexed to Russia in the i8th century, but was retaken by the
Persians, and only became Russian finally in 1813.
SALVES (Gr. Sd\u: also SALLYES, SALYI, SALLUVJT), in
ancient geography, a people occupying the plain S. of the
Druentia (Durance) between the Rhone and the Alps. According
to Strabo (iv. p. 203) the older Greeks called them Ligyes, and
their territory Ligystike. By some authorities they were con-
sidered a mixed race of Galli and Ligurians (hence Celtoligyes) ;
by others a purely Celtic people, who subjugated the Ligures in
the Provincia. They are said to have been the first transalpine
people subdued by the Romans (Florus iii. 2). In 154 B.C. the
inhabitantsof Massilia, who had been connected with the Romans
by ties of friendship since the second Punic war, appealed for
aid against the Oxybii and Decietes (or Deciates) . These people,
called by Livy (Epil. 47) " transalpine Ligurians," were perhaps
two smaller tribes included under the general name of Salyes.
They were defeated by Quintus Opimius. In 125-124 hostilities
broke out between the Romans and the Salyes from the same
cause. The successful operations of Marcus Fulvius Flaccus were
continued by Gaius Sextius Calvinus (123-122), who definitely
subdued the Salyes, destroyed their chief town, and founded
near its ruins the colony of Aquae Sextiae (Aix). Part of their
territory was handed over to the Massaliots. Their king, Tuto-
motulus (or Teutomalius), took refuge with the Allobroges.
From this time the Salyes practically disappear from history.
Among other important Roman towns in their territory may be
mentioned Tarusco or Tarasco (Tarascon), Arelate (Aries),
Glanum (St Remy) and Ernaginum (St Gabriel).
For ancient authorities see A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz,
ii. (1904).
SALZA, HERMANN VON (c. 1170-1239), Master of the Teu-
tonic Order, and councillor of the emperor Frederick II., was a
scion of the family of Langensalza in Thuringia. He entered the
Teutonic Order in early life, became very intimate with Frederick
II., took part in the expedition to Damietta in 1221, and accom-
panied the emperor on the crusade of 1228, which was joined by
many princes owing to his influence. About 1210 he was ap-
pointed master of the Teutonic Order, and was offered, in 1226,
the province of Kulm by Conrad I., duke of Masovia, in return
for help against the Prussians; this he accepted and obtained
the investiture from Frederick. In 1 230 the conquest of Prussia
was begun by the Order, although not under his immediate
leadership. In 12 25 he reconciled Valdemar II., kingof Denmark,
with Henry I., count of Schwerin, and thus won again the land
on the right bank of the Elbe for the Empire, and the recognition
of imperial superiority over Denmark. Trusted by Pope Gregory
IX. and the emperor alike, he brought about the treaty of San
Germano between them in 1230, was the only witness when they
met in conference at Anagni in the same year, and it was he who,
in 1235, induced Frederick's son, Henry, to submit to his father.
He died on the igth of March 1239 at Barletta in Apulia, and
was buried there in the chapel of his Order.
Vide: A. Koch, Hermann von Salza, Meister des deutschen
Ordens (Leipzig, 1885).
SALZBRUMN, a watering-place of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Silesia, at the foot of a well-wooded spur of the
Riesengebirge, 30 m. S.W. of Breslau, by the railway to Halber-
stadt. Pop. (1905) 10,412. It consists of Ober-, Neu- and
Nieder-Salzbrunn, has a Roman Catholic and an Evangelical
church and manufactures of glass, bricks and porcelain. Its
alkalo-saline springs, especially efficacious in pulmonary and
urinary complaints, were known as early as 1316, but fell into
disuse until rediscovered early in the igth century. The waters
are used both for drinking and bathing, and of the two chief
springs, the Oberbrunnen and the Kronenquelle, nearly two
million bottles are annually exported. The number of summer
visitors is about 7000 a year.
See Valentiner, Der Kurort Obersalzbrunn (Berlin, 1877); Biefel,
Der Kurort Salzbrunn (Salzbrunn, 1872); and Deutsch, Schlesiens
Heilquellen und Kurorte (Breslau, 1873).
SALZBURG, a duchy and crownland of Austria, bounded E.
by Upper Austria and Styria, N. by Upper Austria and Bavaria,
W. by Bavaria and Tirol and S. by Carinthia and Tirol. It has
an area of 2762 sq. m. Except a small portion in the extreme
N., near Bavaria, the country is mountainous and belongs to the
N. and central zone of the Eastern Alps. It is divided into three
regions; the region of the Hohe Tauern, extending S. of the
Salzach, the region of the limestone Alps and the undulating
foothill region. The Hohe Tauern contains many high lying
valleys, traversed by the streams which flow into the Salzach,
as well as numerous depressions and passes, here called popularly
Tauern. The deepest depression of the whole range is the
Velber Tauern valley (8334 ft.) between the Velber and the
Tauern, and the principal pass is the Niederer (Mallnitzer)
Tauern (7920 ft.). This pass which leads from the Gastein
valley to Carinthia is the oldest bridle-path over the Hoher
Tauern. Between the passes is the ridge of Sonnblick, where a
meteorological observatory was established in 1886 at an altitude
of 10,170 ft. The region of the limestone Alps is composed of
several detached groups: a portion of the Kitzbiihler Alps,
which contain the famous Thurn pass (4183 ft.); then the Salz-
burg Alps, which contain the Loferer Steinberge and the peak
Birnhorn (8637 ft.); the Reitalm or the Reiteralpe with the peak
Stadelhorn (7495 ft.); and the broad mass of the Schonfeldspitze
(8708 ft.), from which the great glacier-covered block of the
Ewiger Schnee, or Ubergossene Alps projects into the Salzach
valley. Farther N. are the Hagengebirge (7844 ft.); the beauti-
ful summit of the Hoher Goll (8263 ft.); the Tennegebirge
(7217 ft.); and the Untersberg, an outpost of the Berchtesgaden
SALZBURG
group. Between the Hagengebirge and the Tennengebirge,
which are situated on each side of the Salzach valley, is one of the
most magnificent narrow passes of the Alps. It is below Werfen,
and near its exit, just at the narrowest part, is the Lueg Pass,
which was fortified as early as 1316 and offered a firm resistance
to the French in the years 1800, 1805 and 1809. A portion of
the Ischler Alps, as well as of the Dachstein group, also belongs to
Salzburg. The principal river of Salzburg is the Salzach. The
Enns and the Mur also rise in this province. The four Krimmlcr
falls, together 2085 ft. high, are the most important falls in the
Eastern Alps. The two falls at Wildbad-Gastein (196 and 296
ft.); the fall, by which the Gasteiner Ache discharges itself
into the Salzach, near Lend; the Tauern fall (660 ft.), formed
by the Tauern Ache on the N. side of the Radstater Tauern;
and the Gollinger fall (202 ft. ) also deserve notice. Among the
Klammen, i.e. narrow passages leading from the Salzach valley
to the valleys of smaller rivers, the most celebrated are the
Kitzloch Klamm and the Liechtenstein Klamm. The Kitzloch
Klamm is formed by the Rauris Thai and the Liechtenstein
Klamm by the Gross-Arle Thai. A path through the last Klamm
leads to the magnificent fall (174 ft.) of the Gross-Arle river,
which discharges itself in a series of cascades into the Salzach.
The most important, lake is the Zeller-see (2424 ft. above sea-
level, 2 sq. m. in extent, 238 ft. deep), whose waters are carried
off by the Salzach. The Waller-see or Lake of Seekirchen (1653
ft. above sea-level), the Fuschl-see (2095 ft -), the Hinter-see
(2580 ft.), the Ober-Trumer-see and Nieder-Trumer-see are all
situated in the Alpine foothill region. The Mond-see (1560 ft.)
and Aber-see, or Lake St Wolfgang, are on the frontier between
Salzburg and Upper Austria. The climate, although healthy,
is very changeable, with great extremes of temperature and
heavy rainfall, especially in the summer. The most settled
season is the autumn. The annual mean temperature at Salzburg
is 46-4 F. The population of the duchy in 1900 was 193,247,
which is equivalent to 69 inhabitants per square mile. It is the
most sparsely populated province of Austria. Between 1880
and 1900 the population increased by 17-5%. The inhabitants
are a handsome and powerfully built peasant race, very con-
servative in religion, manners, customs and national costume.
They are almost exclusively of German stock and are Roman
Catholics. Elementary education is much more advanced here
than in any other Alpine province. Although 13-71% of the
soil is unproductive and 32-4% is covered with forests, Salzburg
is one of the principal pastoral regions of Austria. Of its total
area, 28-9% consists of Alpine pastures available during the
summer months, 4-95% of lowland pasturages and 8-3% of
meadows, while only 9-2% is arable. Cattle-breeding and
dairy-farming are very developed and constitute the chief re-
sources of the province. Next in importance comes the timber
trade; game is also plentiful. The mineral wealth of Salzburg
includes salt at Hallein, copper at Mitterberg, iron-ore at Werfen,
marble in the Untersberg region and small quantities of gold
near the Goldberg in the Rauris valley and at Bockstein in the
Gastein valley. The duchy contains also a great number of
mineral springs, as the celebrated springs at Gastein, alkaline
springs at Mauterndorf and at St Wolfgang, and saline springs
at Coiling and Hallein. Commerce and manufacture are poorly
developed. The duchy is divided into six departments, of which
the capital, Salzburg, is one and its environs the second. The
other four are Hallein, St Johann, Tamsweg and Zell-am-See.
The local diet, of which the archbishop is a member ex-officio,
is composed of 28 members, and the duchy sends 7- members to
the reichsrat at Vienna. At' Hallein, pop. (1900) 6608, with
celebrated saline springs known since the beginning of the I2th
century, in October 1809, encounters between the French and
the Tirolese under Joachim Johann Haspinger took place. To
the N.E. lies Adnet with extensive marble quarries, and to the
N. Oberalm, with manufacture of marble articles. The ascent
of the Hoher Goll is made from here. Zell-am-See (2473 ft.),
pop. 1561, is a favourite tourist resort. To the E. is the Schmit-
tenhohe (6455 ft-X which is easily accessible. On the summit is
a meteorological station. Sankt Johann (pop. 1343) was one
of the earliest settlements in the Salzach valley, and was a
principal centre of Protestantism. Near it is the Liechtenstein
Klamm.
For the history of the archbishopric and duchy see the article on
the town of Salzburg (below).
SALZBURG, capital of the Austrian duchy and crownland of
Salzburg and formerly of the archbishopric of the same name,
195 m. W. by S. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 32, 934. The city
occupies a position of singular beauty on the Salzach which
passes at this point between two isolated hills, the Monchsberg
(1646 ft.) on the left and the Capuzinerberg (2132 ft.) on the
right. In the lovely valley so formed, and stretching into the
plain beyond, lies Salzburg. The older and main part of the
city lies on the left bank of the Salzach, in a narrow semicircular
plain at the base of the Monchsberg; the newer town is on the
right bank at the foot of the Capuzinerberg, which is separated
from the river by the narrow suburb of Stein. At the S. of the
old town, below the Nonnberg, of S.E. spur of the Monchsberg,
is the suburb of Nonnthal; and at the N. end is Miilln. The
steep sides of the Monchsberg rise directly from amidst the houses
of the town, some of which have cellars and rooms hewn out of
the rock; and the ancient cemetery of St Peter, the oldest in
Salzburg, is bounded by a row of vaults cut in the side of the hill.
The narrowest part of the ridge, which has a length of above 2 m.
is pierced by the .Neu Thor, a tunnel 436 ft. long and 23 ft. broad,
completed in 1767, to form a convenient passage from the town
to the open plain. The S. end of the Monchsberg is occupied
by the imposing Hohen-Salzburg, a citadel originally founded in
the 9th century, though the present buildings, the towers of
which rise 400 ft. above the town, date chiefly from 1496-1519.
Its chapel contains statues of the twelve apostles in red marble.
The citadel is now used for barracks. The streets in the older
quarters are narrow, crooked and gloomy; but the newer parts of
the city, especially those laid out since the removal of the fortifica-
tions about 1 86 1, are handsome and spacious. Owing to the
frequent fires the private buildings of Salzburg are comparatively
modern; and the existing houses, lavishly adorned with marble,
are, like many of the public buildings, monuments of the gorgeous
taste of the archbishops of the I7th and i8th centuries. From
the style of the houses, the numerous open squares, and the
abundant fountains which give an Italian aspect to the town,
Salzburg has received the name of " the German Rome." Both
sides of the river are bordered by fine promenades, planted with
trees. The Salzach is spanned by four bridges, including a railway
bridge.
Salzburg is full of objects and buildings of interest. The cathedral,
one of the largest and most perfect specimens of the Renaissance
style in Germany, was built in 1614-1668 by the Italian architect
Santino Solari, in imitation of St Peter's at Rome. On three sides
it is bounded by the Dom-Platz, the Kapitel-Platz and the Residenz-
Platz; and opening on the N.E. and N.W. of the last are the Mozart-
Platz and the Markt-Platz. In the Mozart-Platz is a statue of
Mozart by Schwanthaler erected in 1842. On one side of the
Residenz-Platz is the palace, an irregular though imposing building
m the Italian style, begun in 1592 and finished in 1725. It contains a
picture-gallery and is now occupied by the grand-duke of Tuscany.
Opposite is the Neu Bau, begun in 1588, in which are the govern-
ment offices and the law courts. In the middle of the Residenz-
Platz is a handsome fountain, the Residenz-Brunnen, 46 ft. high,
executed in marble by Antonio Dario in 1664-1680. The palace of
the present archbishop is in the Kapitel-Platz. Across the river,
with its French garden adjoining the public park, is the Mirabell
palace, formerly the summer residence of the archbishops. Built in
1607, and restored after a fire in 1818, it was presented to the town
in 1867 by the emperor Francis Joseph. The town hall of Salzburg
was built in 1407 and restored in 1675. Other interesting secular
buildings are the Chiemseehof, founded in 1305 and rebuilt in 1697,
formerly the palace of the suffragan bishop of Chiemsee, and now the
meeting-place of the Salzburg diet and the Carolino-Augusteum-
Museum, containing an interesting collection of antiquities and a
library of 20,000 volumes.
Of the twenty-five churches the majority are interesting from
their antiquity, their architecture or their associations. Next to
the cathedral, the chief is perhaps the abbey church of St Peter, a
Romanesque basilica of the 12th century which was tastelessly
restored in 1745, and which contains a monument to St Rupert.
St Margaret's, in the midst of St Peter's churchyard, built in 1485,
and restored in 1865, is situated near the cave in the side of the
Monchsberg, said to have been the hermitage of St Maximus, who
io6
SALZKAMMERGUT SAMAIN
was martyred by the pagan Heruli in 477. The Franciscan church,
with an elegant tower built in 1866, is an interesting example of the
transition style of the I3th century, with later baroque additions.
St Sebastian s, on the right bank, built in 1505-1512 and restored in
1812, contains the tomb of Paracelsus, who died here. The oldest
and most important of the eight convents at Salzburg is the Bene-
dictine abbey of St Peter founded by St Rupert as the nucleus of the
city. It was completely rebuilt in 1131 and contains a library of
40,000 volumes, besides MSS. The Capuchin monastery, dating from
'599. gives name to the Capuzinerberg. The oldest nunnery is that
founded on the Nonnberg by St Rupert, the Gothic church of which
dates from 1423 and contains some fine stained glass and some old
frescoes. The single Protestant church in Salzburg was not built
until 1865. A theological seminary is the only relic now left of the
university of Salzburg, founded in 1623 and suppressed in 1810.
The city is the see of an archbishop with a cathedral chapter and a
consistory. Salzburg, situated at an altitude of 1351 ft. above sea-
level, has a healthy climate and is visited annually by over 60,000
tourists. It has a mean annual temperature of 46-4 F. and a mean
annual rainfall of 45-59 in. The town carries on a variety of small
manufactures, including musical instruments, iron-wares, marble
ornaments. Other industries are brewing and book-binding. It was
the birthplace of Mozart and of the painter Hans Makart (1840-
1884). The house in which Mozart was born has been transformed
into a museum, which contains many interesting relics.
Numerous places of interest and beautiful spots are to be found
round Salzburg. To the E. rises the Gaisberg (4206 ft.), which is
ascended by a rack-and-pinipn railway, which starts from Parsch. At
the foot of the Gaisberg is Aigen, a renowned castle and park. Three
miles S. of Salzburg is the palace of Hellbrunn, built about 1615,
which contains a famous mechanical theatre and some fine fountains.
About 2 m. to the S.W. of Salzburg is the castle of Leopoldskron, and
from this point the Leopoldskroner Moos stretches S. to the base of
the Untersberg. A few peat-baths, as the Ludwigsbad and the
Marienbad, are in the neighbourhood of Leopoldskron. Three and a
half miles N. of Salzburg, at an altitude of 1720 ft., stands the
pilgrimage church of Maria Plain, erected in 1674.
The origin and development of Salzburg were alike ecclesiastical,
and its history is involved with that of the archbishopric to which
it gave its name. The old Roman town of Juvavum was laid in
ruins, and the incipient Christianity of the district overwhelmed,
by the pagan Goths and Huns. The nucleus of the present city
was the monastery and bishopric founded here about 700 by St
Rupert of Worms, who had been invited by Duke Theodo of Bavaria
to preach Christianity in his land. The modern name of the town,
due like several others in the district to the abundance of salt found
there, appears before the end of the 8th century. After Charlemagne
had taken possession of Bavaria in the 8th century, Bishop Arno of
Salzburg was made an archbishop and papal legate. Thenceforward
the dignity and power of the see steadily increased and in the course
of time the archbishops obtained high secular honours. In 1278
Rudolph of Habsburg made them imperial princes.
The strife between lord and people was always keen in Salzburg.
Archbishop Leonhard II., who expelled the Jews from Salzburg in
1498, had to face a conspiracy of the nobles and was besieged in
Hohen-Salzburg by the inhabitants in 1511. The Peasants' War also
raged within the see in 1525 and 1526, and was only quelled with
the aid of the Swabian League. From the beginning an orthodox
stronghold of the Roman Catholic faith, Salzburg energetically
opposed the Reformation. Under Archbishop Wolfgang Dietrich
(d. 1611) many Protestant citizens were driven from the town and
their houses demolished. In spite, however, of rigorous persecutjon
the new faith spread, and a new and more searching edict of expulsion
was issued by Archbishop Leopold Anton von Firmian (d. 1744).
The Protestants invoked the aid of Frederick William I. of Prussia,
who procured for them permission to sell their goods and to emigrate ;
and m 1731 and 1732 Salzburg parted with about 30,000 industrious
and peaceful citizens, about 6000 of these coming from the capital.
The last independent archbishop was Hierpnymus von Colloredo
(1732-1812), who ruled with energy and justice but without gaining
popularity.
By the peace of LuneVille (1802) the see was secularized and given
to the archduke of Austria and grand-duke of Tuscany in exchange
for Tuscany, its new owner being enrolled among the electoral princes.
In the redistribution following the peace of Pressburg in 1805,
Salzburg fell to Austria. Four years later it passed to Bavaria, but
after the peace of Paris it was restored to Austria in 1816, except a
portion on the left bank of the Salzach. Under the designation of a
duchy the territory formed the department of Salzach in Uppe'
Austria until 1849, when it was made a separate crownland, and
finally in 1861 the management of its affairs was entrusted to a local
diet. The actual duchy does not correspond exactly with the old
bishopric. Salzburg embraced at the time of the peace of Westphalia
(1648) an area of 3821 sq. m. with a population of 190,000. A part of
its territory was ceded to Bavaria in 1814, and when Salzburg became
a separate crownland in 1849 several of its districts were added to
Tirol.
For the history of the archbishopric see Meiller, Regesta archi-
episcoporum Salisburgensium, 1106-1246 (Vienna, 1866); Dfimmler,
Beilrage zw Geschichte des Erzbistums von Salzburg im (>-l2 Jahr-
hundert (Vienna, 1859); the Salzburger Vrkundenbuch, edited by W.
Hauthaler (Salzburg, 1800); Pichler, Salzburgs Landesgeschichte
(Salzburg, 1865); Doblhoff, Beilrage zum Quellenstudium Salzbur-
gischer Landeskunde (Salzburg, 1893-1895); Greinz, Die Erzdiozese
Salzburg (Vienna, 1898); Rieder, Kurze Geschichte des Landes
Salzburg (Vienna, 1905) ; E. Richter, Das Herzogtum Salzburg (1881) ;
Thym, Das Herzogtum Salzburg (1901), and F. von Pichl, Kritische
Abhandlungen liber die dlteste Geschichte Salzburgs (Innsbruck, 1889).
For the town see Widmann, Geschichte Salzburgs (Gotha, 1907);
F. von Zillner, Geschichte der Stadt Salzburg (Salzburg, 1885-1890);
Trautwein, Salzburg (i2th ed., Innsbruck, 1901); J. Meurer, Fuhrer
durch Salzburg (Vienna, 1889), and Purtscheller, Fuhrer durch
Salzburg und Umgebung (Salzburg, 1905). See also C. F. Arnold,
Die Ausrottung des Protestantismus in Salzburg unter Erzbischof
Firmian (1900).
SALZKAMMERGUT, a district of Austria in the S.W. angle
of the duchy of Upper Austria situated between Salzburg and
Styria. It forms a separate imperial domain of about 250 sq. m.
and is famous for its fine scenery, which has gained for it the
title of the " Austrian Switzerland "; but it owes its name
(literally " salt-exchequer property ") and its economic import-
ance to its valuable salt mines. It belongs to the region of the
Eastern Alps, and contains the Dachstein group with the Dach-
stein (9830 ft.) and the Thorstein (9657 ft.). In the Dachstein
group are found the most easterly glaciers of the Alps, of which
the largest is the Karls-Eisfeld, nearly 2$ m. long and ij m.
broad; the Ischler Alps with the Gamsfeld (6640 ft.), the
Hollengebirge with the great Hollenkogel (6106 ft.), and the
Schafberg (5837 ft.), which is called the " Austrian Rigi." Then
comes the Todtes Gebirge, with the Grosser Priel (8246 ft.) and
the Traunstein (5446 ft.) on the E. shore of the Traun lake; the
Pyhrgas group with the Grosser Pyhrgas (7360 ft.) and the
Sengsen or Sensen group, with the Hoher Nock (6431 ft.). The
chief lakes are the Traun-see or Lake of Gmunden (1383 ft. above
sea -level, 9 sq. m. in extent, 623 ft. deep); the Hallstatter-see or
Lake of Hallstatt (1629 ft. above sea-level, 35 sq. m. in extent,
409 ft. deep ); the Atter-see or Kammer-see (1527 ft. above sea-
level, 18 sq. m. in extent, 560 ft. deep), the largest lake in
Austria; the Mond-see (1560 ft. above the sea, 9 sq. m. in
extent, 222 ft. deep) and the Aber-see or Lake of St Wolfgang
(1742 ft. above sea-level, si sq. m. in extent, 369 ft. deep).
Salzkammergut had in 1900 a population of over 18,000. The
capital of the district is Gmunden, and other places of importance
are Ischl, Hallstatt and Ebensee (7656), which are important
salt-mining centres. The salt extracted in Salzkammergut
amounts to nearly 30 % of the total Austrian production. Cattle-
rearing and forestry form the other principal occupations of the
inhabitants.
See Kegele, Das Salzkammergut (Wien, 1897).
SALZWEDEL, a town in the Prussian province of Saxony,
in a plain on the navigable Jeetze, a tributary of the Elbe, 32 m.
N.W. of Stendal and 106 m. by rail N.W. of Berlin, on the line
to Bremen. Pop. (1905) 11,122. Salzwedel is partly surrounded
by medieval walls and gates. The church of St Mary is a fine
Gothic structure of the I3th century with five naves and a lofty
spire. The old town hall, burnt down in 1895, has been replaced
by a modern edifice. The industries include linen and damask
weaving, tanning, brewing and the manufacture of pins, chemicals
and machinery, and a brisk river trade is carried on in agri-
cultural produce.
Salzwedel, formerly Soltwedel, was founded by the Saxons,
and was from 1070 to 1170 the capital of the old or north Mark,
also for a time called the " mark of Soltwedel," the kernel of
Brandenburg-Prussia. The old castle, perhaps iounded by
Charlemagne, was purchased in 1864 by the king of Prussia.
Salzwedel was also a member of the Hanseatic League, and at
the beginning of the i6th century seems to have transacted a
great part of the inland commerce of North Germany.
See Pohlmann, Geschichte der Stadt Salzwedel (Halle, 1811), and
Danneil, Geschichte der koniglichen Burg zu Salzwedel (Salzwedel,
1865).
SAMAIN, ALBERT VICTOR (1858-1900), French poet, was
born at Lille on the 4th of April 1858. He was educated at the
Iyc6e of that town, and on leaving it entered a bank as a clerk.
He enjoyed no literary associations, and his talent developed
slowly in solitude. About 1884 Samain went to Paris, having
SAMANA RANGE SAMARA
107
obtained a clerkship in the Prefecture de la Seine, which he held
for most of his life. He presently began to send poems to the
Mercure de France, and these attracted attention. In 1893 he
allowed a friend to print his earliest volume of poems, Au Jardin
de I'injanle, in a very small edition. This led to the sudden recog-
nition of his talent, and to applause from critics of widely
different schools. In 1897 this book was reprinted in a more
popular form, with the addition of a section entitled L'Urne
penchee. Samain's second volume, Auxflancs du vase, appeared
in 1898. His health began to fail and he withdrew to the country,
where he died, in the neighbourhood of the village of Magny-les-
Hameaux, on the i8th of August 1900. A third volume of his
poems, Le Chariot d'or, appeared after his death, with a lyrical
drama, Polypheme (1901), which was produced at the Theatre
de 1'CEuvre in 1904. The fame of Samain rapidly advanced when
he was dead, and the general public awakened to the fact that
this isolated writer was a poet of rare originality. He cultivated
. a delicate, languid beauty of imagery and an exquisite sense of
verbal melody without attempting any revolution in prosody
or identifying himself with any theory. Samain had no great
range of talent, nor was he ambitious of many effects. Samain's
natural life was patiently spent in squalid conditions; he
escaped from them into an imaginative world of the most ex-
quisite refinement. He has been compared to Watteau and
Schumann; in his own art he bore some resemblance to Charles
Baudelaire, and to the English poet Arthur O'Shaughnessy.
See also R. Doumic, " Trois Fortes," in the Revue des deux mond.es
(Oct. 1900) ; L. Bocquet, Albert Samain, sa vie, son teuvre (1905) ;
and E. W. Gosse, French Profiles (1905). (E. G.)
SAMANA RANGE, a mountain ridge in Kohat district of the
N.W. Frontier Province of India, commanding the S. boundary
of Tirah. The ridge lies between the Khanki Valley on the N.
and the Miranzai Valley on the S., and extends for some 30 m.
W. from Hangu to the Samana Suk. It is some 6000 to 7000
ft. high. Beyond the Samana Suk lies the pass, known as the
Chagru Kotal, across which the Tirah Expedition marched in
1897. On the opposite hill on the other side of this road is the
famous position of Dargai (see TIRAH CAMPAIGN). After the
Miranzai Expedition of 1891 this range was occupied by British
troops and eleven posts were established along its crest, the two
chief posts being Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan. In 1897 all
the forts on the Samana were attacked by the Orakzais, and this
and the Afridi attack on the Khyber Pass were the two chief
causes of the Tirah Expedition. When Lord Curzon reorganized
the frontier in 1900, British garrisons were withdrawn from the
Samana forts, which are now held by a corps of tribal police
450 strong, called the Samana Rifles.
SAMANIDS, the first great native dynasty which sprang up
in the gth century in E. Persia, and, though nominally provincial
governors under the suzerainty of the caliphs of Bagdad, suc-
ceeded in a very short time in establishing an almost independent
rule over Transoxiana and the greater part of Persia. Under
the caliphate of Mamun, Saman, a Persian noble of Balkh, who
was a close friend of the Arab governor of Khorasan, Asad b.
Abdallah, was converted from Zoroastrianism to Islam. His son
Asad, named after Asad b. Abdallah, had four sons who rendered
distinguished services to Mamun. In return they all received
provinces: Nuh. obtained Samarkand; Ahmad, Ferghana;
Yahya, Shash; Ilyas, Herat. Of these Ahmad and his second
son Isma'il overthrew the Saffarids (q.v.~) and the Zaidites of
Tabaristan, and thus the Samanids established themselves with
the sanction of the caliph Motamid in their capital Bokhara.
The first ruler (874) was Nasr I. (Nasr or Nasir b. Ahmad b. Asad.
b. Saman). He was succeeded by his brother Isma'il b. Ahmad
(892). His descendants and successors, all renowned for the high
impulse they gave both to the patriotic feelings and the national
poetry of modern Persia (see PERSIA: Literature), were Ahmad b.
Israa'il (907-913); Nasr II. b. Ahmad, the patron and friend of
the great poet Rudagi (913-942); Nuh I. b. Nasr (942-954);
Abdalmalik I. b. Nuh (954-961); Mansur I. b. Nuh, whose vizier
Bal'ami translated Tabarl s universal history into Persian (961-
976); Nulj II- b. Mansur, whose court-poet Daqiqi (Dakiki) began
the Shahndma (976-997); Mansur II. b. Nuh (997-999); and
Abdalmalik II. b. Nuh (999), under whom the Samanid dynasty
was conquered by the Ghaznevids. The rulers of this powerful
house, whose silver dirhems had an extensive currency during the
loth century all over the N. of Asia, and were brought, through
Russian caravans, even so far as to Pomerania, Sweden and Norway,
where Samanid coins have been found in great number, were in their
turn overthrown by a more youthful and vigorous race, that of
Sabuktagin, which founded the illustrious Ghaznevid dynasty and
the Mussulman empire of India Under Abdalmalik I. a Turkish
slave, Alptagin, had been entrusted with the government of Bok-
hara, but, showing himself hostile to Mansur I., he was compelled
to fly and to take refuge in the mountainous regions of Ghazni,
where he soon established a semi-independent rule, to which after
his death in 977 (367 A.H.), his son-in-law Sabuktagin. likewise a
former Turkish slave, succeeded. Nuh II., in order to retain at least
a nominal sway over those Afghan territories, confirmed him in his
high position and even invested Sabuktagin's son Mahmud with the
governorship of Khorasan, in reward for the powerful help they had
given him in his desperate struggles with a confederation of dis-
affected nobles of Bokhara under the leadership of Fa'iq and the
troops of the Dailamites, a dynasty that had arisen on the shores of
the Caspian Sea and wrested already from the hands of the Samanids
all their western provinces. Unfortunately, Sabuktagin died in the
same year as Nub II. (997, 37 A.H.), and Mahmud (q.v.). confronted
with an internal contest against his own brother Isma'il, had to
withdraw his attention for a short time from the affairs in Khorasan
and Transoxiana. This interval sufficed for the old rebel leader
Fa'iq, supported by a strong Tatar army under the Ilek Khan Abu'l
Hosain Na?r I., to turn Nub's successor Mansur II. into a mere
puppet, to concentrate all the power in his own hand, and to induce
even his nominal master to reject Mabmud's application for a
continuance of his governorship in Khorasan. Mafmud refrained
for the moment from vindicating his right ; but, as soon as, through
court intrigues, Mansur II. had been dethroned, he took possession
of Khorasan, deposed Mansur's successor Abdalmalik II., and
assumed as an independent monarch for the first time in Asiatic
history the title of " sultan." The last prince of the house of Saman.
Montasir, a bold warrior and a poet of no mean talent, carried ori
for some years a kind of guerilla warfare against both Mahmud and
the Ilek Khan, who had occupied Transoxiana, till he was assassinated
in 1005 (395 A.H.). Transoxiana itself was annexed to the Ghaznevid
realm eleven years later, 1016 (407 A.H.).
See S. Lane Poole, Mohammedan Dynasties (1894), pp. 131-133;
Stockvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1888), vol. i. p. 113; also
articles CALIPHATE and PERSIA : History, section B, and for the later
period MAHMUD, SELJUKS, MONGOLS.
SAMANIEGO, FELIX MARIA DE (1745-1801), Spanish
fabub'st, was born at Laguardia (Alava) on the I2th of October
1745, and was educated at Valladolid. A government appoint-
ment was secured for him by his uncle the count de Penaflorida.
His Fdbulas (i 781-1784), one hundred and fifty-seven in number,
were originally written for the boys educated in the school founded
by the Biscayan Society. In the first instalment of his fables
he admits that he had taken Iriarte for his model, a statement
which proves that he had read Iriarte's fables in manuscript;
he appears, however, to have resented their publication in 1782,
and this led to a rancorous controversy between the former
friends. Samaniego holds his own in the matters of quiet humour
and careless grace, and his popularity continues. He died at
Laguardia on the nth of August 1801.
SAMARA, a government of S.E. Russia, on the W. side of the
lower Volga, bounded on the N. by the governments of Kazan
and Ufa, on the W. by Simbirsk and Saratov, on the E. by Ufa
and Orenburg, and on the S. by Astrakhan, the Kirghiz Steppes
and the territory of the Ural Cossacks. The area is 58,302 sq. m.,
and the population, in 1897, 2,763,478. A line drawn E. from
the great bend of the Volga the Samarskaya Luka would
divide the government into two parts, differing in orographical
character. In the N. are flat hills and plateaus intersected by
deep rivers. In their highest parts these elevations rise about
1000 ft. above the sea, while the level of the Volga at Samara
is only 43 ft. S. of the Samarskaya Luka the country assumes
the character of a low, flat steppe, recently emerged from the
post-Pliocene Aral-Caspian basin. The government is built up
chiefly of Carboniferous sandstones, conglomerates, clay slates
and limestones, representing mostly deep-sea deposits. The
Permian formation appears along the rivers Sok and Samara,
and is represented by limestones, sands and marls contain-
ing gypsum, all of marine origin, and by continental deposits
dating from the same period; sandstones impregnated with
petroleum also occur. In the N. these deposits are covered with
io8
SAMARA SAMARIA
" variegated marls " and with a variety of Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous deposits. The Tertiary formation (Eocene) appears
only at Novo-uzensk; the remainder of a vast sheet of this
formation, which at one time covered all the region between the
Volga and the Urals, was removed during the Glacial period.
Post-Tertiary Caspian deposits penetrate far into the government
along the main valleys, and a thick layer of loess occurs in the N.
Selenites, rock-crystal and agates are found, as also copper ores,
rock-salt and sandstone extracted for building purposes. The
soil is on the whole very fertile. All the N. of the government
is covered with a thick sheet of black earth; this becomes thinner
towards the S., clays mostly fertile cropping out from under-
neath it; salt clays appear in the S.E.
Samara is inadequately drained, especially in the S. The
Volga flows for 550 m. along its W. border. Its tributaries,
the Great Cheremshan (220 m.), the Sok (195 m.), the Samara
(340 m.), with its tributaries, are not navigable, partly on account
of their shallowness and partly because of water-mills. When
the water is high, boats can penetrate up some of them 15 to
30 m. The Great Irgiz alone, which has an exceedingly winding
course of 335 m., is navigated to Kushum, and rafts are floated
from Nikolayevsk. The banks of both Karamans are densely
peopled. The Great and Little Uzefi drain S.E. Samara and lose
themselves in the Kamysh sands before reaching the Caspian.
Salt marshes occur in the S.E.
The whole of the region is rapidly drying up. The forests,
which are disappearing, are extensive only in the N. Altogether
they cover 8% of the surface; prairie and grazing land occupies
32%, and 12% is uncultivable.
The climate is one of extremes, especially in the steppes, where
the depressing heat and drought of summer are followed in
winter by severe frosts, often accompanied by snowstorms.
The average temperature at Samara (53 n' N.) is only 39- 2
(January, 9-3; July, 70 -4).
The population, which was 1,388,500 in 1853, numbered
2,763,478 in 1897, of whom 1,398,263 were women and 159,485
lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 3,276,500.
Great and Little Russians formed 69% of the inhabitants;
Mordvinians 8-6%, Chuvashes and Votiaks 2-3%, .Germans
8-1% Tatars 3-6% and Bashkirs 2%. The Great Russians
immigrated in compact masses. A special feature of Samara
is its German colonists, from Wurttemberg, Baden, Switzerland
and partly also from Holland and the Palatinate, whose immigra-
tion dates from the time of Catherine II. in 1762. Favoured
as they were by free and extensive grants of land, by exemption
from military service and by self-government, they have
developed into wealthy colonies of Roman Catholics, Protestants,
Unitarians, Anabaptists, Moravians and Mennonites. As
regards religion, the great bulk of the population are Orthodox
Greeks; the Nonconformists, who are settled chiefly on both the
rivers Uzefi, number officially 100,000, but their real numbers
are higher; next come Mahommedans, 12%; various Protestant
sects, 5%; Roman Catholics, about z%; and some 4000
pagans.
The chief occupation is agriculture wheat, rye, oats, millet,
oil-yielding plants, potatoes and tobacco being the principal
crops. Owing to its great fertility, Samara usually has a surplus
of grain for export, varying from ij to 4 million quarters (ex-
clusive of oats) annually. Notwithstanding this production,
the government is periodically liable to famine to such an extent
that men die by thousands of hunger-typhus, or are forced to go
by thousands in search of employment on the Volga. The
population have no store of corn, or reserve capital for years of
scarcity, and some 210,000 males have each an average of only
four acres of arable and pasture land. But even this soil, al-
though all taxed as arable, is often of such quality that only 50%
to 55% of it is under crops, while the peasants are compelled
to rent from two to two and a half million acres for tillage from
large proprietors. Over 8J million acres, or not far short of
one-quarter of the total area of the government, purchased from
the crown or from the Bashkirs very often at a few pence per
acre are in the hands of no more than 1704 persons. The
general impoverishment may be judged from the death-rate,
46 to 48 per thousand. Out of the total area, 4,143,800 acres
belong to the crown, 7,979,000 to private persons and 22,486,700
acres to the peasants, who rent, moreover, about 6| million acres.
Water melons and sunflowers are extensively cultivated, and
gardening is widely engaged in; mustard and inferior qualities
of tobacco are grown. Hemp-seed, linseed, and other oil-seeds
and bran are exported, as well as cereals and flour. Livestock
are extensively bred. Bee-keeping is another pursuit that is
widely followed. The export of poultry, especially of geese,
has increased greatly. The principal manufactures are flour-
mills, tanneries, distilleries, candle and tallow works, breweries
and sugar refineries. Petty domestic industries, especially the
weaving of woollen cloth, are carried on in the S. Both the
external and the internal trade are very flourishing, nearly 250
fairs being held in the government every year; the chief are
those at Novo-uzensk andBugulma. Owing to the efforts of the
local zemstvos there are more than the average number of primary
schools, namely, one for every 1810 inhabitants. The govern-
ment is divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which
are Samara, Bugulma, Buguruslan, Buzuluk, Nikolayevsk,
Novo-Uzen and Stavropol. The Sergiyevsk sulphurous mineral
springs, 57 m. from Buguruslan, are visited by numbers of
patients.
The territory now occupied by Samara was until the i8th
century the abode of nomads. The Bulgarians who occupied
it until the i3th century were followed by Mongols of the Golden
Horde. The Russians penetrated thus far in the i6th century,
after the conquest of the principalities of Kazan and Astrakhan.
To secure communication between these two cities, the fort of
Samara was erected in 1586, as well as Saratov, Tsaritsyn and
the first line of Russian forts, which extended from Byelyi-yar
on the Volga to the neighbourhood of Menzelinsk near the Kama.
In 1670 Samara was taken by the insurgent leader Stenka Razin.
In 1732 the line of forts was removed a little farther E., and the
Russian colonists advanced E. as the forts were pushed forwards.
In 1762, on the invitation of Catherine II., emigrants from
various parts of Germany settled in this region, as also did the
Raskolniks, whose communities on the Irgiz became the centre
of a formidable insurrection in 1775 under Pugachev. At the
end of the i8th century Samara became an important centre
for trade. In the first half of the igth century the region was
rapidly colonized by Great and Little Russians. In 1847-1850
the government introduced about 120 Polish families; in 1857-
1859 Mennonites from Danzig founded settlements; and in 1859
a few Circassians were brought hither by government; while
the influx of Great Russian peasants still goes on.
(P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
SAMARA, a town of E. Russia, capital of the government
of the same name, 305 m. by river S.S.E of Kazan and 261 m.
by rail W.N.W of Orenburg. Its population, which was 63,479
in 1883, numbered 91,672 in 1897. Owing to its situation on the
left bank of the Volga, at the convergence of the Siberian and
Central Asian railways, it has great commercial importance,
especially as a dep6t for cereals and a centre for flour-milling.
A considerable trade is also carried on in animal products, par-
ticularly hides. The other industries include iron-foundries,
soap, candles, vehicles and glue factories, cooperages, tanneries,
breweries and brick-works. The port is the best on the Volga.
Three great fairs are held every year. The city, which gives title
to a bishop of the Orthodox Greek Church, has three cathedrals,
built in 1685, 1730-1735 and 1894 respectively, three public
libraries, and a natural history and archaeological museum.
It is famous for its kumis (mare's milk) cures. Its foundation
took place in 1586-1591 for the purpose of protecting the Russian
frontier against the Bashkirs, the Kalmucks and the Nogai
Tatars.
SAMARIA, an ancient city of Palestine. The name Samaria
is derived through the Gr. Sa/uApeta from the Hebrew jhgtf,
" an outlook hill," or rather from the Aramaic form jnpp,
whence also comes the Assyrian form Samirina. According
to ! Kings xvi. 24, Omri, king of Israel, bought Samaria from a
SAMARITANS
109
certain Shemer (whose name is said to be the origin of that of the
city), and transferred thither his capital from Tirzah. But the
city, as a superficial inspection of the site shows, must have
existed as a settlement long before Omri, as potsherds of eailier
date lie scattered on the surface. The city was occupied by
Ahab, who here built a temple to " Baal " (i Kings xvi. 32) and
a palace of ivory (i Kings xxii. 39). It sustained frequent
sieges during the troubled history of the Israelite kingdom.
Ben-Hadad II. of Syria assaulted it in the reign of Ahab, but was
repulsed and obliged to allow the Israelite traders to establish a
quarter in Damascus, as his predecessor Ben-Hadad I. had done
in Samaria (i Kings xx. 34). Ben-Hadad II. in the time of
Jehoahaz again besieged Samaria, and caused a famine in the
city; but some panic led them to raise the siege (2 Kings vi., vii.).
The history of the city for the following 120 years is that of
Israel (see JEWS).
In 727 died Tiglath-Pileser, to whom the small kingdoms of
W. Asia had been in vassalage; in the case of Israel at least
since Menahem (2 Kings xv. 19). He was succeeded by Shal-
maneser IV., and the king of Israel, with the rest, attempted to
revolt. Shalmaneser accordingly invaded Syria, and in 724
began a three-years' siege of Samaria (2 Kings xvii. 5). He died
before it was completed, but it was finished by Sargon, who
reduced the city, deported its inhabitants, and established
within it a mixed multitude of settlers (who were the ancestors
of the modern Samaritans). These people themselves seem to
have joined a revolt against the Assyrians, which was soon
quelled. The next event we hear of in the history of the city is its
conquest by Alexander the Great (331 B.C.), and later by Ptolemy
Lagi and Demetrius Poliorcetes. It quickly recovered from
these injuries: when John Hyrcanus besieged it in 120 B.C. it
was " a very strong city " which offered a vigorous resistance
(Jos. Ant. xiii. x. 2). It was rebuilt by Pompey, and restored by
Aulus Gabinius: but it was to Herod that it owed much of its
later glory. He built a great temple, a hippodrome and a street
of columns surrounding the city, the remains of which still arrest
the attention. It was renamed by him Sebaste, in honour of
Augustus: this name still survives in the modern name Sebusteh. 1
Philip here preached the gospel (Acts viii. 5). The rise of Neapolis
(Shechem) in the neighbourhood caused the decay of Sebaste. It
was quite small by the time of Eusebius. The crusaders did some-
thing to develop it by establishing a bishopric with a large church,
which still exists (as a mosque) ; here were shown the tombs of
Elisha, Obadiah and St John the Baptist. From this time
onward the village dwindled to the poor dirty place it is
to-day.
The site of Samaria is an enormous mound of accumulation, one
of the largest in Palestine. In some places it is estimated the debris
is at least 40 ft. deep. The crusaders' church remains almost intact,
and numerous fragments of carved stone are built into the village
houses, beneath which in some places are some interesting tombs.
The hippodrome remains in the valley below, and the columns of the
street of columns are in very good order. The walls can be traced
almost all round the town: at the end of the mound opposite the
modern village are the dilapidated ruins of a large gate. The site
stands in the very centre of Palestine, and, built on a steep and almost
isolated hill, with a long and spacious plateau for its summit, is
naturally a position of much strength, commanding two of the most
important roads the great N. and S. road which passes immediately
under the E. wall, and the road from Shechem to the maritime plain
which runs a little to the W. of the city. The hill of Samaria is
separated from the surrounding mountains (Amos iii. 9) by a rich
and well-watered plain, from which it rises in successive terraces
of fertile soil to a height of 400 or 500 ft. Only on the E. a narrow
saddle, some 200 ft. beneath the plateau, runs across the plain
towards the mountains ; it is at this point that the traveller coming
from Shechem now ascends the hill to the village of Sebusteh, which
occupies only the extreme E. of a terrace beneath the hill-top, behind
the crusaders' church, which is the first thing that attracts the eye as
one approaches the town. The hill-top, the longer axis of which
runs W. from the village, rises 1450 ft. above the sea, and commands a
superb view towards the Mediterranean, the mountains of Shechem
and Mount Hermon. Excavations under the auspices of Harvard
University began here in 1908. (R. A. S. M.)
1 Accentuated on the second syllable. Guide- and travel-books
generally spell the name Sebastiyeh, which is not a correct rendering
of the local pronunciation.
SAMARITANS. This term, which primarily means " in-
habitants of Samaritis, or the region of Samaria," is specially
used, in the New Testament and by Josephus, as the name of a
peculiar religious community which had its headquarters in the
Samaritan country, and is still represented by a few families at
Nablus, the ancient Shechem. By the Jews they are called
Shomronim, a gentilic form from Shomron = Samaria; among
themselves they sometimes use the name Shemerem ( = Heb.
Shomerim) which is explained to mean " Keepers," sc. of the
Law, but they usually style themselves " Israel " or " Children
of Israel." They claim to be descendants of the ten tribes, and
to possess the orthodox religion of Moses, accepting the
Pentateuch and transmitting it in a Hebrew text which for the
most part has only slight variations from that of the Jews.
But they regard the Jewish temple and priesthood as schis-
matical, and declare that the true sanctuary chosen by God is not
Zion but Mount Gerizim, over against Shechem (St John iv. 20).
The sanctity of this site they prove from the Pentateuch, reading
Gerizim for Ebal in Deut. xxvii. 4. With this change the chapter
is interpreted as a command to select Gerizim as the legitimate
sanctuary (cf. verse 7). Moreover, in Exod. xx. 17 and Deut.
v. 21 a commandment (taken from Deut. xxvii.) is found in the
Samaritan text, at the close of the decalogue, giving directions
to build an altar and do sacrifice on Gerizim, from which of
course it follows that not only the temple of Zion but the earlier
shrine at Shiloh and the priesthood of Eli were schismatical.
Such at least is the express statement of the later Samaritans:
in earlier times, as they had no sacred books except the Penta-
teuch, they probably ignored the whole history between Joshua
and the captivity, thus escaping many difficulties.
According to modern views the books of Moses were not
reduced to their present form till after the exile, when their
regulations were clearly intended to apply to the rebuilt temple
of Zion. The Samaritans must in that case have derived their
Pentateuch from the Jews after Ezra's reforms of 444 B.C.
Before that time Samaritanism cannot have existed in the form
in which we know it, but there must have been a community
ready to accept the Pentateuch. The city of Samaria had been
taken by Assyria (2 Kings xvii. 6 sqq. and xviii. 9-11) in 722 B.C.,
and the inhabitants deported, but in point of fact the district
of Mount Ephraim was not entirely stripped of its old Hebrew
population by this means. In the Annals of Sargon the number
of the exiles is put at 27,290, representing no doubt the more
prominent of the inhabitants, for this number cannot include the
whole of N. Israel. The poorer sort must have remained on the
land, and among them the worship of Jehovah went on as before
at the old shrines of N. Israel, but probably corrupted by the
religious rites of the new settlers. The account of the country
given in 2 Kings xvii. 25 seq. dwells only on the partial adoption
of Jehovah-worship by the foreigners settled in the land, and by
no means implies that these constituted the whole population.
Josiah extended his reforms to Bethel and other Samaritan
cities (2 Kings xxiii. 19), and the narrative shows that at that
date things were going on at the N. sanctuaries much as they had
done in the time of Amos and Hosea. To a considerable extent
his efforts to make Jerusalem the sanctuary of Samaria as well
as of Judah must have been successful, for in Jer. xli. 5 we find
fourscore men from Shechem, Shiloh and Samaria making a
pilgrimage to " the house of Jehovah," after the catastrophe of
Zedekiah. It is therefore not surprising that the people of this
district came to Zerubbabel and Jeshua after the restoration,
claiming to be of the same religion with the Jews and asking to
be associated in the rebuilding of the Temple. They were re-
jected by the leaders of the new theocracy, who feared the result
of admitting men of possibly mixed blood and of certainly
questionable orthodoxy; and so the Jehovah- worshippers of
Samaria were driven to the ranks of " the adversaries of Judah
and Benjamin " (Ezra iv.). Nevertheless, down to the time of
Nehemiah, the breach was not absolute; but the expulsion from
Jerusalem in 432 B.C. of a man of high-priestly family (Neh. xiii.
28), who had married a daughter of Sanballat, made it so. It
can hardly be doubted that this priest is the Manasseh of Josephus
I IO
SAMARITANS
(Ant. xi. 8), who carried the Pentateuch to Shechem, and for
whom the temple of Gerizim was perhaps built. For, though
the story in Josephus is put a century too late and is evidently
based on a confusion, it agrees with Neh. xiii. in essentials too
closely to be altogether rejected, 1 and supplies exactly what is
wanted to explain the existence in Shechem of a community
bitterly hostile to the Jews, yet constituted in obedience to
Ezra's Pentateuch.
It is remarkable that, having got the Pentateuch, they followed
it with a fidelity as exact as that of the Jews, except in regard
to the sanctuary on Mt Gerizim. The text of the sacred book
was transmitted with as much conscientiousness as was observed
by Jewish scribes; 8 and even from the unwilling witness of
the Jews* we gather that they fulfilled all righteousness with
scrupulous punctiliousness so far as the letter of the law was
concerned. They did not however, receive the writings even of
the prophets of N. Israel (all of which are preserved to us only by
the Jews) nor the later oral law 4 as developed by the Pharisees.
But although these differences separated the two communities,
their internal development and external history ran parallel
courses till the Jewish state took a new departure under the
Maccabees. The religious resemblance, between the two bodies
was increased by the institution of the synagogue, from which
there grew up a Samaritan theology and an exegetical tradition.
The latter is embodied in the Samaritan Targum, or Aramaic
version of the Pentateuch, which in its present form is probably
not much earlier than the 4th century A.D., but in general is said
to agree with the readings of Origen's ri> ZaiMpftTtKov.
Whether the latter represents a complete translation of the Law
into Greek may be doubted, but at any rate the Samaritans
began already in the time of Alexander to be influenced by
Hellenism. They as well as Jews were carried to Egypt by
Ptolemy Lagi, and the rivalry of the two parties was continued
in Alexandria (Jos. Ant. xii. i.i), where such a translation may
have been produced. Of the Samaritan contributions to Hel-
lenistic literature some fragments have been preserved in the
remains of Alexander Polyhistor.*
There are, however, many difficulties in the story, which is
not rendered clearer by references to Sanballat in the documents
from Elephantine (dated in 408/407 B.C.) published by Sachau in
the Abhandlungen d. Kgl. prruss. Akad. d. Wiss. for 1907.
* This appears by the frequent agreement of the Samaritan
Pentateuch with the Septuagint. The Samaritan character is an
independent development of the old Hebrew writing, as it was
about the time when they first got the Pentateuch, and this in
it>clf is an indication that from the first their text ran a separate
course. Differences between MSS. existed down to the time of the
Massoretes (see art. HEBREW), and it was from one of these divergent
texts that the Samaritan was derived, the Septuagint from another.
But while the Jews constantly revised their text with skill and
success, the rigid conservatism of the Samaritans prevented any
changes except the corruptions naturally due to human infirmity.
The story that they possess a copy of the Law written by Abisha,
the great-grandson of Aaron, seems to have aroused a strangely
widespread interest, so that tourists invariably ask to see it and
usually claim to have succeeded in doing so. Considering the extreme
reverence with which it is regarded, it may safely be said that this
manuscript is never shown to them. The origin of the legend is no
doubt due to a pious fraud. It is first mentioned by Abu'1-fath in
'355. from which year its " invention " dates. Obviously an old
copy would be chosen for the purpose of such a discovery, but it is
unlikely to be earlier than the lotn or nth century A.D.
* Not, indeed, without exceptions, nor at all periods, but such is
the general intention of the Massekheth Kuthim; see Montgomery,
Samaritans, cap. x.
4 For details see Nutt, Fragments, p. 37, and more fully, Mont-
gomery, I.e. No doubt, in addition to the legal ordinances, the
Samaritans retained some ancient traditional practices (cf. Caster
in Transactions of the 3rd Internai. Congr. for the History of Religions,
i. p. 299. Oxford, 1908), or introduced some new observances. Their
Passover, for instance, has some peculiar features, one of which,
the application of the sacrificial blood to the faces of the children,
has a parallel in the old Arabic 'oqiquh. See the account of an eye-
witness (Professor Socin) in Baedeker's Palestine; Mills, Three
Months' Residence at Nablus (London, 1864), p. 248; Stanley, The
Jewish Church i. app. iii.
* Chiefly in quotations by Eusebius (Praep. Ex., ed. Giffqrd,
Oxpn., 1903, bk. ix. 17). See Freudenthal, Hellenistische Studien,
i., ii. (Breslau, 1875); Schflrer, History of the Jewish People in the
Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. ed., 1891), ii. 3. p. 197.
The troubles that fell upon the Jews under Antiochus Epi-
phanes were not escaped by the Samaritans (2 Mace. v. 23;
vi. 2), for the account in Josephus (Ant. xii. 5. 5), which makes
them voluntarily exchange their religion for the worship of the
Grecian Zeus, is evidently coloured to suit the author's hostility.
Under the Maccabees their relations with Judaea became very
bitter. They suffered severely at the hands of Hyrcanus, and
the temple on Mt Gerizim was destroyed. Although this treat-
ment established an unalterable enmity to the Jews, as we see
in the New Testament, in Josephus and in Jewish tradition, the
two sects had too much in common not to unite occasionally
against a common enemy, and in the struggles of the Jews with
Vespasian the Samaritans took part against the Romans. They
were not, however, consistent, for under Hadrian they helped
the Romans against the Jews and were allowed to rebuild their
temple on Mt Gerizim. They seem to have shared in the Jewish
dispersion, since in later times we hear of Samaritans and their
synagogues in Egypt, in Rcme and in other parts of the empire.
In the 4th century they enjoyed a certain degree of prosperity,
according to their own chronicles, under Baba the Great, who
(re-) established their religious and social organization. In 484,
in consequence of attacks on the Christians, the Gerizim temple
was finally destroyed by the Romans, and an insurrection in 529
was suppressed by Justinian so effectively that, while retaining
their distinctive religion, they became henceforth politically
merged in the surrounding population, with a merely domestic
history. They are mentioned in later times by the Jewish
travellers Benjamin of Tudela (1173) and Obadiah Bertinoro
(1488 in Egypt), by Sir John Maundeville and others, but little
was known of them in Europe till Scaliger opened communications
with them in 1583.* In consequence of the interest thus aroused,
the traveller Pietro della Valle visited them in 1616 and succeeded
in obtaining a copy of their Pentateuch and of their Targum.
Towards the end of the same century Robert Hurrtington (after-
wards bishop of Raphoe), who was chaplain to the Turkey
merchants at Aleppo, interested himself in them 7 and acquired
some interesting manuscripts now in the Bodleian Library at
Oxford. Since his time there has been intermittently a good
deal of correspondence with them, 8 and in recent years owing to
the increased facilities for travelling they have been much visited
by tourists, not altogether for their good, as well as by scholars.
At the present day they live only at Nablus (Shechem), about
150 in number, the congregations formerly existing in Gaza.
Cairo, Damascus and elsewhere having long since died out.
Politically they are under the Turkish governor of Nablus;
their ecclesiastical head is the " Priest-levite " (in 1009 Jacob b.
Aaron), who claims descent from Uzziel the younger son of
Kohath (Exod. vi. 18). The line of the high-priests, so called
as being descended from Aaron, became extinct in 1623.
In religion, since they recognize no sacred book but the Pentateuch,
they agree with the Jews in such doctrines and observances only as
are enjoined in the law of Moses. They do not therefore observe the
feast of Purim, nor the fast of the 9tn of Ab, nor any of the later
rabbinical extensions or modifications of the law. It is this con-
servatism which has caused them to be confused with the Sadducees,
who likewise rejected the later traditional teaching; but it is not
correct to say that they deny the resurrection (as Epiphanius,
Haeres. ix., and others) and the existence of angels (Leontius, de
Sectis, ii. 8), or that they are entirely free from later religious de-
velopments. Briefly summarized, their creed is as follows: (a)
God is one, and in speaking of Him all anthropomorphic expressions
are to be avoided: creation was effected by his word: divine
appearances in the Pentateuch are to be explained as vicarious, by
means of angels (so as early as the 4th century A.D.) ; (6) Moses is
the only prophet : all who have since claimed to be so are deceivers ;
(c) the Law, which was created with the world, is the only divine
revelation; (d) Mt Gerizim is the house of God, the only centre of
worship; (e) there will be a day of judgment. Closely connected
with this are the doctrines (also found in the 4th century) of a future
life and of a messiah (Ta'eb), who shall end the period of God's
displeasure (Fanuta) under which his people have suffered since the
schism of Eli and the disappearance of the Ark, and shall restore
Israel to favour (Re'uta, Ridwan).
See Eichhorn's Repertorium, xiii. p. 257.
7 See his letters ed. by T. Smith (London, 1704).
* See especially de Sacy in Notices et extraits, xii. The later
letters are of less interest.
SAMARIUM SAMARKAND
in
The Samaritan language properly so called is a dialect of Palestinian
Aramaic, of which the best examples are found in the literature of
the 4th century A.D. An archaic alphabet, derived from the old
Hebrew, was retained, and is still used by them for writing Aramaic,
Hebrew and sometimes even Arabic. After the Moslem conquest of
Syria in 632 the native dialect of Aramaic gradually died out, and
by the nth century Arabic had become the literary as well as the
popular language. In the Liturgy Hebrew was no doubt used from
the earliest times side by side with Aramaic, and after the nth
century it became, in a debased form, the only language for new
liturgical compositions.
The literature of the Samaritans is, like that of the Jews, almost
entirely of a religious character. Reference has been made above
to Samaritan Hellenistic works which have perished except for a
few fragments. According to Samaritan tradition, their books were
destroyed under Hadrian and Commodus, but of the language and
contents of them nothing is recorded. There can be no doubt that
some, perhaps much, of the literature has been lost, for nothing l is
extant which can be dated before the 4th century A.D. The Targum,
or Samaritan- Aramaic version of the Pentateuch was most probably
written down aboyt that time, though it was clearly based on a much
older tradition and must have undergone various recensions. To
the same period belong the liturgical compositions of Amram Darah
and Marqah, and the latter's midrashic commentary (called the
" Book of Wonders ") on parts of the Pentateuch, all in Aramaic.
With the possible exception of one or two hymns there is nothing
further till the nth century when there appears the Arabic version
of the Pentateuch, usually ascribed to Abu Sa'id, but perhaps really
by Abu'l-hasan a of Tyre, who also wrote three Arabic treatises, still
extant, on theological subjects, besides some hymns. Of the same
date (1053) is an anonymous commentary * on Genesis, preserved in
the Bodleian Library at Oxford (MS. Opp. add. 4, 99), interesting
because it quotes from books of the Bible other than the Pentateuch.
In the lath century, Munajja * and his son Sadaqah wrote on
theology; the earlier part of the chronicle called al-Taulidah 6 was
compiled, in Hebrew (1149); and about the same time treatises on
Grammar' by Abu Sa'id and Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Faraj. The
next 100 years were rather barren. Ghazal ibn-al-Duwaik, who
wrote on the story of Balak and on the restoration of the kingdom to
Israel, is said to have lived in the llth century, and another chronicle
(in Arabic), called the Book of Joshua, is dated about the same time
byT. W. J. Juynbpll. 7 In the second half of the I4th century lived
three important liturgical writers, Abisha b. Phinehas (ob. 1376),
Abdallah b. Solomon and Sa'd-allah (or Sa'd-ed-din) b. Sadaqah:
Abu'1-fatb, who composed his chronicle 8 in 1355: a high priest
Phinehas, author of a lexicon: and the anonymous writer of the
commentary on the Kitab al-asatir, 9 a work, ascribed to Moses,
containing legends of the Patriarchs. Another famous liturgist
Abraham Qaba?i lived in the early part of the i6th century, and his
pupil Isma'il Rumailji in 1537 wrote a work on the praise of Moses.
Probably about the same time, or a little later, is another anonymous
commentary on Genesis in the Huntington Collection in the Bodleian
Library (MS. Hunt. 301). Several members of the Danfi family were
Crominent in the i8th century as liturgists, among them Abraham
. Jacob, who also wrote a commentary u on Gen.-Num., and of the
levitical family Ghazal ibn Abi Sarur, who commented on Gen.-Exod.
Another Ghazal ( =Tabiah n. Isaac), priest-levite, who died in 1786,
was a considerable writer of liturgy. Subsequent authors are few
and of little interest. Mention need only be made of the chronicle u
written (i.e. compiled) in Hebrew by Ab Sakhwah ( = Murjan u ) b.
As'ad, of the Danfi family, in 1900, chiefly on the basis of al-Taulidah
and Abu'1-fath; an Arabic chronicle 13 by Phinehas b. Isaac (ob.
1 Except, of course, the Pentateuch itself (see BIBLE) which cannot
be properly regarded as a Samaritan work.
I So Kahle, see the bibliography.
3 See Neubauer in Journ. asiat. (1873), p. 341.
4 See Wreschner, Samaritanische Traditwnen (Berlin, 1888).
* Ed. by Neubauer in Journ. asiat. (1869). The chronicle was
continued in 1346, and was subsequently brought down to 1856-
1857 by the present priest.
See Noldeke, Colt. Gel. Nachr. (1862), Nos. 17, 20.
7 Chronicon Sam. . . . Liber Josuae (Lugd. Bat., 1848). It
narrates the history from the death of Moses to the 4th century A.D.
and is derived from sources of various dates. A Hebrew book of
Joshua announced by Gaster in The Times of June 9, 1908, and
published in ZDMG, vol. 62 (1908) pt. ii., is a modern compilation;
see Yahuda in Sitsgsber. d. Kgl. Preuss. Akad. (1908), p. 887, and
Caster's reply in ZDMG, 62, pt. iii.
8 Ed. by Vilmar (Gotha, 1865). Partly translated by Payne
Smith in Heidenheim's Vierteljahrsschrift, vol. ii.
9 Translated by Leitner in Held. Viert. iv. 1841 &c.
10 An account of the work (of which the only MS. is in Berlin) was
given by Geiger in ZDMG, xx. p. 143 and later. Parts of it were
published as dissertations by Klumel in 1902 and Hanover 1904.
II Ed. by E. N. Adler and M. Seligsohn in the Revue des etudes
juwes, vols. 44-46.
12 The same who compiled Gaster's book of Joshua.
11 Mentioned by Yahuda, op. cit. p. 895, as existing in a Berlin
MS.
1898) of the levitical family ; and a theological work, 14 also in Arabic
by the present priest-levite, Jacob b. Aaron.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. -General: Nutt, Fragments of a Samaritan
Targum . . . with ... a Sketch of Sam. History, &c. (London,
1874); Montgomery, The Samaritans (Philadelphia, 190?), an ex-
cellent account with full bibliography; Petermann, Brevis ling,
sam. grammatica (Porta Lingg. Orient.), Leipzig, 1873; Stein-
schneider, Die arabische Literatur d. Juden, p. 319 sqq. (Frankfurt,
1902).
Texts: the Pentateuch in the Paris and London Polyglotts;
separately by Blayney (Oxford, 1790)- A critical edition is in prepara-
tion by the Freiherr von Gall. Targum in the Polyglotts; reprinted
in square character by Briill (Frankfurt, 1874-1879); with critical
apparatus by Petermann and Vollers (Berolini, 1872-1891); cf. also
Nutt, op. cit.; Kohn, " Zur Sprache . . . der Samaritaner," pt. ii.
(Leipzig, 1876) (in Abhandlungen f. d. Kunde d. Morqenlandes, v. 4);
Kahle, Textkritische . . . Bemerkungen . . . (Leipzig, 1898) and
Zeitsch. f. Assyr. xvi., xvii. Arabic version, ed. by Kuenen (Gen.-
Lev.), Lugd. Bat. (1851); cf. Bloch, Die Sam.-arab. Pent.-iiberset-
zung, Deut. i.-xi. (Berlin, 1901); Kahle, Die arab. Bibelubersetzungen
(Leipzig, 1904); Heidenheim, Der Commentar Marqahs (Weimar,
1896). Parts also in dissertations by Baneth (1888), Munk (1890),
Emmerich (1897), Hildesheimer (18^8). Various texts and transla-
tions, mostly liturgical, in Heidenheim's Deutsche Vierteljahrsschrift
(Gotha, 1864-1865, Zurich 1867- ?) often incorrect, cf. Geiger in
ZDMG, xvi.-xxii. Cowley, The Samaritan Liturgy (Oxford, 1909),
text and introduction. For editions of other works see the foregoing
footnotes. (A. CY.)
SAMARIUM [symbol Sm, atomic weight 150-4 (0=i6)], a
rare earth metal (see RARE EARTHS). The separation has been
worked at by A. v. Welsbach, L. de Boisbaudran, Urbain and
Lacombe (Complex rendus, 1903, 137 pp. 568, 792); Demarcay
(ibid. 1900, 130, p. 1019); Benedicks; Feit and Przibylla
(Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 43, p. 202) and others. The metal
may be obtained by reduction of its oxide with magnesium. It
combines with hydrogen to form a hydride. The salts are mostly
of a yellowish colour. The chloride, SmClj. 6H 2 O, is a deliquescent
solid which when heated in hydrochloric acid gas to 180 C.
yields the anhydrous chloride. This anhydrous chloride is
reduced to a lower chloride, of composition SmClz, when heated
to a high temperature in a current of hydrogen or ammonia
(Matignon and Cazes, Comptes rendus, ,1906, 142, p. 183). The
chloride, SmCh, is a brown crystalline powder which is decom-
posed by water with liberation of hydrogen and the formation
of the oxide, SmjOs, and an oxychloride, SmOCl. The fluoride,
SmFj.HzO, was prepared by H. Moissan by acting with fluorine
on the carbide. The sulphate, Sm 2(804)3.81120, is obtained by
the action of sulphuric acid on the nitrate. It forms double
salts with the alkaline sulphates. The carbide, SmC2, is formed
when the oxide is heated with carbon in the electric furnace.
SAMARKAND, a province of Russian Turkestan, formerly
Zarafshan or Zerafshan. It is the ancient Sogdiana and was
known as Sughd to the Moslems of the middle ages. It has on
the N. and N.E. the province of Syr-darya, on the E. Ferghana,
on the W. Bokhara and on the S. the khanates of Hissar, Kara-
teghin and Darvaz. Its area is 26,627 sq. m. It is very hilly
in the S., where it is intersected by ranges belonging to the Alai
system. The Hissar range is the water-parting between the
Zarafshan and the upper tributaries of the Amu-darya; another
high range, the Zarafshan, runs between the two parallel rivers,
the Zarafshan and its tributary, the Yagnob; while a third
range, often called the Turkestan chain, stretches W. to E.
parallel to the Zarafshan, on its N. bank. It is very probable
that the three ranges referred to really possess a much more
complicated character than is supposed. All three ranges are
snow-clad, and their highest peaks reach altitudes of 18,500 ft.
in the W. and 22,000 ft. in the E., while the passes over them,
which are difficult as a rule, lie at altitudes of 12,000 ft. Several
Alpine lakes, such as Iskander-kul, 7000 ft. high, have been
found under the precipitous peaks.
The Alpine zone extends as far N. as the 4oth parallel, beyond
which the province is steppe-land, broken by only one range of
mountains, the Nuratyn-tau, also known as Sanzar and Malguzar
in the S.E. and as Kara-tau in the N.W. This treeless range
stretches 160 m. N.W., has a width of about 35 m. and reaches
altitudes of 7000 ft. It is pierced, in the Sanzar gorge, or Tamer-
lane's Gate, by the rail way leading from Samarkand to Tashkent.
14 Translated in Bibliotheca sacra (1906), p. 385, &c.
112
SAMARKAND
The other mountains in the province are well wooded, and it is
estimated that nearly 4,500,000 acres are under forests. The
N.W. portion is occupied by the Famine Steppe which probably
might be irrigated and by the desert of Kyzyl-kum. The
Famine or Hungry Steppe (not to be confounded with another
desert of the same name, the Bek-pak-dala, to the W. of Lake
Balkash) occupies nearly 5,000,000 acres, covered with loess-like
clay. In the spring the steppe offers good pasture-grounds for
the Kirghiz, but the grass withers as summer advances. Nearly
1,500,000 acres might, however, be irrigated and rendered
available for the cultivation of cotton; indeed a beginning has
been made in that direction. The Kyzyl-kum Steppe, 88,000
sq. m., is crossed by rocky hills, reaching an altitude of 3500 ft.,
and consists in part of saline clays, patches of prairie land and
sand. The sand is especially prevalent on the margin, where the
moving barkkans (crescent-shaped sandhills) invade the Kara-kul
oasis of Bokhara. The vegetation is very poor, as a rule; grass
and flowers (tulips, Rheum, various Umbelliferae) only appear
for a short time in the spring. The barkhans produce nothing
except Haloxylon ammodendron, Poligonum, Halimodendron,
Atraphaxis and other steppe bushes; occasionally Stipa grass
is seen on the slopes of the sandhills, while Artemisia and Tamarix
bushes grow on the more compact sands. Water can only be
obtained from wells, sometimes 140 ft. deep. A few Kirghiz are
the sole inhabitants, and they are only found in the more hilly
parts.
The chief river is the Zarafshan, which, under the name of
Mach, rises in the Zarav glacier in the Kok-su mountain group.
Navigation is only possible by rafts, from Penjikent downwards.
The river is heavily drawn upon for irrigation; and to this
it probably owes its name (" gold-spreading ") rather than to the
gold which is found in small quantities in its sands. Over 80
main canals (ariks) water 1200 sq. m. in Samarkand, while
1640 sq. m. are watered in Bokhara by means of over 40 main
canals. Beyond Lake Kara-kul it is lost in the sands, before
reaching the Amu-darya to which it was formerly tributary.
The N.E. of the province is watered by the Syr-darya. One of the
lakes, the Tuz-kaneh (40 m. from Jizakh) yields about 1300 tons
of salt annually.
The average temperature for the year'is 55-4 F. at Samarkand,
and 58 at Khojent and Jizakh; but the average temperature
for the winter is only 34, and frosts of 4 and 1 1 have been
experienced at Samarkand and Khojent respectively; on the
other hand, the average temperature for July is 79 at Samarkand
and 85 at Khojent and Jizakh. The total precipitation (includ-
ing snow in winter) is only 6-4 in. at Khojent, 12 in. at Samarkand
and 24 in. at Jizakh. The hilly tracts have a healthy climate,
but malaria and mosquitoes prevail in the lower regions.
The estimated population in 1906 was 1,090,400. The Uxbegs
form two-thirds of the population, and after them the Kirghiz
and Tajiks (27%) are the most numerous; Jews, Tatars,
Afghans and Hindus are also met with.
In 1898 nearly 1,000,000 acres were irrigated, and about
800,000 acres partly irrigated. The chief crops are wheat, rice
and barley. Sorghum, millet, Indian corn, peas, lentils, haricots,
flax, hemp, poppy, lucerne, madder, tobacco, melons and
mushrooms are also grown. Two crops are often taken from the
same piece of land in one season. Cotton is extensively grown,
and 21,000 acres are under vineyards. Sericulture prospers,
especially in the Khojent district. Live-stock breeding is the
chief occupation of iLe Kirghiz. Weaving, saddlery, boot-
making, tanneries, oil works and metal works exist in many
villages and towns, while the nomad Kirghiz excel in making
felt goods and carpets. There are glass works, cotton-cleaning
works, steam flour mills and distilleries. Some coal, sulphur,
ammonia and gypsum are obtained. Trade is considerable, the
chief exports being rice, raw cotton, raisins, dried fruit, nuts,
wine and silk. The Central Asian railway crosses the province
from Bokhara to Samarkand and Tashkent. The province is
divided into four districts, the chief towns of which, with their
populations in 1897, are: Samarkand (q.v), Jizakh (16,041),
Kati-kurgan (10,083) an d Khojent (30,076).
SAMARKAND, a city of Russian Central Asia, anciently
Maracanda, the capital of Sogdiana, then the residence of the
Moslem Samanid dynasty, and subsequently the capital of the
Mongol prince Tamerlane, is now chief town of the province of
the same name. It lies 220 m. by rail S.W. of Tashkent, and 156
m. E. of Bokhara, in 39 39' N. and 66 45' E., 2260 ft. above the
sea, in the fertile valley of the Zarafshan, at the point where it
issues from the W. spurs of the Tian-shan before entering the
steppes of Bokhara. The Zarafshan now flows 5 m. N. of the
city. In 1897 the population numbered 40,000 in the native
city, and 15,000 in the new Russian town, inclusive of the
military (80% Russians). The total population was 58,194 in
1900, and of these only 23,194 were women.
Maracanda, a great city, was destroyed by Alexander the Great
in 329 B.C. It reappears as Samarkand at the time of the
conquest by the Arabs, when it was finally reduced by Kotaiba
ibn Moslim in A.D. 711-712. Under the Samanids it became a
brilliant seat of Arabic civilization, and was so populous that,
when besieged by Jenghiz Khan in 1221, it is reported to have
been defended by 110,000 men. Destroyed and pillaged by that
chieftain, its population was reduced to one-quarter of what it
had been. When Timur made it his residence (in 1369) the
inhabitants numbered 150,000. The magnificent buildings of
the successors of Timur, which still remain, testify to its former
wealth. But at the beginning of the i8th century it is
reported to have been almost without inhabitants. It fell under
Chinese dominion, and subsequently under that of the amir of
Bokhara. But no follower of Islam enters it without feeling
that he is on holy ground ; although the venerated mosques and
beautiful colleges 'are falling into ruins, its influence as a seat of
learning has vanished, and its very soil is profaned by infidels.
It was not without a desperate struggle that the Mahommedans
permitted the Russians to take their holy city.
The present city is quadrangular and is enclosed by a low
wall 9 m. long. The citadel is in the W., and to the W. of this
the Russians have laid out since 1871 a new town, with broad
streets and boulevards radiating from the citadel.
The central part of Samarkand is the Righistan a square
fenced in by the three madrasahs (colleges) of Ulug-beg, Shir-dar
and Tilla-kari; in its architectural symmetry and beauty this is
rivalled only by some of the squares of certain Italian cities.
An immense doorway decorates the front of each of these large
quadrilateral buildings. A high and deep-pointed porch, reaching
almost to the top of the lofty facade, is flanked on each side by a
broad quadrilateral pillar of the same height. Two fine columns,
profusely decorated, in turn flank these broad pillars. On each
side of the high doorway are two lower archways connecting it
with two elegant towers, narrowing towards the top and slightly
inclined. The whole of the facade and also the interior courts
are profusely decorated with enamelled tiles, whose colours
blue, green, pink and golden, but chiefly turquoise-blue are
wrought into the most fascinating designs, in striking harmony
with the whole and with each part of the building. Over the
interior are bulbed or melon-like domes, perhaps too heavy for
the facade. The most renowned of these three madrasahs is
that of Ulug-beg, built in 1434 by a grandson of Timur. It is
smaller than the others, but it was to its school of mathematics
and astronomy that Samarkand owed its renown in the isth
century.
A winding street, running N.E. from the Righistan, leads to a
much larger square in which are the college of Bibikhanum on
the W., the graves of Timur's wives on the S. and a bazaar on the
E. The college was erected in 1388 by a Chinese wife of Timur.
To the N., outside the walls of Samarkand, but close at hand, is
the Hazret Shah-Zindeh, the summer-palace of Timur, and
near this is the grave of Shah-Zindch, or, more precisely, Kasim
ibn Abbas, a companion of Timur. This was a famous shrine in
the I4th century (Ibn Batuta's Travels, Hi. 52); it is believed that
the saint will one day rise for the defence of his religion. The
Hazret Shah-Zindeh stands on a terrace reached by forty marble
steps. The decoration of the interior halls is marvellous.
Another street running S.W. from the Righistan leads to the
SAMBALPUR SAMBOURNE
Gur-Amir, the tomb of Timur. This consists of a chapel crowned
with a dome, enclosed by a wall and fronted by an archway.
Time and earthquakes have greatly injured this fine building.
The interior walls are covered with elegant turquoise arabesques
and inscriptions in gold. The citadel (reconstructed in 1882
and preceding years) is situated on a hill whose steep slopes
render it one of the strongest in Central Asia. Its walls, 3000
yds. in circuit and about 10 ft. high, enclose a space of about
90 acres. Within it are the palace of the amir of Bokhara a
vulgar modern building now a hospital and the audience hall of
Timur a long narrow court, surrounded by a colonnade, and
containing the kok-lash, or stone of justice. Ruins of former
buildings heaps of plain and enamelled bricks, among which
Graeco-Bactrian coins have been found occur over a wide area
round the present city, especially on the W. and N. The name
of Aphrosiab is usually given to these ruins. Five m. S.W. of
Samarkand is the college Khoja Akrar; its floral ornamentation
in enamelled brick is one of the most beautiful in Samarkand.
Nothing but the ruins of a palace now mark the site of a once
famous garden, Baghchi-sarai. Of the Graeco-Armenian library
said to have been brought to Samarkand by Timur no traces
have been discovered, and Vambery regards the legend as
invented by the Armenians. Every trace of the renowned high
school Kalinder-khaneh has also disappeared.
The present Moslem city is an intricate labyrinth of narrow,
winding streets, bordered by dirty courtyards and miserable
houses. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is gardening.
There is a certain amount of industry in metallic wares, tallow
and soap, tanneries, potteries, various tissues, dyeing, harness,
boots and silver and gold wares. The best harness, ornamented
with turquoises, and the finer products of the goldsmith's art,
are imported from Bokhara and Afghanistan. The products
of the local potteries are very fine. The bazaars of Samarkand
are more animated and kept with much greater cleanliness than
those of Tashkent and Namangan. The trade is very brisk,-
the chief items being cotton, silk, wheat and rice, horses, asses,
fruits and cutlery. Wheat, rice and silk are exported chiefly
to Bokhara; cotton to Russia, via Tashkent. Silk wares and
excellent fruits are imported from Bokhara, and rock-salt from
Hissar. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)
SAMBALPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
Orissa division of Bengal. The town is on the left bank of the
river Mahanadi, 495 ft. above sea-level, the terminus of a branch
of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 12,870. It contains
a ruined fort with old temples. The garrison of native infantry
was withdrawn in 1902. There is considerable trade, and hand-
weaving of tussore silk and cotton cloth are carried on.
The DISTRICT OF SAMBALPUR has an area of 3773 sq. m. The
Mahanadi, which is the only important river, divides it into
unequal parts. The greater portion is an undulating plain,
with ranges of rugged hills running in every direction, the largest
of which is the Bara Pahar, covering an area of 350 sq. m., and
attaining at Debrigarh a height of 2267 ft. above the plain. The
Mahanadi affords means of water communication for 90 m.; its
principal tributaries in Sambalpur are the Ib, Kelo and Jhira.
To the W. of the Mahanadi the district is well cultivated. The
soil is generally light and sandy. It is occupied for the greater
part by crystalline metamorphic rocks; but part of the N.W.
corner is composed of sandstone, limestone and shale. Gold
dust and diamonds have been found near Hirakhuda or Diamond
Island, at the junction of the Ib and Mahanadi. The climate
of Sambalpur is considered very unhealthy; the annual rainfall
averages 59 in. The population in 1901 was 640,243, showing
an increase of 3-2% in the decade. The registered death-rate
for 1897 was only 30 per thousand, as against 68 for the province
generally. This figure shows that Sambalpur entirely escaped
the famine of 1896-1897, which indeed can be said to have
brought prosperity to the district by causing high prices for a
good rice crop, rice being the staple of cultivation. It was
almost equally fortunate in 1900. The main line of the Bengal-
Nagpur railway runs along the N. border of the district, with a
branch S. to Sambalpur town.
Sambalpur lapsed to the British in 1849, and was attached to
Bengal until 1862, when it was transferred to the Central Pro-
vinces. The early revenue administration was not successful.
On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 a general rising of the
chiefs took place, and it was not until the final arrest of Surandra
Sa, in 1864, that tranquillity was restored. In October 1905
Sambalpur was transferred back again to Bengal, without the
subdivisions of Phuljhar and Chandarpur-Padampur.
See Sambalpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1909).
SAMBHAR LAKE, a salt lake in Rajputana, India, on the
borders of the two states of Jodhpur and Jaipur. The town of
the same name has a railway station 53 m. N.E. from Ajmer:
pop. (1901) 10,873. The area of the lake when full is about
90 sq. m., but it usually dries up altogether in the hot season.
Since 1870 the British government has worked the salt under a
lease from the two states interested, supplying great part of N.
and Central India. The annual output averages about 126,000
tons, yielding a profit of more than half a million sterling.
SAMBLANfAY, or SEMBLANCAY, a French noble family of
Touraine, sprung from the merchant class. The founder of the
family was JEAN DE BEAUNE (d. c. 1489), treasurer of Louis XI.,
who narrowly escaped death for conspiracy under Charles VIII.
His son, JACQUES DE BEAUNE, baron de Samblancay, vicomte
de Tours, became general of finances before 1497, and from 1518
was superintendent of finances. Convicted of peculation in
connexion with the supplies for the army in Italy, he was executed
at Montfaucon on the gth of August 1527. His eldest son,
MARTIN DE BEAUNE, who became archbishop of Tours in 1520,
died in the same year as his father. Another son, GUILLAUME
DE BEAUNE, general of finances under his father, and banished
from 1527 to 1535, was the father of the famous prelate, RENAUD
DE BEAUNE (1527-1606), archbishop of Bourges (1581) and of
Sens (1595). His efforts at pacification during the wars of
religion culminated in the conversion of Henry IV., and it was
he who presided at the ceremony of the king's abjuration of
Protestantism on the 2Sth of July 1593. Renaud was one of the
most famous orators of his time, and some of his productions
have come down to us, as well as his Reformation de I'universite
de Paris (1605 and 1667). A less honourable descendant of
Jacques de Beaune was CHARLOTTE DE BEAUNE-SAMBLANQAY
(.1550-1617), a courtesan whom Catherine de Medici employed
to discover the secrets of her courtly enemies. She counted
among her lovers and dupes the king of Navarre (Henry IV.),
the due d'Alencon (Henry III.), Henry I., due de Guise and
others. The due de Guise was killed when leaving her apart-
ments in the early morning of Christmas Day 1588. She was
married early in life to Simon de Fizes, baron de Sauves, a
secretary of state, and again in 1584 to Francois de la Tremoille,
marquis de Noirmoutiers, by whom she had a son, Louis, ist
due de Noirmoutiers, a ducal line which became extinct in 1733.
Charlotte died on the 3oth of September 1617.
SAMBOURNE, EDWARD LINLEY (1844-1910), English
draughtsman, illustrator and designer, was born in London,
on the 4th of January 1844. He was educated at the City of
London School, and also received a few months' education
at the South Kensington School of Art. After a six years'
" gentleman apprenticeship " with John Penn & Son, marine
engineers, Greenwich, his humorous and fanciful sketches made
surreptitiously in the drawing-office of that firm were shown
to Mark Lemon, editor of Punch, and at once secured him an
invitation to draw for that journal. In April 1867 appeared his
first sketch, " Pros and Cons," and from that time his work was
regularly seen, with rare exceptions, in the weekly pages of
Punch. In 1871 he was called to the Punch "table." At the
beginning he made his name by his " social " drawings and
especially by his highly elaborated initial letters. He drew his
first political cartoon, properly so-called, in 1884, and ten years
later began regularly to design the weekly second cartoon,
following Sir John Tenniel as chief cartoonist in 1901. Examples
of his best work in book illustration are in Sir F. C. Burnand's
New Sandford and Merton (1872), and in Charles Kingsley's
Water Babies (1885), which contains some of his most delicate
SAMBUCA SAMNITES
and delightful drawings. The design for the Diploma for the
Fisheries Exhibition (1883) is of its kind one of the most extra-
ordinary things in English art. As a political designer, while
distinguished for wit and force, he was invariably refined and
good-humoured to the uttermost; yet it is essentially as an artist
that he takes his highest place. He died on the 3rd of August
IQIO.
See M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (London, 1895).
SAMBUCA, SAMBUTE, SAMBIUT, SAMBUE, SAMBUQUE, an
ancient stringed instrument of Asiatic origin generally supposed
to be a small triangular harp of shrill tone (Arist. Quint. Meib.
ri. p. 101). The sambuca was probably identical with the
Phoenician sabecha and the Aramaic sabka, the Greek form being
<ra/i/3uxr;. The sabka is mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 10, 15, where
it is erroneously translated sackbut. The sambuca has been
compared to the military engine of the same name by some
classical writers; Polybius likens it to a rope ladder; others
describe it as boat-shaped. Among the musical instruments
known, the Egyptian nanga best answers to these descriptions.
These definitions are doubtless responsible for the medieval
drawings representing the sambuca as a kind of tambourine, 1
for Isidor elsewhere defines the symphonia as a tambourine.
During the middle ages the word sambuca was applied (i) to a
stringed instrument about which little can be discovered, (2) to
a wind instrument made from the wood of the elder tree (sam-
bucus). In an old glossary (Fundgruben, i. 368), article vloyt
(flute), the sambuca is said to be a kind of flute. " Sambuca vel
sambucus est quaedam arbor parva et mollis, unde haec sambuca
est quaedam species symphoniae qui fit de ilia arbore." Isidor
of Seville (Etym. 2. 20) describes it as " Sambuca in musicis
species est symphoniarum. Est enim genus ligni fragilis unde et
tibiae componuntur. " In a glossary by Papias of Lombardy
(c. 1053), first printed at Milan in 1476, the sambuca is described
as a cithara, which in that century was generally glossed " harp,"
i.e. " Sambuca, genus cytherae rusticae. "
In Tristan (7563-72) the knight is enumerating to King Marke
all the instruments upon which he can play, the sambiut being
the last mentioned:
" Waz ist daz, lieber mann?
Daz veste Scitspiel daz ich kann."
In a Latin-French glossary (M.S. at Montpelier, H. no,
fol. 212 v.) Psalterium = sambue. During the later middle ages
sambuca was often translated sackbut in the vocabularies,
whether merely from the phonetic similarity of the two words
has not yet been established. The great Boulogne Psalter
(ri. c.) contains, among other fanciful instruments which are
evidently intended to illustrate the equally vague and fanciful
descriptions of instruments in the apocryphal letter of S.
Jerome, ad Dardanum, a Sambuca, which resembles a somewhat
primitive sackbut (q.v.) without the bell joint. It is reproduced
by Coussemaker, Lacroix and Viollet-le-Duc, and has given
rise to endless discussions without leading to any satisfactory
solution. (K. S.)
SAMLAND. a peninsula of Germany, in the province of East
Prussia, on the Baltic. It separates the Frisches Haff on the W.
from the Kurisches Haff on the N.E., and is bounded on the S.
by the river Pregel and on the E. by the Deime. Its shape is
oblong; it is 43 m. long, and 18 broad, and has an area of 900
sq. m. The surface is mostly flat, but on the W. sand-hills rise
to a height of 300 ft. The chief product is amber. The former
episcopal see of Samland was founded by Pope Innocent IV.
in 1249 and subordinated to the archbishop of Riga. Bishop
Georg von Polentz embraced the Reformation in 1523, and in
1525 the district was incorporated with the duchy of Prussia.
See Reusch, Saren des preussischen Samlandes (2nd ed., K6nigs-
1-ierg, 1863); Jankowsky, Das Samland und seine Bevolkerung
(Konigsberg, 1902); Henscl, Samland Wegweiser (4th ed., Konigs-
l>ere, 1905) ; and the Urkundenbuch des Bistums Samland, edited by
WoTky and Mendthal (Leipzig, 1891-1904).
"See Michael Praetorius, Syni. Mus. (Wolfenbuttel, 1618), p. 248
and pi. 42, where the illustr.it ion resembles a tambourine, but the
description mentions strings, showing that the author himself was
puzzled.
SAMNAN, SIMNAN, or SEMNAN, a small province of Persia,
which, including the city and district of Damghan, is generally
known as " Samnan va Damghan. " It is bounded on the W.
by the districts of Khar (the ancient Choara) and F^ruzkuh, on
the N. by Mazandaran, and on the E. by Shahrud and Bostam.
In the S. it extends beyond the oasis of Jendek in the desert N.
of Yezd. Its northern part is still known as Komush or Komish,
the ancient Commisene. The revenue amounts to about 7000
per annum.
SAMNAN, the capital of the province, is situated 145 m. E.
of Teheran, on the high road thence to Meshed, at an altitude of
3740 ft. in 35 34' N., 53 22' E. It has a population of about
10,000, post and telegraph offices, and a fine minaret, built in the
1 2th century. It exports pistachios, almonds and coarse tobacco.
A dialect with many old Persian forms and resembling the Mazan-
daran dialect is spoken.
A. Houtum-Schindler, " Bericht fiber d. Samnan Dialect," Zeitsch.
d. morgenl. Gesellschaft, vol. xxxii. (1878).
SAMNITES, the name given by the Romans to the warlike
tribes inhabiting the mountainous centre of the S. half of Italy.
The word Samnites was not the name, so far as we know, used
by the Samnites themselves, which would seem rather to have
been (the Oscan form of) the word which in Latin appears as
Sabini (see below). The ending of Samnites seems to be con-
nected with the name by which they were known to the Greeks'
of the Carnpanian coast, which by the time of Polybius had
become ZawtTai; and it is in connexion with the Greeks of
Cumae and Naples that we first hear of the collision between
Rome and the Samnites. 2 We know both from tradition and
from surviving inscriptions (see OSCA LINGUA and R. S. Conway,
The Italic Dialects, pp. 169 to 206) that they spoke Oscan;
and tradition records that the Samnites were an offshoot of the
Sabines (see e.g. Festus, p. 326 Mueller). On two inscriptions,
of which one is unfortunately incomplete, and the other is the
legend on a coin of the Social War, we have the form Safinim,
which would be in Latin *Sabinium, and is best regarded as
the nominative or accusative singular, neuter or masculine,
agreeing with some substantive understood, such as nummum
(see R. S. Conway, ibid. pp. 188 and 216).
The abundance of the ethnica ending in the suffix -no- in
all the Samnite districts classes them unmistakably with the
great Safine stock, so that linguistic evidence confirms tradition
(see further SABINI). The Samnites are thus shown to be
intimately related to the patrician class at Rome (see ROME:
history, ad init.), so that it was against their own stock that'
the Romans had to fight their hardest struggle for the lordship
of Italy, a struggle which might never have arisen but for the
geographical accident by which the Etruscan and Greek settle-
ments of Campania divided into two halves the Safine settle-
ments in central Italy.
The longest and most important monument of the Oscan
language, as it was spoken by the Samnites (in, probably, the
3rd century B.C.) is the small bronze tablet, engraved *on both
sides, known as the Tabula Agnonensis, found in 1848 at the
modern village Agnone, in the heart of the Samnite district,
not very far from the site of Bovianum, which was the centre
of the N. group of Samnites called Pentri (see below). This
inscription, now preserved in the British Museum, is carefully
engraved in full Oscan alphabet, and perfectly legible (facsimile
given by Mommsen, Unteritalische Dialekte, Taf. 7, and by I.
Zvetaieff, Sylloge inscriptionum Oscarum). The text and com-
mentary will be found in Conway, op. cit. p. 191: it contains a
list of deities to whom statues were erected in the precinct sacred
to Ceres, or some allied divinity, and on the back a list of deities
to whom altars were erected in the same place. Among those
whose names are immediately intelligible may be mentioned
those of "Jove the Ruler " and of " Hercules Cerealis." The other
names are full of interest for the student of both the languages
1 For the difficult questions involved in the obscure and frag-
mentary accounts of the so-called First Samnite War, which ended
in 341 B.C., the reader is referred to J. Beloch, Campanien, 2nd ed.,
pp. 442 flf., and to the commentators on Livy vii. 29 ff.
SAMOA
and the religious of ancient Italy. The latest attempts at inter-
pretation will be found in R. S. Conway, Dialeclorum Italicarum
exempla selecta (s.v.) and C. D. Buck, Oscan and Umbrian
Grammar, p. 254.
The Samnite towns in or near the upper valley of the Volturnus,
namely, Telesia, Allifae, Aesernia, and the problematic Phistelia,
learnt the art of striking coins from their neighbours in Campania,
on the other side of the valley, Compulteria and Venafrum,
in the 4th century B.C. (see Conway, op. cit. p. 196).
The Samnite alliance when it first appears in history, in the
4th century B.C., included those tribes which lay between the
Paeligni to the N., the Lucani to the S., the Campani to the W.,
the Frentani and Apuli to the E.: that is to say, the Hirpini,
Pentri and Caraceni, and perhaps also the Caudini (J. Beloch,
Italischer Bund, p. 167, and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects,
pp. 169 and 183); but with these are sometimes classed other
friendly and kindred communities in neighbouring territory,
like the Frentani and Atina (Liv. x. 39). But after the war
with Pyrrhus the Romans for ever weakened the power of the
Italic tribes by dividing this central mountainous tract into
two halves. The territories of the Latin colony Beneventum
(268 B.C.) and the Ager Taurasinus (Livy xl. 38, C.I.L., ist ed.,
i. 30) united that of Saticula on the W. (313 B.C.) to that of
Luceria on the E., and cut off the Hirpini from their kinsmen
by a broad belt of land under Latin occupation (Velleius Pat.
i. 14; Liv. Ix. 26). At the same time Allifae and Venafrum
became praefectures (Fest. p. 233 M), and the Latin colony of
Aesernia was founded in 263 B.C. in purely Samnite territory to
command the upper Volturnus valley. We hear of no further
resistance in the N. of Samnium till the general rising of Italy
in 90 B.C.; but the more southerly Hirpini (q.v.) henceforth
acted independently. (R. S. C.)
SAMOA, an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, about 1 50 m.
N. of Tonga and nearly midway between the New Hebrides and
Tahiti, 1600 m. from Auckland (New Zealand), 2410 from Sydney
and 4200 from San Francisco. (For Map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.)
It consists of 14 islands forming a slightly curved chain from
W. by N. to E. by S., between 13 30' and 14 3' S., 168 and
173 W. as follows: Savaii, Manono, Apolima, Upolu, Fanua-
tapu, Manua, Nuutele and Nuulua, belonging to Germany, and
Tutuila, Anua, Ofu, Olosenga, Tau and Rose, belonging to the
United States of America. The principal of these are Savaii
(area, 660 sq. m., pop. 13,200), Upolu (340 sq. m., pop. 18,400),
Tutuila (54 sq. m., pop. 3800), and the Manua group, which
includes Tau with Ofu and Olosenga (25 sq. m., pop. 2000).
Some of the smaller islands are also thickly populated, so that
the total population is about 39,000, whites numbering about
500. With the exception of Rose Island, which is an uninhabited
coral islet 70 m. E. of its nearest neighbour, and therefore
scarcely belongs geographically to the group, all the islands are
considerably elevated, with several extinct or quiescent craters
rising from 2000 ft. in Upolu to 4000 (Mua) in Savaii. Although
there are no active cones, Upolu has in comparatively recent
times been subject to volcanic disturbances, and according to
a local tradition, outbreaks must have occurred in the I7th or
1 8th century. In 1866 a submarine volcano near the islet of
Olosenga was the scene of a violent commotion, discharging
rocks and mud to a height of 2000 ft. Earthquakes are not
uncommon and sometimes severe. Coral reefs protect the coasts
in many parts; they are frequently interrupted, but the passages
through them are often difficult of navigation. The whole
group is abundantly watered, and the igneous soil is marvellously
fertile. The scenery of the islands is extremely beautiful.
Upolu is long and narrow; it has a backbone of mountains
whose flanks are scored with lovely valleys, at the foot of which
are flat cultivable tracts. Of its harbours Apia and Saluafata,
both on the N. coast, are most important. Mount Vaea, which
overlooks Apia and Vailima, the home of Robert Louis Stevenson,
is his burial-place and bears a monument to his memory. Tutuila,
the principal island belonging to the United States, resembles
Upolu, and has on its S. side the harbour of Pago Pago or Pango
Pango, the finest in the group.
Climate, Flora, Fauna. The climate is moist and sometimes
oppressively hot, though pleasant on the whole. A fine season
extends from April to September; a wet season from October to
March. The temperature is equable at Apia the mean annual
temperature is 78 F., the warmest month being December (80)
and the coldest July (75-76). The prevalent winds, which temper
the heat, are the S.E. trades, but W. winds supervene from January
to March. The archipelago lies in the track of the fierce hurricanes
which occur usually in this period. On the l6th of March 1889 the
heavy tidal waves created havoc in the harbour of Apia. The
American warship " Nipsic " was cast upon the beach, but was
afterwards floated and saved. Two other United States warships,
" Trenton " and " Vandalia," were beaten to pieces on the coral
reef; and the German warships " Olga " and " Eber " were wrecked
with great loss of life. The British warship " Calliope " (Captain
Pearson) was in the harbour, but succeeded in getting up steam and,
standing out to sea, escaped destruction. In A Footnote to History
R. L. Stevenson vividly describes the heroism of the captain and
crew.
The Samoan forests are remarkable for the size and variety of
their trees, and the luxuriance and beauty of tree-ferns, creepers
and parasites. The coco-nut palm and bread-fruit are of peculiar
value to the inhabitants; there are sixteen varieties of the one, and
twenty of the other. Hand timber trees, of use in boat-building, &c.,
are especially characteristic of Savaii.
Of the extremely limited Samoan fauna, consisting mainly of an
indigenous rat, four species of snakes and a few birds, the most
interesting member is the Didunculus strigiroslris, a ground pigeon
of iridescent greenish-black and bright chestnut plumage, which
forms a link between the extinct dodo and the living African
Treroninae.
Natives. The Samoans are pure Polynesians, and according to the
traditions of many Polynesian peoples Savaii was the centre of
dispersion of the race over the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to New
Zealand. Apart from tradition, Samoan is the most archaic of all
the Polynesian tongues, and still preserves the organic jetter j,
which becomes h or disappears in nearly all the other archipelagos.
Thus the term Savaii itself, originally Savaiki, is supposed to ha_ve
been carried by the Samoan wanderers over the ocean to Tahiti,
New Zealand, the Marquesas and Sandwich groups, where it still
survives in such variant forms as Havaii, Hawaiki, Havaiki and
Hawaii. In any case, the Samoans are the most perfect type of
Polynesians, of a light brown colour, splendid physique, and hand-
some regular features, with an average height of 5 ft. 10 in. Their
mental and social standard is high among Pacific peoples; they are
simple, honourable, generous and hospitable, but brave fighters.
Their idolatry (polytheistic) was unaccompanied by human sacrifice.
The dead were buried, and their spirits believed to travel to a world
entered by a pool at the western extremity of Savaii. They have
become mainly Protestants, Catholics or Mormons, but retain many
superstitions connected with their native religion. The women
and children are well treated. A youth is not regarded as eligible
to marry till tattooed from the hips to the knees. The principal
foods of the Samoans are vegetables, coco-nut, bread-fruit, fish and
pork. They are famous as sailors and boat-builders. The Samoan
language is soft and liquid in pronunciation, and has been called
" the Italian of the Pacific." It is difficult to learn thoroughly,
owing to its many inflexions and accents, and its being largely a
language of idioms. (See also POLYNESIA.)
Administration and Trade. The German islands form a crown
colony. There is an imperial governor, having under him a native
high chief assisted by a native council ; and there are both German
and native judges and magistrates. The United States, on assuming
sovereignty over Tutuila and the islands E. of it in 1900, with the
written consent of the native chiefs, appointed a naval governor.
Cultivation has been extended under European and American rule,
and in 1904 the exports from the German islands had reached a value
of 83,750, and those from the American islands of 4200. Copra
and cocoa beans are_the chief articles of export.
History. It is generally considered that the Manua group was
sighted by the Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen in 1722, and
named by him the Baaumann islands after the captain of one of
his ships. Louis de Bougainville obtained a fuller acquaintance
with the archipelago in 1768, and called them the Navigators'
Islands (lies des Navigateurs). This name is still used. La
Perouse was among the islands in 1787, and on Tutuila lost
some of his crew in a conflict with some natives of Upolu visiting
the island. Subsequent explorers were Captain Edwards of
the " Pandora " in 1791, and Otto von Kotzebuf in 1824. In
1830 the respected missionary John Williams "paid his first visit
to Samoa. Surveys of the archipelago were made by the American
explorer Charles Wilkes. The islands, especially Upolu, now
began to attract American and European (mostly German)
capitalists, and the Hamburg firm of J. C. Godeffroy & Son
developed the trade of the island. Meanwhile a series of petty
n6
SAMOS
civil wars greatly interfered with the prosperity of the native
population, who grouped themselves into two opposing political
parties. Americans and Europeans began to discuss the question
of annexation, recognizing the importance of the geographical
position of the islands. In 1877 the American consul hoisted
his country's flag, but the action was repudiated by his govern-
ment, which, however, in 1878 obtained Pago Pago as a coaling
station and made a trading treaty with the natives. In 1879
Germany obtained the harbour of Saluafata. Great Britain
followed suit, but under a political arrangement between the
powers no single power was to appropriate the islands. But
in 1887 and 1888 civil war prevailed on the question of the
succession to the native kingship, the Germans supporting
Tamasese, and the British and American residents supporting
Malietoa. After the latter had been deported by the Germans,
the British and American support was transferred to his successor,
Mataafa. In the course of the fighting which ensued some fifty
German sailors and marines were killed or wounded by the
adherents of Mataafa. A conference between the three powers
was thereupon held at Berlin, and a treaty was executed by those
powers and by Samoa, on thei4thof June 1889, by virtueof which
the independence and autonomy of the islands were guaranteed,
Malietoa was restored as king, and the three powers constituted
themselves practically a protectorate over Samoa, and provided
a chief justice and a president of the municipality of Apia, to
be appointed by them, to aid in carrying out the provisions of
the treaty. The government was administered under this treaty,
but with considerable friction, until the end of 1898, when,
upon the death of Malietoa, two rival candidates for the throne
again appeared, and the chief justice selected by the three powers
decided against the claims of Mataafa, and in favour of a boy,
Malietoa Tanu, a relative of the deceased Malietoa. Civil war
immediately ensued, in which several American and British
officers and sailors were killed by the natives, the Germans
upholding the claims of Mataafa, and the British and Americans
supporting the rival candidate. The three powers thereupon
sent a commission to Samoa to investigate and adjust the
difficulties. The situation, however, was found to be so com-
plicated and embarrassing that, early in 1900, the so-called
Berlin treaty was abrogated, Great Britain withdrew her claims
to any portion of the islands and received compensation from
Germany by concessions in other parts of the world, and the
United States withdrew from all the islands W. of Tutuila.
In 1902 the king of Sweden, as arbitrator under a convention
signed at Washington in 1899, decided that Great Britain and
the United States were liable for injuries due to action taken by
their representatives during the military operations of 1899.
See Robert Louis Stevenson, A Footnote to History (London, 1892),
and Vailima Letters (London, 1895); G. Turner, Samoa a Hundred
Years Ago and Long Before (London, 1884); W. B. Churchward, My
Consulate in Samoa (London, 1887) ; I. B. Stair, Old Samoa (London,
1897); Mary S. Boyd, Our Stolen Summer (London, 1900); L. P.
Churchill, Samoa 'Uma (London, 1902); Journal des museums
Godeffroy (Hamburg, 1871-1874); G. Kurze, Samoa, das Land, die
Leute und die Mission (Berlin, 1899); O. Ehlers, Samoa, die Perle
der Sudsee (Berlin, 1900); F. Reinccke, Samoa (Berlin, 1901);
A. Kramer, Die Samoa Inseln (Stuttgart, 1902 seq.); parliamentary
papers, Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Samoa (London,
1899, &c.), and 1902 (Samoa, Cd. 1083) for the arbitration of the
king of Sweden.
SAMOS, one of the principal and most fertile of the islands
in the Aegean Sea that closely adjoin the mainland of Asia Minor,
from which it is separated by a strait of only about a mile in
width. It is about 27 m. in length, by about 14 in its greatest
breadth, and is occupied throughout the greater part of its extent
by a range of mountains, of which the highest summit, near its
western extremity, called Mount Kerkis, is 4725 ft. high. This
range is in fact a continuation of that of Mount Mycale on the
mainland, of which the promontory of Trogilium, immediately
opposite to the city of Samos, formed the extreme point. Samos
is tributary to Turkey in the sum of 2700 annually, but other-
wise is practically an independent principality, governed by a
prince of Greek nationality nominated by the Porte. As chief
of the executive power the prince is assisted by a senate of four
members, chosen by him out of eight candidates nominated by
the four districts of the island Vathy, Chora, Marathocumbo
and Carlovasi. The legislative power belongs to a chamber of
36 deputies, presided over by the metropolitan. The seat of
the government is Vathy (6000). There is a telephone service.
The island is remarkably fertile, and a great portion of it is
covered with vineyards, the wine from the Vathy grapes enjoying
a specially high reputation. There are three ports: Vathy,
Tegani and Carlovasi. The population in 1900 was about 54,830,
not comprising 15,000 natives of Samos inhabiting the adjoining
coasts. The predominant religion is the Orthodox Greek, the
metropolitan district including Samos and Icaria. In 1900 there
were 634 foreigners on the island (523 Hellenes, 13 Germans,
29 French, 28 Austrians and 24 of other nationalities).
History. Concerning the earliest history of Samos literary tradi-
tion is singularly defective. At the time of the great migrations it
received an Ionian population which traced its origin to Epidaurus
in Argolis. By the 7th century B.C. it had become one of the leading
commercial centres of Greece. This early prosperity of the Samians
seems largely due to the island's position near the enc! of the Maeander
and Cayster trade-routes, which facilitated the importation of tex-
tiles from inner Asia Minor. But the Samians also developed an
extensive oversea commerce. They helped to open up trade with
the Black Sea and with Egypt, and were credited with having
been the first Greeks to reach the Straits of Gibraltar. Their
commerce brought them into close relations with Cyrene, and prob-
ably also with Corinth and Chalcis, but made them bitter rivals of
their neighbours of Miletus. The feud between these two states
broke out into open strife during the Lelantine War (7th century
B.C.), with which we may connect a Samian innovation in Greek
naval warfare, the use of the trireme. The result of this conflict
was to confirm the supremacy of the Milesians in eastern waters
for the time being; but in the 6th century the insular position of
Samos preserved it from those aggressions at the hands of Asiatic
kings to which Miletus was henceforth exposed. About 535 B.C.,
when the existing oligarchy was overturned by the tyrant Polycrates
(q.v.), Samos reached the height of its prosperity. Its navy not only
protected it from invasion, but ruled supreme in Aegean waters.
The city was beautified with public works, and its school of sculptors,
metal-workers and engineers achieved high repute (see below).
After Polycrates' death Samos suffered a severe blow when the
Persians conquered and partly depopulated the island. It had
regained much of its power when in 499 it joined the general revolt
of the lonians against Persia; but owing to its long-standing
jealousy of Miletus it rendered indifferent service; and at the decisive
battle of Lade (494) part of its contingent of sixty ships was guilty
of downright treachery. In 479 the Samians led the revolt against
Persia. }n the Delian League they held a position of special privilege
and remained actively loyal to Athens until 440, when a dispute with
Miletus, which the Athenians had decided against them, induced
them to secede. With a fleet of sixty ships they held their own for
some time against a large Athenian fleet led by Pericles himself,
but after a protracted siege were forced to capitulate and degraded
to the rank of tributary state. At the end of the Peloponnesian
War Samos appears as one of the most loyal dependencies of Athens;
it served as a base for the naval war against the Peloponnesians,
and as a temporary home of the Athenian democracy during the
revolution of the Four Hundred at Athens (411 B.C.), and in the last
stage of the war was rewarded with the Athenian franchise. This
friendly attitude towards Athens was the result of a series of political
revolutions which ended in the establishment of a democracy.
After the downfall of Athens Samos was besieged by Lysander and
again placed under an oligarchy. In 394 the withdrawal of the
Spartan navy induced the island to declare its independence and re-
establish a democracy, but by the peace of Antalcidas (387) it fell
again under Persian dominion. It was recovered by the Athenians
in 366 after a siege of eleven months, and received a strong body
of military settlers. After the Samian War (322), when Athens was
deprived of Samos, the vicissitudes of the island can no longer be
followed. For some time (about 275-270 B.C.) it served as a base.for
the Egyptian fleet, at other periods it recognized the overlordship
of Syria; in 189 B.C. it was transferred by the Romans to the kings
of Pergamum. Enrolled from 133 in the Roman province of Asia,
it sided with Aristonicus (132) and Mithradates (88) against its
overlord, and consequently forfeited its autonomy, which it only
temporarily recovered between the reigns of Augustus and Vespasian.
Nevertheless, Samos remained comparatively flourishing, and was
able to contest with Smyrna and Ephesus the title " first city of
Ionia " ; it was chiefly noted as a health resort and for the manu-
facture of pottery (see below). Under Byzantine rule Samos became
the head of the Aegean theme (military district). After the I3th
century it passed through much the same changes of government as
Chios (q.v.), and, like the latter island, became the property of the
Genoese firm of Giustiniani (1346-1566). At the time of theTurkish
conquest it was severely depopulated, and had to be provided with
new settlers, partly Albanians.
SAMOSATA SAMOTHRACE
117
During the Greek War of Independence Samos bore a conspicuous
part, and it was in the strait between the island and Mount Mycale
that Canarisset fire to and blew up a Turkish frigate, in the presence
of the army that had been assembled for the invasion of the island,
a success that led to the abandonment of the enterprise, and Samos
held its own to the very end of the war. On the conclusion of
peace the island was indeed again handed over to the Turks, but
since 1835 has held an exceptionally advantageous position, being
in fact self -governed, though tributary to the Turkish empire, and
ruled by a Greek governor nominated by the Porte, who bears the
title of " Prince of Samos," but is supported and controlled by a
Greek council and assembly. The prosperity of the island bears
witness to the wisdom of this arrangement. Its principal article of
export is its wine, which was celebrated in ancient times, and still
enjoys a high reputation in the Levant. It exports also silk, oil,
raisins and other dried fruits.
The ancient capital, which bore the name of the island, was
sittlated on the S. coast at the modern Tigani, directly opposite to
the promontory of Mycale, the town itself adjoining the sea and
having a large artificial port, the remains of which are still visible,
as are the ancient walls that surrounded the summit of a hill which
rises immediately above it, and now bears the name of Astypalaea.
This formed the acropolis of the ancient city, which in its flourishing
times covered the slopes of Mount Ampelus down to the shore. The
aqueduct cut through the hill by Polycrates may still be seen.
From this city a road led direct to the far famed temple of Hera,
which was situated close to the shore, where its site is still marked
by a single column, but even that bereft of its capital. This frag-
ment, which has given to the neighbouring headland the name of
Capo Colonna, is all that remains standing of the temple that was
extolled by Herodotus as the largest he had ever seen, and which
vied in splendour as well as in celebrity with that of Diana at Ephesus.
Though so little of the temple remains, the plan of it has been
ascertained, and its dimensions found fully to verify the assertion
of Herodotus, as compared with all other Greek temples existing
in his time, though it was afterwards surpassed by the later temple
at Ephesus.
The modern capital of the island was, until recently, at a place
called Khora, about 2 m. from the sea and from the site of the ancient
city; but since the change in the political condition of Samos the
capital has been transferred to Vathy, situated at the head of a deep
bay on the N. coast, which has become the residence of the prince
and the seat of government. Here a new town has grown up, well
built and paved, with a convenient harbour.
Samos was celebrated in ancient times as the birth-place of Pytha-
goras. His name and figure are found on coins of the city of imperial
date. It was also conspicuous in the history of art, having produced
in early times a school of sculptors, commencing with Rhoecus and
Theodorus, who are said to have invented the art of casting statues
in bronze. Rhoecus was also the architect of the temple of Hera.
The vases of Samos are among the most characteristic products of
Ionian pottery in the 6th century. The name Samian ware, often
given to a kind of red pottery found wherever there are Roman
settlements, has no scientific value. It is derived from a passage in
Pliny, N.H. xxxv. 160 sqq. Another famous Samian sculptor was
Pythagoras, who migrated to Rhegium.
See Herodotus, especially book iii. ; Thucydides, especially books
i. and viii. ; Xenophon, Hellenica, books i. ii. ; Strabo xiy. pp.
636-639; L. E. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Greek Historical Inscriptions
(Oxford, 1901), No. 81; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford,
1887), pp. 515-518; Panofka, Res Samiorum (Berlin, 1822); Curtius,
Urkunden zur Geschichte von Samos (Wesel, 1873); H. F. Tozer,
Islands of the Aegean (London, 1890); J. Boshlan, Aus ionischen
und italischen Nekropolen. (E. H. B.; M. O. B. C.; E. GR.)
SAMOSATA (Sa.ijao-a.ra., -aruv, Ptol. v. 15 n; Strabo
xvi. 749) , called in Arabic literature Sumeisat, 1 is now represented
by the village of Samsat, occupying a corner of the ancient site.
On a broad plain 1500 ft. above sea-level, Samosata practically
marks the place where the mountain course of the Euphrates
ends (see MESOPOTAMIA). When the water is high enough it
is possible to descend in a kelek in one day to Birejik. The rocky
banks contain many ancient cave-dwellings.
The stele found there and published by Humann and Puchstein
(Reisen in Kleinasien u. Nord-Syrien, Atlas, plate xlix. 1-3)
shows that it was at an early time a Hittite centre, probably
marking an important route across the Euphrates: whether
or not it was the place where later the Persian " royal road "
crossed the Euphrates, in Strabo's time it was connected by a
bridge with a Seleucia on the Mesopotamian side, and it is now
'connected by road with Severek and Diarbekr and with Rakka,
connecting further, through Edessa and Harran, with other
eastward routes. The Hittite sculptured object referred to above
Not 'to be confused, as Yaqut remarks, with Shamsha^, the
classical Arsamosata (Ptol. v. 13).
shows influences of an Assyrian type (P. Jensen, Hittiler u.
Armenier, 1898, 13) ; but no cuneiform text referring to Samosata
by name seems yet to have been published. Kummukh, however,
the district to which it belonged, was overrun by early Assyrian
kings. In consequence of revolt it was made an Assyrian
province in 708 B.C. When the Assyrian empire passed through
the hands of Babylon and Persia into those of the successors of
Alexander, Samosata was the capital of Kummukh, called in
Greek Commagene. How soon it became a Greek city we do
not know. Although its ruler Ptolemy renounced allegiance to
Antiochus IV. the dynasty of Iranian origin which ruled at
Samosata, described by Strabo (I.e.) as a fortified city in a very
fertile if not extensive district, allied itself with the Seleucids,
and bore the dynastic name of Antiochus. There, not long after
the little kingdom was in A.D. 72 made a province by the Romans,
and its capital received the additional name of Flavia (Suet.
Vesp. 8; Eutrop. 8. 19), the celebrated Greek writer Lucian
the Satirist was born in the 2nd century (see LUCIAN), and more
than a century later another Lucian, known as the Martyr, and
Paul called " of Samosata." The remains of a fine aqueduct that
once brought water from the Kiakhta Chai, which begins some
6 m. above the town, are probably of the 3rd century A.D. (Geog.
Journ. viii. 323). Under Constantine Samosata gave place as
capital of Euphratensis to Hierapolis (Malal. Chron. xiii. p.
317). It was at Samosata that Julian had ships made in his
expedition against Sapor, and it was a natural crossing-place
in the struggle between Heraclius and Chosroes in the 7th
century. Mas'udi in the loth century says it was known also as
Kal'at at-Tln (" the Clay Castle "). It was one of the strong
fortresses included in the county of Edessa (q.v.). In the i3th
century, according to Yaqut, one of its quarters was exclusively
inhabited by Armenians. It is now a Kurdish village, which in
1894 consisted of about 100 houses, three of which were Armenian
(Geog. Jown. viii. 322).
SAMOTHRACE (Turk. Semadrek), an island in the N. of the
Aegean Sea, nearly opposite the mouth of the Hebrus, and lying
N. of Imbros and N.E. of Lemnos. The island is a kaza of the
Lemnos sanjak, and has a population of 3500, nearly all Greek.
It is still called Samothraki, and though of small extent is, next
to Mount Athos, by far the most important natural feature in
this part of the Aegean, from its great elevation- the group of
mountains which occupies almost the whole island rising to the
height of 5240 ft. Its conspicuous character is attested by a
well-known passage in the Iliad (xiii. 12), where the poet repre-
sents Poseidon as taking post on this lofty summit to survey
the plain of Troy and the contest between the Greeks and the
Trojans. This mountainous character and the absence of any
tolerable harbour Pliny, in enumerating the islands of the
Aegean, calls it " importuosissima omnium " prevented it
from ever attaining to any political importance, but it enjoyed
great celebrity from its connexion with the worship of the
CABEIRI (?..), a mysterious triad of divinities, concerning whom
very little is known, but who appear, like all the similar deities
venerated in different parts of Greece, to have been a remnant
of a previously existing Pelasgic mythology. Herodotus ex-
pressly tells us that the " orgies " which were celebrated at
Samothrace were derived from the Pelasgians (ii. 51). The only
occasion on which the island is mentioned in history is during
the expedition of Xerxes (B.C. 480), when the Samothracians
sent a contingent to the Persian fleet, one ship of which bore a
conspicuous part in the battle of Salamis (Herod, viii. 90).
But the island appears to have always enjoyed the advantage
of autonomy, probably on account of its sacred character, and
even in the time of Pliny it ranked as a free state. Such was still
the reputation of its mysteries that Germanicus endeavoured
to visit the island, but was driven off by adverse winds (Tac.
Ann. ii. 54).
After visits by travellers, including Cyriac of Ancona (1444),
Richter (1822), and Kiepert (1842), Samothrace was explored in
1857 by Conze, who published an account of it, as well as the larger
neighbouring islands, in 1860. The " Victory of Samothrace,"
set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes c. 305 B.C., was discovered in the
n8
SAMOVAR SAMPIERDARENA
island in 1863, and is now in the Louvre. The ancient city, of
which the ruins are called Palaeopoli, was situated on the N.
side of the island close to the sea; its site is clearly marked, and
considerable remains still exist of the ancient walls, which were
built in massive Cyclopean style, as well as of the sanctuary of
the Cabeiri, and other temples and edifices of Ptolemaic and
later date. The modern village is on the hill above. A
considerable sponge fishery is carried on round the coasts by
traders from Smyrna. On the N. coast are much-frequented
hot sulphur springs. In 1873 and 1875 excavations were carried
out under the Austrian government.
Conze, Reise auf den Inseln des Thrakischen Meeres (Hanover,
1860); Conze, Hauser and Niemann, Archdologische Untersuchungen
auf Samothrake (Vienna, 1875 and 1880) ; H. F. Tozer, Islands of
the Aegean (London, 1890).
SAMOVAR (Russ. samovaru), an urn for making tea after the
Russian fashion; it is usually of copper, and is kept boiling by a
tube filled with live charcoal passing through the centre. The
word is usually taken in Russia to mean " self-boiler " (samu,
self, and barili, boil), but it is more probably an adaptation of a
Tatar word sanabar, a tea-urn.
SAMOYEDES, a tribe of the Ural-Altaic group, scattered in
small groups over an immense area, from the Altai mountains
down the basins of the Ob and Yenisei, and along the shores of
the Arctic ocean from the mouth of the latter river to the White
Sea. The tribe may be subdivided into three main groups:
(a) The Yuraks in the coast-region from the Yenisei to the White
Sea; (6) the Tavghi Samoyedes, between the Yenisei and the
Khatanga; (c) the Ostiak Samoyedes, intermingled with
Ostiaks, to the S. of the others, in the forest regions of Tobolsk
and Yeniseisk. Their whole number may be estimated at from
20,000 to 25,000. The so-called Samoyedes inhabiting the S.
of the governments of Tomsk and Yeniseisk have been much
under Tatar influence and appear to be of a different stock;
their sub-groups are the Kamasin Tatars, the Kaibals, the
Motors, the Beltirs, the Karagasses and the Samoyedes of the
middle Ob.
The proper place of the Samoyedes among the Ural-Altaians is very
difficult to determine. As to their present name, signifying in its
present Russian spelling " self-eaters," many ingenious theories
have been advanced, but that proposed by Schrenk, who derived the
name " Samo-yedes " from " byroyadtsy," or " raw-eaters," leaves
much to be desired. Perhaps the etymology ought to be sought in
quite another direction, namely, in the likeness to Suomi. The
names assumed by the Samoyedes themselves are Hazovo and
Nyanyaz. The Ostiaks know them under the names of Orghoy, or
Workho, both of which recall the Ugrians; the name of Hui is also
in use among the Ostiaks, and that of Yaron among the Syrgenians.
The language now spoken by the Samoyedes belongs to the Finno-
Ugrian group, and is allied to Finnish but has a more copious system
of suffixes (seeFlNNO-UGRIc). It is a sonorous speech, pleasant to the
ear. No fewer than three separate dialects and a dozen sub-dialects
are known in it.
The conclusions deducible from their anthropological features
apart from the general difficulty of arriving at safe conclusions on
this ground alone, on account of the variability of the ethnological
type under various conditions of life are also rather indefinite.
The Samoyedes are recognized as having the face more flattened than
undoubtedly Finnish stocks; their eyes are narrower, their com-
plexion and hair darker. Zuyev describes them as like the Tunguses,
with flattened nose, thick lips, little beard and black, hard hair.
At first sight they may be mistaken for Ostiaks especially on the
Ob but they are undoubtedly different. Castr6n considers them
as a mixture of Ugrians with Mongolians, and Zograf as brachy-
cephalic Mongolians. Quatrefages classes them, together with the
Vpguls, as two families of the Ugrian sub-branch, this last, together
with the Sabmes (Lapps), forming part of the Ugrian or Boreal branch
of the yellow or Mongolia race.
It is probable that formerly the Samoyedes occupied the Altai
mountains, whence they were driven N. by Turco-Tatars. Thus,
the Kaibals left the Sayan mountains and took possession of the
Abakan steppe (Minusinsk region), abandoned by the Kirghizes,
in the earlier years of last century, and in N.E. Russia the Zyrians
are still driving the Samoyedes farther N., towards the Arctic coast.
Since the researches of Schrenk it may be regarded as settled that in
historical times the Samoyedes were inhabitants of the so-called
Ugria in the northern Urals, while Radlov considers that the number-
less graves containing remains of the Bronze Period which are
scattered throughout W. Siberia, on the Altai, and on the Yenisei in
the Minusinsk region, are relics of Ugro- Samoyedes. According to
his views this nation, very numerous at that epoch which preceded
the Iron-Period civilization of the Turco-Tatars, were pretty well
acquainted with mining; the remains of their mines, sometimes 50 ft.
deep, and of the furnaces where they melted copper, tin and gold, are
veiy numerous; their weapons of a hard bronze, their pots (one of
which weighs 75 Ib), and their melted and polished bronze and golden
decorations testify to a high development of artistic feeling and
industrial skill, strangely contrasting with the low level reached by
their earthenware. They were not nomads, but husbandmen, and
their irrigation canals are still to be seen. They kept horses (though
in small numbers), sheep and goats, but no traces of their rearing
horned cattle have yet been found. The Turkish invasion of S.
Siberia, which took place in the 5th century, drove them farther N.,
and probably reduced most of them to slavery.
The Samoyedes, who now maintain themselves by hunting and
fishing on the lower Ob, partly mixed in the S. with Ostiaks, recall the
condition of the inhabitants of France and Germany at the epoch of
the reindeer. Clothed in skins, like the troglodytes of the Weser,
they make use of the same implements in bone and stone, eat
carnivorous animals the wolf included and cherish the same
superstitions (of which those regarding the teeth of the bear are
perhaps the most characteristic) as were current among the Stone-
Period inhabitants of W. Europe. Their heaps of reindeer horns and
skulls memorials of religious ceremonies are exactly similar to
those dating from the similar period of civilization in N. Germany.
Their huts often resemble the well-known stone huts of the Esqui-
maux; their graves are rnere boxes left in the tundra. The religion is
fetishism mixed with Shamanism, the shaman (tadji-bei) being a
representative of the great divinity, the Num. The Yalmal peninsula,
where they find great facilities for hunting, is especially venerated by
the Ob Ostiak Samoyedes, and there they have one of their chief
idols, Khese. They are more independent than the Ostiaks, less
yielding in character, although as hospitable as their neighbours.
They are said to be disappearing owing to the use of ardent spirits
and the prevalence of smallpox. They still maintain the high
standard of honesty mentioned by historical documents, and
never will take anything left in the tundra or about the houses by
their neighbours. The Yurak Samoyedes are courageous and
warlike; they offered armed resistance to the Russian invaders, and
it is only since the beginning of the century that they have paid
tribute. The exact number of the Ostiak Samoyedes is not known ;
the Tavghi Samoyedes may number about 1000, and the Yuraks,
mixed with the former, are estimated at 6000 in Obdorsk (about 150
settled), 5000 in European Russia in the tundras of the Mezen, and
about 350 in Yeniseisk.
Of the S. Samoyedes, who are completely Tatarized, the Beltirs
live by agriculture and cattle-breeding in the Abakan steppe. They
profess Christianity, and speak a language closely resembling that of
the Sagai Tatars. The Kaibals, or Koibals, can hardly be distin-
guished from the Minusinsk Tatars, and support themselves by rear-
ing cattle. Castrn considers that three of their stems are of Ostiak
origin, the remainder being Samoyedic. The Kamasins, in the
Kansk district of Yeniseisk, are either herdsmen or agriculturists.
They speak a language with an admixture of Tatar words, and some
of their stems contain a large Tatar element. The interesting
nomadic tribe of Karagasses, in the Sayan mountains, is disappear-
ing; the few representatives are rapidly losing their anthropological
features, their Turkish language and their distinctive dress. The
Motors are now little more than a memory. One portion of the
tribe emigrated to China and was there exterminated ; the remainder
have disappeared among the Tuba Tatars and the Soyotes. The
Samoyedes on the Ob in Tomsk may number about 7000; they
have adopted the Russian manner of life, but have difficulty in
carrying on agriculture, and are a poverty-stricken population with
little prospect of holding their own.
The works of M. A. Castr6n are still the best authority on the
Samoyedes. See Grammatik der samoyedischen Sprachen (1854) ;
Dictionary (1855); Ethnologische Vorlesungen tiber die altaischen
Volker (1857); Versuch einer koibalischen und karagassischen
Sprachlehre (1857). See also A. Middendorf, Reise in den dussersten
Norden und Osten Sibiricns (1875).
SAMPAN, the name of the typical light boat of far Eastern
rivers and coastal waters; it is usually propelled by a single
scull over the stern, and the centre and after part is covered
by an awning or screen of matting. The word is said to be
Chinese, son, thin, and pan, board. Others take it to be of Malay
origin.
SAMPIERDARENA (San Pier d' Arena, i.e. St Peter of the
Sands), a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, 2$ m.
by rail W. of the city of that name, 16 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1906) 37,582 (town); 43,654 (commune). It is practically a
suburb of Genoa and contains a number of handsome palaces,
including the Palazzo Spinola and the Palazzo Scassi, both
probably built by G. Alessi. It has become a place of great
industrial and commercial activity, the Ansaldo ship-building
yard being the most important of its workshops. Near the
SAMPLE SAMSON
119
neighbouring town of Cornigliano is a bridge, where Massena
signed the capitulation of Genoa.
SAMPLE (through the O. Fr. essemple, from Lat. exemplum;
a. doublet of " example "), a small portion of merchandise taken
from the whole to serve as a specimen or evidence of the whole;
hence a pattern or model. Sale by sample obviates the necessity
on the part of sellers of keeping large quantities of goods on
premises unsuitable for storage, and on the part of buyers of
having to make a special visit to inspect the goods in bulk.
The sale of goods by sample is dealt with in England by the Sale
of Goods Act 1893, s. 15, which provides that a contract of sale
shall be a contract for sale by sample where there is a term in the
contract, express or implied, to that effect. In the case of such
a contract, there must be (a) an implied condition that the bulk
shall correspond with the sample in quality; (b) an implied
condition that the buyer shall have a reasonable opportunity
of comparing the bulk with the sample; (c) an implied condition
that the goods shall be free from any defect, rendering them
unmerchantable, which would not be apparent on reasonable
examination of the sample. (See also SALE OF GOODS.)
SAMPLER (from O. Fr. essemplaire, with dropping of initial
a, Late Lat. exemplar -tarn, from exemplum, example; it is a
doublet of " examplar " or " exempler," as " sample " is of
" example "), a model or pattern to be copied, particularly a
small rectangular piece of embroidery worked on canvas or other
material as a pattern or example of a beginner's skill in needle-
work, as a means of teaching the stitches. Down to compara-
tively recent times every little girl worked her " sampler," and
examples of 17th-century work are still found and have become
the object of the collector's search. They usually contained
the alphabet, the worker's name, the date, and Bible texts,
verses, mottoes, the whole surrounded with some conventional
design.
The earliest sampler in existence is dated 1643 and is in the
Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington (see M. B. Huish,
Samplers and Tapestry Embroideries, 1900, and List of Samplers in
the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, Board of Educa-
tion, South Kensington, 1906).
SAMPSON, WILLIAM THOMAS (1840-1902), American naval
commander, was born at Palmyra, New York, on the gth of
February 1840, and graduated at the head of his class from
the U.S. Naval Academy in 1861. In this year he was promoted
to master, and in the following year was made lieutenant. He
was executive officer in the " Patapsco " when she was blown up
in Charleston Harbor in January 1865. He served on distant
stations and (1868-1871 and 1876-1878) at the Naval Academy,
and became lieutenant-commander in 1866 and commander
in 1874. He was a member of the International Prime Meridian
and Time Conference in 1884, and of the Board of Fortifications
in 1885-1886; was superintendent of the Naval Academy from
1886 to 1890; and was promoted to captain and served as
delegate at the International Maritime Conference at Washington
in 1889. He was chief of the Bureau of Ordnance in 1893-1897.
About 95% of the guns employed in the Spanish- American War
were made under his superintendence. His influence was felt
decisively in the distribution of guns and armour, and in the
training of the personnel of the navy. He superintended the
gunnery training and prepared a new drill-book for the fleet.
In February 1898 Sampson, then a captain, was president of
Board of Inquiry as to the cause of destruction of the " Maine."
At the outbreak of the war with Spain he was placed in charge
of the N. Atlantic squadron, and' conducted the blockade of
Cuba. When it was known that Admiral Cervera, with a Spanish
fleet, had left the Cape Verde Islands, Sampson withdrew a
force from the blockade to cruise in the Windward Passage,
and made an attack upon the forts at San Juan, Porto Rico.
After his return to the coast of Cuba he conducted the blockade
of Santiago, and the ships under his command destroyed the
Spanish vessels when they issued from the harbor of Santiago
and attempted to escape (see SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR).
Sampson himself was not actually present at the battle, having
started for Siboney just before it began to confer with General
Shafter, commanding the land forces. He reached the scene
of battle as the last Spanish vessel surrendered, and the engage-
ment was fought in accordance with his instructions. He was
promoted to commodorp in 1898, to rear-admiral on the 3rd
of March 1899, and was made commandant of the Boston
(Charlestown) Navy Yard in October of the same year. He died
on the 6th of May 1902.
SAMSON (cf. Heb. shemesh, "sun"), in the Bible, the antagonist
of the Philistines, reckoned as one of the " judges " of Israel
(Judg. xv. 20, xvi. 31); the story itself (Judg. xiii. 2-xvi. 310),
however, represents him not as a judge but as a popular hero
of vast strength and sarcastic humour. He is consecrated
from his birth to be a Nazarite or religious devotee (ch. xiii.,
cf. Samuel), and it is possible that this was conceived simply
as a vow of revenge, which is the meaning it would have in an
Arab story (W. R. Smith). But he is inspired by no serious
religious or patriotic purpose, and becomes the enemy of the
Philistines only from personal motives of revenge, the one
passion which is stronger in him than the love of women. The
stories of his exploits are plainly taken from the mouths of the
people and have all the appearance of folk-tales, not unmixed
with mythical motives. Samson commenced his career by
strangling a lion on his way to visit a Philistine woman. On
his return he found that the carcase, like the skull of Onesilus
(Herod, v. 114), was occupied by a swarm of bees; he took the
honey and the incident suggested a riddle. The narrative of
Samson's marriage and riddle is of peculiar interest as a record
of manners; specially noteworthy is the custom of the wife
remaining with her parents after marriage. 1 His next exploit,
an act of revenge for the faithlessness of his wife, was to catch
300 foxes and set them loose in the fields with firebrands tied
to their tails. (Analogous customs, e.g. the Roman Cerealia,
are referred to in G. F. Moore's Commentary, p. 341.) The
Philistines retaliated by burning her and her father's household,
and Samson in his turn smote them ; ' hip and thigh " and slew
a thousand men with the jawbone of an ass. 2 The story has
apparently been influenced by the existence of a rock, called
by reason of its shape, " Ass's Jawbone," from which issued a
fountain called En-hakkore, " the spring of the caller " (a name
for the partridge). The well-known removal of the gates of
Gaza to Hebron, 40 m. distant " no journey of the Sabbath-
day " (Milton, Samson Agonistes) has been rendered still more
marvellous by a later exaggeration (xvi. 2). Finally the Philis-
tine Delilah (q.v.) worms out of Samson the secret of his strength,
and by shaving his head 3 renders him an easy captive. He
is blinded and put to menial work, and as his hair grows again
his invincible strength returns. At a festival of Dagon he is
led out before the Philistines in the temple, and by pulling down
the house upon their heads kills more at his death than in all
his life-time.
Points of similarity between Samson and the Babylonian
Gilgamesh, the Egyptian Horus-Ra and Hercules, have been
observed by many writers, and it has been inferred that the
whole story of Samson is a solar myth. His name, and the
proximity of Beth-shemesh (" house of the sun ") to his father's
home, favour the view that mythical elements have attached
themselves to what may have been originally a legendary
figure of the Danites, the tribe whose subsequent fortunes
1 In Judg. xiv. i-io the narrative has been revised; originally
Samson went down alone to Timnath to contract his marriage.
The metrical riddle and its answer are thus translated by G. F. Moore
(Sacred Books of the Old Testament : Judges) :
" Out of the eater came something to eat,
And out of the strong came something sweet."
" If with my heifer ye did not plough,
Ye had not found out my riddle, I trow."
No doubt the Hebrews, like the Arabs, were fond of enigmas; see
i Kings x. i, and Ency. Biblica, s.v. " Riddle."
2 The punning couplet of the original is thus rendered by G. F.
Moore: " with the jawbone of an ass, I assailed my assailants "
(more literally " I piled them in heaps," or perhaps " flayed them
clean ").
3 For the hair as the seat of strength cf. J. G. Frazer, Golden
Bough, 2 iii. 390 seq. In ch. xiii. the consecration of the hair is
regarded differently.
120
SAMSON SAMUEL OF NEHARDEA
are narrated in the chapters immediately following (Judg.
xvii.-xviii.).
On the mythological interpretations, ^ee further Ed. Stucken,
Mitteil. d. vorderasiat. Gesells. (1902), iv. 54 (with references);
Volter, Agypten und die Bibel (Leiden, 1909), pp. 119-132;
A. Jeremias, Alte Testament im Lichte des alien Orients (Leipzig,
1906), pp. 478 sqq., and the commentaries on the Book of JUDGES
(g.r.). (S. A. C.)
SAMSON (1135-1211), abbot of St Edmund's, was educated
in Paris and became a teacher in Norfolk, the county of his
birth. In 1166 he entered the great Benedictine abbey of St
Edmund's as a monk and was chosen abbot in February 1182.
He was a careful and vigilant guardian of the property of the
abbey, but he found time to attend royal councils and to take
part in public business; also he was frequently entrusted with
commissions from the pope. During the absence of Richard I.
from England he acted with vigour against John and visited the
king in his prison in Germany. He did some building at the
abbey, where he died on the 3Oth of December 1211. Samson is
famous for the encouragement which he gave to the town of
Bury St Edmunds, the liberties of which he extended in spite
of his own monks. His name is most familiar owing to the
references to him in Carlyle's Past and Present.
See the chronicle of Jocelyn of Brakeloud in vol. i. of the
Memorials of Si Edmund's Abbey, edited by T. Arnold (1890); and
J. R. Green, Stray Studies (1892).
SAMSON, JOSEPH ISIDORE (1793-1871), French actor and
playwright, was born at St Denis on the znd of July 1793, the
son of a restaurant keeper. He took the first prize for comedy
at the Conservatoire in 1812, married an actress with whom he
toured France, and came to the Comedie Francaise in 1826.
Here he remained until 1863, creating more than 250 parts.
He became a professor at the Conservatoire in 1829, and under
him Rachel, Rose Cheri (1824-1861), the Brohans and others
were trained. He wrote several comedies, among them La
Belle-Mere et le gendre (1826), and La Famille poisson (1846).
Samson died in Paris on the 28th of March 1871.
SAMSUN (anc. Amisus),the chief town of the Janik sanjak
of the Trebizond vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated on the S.
coast of the Black Sea between the deltas of the Kizil and Yeshil
Irmaks. Pop. about 15,000, two-thirds Christian. It is con-
nected by metalled roads with Sivas and Kaisarieh, and by sea
with Constantinople. It is a thriving town, and the outlet for
the trade of the Sivas vilayet. Steamers lie about i m. from
the shore in an open roadstead, and in winter landing is some-
times impossible. Its district is one of the principal sources of
Turkish tobacco, a whole variety of which is known as " Samsun."
Samsun exports cereals, tobacco and wool. Both exports and
imports are about stationary, the Angora railway having neutral-
ized any tendency to rise. Amisus, which stood on a promontory
about ij m. N.W. of Samsun, was, next to Sinope, the most
flourishing of the Greek settlements on the Euxine, and under
the kings of Pontus it was a rich trading town. By the ist
century A.D. it had displaced Sinope as the N. port of the great
trade route from Central Asia, and later it was one of the chief
towns of the Comneni of Trebizond. There are still a few
remains of the Greek settlement. (D. G. H.)
SAMUEL, a prominent figure in Old Testament history, was
born at Raman and was dedicated to the service of Yahweh
at the sanctuary of Shiloh where his youth was spent with Eli
(q.v.). 1 Here he announced the impending fate of the priesthood
and gained reputation throughout Israel as a prophet. Best
known as " king-maker," two distinct accounts are preserved
of his share in the institution of the monarchy. In one, the
Philistines overthrow Israel at Ebenezer near Aphek, Eli's sons
1 The name Samuel (Shemu'el), on the analogy of Penuel, Reuel,
seems to mean " name (i.e. manifestation) of El " (God). Other
interpretations are ''posterity of God" or "his name (shemo;
perhaps Yahweh's) is God." " Heard of God," based on i Sam. i. 20,
is quite impossible and the interpretation of the passage is really
only appropriate to Saul (" the asked one "): the two names are
sometimes confused in the Septuagint (Ency. Rib. 001.4303, n. 3).
34).
are slain, and the ark is captured (i Sam. iv.). After a period of
oppression, Samuel suddenly reappears as a great religious
leader of Israel, summons the people to return to Yahweh, and
convenes a national assembly at Mizpah. The Philistines are
defeated at Ebenezer (near Mizpah) through the direct inter-
position of Yahweh, and Samuel rules peacefully as a theocratic
judge (vii). But in his old age the elders demand a king, his sons
are corrupt, a monarchy and a military leader are wanted (viii.
3, 5, 20). The request for a monarchy is a deliberate offence
against Yahweh (viii. 7, cf. x. 19, xii. 12); nevertheless, an
assembly is called, and the people are warned of the drawbacks
of monarchical institutions (viii. 11-21; note the milder attitude
inDeut. xvii. 14-20). At Mizpah, after another solemn warning,
the sacred lot is taken and falls upon Saul of Benjamin, who,
however, is not at first unanimously accepted (x. 17-270). About
a month later (x. 276; see Revised Version, margin), Saul with
Samuel (xi. 7) leads an army of Israel and Judah to deliver
Jabesh-Gilead from the Ammonites, and is now recognized as
king. Samuel in a farewell address formally abdicates his office,
reviews the past history, and, after convincing the people of the
responsibility they had incurred in choosing a king, promises
to remain always their intercessor (xii., cf. Jer. xv. i). So,
according to one view, Samuel's death marks a vital change in
the fortunes of Israel (xxv. i, xxviii. 3, 6, 15). But, according
to an earlier account, instead of a state of peace after the defeat
of the Philistines (vii. 14) the people groan under their yoke, and
the position of Israel moves Yahweh to pity. Samuel is a local
seer consulted by Saul, and is bidden by Yahweh to see in the
youth the future ruler. Saul is privately anointed and receives
various signs as proof of his new destiny (ix. i-x. 16). Despite
the straitened circumstances of Israel, an army is mustered, a
sudden blow is struck at the Philistines, and, as before, super-
natural assistance is at hand. The Hebrews who had fled across
the Jordan (xiii. 7), or who had sought refuge in caverns (xiii. 6,
xiv. n), or had joined the enemy (xiv. 21), rallied together and
a decisive victory is obtained. That these two accounts are
absolutely contradictory is now generally recognized by Biblical
scholars, and it is to the former (and later) of them that the simple
story of Samuel's youth at Shiloh will belong. Next we find that
Samuel's interest on behalf of the Israelite king is transferred
to David, the founder of the Judaean dynasty, and it is his
part to announce the rejection of Saul and Yahweh's new
decision (xiii. 76-150, xv. 10-35, xxviii. 17), to anoint the young
David, and, as head of a small community of prophets, to
protect him from the hostility of Saul (xvi. 1-13, xix. 18-24).
All these features in the life of Samuel reflect the varying traditions
regarding a figure who, like Elijah and Elisha, held an important
place in N. Israelite history. That he was an Ephrathite and lived
at Ramah may only be due to the incorporation of one cycle of
specifically local tradition; the name of his grandfather Jeroham
(or Jeraljmeel, so Septuagint) suggests a southern origin, and one
may compare the relation between Saul and the Kenites (i Sam.
xy. 6) or Jehu and the Rechabites (2 Kings x. 15). But, although
his great victory in I Sam. vii. may imply that he was properly a
secular jeader, comparable to Othniel, Gideon or Jephthah (see
i Sam. xii. 1 1 , cf . Heb. xi. 32) , the idea of non-hereditary rulers over
all Israel in the pre-monarchical age is a later theory (see JUDGES).
However, so epoch-making an event as the institution of the monarchy
naturally held a prominent place in later ideas and encouraged the
growth of tradition. The Saul who became the first king of N.
Israel must needs be indebted to the influence of the propnet (cf.
Jehu in 2 Kings ix.). While the figure of Samuel grows in grandeur,
the disastrous fate of Saul invited explanation, which is found in his
previous acts of disobedience (i Sam. xv., xxviii. 16-18; cf. Ahab,
1 Kings xx. 35-43). Further, while on the one side the institution
of the monarchy is subsequently regarded as hostile to the pre-
eminence of Yahweh, Samuel's connexion with the history of David
belongs to a relatively late stage in the history of the written tradi-
tions where events are viewed from a specifically Judaean aspect.
Samuel's name ultimately becomes a by-word for the inauguration
and observance of religious custom (see I Chron. ix. 22, xxvi. 28,
2 Chron. xxxv. 18, Ps. xcix. 6, Ecclus. xlvi. 13 sqq.). According to
the late post-exilic genealogies he was of Levitical origin (i Chron.
vi. 28, 33). See further DAVID; SAMUEL, BOOKS OF; SAUL.
(S. A. C.)
SAMUEL OF NEHARDEA, usually called MAR SAMUEL or
YARHINAI (c. i(>$-c. 257), Babylonian Rabbi, was born in
Nahardea in Babylonia and died there c. 257. He is associated
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF
121
with the fame of his great contemporary Rab (Abba Araka
q.v.). Besides his mastery in the traditional Law, which added
much to the growing reputation of the Rabbinic Academy of
his native town, Samuel was famed for his scientific attainments.
In particular his knowledge of astronomy was profound, and he
was one of the first to compile a Calendar of the Jewish year,
thus preparing the way for the fixation of the festivals by means
of scientific calculations. But Samuel's fame rests on the
service which he rendered in adapting the life of the Jews of the
diaspora to the law of the land. " The law of the State is binding
law," was the principle which Samuel enunciated, here carrying
to its logical outcome the admonition of Jeremiah. When the
king of Persia, Shapur, captured Mazaca-Caesarea, the Cappa-
docian capital, Samuel refused to mourn for the 12,000 Jews
who lost their lives in its defence. As Graetz says: " To Jeremiah
and Mar Samuel Judaism owes the possibility of existence in a
foreign country."
See Graetz, History of the Jews (English translation), vol. ii.
ch. xix. (I. A.)
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF, two books of the Old Testament, which
in the Jewish canon are ranked among the Former Prophets
(Joshua- Kings), in contrast to the Latter Prophets
r. Post- (Isaiah-Malachi). The division into two (like the two
aontents. Hebrew books of Kings) follows the Septuagint and
the Vulgate, whose four books of " kingdoms "
correspond to the Hebrew books of Samuel and Kings. Both
Samuel and Kings, like Judges, are made up of a series of extracts
and abstracts from various sources, worked over from time to
time by successive editors, and freely handled by copyists down
to a comparatively late date, as is shown by the numerous
and often important variations between the Hebrew text and
the Greek version (Septuagint) . The main redaction of Judges
and Kings was made under the influence of the ideas which
characterize Deuteronomy, that is, after the reforms ascribed
to Josiah (2 Kings xxiii.) ; but in Samuel the " Deuteronomistic "
hand is much less prominent and the chronological system which
runs through Judges and Kings occurs only sporadically. The
book of Samuel completes the history of the " judges " of Israel,
(nth century B.C.), and begins by relating the events which
led to the institution of the monarchy under Saul, the part played
by Samuel being especially prominent (i Sam. i.-xiv.). The
interest is then transferred to David, the founder of the Judaean
dynasty, and his early life is narrated with great wealth of detail.
As Saul loses the divine favour, David's position advances
until, after the death of Saul and the overthrow of Israel, he
gains the allegiance of a disorganized people (i Sam. xv.-2 Sam.
iv.), and Jerusalem becomes the centre of his empire (v.-viii.)
c. 1000 B.C. A more connected narrative is now given of
the history of David (ix.-xx.) , which is separated from the account
of his death and Solomon's accession (i Kings i. ii.) by an appendix
of miscellaneous contents (xxi.-xxiv.). Three lines of interest
are to be recognized: (a) that naturally taken by Israel (the
northern kingdom) in the history of its first king, Saul; (6)
the leading position of the prophets in the political and religious
events; and (c) the superiority of the Judaean dynasty, a feature
of paramount importance in the study of a book which has come
ultimately through Judaean hands. (On the ambiguity of the
name " Israel," see JEWS, 5.)
Proof of the diversity of sources is found in the varying character
of the narratives (historical, romantic, &c.); in the different literary
styles (annalistic, detailed and vivid, Deuteronomic) ; in the represen-
tation of different standpoints and tastes; in the concluding sum-
maries, I Sam. xiv. 47-51 compared with xv., 2 Sam. viii. compared
with x.; in the double lists in 2 Sam. viii. 15-18, xx. 23-26, &c.
The religious views are so varied that a single writer or even a single
age cannot be postulated; note especially I Sam. xv. 22 seq. con-
trasted with the use of teraphim in xix. 13, and the different con-
ceptions of Yahweh (i Sam. xii. 21 seq., xv. 22 and xxvi. 19, &C.). 1
1 It is of course necessary to note carefully whether the religious
ideas have any real chronological value. Thus, I Sam. xvii. 36,
46 seq. contain ideas of Yahweh characteristic of exilic and post-exilic
writings (see T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib. col. 1755), but no proof of an
early date is furnished by xxvi. 196 (cf. Ruth i. 16, I Kings xx. 23,
2 Kings xvii. 26 seq.) ; or 2 Sam. xxiv. I (cf. I Kings xxii. 20, Ezek.
xiv. 9;, or 2 Sam. xxi. i (note drought as the punishment for not
Unsystematic additions appear to have been made from time to
time on a considerable scale, and we not seldom find two accounts
of the same events which not only differ in detail but are certainly
of very different date. Thus, the saying " Is Saul also among the
prophets?" (i Sam. x. 12) finds another explanation in xix. 18-24,
where Samuel holds a new position as head of a community of
prophets and the words are adapted to an incident in the history of
David, who flees north (not south) and is wondrously preserved.
The episode, with the interview between Saul and Samuel, and
with its interesting attitude to Saul and to the prophets, was evi-
dently unknown to the writer of xv. 35. Other and more profound
differences relating to the rise of the monarchy (2), the career of
Saul ( 3) and David's conquest of Jerusalem ( 4) represent irre-
concilable historical background.
The first part of the book is concerned with Samuel and Saul.
The introductory account (i.-iv. ia) of the birth, dedication and
calling of the young prophet Samuel is a valuable 2 . lastHa-
picture of religious life at the sanctuary at Shiloh. tion of
It is connected by the prophecy of the punishment themon-
of the house of Eli (iii. 1 1 sqq.) with the defeat of the * rcby -
Israelites by the Philistines at Ebenezer near Aphek, the loss of
the ark (iv. 16-22), and its subsequent fortunes (v.-vii. i). A
Philistine oppression of twenty years ends when Samuel, here
the recognized " judge " of Israel, gains a great victory at
Ebenezer near Mizpah (vii.) . But the overthrow of the Philistines
is also ascribed to Saul (xiv.), there is no room for both in the
history of the prophet (see vii. 14), and it is now generally
recognized that two conflicting representations have been com-
bined. In one (a) Samuel, after his victory, continues to rule
peacefully as a theocratic judge over the Israelites, the people
demand a king, and although their request is viewed as hostile
to the worship of Yahweh the tribes are summoned at Mizpah
and the sacred lot falls upon Saul of Benjamin (vii. viii. x.
17-27). But in the other (J) the Philistines have occupied the
heart of the land, the Israelites are thoroughly disorganized,
and their miserable condition moves Yahweh to send as a deliverer
the otherwise unknown Saul, who is anointed by Samuel, a seer
of local renown (ix. i-x. 16, xiii. xiv.). The conclusion of the
former is found in Samuel's farewell address (xii.) and the entire
representation of Samuel's position, Saul's rise, and the character-
istic attitude towards the monarchy (viii. 7, x. 19, xii. 12, cf.
Deut. xvii. 14-20, Judg. viii. 22 seq., Hos. viii. 4, xiii. n), separate
it sharply from the relatively fragmentary narrative in (4);
see further SAMUEL. The former, now predominating, account
(a) is that of the Deuteronomic school, and, although a runn-
ing narrative, appears on closer inspection to be based upon
earlier sources of different origin. The account of Eli, Shiloh
and the ark (i.-iii.) is the tiatural prelude to iv.-vii. i, where,
however, we lose sight of Samuel and the prophecy. The
punishment of Eli and his sons (iv.) becomes a passing interest,
and the fate of the ark is by no means so central an idea as its
wonder-working in the Philistine territory. Moreover, the sequel
of the defeat in iv. is not stated, although other allusions to the
fall of Shiloh (Jer. vii. 12-15, xxvi. 6 9> Ps - Ixxviii. 60 sqq.),
and the subsequent reappearance of the priestly family at Nob
(xxi. seq.) have led most scholars to the conclusion that a fuller
account of the events must have been extant. A narrative of
Eli and the priesthood of Shiloh has probably been used to form
an introduction to Samuel's victory (vii.), and it has been supple-
mented partly by the account of the early life of the future
prophet and judge (note the present abrupt introduction of Eli
in i. 3) and partly by narratives of the history of the ark (v.
seq.). That this section was handled at a relatively late period
is clear not only from the presence of the Deuteronomic prophecy
in ii. 27-36 (see 6), but also from the insertion of Hannah's
psalm (ii. i-io) the prototype of the " Magnificat " a post-
exilic passage, " probably composed in celebration of some
national success" (Driver), the present suitability of which
rests upon the interpretation placed on verse 5.
For the more fragmentary account of Saul's rise (ix. I-x. 16, xfii.
2-70, 156-23, xiv. 1-47), see above, page 194. Chapter xi., where he
leads Israel and Judah to the rescue of their kinsmen of Jabesh-Gilead,
rebuilding the temple, Hag.'i. ; or for not attending the feast of
Tabernacles, Zech. xiv. 16-19).
122
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF
represents a situation which belongs to (a) rather than to the state
of chaos represented in (6) ; it describes how the newly-elected king
proved his worth (cf. x. 27, xi. 12 seq.). The compiler has used a
story in which Saul is a private individual of Gibeah, whither the
messengers came in the course of their mission (xi. 4 seq.). This
valuable narrative is of quite distinct origin. Further, Samuel's
speech includes himself among the past judges (xii. II, cf. vii.), and
refers to an Ammonite invasion (v. 12). The latter finds no place
in the present history, although the local story of Jephthah's de-
liverance of Gilead (Judg. xi.) has been treated as the occasion of a
general Ammonite oppression, which leads to an Israelite gathering,
also at Mizpah (Judg. x. 7, 9, 17). For other evidence of com-
positeness in this section, see A. Lods, Etudes de thkologie (Paris,
1901), pp. 259-284, and below, 6.
Saul. Saul's reign is introduced in xiii. i where a blank
has been left for his age at accession (some MSS. insert " thirty ") ;
the duration of his reign is also textually uncertain.
kingdom The formula is parallel to that in 2 Sam. ii. 10 seq.,
of Saul. v. 4 seq., and frequently in the Book of Kings, with the
additional feature that the age at accession, there
usually confined to the Judaean kings, is here given for the
Israelite Saul and his son Ishbosheth (i.e. Ishbaal) . The summary
in xiv. 47 sqq. is evidently by an admirer; it is immediately
followed by a reference to the continuous Philistine warfare
(v. 52, contrast vii. 13) which forms an introduction to the life
of David. This summary gives a picture of Saul's ability and
position which differs so markedly from the subsequent more
extensive narratives of David's history that its genuineness has
sometimes been questioned; nevertheless it is substantiated
by the old poem quoted from the Book of Jashar in 2 Sam. i.
19-27, and a fundamental divergence in the traditions may be
assumed. Similarly in 2 Sam. ii. 8-ioa, the length of Ishbaal's
reign conflicts with the history of David (ii. ii and iv. i-v. 3),
and the reorganization of (north) Israel with the aid of Abner
does not accord with other traditions which represent David
as the deliverer of (all?) Israel from the Philistine yoke (iii.
18, xix. 9). But ii. 8-ioa, in common with i Sam. xiii. i, xiv.
47-51 (cf. also the introduction in i Sam. vii. 2 and the con-
clusion vii. 15-17), are of a literary character different from the
detailed narratives; the redactional or annalistic style is notice-
able, and they contain features characteristic of the annals
which form the framework of Kings. 1 In Kings the Israelite
and Judaean records are kept carefully separate and the in-
dependent standpoint of each is at once obvious. Here, however,
much complication arises from the combination of traditions
of distinct origin: independent records of Saul having been
revised or supplemented by writers whose interest lay in David.
Little old tradition of Saul is preserved. The disastrous over-
throw of Israel in the north (xxxi.) finds its explanation in an
interview with the dead Samuel (xxviii. 3-25, here a famous
prophet), where the Israelite catastrophe is foreshadowed, and
Saul learns that he has lost the favour of Yahweh, and that his
kingdom will pass to David (w. 16-19). Allusion is made to his
campaign against Amalek (mentioned in xiv. 48 apparently as
an active enemy), the story of which contains another denuncia-
tion and again a reference to the coming supremacy of David
(xv. 28). This peculiar treatment of Saul's history by writers of
the prophetical school (cf. Ahab in i Kings xx. 35-43) has been
adapted to the life of David, and the Amalekite war (i Sam.
xv.) is now the prelude to the anointing of the youth of Bethlehem
by Samuel (xvi. i sqq.) . Yet another account of Saul's rejection
is found in xiii. 8-14, even before his defeat of the Philistines,
and Saul is warned of the impending change (cf. v. 13 seq. with
2 Sam. vii. 11-16). But the incident was evidently unkndWn
to the author of chap, xv., and in this subordination of the history
of Saul to that of David, in the reshaping of writings by specifically
Judaean hands, we have a preliminary clue to the literary growth
of the book.
The unambiguous allusions in xiii. 13 seq., xv 26-28, and the
anointing of David by Samuel in xvi. are ignored in the narratives of
the relations between David and Saul, of whose first meeting two
1 Characteristic expressions of Deuteronomic writers are found in
I Sam. xiv. 47 seq. (cp. Judg. ii. 14 sqq.); similarly in the (north)
Israelite writer in 2 Kings xiii. 3 sqq. (see KINGS).
contradictory accounts are given (contrast xvi. 21 sqq. and xvii.
55 sqq.). The independent stories of David place him in the south of
Judah, an outlaw with a large following, or a vassal of the Philistines ;
and his raids upon south Judaean clans are treated as attacks upon
Saul's kingdom (xxvii. 10-12). But the earlier stages are extremely
confused. Two very similar narratives describe Saul's pursuit of
David in the Judaean desert (xxiv. xxvi.) 2 The main points are
Saul's confession and his recognition that David would prevail
(xxvi. 21-25); the latter is more emphatic when he foresees that
David will gain the kingdom of Israel and he adjures him to spare
his seed (xxiv. 20-22). This last feature is prominent in xxiii. 15-18
(the prelude to xxiv.), where a passage is inserted to describe the
covenant between David and Saul's son Jonathan. The account
of David's flight is equally intricate. The tradition that David slew
Goliath, brought his head to Jerusalem, and deposited his sword in
Nob (xvii., cf. xxi. 9, xxii. 10) is incompatible with the simpler notice
in 2 Sam. xxi. 19 (i Chron. xx. 5 seeks to avoid the discrepancy);
and even if the name Goliath be a later addition to the story of some
great exploit (A. R. S. Kennedy, Sam., pp. 122, 149), or a descriptive
title (W. E. Barnes, Chron., p. 104), it is surely difficult, on historical
grounds, to reconcile David's recurring fights with the Philistines
with his subsequent escape from Saul to Achish of Gath (xxvii.;
already anticipated in xxi. 10-15); see further 6. Saul's jealousy,
however, is in some way kindled, and there is already a hint at
David's succession (xviii. 8 sqq., Septuagint omits 10 seq.). The
stories of Merab (xviii. 17-19) and Michal (w. 20 sqq.) are duplicate,
and a number of internal difficulties throughout are only partially
removed in the shorter text of the Septuagint. In xx. David has
realized Saul's hatred ; but Jonathan scarcely credits it, although in
xix. 1-7 Saul had instructed his attendants to slay the youth and his
son had effected a reconciliation. This is ignored also in xix. 8-10
(cf. xviii. 10 seq., xx. 31 sqq.), and again in vs. 11-17 where David is
saved by Michal his wife (see xxv. 44), and in w. 18-24 (David with
Samuel, see i end). Even in xx. the urgent preparations for flight
are delayed in w. 11-17, where Jonathan entreats David's kindness
for his descendants (see 2 Sam. ix. I, below), and again in m. 40-42,
where the second meeting with a renewal of the covenant stultifies
the preceding plans.'
David. All the stories of the relations between the founders
of the respective monarchies are so closely interwoven that the
disentanglement of distinct series of narratives is a
task of the greatest difficulty. 4 They reflect in varying
forms the popular interest in David and are of the of David.
greatest value in illustrating current traditions, thought
and styles of literature. Apart from the more detailed and con-
tinuous history, there are miscellaneous passages in 2 Sam. v.-viii.,
with introduction (v. 1-3), and a concluding chapter rounding
off his reign (viii.). A similar collection in xxi.-xxiv. severs
the narratives in ix.-xx. from David's death in i Kings i.-ii.
Their contents range over all periods, from the Amalekite war
(viii. 12, cf. i Sam. xxx.) to David's "last words" (xxiii. i,
but see i Kings i. and ii. i). In particular they narrate the
capture of Jerusalem from the Jebusites (v. 6-10) and other
fights in that district as far as Gezer (w. 17-25), the purchase of
land from a Jebusite for the erection of an altar (xxiv.; see
i Chron. xxi.-xxii. i, 2 Chron. iii. i), and the remarkable story
of the pacification of the Gibeonites (xxi. 1-14). With the
conflicts in v. are closely connected the exploits in xxi. 15 sqq.,
xxiii. 8 sqq., and the probability of some disarrangement is
supported by the repetition of the list of officials in viii. 15-18
and xx. 23-26, which many scholars (after Budde) attribute to
the later insertion of ix.-xx. 22. On this view, at an earlier
stage the two groups v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv. were contiguous though
1 It Is difficult to decide which is the older; for xxvi. see especially
M. Lohr, 5am., p. xiv.; H. Gressmann, Schrifien d. A. T., od loc";
lor xxiv. see W. W. Guth, Journ. of Bibl. Lit. (1906), pp. 114 sqq.
1 The keen interest in Jonathan is also conspicuous at the very
commencement of Saul's career, where the youth (in ix. Saul himseff
appears to be represented as an inexperienced youth) is the centre
of the narrative (see xiii. 3, xiv. 1-14, 17, 21, 27-45), rather than the
father who now achieves the task to which he was called by Yahweh.
But the revision has been too complicated for any satisfactory dis-
cussion of the literary stages.
On the attempts (especially of K. Budde, Richter u. Samuel,
1890, and elsewhere) to recover here the Yahwistic (or Judaean)
and Elohistic (or Ephraimite) sources of the Hexateuch, see the
criticisms of B. Stade, Theolog. Lit. Zeitung (1896), No. I; Steuer-
'
nagel, ib. (1903), No. 17; W. Riedel, Theol. Lit. Blatt (1904), No. 3,
col. 28; also H. P. Smith, Journ. Bibl. Lit., 15 (1896), pp. 1-8;
and W. W. Guth, Die dltere Schicht in den Erzdhlungen iiber Saul u.
David (1904) ; and " Unity of the Older Saul-David Narratives " (see
note 2 above).
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF
123
not necessarily in their present form or order. 1 Budde's further
conclusion that i Kings i. ii. 1-9, 13 sqq. were likewise wanting
(Sam. p. xi.) is also valuable, since (a) 2 Sam. v.-viii. (with
xxi.-xxiv.) finds its natural continuation, on the analogy of
the Deuteronomic compiler's framework in Kings, in i Kings ii.
10-12, iii. 2, and (b) i Kings v. 3 seq. (also Deuteronomic) explicitly
points back to the summary of the wars in 2 Sam. viii. It is
commonly recognized that the compiler of 2 Sam. v.-viii. has
wrongly placed after the capture of Jerusalem (v. 6 sqq.) the
conflict with the Philistines (v. 17 sqq.), where the " hold" is
not Zion but some place of retreat, perhaps Adullam (cf. xxiii.
14). This being so, the conflicts in xxi. 15 sqq., xxiii. 8 sqq.,
which are located around Gath, Lehi (so read xxiii. ii), Pas-
dammim (so v. 9; see i Chron. xi. 13), Bethlehem, and the
valley of Rephaim, should also precede the occupation of
Jerusalem and the subsequent partition of territory among
David's sons and others (e.g. xiii. 23, near Bethel). These
passages combine to furnish a representation of the events
leading to the capture of the capital which is distinct from and
now superseded by the detailed narratives in ii. i2-iv. Here,
Ishbaal is east of the Jordan, David's men are engaged in fighting
Benjamin and Israel even at Gibeon (about 6 m. N.W. of
Jerusalem), the interest of the history is in David's former
relations with Israel at Saul's court, and he is regarded as the
future deliverer of the oppressed people. These stories are, in
fact, of a stamp with the detailed narratives already noticed
( 3)1 an d they conflict with the fragmentary traditions of
David's steps to Jerusalem as seriously as the popular narratives
of Saul conflicted with older evidence. But already Josh. ix.
17, xv. 63; Judg. i. 21, 29, 35, xix. 10-12; 2 Sam. v. 6 (cf.
xxi. 2), indicate the presence of a line of ab'en cities including
Jerusalem itself, and would point to an important alien district,
the existence of which obviously bears upon the trustworthiness
of the group of narratives encircling Bethlehem of Judah and
Gibeah of Benjamin, the traditional homes of David and Saul. 2
On the other hand, this would ignore the representation of
(north) Israelite extension over Judah by Joshua and Saul, 3
and it may be inferred that we have to allow for absolutely
different and conflicting standpoints in regard to the history
of the district, and that the Judaean traditions of David once
had their own independent account of the occupation of Jeru-
salem and its neighbourhood. The fragments preserved in
2 Sam. v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv. are quite distinct from ii. i2-iv.;
they throw another light upon David's relations to Saul's family
(xxi. 1-14); and the stories of heroic conflicts with giant-like
figures of Gath, &c. (xxiii. 9 seq., 18, cf. i Chron. xi. ii, 20) find
no place by the side of the more detailed records of David's
sojourn under the protection of a king of Gath, one of a confeder-
ation of Philistine cities (i Sam. xxvii., xxix.). It is probable that
popular stories of the conquest of the earlier inhabitants have
been applied to the Philistines; their general character associates
them with the legends of the " sons of Anak " who enter into
Judaean (perhaps originally Calebite) tradition elsewhere
(Num. xiii. 22; Josh. xi. 21 seq., xv. 14; see Budde, Sam.,
p. 310 seq.). 4 Several intricate literary problems however at
1 Cornill, Nowack, Stenning and Kennedy (see Literature, below)
accept Budde's suggestion that ix. xx. were inserted by a hand later
than the first Deuteronomic editor of viii.; but the further as-
sumption that this editor had deliberately omitted ix.-xx. from
his edition cannot be proved, and deals with a literary stage too
early for any confident opinion or even for any critical investigation
of value.
" Jerusalem " in i Sam. xvii. 54 is usually treated as an ana-
chronism, because of its occupation by the Jebusites, and Kirjath-
jearim (vii. 1,2, perhaps Kiryat el-Enab, 9 m. W. of Jerusalem) is
commonly admitted to be in alien hands. But it is clear that Nob
(i Sam. xxi. seq.), about 2 m. N. of the capital, on this view, was
scarcely an Israelite city, yet the presence of the priests of Shiloh
there is essential to the present structure of the book.
3 For Joshua, see the older portions of Josh, x., and for Saul,
I Sam. xiv. 47-51 (his wars), xv. 4 (his Judaean army), xvii. 54
(Jerusalem), xxvii. 7-12 (south Judaean clans under Israelite suze-
rainty) and 2 Sam. i. 12 (Septuagint).
4 For this cf. the " Anakim " of Gaza, Gath and Ashdod, &c.,
in Josh. xi. 21 seq., with the " Philistine " lords, ib. xiii. 3, and see
PHILISTINES.
once arise in connexion with the two series v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv.,
and ix.-xx., since, apart from their earlier literary growth as
distinct units, they have undergone some revision and alteration
when compilers brought them into their present form.
The story of David and Bathsheba, an incident placed in the
account of the Ammonite campaign, upon which it now depends
(x.-xii.; with x. 15-19 cf. viii. 3-8), connects itself through the pro-
phecy in xii. 10-12 with the subsequent family feuds, in particular
with Absalom's rebellion (cf. xvi. 21 seq.), and again with I Kings i.,
where Adonijah's revolt rouses Bathsheba to persuade David to
fulfil some promise of his to recognize her young son Solomon as his
heir (i. 13, 17, 21, 29 seq.). The section is an admirable specimen of
historiography. The whole is closely linked together for an ostensible
purpose, a chronological scheme runs throughout (xiii. 23, 38, xiv.
28 and xv. 7),* and the section concludes with an account both of
David's death and of Solomon's accession (see further SOLOMON).
But 2 Sam. x ii. 10-12 is an insertion (Wellhausen, Cornill, Kittel, &c.),
even if xii. 1-150 itself be not of secondary origin (Winckler, Schwally,
H. P. Smith, Nowack, Budde, Dhorme) ; and of the related passages,
xv. 1 6 is a gloss (Budde), on xx. 3 see below, and the authenticity of
xvi. 21-23 in its present context is not beyond doubt (see also
AHITHOPHEL). Although xxi. 1-14 and ix. are of entirely distinct
standpoints, 6 both are presupposed in xvi. 5-14, xix. 16-23, a "d in
xvi; 1-4, xix. 24-30 respectively; the gloss xxi. 7 evidently dates
after the insertion of ix., while the opening words of ix. I point back,
not to xxi. which is ignored, but rather to iv., from which it is
now severed by the miscellaneous group of passages in v. viii.' In
view of a few recognized signs of diverse origin (contrast xiv. 27 with
xviii. 18, and see Budde on xv. 24 sqq., xvii. 17), it is possible that
xvi. 1-14, xix. 16-30 are also secondary. In any case the new revolt
of Sheba (xx. 1-22), can hardly be the original sequel to Absalom's
rebellion (Winckler, H. P. Smith, B. Luther, E. Meyer); there is no
historical prelude to i Kings i. (note the opening verse, David's old
age, and cf. 2 Sam. xxiii. i), and the literary introduction to the story
of Sheba is to be found in the closing scene of xix., apparently at the
point where David returns to the Jordan on his way to Gilgal (r. 40).*
It is to be noticed that the murder of Amasa (xx. 8 sqq.) is parallel to
that of Asahel (ii. 12 sqq.), and the two (now preceding the separate
groups v.-viii. and xxi.-xxiv.) are closely associated in i Kings ii. 5.
The miscellaneous groups, v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv., are also certainly not
in their original form. The introduction in v. 1-3 is twofold (r. 3
and the incomplete v. i seq.), and the list in iii. 2-5 (note the resuming
link v. 6 after v. i) is similar in character to that in v. 13-16, and
has probably been removed from the context of the latter (cf.
i Chron. iii. 1-8). The presence of a late hand is also proved by the
psalm in xxii. (Ps. xviii.) and by David's " last words, which sever
xxi. 15-22 and xxiii. 8 sqq. These in turn part two related narratives
in xxi. 1-14 and xxiv., and the latter (with which note the divergent
features in I Chron. xxi.) shows several signs of later origin or re-
vision. Chap. vii. is to be read in the light of i Kings v. 3-5, viii.
14 sqq., all Deuteronomic passages, though not of one stamp. Con-
tinuous warfare prevented the building of the temple (i Kings v.
3-5, cf. 2 Sam. viii.), and D_avid's proposal to erect a house to Yahweh
seems unnecessary after vi. 17 seq.; but vii. i, 9, in_fact, presuppose
ch. viii., and the main object of the narrative is to emphasize
Yahweh's promise to build David's house, i.e. his dynasty, vii. is
connected with i Kings viii. but an important variation (v. 16
contrast 2 Sam. vii. 6-8) illustrates the complexity of the Deutero-
nomic sources. It is important to notice that, as in the account of
the temple in the history of Solomon, the introduction to it in these
chapters (2 Sam. vi. seq.) divides miscellaneous though closely-
related material (see KINGS). On their prelude in I Sam. vi. see
below, 6.
Thus, the account of David's conflicts with giant heroes and
the conquest of Jerusalem and its district seems to belong to a
cycle of Judaean tradition (cf. Num. xiii. 22, 28; s.Nam-
Josh. xi. 21, xv. 14), which has been almost superseded tvea of
by other traditions of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy Sauiand
and by the more popular narratives of early relations
between the Judaean David and the (north) Israelite king and
8 In xv. 7 we must read four {or forty (the vow in this verse refers
to Absalom's exile some years previously).
6 On this and on the character of the detailed narratives in general,
see B. Luther in E. Meyer, Israelite*, u. ihre Nachbarstamme, pp.
184-199. See, generally, the studies by W. Caspar!, Aufkommen v.
Krise d. israel. Konigtums unter David (1909) and Theol. Stud. u. Krit.
(1909), pp. 317 sqq., 619 sqq.; and also H. Gressmann (Literature,
below).
7 Chap. ix. belongs to the joint traditions of David and Saul (cf.
ii. 5-iv.); v. 13, which presupposes chap, v., appears to be an
addition (see H. P. Smith, Dhorme).
8 xix. 40 (all Judah and hal Israel) resumes v. 15 (where Israel
is not mentioned). For the view that Absalom's revolt originally
concerned Judah alone, see the related section in DAVID. Dhorme,
it may be observed, finds in ix.-xx. another source for x. 1-14, xii. 1-150,
xv. 1-6, 10, 24-26, 29, xvi. 5-14, xvii. 27-29, xix. 16-23 and xx. 1-22..
124
SAMUEL, BOOKS OF
people. The persistent emphasis upon such features as the
rejection of Saul, his enmity towards David, the latter's chivalry,
and his friendship for Jonathan, will partly account for the present
literary intricacies; and, on general grounds, traditions of quite
distinct origin (Calebite or Jerahmeelite; indigenous Judaean;
North Israelite or Benjamitey are to be expected in a work now
in post-exilic form. 1 David's history is handled independently
of Saul in i Sam. xxv.; and the narrative, now editorially
connected with the context (v. i, see xxviii. 3, and . 44, see
2 Sam. iii. 15), gives a valuable picture of his life in the south
of Palestine. 2 With this notice his relations with south Judaean
cities in xxx. 26-31. His flight northwards to the Philistine king
of Gath (xxvii.) is hardly connected with the preceding situations
in xxiv. 17-22, xxv. or xxvi. 21-25, a-nd his previous slaughter
of the Philistines at Keilah (xxiii. 1-15) raises historical difficulties.
This is not to mention his earlier successes over the same people,
which are very explicitly ignored in xxix. 5, although the famous
couplet there quoted now finds its only explanation in xviii. 7
after the death of Goliath and the defeat of the Philistines.
The traditions of varying relations between Judah and the
Philistines attached to David (cf. xxvii. 5 seq.) are quite distinct
from the popular stories of giants of Gath, and now form part of
the joint history of David and Saul. The independent narratives
of the latter's fate seem to represent one of those disastrous
attacks upon the north which are familiar in the later history of
the northern kingdom (xxviii. 4, xxix; see JEWS: History, 12).
The geographical data are confused by the stories of David
(see i Sam. xxviii. 4, xxix. i, and the commentaries), and, while
the " Philistines " for once march north to Jezreel to deliver
their attack, David's presence is not discovered until Aphek is
reached (xxix.) . His journey is the opportunity for an Amalekite
raid (xxx. cf. xxvii. 8 seq.), and this new defeat of Amalek,
ascribed to David, proves a more successful undertaking than that
which led to the rejection of Saul (xv. 20 seq. 26-28). Similarly,
Saul's disaster leaves Israel again in the hands of the " Philis-
tines " (xxxi. 7, cf. xiii. 6 seq.), and it is for David to save the
people of Israel out of their hands (2 Sam. iii. 18, cf. i Sam. ix.
16).' The sequel to the joint history has another version of
Saul's death (2 Sam. i. 6-10, 13-16), and an Amalekite is the
offender; contrast his death in i. 15 seq. with iv. 10 seq. The
chapter explains the transference of the royal insignia from
Israel to Judah. Here is quoted (from the " Book of Jashar ")
the old poetical lament over the death of the valiant
friends Saul and Jonathan, describing their successful warlike
career, the wealth they brought the people, and the vivid sense
of national misfortune (i. 19-27). It is utilized for the history of
David, to whom its authorship is attributed. In general, it
appears that those narratives wherein the histories of Saul and
David are combined very much in the favour of the latter
were originally distinct from those where (a) Saul's figure is more
in accord with the old poem from the Book of Jashar, and
(b) where David's victories over prehistoric giants and his war-
like movements to Jerusalem pave the way for the founda-
tion from a particular Judaean standpoint of his remarkably
long dynasty.
The literary problems of the books pi Samuel are those of the
writing of the history of the monarchies from different points of
6 Liter* v ' ew ! a "d the intimate connexion of the books with
aryana those that precede and follow shows that a careful cbn-
blstorkal s 'deration of the internal literary and historical features
problem* ' tnese a | so > s necessary. The first step is the recognition
of a specific Deuteronomic redaction in Joshua Kings,
an intricate process which extended into the post-exilic age. 4
Certain phenomena suggest that the first compilation was made
outside Judah in Israel, whereas others represent a Judaean
and anti-Israelite feeling. The close interconnexion of Judg. x.-
I Sam. xii. is as crucial as that of 2 Sam. v.-l Kings ii. The (probably
'The late genealogy of Saul in I Chron. viii. 29 sqq., ix. 35 sqq.,
is evidence for a keen interest in the Saulidae in post-exilic times.
* The chapter with the prophecy of Abigail may be of Calebite
origin.
1 So also, David's wars (2 Sam. viii.) bear a certain resemblance
to those of Saul ( I Sam. xiv. 47).
4 See G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib. " Historical Literature," 6 seq.
" Joshua,"- 5, II ; " Judges," 14.
Deuteronomic) framework of Israelite history in Kings can be traced
in Samuel, and it is a natural assumption that it should have gone
back beyond the time of Jeroboam I. While the detailed history
of Israelite kings and prophets in I Kings xvii.-2 Kings x. (Ahab
to Jehu) finds more developed parallels in the narratives of Saul and
Samuel, the peculiar treatment of the lives of David and Solomon
(Judaean kings over a united Israel) and of the division of the
monarchy has complicated the present sources. Although the
contents of 2 Sam. v.-viii., xxi.-xxiv., I Kings ii. 10-12, iii. 2, appear
to have been consecutive (in some form) at an earlier stage, the con-
nexion has been broken by ix.-xx., I Kings i. ii. 1-9, 13 sqq., and the
further vicissitudes can scarcely be recovered ; and while there are
clear signs of more than one Deuteronomic hand in the former
group, the latter shows in I Kings ii. 2-4 a Deuteronomic revision,
either of independent origin or in the combination of the sources in
their present form. Moreover, Samuel's farewell address (i Sam.
xii.) belongs to the Deuteronomic and later account of Saul's rise,
and closes the period of (a) the Israelite " judges " (see Judg. ii.
6-iii. 6, an extremely composite passage), and (b) the Ammonite and
Philistine oppression (ib. x. 6 sqq.). 6 The former follows upon
Joshua's two concluding speeches, one given by a Deuteronomic
writer in xxiii., and the other incorporated by another though similar
hand in xxiy. Although the pre-monarchical age is viewed as one of
kinglike " judges," the chiefs are rather local heroes (so Ehud,
Gideon, Jephthah), and the boisterous giant Samson (Judg. xiii.-
xvi.), and the religious leaders Eli and Samuel are " judges " from
other standpoints. Perplexity is caused, also, in the oldest account
of Saul's rise (i Sam. ix.) by the sudden introduction of a Philistine
oppression which cannot be connected with vii. 2-viii., or even
with i Sam. iv.-vii. I. 6 On the other hand, Judg. x. 6 sqq.
refers to a Philistine oppression which has no sequel. It may be
conjectured that there was an original literary connexion between
the two which has been broken by the insertion of traditions relating
to Samuel and Saul. 7 This finds support (a) in the internal evidence
for the later addition of Judg. xvii.-xxi., and of certain portions of
the opening chapters of I Samuel; (b) in the absence of any con-
tinuity in the intervening history ; and (c) in the material relation-
ship between portions of the highly composite Judg. x. 6 sqq. and the
rise of Saul. The literary processes thus involved find an analogy in
the original connexion between 2 Sam. v.-viii. and xxi.-xxiv., or
between Exod. xxxiii. seq. and Num. x. 29-36, xi. (see SAUL).
The section I Sam. iv.-vii. I forms the prelude to Samuel's great
victory and belongs to the history of Shiloh and the priesthood of Eli.
But the fall of this sanctuary scarcely belongs to this remote age
(nth century); it was sufficiently recent to serve as a warning to
Jerusalem in the time of Jeremiah (close of 7th century). This event
of supreme importance to north Israel (cf. Judg. xviii. 30 seq.) is
already connected with Samuel's prophecy in iii., but the latter is
strengthened by the Deuteronomic passage, ii. 27-36, which links the
disaster, not with the history of Samuel, but with the rise of the
Zadokite Levites of Jerusalem, and thus represents a specifically
Judaean standpoint. This is analogous to the Judaean adaptation of
the prophetical treatment of Saulls life, and it also reflects certain
priestly rivalries (see LEVITES). With the loss of Shiloh is explained
the appearance of the priests at Nob outside Jerusalem (xxi. i,
xxii. 9), which is followed by their massacre, the flight of Abiathar
(xxii.), and the transference of the sacred ephod to David (xxiii. 6).'
Here, however, the emphasis laid upon the ephod brought by
Abiathar, the survivor of the house of Eli (cf. ii. 28, xxi. 9), points
away from what was once a common object of cult to the late and post-
exilic restriction of its use to the Aaronite high priests (see EPHOD).
Moreover, according to i Kings ii. 26, Abiathar bore the ark, and
while some traditions traced its history to Shiloh, or even found it at
Bethel (Judg. xx. 27 seq.), others apparently ran quite another course,
associated it with southern clans ultimately settled in Judah, and
supposed that Jerusalem was its first resting-place. The author of
2 Sam. vii. 6 (cf. also I Chron. xxiii. 25 sq.) can scarcely have known
I Sam. i.-iii. with its temple at Shiloh, and although 2 Sam. vi. finds
its present prelude in i Sam. vi. 17 vii. i, that passage actually
brings the story of its fortunes to a close by relating the return of
the ark from Philistine territory to the care of Abinadaband Eleazar
at Kirjath-iearim (note the " Levitical " type of the names; Budde,
5am. p. 47). From Josh. ix. 17 (post-exilic source) it might indeed
be argued that the district was not under Israelite jurisdiction (see
Kennedy, 5am. p. 325 seq.), although to judge from the older
5 With the length of office in i Sam. iv. 1 8 (cf. vii. 15) compare
the similar notices in Judg. x. 2 seq., xii. 7 sqq., xv. 20, xyi. 31, and
with the length of oppression in vii. 2, cf. Judg. iii. 8, 14, iv. 3, vi. I,
x. 8, xiii. I.
Nowack, p. 39; Riedel, Theolog. Lit. Blatt (1904), No. 3, col. 28.
7 S. A. Cook, Critical Notes, p. 127 seq. (cf. Dhorme, Rev. Bibl.,
1908, p. 436; Godbey, Amer. Journ. Theol., 1909, p. 610).
8 Although writers sought to explain Saul's disastrous end (cf.
i Chron. x. 13), it is only Josephus (Ant. vi. 14, 9) who refers to the
atrocity at Nob. The significance of the tradition is unknown ; some
connexion with Saul's religious zeal at Gibeon has been conjectured
(2 Sam. xxi. 2). That the actual murderer was an Edomite may
perhaps be associated with other traditions of Edomite hostility.
SANA
125
traditions of Saul it was doubtless part of his kingdom. It may be
that the narrative (which presupposes some account of the fall of
Shiloh) is part of an attempt to co-ordinate different traditions of
the great palladium. 1
Consequently, the literary structure of the Book of Samuel is
throughout involved with a careful criticism of the historical tradi-
tions ascribed to the 1 1 th and beginning of the loth century
B.C. The perspective of the past has often been lost, earlier
views have been subordinated to later ones, conflicting
standpoints have been incorporated. The intricacy of the Deutero-
nomic redactions still awaits solution, and the late insertion of earlier
narratives (which have had their own vicissitudes) complicates the
literary evidence. Greater care than usual was taken to weave into
the canonical representation of history sources of diverse origin, and
it is scarcely possible at present to do more than indicate some of
the more important features in the composition of a book, one of the
most important of all for the critical study of biblical history and
theology.
The Hebrew text is often corrupt but can frequently be corrected
with the help of the Septuagint. The parallel portions in Chronicles
also sometimes preserve better readings, but must be used with
caution as they may represent other recensions or the result of
rewriting and reshaping. As a whole, Chronicles presents the period
from a later ecclesiastical standpoint, presupposing (in contrast to
Samuel) the fully developed " Mosaic " ritual (see CHRONICLES).
After tribal and priestly lists (i Chron. i.-ix.), Saul's end is suddenly
introduced (x., note v. 13 seq.). David appears no less abruptly, the
sequence being 2 Sam. v. 1-3, 6-10, xxiii. 8-39 (with additions, xi.
41-47, and a list of his supporters at Ziklag and Hebron). To
2 Sam. vi. 2-11 there is a " Levitical " prelude (xiii. 1-5), then follow
v. 11-25, and vi. 12-19, which is embedded in novel material. Next,
2 Sam. vii. seq., x., xi. I, xii. 30 seq., xxi. 18-22, and finally xxiv.
(Chron. xxi.). The last is the prelude to an account of the prepara-
tion for the temple and the future sovereignty of Solomon, and ends
with David's army and government (Chron. xxvii.), and his conclud-
ing acts (xxviii. seq.). The compiler was not ignorant of other
sources (see x. 13, xii. 19, 21, 23), and, in general, carries out, though
from a later standpoint, tendencies already manifest in Samuel. The
latter in fact is no less the result of editorial processes and since it is
now in post-exilic form, this is the starting-point for fresh criticism.
The representation of the remote past in Samuel must be viewed, there-
fore, in the light of that age when, after a series of vital internal and
external vicissitudes in Judah and Benjamin, Judaism established
itself in opposition to rival sects and renounced the Samaritans
who had inherited the traditions of their land. See further JEWS,
6-8, 20-23, PALESTINE: Old Test. History, pp. 614-616.
LITERATURE. See further the commentaries of M. Lohr (1898);
W. Nowack, K. Budde (1902); H. P. Smith in the International
Critical Commentary (1899), with his Old Testament History, pp. 107-
155, and the small but well-annotated edition of A. R. S. Kennedy
in the Century Bible (1905). All these give fuller bibliographical
information, for which see also S. R. Driver, Introduction to Literature
of Old Testament, and the articles by J. Stenning in Hastings's
Dictionary and B. Stade in Ency. Bib. For the text, see especially
J. Wellhausen's model Text-Bucher Sam. (1871); S. R. Driver, Text
of Samuel (1890); K. Budde's edition in Haupt's Sacred Books of
the Old Testament (1894); P. Dhorme, Limes de Samuel (1910). Of
special value for the psychological character of the various narratives
is H. Gressmann's Schriften d. A. T. in Auswahl, i.-iii. (Gottingen,
1909-1910). In so far as the present article takes other views of the
results of literary analysis in the light of historical criticism, see S. A.
Cook, American Journ. of Sent. Lang. (1900), pp. 145 sqq.; and
Critical Notes on Old Testament History (1907) (passim). (S. A. C.)
SANA (Sena a), a town in S. Arabia, the capital of the Turkish
vilayet of Yemen. It is situated in 15 22' N. and 44 10' E.
in a broad valley running nearly N. and S., 7250 ft. above
sea-level, on the E. slope of the great meridional range, over
which the road runs to Hodeda, on the Red Sea coast 130 m.
distant, crossing the Karn al Wa'l pass, over 9000 ft., about
25 m. W. of the city. The mean temperature of the year is
60 F., with a summer maximum of 77, and a regular rainfall
which falls chiefly during the S.W. monsoon from June to Sep-
tember. The usual cereals, fruits and vegetables of the temperate
zone, wheat, barley, apples, apricots, vines, potatoes, cabbages,
beans, &c., are abundant and excellent.
The town consists of three parts (i) the Medina, the old
city, now the Arab quarter, on the E. containing the principal
mosques, baths, &c., with the citadel, el Kasr, at its S.E. corner
at the foot of Jebel Nukum on the crest of which 2000 ft. above
the valley are the ruins of the old fort of el Birash, traditionally
attributed to Shem the son of Noah, and the Mutawakkil,
1 This is on the usual assumption that there was only one ark in
the history of Judah and Israel.
formerly containing the palace and gardens of the imams, cover-
ing its W. face; (2) the Bir Azab W. of the city, consisting of
detached houses and gardens, chiefly occupied by the higher
Turkish officials, and (3) on the extreme W. the Ka'el Yahud
or Jewish quarter. The city with the Kasr and Mutawakkil
is surrounded by ramparts built of clay and sun-dried brick,
25 to 30 ft. high and of great thickness. The Bir Azab and
Ka'el Yahud are enclosed in a similar enceinte but of more
recent construction, connected with that of the city by the
Mutawakkil; the whole forms a rough figure of eight, some
25 m. long from E. to W., and f m. in breadth. The walls are
pierced by several gates; the principal are the Bab esh Shu'b
and the Bab el Yemen in the N. and S. faces of the city respec-
tively, and the Bab es Sabah in its W. face leading into the
Mutawakkil, and thence by a broad street through the Bir Azab
and Ka'el Yahud to the Bab el Ka', the main entrance to the
town from the Hodeda road. The city itself has narrow, paved
streets, with massive, flat-roofed houses of several storeys, and
many extensive groups of buildings, mosques, serais and baths.
The Jami 'Masjid, or principal mosque, stands on the site of the
Christian church built by Abraha ruler of Yemen during the
period of Ethiopian domination, about A.D. 530. It consists
of a great rectangular courtyard paved with granite, surrounded
by a triple arcade, the domed roofs of which are supported by
numerous columns of stone or brick; in the centre there is
a model of the Ka'ba at Mecca covered with stone flags of
various colours arranged chequer-wise. Among the other
mosques, of which there are forty-eight in all, that of Salah
ed din with its beautiful minaret is one of the finest. Of the
Kasr Ghumdan and other ancient buildings, the splendours
of which were sung by the poets of the early days of Islam,
nothing but mutilated ruins remain; the old palace of the
imams, the Mutawakkil, was destroyed during the years of
anarchy preceding the Turkish occupation, and the site is
now occupied by a military hospital standing in well-kept
gardens. The houses consist generally of a ground floor built
of dressed stone, surmounted by two or three storeys of burnt
brick; as a rule the lower storey has no openings but an arched
doorway; the facade of the upper storeys is pierced by long
narrow window recesses, divided into three parts, the lowest
of which forms a square window closed by carved wooden
shutters, while the upper ones contain round or pointed windows
fitted with coloured glass, or thin slabslof alabaster which admit
a subdued light.
The valley in which Sana lies is generally^sterile, but in places
where water is brought from the hill streams on the W. fields
of barley, lucerne and market gardens are to be seen, particularly
at Randa, the garden suburb, 6 m. N. of the town, and in the
deep gorges of the Wadi Dhahr and.W. Hadda, the terraced
orchards of which are celebrated for their fine fruit-trees. The
water supply of the town is derived from numerous wells, and
from the Ghail Aswad, a small canal which supplies the military
cantonment outside and S. of the walls, and runs through the
gardens in the Mutawakkil.
The population was estimated by R. Manzoni in 1887 at
20,000 Arabs, 3000 Turks and 1700 Jews, or less than 25,000
altogether; H. Burchardt in 1891 put it at 50,000; the city
has, however, suffered severely from the state of unrest
which has been chronic in Yemen since 1893, and more particu-
larly in 1905, when it was taken by the insurgents, and held
by them for three months, and the actual numbers at present
do not probably exceed Manzoni's estimate.
Arabic writers give many discordant and fabulous traditions
about the oldest history of Sana and its connexion with the ancient
kingdom of Himyar. But most agree that its oldest name was Azal,
which seems to be the same word with Uzal in Gen. x. 27. A Himy-
arite nation of Auzalites occurs in a Syriac writer of the 6th century.
The better-informed Arab writers knew also that the later name is
due to the Abyssinian conquerors of Yemen, and that it meant in
their language " fortified " (Bakri, p. 606; Noldeke, Gesch. d. Pers.
u. Arab. p. 187). Sana became the capital of the Abyssinian
Abraha (c. 530 A.D.) who built here the famous church (Kalis), which
was destroyed two centuries later by order of the caliph Mansur
(Azraki, p. 91).
126
SANA'I SAN ANTONIO
AUTHORITIES. Niebuhr, Travels in Arabia (Amsterdam, 1774);
R. Manzoni, // Yemen (Rome, 1884); D. Charnay and A. Deflers,
Excursions au Yemen. Tour du monde (Paris, No. 24, 1898).
(R. A. W.)
SANA'I, the common name of ABULMAJD MAPUD B. ADAM,
the earliest among the great Sufic poets of Persia, was a native
of Ghazni (in Afghanistan). He flourished in the reigns of the
Ghaznevid sultans Ibrahim (1050-1099, 451-492 A.H.), his son
Mas'ud (1099-1114), and his grandson Bahrain (1118-1152).
Persian authorities are greatly at variance as to the dates of the
poet's birth and death. At any rate, he must have been born
in the beginning of the second half of the nth century and have
died between 1131 and 1150 (525 and 545 A.H.). He composed
chiefly qa$idas in honour of his sovereign Ibrahim and the great
men of the realm, but the ridicule of a half-mad jester is said to
have caused him to abandon the career of a court panegyrist
and to devote his poetical abilities to higher subjects. For forty
years he led a life of retirement and poverty, and, although
Bahrain offered him a high position at court and his own sister
in marriage, he remained faithful to his austere and solitary
life. But, partly to show his gratitude to the king, partly to
leave a lasting monument of his genius behind him, he began
to write his great double-rhymed poem on ethics and religious
life, which served as model to the masterpieces of Farid-uddin
' Attar and Jelal ud-din Rumi, the Ifadiqat ul-haqlqat, or " Garden
of Truth " (also called Alkitab alfakhri), in ten cantos. This
poem deals with such topics as : the unity of the Godhead,
the divine word, the excellence of the prophet, reason, knowledge
and faith, love, the soul, worldly occupation and inattention to
higher duties, stars and spheres and their symbolic lore, friends
and foes, separation from the world. One of Sana'i's earliest
disciples, Mahommed b. 'All Raqqam, generally known as
'All al-Raffa, who wrote a preface to this work, assigns to its
composition the date 1131 (525 A.H.), and states besides that the
poet died immediately after the completion of his task. Now,
Sana*! cannot possibly have died in 1131, as another of his
mathnawis, the Tariq-i-tahqiq, or " Path to the Verification of
Truth," was composed, according to a chronogram in its last
verses, in 1134 (528 A.H.), nor even in 1140, if he really wrote,
as the Atashkada says, an elegy on the death of Amir Mu'izzi;
for this court-poet of Sultan Sinjar h'ved till 1147 or 1148 (542
A.H.). It seems, therefore, that Taqi Kashi is right in fixing
Sana'i's death in 1150 (545 A.H.), the more so as 'Ali al-Raffa
himself distinctly says in his preface that the poet breathed
his last on the nth of Sha'ban, " which was a Sunday," and it
is only in 1 1 50 that this day happened to be the first of the week.
Sana"! left, besides the ftadlqah and the Tariq-i-tahqiq, several
other ufic mathnawis of similar purport: for instance, the
Sair uTibdd ila'lma'ad, or " Man's Journey towards the Other
World " (also called Kunuz-urrumuz, " The Treasures of
Mysteries "); the 'Ishqndma,OT " Book of Love "; the 'Aqlnama
01 " Book of Intellect "; the Kdrndma, or " Record of Stirring
Deeds," &c.; and an extensive diwan or collection of lyrical
poetry. His tomb, called the " Mecca " of Ghazni, is still
visited by numerous pilgrims.
See Abdullatif al-'Abbasi's commentary (completed 1632 and
preserved in a somewhat abridged form in several copies of the India
Office Library); on the poet's life and works, Ouseley, Biogr.
Notices, 184-187; Rieu's and Flugel's Catalogues, &c.; E. G.
Browne, Literary History of Persia (1906), ii. 317-322; H. Eth6
in W. Geiger's Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, ii. 282-284.
SAN ANTONIO, a city and the county-seat of Bexar county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 80 m. S.S.W. of Austin, on the San Antonio
river, at the mouth of the San Pedro. Pop. (1900) 53,321, of
whom 18,880 were of foreign parentage, 9348 were foreign-born
(including 3288 Mexicans and 3031 Germans) and 7538 were
negroes; (1910 census), 96,614. San Antonio is the largest
city of Texas. It is served by the Galveston, Harrisburg &
San Antonio, the International & Great Northern, the San Antonio
& Aransas Pass, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways.
The city lies at an elevation of 610-750 ft. above the sea. The
San Antonio river (which has a winding course of 13 m. within
the city limits) and its affluent, the San Pedro (which is 10 m.
long in its course through San Antonio), divide the city into
three mam portions, and these water-courses and the Acequia
(7 m. long) are spanned by 17 large iron bridges and about
2500 smaller bridges and culverts. Among the public buildings
are the city hall in Military Plaza, the court-house on Main Plaza,
the Federal building on the N. side of Alamo Plaza, the Carnegie
library and the convention hall and market house on Milam
Square. The most interesting building is the historic Alamo
(named from the grove of cottonwood alamo, the Populus
monilifera in which it stands) on the E. side of the Alamo
Plaza, E. of the San Antonio river; it was begun probably in
1744 and was the chapel of the Mission San Antonio de Valero
(often called " the Alamo mission "); in 1883 it was bought by
the state and has since been maintained as a public monument.
The San Fernando Cathedral 1 on Main Plaza was built in 1734,
but there is very little of the original structure in the present
building, which really dates from 1868-1873; the former
governor's palace, built in 1749, is at No. 105 Military Plaza;
at 1 28 Soledad is the Veramendi Palace, the residence of Governor
Veramendi, father-in-law of Colonel James Bowie, and in this
palace Colonel B. R. Milam was killed on the sth of December
1835 by a sharpshooter hidden in a cypress tree; there is a
monument to Colonel Milam in Milam Square. One mile N.
of the city on Government Hill is Fort Sam Houston (established
in 1865), headquarters of the Department of Texas, with an
army hospital (1885) and a tower 88 ft. high. There are several
old missions near the city, notably the Mission La Purisima
Conception de Acuna (the " First Mission "), 2 m. S. of the city,
built here in 1731-1752, having formerly been in E. Texas;
the Mission San Jose de Aguayo (the " Second Mission "),
4 m. S. of San Antonio, built in 1720-1731; the Mission San
Juan de Capistrano (the " Third Mission "), 6 m. S. of the Main
Plaza built in 1731; and San Francisco de la Espada (the
" Fourth Mission," also built in 1731 and also removed
here from E. Texas), which is 8 m. S. of the Main Plaza and
is now used for service by the local Mexicans. The city has 21
parks and plazas. Within the city limits in its N. central part
is Brackenridge Park (200 acres) along the San Antonio;
i m. N.E. of the city is San Pedro Park (40 acres), the source
of the San Pedro river; in Travis Park is a Confederate
monument; and 3 m. S. of the city are the International Fair
Grounds, where hi 1898 Colonel Theodore Roosevelt organized
his " Rough Riders," and Riverside Park. The most notable
of the plazas are Military, Main and Alamo. The anniversary
of the Battle of San Jacinto, the 2ist of April, is annually cele-
brated by a " Battle of Flowers." Annually in October an
International Fair is held, to which Mexico sends an exhibit
of Mexican products and manufactures. The climate is mild
with a mean summer temperature of 82 F. and a winter average
of 54, and this and the dry purity of the air make it a health
resort; it is also the winter home of many Northerners. There
is good shooting (doves, quail, wild turkey and deer) in the
vicinity; there are fine golf links and there is a large ranch for
breeding and training polo ponies. In the southern suburbs two
artesian wells, 1800-2000 ft. deep, discharge 800,000 gallons
a day of strong sulphur water (temperature io3-io6 F.),
which is used for treating rheumatism and skin diseases.
Near one of these wells is the South-western (State) Hospital
for the Insane (1892). The city has a good public school system,
including, besides the usual departments, departments of manual
training and domestic science. In 1910 there were 30 schools
26 for whites and 4 for negroes. Among the educational
institutions in San Antonio are the San Antonio Female College
(Methodist Episcopal, South; 1894), the West Texas Military
Academy; Peacock Military School; St Mary's Hall (Roman
Catholic); St Louis College; and the Academy of Our Lady of
the Lake (under the Sisters of Divine Providence, who have a
convent here). The city is the see of Protestant Episcopal and
1 The cathedral is the centre of the city according to the charter,
which describes the city as including " six miles square, of which the
sides shall be equi-distant from what is known as the cupola of the
cathedral of San Fernando and three miles therefrom."
SAN ANTONIO DE LOS BANOS SANCERRE
127
Roman Catholic bishops. Among the charitable institutions
are the City Hospital (1886), the Santa Rosa Infirmary (1869),
maintained by Sisters of Charity, a House of Refuge (1897),
a Rescue Home (1895), a home for destitute children and aged
persons (1897), the St Francis Home for the Aged (1893), St
John's Orphan Asylum (1878), St Joseph's Orphan Asylum
(1871) and the Protestant Home for Destitute Children (1887).
The principal manufactures are malt liquors, flour and grist-
mill products and steam railway cars. San Antonio is the
commercial centre of a great live stock and farming region.
Under the charter of 1903, as amended in 1907, the municipal
government consists of a city council, composed of the mayor,
four aldermen, elected at large, and eight ward aldermen, all
elected for a term of two years, as are the other elective officers;
a city attorney, an assessor, a collector, a treasurer, an auditor
and judge of the Corporation Court. Any elective officer may
be removed by the vote of eight members of the council. Other
officers are appointed by the mayor with the confirmation of
the council. The city water supply, owned by a private corpora-
tion, is obtained from artesian wells with a capacity of 40,000,000
gallons a day. The city has a sewer-farm of 530 acres which the
charter forbids it to sell.
San Antonio was the capital of Texas during the periods of
Spanish and Mexican rule. The presidio of San Antonio de
Bexar and the mission of San Antonio de Valero were founded
in 1718 under the direction of Martin de Alarcon, governor of
Coahuila. San Antonio was accordingly from the beginning a
combination of two of the three types of Spanish settlement,
the military and the ecclesiastical (see TEXAS: History). To
these was added the third, the civil type, in 1731, when the
villa of San Fernando was established. Several missions were
established in the neighbourhood, including those already
mentioned and San Xavier de Naxera (1722), a new foundation.
All of these missions decreased in importance with the disappear-
ance of the Indians and by the close of the period of Spanish
rule (1821) had been abandoned. San Antonio was captured
by the Magee-Gutierrez party in 1813, but was recovered by
the Mexican royalists (see TEXAS: History). It was besieged
by the Texan army under General Stephen F. Austin and Edward
Burleson in 1835 and was finally taken early in December as
the result of an attack led by Colonel Benjamin R. Milam.
Its recapture by Santa Anna, February-March 1836, was dis-
tinguished by the heroic defence of the mission (particularly
the chapel of the Alamo) by Colonels William Barrett Travis,
James Bowie and Davy Crockett, and 178 others against the
attack of about 4000 Mexicans. After a bombardment lasting
from the 23rd of February to the 6th of March, the Mexicans
assaulted on the 6th, were twice beaten back, and then over-
powered and slaughtered the garrison, the five survivors being
subsequently bayonetted in cold blood. Three women, one
a Mexican, two children and a negro servant were spared.
" Remember the Alamo " became a war-cry of the Texans.
The Mexicans again invaded Texas in 1842, and San Antonio
was twice captured and held for short periods, first by General
Vasquez and later by General Well. After 1836 there was a
large influx of Anglo-Americans and Germans, and the Mexican
element long ago ceased to predominate. Charters of incorpora-
tion were granted in 1837, 1842, 1852, 1856, 1870 and 1903.
At San Antonio in February 1861 General David E. Twiggs (1790-
1862), a veteran of the Mexican War, surrendered the Depart-
ment of Texas, without resistance, to the Confederate general,
Ben McCulloch; for this General Twiggs was dismissed from
the United States army, and in May he became a major-general
in the Confederate service. The rapid growth of San Antonio
dates from 1878, when the first railway entered the city.
See William Corner, San Antonio de Bexar (San Antonio, 1890);
The Quarterly of the Texas State Historical Association, ii. 217-226,
viii. 277-352; and George P. Garrison, Texas (Boston and New York,
1 93)< 'n the " American Commonwealths Series."
SAN ANTONIO DE LOS BANGS, a small town in Havana
Province, Cuba, about 23 m. (by rail) S.W. of Havana. Pop.
(1907) 9125. San Antonio de los Bafios is served by the W.
branch of the United Railways of Havana. It is on the banks
of the Ariguanabo river, which drains a lake of the same name,
and is itself one of the many " disappearing rivers " of the island;
it disappears in a cave near San Antonio. The town has mineral
springs and baths, and is a summer resort of the people of Havana.
Though spreading over hills, the plan of the town is regular.
The tobacco of the Vuelta Abajo lands immediately around the
city is famous. The pueblo arose in the middle of the i8th
century as a camp for convicts from Mexico. It became a villa
in 1794. Early in the igth century refugees from Santo Domingo
settled here and founded coffee estates that gave the place great
prosperity until the expulsion of the French in 1809; subsequently
the cultivation of tobacco renewed its prosperity.
SANATORIUM (a modern Latinism, formed from sanare, to
cure, restore to health, sanus, whole, healthy, well; often
wrongly spelled sanatorium or sanitarium), an establishment
where persons suffering from disease, or convalescents, may be
received for medical treatment, rest cures and the like; in recent
modern usage particularly used for establishments where patients
suffering from phthisis may undergo the open-air treatment (see
THERAPEUTICS). The mis-spellings of the word, sanitarium and
sanatarium, are due to a confusion of " sanatory," i.e. giving
health, from sanare, and " sanitary," pertaining to health, from
sanitas, health.
SANATRUCES (Sinalrttces, Pers. Sanalruk), Parthian king.
In the troublous times after the death of Mithradates II. (c. 88
B.C.) he was made king by the Sacaraucae, a Mongolian tribe
who had invaded Iran in 76 B.C. He was eighty years old and
reigned seven years; his successor was his son Phraates III.
(Lucian, Macrob. 15; Phlegon, fr. 12 ap. Phot. cod. 97; Appian,
Mithr. 104; Dio Cass. xxxvi. 45). Another Sanatruces (Sana-
trucius) is mentioned as an ephemeral Parthian king in A.D. 115
(Malalas, Chron. p. 270, 273). (Eo. M.)
SAN BERNARDINO, a city and the county-seat of San Bernard-
ino county, California, U.S.A., about 60 m. E. of Los Angeles.
Pop. (1900) 6150 (873 foreign-born); (1910) 12,779. It is served
by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, the Southern Pacific and
the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways, and by an
interurban electric line. The city is situated in a valley at an
altitude of about 1050 ft., at the S. base of the San Bernardino
mountain range and 20 m. W. of San Bernardino mountain
(11,600 ft.). Among the public buildings are a Carnegie library
(1903; the library was established in 1891), with 10,000 volumes
in 1909, and the county court house. There are two public parks,
Lugo, near the centre of the city, and Meadowbrook, on the E.
outskirts. San Bernardino is one of several places (Redlands,
Highland, Rialto, Colton, Bloomington, Riverside, Pomona)
that lie near together in part of the citrus fruit, alfalfa and grain
region of S. California. The Santa Fe railway has extensive
repair and construction shops here. San Bernardino is popularly
known as the " Gate City of Southern California." Five miles
N. of the city, and connected with it by electric railway, at the
base of a mountain on whose side is a great blaze shaped like an
arrow-head, are the Arrowhead Hot Springs (196 F.), resembling
the Carlsbad waters; the hotel at the Springs is heated by their
waters. Other hot springs near San Bernardino are the Urbita,
ij m. S., and the Harlem, 4 m. N.E. About 1822 Spanish
missionaries settled about 5 m. from the site of the present city
and called their mission San Bernardino (from St Bernardin of
Siena). In 1851 the Mormons established here a colony, which
was abandoned in 1857. The county was organized in 1853 with
the county-seat at San Bernardino, which was incorporated as a
town in 1854. It was deprived of its charter in 1861, but re-
ceived a new one in 1864. The Southern Pacific in 1876 gave
the city connexion with the ocean, and the Santa F6 in 1885
connected it with the East. Under a state enactment in 1905
San Bernardino adopted a new charter which provides for the
" recall " by petition, the initiative and the referendum.
SANCERRE, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Cher, 34 m. N.E. of Bourges by rail.
Pop. (r9o6) 2232. Sancerre, which gives its name to the small
district of Sancerrois, is situated on an isolated vine-clad hill
128
SANCHEZ SANCTION
(rooo ft.) about i m. from the left bank of the Loire. It has a
modern chateau, in the grounds of which there is a cylindrica
keep of the i5th century, the only relic of an ancient stronghold
From 1037 to 1152 the title of count of Sancerre was held by thi
counts of Champagne; from the latter year till 1640 it had it;
own counts, who were descended from Theobald IV. of Cham
pagne, but in 1226 came under the suzerainty of the crown. In
1640 it became the property of Henri de Conde, whose descendant
possessed it till the Revolution. During the religious wars it
was a stronghold of Protestantism, and in 1573 was besieged by
the Catholics, who did not succeed in capturing it till after nearly
eight months of siege. The town has a subprefecture, a tribuna
of first instance and a communal college. Good wine is grown
in the vicinity.
SANCHEZ. Three persons of this name enjoyed considerable
literary celebrity: (i) FRANCISCO SANCHEZ (Sanctius) (1523-
1601), successively professor of Greek and of rhetoric at Sala-
manca, whose Minerva, first printed at that town in 1587, was
long the standard work on Latin grammar. (2) FRANCISCO
SANCHEZ, a Portuguese physician of Jewish parentage, born at
Tuy (in the diocese of Braga) in 1550, took a degree in medicine
at Montpellier in 1574, became professor of philosophy and
physic at Toulouse, where he died in 1623; his ingenious treatise
(Quod nihil scitur, 1581) marks the high-water of reaction
against the dogmatism of his time; he is said to have been
distantly related to Montaigne. (3) TOMAS SANCHEZ of Cordova
(1551-1610), Jesuit and casuist, whose treatise De matrimonio
(Genoa, 1592) is more notorious than celebrated.
SANCHI, a small village in India, at which there is now a
railway station on the Bombay-Baroda line. It is famous as the
site of what are almost certainly the oldest buildings in India
now standing. They are Buddhist topes (Pali, thupa; Sanskrit,
stupa), that is, memorial mounds, standing on the level top of a
small sandstone hill about 300 ft. high on the left bank of the
river Betwa. The number of topes on this and the adjoining
hills is considerable. On the Sanchi hill itself are only ten, but
one of these is by far the most important and imposing of all.
All these topes were opened and examined by General Alexander
Cunningham and Lieut. -Colonel Maisey in 1851; and the great
tope has been described and illustrated by them and by James
Fergusson. This is a solid dome of stone, about 103 ft. in
diameter, and now about 42 ft. high. It must formerly have
been much higher, the top of the tope having originally formed
a terrace, 34 ft. in diameter, on which stood lofty columns.
Cunningham estimates the original height of the building as
about 100 ft. Round the base is a flagged pathway surrounded
by a stone railing and entered at the four points of the compass
by gateways some 18 ft. high. Both gateways and railing are
elaborately covered with bas-reliefs and inscriptions. The
latter 1 give the names of the donors of particular portions of the
architectural ornamentation, and most of them are written in
the characters used before and after the time of Asoka in the
middle of the 3rd century B.C. The monuments are Buddhist,
the bas-reliefs illustrate passages in the Buddhist writings, and
the inscriptions make use of Buddhist technical terms. Some
of the smaller topes give us names of men who lived in the
Buddha's time, and others give names mentioned among the
missionaries sent out in the time of Asoka. It is not possible
from the available data to fix the exact date of any of these
topes, but it may be stated that the smaller topes are probably
of different dates both before and after Asoka, and that it is very
possible that the largest was one of three which we are told was
erected by Asoka himself. The monuments at Sanchi are now
under the charge of the archaeological department; they are
being well cared for, and valuable photographs have been taken
of the bas-reliefs and inscriptions. The drawings in Fergusson 's
work entitled Tree and Serpent Worship are very unsatisfactory,
and his suggestion that the carvings illustrate tree and serpent
worship is quite erroneous.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Alex. Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes (London,i854) ;
James Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship (London, 1873) ; General
F. C. Maisey, Sanchi and its Remains (London, 1892) ; Rhys Davids,
ffuddhtst India (London, 1902). (T. W. R. D.)
SANCHUNIATHON (Gr. form of Phoenician Sakkun-yatkon,
" the god Sakkun has given "), an ancient Phoenician sage]
who belongs more to legend than to history. He is said to have
nourished " even before the Trojan times," " when Semiramis
was queen of the Assyrians." Philo Herennius of Byblus
claimed to have translated his mythological writings from
the Phoenician originals. According to Philo, Sanchuniathon
derived the sacred lore from the mystic inscriptions on the
'A^oweTj (probably hammanim, " sun pillars," cf. Is. xxvii.
9, &c.) which stood in the Phoenician temples. That any writings
of Sanchuniathon ever existed it is impossible to say. Philo
drew his traditions from various sources, adapted them to suit
his purpose, and conjured with a venerable name to gain credit
for his narrative. Porphyry, says that Sanchuniathon (here
called a native of Byblus) wrote a history of the Jews, based on
information derived from Hierombal (i.e. Jeruba'al), a priest of
the god Jevo (i.e. Yahveh, Jehovah), and dedicated it to Abelbal
or Abibal, king of Berytus. The story is probably a pure inven-
tion; the reference to Berytus shows that it is late.
See Eusebius, Praep. Ev. i. 9 (Miiller, Fragm. hist. Graec. iii. pp.
SAN CRIST6BAL (formerly called SAN CRISTOBAL DE Los
LLANOS, CIUDAD DE LAS CASAS, and CIUDAD REAL), a town of
Mexico, in the state of Chiapas, on a level tableland about 6700 ft.
above sea-level and 48 m. E.N.E. of Tuxtla Gutierrez. Pop.
(1892 estimate) 16,000. The surrounding country is fertile and
healthful and is populated chiefly with Indians. The town
possesses a cathedral, hospital and other public institutions.
San Cristobal was founded in 1528 on the site of an Indian village,
and afterwards was famous as the residence of Las Casas, Bishop
of Chiapas. It was the capital of Chiapas until near the end
of the i gth century. There are traces of an early Indian
civilization in the vicinity.
SANCROFT, WILLIAM (1616-1693), archbishop of Canterbury,
was lorn at Fressingfield in Suffolk 3oth January 1616, and
entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in July 1634. He became
M.A. in 1641 and fellow in 1642, but was ejected in 1649 for
refusing to accept the " Engagement." He then remained abroad
till the Restoration, after which he was chosen one of the univer-
sity preachers, and in 1663 was nominated to the deanery of
York. In 1664 he was installed dean of St Paul's. In this
situation he set himself to repair the cathedral, till the fire of
London in 1666 necessitated the rebuilding of it, towards which
ic gave 1400. He also rebuilt the deanery, and improved its
revenue. In 1668 he was admitted archdeacon of Canterbury
upon the king's presentation, but he resigned the post in 1670.
In 1677, being now prolocutor of the Convocation, he was
unexpectedly advanced to the archbishopric of Canterbury.
He attended Charles II. upon his deathbed, and " made to him
a very weighty exhortation, in which he used a good degree of
'reedom." He wrote with his own hand the petition presented
n 1687 against the reading of the Declaration of Indulgence,
which was signed by himself and six of his suffragans. For
his they were all committed to the Tower, but were acquitted.
Jpon the withdrawal of James II. he concurred with the Lords
n a declaration to the prince of Orange for a free parliament,
and due indulgence to the Protestant dissenters. But, when that
)rince and his consort were declared king and queen, he refused
o take the oath to them, and was accordingly suspended and
leprived. From 5th August 1691 till his death on the 24th of
November 1693, he lived a very retired life in his native place,
le was buried in the churchyard of Fressingfield, where there
s a Latin epitaph to his memory. Sancroft was a patron of
Jenry Wharton (1664-1695), the divine and church historian,
o whom on his deathbed he entrusted his manuscripts and the
emains of Archbishop Laud (published in 1695).
He published F ur praedeslinalus (1651), Modern Politics (1652),
nd Three Sermons (1694). Nineteen Familiar Letters to Mr North
afterwards Sir Henry North) appeared in 1757.
SANCTION (Lat. sanctio, from sancire, to decree or ordain),
n jurisprudence, the means provided for the enforcement of a
aw. According to T. E. Holland (Elements of Jurisprudence,
SANCTIS, F. DE SANCTUARY
129
1906, p. 85), " the real meaning of all law is that, unless acts
conform to the course prescribed by it, the state will not only
ignore and render no aid to them, but will also, either of its
own accord or if called upon, intervene to cancel their effects.
This intervention of the state is what is called the ' sanction '
of law. " So Justinian (Inst. ii. i, 10), " Legum eas partes
quibus poenas constituimus adversus eos qui contra leges fecerint,
sanctiones vocamus." In general use, the word signifies approval
or confirmation.
SANCTIS, FRANCESCO DE (1817-1883), Italian publicist,
was born at Morra Irpino, and educated at the institute of the
Marchese Basilio Puoti. Becoming a teacher in a private
school of his own, he made a name as a profound student of
literature; and after the troubles of the '48, when he held office
under the revolutionary government and was imprisoned for
three years at Naples, his reputation as a lecturer on Dante
at Turin brought him the appointment of professor at Zurich
in 1856. He returned to Naples as minister of public instruction
in 1860, and filled the same post under the Italian monarchy
in 1861, 1878 and 1879, having in 1861 become a, deputy in the
Italian chamber. In 1871 he became professor at Naples Uni-
versity. As a literary critic, De Sanctis took a very high place,
notably with his Storia delta letteratura italiana (2nd ed., 1873)
and with his critical studies, published in several volumes,
some of them since his death at Naples in 1883.
SANCTI SPIRITUS, an old Cuban city in Santa Clara province,
situated on a sandy plain in an angle of the Yayabo river, which
winds through the city. Pop. (1907) 17,440. It is connected
by railway with Zaza del Medio, on the main railway line of the
island, and with its port, Tunas de Zaza, 30 m. (by rail) to the
S. The hill called Pan de Azucar (Sugar-loaf) is S.W. of the
city. One church is said to be as old as the city, and others
date from 1699, 1716, 1717, &c. The surrounding country is
devoted principally to grazing. Sancti Spiritus was one of the
seven cities founded by Diego Valasquez. Its settlement was
ordered in 1514 and accomplished in 1516, and it is the fifth
town of the island in age. The present city is about two leagues
from the original site (Pueblo Viejo). In 1518, as a result of
the war of the Comunidades of Castille, a mimic war broke out
in Sancti Spiritus among its two score villagers. The place
was sacked by French and English corsairs in 1719. Illicit
trade with Jamaica was the basis of local prosperity in the
i8th century.
SANCTUARY (from the late Lat. sanctuarium, a sacred place) ,
a sacred or consecrated place, particularly one affording refuge,
protection or right of asylum; also applied to the privilege
itself, the right of safe refuge. In Egyptian, Greek or Roman
temples it was applied to the cello, in which stood the statue
of the god, and the Latin word for altar, ara, was used for protec-
tion as well. In Roman Catholic usage sanctuary is sometimes
applied to the whole church, as a consecrated building, but is
generally limited to the choir. The idea that such places afforded
refuge to criminals or refugees is founded upon the primitive
and universal belief in the contagion of holiness. Hence it was
sacrilege to remove the man who had gained the holy precincts;
he was henceforth invested with a part of the sacredness of the
place, and was inviolable so long as he remained there. Some
temples had peculiar privileges in this regard. That of Diana
at Ephesus extended its inviolability for a perimeter of two
stadia, until its right of sanctuary was refused by the Romans.
Not all Greek and Roman temples, however, had the right in
an equal degree. But where it existed, the action of the Roman
civil law was suspended, and in imperial times the statues and
pictures of the emperors were a protection against pursuit.
Tacitus says that the ancient Germans held woods, even lakes
and fountains, sacred; and the Anglo-Saxons seem to have
regarded several woods as holy and to have made sanctuaries
of them, one of these being at Leek in Staffordshire.
The use of Christian churches as sanctuaries was not based
upon the Hebrew cities of refuge, as is sometimes stated. It
is part of the general religious fact of the inviolability attaching
to things sacred. The Roman law did not recognize the use of
xxrv. 5
Christian sanctuaries until toward the end of the 4th century,
but the growing recognition of the office of bishop as intercessor
helped much to develop it. By 392 it had been abused to such
an extent that Theodosius the Great was obliged to limit its
application, refusing it to the publici debilores. Further evidence
of its progress is given by the provision in 397 forbidding the
reception of refugee Jews pretending conversion in order to
escape the payment of debts or just punishment. In 398,
according to contemporary historians, the right of sanctuary
was completely abolished, though the law as we have it is not so
sweeping. But next year the right was finally and definitely
recognized, and in 419 the privilege was extended in the western
empire to fifty paces from the church door. In 431, by an edict
of Theodosius and Valentinian it was extended to include the
church court-yard and whatever stood therein, in order to
provide some other place than the church for the fugitives to
eat and sleep. They were to leave all arms outside, and if they
refused to give them up they could be seized in the church.
Capital punishment was to be meted out to all who violated the
right of sanctuary. Justinian's code repeats the regulation of
sanctuary by Leo I. in 466, but Justinian himself in a Novel of
the year 535 limited the privilege to those not guilty of the
grosser crimes. In the new Germanic kingdoms, while violent
molestation of the right of sanctuary was forbidden, the fugitive
was given up after an oath had been taken not to put him to
death (Lex. Rom. Burgund. tit. 2, 5; Lex. Visigoth vi. tit. 5,
c. 1 6). This legislation was copied by the church at the council
of Orleans in 511; the penalty of penance was added, and the
whole decree backed by the threat of excommunication. Thus
it passed into Gratian's Decretum. It also formed the basis of
legislation by the Prankish king Clotaire (51 1-588) , who, however,
assigned no penalty for its violation. Historians like Gregory
of Tours have many tales to tell showing how frequently it was
violated. The Carolingians denied the right of sanctuary to
criminals already condemned to death.
The earliest extant mention of the right of sanctuary in
England is contained in the code of laws issued by the Anglo-
Saxon king -Sthelberht in A.D. 600. By these he who infringed
the church's privilege was to pay twice the fine attaching to an
ordinary breach of the peace. At Beverley and Hexham i m.
in every direction was sacred territory. The boundaries of the
church frith were marked in most cases by stone crosses erected
on the highroads leading into the town. Four crosses, each i
m. from the church, marked the mile limits in every direction
of Hexham Sanctuary. Crosses, too, inscribed with the word
" Sanctuarium, " were common on the highways, serving probably
as sign-posts to guide fugitives to neighbouring sanctuaries.
One is still to b< seen at Armathwaite, Cumberland; and
another at St Buryan's, Cornwall, at the corner of a road leading
down to some ruins known locally as " the Sanctuary." That
such wayside crosses were themselves sanctuaries is in most
cases improbable, but there still exist in Scotland the remains of
a true sanctuary cross. This is known as MacDuff's Cross, near
Lindores, Fifeshire. The legend is that, after the defeat of the
usurper,Macbeth, in 1057, and the succession of Malcolm Canmore
as Malcolm III. to the Scottish throne, MacDuff, as a reward for
his assistance, was granted special sanctuary privileges for his
kinsmen. Clansmen within the ninth degree of relationship to
the chief of the clan, guilty of unpremeditated homicide, could,
on reaching the cross, claim remission of the capital sentence.
Probably the privilege has been exaggerated, the fugitive kins-
men were exempt from outside jurisdiction and liable only to the
court of the earl of Fife.
The canon law allowed the protection of sanctuary to those
guilty of crimes of violence for a limited time only, in order that
some compensation (wergild) should be made, or to check blood-
vengeance. In several English churches there was a stone seat
beside the altar which was known as the frith-stool (peace-stool) ,
upon which the seeker of sanctuary sat. Examples of such
sanctuary-seats still exist at Hexham and Beverley, and of the
sanctuary knockers which hung on the church-doors one is still in
position at Durham Cathedral. The procedure, upon seeking
130
SANCTUARY
sanctuary, was regulated in the minutest detail. The fugitive
had to make confession of his crime to one of the clergy, to
surrender his arms, swear to observe the rules and regulations
of the religious houses, pay an admission fee, give, under oath,
fullest details of his crime (the instrument used, the name of the
victim, &c.), and at Durham he had to toll a special bell as a
formal signal that he prayed sanctuary, and put on a gown of
black cloth on .the left shoulder of which was embroidered a
St Cuthbert's cross.
The protection afforded by a sanctuary at common law was
this: a person accused of felony might fly for safeguard of his
life to sanctuary, and there, within 40 days, go, clothed in sack-
cloth, before the coroner, confess the felony and take an oath of
abjuration of the realm, whereby he undertook to quit the king-
dom, and not return without the king's leave. Upon confession
he was, ipso facto, convict of the felony, suffered attainder of
blood and forfeited all his goods, but had time allowed him to
fulfil his oath. The abjurer started forth on his journey, armed
only with a wooden cross, bareheaded and clothed in a long
white robe, which made him conspicuous among medieval way-
farers. He had to keep to the king's highway, was not allowed
to remain more than two nights in any one place, and must
make his way to the coast quickly. The time allowed for his
journey was not long. In Edward III.'s reign only nine days
were given an abjurer to travel on foot from Yorkshire to Dover.
Under the Norman kings there appear to have been two kinds
of sanctuary; one general, which belonged to every church,
and another peculiar, which had its force in a grant by charter
from the king. This latter type could not be claimed by pre-
scription, and had to be supported by usage within legal memory.
General sanctuaries protected only those guilty of felonies, while
those by special grant gave immunity even to those accused of
high or petty treason, not for a time only but apparently for life.
Of chartered sanctuaries there were at least 22: Abingdon,
A/mathwaite, Beaulieu, Battle Abbey, Beverley, Colchester,
Derby, Durham, Dover, Hexham Lancaster, St Mary le Bow
(London), St Martin's le Grand (London), Merton Priory, North-
ampton, Norwich, Ripon, Ramsey, Wells, Westminster, Win-
chester,- York (Soc. of Antiq. of London, Archaeologia, viii. 1-44,
London, 1787. Sketch of the History of the Asylum or Sanctuary,
by Samuel Pegge). Sanctuary being the privilege of the church,
it is not surprising to find that it did not extend to the crime of
sacrilege; nor does it appear that it was allowed to those who
had escaped from the sheriff after they had been delivered to him
for execution.
Chartered sanctuaries had existed before the Norman invasion.
About thirty churches, from a real or pretended antiquity of the
privilege, acquired special reputation as sanctuaries, e.g. West-
minster Abbey (by grant of Edward the Confessor); Ripon (by
grant of Whitlase, king of the Mercians); St Buryans, Cornwall
(by grant of ^Ethelstan); St Martin's le Grand, London, and
Beverley Minster. " The precincts of the Abbey," says Dean
Stanley, " were a vast cave of Adullam for all the distressed
and discontented in the metropolis, who desired, according to
the phrase of the time, to 'take Westminster.'" Elizabeth
Woodville, queen of Edward IV., took refuge in the Abbey with
her younger children from the hostility of Richard III. In the
next reign the most celebrated sanctuary-seeker was Perkin
Warbeck, who thus'twice saved his neck, at Beaulieu and Sheen.
John Skelton, tutor and afterwards court poet to Henry VIII.,
fearing the consequences of his caustic wit as displayed in an
attack on Wolsey, took sanctuary at Westminster and died there
in 1529.
The law of abjuration and sanctuary was regulated by
numerous and intricate statutes (see Coke, Institutes, iii. 113);
but grave abuses arose, especially in the peculiar sanctuaries.
The attack on these seems to have begun towards the close
of the I4th century, in the reign of Richard II. During the
15th century violations of sanctuary were not uncommon;
the Lollards were forced from churches; and Edward IV. after
the battle of Tewkesbury had the duke of Somerset and twenty
Lancastrian leaders dragged from sanctuary and beheaded.
At the Reformation general and peculiar sanctuaries both
suffered drastic curtailment of their privileges, but the great
chartered ones suffered most. By the reforming act of 1540
Henry VIII. established seven cities as peculiar sanctuaries.
These were Wells, Westminster, Northampton, Manchester,
York, Derby and Launceston. Manchester petitioned against
being made a sanctuary town, and Chester was substituted.
By an act of James I. (1623), sanctuary, as far as crime was
concerned, was abolished throughout the kingdom. The privilege
lingered on for civil processes in certain districts which had
been the site of former religious buildings and which became the
haunts of criminals who there resisted arrest a notable example
being that known as Whitefriars between Fleet Street and the
Thames, E. of the temple. This locality was nicknamed Alsatia
(the name first occurs in Shadwell's plays in Charles II. 's reign),
and there criminals were able to a large extent to defy the law
(see Sir Walter Scott's Fortunes of Nigel and Peveril of the Peak),
arrests only being possible under writs of the Lord Chief Justice.
So flagrant became the abuses here and in the other quasi-
sanctuaries that in 1697 an act of William III., known as " The
Escape from Prison Act," finally abolished all such alleged
privileges. A further amending act of 1723 (George I.) completed
the work of destruction. The privileged places named in the
two acts were the Minories, Salisbury Court, Whitefriars,
Fulwood's Rents, Mitre Court, Baldwin's Gardens, The Savoy,
The Clink, Deadman's Place, Montague Close, The Mint and
Stepney. (See Stephen, History of C rim. Law, i. 113.)
In Scotland excommunication was incurred by any who
attempted to arrest thieves within sanctuary. The most famous
sanctuaries were those attaching to the Church of Wedale, now
Stow, near Galashiels., and that of Lesmahagow, Lanark. All
religious sanctuaries were abolished in the Northern Kingdom
at the Reformation. But the debtor found sanctuary from
" diligence" in Holyrood House and its precincts until late in the
1 7th century. This sanctuary did not protect criminals, or even
all debtors, e.g. not crown debtors or fraudulent bankrupts;
and it was possible to execute a meditatio fugae warrant within
the sanctuary. After twenty-four hours' residence the debtor
had to enter his name in the record of the Abbey Court in order
to entitle him to further protection. Under the Act 1696 c. 5,
insolvency concurring with retreat to the sanctuary constituted
notour bankruptcy (see Bell, Commentaries, ii. 461). The aboli-
tion of imprisonment for debt in 1881 practically abolished this
privilege of sanctuary.
A presumptive right of sanctuary attached to the royal
palaces, and arrests could not be made there. In Anglo-Saxon
times the king's peace extended to the palace and 3000 paces
around it: it extended to the king himself beyond the precincts.
At the present day Members of Parliament cannot be served
with writs or arrested within the precincts of the Houses of
Parliament, which extend to the railings of Palace Yard. During
the Irish agitation of the 'eighties Parnell and others of the
Irish members avoided arrest for some little while by living
in the House and never passing outside the gates of the yard.
The houses of ambassadors were in the past quasi-sanctuaries.
This was a natural corollary of their diplomatic immunities
(see DIPLOMACY). The privilege was never strictly defined.
At one time it was insisted that the immunity accorded an
ambassador included his house and those who fled to it. At
an earlier date sanctuary had actually been claimed for the
quarter of the town in which the house stood. At Rome this
privilege was formally abolished by Innocent XI. (Pope 1676-
1689), and in 1682 the Spanish ambassador at the Papal Court
renounced all right to claim immunity even for his house. His
example was followed by the British ambassador in 1686.
Portugal, Sweden, Denmark and Venice abolished by express
ordinance in 1748 the asylum-rights of ambassadorial residences.
In 1726 the Spanish government had forcibly taken the duke
of Ripperda out of the hotel of the English ambassador at
Madrid, although the Court of St James had sanctioned his
reception there. At Venice, too, some Venetians who had
betrayed state secrets to the French ambassador and had taken
SANCY SAND, GEORGE
refuge at his house were dragged out by troops sent by the
senate.
In Europe, generally, the right of sanctuary survived under
restrictions down to the end of the i8th century. In Germany
the more serious crimes of violence were always excepted.
Highwaymen, robbers, traitors and habitual criminals could not
claim church protection. In 1418 sanctuary was further regu-
lated by a bull of Martin V. and in 1504 by another of Julius II.
In a modified form the German Asylrecht lasted to modern tunes,
not being finally abolished till about 1780. In France le droit
d'asile existed throughout the middle ages, but was much
limited by an edict of Francis I. in 1539, Ordonnance sur le faut
de la justice. At the Revolution the right of sanctuary was
entirely abolished.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. T. J. de Mazzinghi, Sanctuaries (Stafford,
1887); J. F. Stephen, Hist, of Criminal Law of England (3 vols.,
London, 1833); Luke Owen Pike, History of Crime (2 vols., 1875-
1876); Aug. von Bulmerincq, Das Asylrecht (Dorpat, 1853); Henri
Wallon, Droit d'asile (Paris, 1837) ; Samuel Pegge," Sketch of History
of Asylum or Sanctuary," Soc. of Antiq. of London, Archaeologia viii.
1-44 (London, 1787); A. P. Stanley, Memorials of Westminster
Abbey (London, 1882); Bissel, The Law of Asylum in Israel (1884);
Graszhoff, " Die Gesetze der romischen Kaiser iiber das Asylrecht
der Kirche," in the Archiv f. kath. Kirchenrecht, Bd. 37; E.
Loning, Geschichte des Kirchenrechts, i. 37 ; ii. 355.
SANCY, NICOLAS DE HARLAY, SEIGNEUR DE (1546-1629),
French soldier and diplomatist, belonged to the Protestant
branch of the family of Harlay but adopted the Catholic religion
in 1572 daring the massacres of the Huguenots. In 1589 he
obtained in Geneva and Berne sums sufficient to raise an army
of mercenaries for Henry III., partly by the sale of jewels, among
them the " Sancy " diamond which in 1835 found its way to
the Russian imperial treasure, and partly by leading the Swiss to
suppose that the troops were intended for serious war against
Savoy. Henry IV. made him superintendent of his finances
in 1594, but in 1599 he was replaced by Sully. Meanwhile he
had been a second time converted to Catholicism, but his influence
at court waned, and he retired from public life in 1605. He
survived until the i3th of October 1629, leaving a Discours sur
I'occurrence des affaires.
His son, ACHILLE HARLAY DE SANCY, bishop of Saint Malo
(1581-1646), was educated for the church but resigned his
vocation for the career of arms on the death of his elder brother
in 1601. For seven years, from 1611 to 1618, he was ambassador
at the Turkish court, where he amassed a fortune of some
16,000 sterling by doubtful means, and was bastinadoed by
order of the sultan for his frauds. Harlay de Sancy was a learned
man and a good linguist, who used his opportunities to acquire
a valuable collection of oriental MSS., many of which are now
in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris. On his return to France
he joined the Oratorian Fathers, and when Marshal Bassompierre
was sent to England in 1627 to regulate the differences between
Henrietta Maria and her husband, Harlay de Sancy was attached
to the queen's ecclesiastical household, but Charles I. secured
his dismissal. He became bishop of St Malo in 1632, and died
on the 20th of November 1646.
SAND, GEORGE (1804-1876), the pseudonym of Madame
Amandine Lucile Aurore Dudevant, nee Dupin, the most pro-
lific authoress in the history of literature, and unapproached
among the women novelists of France. Her life was as strange
and adventurous as any of her novels, which are for the most
part idealized versions of the multifarious incidents of her life.
In her self-revelations she followed Rousseau, her first master
in style, but while Rousseau in his Confessions darkened all the
shadows, George Sand is the heroine of her story, often frail
and faulty, but always a woman more sinned against than sinning.
Thanks, however, to her voluminous correspondence that has
recently been published and to family documents that her
French biographers have unearthed, there are now full materials
for tracing the history of her public and private career, and for
forming a clear and unbiased estimate of her character and
genius.
Her father was Maurice Dupin, a retired lieutenant in the
army of the republic; her mother, Sophie Delaborde, the daughter
of a Paris bird-fancier. Their ill-assorted marriage took place
only a month before the birth of the child (July i, 1804; at
Paris). Her paternal grandfather was M. Dupin de Francueil,
a farmer-general of the revenue, who married the widow of Count
Horn, a natural son of Louis XV., she in her turn being the
natural daughter of Maurice de Saxe, the most" famous of the
many illegitimate children of Augustus the Strong, by the lovely
countess of Konigsmarck. George Sand, who was a firm believer
in the doctrine of heredity, devotes a whole volume of her
autobiography (Histoire de ma vie, 1857 seq.) to the elaboration
of this strange pedigree. She boasts of the royal blood which
ran through her veins, and disregarding the bar sinister she
claims affinity with Charles X. and Louis XVII., but she is no
less frank in declaring that she is vilaine el tres vilaine, a daughter
of the people, who shares by birth their instincts and sympathies.
Her birth itself was romantic. Her father was playing a country
dance at the house of a fellow officer, the future husband of
Sophie's sister, when he was told that his wife, who had not
long left the room, had borne him a daughter. " She will be
fortunate," said the aunt, " she was born among the roses to
the sound of music."
Passing by her infantine recollections, which go back further
than even those of Dickens, we find her at the age of three crossing
the Pyrenees to join her father who was on Murat's staff, occupy-
ing with her parents a suite of rooms in the royal palace, adopted
as the child of the regiment, nursed by rough old sergeants, and
dressed in a complete suit of uniform to please the general.
For the next ten years she lived at Nohant, near La Chatre
in Berri, the country house of her grandmother. Here her
character was shaped; here she imbibed that passionate love
of country scenes and country life which neither absence, politics
nor dissipation could uproot; here she learnt to understand
the ways and thoughts of the peasants, and laid up that rich store
of scenes and characters which a marvellously retentive memory
enabled her to draw upon at will. The progress of her mind
during these early years well deserves to be recorded. Education,
in the strict sense of the word, she had none. A few months
after her return from Spain her father was killed by a fall from
his horse. He was a man of remarkable literary gifts as well
as a good soldier. " Character," says George Sand, " is in a
great measure hereditary: if my readers wish to know me they
must know my father." On his death the mother resigned,
though not without a struggle, the care of Aurore to her grand-
mother, Mme. Dupin de Francueil, a good representative of the
ancien regime. Though her husband was a patron of Rousseau,
she herself had narrowly escaped the guillotine, and had only
half imbibed the ideas of the Revolution. In her son's lifetime
she had, for his sake, condoned the mesalliance, but it was im-
possible for the stately chatelaine and her low-born daughter-
in-law to live in peace under the same roof. She was jealous
as a lover of the child's affection, and the struggle between the
mother and grandmother was one of the bitterest of Auroie's
childish troubles.
Next to the grandmother, the most important person in the
household at Nohant was Deschatres. He was an ex-abbe
who had shown his devotion to his mistress when her life was
threatened, and henceforward was installed at Nohant as
factotum. He was maire of the village, tutor to Aurore's half-
brother, and, in addition to his other duties, undertook the
education of the girl. The tutor was no more eager to teach
than the pupil to learn. He, too, was a disciple of Rousseau,
believed in the education of nature, and allowed his Sophie
to wander at her own sweet will. At odd hours of lessons she
picked up a smattering of Latin, music and natural science, but
most days were holidays and spent in country rambles and games
with village children. Her favourite books were Tasso, A tola
and Paul et Virginie. A simple refrain of a childish song or the
monotonous chaunt of the ploughman touched a hidden chord
and thrilled her to tears. She invented a deity of her own, a
mysterious Corambe, half pagan and half Christian, and like
Goethe erected to him a rustic altar of the greenest grass, the
softest moss and the brightest pebbles.
132
SAND, GEORGE
From the free out-door life at Nohant she passed at thirteen
to the convent of the English Augustinians at Paris, where for
the first two years she never went outside the walls. Nothing
better shows the plasticity of her character than the ease with
which she adapted herself to this sudden change. The volume
which describes her conventual life is as graphic as Miss Bronte's
Vittette, but we can only dwell on one passage of it. Tired of
mad pranks, in a fit of home-sickness, she found herself one
evening in the convent chapel.
" I had forgotten all; I knew not what was passing in me; with
my soul rather than my senses, I breathed an air of ineffable sweet-
ness. All at once a sudden shock passed through my whole being,
my eyes swam, and I seemed wrapped in a dazzling white mist. I
heard a voice murmur in my ear, ' Tolle, lege.' I turned round,
thinking that it was one of the sisters talking to me I was alone.
I indulged in no vain illusion; I believed in no miracle; I was quite
sensible of the sort of hallucination into which I had fallen ; I neither
sought to intensify it nor to escape from it. Only I felt that faith
was laying hold of me by the heart, as I had wished it. I was so
filled with gratitude and joy that the tears rolled down my cheeks.
I felt as before that I loved God, that my mind embraced and ac-
cepted that ideal of justice, tenderness and holiness which I had
never doubted, but with which I had never held direct communion,
and now at last I felt that this communion was consummated, as
though an invincible barrier had been broken down between the
source of infinite light and the smouldering fire of my heart. An
endless vista stretched before me, and I panted to start upon my
way. There was no more doubt or lukewarmness. That I should
repent on the'morrow and rally myself on my over-wrought ecstasy
never once entered my thoughts. I was like one who never casts a
look behind, who hesitates before some Rubicon to be crossed, but
having touched the farther bank sees no more the shore he has just
left."
Such is the story of her conversion as told by herself. It
reads more like a chapter from the life of Ste Therese or Madame
Guyon than of the author of LUia. Yet no one can doubt the
sincerity of her narrative, or even the permanence of her religious
feelings under all her many phases of faith and aberrations of
conduct. A recent critic has sought in religion the clue to her
character and the mainspring of her genius. Only in her case
religion must be taken in an even more restricted sense than
Matthew Arnold's " morality touched by emotion." For her
there was no categorical imperative, no moral code save to follow
the promptings of her heart. " Tenderness " she had abundantly,
and it revealed itself not only hi effusive sentimentality, as with
Rousseau and Chateaubriand, but in active benevolence;
" justice " too she had in so far as she sincerely wished that all
men should share alike her happiness; but of " holiness," that
sense of awe and reverence that was felt in divers kinds and
degrees by Isaiah, Sophocles, Virgil and St Paul, she had not
a rudimenatry conception.
Again in 1820 Aurore exchanged the restraint of a convent
for freedom, being recalled to Nohant by Mme de Francueil, who
had no intention of letting her granddaughter grow up a devote.
She rode across country with her brother, she went out shooting
with Deschatres, she sat by the cottage doors on the long summer
evenings and heard the flax-dressers tell their tales of witches and
warlocks. She was a considerable linguist and knew English,
Italian and some Latin, though she never tackled Greek. She
read widely though unsystematically, studying philosophy in
Aristotle, Leibnitz, Locke and Condillac, and feeding her imagina-
tion with Rent and Childe Harold. Her confessor lent her the
Genius of Christianity, and to this book she ascribes the first
change in her religious views. She renounced once for all the
asceticism and isolation of the De imilatione for the more genial
and sympathetic Christianity of Chateaubriand. Yet she still
clung to old associations, and on her grandmother's death was
about to return to her convent, but was dissuaded by her
friends, who found her a husband.
Casimir Dudevant, whom she married on the i ith of December
1822, was the natural son of a Baron Dudevant. He had retired
at an early age from the army and was living an idle life at home
as a gentleman farmer. Her husband, though he afterwards
deteriorated, seems at that time to have been neither better nor
worse than the Berrichon squires around him, and the first years
of her married life, during which her son Maurice and her daughter
Solange were born, except for lovers' quarrels, were passed in
peace and quietness, though signs were not wanting of the
coming storm. Among these must be mentioned her friendship
with Aurelien de Seze, advocate-general at Bourdeau. De Seze
was a middle-aged lawyer with a philosophic turn of mind, and
Madame Dudevant for two years kept up with him an intimate
correspondence. The friendship was purely platonic, but the
husband felt or affected jealousy, and resented an intimacy
which he from his total lack of culture was unable to share. The
breach quickly widened. He on his part was more and more
repelled by a superior woman determined to live her own intel-
lectual life, and she on hers discovered that she was mated, if not
to a clown, at least to a hobereau whose whole heart was in his
cattle and his turnips. So long as the conventionalities were
preserved she endured it, but when her husband took to drinking
and made love to the maids under her very eyes she resolved to
break a yoke that had grown intolerable. The last straw that
determined action was the discovery of a paper docketed " Not
to be opened till after my death," which was nothing but a
railing accusation against herself. She at once quitted Nohant,
taking with her Solange, and in 1831 an amicable separation was
agreed upon, by which her whole estate was surrendered to the
husband with the stipulation that she should receive an allow-
ance of 120 a year. She had regained her liberty, and made no
secret of her intention to use it to the full. She endeavoured
unsuccessfully to eke out her irregularly paid allowance by those
expedients to which reduced gentlewomen are driven fancy-
work and painting fans and snuff-boxes; she lived in a garret
and was often unable to allow herself the luxury of a fire. It was
only as a last resource that she tried literature. Her first
apprenticeship was served under Delatouche, the editor of
Figaro. He was a native of Berri, like herself, a stern but kindly
taskmaster who treated her much as Dr Johnson treated Fanny
Burney. George Sand was methodical and had a ready pen, but
she lacked the more essential qualities of a Parisian journalist,
wit, sparkle and conciseness. At the end of a month, she tells
us, her earnings amounted to fifteen francs. On the staff of
Figaro was another compatriot with whom she was already
intimate as a visitor at Nohant. Jules Sandeau was a clever
and attractive young lawyer. Articles written in common soon
led to a complete literary partnership, and 1831 there appeared
in the Revue de Paris a joint novel entitled Prima Donna and
signed Jules Sand. Shortly after this was published in book
form with the same signature a second novel, Rose et Blanche.
The sequel to this literary alliance is best recounted in George
Sand's own words: " I resisted him for three months but then
yielded; I lived in my own apartment in an unconventional
style." Her first independent novel, Indiana (1832), was written
at the instigation of Delatouche, and the world-famous pseu-
donym George (originally Georges) Sand was adopted as a
compromise between herself and her partner. The " George "
connoted a Berrichon as " David " does a Welshman. The one
wished to throw Indiana into the common stock, the other
refused to lend his name, or even part of his name, to a work
in which he had had no share. The novel was received with
instant acclamation, and Sainte-Beuve only confirmed the
judgment of the public when he pronounced in the Globe that
this new author (then to him unknown) had struck a new and
original vein and was destined to go far. Delatouche was the
first to throw himself at her feet and bid her forget all the hard
things he had said of her. Indiana is a direct transcript of the
author's personal experiences (the disagreeable husband is
M. Dudevant to the life), and an exposition of her theory of
sexual relations which is founded thereon. To many critics it
seemed that she had said her whole say and that nothing but
replicas could follow. Valentine, which was published in the
same year, indicated that it was but the first chapter in a life
of endless adventures, and that the imagination which turned
the crude facts into poetry, and the fancy which played about
them like a rainbow, were inexhaustible.
As a novel Valentine has little to commend it; the plot is
feeble and the characters shadowy. Only in the descriptions of
SAND, GEORGE
scenery, which here resemble too much purple patches, does
George Sand reveal her true inspiration, the artistic qualities
by which she will live. No one was more conscious than George
Sand herself of her strength and of her weakness. In a preface
to a later edition she tells us how the novel came to be written,
and, though it anticipates events, this revelation of herself may
best be given here.
"After the unexpected literary success of Indiana I returned to
Berri in 1832 and found a pleasure in painting the scenes with which
I had been familiar from a child. Ever since those early days I had
felt the impulse to describe them, but as is the case with all profound
emotions, whether intellectual or moral, what we most desire to
realize to ourselves we are the least inclined to reveal to the world
at large. This little nook of Berri, this unknown Vallee Noire, this
quiet and unpretentious landscape, which must be sought to find it
and loved to be admired, was the sanctuary of my first and latest
reveries. For twenty-two years I have lived amongst these pollarded
trees, these rutty roads, beside these tangled thickets and streams
along whose banks only children and sheep can pass. All this had
charms for me alone and did not deserve to be revealed to idle
curiosity. Why betray the incognito of this modest country-side
without historical association or picturesque sites to commend it
to the antiquary or the tourist? The Vallee Noire, so it seemed to
me, was part and parcel of myself, the framework in which my life
was set, the native costume that I had always worn what worlds
away from the silks and satins that are suited for the public stage.
If I could have foreseen what a stir my writings would make, I think
I should have jealously guarded the privacy of this sanctuary where,
till then, I perhaps was the only soul who had fed the artist's visions
and the poet's dreams. But I had no such anticipation; I never
gave it a thought. I was compelled to write and I wrote. I let
myself be carried away by the secret charm of the air I breathed ; my
native air, I might almost call it. The descriptive parts of my novel
found favour. The plot provoked some lively criticism on the anti-
matrimonial doctrines that I was alleged to have broached before in
Indiana. In both novels I pointed out the dangers and pains of an
ill-assorted marriage. I thought I had simply been writing a story,
and discovered that I had unwittingly been preaching Saint-Simon-
ianism. I was not then at an age for reflecting on social grievances.
I was too young to do more than see and note facts, and thanks to
my natural indolence and that passion for the concrete, which is at
once the joy and the weakness of artists, I should perhaps always
have remained at that stage if my somewhat pedantic critics had not
driven me to reflect and painfully search after the ultimate causes
of which till then I had only grasped the effects. But I was so
shrewdly taxed with posing as a strong-minded woman and a
philosopher that one fine day I said to myself, ' What, I wonder,
philosophy?' "
Her liaison with Jules Sandeau, which lasted more than a
year, was abruptly terminated by the discovery in their apart-
ment on an unexpected return from Nohant of une blanchisseuse
quelconque. For a short while she was broken hearted: " My
heart is a cemetery!" she wrote to Sainte-Beuve. " A necro-
polis," was the comment of her discarded lover when years
later the remark was repeated to him.
Her third novel, Lelia (1833), is in the same vein, a stronger
and more outspoken diatribe against society and the marriage
law. Lelia is a female Manfred, and Dumas had some reason
to complain that George Sand was giving them " du Lord
Byron au kilo."
But a new chapter in her life was now to open. In her despair
she turned for comfort and counsel to Sainte-Beuve, now con-
stituted her regular father confessor. This ghostly Sir Pandarus
recommended new friendships, but she was hard to please.
Dumas was " trop commis-voyageur," Jouffroy too serenely
virtuous and Musset " trop dandy." Merimee was tried for a
week, but the cool cynic and the perfervid apostle of women's
rights proved mutually repulsive. Alfred de Musset was intro-
duced, and the two natures leapt together as by elective affinity.
The moral aspect has been given by Mr Swinburne in an epigram:
" Alfred was a terrible flirt and George did not behave as a
perfect gentleman."
Towards the end of 1833 George Sand, after winning the
reluctant consent of Musset's mother, set out in the poet's
company for Italy, and in January 1834 the pair reached Venice,
staying first at the Hotel Danieli and then in lodgings. At
first it was a veritable honeymoon; conversation never flagged
and either found in the other his soul's complement. But there
is a limit to love-making, and George Sand, always practical,
set to work to provide the means of living. Musset, though he
depended on her exertions, was first bored and then irritated
at the sight of this terrible iiache a ecrire, whose pen was
going for eight hours a day, and sought diversion in the
cafes and other less reputable resorts of pleasure. The con-
sequence was a nervous illness with some of the symptoms of
delirium tremens, through which George Sand nursed him with
tenderness and care. But with a strange want of delicacy,
to use the mildest term, she made love at the same time to
a young Venetian doctor whom she had called in, by name
Pagello. The pair went off and found their way eventually
to Paris, leaving Musset in Italy, deeply wounded in his affections,
but, to do him justice, taking all the blame for the rupture on
himself. George Sand soon tired of her new love, and even before
she had given him his conge was dying to be on again with the
old. She cut off her hair and sent it to Musset as a token of
penitence, but Musset, though he still flirted with her, never
quite forgave her infidelity and refused to admit her to his
deathbed. Among the mass of romans d clef and pamphlets
which the adventure produced, two only have any literary
importance, Musset's Confessions d'un enfant du sie.de and
George Sand's Rile et lui. In the former woman appears as the
serpent whose trail is over all; in the latter, written twenty-five
years after the event, she is the 'guardian angel abused and
maltreated by men. Lui et elle, the rejoinder of the poet's
brother Paul de Musset, was even more a travesty of the facts
with no redeeming graces of style.
It remains to trace the influence, direct or indirect, of the
poet on the novelist. Jacques was the first outcome of the
journey to Italy, and in precision and splendour of style it marks
a distinct progress. The motive of this and of the succeeding
novels of what may be called her second period is free (not to
be confounded with promiscuous) love. The hero, who is none
other than George Sand in man's disguise, makes confession of
faith: " I have never imposed constancy on myself. When
I have felt that love was dead, I have said so without shame
or remorse and have obeyed Providence that was leading me
elsewhere." And the runaway wife writes to her lover:
" O my dear Octave, we shall never pass a night together without
first kneeling down and praying for Jacques." Love is a divine
instinct: to love is to be virtuous; follow the dictates of your
heart and you cannot go wrong such is the doctrine that George
Sand preached and practised.
In Les Lettres d'un voyageur, which ran in the Revue des
deux mond.es between 1834 and 1836, we have not only impres-
sions of travel, but the direct impressions of men and things not
distorted by the exigencies of a novel. They reveal to us the
true and better side of George Sand, the loyal and devoted friend,
the mother who under happier conditions might have been
reputed a Roman matron. We could not choose a more perfect
specimen of her style than the allegory under which she pictures
the " might have been."
" I care little about growing old; I care far more not to grow old
alone, but I have never met the being with whom I could have
chosen to live and die, or if I ever met him I knew not how to
keep him. Listen to a story and weep. There was a good artist
called Watelet, the best aquafortis engraver of his day. He loved
Marguerite Lecomte, and taught her to engrave as well as himself.
She left husband and home to go and live with him. The world con-
demned them; then, as they were poor and modest, it forgot them.
Forty years afterwards their retreat was discovered. In a cottage
in the environs of Paris called Le Moulin joli, there sat at the same
table an old man engraving and an old woman whom he called his
meuniere also engraving. The last design they were at work upon
represented the Moulin joli, the house of Marguerite, with the device
Cur voile permutem Sabina divitias operosiores? It hangs in my room
over a portrait the original of which no one here has seen. For a year
the person who gave me this portrait sat with me every night at a
little table and lived by the same work. At daybreak we consulted
together on our work for the day, and at night we supped at the same
little table, chatting the while on art, on sentiment, on the future.
The future broke v faith with us. Pray for me, O Marguerite
Lecomte"!"
The Everard of the Lettres introduces us to a new and for the
time a dominant influence on the life and writings. Michel
de Bourges was the counsel whose eloquent pleadings brought
SAND, GEORGE
the suit for a judicial separation to a successful issue in I836. 1
Unlike her former lovers, he was a man of masterful will, a budge
philosopher who carried her intellect by storm before he laid
siege to her heart. He preached republicanism to her by the
hour, and even locked her up in her bedroom to reflect on his
sermons. She was but half converted, and fled before long
from a republic in which art and poetry had no place. Other
celebrities who figure in the Lettres under a transparent disguise
are Liszt and Mme d'Agoult (known to literature as Daniel
Stern), whom she met in Switzerland and entertained for some
months at Nohant. Liszt, in after years when they had drifted
apart, wrote of her: " George Sand catches her butterfly and
tames it in her cage by feeding it on flowers and nectar this
is the love period. Then she sticks her pin into it when it
struggles that is the conge and it always comes from her.
Afterwards she vivisects it, stuffs it, and adds it to her collection
of heroes for novels." There is some truth in the satire, but it
wholly misrepresents her rupture with Chopin.
To explain this we must open a new chapter of the life in
which George Sand appears as the devoted mother. The letters
to her daughter Solange, which have recently been published,
irresistibly recall the letters of Mme de Sevigne to Mme de
Grignan. Solange, who inherited all her mother's wild blood
with none of her genius, on the eve of a marriage that had been
arranged with a Berrichon gentleman, ran away with Clesinger,
a sculptor to whom she had sat for her bust. George Sand not
only forgave the elopement and hushed up the scandal by a
private marriage, but she settled the young couple in Paris and
made over to them nearly one-half of her available property.
Clesinger turned out a thankless scapegrace and George Sand was
at last compelled to refuse to admit him to Nohant. In the
domestic quarrel that ensued Solange, who was a very Vivien, got
the ear of Chopin. He upbraided the mother with her hard-
heartedness, and when she resented his interference he departed
in a huff and they never met again.
The mention of Liszt has led us to anticipate the end of the
story, and we must revert to 1836, when the acquaintance
began. She was then living in Paris, a few doors from her friend
Mme d'Agoult, and the two set up a common salon in the
Hfttel de France. Here she met two men, one of whom indoctrin-
ated her with religious mysticism, the other with advanced
socialism, Lamennais and Pierre Leroux. In the case of Lamen-
nais the disciple outstripped the master. She flung herself into
Lamennais's cause and wrote many unpaid articles in his organ,
Le Monde, but they finally split on the questions of labour and
of women's rights, and she complained that Lamennais first
dragged her forwards and then abused her for going too fast.
The Lettres a Marcie (1837) are a testimony to his ennobling and
spiritualizing personality. Socialism was a more lasting phase,
but her natural good sense revolted at the extravagant mum-
meries of Pere Enfantin and she declined the office of high
priestess.
It was doubtless a revulsion of feeling against the doctrinaires
and in particular against the puritanic reign of Michel that made
her turn to Chopin. She found the maestro towards the end of
1837 dispirited by a temporary eclipse of popularity and in the
first stage of his fatal malady, and carried him off to winter with
her in the south. How she roughed it on an island unknown to
tourists is told in Un hiver A Majorque (1842), a book of travel
that may take rank with Heine's Reisebilder. In nearly all
George Sand's loves there was a strong strain of motherly feeling.
Chopin was first petted by her like a spoilt darling and then
nursed for years like a sick child.
During this, her second period, George Sand allowed herself
to be the mouthpiece of others " un echo qui embellissait la
voix," as Delatouche expressed it. Spiridion (1838) and Les
Sept cordes de la lyre (1840) are mystic echoes of Lamennais.
Le Compagnon du tour de France (1841), Les Maltres mosaisles
1 The final settlement was concluded in 1836. Mme Dudevant
was granted sole legal rights over the two children and her Paris home
was restored to her. In return she made over to her husband
40,000 fr. vested in the funds.
and Le Meunier d' Angibault (1845), Le Peche de M. Antoine
(1847) are all socialistic novels, though they are much more,
and good in spite of the socialism. Consuelo (1842-1844) and its
sequel La Comtesse de Rudolstadt (1843-1845) are fantaisies & la
Chopin, though the stage on which they are played is the Venice
of Musset. Chopin is the Prince Karol of Lucrezia Floriani (1847),
a self-portraiture unabashed as the Tagebuch einer Verlorenen
and innocent as Paul et Virginie.
An enumeration of George Sand's novels would constitute a
Homeric catalogue, and it must suffice to note only the most
typical and characteristic. She contracted with Buloz to supply
him with a stated amount of copy for the modest retaining fee
of 160 a year, and her editor testifies that the tale of script was
furnished with the punctuality of a notary. She wrote with the
rapidity of Walter Scott and the regularity of Anthony Trollope.
For years her custom was to retire to her desk at 10 P.M. and not
to rise from it till 5 A.M. She wrote a la diable, starting with some
central thesis to set forth or some problem to investigate, but
with no predetermined plot or plan of action. Round this
nucleus her characters (too often mere puppets) grouped them-
selves, and the story gradually crystallized. This unmethodical
method produces in her longer and more ambitious novels, in
Consudo for instance and its continuation, a tangled wilderness,
the clue to which is lost or forgotten; but in her novelettes, when
there is no change of scenery and the characters are few and
simple, it results in the perfection of artistic writing, " an art
that nature makes."
From novels of revolt and tendency novels George Sand turned
at last to simple stories of rustic life, the genuine pastoral. It is
here that she shows her true originality and by these she will
chiefly live. George Sand by her birth and bringing-up was half
a peasant herself, in M. Faguet's phrase, " un paysan qui savait
parler." She had got to know the heart of the peasant his
superstitions, his suspiciousness and low cunning, no less than
his shrewdness, his sturdy independence and his strong domestic
attachments.
Jeanne, (1844) begins the series which has been happily called
the Bucolics of France. To paint a Joan of Arc who lives and
dies inglorious is the theme she sets herself, and through most
of the novel it is perfectly executed. The last chapters when
Jeanne appears as the Velida of Mont Barbot and the Grande
Pastoure are a falling off and a survival of the romanticism of her
second manner. La Mare au diable (1846) is a clear-cut gem,
perfect as a work of Greek art. FranQois le champi and La
Petite Fadette are of no less exquisite workmanship. Les Maitres
sonneurs (1853) the favourite novel of Sir Leslie Stephen
brings the series of village novels to a close, but as closely akin
to them must be mentioned the Conies d'une grande-mere, delight-
ful fairy tales of the Talking Oak, Wings of Courage and Queen
Coax, told to her grandchildren in the last years of her life.
The revolution of 1848 arrested for a while her novelistic
activities. She threw herself heart and soul into the cause of
the extreme republicans, composed manifestos for her friends,
addressed letters to the people, and even started a newspaper.
But her political ardour was short-lived; she cared little about
forms of government, and, when the days of June dashed to the
ground her hopes of social regeneration, she quitted once for all
the field of politics and returned to her quiet country ways and
her true vocation as an interpreter of nature, a spiritualizer of
the commonest sights of earth and the homeliest household
affections. In 1849 she writes from Berri to a political friend:
" You thought that I was drinking blood from the skulls of
aristocrats. No, I am studying Virgil and learning Latin ! ' '
In her latest works she went back to her earlier themes of
romantic and unchartered love, but the scene is shifted from
Berri, which she felt she had exhausted, to other provinces of
France, and instead of passionate manifestos we have a gallery
of genre pictures treated in the spirit of Francois le champi.
" Vous faites," she said to her friend Honore de Balzac, " la
comedie humaine; et moi, c'est 1'eglogue humaine que j'ai voulu
faire."
A word must be said of George Sand as a playwright. She
SAND
was as fond of acting as Goethe, and like him began with a puppet
stage, succeeded by amateur theatricals, the chief entertainment
provided for her guests at Nohant. Undaunted by many failures,
she dramatized several of her novels with moderate success
Francois le champi, played at the Odeon in 1849, and Les Beaux
Messieurs de Bois-Dore (1862) were the best; Claudie, produced
in 1851, is a charming pastoral play, and Le Marquis de Vittemer
(1864) (in which she was helped by Dumas fils) was a genuine
triumph. Her statue by Clesinger was placed in the foyer of
the Theatre Francais in 1877.
Of George Sand's style a foreigner can be but an imperfect
judge, but French critics, from Sainte-Beuve, Nisard and Caro
down to Jules Lemaitre and Faguet, have agreed to praise her
spontaneity, her correctness of diction, her easy opulence the
lactea ubertas that Quintilian attributes to Livy. The language
of her country novels is the genuine patois of middle France
rendered in a literary form. Thus in La Petite Fadette, by the
happy device of making the hemp dresser the narrator, she
speaks (to quote Sainte-Beuve) as though she had on her right
the unlettered rustic and on her left a member of the Academic,
and made herself the interpreter between the two. She hits
the happy mean between the studied archaism of Courier's
Daphnis et Cloe and the realistic patois of the later kailyard
novel which for Southerners requires a glossary. Of her style
generally the characteristic quality is fluidity. She has all the
abandon of an Italian improvisatore, the simplicity of a Bernardin
de St Pierre without his mawkishness, the sentimentality of a
Rousseau without his egotism, the rhythmic eloquence of a
Chateaubriand without his grandiloquence.
As a painter of nature she has much in common with Words-
worth. She keeps her eye on the object, but adds, like Words-
worth, the visionary gleam, and receives from nature but what
she herself gives. Like Wordsworth she lays us on the lap of
earth and sheds the freshness of the early world. She, too, had
found love in huts where poor men dwell, and her miller, her
bagpipers, her workers in mosaic are as faithful renderings in
prose of peasant life and sentiment as Wordsworth's leech-
gatherer and wagoners and gleaners are in verse. Her
psychology is not subtle or profound, but her leading characters
are clearly conceived and drawn in broad, bold outlines. No
one has better understood or more skilfully portrayed the artistic
temperament the musician, the actor, the poet and no French
writer before her had so divined and laid bare the heart of a girl.
She works from within outwards, touches first the mainspring
and then sets it to play. As Mr Henry James puts it, she inter-
views herself. Rarely losing touch of earth, and sometimes of
the earth earthy, she is still at heart a spiritualist. Her final
word on herself rings true, " Toujours tourmentee des choses
divines."
Unlike Victor Hugo and Balzac, she founded no school, though
Fromentin, Theuriet, Cherbuliez, Fabre and Bazin might be
claimed as her collateral descendants. In Russia her influence
has been greater. She directly inspired Dostoievski, and Tur-
genieff owes much to her. In England she has found her warmest
admirers. Elizabeth Barrett Browning wrote sonnets to " the
large-brained woman and large-hearted man, self-named George
Sand." To Thackeray her diction recalled the sound of village
bells faffing sweetly and softly on the ear, and it sent a shiver
through John Stuart Mill, like a symphony of Haydn or Mozart.
Leslie Stephen advised Thomas Hardy, then an aspiring contri-
butor to the Cornhttl, to read George Sand, whose country stories
seemed to him perfect. " The harmony and grace, even if
strictly inimitable, are good to aim at." He pronounced the
Histoire de ma vie about the best biography he had ever read.
F. W. H. Myers claimed her as anima naturaliter Christiana and
the inspired exponent of the religion of the future.
George Eliot by her very name invites and challenges com-
parison with George Sand. But it was as a humble follower,
not as a rival, that she took George Sand as sponsor. Both
women broke with social conventions, but while George Sand
(if the expression may be allowed) kicked over the traces, George
Eliot was impelled all the more emphatically, because of her
exceptional circumstances, to put duty before inclination and to
uphold the reign of law and order. Both passed through phases
of faith, but while even Positivism did not cool George Eliot's
innate religious fervour, with George Sand religion was a passing
experience, no deeper than her republicanism and less lasting
than her socialism, and she lived and died a gentle savage.
Rousseau's Confessions was the favourite book of both (as it
was of Emerson), but George Eliot was never converted by
the high priest of sentimentalism into a belief in human per-
fectibility and a return to nature. As a thinker George Eliot
is vastly superior; her knowledge is more profound and her
psychological analysis subtler and more scientific. But as an
artist, in unity of design, in harmony of treatment, in purity
and simplicity of language, so felicitous and yet so unstudied,
in those qualities which make the best of George Sand's novels
masterpieces of art, she is as much her inferior.
Mr Francis Gribblehas summed up her character in" a scornful,
insular way " as a h'ght woman. A truer estimate is that of
Sainte-Beuve, her intimate friend for more than thirty years,
but never her lover. " In the great crises of action her intellect,
her heart and her temperament are at one. She is a thorough
woman, but with none of the pettinesses, subterfuges, and
mental reservations of her sex; she loves wide vistas and boundless
horizons and instinctively seeks them out; she is concerned for
universal happiness and takes thought for the improvement of
mankind thelastinfirmity and most innocent mania of generous
souls. Her works are in very deed the echo of our times. Wher-
ever we were wounded and stricken her heart bled in sympathy,
and all our maladies and miseries evoked from her a lyric wail."
George Sand died at Nohant on the 8th of June 1876. To
a youth and womanhood of storm and stress had succeeded an
old age of serene activity and then of calm decay. Her nights
were spent in writing, which seemed in her case a relaxation from
the real business of the day, playing with her grandchildren,
gardening, conversing with her visitors it might be Balzac
or Dumas, or Octave Feuillet or Matthew Arnold or writing
long letters to Sainte-Beuve and Flaubert. " Calme, toujours
plus de calme," was her last prayer, and her dying words, " Ne
detruisez pas la verdure."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The collected edition of George Sand's works
was published in Paris (1862-1883) in 96 volumes, with supplement
109 volumes; the Histoire de ma vie appeared in 20 volumes in
1854-1855. The Etude bibliographique sur les ceuvres de George
Sand by " le bibliophile Isaac " (vicomte de Spoelberck) (Brussels,
1868) gives the most complete bibliography. Of Vladimir Karenin's
(pseudonym of Mme Komarova) George Sand, the most complete life,
the first two volumes (1899-1901) carry the life down to 1839.
There is much new material in George Sand et safitte, by S. Rocheblave
( I 95). Correspondence de G. Sand et d' Alfred de Mussel (Brussels,
1904), Correspondance entre George Sand et Gustave Flaubert (1904),
and Lettres a Alfred de Mussel et a Sainte-Beuve (1897). E. M. Caro's
George Sand (1887) is rather a critique than a life. Lives by Mire-
court (1855) and by Haussonville (1878) may also be consulted. Of
the numerous shorter studies may be mentioned those of Sainte-
Beuve in the Causeries du lundi and in Portraits contemporains;
Jules Lemaitre in Les Contemporains, vol. iv. ; E. Faguet, XIX'
Siede; F. W. H. Myers, Essays Ancient and Modern (1883); Henry
James in North American Review (April 1902) ; Matthew Arnold,
Mixed Essays (1879). See also Rene Doumic's George Sand (1909),
which has been translated into English by Alys Mallard as George
Sand: Some Aspects of her Life and Writings (1910). (F. S.)
SAND. When rocks or minerals are pulverized by any agencies,
natural or artificial, the products may be classified as gravels,
sands and muds or days, according to the size of the individual
particles. If the grains are so fine as to be impalpable (about
njVo in. in diameter) the deposit may be regarded, as a mud or day;
if many of them are as large as peas the rock is a gravd. Sands
may be uniform when they have been sorted out by some
agency such as a gentle current of water or the wind blowing
steadily across smooth arid lands, but usually they vary much
both in the coarseness of their grains and in their mineral com-
position. The great source of natural sands is the action of the
atmosphere, frost, rain, plants and other agencies in breaking
up the surfaces of rocks and redudng them to the condition of
fine powder; in other words sands are ordinarily the product
of the agencies of denudation operating on the rocks of the earth's
136
SANDAL SANDALWOOD
crust. Not all, however, are of this kind, for a few are artificial,
like the crushed tailings produced in the extractions of metals
from their ores; there are also volcanic sands which have
originated by explosions of steam in the craters of active
volcanoes.
A great part of the surface of the globe is covered by sand. In
fertile regions the soil is very often of a sandy nature; though most
soils are mixtures of sand with clay or stones, and may be described
as loams rather than as sands. Pure sandy soils are found prin-
cipally near sea-coasts where the sand has been blown inwards from
the shore, or on formations of soft and friable sandstone like the
Greensand. The soil of deserts also is often arenaceous, but there
the finer particles have been lifted and borne away by the wind.
Accumulations of sand are found also in some parts of the courses
of our rivers, very often over wide stretches of the seashore, and
more particularly on the sea bottom, where the water is not very deep,
at no great distance from the land.
Of the rock-making minerals which are common on the earth's
crust only a limited number occur at all frequently in sand deposits.
For several reasons quartz is by far the commonest ingredient of
sands. It is a very abundant mineral in rocks and is comparatively
hard, so that it is not readily worn down to a very fine muddy paste.
It also possesses practically no cleavage, and does not split up natur-
ally into thin fragments. If we add to this that it is nearly insoluble
in water and that it does not decompose, but preserves its freshness
unaltered after long ages of exposure to weathering, we can see that
it has all the properties necessary for furnishing a large portion of the
sandy material produced by the detrition of rock masses. With
quartz there is often a small amount of felspar (principally micro-
dine, orthoclase and oligoclase), but this mineral, though almost
as common as quartz in rocks, splits up readily on account of its
cleavage, and decomposes into fine, soft, scaly aggregates of mica
and kaolin, which are removed by the sifting action of water and are
deposited as muds or clays. Small plates of white mica, which,
though soft and very fissile, decompose very slowly, are often mingled
with the quartz and felspar. In addition to these, all sands contain
such minerals as garnet, tourmaline, zircon, rutile and anatase,
which are common rock-forming minerals, both hard and resistant
to decomposition. Among the less common ingredients are topaz,
staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, chlorite, iron oxides, biotite, horn-
blende and augite, while small particles of chert, felsite and other
fine-grained rocks appear frequently in the coarser sand deposits.
Shore sands and river sands, which have not been transported for
any great distance from their parent rocks, often contain minerals
that are too soft or too readily decomposed to persist. In the Lizard
district of Cornwall the sands at the base of cliffs of serpentine are
rich in olivine, augite, cnstatite, tremolite and chromite. Near
volcanic islands such minerals as biotite, hornblende, augite and
zeolites may form a large portion of the local sand deposits. In
marine sands also organic substances are almost universally present,
either fragments of plants or the debris of calcareous shells, in fact
many sands, consist almost entirely of such fragments (shell sands).
Around coral islands there are often extensive deposits of comminuted
coral (coral sands), mixed with which there is a varying proportion of
broken skeletons of calcareous algae, sponge-spicules and other
debris of organic origin. The Greensands which are widely distri-
buted over the floor of the oceans, in places where the continental
shelf merges into the greater depths, owe their colour to small
rounded lumps of glauconite.
Among the accessory ingredients of sands which are of great value
and interest are the precious metals, especially gold and platinum.
These are found usually in the lower parts of the sand deposits
resting on the bed-rock, because of their high specific gravity, and
have been derived from the destruction of the rocks in which they
originally occurred either in quartzose veins or as disseminated
particles. Tinstone occurs also in this way (" stream-tin "), and in
Ceylon, Burma, Brazil, South Africa, &c., precious stones such as the
diamond, ruby, spinel, chrysoberyl and tourmaline are found in
beds of sand and gravel (gem sands).
In general the sand grains have a rounded or oviform shape due
to mutual attrition during transport. Those which have been
carried farthest are most rounded; sands deposited at no great
distance from their parent rock often consist largely of angular
grains. The smaller fragments may be carried along in suspension
in water, and may travel for many miles without being sensibly
worn ; but coarse sands and fine gravels are swept along the bottom
and are subjected to an intense grinding action. Something depends
also on the hardness of the minerals present in the sands, yet even
the diamonds and other gems found in sand deposits have often
their corners worn and smoothed. Minerals with very perfect
cleavage, such as mica, split up into thin plates under the shock of
impact with adjacent grains, and are never rounded like quartz
or tourmaline. In deserts the transport of the sands is effected
by the wind, and owing to the low viscosity of air even the smallest
trains are not held in suspension but are rolled along the ground ;
hence very fine quartzose sands are sometimes met with in arid
regions with every particle smoothed and polished. These sands
flow almost like a liquid and are used in hour-glasses. Similar
" desert sands " occur among the sandstones of the Trias and were
doubtless formed in the manner described.
In addition to river sands, shore sands, marine sand deposits and
desert sands, there are many other types of sand deposits. Blown
sands are usually found near the seashore, but occur also at the
margin of some great lakes like those of N. America; desert sands
belong in great part to this category. These sands have been blown
into their present position by the wind, and unless fixed by vege-
tation are constantly though slowly in movement, being in conse-
quence a menace to agricultural land on their leeward sides. They
may be shell sands, quartz sands or mixed sands, and often show
very marked oblique stratification or " current bedding." The
surface of blown sand deposits is generally marked by dunes. Glacial
sands are common in districts like Britain and those parts of N.
America which have been covered by an ice-sheet. They are really
water-borne and have been deposited by streams, though they occur
in situations where rivers no longer flow. The waters produced by
the melting of the ice-sheets flooded extensive tracts of country,
laying down sand and mud deposits in temporary lakes. These
sands are usually angular, because they have not been transported
to any great distance. The old high-level terraces which border the
lower courses of many rivers, though usually consisting of gravel, are
often accompanied by considerable sand deposits.
Many of the Tertiary and some of the Secondary sandstone rocks
are so incompletely consolidated by cementation that they are
essentially sand rocks, and especially when weathered may be used
as sources of sand. Thus in Britain there are Pliocene sands (St
Erth, Cornwall, &c.), Eocene sands (Bagshot sands and Thanet
sands) ; and the Lower and Upper Greensand (Cretaceous) are often
dug in pits, though sometimes firmly coherent and more properly
described as sandstones (?.P.).
The economic uses of sands are very numerous. They are largely
employed for polishing and scouring both for domestic and manu-
facturing purposes. " Bath bricks " are made from the sand of the
river Parrett near Bridgwater. Sand for glass-making was formerly
obtained at Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight and at Lynn in Norfolk,
but must be very pure for the best kinds of glass, and crushed quartz
or flint is often preferred on this account. One of the principal uses
of sand is for making mortar and cement : for this any good clean
quartzose sand free from salts is suitable; it may be washed to
remove impurities and sifted to secure uniformity in the size of the
individual grains. Moulding sands, adapted for foundry purposes,
generally contain a small admixture of clay. Sands are also em-
ployed in brick-making, in filtering, and for etching glass and other
substances by means of the sand blast. (J. S. F.)
SANDAL (from the Latinized form of Gr. o-av6a\iov or
aav8a\ov: this probably represents the Persian sandal, slipper;
it is not to be referred to Gr. aavls, board), the foot-covering
which consists of a sole of leather or other material attached
to the sole of the foot by a thong of leather passing between
the great and second toe, crossed over the instep and fastened
round the ankle (see SHOE and COSTUME, section Greek and
Roman). Sandals are only worn regularly among the peoples
of Western civilization by friars, though forms of them are found
among the peasants in Spain and the Balkans. They have in
recent times been adopted by the extreme advocates of hygienic
dress, especially for young children. In the early part of the igth
century a form of low, light slipper fastened by a ribbon crossed
over the instep and round the ankle, and worn by women, was
known as a sandal.
SANDALWOOD (from Fr. sandal, santal, Gr. travraXov,
a&v5a.\oi>, Pers. sandal, chandan, Skt. chandana, the sandal
tree; the form " sanders " is probably an English corruption),
a fragrant wood obtained from various trees of the natural order
Santalaceae, and principally from Santalum album, a native of
India. The use of sandalwood dates as far back at least as the
5th century B.C. It is still extensively used in India and China,
wherever Buddhism prevails, being employed in funeral rites
and religious ceremonies. Until the middle of the i8th century
India was the only source of sandalwood. The discovery of a
sandalwood in the islands of the Pacific led to difficulties with the
natives, often ending in bloodshed, the celebrated missionary
John Williams (1796-1839), amongst others, having fallen a
victim to an indiscriminate retaliation by the natives on white
men visiting the islands. The loss of life in this trade was at one
time even greater than in that of whaling, with which it ranked
as one of the most adventurous of callings. In India sandalwood
is largely used in the manufacture of boxes, fans and other
ornamental articles of inlaid work, and to a limited extent in
medicine as a domestic remedy for all kinds of pains and aches.
SANDARACH SAND-EEL
137
The oil, obtained by distilling the wood in chips, is largely used
as a perfume, few native Indian attars or essential oils being free
from admixture with it. In the form of powder or paste the wood
is employed in the pigments used by the Brahmans for their
distinguishing caste-marks.
Red sandalwood, known also as red sanders wood, is the product of
a small leguminous tree, Pterocarpus santalinus, native of S. India,
Ceylon and the Philippine Islands. Afresh surface of the wood has
a rich deep red colour, which on exposure, however, assumes a dark
brownish tint. In medieval times red sandalwood possessed a high
reputation in medicine, and it was valued as a colouring ingredient
in many dishes. It is pharmacologically quite inert. Now it is
little used as a colouring agent in pharmacy, its principal application
being in wool-dyeing. Several other species of Pterocarpus, notably
P. indicus, contain the same dyeing principle and can be used as
substitutes for red sandalwood. The barwood and camwood of
the Guinea Coast of Africa, from Baphia nitida or an allied species,
called santal rouge d'Afrique by the French, are also in all respects
closely allied to the red sandalwood of Oriental countries.
As a substitute for copaiba (q.v.), sandalwood oil, distilled from
the wood of Santalum album, is more expensive and pleasanter to
take, but it is less efficient, as it does not contain any analogue to
the valuable resin in copaiba.
SANDARACH (Fr. sandaraque, Lat. sandaraca, Gr. <ra.vdap6.iai,
realgar or red sulphide of arsenic, cf. Pers. sandarus, kt. sindura,
realgar), in mineralogy realgar or native arsenic disulphide,
but generally (a use found in Dioscorides) a resinous body
obtained from the small coniferous tree Callitris quadrivalvis,
native of the north-west regions of Africa, and especially char-
acteristic of the Atlas mountains. The resin, which is procured
as a natural exudation on the stems, and also obtained by
making incisions in the bark of the trees, comes into commerce
in the form of small round balls or elongated tears, transparent,
and having a delicate yellow tinge. It is a little harder than mastic,
for which it is sometimes substituted. It is also used as incense,
and by the Arabs medicinally as a remedy for diarrhoea. It has
no medicinal advantages over many of the resins employed in
modern therapeutics. An analogous resin is procured in China
from Callitris sinensis, and in S. Australia, under the name of
pine gum, from C. Reissii.
SANDBACH, a market town in the Crewe parliamentary
division of Cheshire, England, 5 m. N.E. of Crewe, on the London
& North-Western and North Staffordshire railways. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 5558. It lies on a headstream of the
small river Wheelock, a tributary of the Weaver. The parish
church of St Mary is Perpendicular, with a fine carved roof of the
1 7th century. A few old timbered houses, of the same period,
remain. In the market-place are two remarkable crosses covered
with rude carvings, and assigned by some to the 7th century,
being similar to those at Monasterboice and elsewhere in Ireland.
There are boot and shoe factories, chemical works and a manu-
factory of fustians, with salt-works and iron-works in the adjacent
township of Wheelock.
SANDBERGER, KARL LUDWIG FRIDOLIN VON (1826-1898),
German palaeontologist and geologist, was born at Dillenburg,
Nassau, on the 22nd of November 1826. He was educated at
the universities of Bonn, Heidelberg and Giessen, at the last
of which he graduated Ph.D. in 1846. He then studied at the
university of Marburg, where he wrote his first essay, Ubersicht
der geologischen Verhallnisse des Herzogtums Nassau (1847).
In 1849 he became curator of the Natural History Museum at
Wiesbaden, and began to study the Tertiary strata of the Mayence
Basin, and also the Devonian fossils of the Rhenish provinces,
on which he published elaborate memoirs. In 1855 he was
appointed professor of mineralogy and geology at the Poly-
technic Institute at Karlsruhe, and he took part in the geological
survey of Baden. From 1863 to 1896 he was professor of
mineralogy and geology at the university of Wurzburg. His
great work Die Land- und Susswasser-Conchylien der Vorwelt
was published in 1870-1875. Later he issued an authoritative
work on mineral veins, Untersuchungen iiber Erzgdnge (1882-1885).
He died at Wurzburg on the nth of April 1898. His brother
GUIDO SANDBERGER (1821-1869) was an authority on fossil
cephalopoda, and together they published Die Versteinerungen
de& rheinischen Schichtensy stems in Nassau (1850-1856).
SANDBY, PAUL (1725-1809), English water-colour painter,
was born at Nottingham in 1725. In 1746 he was appointed by
the duke of Cumberland draughtsman to the survey of the
Highlands. In 1752 he quitted this post and retired to Windsor,
where he occupied himself with the production of water-colour
drawings of scenery and architecture. Sir Joseph Banks com-
missioned him to bring out in aquatint (a method of engrav-
ing then peculiar to Sandby) forty-eight plates drawn during
a tour in Wales. Sandby displayed considerable power as a
caricaturist in his attempt to ridicule the opposition of Hogarth
to the plan for creating a public academy for the arts. In 1768
he was chosen a foundation-member of the Royal Academy and
appointed chief drawing-master to the Royal Military Academy
at Woolwich. He held this situation till 1799. Sandby is best
remembered, however, by his water-colour paintings. They
are topographical in character, and, while they want the richness
and brilliancy of modern water-colour, he nevertheless impressed
upon them the originality of his mind. His etchings, such as the
Cries of London and the illustrations to Ramsay's GentleShepherd,
and his plates, such as those to Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered,
are numerous and carefully executed. He died in London on
the gth of November 1809.
SANDEAU, LEONARD SYLVAIN JULIEN [JULES] (1811-
1883), French novelist, was born at Aubusson (Creuse) on the
igth of February 1811. He was sent to Paris to study law, but
spent much of his time with unruly students. He met Madame
Dudevant (George Sand) at Le Coudray in the house of a friend,
and when she came to Paris in 1831 she joined Sandeau. The
intimacy did not last long, but it produced Rose et Blanche
(1831), a novel written in common under the pseudonym Jules
Sand, from which George Sand took the idea of her famous
nom <}e guerre.
Sandeau continued for nearly fifty years to produce novels and to
collaborate in plays. His best works are Mananna (1839), in which
he draws a portrait of George Sand; Le Docteur Herbeau (1841);
Catherine (1845) ; Mademoiselle de la Seigliere (1848), a successful
picture of society under Louis Philippe, dramatized in 1851; Made-
leine (1848); La Chasse au roman (1849); Sacs et parchemins
(1851) ; La Maison dePenarvan (1858) ; La Roche aux mouettes (1871).
The famous play of Le Gendre de M.Poirier is one of several which he
wrote with Emile Augier the novelist usually contributing the story
and the dramatist the theatrical working up. Meanwhile Sandeau
had been made conservateur of the Mazarin library in 1853, elected
to the Academy in 1858, and next year appointed librarian of St
Cloud. At the suppression of this latter office, after the fall of the
empire, he was pensioned. He died on the 24th of April 1883.
He was never a very popular novelist, and the quiet grace of his
style, and his refusal to pander to the popular taste in the morals and
incidents of his novels, may have disqualified him for popularity.
See G. Planche, Portraits litteraires (1849), vol. i. ; J. Claretie,
/. Sandeau (1883); F. Brunetiere in the Revue des deux mondes
(1887).
SAND-EEL, or SAND-LAUNCE. The fishes known under these
names form a small family (Ammodytidae) now included with
the Scombresocidae in the sub-order Percesoces. They were
formerly placed in the Anacanthini and supposed to be allied
to the Gadidae, but a fossil form Cobitopsis has recently been
described in which the pelvic fins are present, and are abdominal
in position as in Belone and Scombresox.
Their body is of an elongate-cylindrical shape, with the head
terminating in a long conical snout, the projecting lower jaw forming
the pointed end. A low long dorsal fin, in which no distinction be-
tween spines and rays can be observed, occupies nearly the whole
length of the back, and a long anal, composed of similar short and
delicate rays, commences immediately behind the vent, which is
placed about midway between the head and caudal fin. The
caudal is forked and the pectorals are short. The total absence of
ventral fins indicates the burrowing habits of these fishes. The
scales, when present, are very small ; but generally the development
of scales has only proceeded to the formation of oblique folds of the
integuments. The eyes are lateral and of moderate size ; the denti-
tion is quite rudimentary.
Sand-eels are small littoral marine fishes, only one species attain-
ing a length of 18 in. (Ammodytes lanceolatus). They live in shoals at
various depths on a sandy bottom, and bury themselves in the sand
on the slightest alarm. Other shoals live in deeper water. When
they are surprised by fish of prey or porpoises they are frequently
driven to the surface in such dense masses that numbers of them
can be scooped out of the water with a bucket or hand-net. Sand-
138
SANDEFJORD SANDERSON
eels destroy a great quantity of fry and other small creatures, such
as the lancelet (Amphioxus), which lives in similar localities. They
are excellent eating, and are much sought after for bait. They are
captured by small meshed seines, as well as by digging in the sand.
The eggs of sand-eels are small, heavier than sea-water and slightly
adhesive: they are scattered among the grains of sand in which the
fishes live, and the larvae and young at various stages of growth
may be taken with the row-net in sandy bays in summer.
Sand-eels are common in the N. Atlantic; a species scarcely
distinct from the European common sand-launce occurs on the
Pacific side of N. America, another on the E. coast of S. Africa. On
the British coasts three species are found: the greater sand-eel
(Ammodytes lanceolatus), distinguished by a tooth-like bicuspid
Erominence on the vomer; the common sand-launce (A. tobianus),
om 5 to 7 in. long, with unarmed vomer, even dorsal fin, and with
the integuments folded; and the southern sand-launce (.4. siculus),
with unarmed vomer, smooth skin, and with the margins of the dorsal
and anal fins undulated. The last species is common in the Mediter-
ranean, but local farther N. It has been found near the Shetlands
at depths from 80 to 100 fathoms.
SANDEFJORD, the oldest and most famous spa in Norway,
in Jarlsberg-Laurvik ami (county), 86 m. S.S.W. of Christiania
by the Skien railway! Pop. (1900) 4847. The springs are
sulphurous, saline and chalybeate. Specimens of jaettegryder
or giant's cauldrons may be seen at Gaardaasen and Vindalsbugt ,
some upwards of 23 ft. in depth.
SANDEMAN, SIR ROBERT GROVES (1835-1892), Indian
officer and administrator, was the son of General Robert Turnbull
Sandeman, and was born on the 25th of February 1835. He
was educated at Perth and St Andrews University, and joined
the 33rd Bengal Infantry in 1856. When that regiment was
disarmed at Phillour by General Nicholson during the Mutiny
in 1857, he took part in the final capture of Lucknow as adjutant
of the nth Bengal Lancers. After the suppression of the
Mutiny he was appointed to the Punjab Commission by Sir
John Lawrence. In 1866 he was appointed district officer of
Dera Ghazi Khan, and there first showed his capacity in dealing
with the Baluch tribes. He was the first to break through the
close-border system of Lord Lawrence, by extending British
influence to the independent tribes beyond the border. In his
hands this policy worked admirably, owing to his tact in manag-
ing the tribesmen and his genius for control. In 1876 he negoti-
ated the treaty with the khan of Kalat, which subsequently
governed the relations between Kalat and the Indian govern-
ment; and in 1877 he was made agent to the governor-general
in Baluchistan, an office which he held till his death. During
the second Afghan War in 1878 his influence over the tribesmen
was of the utmost importance, since it enabled him to keep
intact the line of communications with Kandahar, and to control
the tribes after the British disaster at Maiwand. For these
services he was made K.C.S.I. in 1879. In 1889 he occupied the
Zhob valley, a strategic advantage which opened the Gomal
Pass through the Waziri country to caravan traffic. Sandeman's
system was not so well suited to the Pathan as to his Baluch
neighbour. But in Baluchistan he was a pioneer, a pacificator
and a successful administrator, who converted that country
from a state of complete anarchy into a province as orderly
as any in British India. He died at Bela, the capital of Las
Bela state, on the 29th of January 1892, and there he lies buried
under a handsome tomb.
See T. H. Thornton, Sir Robert Sandeman (1895); and R. I.
Bruce, The Forward Policy (1900).
SANDERS, DANIEL (1819-1896), German lexicographer, was
born on the I2th of November 1819 at Altstrelitz in Mecklen-
burg, of Jewish parentage. He was educated at the " Gymnasium
Carolinum " in the neighbouring capital Neustrelitz, and the
universities of Berlin and Halle, where he took the degree of
doctor philosophiae. From 1842 to 1852 he conducted with success
the school at Altstrelitz.
In 1852 he subjected Grimm's Deutsches Worterbuch to a rigorous
examination, and as a result published his dictionary of the German
language, Worterbuch der deutschen Sprache (3 vols., 1859-1865).
This was followed by his Ergdnzungsworterbuch der deutschen Sprache
(1878-1885). Amon^ others of his works in the same field are
Fremdworterbuch (Leipzig, 1871; 2nd ed., 1891), Worterbuch der
Hauptschwierigkeiien in der deutschen Sprache (1872; 22nd ed.,
1892) and Lehrbuch der deutschen Sprache fur Schulen (8th ed.,
1888). Sanders laid down his views in his Katechismus der deutschen
Orthographic (1856; 4th ed., 1878), and was an active member of the
orthographical conference in Berlin in 1876. He published a trans-
lation in verse of theSong of Songs ( 1 866) , and wrote some poems for the
young, Heitere Kinderweli (1868). In 1887 he founded the Zeitschrift
fur die deutsche Sprache, which he conducted almost down to his
death at Altstrelitz on the nth of March 1897.
See Friedrich Diisel, Daniel Sanders (1886; 2nd ed., 1890); A.
Segert-Stein, Daniel Sanders, ein Gedenkbuch (1897).
SANDERS, NICHOLAS (c. 1530-1581), Roman Catholic agent
and historian, born about 1530 at Charlwood, Surrey, was a
son of William Sanders, once sheriff of Surrey, who was descended
from the Sanders of Sanderstead. Educated at Winchester
and New College, Oxford, he was elected fellow in 1548 and
graduated B.C.L. in 1551. The family had strong Catholic
leanings, and two of Nicholas's sisters, who must have been much
older than he was, became nuns of Sion convent before its dis-
solution. Nicholas was selected to deliver the oration at the
reception of Cardinal Pole's visitors by the university in 1557,
and soon after Elizabeth's accession he went to Rome where he
was befriended by Pole's confidant, Cardinal Morone; he also
owed much to the generosity of Sir Francis Englefield (<?..).
He was ordained priest at Rome, and was, even before the end
of 1550, mentioned as a likely candidate for the cardinal's hat.
For the next few years he was employed by Cardinal Hosius,
the learned Polish prelate, in his efforts to check the spread of
heresy in Poland, Lithuania and Prussia. .In 1565, like many
other English exiles, he made his headquarters at Louvain, and
after a visit to the Imperial Diet at Augsburg in 1566, in
attendance upon Commendone, who had been largely instru-
mental in the reconciliation of England with Rome in Mary's
reign, he threw himself into the literary controversy between
Bishop Jewel (q.v.) and Harding. His De visibili Monarchia
Ecclesiae, published in 1571, contains the first narrative of the
sufferings of the English Roman Catholics. Its extreme papalism
and its strenuous defence of Pius V.'s bull excommunicating
and deposing Elizabeth marked out Sanders for the enmity of the
English government, and he retaliated with lifelong efforts
to procure the deposition of Elizabeth and restoration of Roman
Catholicism.
His expectations of the cardinalate were disappointed by Pius
V.'s death in 1572, and Sanders spent the next few years at Madrid
trying to embroil Philip II., who gave him a pension of 300 ducats,
in open war with Elizabeth. " The state of Christendom," he wrote,
" dependeth upon the stout assailing of England." His ardent zeal
was sorely tried by Philip's cautious temperament ; and Sir Thomas
Stukeley's projected Irish expedition, which Sanders was to have
accompanied with the blessings and assistance of the pope, was
diverted to Morocco where Stukeley was killed at the battle of Al
Kasr al Kebir in 1578. Sanders, however, found his opportunity in
the following year, when a force of Spaniards and Italians was de-
spatched to Smerwick to assist James Fitzmaurice and his Geraldines
in stirring up an Irish rebellion. The Spaniards were, however,
annihilated by Lord Grey in 1580, and after nearly two years of
wandering in Irish woods and bogs Sanders died of cold and starva-
tion in the spring of 1581. The English exiles were disgusted at the
waste of such material: " Our Sanders," they exclaimed, " is more
to us than the whole of Ireland." His writings have been the basis
of all Roman Catholic histories of the English Reformation. The
most important was his De Origine ac Progressu schismatis Anglicani,
which was continued after 1558 by Edward Rishton, and printed at
Cologne in 1585; it has been often re-edited and translated, the best
English edition being that by David Lewis (London, 1877). Its
statements earned Sanders the nickname of Dr Slanders in England ;
but a considerable number of the " slanders " have been confirmed
by corroborative evidence, and others, e.g. his story that Ann Boleyn
was Henry VIII.'s own daughter, were simply borrowed by Sanders
from earlier writers. Itiiis not a more untrustworthy account than
a vehement controversialist engaged in a life and death struggle
might be expected to write of his theological antagonists.
See Lewis's Introduction (1877); Calendars of Irish, Foreign and
Spanish State Papers, and of the Carew MSS. ; Knox's Letters of
Cardinal Allen; T. F. Kirby's Winchester Scholars; R. Bagwell's
Ireland under the Tudors; A. O. Meyer's England und die katholische
Kirche unter Konigin Elisabeth (1910); and T. G. Law in Diet. Nat.
Biogr. i. 259-261 where a complete list of Sanders's writings is given.
(A. F. P.)
SANDERSON, ROBERT (1587-1663), English divine, was bora
probably at Sheffield, Yorkshire, in September 1587. He was
educated at Rotherham grammar school and at Lincoln College,
Oxford, took orders in 1611, and was promoted successively
SANDFORD SANDHURST
to several benefices. On the recommendation of Laud he was
appointed one of the royal chaplains in 1631, and was a favourite
preacher with the king, who made him regius professor of
divinity at Oxford in 1642. The Civil War kept him from
entering the office till 1646; and in 1648 he was ejected by
the Parliamentary visitors. He recovered his position at the
Restoration, was moderator at the Savoy Conference, 1661, and
was promoted to the bishopric of Lincoln. He died two years
later on the agth of January 1663.
His most celebrated work is his Cases of Conscience, deliberate
judgments upon points of morality submitted to him. They
are distinguished by moral integrity, good sense and learning.
His practice as a college lecturer in logic is better evidenced by
these " cases " than by his Compendium of Logic, first published
in 1618. A complete edition of Sanderson's works (6 vols.)
was edited by William Jacobson in 1854. It includes the Life
by Izaak Walton, revised and enlarged.
SANDFORD, JOHN DE (d. 1294), archbishop of Dublin, was
probably an illegitimate son of the baronial leader, Gilbert Basset
(d. 1241), or of his brother Fulk Basset, bishop of London from
1241 until his death in 1259, a prelate who was prominent during
the troubles of Henry III.'s reign. John was a nephew of Sir
Philip Basset (d. 1271), the justiciar. He first appears as an
official of Henry III. in Ireland and of Edward I. in both England
and Ireland; he was appointed dean of St Patrick's, Dublin,
in 1275. In 1284 he was chosen archbishop of Dublin in succes-
sion to John of Darlington; some, however, objected to this
choice and Sandford resigned his claim; but was elected a second
time while he was in Rome, and returning to Ireland was allowed
to take up the office. In 1288, during a time of great con-
fusion, the archbishop acted as governor of Ireland. In 1290 he
resigned and returned to England. Sandford served Edward I.
in the great case over the succession to the Scottish throne
in 1292 and also as an envoy to the German king, Adolph
of Nassau, and the princes of the Empire. On his return from
Germany he died at Yarmouth on the 2nd of October 1 294.
Sandford's elder brother, Fulk (d. 1271), was also archbishop
of Dublin. He is called Fulk de Sandford and also Fulk Basset
owing to his relationship to the Bassets. Having been arch-
deacon of Middlesex and treasurer and chancellor of St Paul's
Cathedral, London, he was appointed archbishop of Dublin by
Pope Alexander IV. in 1256. He took some slight part in the
government of Ireland under Henry III. and died at Finglas
on the 4th of May 1271.
SANDGATE, a watering-place of Kent, England, on the S.E.
coast, ij m. W. of Folkestone, on the South-Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2023. It is connected
with Hythe, 3 m. W., by a tramway belonging to the railway
company. It is included in the parliamentary borough of Hythe.
Sandgate Castle was built by Henry VIII., but on the formation
of a camp here in 1806 it was considerably altered. The camp
of Shorncliffe lies N. of the town on a plateau.
SAND-GROUSE, the name 1 by which are commonly known
the members of a small group of birds frequenting sandy tracts,
and having their feet more or less clothed with feathers after the
fashion of grouse (q.v.), to which they were originally thought
to be closely allied; the species first described were by the earlier
systematists invariably referred to the genus Tetrao. Their
separation therefrom is due to C. J. Temminck, who made for
them a distinct genus which he called Pterocles? Further
investigation of the osteology and pterylosis of the sand-grouse
revealed stiE greater divergence from the normal Gallinae (to
which the true grouse belong) , as well as several curious resem-
blances to the pigeons; and in the Zoological Society's Proceed-
ings for 1868 (p. 303) T. H. Huxley proposed to regard them,
under the name of Pteroclomorphae, as forming a group equivalent
to the Alectoromorphae and Peristeromorphae. They are now
1 It seems to have been first used by J. Latham in 1783 (Synopsis,
iv. p. 751) as the direct translation of the name Tetrao arenarius
given by Pallas.
2 He states that he published this name in 1809; but hitherto re-
search has failed to find it used until 1815.
generally regarded as forming a separate sub-order Pterocles
of Charadriifprm birds, allied to pigeons (see BIRDS).
The Pteroclidae consist of two genera Pterocles, with about fifteen
species, and Syrrhaptes, with two. Of the former, two species inhabit
Europe, P. arenarius, the sand-grouse proper, and that which is
usually called P. alchata, the pin-tailed sand-grouse. The European
range of the first is practically limited to Portugal, Spain and
S. Russia, while the second inhabits also the S. of France, where
it is generally known by its Catalan name of Congo, or
locally as Grandaulo, or, strange to say, Perdrix d'Angleterre. Both
species are also abundant in Barbary, and have been believed to
extend E. through Asia to India, in most parts of which country
they seem to be only winter-visitants; but in 1880 M. Bogdanow
pointed out to the Academy of St Petersburg (Bulletin, xxvii. 164)
a slight difference of coloration between eastern and western examples
of what had hitherto passed as P. alchata; analogy would suggest
that a similar difference might be found in examples of P. arenarius.
India, moreover, possesses five other species of Pterocles, of which,
however, only one, P. fasciatus, is peculiar to Asia, while the others
inhabit Africa as well, and all the remaining species belong to the
Ethiopian region one, P. personatus, being peculiar to Madagascar,
and four occurring in or on the borders of the Cape Colony.
The genus Syrrhaptes, though in general appearance resembling
Pterocles, has a conformation of foot quite'unique among birds, the
three anterior toes being encased in a common " podotheca," which
is clothed to the claws with hairy feathers, so as to look much like
a fingerless glove. The hind toe is wanting. The two species of
Syrrhaptes are 5. tibetanus the largest sand-grouse known in-
habiting the country whence its trivial name is derived, and 5.
paradoxus, ranging from N. China across Central Asia to the confines
of Europe, which it occasionally invades.. Though its attempts at
colonization in the extreme W. have failed, it would seem to have
established itself in the neighbourhood of Astrakhan (Ibis, 1882, p.
220). It appears to be the " Barguerlac" of Marco Polo (ed. Yule,
i. p. 239) ; and the " Loung-Kio " or " Dragon's Foot," so unscientifi-
cally described by the Abbe Hue (Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la
Tartarie, i. p. 244), can scarcely be anything else than this bird.
The sand -grouse assimilates in general colour to that of the ground,
being above of a dull ochreous hue, more or less barred or mottled by
darker shades, while beneath it is frequently varied by belts of deep
brown intensifying into black. Lighter tints are, however, exhibited
by some species and streaks or edgings of an almost pure white relieve
the prevailing sandy or fawn-coloured hues that especially character-
ize the group. The sexes seem always to differ in plumage, that of
the male being the brightest and most diversified. The expression
is decidedly dove-like, and so is the form of the body, the long wings
contributing also to that effect, so that among Anglo-Indians these
birds are commonly known as " rock-pigeons." The long wings,
the outermost primary of which in Syrrhaptes has its shaft produced
into an attenuated filament, are in all the species worked by ex-
ceedingly powerful muscles, and in several forms the middle rectrices
are likewise protracted and pointed, so as to give to their wearers the
name of Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse. 3 The nest is a shallow hole in the
sand. Three seems to be the regular complement of eggs, but there
are writers who declare that the full number in some species is four.
These eggs are almost cylindrical in the middle and nearly alike at
each end, and are of a pale earthy colour, spotted, blotched or
marbled with darker shades, the markings being of two kinds, one
superficial and the other more deeply seated in the shell. The young
are hatched fully clothed in down (P.Z.S., 1866, pi. ix. fig. 2), and
appear to be capable of locomotion soon after birth. The remains of
an extinct species of Pterocles, P. sepultus, intermediate apparently
between P. alchata and P. gutturahs, have been recognized in the
Miocene caves of the Allier by A. Milne-Edwards (Ois. foss. de la
France, p. 294, pi. clxi., figs. 1-9) ; and, in addition to the other
authorities on this very interesting group of birds already cited,
reference may be made to D. G. Elliot's " Study " of the Family
(P.Z.S., 1878, pp. 233-264) and H. F. Gadow, " On Certain Points in
the Anatomy of Pterocles " (op. cit., 1882, pp. 312-332). (A. N.)
SANDHURST, a town in the Wokingham parliamentary
division of Berkshire, England, 9 m. N. of Aldershot. Pop. (1901)
2386. Two miles south-east of the town, near the villages
of Cambridge Town and York Town, and the railway stations
of Blackwater and Camberley on the South-Eastern and
Chatham and South-Western lines, is the Sandhurst Royal
Military College. It was settled here in 1 8 1 2 , having been already
removed by its founder, the duke of York, from High Wycombe,
where it was opened in 1799, to Great Marlow in 1802. It stands
in beautiful grounds, which contain a large lake. Wellington
College station on the South-Eastern branch line to Reading,
near Sandhurst itself, serves Wellington College, one of the
principal modern public schools of England, founded in memory
3 These were separated by Bonaparte (Comptes rendus, xlii. p.
880) as a distinct genus, Pteroclurus, which later authors have justly
seen no reason to adopt.
140
SAN DIEGO SANDPIPER
of the great duke of Wellington, and incorporated in 1853.
Its primary object was the education of the sons of deceased
army officers. In the vicinity is Broadmoor Prison for criminal
lunatics.
SAN DIEGO, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of San
Diego county, in S. California, U.S.A., on the Pacific Ocean,
about 10 m. N. of the Mexican border, and about 126 m. (by
rail) S.E. of Los Angeles. Pop. (1880) 2637; (1890) 16,159;
(1900) 17,700, of whom 3768 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
39,578. It is served by numerous steamship lines and by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Los Angeles & San Diego
Beach, the San Diego Southern, and the San Diego, Cuyamaca
& Eastern railways. A railway between Yuma, Arizona, and
San Diego was under construction in 1910. The harbour, next
to that of San Francisco the best in California, has an area of
some 22 sq. m. The Federal government has made various
improvements in the harbour, building a jetty 7500 ft. long
on Zuninga Shoal at the entrance and making a channel 225 ft.
wide and 27-28 ft. deep at low tide. The city site, which is a
strip of land 25m. long' and 2 to 4 m. wide, is nearly level near
the bay. San Diego is the seat of a State Normal School and has
a Carnegie library. There is a coaling station of the United
States Navy, and the United States government maintains a
garrison in Fort Rosecrans. At Coronado (pop. 1900, 935)
across the bay are Coronado Beach, and the Hotel del Coronado,
with fine botanical and 'Japanese gardens; on the beach people
live in tents except in the stormier season. Within the city,
on the top of Point Loma, is the Theosophical Institution of the
" Universal Brotherhood." San Diego has one of the most
equable climates in the world, and there are several sanatoriums
here. The economic interests centre in fruit culture, especially
the raising of citrus fruits and of raisin grapes. There are also
warehouses, foundries, lumber yards, saw-mills and planing-mills
logs are rafted here from Washington and Oregon. National
City (pop. 1900, 1086), adjoining San Diego on the S. and the
S. terminus of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6 system, has
large interests in lemon packing and the manufacture of oil,
citric acid and other lemon by-products. In 1905 the total
value of the factory products of the city was $1,974,430 (194-8 %
more than in 1900).
San Diego is under the commission form of government;
in 1905 the city secured as a charter right the power to " recall "
by petition any unsatisfactory city official and to elect another
in his place, and the initiative and referendum were incorporated
in the charter, but were practically inoperative for several years.
By a charter amendment of 1909, the city is governed by a
commission of a mayor and five councilmen, elected at large.
About 4 m. N. of the business centre of San Diego is the site
of the first Spanish settlement hi Upper California. It was
occupied in April 1769; a Franciscan " mission " (the earliest of
twenty-one established in California) was founded on the i6th
of July, and a military presidio somewhat later. San Diego
began the first revolution against Governor M. Victoria and
Mexican authority in 1831, but was intensely loyal in opposition
to Governor J. B. Alvarado and the northern towns in 1836.
It was made a port of entry in 1828. In 1840 it had a population
of 140. It was occupied by the American forces in July 1846,
and was reoccupied in November after temporary dispossession
by the Californians, no blood being shed in these disturbances.
In 1850 it was incorporated as a city, but did not grow, and lost
its charter in 1852. In 1867 it had only a dozen inhabitants.
A land promoter, A. E. Horton (d. 1909), then laid out a new
city about 3 m. S. of the old. Its population increased to 2300
in 1870, and this new San Diegojwas incorporated in 1872, and
was made a port of entry in 1873. The old town still has many
ruined adobe houses, and the old " mission " is fairly well pre-
served. The prosperity of 1867-1873 was'followed by a disastrous
crash in 1873-1874, and little progress was made until 1884,
when San Diego was reached by the Santa Fe railway system.
After 1900 the growth of the city was again very rapid.
SANDOMIR, or SKDOMIERZ, a town of Russian Poland, in
the government of Radom, 140 m. S.S.E. of Warsaw by river
and on the left bank of the Vistula, opposite the confluence of
the San. Pop. (1881) 6265, or, including suburbs, 14,710; (1897)
6534. It is one of the oldest towns of Poland, being mentioned
as early as 1079; from 1139 to 1332 it was the chief town of the
principality of the same name. In 1240, and again in 1259,
it was burned by the Mongols. Under Casimir III. it reached a
high degree of prosperity. In 1429 it was the seat of a congress
for the establishment of peace with Lithuania, and in 1570 the
" Consensus Sandomiriensis " was held here for uniting the
Lutherans, Calvinists and Moravian Brethren. Subsequent
wars, and especially the Swedish (e.g. in 1655) ruined the town
even more than did numerous conflagrations, and in the second
part of the i8th century it had only about 2000 inhabitants.
Here in 1702 the Polish supporters of Augustus of Saxony banded
together against Charles XII. of Sweden. The beautiful cathedral
was built between 1120 and 1191; it was rebuilt in stone in
1360, and is one of the oldest monuments of Polish architecture.
Two of the churches are fine relics of the i3th century. The
castle, built by Casimir III. (i4th century), still exists. The
city gives title to an episcopal see (Roman Catholic).
SANDOWAY, a town and district in the Arakan division of
Lower Burma. The town (pop. 1901, 12,845) is very ancient,
and is said to have been at one time the capital of Arakan.
The district has an area of 3784 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 90,927,
showing an increase of 16 % in the decade. The country
is mountainous, the Arakan range sending out spurs which
reach the coast. Some of the peaks in the N. attain 4000 and
more ft. The streams are only mountain torrents to within
a few miles of the coast; the mouth of the Khwa forms a good
anchorage for vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. The rocks
in the Arakan range and its spurs are metamorphic, and comprise
clay, slates, ironstone and indurated sandstone; towards the
S., ironstone, trap and rocks of basaltic character are common;
veins of steatite and white fibrous quartz are also found. The
rainfall in 1905 was 230-49 hi. Except a few acres of tobacco,
all the cultivation is rice. Sandoway was ceded to the British,
with the rest of Arakan, by the treaty of Yandabo in 1826.
SANDOWN, a watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England,
6J m. S. of Ryde by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5006.
It is beautifully situated on rising ground overlooking Sandown
Bay and the English Channel, on the S.E. coast of the island.
There is a wide expanse of sandy shore, and bathing is excellent.
SANDPIPER (Ger. Sandpfeifer), the name applied to nearly
all the smaller kinds of the group Limicolae which are not Plovers
(q.v.) or Snipes (q.v.), but may be said to be intermediate between
them. According to F. Willughby in 1676 it was the name given
by Yorkshiremen to the bird popularly known in England as the
" Summer-Snipe," the Tringa hypoleucos of Linnaeus and the
Tetanus hypoleucus of later writers, but probably even in
Willughby's time the name was of much wider signification.
Placed by most systematists in the family Scolopacidae, the
birds commonly called Sandpipers seem to form three sections,
which have been often regarded as Subfamilies Totaninae,
Tringinae and Phalaropodinae, the last indeed in some classifica-
tions taking the higher rank of a Family Phalaropodidae.
This section comprehends three species only, known as Phalaropes
or swimming sandpipers, which are distinguished by the mem-
branes that fringe their toes, hi two of the species forming
marginal lobes, 1 and by the character of their lower plumage,
which is as close as that of a duck. The most obvious distinctions
between Totaninae and Tringinae may be said to lie in the acute
or blunt form of the tip of the bill (with which is associated a
less or greater development of the sensitive nerves running
almost if not quite to its extremity, and therefore greatly in-
fluencing the mode of feeding) and in the style of plumage
the Tringinae, with blunt and flexible bills, mostly assuming
a summer-dress in which some tint of chestnut or reddish-brown
1 These are Phalaropus fulicarius and P. (or Lobipes) hyperboreus,
and were thought by some of the older writers to be allied to the
Coots (q.v.). The third species is P. (or Steganopus) wilsoni. All are
natives of the higher parts of the N. hemisphere, and the last is
especially American, though perhaps a straggler to Europe.
SANDRART SANDSTONE
141
is prevalent, while the Totaninae, with acute and stiffer bills,
display no such lively colours. Furthermore, the Tringinae,
except when breeding, frequent the sea-shore much more than
do the Totaninae. 1 To the latter belong the Greenshank (q.v.)
and Redshank (q.v.), as well as the Common Sandpiper, the
" Summer-Snipe " above-mentioned, a bird hardly exceeding
a skylark in size, and of very general distribution throughout
the British Islands, but chiefly frequenting clear streams,
especially those with a gravelly or rocky bottom, and most
generally breeding on the beds of sand or shingle on their banks.
It usually makes its appearance in May. The nest, in which
four eggs are laid with their pointed ends meeting in its centre
(as is usual among Limicoline birds), is seldom far from the
water's edge, and the eggs, as well as the newly-hatched and
down-covered young, closely resemble the surrounding pebbles.
The Common Sandpiper is found over the greater part of the
Old World. In summer it is the most abundant bird of its
kind in the extreme N. of Europe, and it extends across Asia
to Japan. In winter it makes its way to India, Australia and
the Cape of Good Hope. In America its place is taken by a
closely kindred species, which is said to have also occurred in
England T. macularius, the " Peetweet," or Spotted Sandpiper,
so called from its usual cry, or from the almost circular marks
which spot its lower plumage. In habits it is very similar to
its congener of the Old World, and in winter it migrates to the
Antilles and to Central and South America.
Of other Totaninae, one of the most remarkable is that to which the
inappropriate name of Green Sandpiper has been assigned, the
Totanus or Helodromas ochropus of ornithologists, which differs (so
far as is known) from all others of the group both in its osteology 2
and mode of nidification, the hen laying her eggs in the deserted nests
of other birds, Jays, Thrushes or Pigeons, but nearly always
at some height (from 3 to 30 ft.) from the ground (Proc. Zool. Society,
1863, pp. 529-532). This species occurs in England the whole year
round, and is presumed to have bred there, though the fact has
never been satisfactorily proved, and knowledge of its erratic habits
comes from naturalists in Pomerania and Sweden. This sandpiper
is characterized by its dark upper plumage, which contrasts strongly
with the white of the lower part of the back and gives the bird as it
flies much the look of a very large house-martin. The so-called
wood-sandpiper, T. glareola, which, though much less common, is
known to have bred in England, has a considerable resemblance to
the species last mentioned, but can be distinguished by the feathers
of the axillary plume being white barred with greyish-black, while
in the green sandpiper they are greyish-black barred with
white. It is an abundant bird in most parts of northern Europe,
migrating in winter very far to the southward.
Of the section Tringinae the best known are the Knot (q.v.) and
the Dunlin, T. alpina. The latter, often also called Ox-bird, Plover's
Page, Purre and Stint, names which it shares with some other
species, not only breeds commonly on many of the elevated moors
of Britain, but in autumn resorts in countless flocks to the shores.
In winter of a nearly uniform ash-grey above and white beneath, in
summer the feathers of the back are black, with deep rust-coloured
edges, and a broad black belt occupies the breast. The Dunlin varies
considerably in size, examples from N. America being almost always
recognizable from their greater bulk, while in Europe there appears
to be a smaller race which has received the name of T. schinzi. In
the breeding-season the male Dunlin utters a most peculiar and far-
sounding whistle, somewhat resembling the continued ringing of a
high-toned musical bell.
Next to the Dunlin and Knot the commonest British Tringinae are
the Sanderling, Calidris arenaria (distinguished from every other
bird of the group by wanting a hind toe), the Purple Sandpiper,
T. striata or maritima, the Curlew-Sandpiper, T. subarquata and
the Little and Temminck's Stints, T. minuta and T. temmincki.
T. minutitta, the American stint, is darker, with olive feet, and ranges
from the Arctic New World to Brazil. T. fuscicollis, Bonaparte's
sandpiper, with white upper tail-coverts inhabits Arctic America,
but reaches the greater part of South America in winter, whilst
T. bairdi, with brownish median tail-coverts, extends over nearly all
North America, breeding towards the north.
1 There are no English words adequate to express these two
sections. By some British writers the Tringinae have been indicated
as " Stints," a term cognate with Stunt and wholly inapplicable to
many of them, while American writers have restricted to them the
name of " Sandpaper," and call the Totaninae, to which that name
is especially appropriate, " Willets."
J it possesses only a single pair of posterior " emarginations " on
its sternum, in this respect resembling the Ruff (q.v.). Among the
Plovers and Snipes other similarly exceptional cases may be found.
The broad-billed sandpiper, T. platyrhyncha, of the Old World,
seems to be more snipe-like than any that are usually assigned to this
section. The spoon-billed sandpiper, Eunnorhynchus pygmaeus,
breeds in north-eastern Asia and N.W. America, and ranges to China
and Burma in winter. (AN)
SANDRART, JOACHIM VON (1606-1688), German art-
historian and painter, was born at Frankfort, and after studying
in Germany, Holland and England, went in 1627 to Italy,
where he became famous as a portrait-painter. He subsequently
revisited Holland and then settled in Nuremberg, where he died.
His " Peace-Banquet, 1649 " is in the town hall there. He
is best known as the author of books on art, some of them in
Latin, and especially for his historical work, the Deutsche
Akademie (1675-1679), of which there is a modern edition by
Sponsel (1896).
SANDRINGHAM, a village in the N.W. parliamentary division
of Norfolk, England, 3 m. from the shore of the Wash, and 2$
from Wolferton station on the Great Eastern railway. Sandring-
ham House was a country seat of King Edward VII., acquired
by him when Prince of Wales by purchase in 1861. Ten years
later the mansion then existing was replaced by the present
picturesque building in brick and stone in Elizabethan style.
The estate, of some 7000 acres, includes a park of 200 acres,
entered by fine wrought iron gates constructed at Norwich.
The church of St Mary Magdalene contains many memorials
of the royal family.
SANDSTONE, in petrology, a consolidated sand rock built up
of sand grains held together by a cementing substance. The
size of the particles varies within wide limits and in the same
rock may be uniform or irregular: the coarser sandstones
are called grits, and form a transition to conglomerates (q.v.),
while the finer grained usually contain an admixture of mud
or clay and pass over by all stages into arenaceous shales and
clay rocks. Greywackes (q.v.) are sandstones belonging to the
older geological systems, such as the Silurian or Cambrian,
usually of brown or grey colour and very impure.
The minerals of sandstones are the same as those of sands.
Quartz is the commonest; with it often occurs a considerable
amount of felspar, and usually also some white mica. Chlorite,
argillaceous matter, calcite and iron oxides, are exceedingly
common in sandstones, and in some varieties are important
constituents; garnet, tourmaline, zircon, epidote, rutile and
anatase are often present though rarely in any quantity. Accord-
ing to their composition we may distinguish siliceous sandstones
(some of these are so pure that they contain 99% of silica,
e.g. Craigleith stone and some gannisters), felspathic sandstones
or arkoses (less durable and softer than the siliceous sandstones) ;
micaceous sandstones, with flakes of mica lying along the bed-
ding planes; argillaceous sandstones; ferruginous sandstones,
brown or red in colour with the sand grains coated with red
haematite or brownish yellow limonite; impure sandstones,
usually in the main consisting of quartz with a large addition
of other minerals.
The cementing material is often fine chalcedonic silica, and exists
in such small quantity that it is difficult to recognize even with the
microscope. In some of the cherty sandstones of the Greensand
the chalcedonic cement is much more abundant: these rocks also
contain rounded grains of glauconite, to which they owe their green
colour. Crystalline silica (quartz) is deposited interstitially in some
sandstones, often in regular parallel crystalline growth on the original
sand grains, and when there are cavities or fissures in the rock may
show the development of regular crystalline facets. By this process
the rock becomes firmly compacted, and is then described as a
quartzite (q.v.). A calcareous cement is almost equally common:
it may be derived from particles of shells or other calcareous fossils
originally mixed with the sand and subsequently dissolved and re-
deposited in the spaces between the other grains. In Fontainebleau
sandstone and some British Secondary rocks the calcite is in large
crystalline masses, which when broken show plane cleavages mottled
with small rounded sand grains; in the French rock external
rhombohedral faces are present and the crystals may be of consider-
able size. Many of the British Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstones
(e.g. Kentish Rag, Spilsby Sandstone) are of this calcareous type.
In ferruginous sandstones the iron oxides usually form only a thin
pellicle coating each grain, but sometimes, in the greensands, are more
abundant, especially in concretionary masses or segregations. In
argillaceous sandstones the fine clayey material, compacted by
pressure, holds the sand grains together, and rocks of this kind are
142
SANDUR SANDWICH, 4 TH EARL OF
soft and break up easily when exposed to the weather or submitted
to crushing tests. Among other cementing materials may be men-
tioned, dolomite, barytes, fluorite and phosphate of lime, but these
are only locally found.
Many sandstones contain concretions which may be several feet
in diameter, and are sometimes set free by weathering or when the
rock is split open by a blow. Most frequently these are siliceous,
and then they interfere with the employment of the rock for certain
purposes, as for making grindstones or for buildings of fine dressed
stone. Argillaceous concretions or clay galls are almost equally
common, and no'dules of pyrites or marcasite; the latter weather
to a brown rusty powder, and are most undesirable in building
stones. Phosphatic, ferruginous, barytic and calcareous concretions
occur also in some of the rocks of this group. We may also mention
the presence of lead ores (the Eifel, Germany), copper ores (Chessy
and some British Triassic sandstones) and manganese oxides. In
some districts (e.g. Alsace) bituminous sandstones occur, while in N.
America many Devonian sandstones contain petroleum. Many
Coal-Measures sandstones contain remains of plants preserved as
black impressions.
The colours of sandstones arise mostly from their impurities;
pure siliceous and calcareous sandstones are white, creamy or pale
yellow (from small traces of iron oxides). Black colours are due to
coal or manganese dioxide; red to haematite (rarely to copper
oxide) ; yellow to limonite, green to glauconite. Those which contain
clay, fragments of shale, &c., are often grey (e.g. the Pennant Grit of
S. Wales).
Sandstones are very extensively worked, mostly by quarries but
sometimes by mines, in all districts where they occur and are used
for a large variety of purposes. Quarrying is facilitated by the
presence of two systems of joints, developed approximately in equal
perfection, nearly at right angles to one another and perpendicular
to the bedding planes. Sometimes this jointing determines the
weathering of the rock into square pillar-like forms or into mural
scenery (e.g. the Quader Sandstein of Germany). As building
stones sandstones are much in favour, especially in the Carboniferous
districts of Britain, where they can readily be obtained. They have
the advantage of being durable, strong and readily dressed. They
are usually laid " on the bed," that is to say, with their bedding
surfaces horizontal and their edges exposed. The finer kinds of
sandstone are often sawn, not hewn or trimmed with chisels. Pure
siliceous sandstones are the most durable, but are often very ex-
pensive to dress and are not obtainable in many places. Sandstones
are also used for grindstones and for millstones. For engineering
purposes, such as dams, piers, docks and bridges, crystalline rocks,
such as granite, are often preferred as being obtainable in larger
blocks and having a higher crushing strength. Very pure siliceous
sandstones (such as the gannisters of the north of England) may be
used for lining furnaces, hearths, &c. As sandstones are always
porous, they do not take a good polish and are not used as ornamental
stones, but this property makes them absorb large quantities of
water, and consequently they are often important sources of water
supply (e.g. the_ water-stones of the Trias of the English Midlands).
Silver is found in beds of sandstone in Utah, lead near Kommern in
Prussia, and copper at Chessy near Lyons. (J. S. F.)
SANDUR, or SUNDOOR, a petty state of S. India, surrounded
by the Madras district of Bellary. Area, 161 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
11,200; estimated revenue, 3 500. The raja is a Mahratta of the
Ghorpade family. On the western border is a hill range, which
contains the military sanatorium of Ramandrug. Manganese
and hematite iron ore have been found, both of unusual purity.
SANDUSKY, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Erie county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Sandusky Bay, an arm of Lake
Erie, about 56 m. W. by S. of Cleveland. Pop. (1800), 18,471;
(1900), 19,664, of whom 4002 were foreign-born and 295 were
negroes; (1010 U.S. census) 19,989. Sandusky is served by the
Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago & Saint Louis, the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio,
and the Lake Erie & Western railways, by several interurban
electric lines, and by steamboats to the principal ports on the
Great Lakes. Among the public buildings are the United
States Government Building and the Court House. The city
has a Carnegie library (1897), and is the seat of the Lake
Laboratory (biological) of the Ohio State University, and of the
Ohio Soldiers' and Sailors' Home (26 buildings).
At the entrance to Sandusky Bay is Cedar Point, with a beach for
bathing. At the mouth of the harbour is Johnson's Island, where
many Confederate prisoners were confined during the Civil War.
A few miles farther N. are several fishing resorts, among them
Lakeside and Put-in-Bay; at the latter the United States govern-
ment maintains a fish hatchery, and out of the bay Oliver Hazard
Perry and his fleet sailed on the morning of the loth of September
1813 for the Battle of Lake Erie. Sandusky has a good harbour,
which has been greatly improved by the United States government ;
and its trade in coal, lumber, stone, cement, fish, fruit, ice, wine and
beer is extensive; in 1908 the value of its exports, chiefly to Canada,
was 8580,191 and the value of its imports $57,762. The value of its
factory products increased from $2,833,506 in 1900 to $4,878,563
in 1905, or 72-2%.
English traders were at Sandusky as early as 1749, and by 1763
a fort had been erected ; but on the i6th of May of that year, during
the Pontiac rising, the Wyandot Indians burned the fort. The first
permanent settlement was made in 1817, and in 1845 Sandusky was
chartered as a city.
SANDWICH, EDWARD MONTAGU, or MOUNTAGU, IST
EARL OF (1625-1672), English admiral, was a son of Sir Sidney
Montagu (d. 1644) of Hinchinbrook, who was a brother of Henry
Montagu, ist earl of Manchester, and of Edward Montagu,
ist Lord Montagu of Boughton. He was born on the 27th of
July 1625, and although his father was a royalist, he himself
joined the parliamentary party at the outbreak of the Civil
War. In 1643 ne raised a regiment, with which he distinguished
himself at the battles of Marston Moor and Naseby and at the
siege of Bristol. Though one of Cromwell's intimate friends,
he took little part in public affairs until 1653, when he was
appointed a member of the council of state. His career as
a seaman began in 1656, when he was made a general-at-sea,
his colleague being Robert Blake. Having taken some part in
the operations against Dunkirk in 1657, he was chosen a member
of Cromwell's House of Lords, and in 1659 he was sent by
Richard Cromwell with a fleet to arrange a peace between
Sweden and Denmark. After the fall of Richard he resigned
his command and joined with those who were frightened by the
prospect of anarchy in bringing about the restoration of Charles
II. Again general-at-sea early in 1660, Montagu carried the
fleet over to the side of the exiled king, and was entrusted with
the duty of fetching Charles from Holland. He was then made
a knight of the Garter, and in July 1660 was created earl of
Sandwich. His subsequent naval duties included the conveyance
of several royal exiles to England and arranging for the cession
of Tangier and for the payment of 300,000, the dowry of
Catherine of Braganza.
During the war with the Dutch in 1664-1665 Sandwich
commanded a squadron under the duke of York and distinguished
himself in the battle off Lowestof t on the 3rd of June 1665. When
the duke retired later in the same year he became commander-in-
chief, and he directed an unsuccessful attack on some Dutch
merchant ships which were sheltering in the Norwegian port
of Bergen; however, on his homeward voyage he captured
some valuable prizes, about which a great deal of trouble arose
on his return. Personal jealousies were intermingled with
charges of irregularities in dealing with the captured property,
and the upshot was that Sandwich was dismissed from his
command, but as a solatium was sent to Madrid as ambassador
extraordinary. He arranged a treaty with Spain, and in 1670
was appointed president of the council of trade and plantations.
When the war with the Dutch was renewed in 1672 Sandwich
again commanded a squadron under the duke of York, and
during the fight in Southwold Bay on the 28th of May 1672,
his ship, the " Royal George," after having taken a conspicuous
part in the action, was set on fire and was blown up. The earl's
body was found some days later and was buried in Westminster
Abbey. Edward (d. 1688) the eldest of his six sons, succeeded
to the titles; another son, John Montagu (c. 1655-1728) was
dean of Durham.
Lord Sandwich claimed to have a certain knowledge of science,
and his translation of a Spanish work on the Art of Metals appeared
in 1674. Many of his letters and papers are in the British Museum,
the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and in the possession of the present
earl of Sandwich. He is mentioned very frequently in the Diary of
his kinsman, Samuel Pepys. See also J. Charnock, Biographia
Navalis, vol. i. (1794); John Campbell, Lives of the British Admirals,
vol. ii. (1779); and R. Southey, Lives of the British Admirals, vol. v.
(1840).
SANDWICH, JOHN MONTAGU, 4 EARL OF (1718-1792),
was born on the 3rd of November 1718 and succeeded his grand-
father, Edward, the 3rd earl, in the earldom in 1729. Educated
at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he spent some time
in travelling, and on his return to England in 1739 he took his
SANDWICH SANDYS, SIR E.
seat in the House of Lords as a follower of the duke of Bedford.
He was soon appointed one of the commissioners of the admiralty
under Bedford and a colonel in the army. In 1746 he was sent
as plenipotentiary to the congress at Breda, and he continued
to take part in the negotiations for peace until the treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded in 1748. In February 1748 he
became first lord of the admiralty, retaining this post until he
was dismissed by the king in June 1751. In August 1753
Sandwich became one of the principal secretaries of state, and
while filling this office he took a leading part in the prosecution
of John Wilkes. He had been associated with Wilkes in the
notorious fraternity of Medmenham, and his attitude now in
turning against the former companion of his pleasures made him
very unpopular, and, from a line in the Beggar's Opera, he was
known henceforward as " Jemmy Twitcher." He was post-
master-general in 1768, secretary of state in 1770, and again
first lord of the admiralty from 1771 to 1782. For corruption
and incapacity Sandwich's administration is unique in the
history of the British navy. Offices were bought, stores were
stolen and, worst of all, ships, unseaworthy and inadequately
equipped, were sent to fight the battles of their country. The
first lord became very unpopular in this connexion also, and his
retirement in March 1782 was hailed with joy. Sandwich
married Dorothy, daughter of Charles, ist viscount Fane, by
whom he had a son John (1743-1814), who became the 5th
earl. He had also several children by the singer Margaret,
or Martha, Ray, of whom Basil Montagu (1770-1851), writer,
jurist and philanthropist, was one. The murder of Miss Ray
by a rejected suitor in April 1779 increased the earl's unpopu-
larity, which was already great, and the stigmas of the prosecu-
tion of Wilkes and the corrupt administration of the navy
clung to him to the last. He died on the 3Oth of April 1792.
The Sandwich Islands (see HAWAII) were named after him by
Captain Cook. His Voyage round the Mediterranean in the Years
1738 and 1739 was published posthumously in 1799. with a very
flattering memoir by the Rev. J. Cooke; the Life, Adventures,
Intrigues and Amours of the celebrated Jemmy Twitcher (1770), which
is extremely rare, tells a very different tale. See also the various col-
lections of letters, memoirs and papers of the time, including Horace
Walpole's Letters and Memoirs and the Bedford Correspondence.
SANDWICH, a market town, municipal borough, and one of
the Cinque Ports in the St Augustine's parliamentary division of
Kent, England, 1 2 m. E. of Canterbury, on the South-Eastern &
Chatham railway. Pop. (1901), 3170. It is situated 2 m.
from the sea, on the river Stour, which is navigable up to the
bridge for vessels of 200 tons. The old line of the walls on the
land side is marked by a public walk. The Fisher Gate and a
gateway called the Barbican are interesting; but the four
principal gates were pulled down in the i8th century. St
Clement's church has a fine Norman central tower, and St Peter's
(restored), said to date from the reign of King John, has interest-
ing medieval monuments. The curfew is still rung at St Peter's.
A grammar school was founded by Sir Roger Man wood in 1564,
but the existing school buildings are modern. There are three
ancient hospitals; St Bartholomew's has a fine Early English
chapel of the izth century. The establishment of the railway
and of the St George's golf links (1886) rescued Sandwich from
the decay into which it had fallen in the earlier part of the
igth century. The links are among the finest in England.
Richborough Castle, ij m. N. of Sandwich, is one of the finest
relics of Roman Britain. It was called Rutupiae, and guarded
one of the harbours for continental traffic in Roman times,
and was in the 4th century a fort of the coast defence along the
Saxon shore.
The situation of Sandwich on the Wantsum, once a navigable
channel for ships bound for London, made it a famous port in
the time of the Saxons, who probably settled here when the sea
receded from the Roman port of Richborough. In 973 Edgar
granted the harbour and town to the monastery of Christ Church,
Canterbury, and at the time of the Domesday Survey Sandwich
supplied 40,000 herrings each year to the monks. As one of the
Cinque Ports, Sandwich owed a service of five ships to the king,
and shared the privileges granted to the Cinque Ports from the
143
reign of Edward the Confessor onwards. At the end of the i3th
century the monks granted the borough, with certain reserva-
tions, to Queen Eleanor; a further grant of their rights was
made to Edward III. in 1364, the crown being thenceforward
lord of the borough. A charter of Henry II. confirmed the
customs and rights which Sandwich had previously enjoyed,
and this charter was confirmed by John in 1205, by Edward II.
in 1313 and by Edward III. in 1365. The town was a borough
by prescription, and was governed in the I3th century by a
mayor and jurats; a mayor was elected as early as 1226. The
governing charter until 1835 was that granted by Charles II.
in 1684. During the middle ages Sandwich was one of the chief
ports for the continent, but as the sea gradually receded and the
passage of the Wantsum became choked with sand the port
began to decay, and by the time of Elizabeth the harbour was
nearly useless. In her reign Walloons settled here and introduced
the manufacture of woollen goods and the cultivation of
vegetables; this saved the borough from sinking into unimport-
ance. Three fairs to be held at Sandwich were granted to Queen
Eleanor in 1290; Henry VII. granted two fairs on the 7th of
February and the sth of June, each to last for thirty days, and
in the governing charter two fairs, on the ist of April and the
ist of October, were granted; these all seem to have died out
before the end of the i8th century. A corn market on Wednesday
and a cattle market on every alternate Monday are now held.
Representatives from the Cinque Ports were first summoned to
parliament in 1265; the first returns for Sandwich are for
1366, after which it returned two members until it was dis-
franchised in 1885. Sandwich is governed by a mayor, 4 alder-
men and 12 councillors. Area, 707 acres.
See W. Boys, Collections for History of Sandwich (1792); E.
Hasted, History of Kent (1778-1799); Victoria County History
(Kent).
SANDYS, SIR EDWIN (1561-1629), British statesman and
one of the founders^tof the colony of Virginia, was the second
son of Edwin Sandys, archbishop of York, and his wife Cecily
Wilford. He was born in Worcestershire on the 9th of December
1561. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' school, which
he entered in 1371, and at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, where
he was sent in 1577. He became B.A. in 1579 and B.C.L. in
1589. In 1582 his father gave him the prebend of Witwang
in York Minster, but he never took orders. He was entered
in the Middle Temple in 1 589. At Oxford his tutor had been
Hooker, author of the Ecclesiastical Polity, whose life-long
friend and executor he was. Sandys is said to have had a large
share in securing the Mastership of the Temple for Hooker.
From 1593 till 1599 he travelled abroad. When in Venice he
became closely connected with Fra Paolo Sarpi, who helped him
in the composition of the treatise on the religious state of Europe,
known as the Europae speculum. In 1605 this treatise was
printed from a stolen copy under the title, A Relation of the
Stale of Religion in Europe. Sandys procured the suppression
of this edition, but the book was reprinted at the Hague in 1629.
In 1599 he resigned his prebend, and entered active political
life. He had already been member for Andover in 1 586 and for
Plympton in 1589. After 1599, in view of the approaching
death of Queen Elizabeth, he paid his court to King James VI.,
and on James's accession to the throne of England in 1603
Sandys was knighted. He sat in the king's first parliament as
member for Stockbridge, and distinguished himself as one of the
assailants of the great monopolies. He endeavoured to secure
to all prisoners the right of employing counsel, a proposal which
was resisted by some lawyers as subversive of the adminis-
tration of the law. He had been connected with the East India
Company before 1614, and took an active part in its affairs till
1629. His most memorable services were, however, rendered to
the (London) Virginia Company, to which he became treasurer
in 1619. He promoted and supported the policy which enabled
the colony to survive the disasters of its early days, and he
continued to be a leading influence in the Company till his
death. Sir Edwin Sandys sat in the later parliaments of James I.
as member for Sandwich in 1621, and for Kent in 1624. His
SANDYS, F. SAN FRANCISCO
tendencies were towards opposition, and he was suspected of
hostility to the court; but he disarmed the anger of the king
by professions of obedience. He was member for Penrhyn in
the first parliament of Charles I. in 1625. He died in October
1629.
See Alex. Brown's Genesis of the United States (London. 1890).
SANDYS, FREDERICK (1832-1904), English painter and
draughtsman, was born at Norwich on the ist of May 1832,
and received his earliest lessons in art from his father, who was
himself a painter. His early studies show that he had a natural
gift for careful and beautiful drawing, and that he sought after
absolute sincerity of presentment. Sandys worked along the
same lines as Millais, Madox Brown, Holman Hunt and Rossetti.
He first met Rossetti in 1857, and carried away with him the
impression of the painter-poet's features, which he reproduced so
cleverly in " A Nightmare," a caricature of " Sir Isumbras at the
Ford," by Millais. Both the picture and the skit upon it by
Sandys attracted much attention in 1857. The caricaturist
turned the horse of Sir Isumbras into a donkey labelled " J. R.,
Oxon." (John Ruskin). Upon it were seated Millais himself,
in the character of the knight, with Rossetti and Holman Hunt
as the two children, one before and one behind. Rossetti and
Sandys became intimate friends, and for about a year and a
quarter, ending in the summer of 1867, Sandys lived with Rossetti
at Tudor House (now called Queen's House) in Cheyne Walk,
Chelsea. By this time Sandys was known as a painter of remark-
able gifts. He had begun by drawing for Once a Week, the
Cornhill Magazine, Good Words and other periodicals. He drew
only in the magazines. No books illustrated by him can be
traced. So his exquisite draughtsmanship has to be sought for
in the old bound-up periodical volumes which are now hunted
by collectors, or in publications such as Dalziel's Bible Gallery
and the Cornhill Gallery and books of drawings, with verses
attached to them, made to lie upon the drawing-room tables of
those who had for the most part no idea of their merits. Every
drawing Sandys made was a work of art, and many of them were
so faithfully engraved that they are worthy of the collector's
portfolio. Early in the 'sixties he began to exhibit the paintings
which set the seal upon his fame. The best known of these are
"Vivien" (1863), "Morgan le Fay" (1864), "Cassandra"
and " Medea." Sandys never became a popular painter. He
painted little, and the dominant influence upon his art was the
influence exercised by lofty conceptions of tragic power. There
was in it a sombre intensity and an almost stern beauty which
lifted it far above the ideals of the crowd. The Scandinavian
Sagas and the Morte d' Arthur gave him subjects after his own
heart. " The Valkyrie " and " Morgan le Fay " represent his
work at its very best. He made a number of chalk drawings of
famous men of letters, including Tennyson, Browning, Matthew
Arnold, and James Russell Lowell. Sandys died in Kensington
on the 20th of June 1904.
See also Esther Wood, The Artist (Winter number, 1896).
SANDYS, GEORGE (1578-1644), English traveller, colonist
and poet, the seventh and youngest son of Edwin Sandys,
archbishop of York, was born on the 2nd of March 1578. He
studied at St Mary Hall, Oxford, but took no degree. On his
travels, which began in 1610, he first visited France; from
North Italy he passed by way of Venice to Constantinople,
and thence to Egypt, Mt. Sinai, Palestine, Cyprus, Sicily, Naples
and Rome. His narrative, dedicated, like all his other works,
to Charles (either as prince or king), was published in 1615,
and formed a substantial contribution to geography and
ethnology. He also took great interest in the earliest English
colonization in America. In April 1621 he became colonial
treasurer of the Virginia Company and sailed to Virginia with
his niece's husband, Sir Francis Wyat, the new governor.
When Virginia became a crown colony, Sandys was created a
member of council in August 1624; he was reappointed to this
post in 1626 and 1628. In 1631 he vainly applied for the
secretaryship to the new special commission for the better
plantation of Virginia; soon after this he returned to England for
good. In 1621 he had already published an English translation
of part of Ovid's Metamorphoses; this he completed in 1626; on
this mainly his poetic reputation rested in the I7th and i8th
centuries. He also began a version of Virgil's Aeneid, but never
produced more than the first book. In 1636 he issued his famous
Paraphrase upon the Psalms and Hymns dispersed throughout
the Old and New Testaments', in 1640 he translated Christ's
Passion from the Latin of Grotius; and in 1641 he brought out
his last work, a Paraphrase of the Song of Songs. He died, un-
married, at Boxley, near Maidstone, Kent, in 1644. His verse
was deservedly praised by Dryden and Pope; Milton was some-
what indebted to Sandys' Hymn to my Redeemer (inserted in his
travels at the place of his visit to the Holy Sepulchre) in his Ode
on the Passion.
See Sandys' works as quoted above; the travels appeared as
The Relation ofa Journey begun an. Dom. 1610, in four books (1615);
also the Rev. Richard Hooper's edition, with memoir, of The Poetical
Works of George Sandys; and Alexander Brown's Genesis of the
United States, pp. 546, 989, 992, 994-995, 1032, 1063; article,
" Sandys, George," in Dictionary of National Biography.
SAN FERNANDO, a seaport of southern Spain, in the province
of Cadiz, on the Isla de Leon, a rocky island among the salt
marshes which line the southern shore of Cadiz Bay. Pop.
(1900), 29,635. San Fernando is one of the three principal
naval ports of Spain; together with Ferrol and Cartagena it is
governed by an admiral who has the distinctive title of captain-
general. The town is connected with Cadiz (4^ m. N.W.) by a
railway, and there is an electric tramway from the arsenal (in
the suburb of La Carraca) to Cadiz. The principal buildings
are government workshops for the navy, barracks, a naval
academy, observatory, hospital, bull-ring and a handsome
town hall. In the neighbourhood salt in largely produced and
stone is quarried; the manufactures include spirits, beer,
leather, esparto fabrics, soap, hats, sails and ropes; and there
is a large iron-foundry.
San Fernando was probably a Carthaginian settlement. On
a hill to the S. stood a temple dedicated to the Tyrian Hercules;
to the E. is a Roman bridge, rebuilt in the isth century after
partial demolition by the Moors. The arsenal was founded in
1 790. During the Peninsular War the cortes met at San Fernando
(1810), but the present name of the town dates only from 1813;
it was previously known as Isla de Leon.
SAN FRANCISCO, the chief seaport and the metropolis of
California and the Pacific Coast, the tenth city in population
(1910) of the United States, and the largest and most important
city W. of the Missouri river, situated centrally on the coast of
the state in 37 47' 22-55' N. and 122 25' 40-76* W., at the end
of a peninsula, with the ocean on one side and the Bay of San
Francisco on the other. Pop. (1850), 34,000; (1890), 298,997;
(1900), 342,782, of whom 116,885 were foreign-born and 17,404
coloured (mainly Asiatics); (1910) 416,912.
General Description. The peninsula is from 6 to 8 m. broad
within the city limits. The magnificent bay is some 50 m. long
in its medial line, and has a shore-line of more than 300 m.;
its area is about 450 sq. m., of which 79 are within the three-
fathom limit, including San Pablo Bay. This great inland
water receives the two principal rivers of California, the Sacra-
mento and the San Joaquin. The islands of the bay are part
of the municipal district, as are also the Farallones, a group
of rocky islets about 30 m. out in the Pacific. The bay islands
are high and picturesque. Several are controlled by the national
government and fortified. On Alcatraz Island is the United
States Prison, and on Goat Island the United States Naval
School of the Pacific. The old Spanish " presidio " is now a
United States military reservation, and another smaller one,
the Fort Mason Government Reservation, is in the vicinity.
The naval station of the Pacific is on Mare Island in San Pablo
Bay, opposite Vallejo (?.!>.). Between 1890 and 1900 the
harbour entrance from the Pacific was strongly fortified; it
lies through what is called the Golden Gate, a strait about 5 m.
long and i m. wide at its narrowest point. The outlook from
Mt Tamalpais (2592 ft.), a few miles N., gives a magnificent
SAN FRANCISCO
view of the city and bay. The site of the city is very hilly and is
completely dominated by a line of high rocky elevations that run
like a crescent-formed background from N.E. to S.W. across
the peninsula, culminating in the S.W. in the Twin Peaks
(Las Papas, " The Breasts "), 925 ft. high. Telegraph Hill in the
extreme N.E., the site in 1849 of the criminal settlement called
" Sydney Town " and later known as the " Latin Quarter,"
is 294 ft. high; Nob Hill, where the railway and mining " kings "
of the 'sixties and 'seventies of the igth century built their
homes, which only in recent years has lost its exclusiveness,
is 300 ft. high; Pacific Heights, which became the site of a
fashionable quarter, is still higher; and in Golden Gate Park
there is Strawberry Hill, 426 ft. Hilly as it remains to-day, the
site was once much more so, and has been greatly changed by
man. Great hills were razed and tumbled into the bay for
the gain of land; others were pierced with cuts, to conform
to street grades and to the checker-board city plan adopted
in the early days. An effort to induce the city to adopt,
in the rebuilding after the earthquake of 1906, an artistic
plan failed, and reconstruction followed practically the old
plan of streets, although the buildings which had marked
them had been for the most part obliterated. Some minor
suggestions for improvement in arrangement only were observed.
Cable lines were first practically tested in San Francisco,
in 1873; since the earthquake they have given place, with
slight exceptions, to electric car lines. A drive of some 20 m.
may be taken along the ocean front, through the Presidio,
Golden Gate Park, and a series of handsome streets in the west
end. Market Street, the principal business street, is more than
3 m. long and 1 20 ft. broad. For nearly its full extent, excepting
the immediate water-front, and running westward to Van Ness
Avenue, a distance of 2 m., the buildings lining it on both sides
and covering the adjoining area, a total of some 2000 acres,
or 514 blocks, equivalent to | of the city plan, were reduced
to ruins in the fire following the earthquake; only a few
large buildings of so-called " fire-proof " construction remained
standing on the street, and these had their interiors completely
" gutted." Repairs on the buildings left standing on this street
alone involved an outlay of $5,000,000. Almost the whole of
this area was built up again by 1910. As the result of the
reconstruction of this section, thousands of wooden buildings,
which had been a striking architectural characteristic of the
city, were replaced by structures of steel, brick, and, especially,
reinforced concrete. Before the earthquake wood had been
employed to a large extent, partly because of the accessibility,
cheapness and general excellence of redwood, but also because
of the belief that it was better suited to withstand earthquake
shocks. While the wooden buildings were little damaged by
the shocks, the comparative non-inflammability of redwood
proved no safeguard and fire swept the affected area irresistibly.
In 1900 only one-thirteenth of the buildings in the city were of
other material than wood. Of the 28,000 buildings destroyed
in the disaster of 1906, valued approximately at $105,000,000,
only 5000 were such as had involved steel, stone or brick in their
construction. The new buildings, on which an estimated
amount of $150,000,000 had been expended up to April 1909,
and numbering 25,000 at that date, were built under stringent
city ordinances governing the methods of building employed,
to reduce the danger from fire to a minimum. The use of rein-
forced concrete as a building material received a special impetus
in consequence. In size and value the new buildings generally
exceed their predecessors, buildings eight to eighteen storeys in
height being characteristic in the Market Street section. Owing
to the complete reconstruction of its business section San
Francisco is equalled by few cities in the possession of office and
business buildings of the most modern type.
Buildings. Among the buildings in the burned section restored
since 1906, the Union Trust, Mutual Savings, Merchants Exchange,
Crocker, Flood and the Call (newspaper) buildings are notable.
Among business buildings built since the fire are the Phelan building
(costing more than $2,000,000), the buildings of the Bank of Cali-
fornia, the Alaska Commercial Company, the First National Bank
and the San Francisco Savings Union, and the Chronicle (newspaper)
building. The architecture of the city until the earthquake and fire
of 1906 was very heterogeneous. Comparatively few buildings were
of striking merit. The old City Hall (finished in 1898), destroyed in
1906, was a great edifice of composite and original style, built of
bricks of stucco facing (cost $6,000,000). Provision was made to
erect a new building at a cost of $5,000,000. The Hall of Justice,
which houses the criminal and police courts and the police depart-
ment of the city, was another fine structure. Provision was made in
1^09 to replace it by a new building. Since the fire of 1906 a new
Custom House has been built, costing $1,203,319. The other Federal
buildings are not architecturally noteworthy. The Post Office, which
withstood the fire and has since undergone repairs, is a massive
modern building of granite (original cost $5,000,000). The buildings
of the church and college (St Ignatius) of the Jesuits cover more than
a city block; those of the Dominicans are equally extensive, and are
architecturally imposing. There are several magnificent hotels.
The Palace, an enormous structure covering a city block (it had 1200
rooms and cost more than $3,000,000), known as the oldest and most
famous hostelry of the city, and architecturally interesting, was
completely destroyed by the fire, but has been replaced by a new
building. The St Francis, completely reconstructed since the fire,
and the Fairmont are new. A revival of the old Spanish-Moorish
" mission " (monastery) style has exercised an increasing influence
and is altogether the most pleasing development of Californian
architecture. Many buildings or localities, not in themselves re-
markable, have interesting associa'tions with the history and life of
the city. Such are Pioneer Hall, the home of the Society of California
Pioneers (1850), endowed by James Lick; Portsmouth Square, where
the flag of the United States was raised on the 8th of July 1846, and
where the Committee of Vigilance executed criminals in 1851 and
1856; Union Square, a fashionable shopping centre, decorated with
a column raised in honour of the achievements of the United States
Navy in the Spanish- American War of 1898; also the United States
Branch Mint, associated with memories of the early mining days
(the present mint dates only from 1874).
Parks. The parks of the city are extensive and fine. Golden
Gate Park (about 1014 acres) was a waste of barren sand dunes when
acquired by the municipality in 1870, but skilful planting and culti-
vation have entirely transformed its character. It is now beautiful
with semi-tropic vegetation. The Government presidio or military
reservation (1542 acres) is practically another city park, more
favourably situated and of better land than Golden Gate Park, and
better developed. A beautiful drive follows the shore, giving views
of the Golden Gate and the ocean. Near the W. end of Golden Gate
Park are the ocean beach, the Cliff House, repeatedly burned down
and rebuilt, the last time in 1907 a public resort on a rocky cliff
overhanging the sea the seal rocks, frequented all the year round by
hundreds of sea-lions, Sutro Heights, the beautiful private grounds
of the late Adolph Sutro, long ago opened to the public, and the Sutro
Baths, one of the largest and finest enclosed baths and winter gardens
of the world. Nearly in the centre of the city is the old Franciscan
mission (San Francisco de Asis, popularly known as Mission Dolores),
a landmark of San Francisco's history (1776).
Libraries, Museums, &c. The Public Library has more than
100,000 volumes (it had more than 165,000 volumes before the fire
of 1906, but then lost all but about 25,000). That left to the city by
Adolph Sutro had more than 200,000 volumes, but suffered from the
fire and earthquake of 1906 and now has about 125,000. It included
remarkable incunabula, 16th-century literature, and scientific
literature; and among its special collections are Lord Macaulay's
library of British Parliamentary papers, a great collection of English
Commonwealth pamphlets, one on the history of Mexico, and other
rarities. The Mechanics-Mercantile Library (35,000 volumes) was
formed before the fire of 1906 (when the entire collection of 200,000
volumes was destroyed) by the merging of the Mechanics Institute
Library (116,000 volumes) and the Mercantile Library (founded
1852; 80,000 volumes). The Law Library, the libraries of the San
Francisco Medical Society, and the French library of La Ligue
Nationale Francaise (1874), were destroyed in the fire of 1906 and
re-established. The building of the California Academy of Sciences
(founded 1853, endowed by James Lick with about $600,000) was
destroyed in 1906. In Golden Gate Park is a museum owned by the
city with exhibits of a wide range, including history, ethnology,
natural history, the fine arts, &c. Very fine mineral exhibits by the
State Mining Bureau, and California Agricultural and Pacific Coast
commercial displays by the CaliforniaDevelopment Board, are housed
in the Ferry Building, and there is a Memoriaj Museum in Golden
Gate Park. The California School of Mechanic Arts was endowed
by James Lick with $540,000. The San Francisco Institute of Art,
conducted by the San Francisco Art Association (organized 1872),
known until the fire of 1906 as the Mark Hopkins Institute of Art,
was deeded (1893) to the Regents of the State University in trust for
art purposes by a later owner. The building was totally destroyed
and the institute was re-established under the new name on the same
site. The school conducted by this institute had a fine collection of
casts, presented to the city by the government of France. It is said
to be the largest university art school of the country. The law,
medical, dental, chemical and pharmaceutical departments of the
State University are also in the city. Among other educational insti-
tutions are the Cogswell Polytechnic College, the Wilmerding School
146
SAN FRANCISCO
of Industrial Arts, and the California School of Design. In sculpture
and painting not much has yet been done to adorn the city.
The self-sufficingness of San Francisco, long forced upon it by the
great distance from the older culture of the Eastern States, has thus
far shown itself particularly only in the general features of society.
Few names belong by exclusive right to San Francisco's literary
annals, the most noteworthy being those of Bret Harte, Joaquin
Miller and Henry George; but perhaps a score among the better
known of the more recent writers in the country have done enough
of their work here to connect them enduringly with the city. The
Bohemian Club is a famous centre of literary and artistic life. Among
the daily newspapers the San Francisco Examiner (Independent-
Democratic, 1865), the Chronicle (Republican, 1865), the Call
(Republican, 1856) and the San Francisco Bulletin (Independent-
Republican, 1855) are chiefly important.
Suburbs. The city suburbs are partly across the bay and partly
to the north and south on the peninsula. Oakland, Berkeley, the
home of the State University (damaged by the earthquake), and
Alameda, all eastward just across the bay; Burlingame, San Mateo,
Menlo Park and Palo Alto, wealthy and fashionable towns south-
ward on the peninsula; Sausalito and San Rafael, summer residence
towns on the northern peninsula across the Golden Gate; all lie
well within an hour of San Francisco, and are practically suburbs of
the metropolis. Many excursions into the surrounding country are
very attractive. Mt. Tamalpais has already been referred to. The
railroad in making this ascent makes curves equivalent to forty-two
whole circles in a distance of 8J m., at one place paralleling its track
five times in a space of about 300 ft.
Climate. San Franciscan climate is breezy, damp and at times
chilling; often depressing to the weakly, but a splendid tonic to
others. In a period of 32 years, ending December 1903, the extremes
of temperature were 29 and 100 F. ; the highest monthly average
65, the lowest 46; the average for January, Mardh, June, Sep-
tember and December, respectively 50, 54 , 59, 61, and 51 F.
The average rainfall was 22-5 in., falling mostly from November to
March. Every afternoon, especially from October to May, a stiff
breeze sweeps the city ; every afternoon in the summer the fogs roll
over it from the ocean. Though geraniums and fuchsias bloom
through the year in the open, an overcoat is often needed in summer.
Communications and Commerce. San Francisco Bay is the most
important as well as the largest harbour on the Pacific coast of the
United States. There is a difference of a fathom in the mean height
of the tides. Deep-water craft can go directly to docks within a
short distance of their sources of supply, around the bay. In 1909
extensive improvements to the water front were under way, and land
has been purchased west of Fort Mason for the construction of
wharves and warehouses for the United States Transport Service.
The largest craft can always enter and navigate the bay, and there
are ample facilities of dry and floating docks. Steamer connexions
are maintained with Australia, Hawaii, Mexico, Central and South
America, the Philippines, China and Japan. San Francisco in 1909
had much the largest commerce of any of the Pacific ports. For
1909 the total imports of merchandise for the port were valued at
$51,468,597 and the exports at $31,100,309. From 1891 to 1900
San Francisco dropped from the fifth to the eighth rank among the
customs districts of the United States in point ofaggregate commerce
(the ports of Puget Sound rising in the same period from the twentieth
to the tenth place). From 1893 to 1903 the yearly imports averaged
$37,968,152, exports $33,658,266, and duties collected $6,642,173.
The vessel movement for 1909 amounted to 4,959,728 tons arrivals
and 4,974,922 tons departures. The foreign trade is chiefly with
British Columbia, South America, China and Japan, and there is a
considerable trade with Europe, Australia and Mexico. Trade with
the Philippine Islands and the Hawaiian Islands and Alaska is
important, while the coastwise trade with Pacific ports exceeds all
the rest in tonnage. Lumber, grain and flour, fruits and their pro-
ducts, fish, tea and coffee are characteristic staples of commerce.
While the export grain business had by 1909 shifted to ports in Oregon
and Washington, San Francisco is the great receiving port for cereals
on the Pacific Coast. San Francisco's permanence as one of the
greatest ports of the country is assured by its magnificent position,
the wealth of its " back country," and its command of trans-Pacific
and trans-continental commercial routes. It is very nearly the
shortest route, great circle sailing, from Panama to Yokohama and
Hongkong; the Panama Canal will shorten the sea route from
Liverpool and Hamburg by about 5500 m. and from New York by
7800. Three trans-continental railway systems the Southern
Pacific (with two trans-continental lines, the Southern and the old
Central Pacific), the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the Western
Pacific connect the city with the Eastern States; and besides
these, it has traffic connexions with the three trans-continental lines
of the north, the Canadian Pacific, Great Northern and Northern
Pacific. Lines of the Southern Pacific and its branches connect the
whole state with the city, a number of smaller roads of which the
most important is the North-Western Pacific joining it with the
surrounding districts. On the 1st of July 1900 the first train of the
Santa Pe 1 left San Francisco for the East ; a significant event, as
there had before been practically only one railway corporation (the
Southern Pacific) controlling trans-continental traffic at San Fran-
cisco since 1869. Only one railway, the Southern Pacific's lower
coast route, actually enters the city. Some ten other roads, great
and small, have their terminals around the bay.
Manufactures. San Francisco in 1900 held twelfth place among the
cities of the Union in value of output; in 1905 it ranked thirteenth.
The total value of the factory products of tae city in 1905 was
$137,788,233 as against $107,023,567 in 1900. The leading pro-
ducts and their value in 1905, where given, were : sugar and molasses
refining; printing and publishing, $9,424,494 (of which $5,575,035
was for newspapers and periodicals) ; slaughtering and meat packing
(wholesale), $8,994,992; shipbuilding; foundry and machine-shop
products, $8,991,449; clothing, $4,898,095; canning and pre-
serving, $4,151,414; liquors (malt, $4,106,034; vinous, $53,511);
coffee and spice roasting and grinding, $3,979,865; flour and grist-
mill products, $3,422,672; lumber, planing and mill products,
including sash, doors and blinds, $2,981,552; leather, tanning and
finishing, $2,717,542; bags, $2,473,170; paints, $2,048,250.
The development of the petroleum fields of the state has greatly
stimulated manufactures, as coal has always been dear, whereas the
crude oil is now produced very cheaply. The Union Iron Works
on the peninsula is one of the greatest shipbuilding, plants of the
country.
Government. Charters were granted to the city in 1850, 1851 and
1856. By the last the city and county, which until then had main-
tained separate governments, were consolidated. Under this charter
San Francisco throve despite much corruption, and it was because
the provisions of the State Constitution of 1879 seemed likely to
compel the adoption of another charter that the city decisively
rejected that constitution. After many years of notorious " boss
rule, the city in 1896 elected a reform mayor. This was the most
important movement for good government in its history since the
Vigilance Committee of 1856. It _was followed by the adoption
(1898) of a new charter, which came into effect on the 1st of January
1900. Elections are biennial. The inclusion in the charter of the
principle of the " initiative and referendum " enables a percentage
of the voters to compel the submission of measures to public approval.
The city's control is centralized, great power being given to the
mayor. He appoints and removes members of the fire, police, school,
election, park, civil service, health and public works commissions
of the city; his veto may not be overcome by less than a five-sixths
vote of the board of supervisors, and he may veto separate items of
the budget. Taxation for ordinary municipal purposes is limited
to I % on property values, extra taxes being allowed for unusual
purposes; but the city cannot be bonded without the affirmative
vote of two-thirds of the electorate. Civil service is also provided
for. There is a highly developed license system. The board of
public works, composed of engineers, controls streets, sewers,
buildings and public improvements. In 1885 the assessed property
valuation of the city, on a basis of 60% of the actual value, was
$223,509,560; in 1905, $502,892, 459 ; l in 1910 the total was
$492,867,037. The net bonded debt on the 3Oth of June 1909 was
$10,130,062-32. The water-supply system was greatly improvea after
the earthquake of 1906; whereas before the earthquake one main
supply pipe brougnt all the water to the city, there have since been
installed five systems which work independently of each other.
Provision is made for filling the mains with salt water from the bay
if necessary in fighting fire. While the supply had been furnished
by a private corporation, the city was in 1910 planning for the
ownership of its water-system, the supply to be drawn from the
Sierras at a cost of some $45,000,000. Water was at that time
in remote parts of the city drawn from artesian wells. In 1903
almost ten-elevenths of the street railways were controlled by one.
Eastern corporation, which was involved in the charges of municipal
corruption that were the most prominent feature of the recent
political history of the city. The electric power and light are drawn
from the Sierras, 140 m. distant.
Population. The population of San Francisco increased in succes- '
sive decades alter 1850 by 67-6, 16-3, 56-5, 27-8, i^-6and 21-6%. The
population is very cosmopolitan. Germans and Irish are not so
numerous here, relatively, as in various other cities, although in
1900 the former constituted 30-1 and the latter 13-6% of the total
population. There is a large Ghetto, a so-called Latin Quarter,
where Spanish sounds and signs are dominant, a Little Italy and a
Chinese quarter of which no other city has the like. Chinatown,
at the foot of Nob Hill, covers some twelve city blocks, and with its
temples, rich bazaars, strange life and show of picturesque colours and
customs, it is to strangers one of the most interesting portions of the
city. It was completely destroyed in the fire of 1906, and its in-
habitants removea temporarily across the bay to Oakland, but by
1910 the_ quarter had been practically rebuilt jn an improved manner,
yet retaining its markedly oriental characteristics. The new China-
town gained considerably in sanitation and in the housing of its
commercial establishments. San Francisco has naturally been the
centre of anti-Chinese agitation. The success of the exclusion laws
is seen (though this is not the sole cause) in the decrease of the
Chinese population from 24,613 to 13,954 between 1890 and 1900.
1 For the fiscal year 1906-1907 the assessed value was
$375,932,447, indicating the drop in values immediately after the
earthquake and fire, and, by comparison with the 1910 figures,
the extent of recovery.
SAN FRANCISCO
H7
The Japanese numbered 1781 in 1900 and have very rapidly
increased. The question of their admission to the public schools,
rivalry in labour and trade, and other racial antagonisms attendant
on their rapid increase in numbers, created conflicts that at one
time seriously involved the relations of the two countries. Two
Chinese papers are published. More than half of the daily papers
are foreign language.
History. A Spanish presidio (military post), and the Francis-
can mission of San Francisco de Asis, on the Laguna de los
Dolores, were founded near the northern end of the peninsula
in 1776. San Francisco was not one of the important settlements.
Even the very important fact whether it was ever actually a
pueblo i.e. a legally recognized and organized town was long
a controverted question. Up to 1835 there were two settlements
on the peninsula one about the presidio, the other about the
mission; the former lost importance after the practical abandon-
ment of the presidio in 1836, the latter after the secularization
of the mission, beginning in 1834. The year 1835-1836 marked
the beginning of a third settlement destined to become the
present San Francisco. This was Yerba Buena (" good herb,"
i.e. wild mint), founded on a little cove of the same name S.E.
of Telegraph Hill, extending inland to the present line of Mont-
gomery Street. (The cove was largely filled in as early as 1851.)
The site of the city is very different from that of most American
towns, and seemed a most unpromising location. The hills
were barren and precipitous, and the interspaces were largely
shifting sand-dunes; but on the E. the land sloped gently to the
bay. In 1835-1839 " San Francisco " had an ayuntamiento
(town-council), and the different municipal officers seem to have
been located at the same or different times at the mission, the
presidio, or at Yerba Buena; the name San Francisco being
applied indifferently to all three settlements. The ayuntamiento,
apparently recognizing the future of Yerba Buena, granted lots
there, and as the older settlements decayed Yerba Buena throve.
In 1840 there were only a handful of inhabitants; in 1846,
when (on the pth of July) the flag of the United States was
raised over the town, its prosperity already marked it as the
future commercial " metropolis " of the coast. In this year a
Mormon colony joined the settlement, making it for a time a
Mormon town. The population in the year before the gold
discovery probably doubled, and amounted to perhaps 900 in
May 1848.
The first news of the gold discoveries of January 1848 was
received with incredulity at San Francisco (to give Yerba Buena
the name it formally assumed in 1847), and there was little
excitement until April. In May there was an exodus. By the
middle of June the hitherto thriving town had been abandoned
by a large majority of its inhabitants. Realty at first fell a half
in value, labour rose many times in price. Newspapers ceased
publication, the town council suspended sessions, churches and
business buildings were alike empty. When the truth became
known regarding the mines a wonderful " boom " began. The
population is said to have been 2000 in February (in which
month the first steamer arrived with immigrants from the East
over the Isthmus), 6000 in August, and 20,000 by the end of the
year. A city of tents and shanties rose on the sand-dunes.
Realty values rose ten-fold in 1849. Early in 1850 more than
500 vessels were lying in the bay, most of them deserted by their
crews. Many rotted; others were beached, and were converted
into stores and lodging houses. Customs revenues rose from
$20,000 in the first half of 1848 to $175,000 in the second half
and to $4,430,000 in the year ending in June 1852. There
was at first no idea of permanent settlement, and naturally
no time whatever to improve the city. Great quantities of
expensive merchandise glutted the market and were sunk in
the liquid mud of the streets as fillage for the construction of
sidewalks. Between December 1849 and June 1851 seven
" great " fires, destroying in the aggregate property valued at
twenty or twenty-five millions of dollars, swept the business
district. Half of this was in the fire of the 4th of May 1851,
which almost completely destroyed the city. These misfortunes
led to a more general employment of brick and stone in the
business quarter. It is characteristic of the vagaries of Californian
commerce in the early years that dressed granite for some build-
ings was imported from China.
In these days the society of San Francisco was extraordinary.
It was the most extreme of all democracies. Probably never
before nor since in America was there a like test of self-develop-
ment. Unusual courage and self-reliance were necessary for
success. Amusements were coarse and unrestrained. Gambling
was the fiercest passion. Property was at first, in San Francisco
as in the mines, exceptionally secure; then insecure. Crime
became alarmingly common, and the city government was too
corrupt and inefficient to repress it. It was estimated (Bancroft)
that up to 1854 there were 4200 homicides and 1200 suicides;
in 1855 the records show 583 deaths by violence. There were
almost no legal convictions and executions. Juries would
not punish homicide with severity. In 1851 the first Committee
of Vigilance was formed and served from June to September,
when it disbanded; it was the nucleus of the second and greater
committee, active from May to August of 1856. By these
committees criminals were summarily tried, convicted and
punished; suspicious characters were deported or intimidated.
These vigilantes were the good citizens (the committee of 1851
included some 800 and that of 1856 some 6000-8000 citizens
of all classes), who organized outside of law, " not secretly, but
in debate, in daylight, with sobriety and decorum," to defend
and establish, through defying, its rule. In this they were
comparatively successful. Crime was never again so brazen
and daring, and 1856 marks also the beginning of political
reform. San Francisco's action was widely imitated over the
state. In 1877 during the labour troubles a Committee of
Safety was again organized, but had a very brief existence.
The United States military authorities in August 1847 author-
ized a municipal government. Under a municipal ordinance
another was chosen in December 1848 to succeed it, but the
parent government pronounced the election illegal; nevertheless
the new organization continued to act, though another was
chosen and recognized as legal. There were for a time at the
end of 1848 three (and for a longer time two) civil governments
and one military. Neither the military nor municipal organiza-
tion was competent to give adequate law and peace to the
community; and therefore in February 1849 the citizens
elected a " Legislative Assembly," which they empowered to
make laws not in " conflict with the Constitution of the United
States nor the common laws thereof." This was proclaimed
revolutionary by the military authorities, but such illegalities
continued to spread over the state, until in June 1849 the
Convention was called that framed the State Constitution, Cali-
fornia being admitted in September 1850 to the Union. Pro-
visional civil officers were elected throughout the state, and the
Legislative Assembly came to an end. The charters of 1850,
1851 and 1856 have already been referred to.
The first public school was established in 1849. In 1855-1856
a disastrous commercial panic crippled the city; and in 1858,
when at the height of the Fraser river gold-mine excitement it
seemed as though Victoria, B.C., was to supplant San Francisco
as the metropolis of the Pacific, realty values in the latter city
dropped for a time fully a half in value. In 1859 foreign coin
was first refused by the banks. Up to this time first gold dust,
then private coins, and later money of various countries, had
circulated in California. In 1860 mail communication was
established with the East by a pony express, the charge being
$5.00 for a half-ounce.
Some reference must be made to the Mexican land-grant
litigation. The high value of land in and about the city caused
the fabrication of two of the most famous claims examined and
rejected as fraudulent by the United States courts (the Limantour
and Santillan claims). They involved 7 sq. leagues of land and
many millions of dollars. Another land question already
referred to (that whether San Francisco was entitled as a pueblo
to 4 sq. leagues of public land) was settled affirmatively in 1867,
but the final land patents were not issued until 1884 by the
national government.
When the Civil War came in 1861 the attitude of San Francisco
148
SANGALLO
was at first uncertain, for the pro-slavery Democrats had
controlled the state and city, although parties were remaking
in the late 'fifties. About 75,000 arms are supposed to have
been surreptitiously sent to California by the secessionist Secre-
tary of War, J. B . Floyd ; and the pro-slavery party seems to have
planned to try for union with the Confederacy, or to organize
a Pacific Coast republic. Thomas Starr King (1824-1864), a
Unitarian minister, was the heroic war-time figure of the city,
the leader of her patriotism. Her money contributions to the
Sanitary Funds were, it is said, greater than those of any city
in the country; and in every other way she abundantly evidenced
her love for the Union. The curious Chapman (or Asbury
Harpending) case of 1863 was a Confederate scheme involving
piracy on Federal vessels in the Pacific and an effort to gain the
secession of the state. It had no practical importance.
From 1850-1877 was the " silver era " of San Francisco (see
CALIFORNIA). It paralleled the excitement and gambling of
1849, and despite losses was a great stimulus to the city's growth.
In September 1869 the Central Pacific line was completed to
Oakland, and in the next four years there was a crash in real
estate values inflated during the railway speculation. In 1876
railway connexion was made with Los Angeles. The 'seventies
were marked by the growth of the anti-Chinese movement,
and labour troubles, culminating in 1877-1879 with the "sand-
lots " agitation and the formation of the Constitution of 1879
(see CALIFORNIA), in all of which San Francisco was the centre.
The feeling against the Chinese found expression sometimes in
unjust and mean legislation, such as the famous " queue ordin-
ance " (to compel the cutting of queues the gravest insult to
the Chinese) , and an ordinance inequitably taxing laundries. The
Chinese were protected against such legislation by the Federal
courts. The startling and romantic changes of earlier years
long ago gave way to normal municipal problems and ordinary
municipal routine. In the winter of 1894 the California Mid-
winter International Exposition was held in Golden Gate Park.
Since 1898 the governmental changes previously referred to,
the location of a new trans-continental railway terminus on the
bay, and the new outlook to the Orient, created by the control
of the Philippines by the United States, and increased trade in
the Pacific and with the Orient, have stimulated the growth and
ambitions of the city.
Special mention must be made of the two citizens to whom
San Francisco, as it is to-day, owes so much, viz. James Lick
(1796-1876), a cold man with few friends, who gave a great
fortune to noble ends; and Adolph Sutro (1830-1898), famous
for executing the Sutro Tunnel of the Comstock mines of Virginia
City, Nevada, and the donor of various gifts to the city.
The partial destruction of San Francisco by earthquake and
fire in 1906 was one of the great catastrophes of history. Earth-
quakes had been common but of little importance in California
until 1906. In more than a century there had been three shocks
called " destructive " (1839, 1865, 1868) and four " exceptionally
severe " at San Francisco, besides very many light shocks or
tremors. The worst was that of 1868; it caused five deaths,
and cracked a dozen old buildings. Heavy earthquake shocks
on the morning of the i8th of April 1906, followed by a fire
which lasted three days, and a few slighter shocks, practically
destroyed the business section of the city and some adjoining
districts. The heaviest shock began at 12 minutes 6 seconds
past 5 o'clock a.m., Pacific standard time, and lasted i minute
5 seconds. Minor shocks occurred at intervals for several days.
The earthquake did serious damage throughout the coast region
of California from Humboldt county to the southern end of
Fresno county, a belt about 50 m. wide. The damage by
earthquake to buildings in San Francisco was, however, small
in comparison to that wrought by the fire which began soon
after the principal shock on the morning of the i8th. About
half the population of the city, it was estimated, spent the
nights while the fire was in progress out of doors, with practically
no shelter. Some 200,000 camped in Golden Gate Park and
50,000 in the presidio military reservation. The difficulty of
checking the fire was increased through the breaking of the
water-mains by the earthquake, draining the principal reservoirs.
Traffic by street cars was made impossible by the twisting of the
tracks.
To stop the fire rows of buildings were dynamited. In
this way many fine mansions on Van Ness Avenue were
destroyed, and the westward advance of the conflagration
was stopped at Franklin Street, one block west. General
Frederick Funston, in command at the presidio, with the
Federal troops under him, assumed control, and the city was
put under military law, the soldiers assisting in the work
of salvage and relief. On the 2ist the fire was reported
under control. A committee of safety was organized by the
citizens and by the city authorities acting in conjunction
with General Funston, and measures were adopted for the
prevention of famine and disease, permanent camps being estab-
lished for those who had been rendered homeless and not provided
for by removal to other cities. Assistance with money and
supplies was immediately given by the nation and by foreign
countries, a committee of the Red Cross Society being put
in charge of its administration. By the 23rd of April about
$10,000,000 had been subscribed by the people of the United
States; Congress voted $2,500,000 from the national treasury.
The committee organized as the Red Cross Relief Corporation
completed its work in 1908, having spent for the relief of the
hungry, for the sick and injured, and for housing and rehabilita-
tion of individuals and families, in round numbers $9,225,000.
As the result of the earthquake and fire about 500 persons lost
their lives; of those two were shot as looters. Buildings
valued at approximately $105,000,000 were destroyed. The
total loss in damage to property has been variously estimated
at from $350,000,000 to $500,000,000. To cover the loss there
was about $235,000,000 of insurance in some 230 companies.
Reconstruction in the burned section began at once, with the
result that it was practically rebuilt in the three years following
the earthquake. Wages for men employed in building, owing
in part to scarcity of labour but chiefly to action of the labour
unions, rose enormously, masons being paid $12 a day for a day
of 8 hours. High prices of materials and of haulage and freight
rates added difficulty to the task of rebuilding, which was accom-
plished with remarkable energy and speed. In May 1907 there
was a street-car strike of large dimensions. Van Ness Avenue,
which during the process of rebuilding had assumed the character
of a business thoroughfare, did not maintain this status, the
business centre returning to the reconstructed Market Street.
A new retail business district developed in what is known as
the mission district and in Fillmore Street. A new residence
district known as Parkside was developed south of Golden
Gate Park.
For description and general features, see Doxey's Guide to San
Francisco and the Pleasure Resorts of California (San Francisco,
1897); and various guides and other publications of the California
Development Board (formed by consolidation of the State Board of
Trade and California Promotion Committee) in San Francisco.
For economic interests and history sec the bibliography of the article
CALIFORNIA. See also Frank Soule and others, Annals of San
Francisco (San Francisco, 1858); John S. Hittell, A History of the
City of San Francisco (San Francisco, 1878) ; B. E. Lloyd, Lights
and Shades of San Francisco (San Francisco, 1876) ; C. W. Stoddard,
In the Footprints of the Padres (San Francisco, 1900); Bernard
Moses, The Establishment of Municipal Government in San Francisco
(Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1889). Many legal questions
of interesting constitutional, treaty and common law import have
been decided in the Federal (and state) courts in cases involving
Chinese; see the collections of reports. For good accounts of the
great earthquake and fire, see D. S. Jordan (ed.), The California
Earthquake of 1906 (1906); F. W. Aitken and E. Hilton, History of
the Earthquake and Fire in San Francisco (1907) ; G. K. Gilbert and
others, San Francisco Earthquake and Fire (Washington, 1907).
SANGALLO, the surname of a Florentine family, several
members of which became distinguished in the fine arts.
I. GIULIANO DI SANGALLO (1445-1516) was an architect,
sculptor, tarsiatore and military engineer. His father, Francesco
di Paolo Giamberti, was also an able architect, much employed
by Cosimo de' Medici. During the early part of his life Giuliano
worked chiefly for Lorenzo the Magnificent, for whom he built
SANGER SAN GERMAN
149
a fine palace at Poggio-a-Cajano, begun in 1485, between Florence
and Pistoia, and strengthened the fortifications of Florence,
Castellana and other places. Lorenzo also employed him to
build a monastery of Austin Friars outside the Florentine gate
of San Gallo, a nobly designed structure, which was destroyed
during the siege of Florence in 1530. It was from this building
that Giuliano received the name of Sangallo, which was afterwards
used by so many Italian architects. While still in the pay of
Lorenzo, Giuliano visited Naples, and worked there for the king,
who sent him back to Florence with many handsome presents
of money, plate and antique sculpture, the last of which Giuliano
presented to his patron Lorenzo. After Lorenzo's death in
1492, Giuliano visited Loreto, and built the dome of the church
of the Madonna, in spite of serious difficulties arising from its
defective piers, which were already built. In order to gain
strength by means of a strong cement, Giuliano built his dome
with pozzolana brought from Rome. Soon after this, at the
invitation of Pope Alexander VI., Giuliano went to Rome, and
designed the fine panelled ceiling of S. Maria Maggiore. He was
also largely employed by Julius II., both for fortification walls
round the castle of S. Angelo, and also -to build a palace adjoining
the church of S. Pietro in Vincoli, of which Julius had been
titular cardinal. Giuliano was much disappointed that Bramante
was preferred to himself as architect for the new basilica of St
Peter, and this led to his returning to Florence, where he did
much service as a military engineer and builder of fortressses
during the war between Florence and Pisa. Soon after this
Giuliano was recalled to Rome by Julius II., who had much need
for his military talents both in Rome itself and also during his
attack upon Bologna. For about eighteen months in 1514-1515
Giuliano acted as joint-architect to St Peter's together with
Raphael, but owing to age and ill-health he resigned this office
about two years before his death.
II. ANTONIO DI SANGALLO (1455?-! 534) was the younger
brother of Giuliano, and took from him the name of Sangallo.
To a great extent he worked in partnership with his brother,
but he also executed a number of independent works. As a
military engineer he was as skilful as Giuliano, and carried out
important works of walling and building fortresses at Arezzo,
Montefiascone, Florence and Rome. His finest existing work
as an architect is the church of S. Biagio at Montepulciano,
in plan a Greek cross with central dome and two towers, much
resembling, on a small scale, Bramante's design for St Peter's.
He also built a palace in the same city, various churches and
palaces at Monte Sansavino, and at Florence a range of monastic
buildings for the Servile monks. Antonio retired early from the
practice of his profession, and spent his latter years in farming.
III. FRANCESCO DI SANGALLO (1493-1570), the son of Giuliano
di Sangallo, was a pupil of Andrea Sanspvino, and worked
chiefly as a sculptor. His works have for the most part but
little merit the finest being his noble effigy of Bishop Leonardo
Bonafede, which lies on the pavement of the church of the
Certosa, near Florence. It is simply treated, with many traces
of the better taste of the i5th century. His other chief existing
work is the group of the " Virgin and Child and St Anne,"
executed in 1526 for the altar of Or San Michele.
IV. BASTIANO DI SANGALLO (1481-1551), sculptor and painter,
was a nephew of Giuliano and Antonio. He is usually known
as Aristotile, a nickname he received from his air of sententious
gravity. He was at first a pupil of Perugino, but afterwards
became a follower of Michelangelo.
V. ANTONIO DI SANGALLO, the younger (14857-1546), another
nephew of Giuliano, went while very young to Rome, and became
a pupil of Bramante, of whose style he was afterwards a close
follower. He lived and worked in Rome during the greater
part of his life, and was much employed by several of the popes.
His most perfect existing work is the brick and travertine
church of S. Maria di Loreto, close by Trajan's column, a building
remarkable for the great beauty of its proportions, and its noble
effect produced with much simplicity. The lower order is square
in plan, the next octagonal; and the whole is surmounted by a
fine dome and lofty lantern. The lantern is, however 1 , a later
addition. The interior is very impressive, considering its very
moderate size. Antonio also carried out the lofty and well-
designed church of S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini, which had been
begun by Jacobo Sansovino. The east end of this church rises
in a very stately way out of the bed of the Tiber, near the bridge
of S. Angelo; the west end has been ruined by the addition of a
later facade, but the interior is a noble example of a somewhat
dull style. Great skill was shown in successfully building this
large church, partly on the solid ground of the bank and partly
on the shifting sand of the river bed. Antonio also built the
Cappella Paolina and other parts of the Vatican, together with
additions to the walls and forts of the Leonine City. His most
ornate work is the lower part of the cortile of the Farnese palace,
afterwards completed by Michelangelo, a very rich and well-
proportioned specimen of the then favourite design, a series of
arches between engaged columns supporting an entablature,
an arrangement taken from the outside of the Colosseum. A
palace in the Via Giulia built for himself still exists under the
name of the Palazzo Sacchetti, much injured by alterations.
Antonio also constructed the very deep and ingenious rock-cut
well at Orvieto, formed with a double spiral staircase, like the
well of Saladin in the citadel of Cairo.
See Raviolo, Notizie sui lavori . . . dei nave Da San Gallo (Rome,
1860) ; G. Clausse, Les Sangallo (Paris, 1900-1901). (J. H. M.)
SANGER, JOHN (1816-1889), English circus proprietor, was
born at Chew Magna, Somerset, in 1816, the son of an old sailor
who had turned showman. In 1845 he started with his brother
George a conjuring exhibition at Birmingham. The venture
was successful, and the brothers, who had been interested
spectators of the equestrian performances at Astley's Amphi-
theatre, London, then started touring the country with a circus
entertainment consisting of a horse and pony and three or four
human performers. This enterprise was a success from the
beginning, and hi due course John and George Sanger became
lessees of the Agricultural Hall, London, and there produced
a large number of elaborate spectacles. In 1871 the Sangers
leased Astley's where they gave an equestrian pantomime every
winter, touring in the summer with a large circus. Subsequently
the partnership was dissolved, each brother producing his own
show. John Sanger died while touring, at Ipswich on the 22nd
of August 1889, the business being continued by his son.
SANGERHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Saxony, situated on the Gonna, near the south base
of the Harz mountains, 30 m. W. of Halle, on the main line of
railway Berlin-Nordhausen-Cassel. Pop. (1905) 12,439. Among
many medieval buildings, the church of St Ulrich, one of the
finest specimens of Romanesque architecture in Germany, and
the church of St James, with a magnificent altar screen and
interesting tombs and effigies, are particularly noticeable.
There are a gymnasium, two hospitals dating from the i4th
century and an old town-hall. The industries include the
manufacture of sugar, furniture, machinery, boots and buttons.
Brewing and brickmaking are also extensively carried on, and
there is a considerable agricultural trade.
Sangerhausen is one of the oldest towns in Thuringia, being
mentioned hi a document of 991 as appertaining to the estates
of the emperor. By marriage it passed to the landgrave of
Thuringia, and after 1056 it formed for a while an independent
country. Having been again part of Thuringia, it fell in 1249 to
Meissen, and in 1291 to Brandenburg. In 1372 it passed to
Saxony and formed a portion of that territory until 1815, when
it was united with Prussia.
See K. Meyer, Chronik des landratlichen Kreises Sangerhausen
(Nordhausen, 1892); and F. Schmidt, Geschichte der Stoat Sanger-
hausen (Sangerhausen, 1906).
SAN GERMAN, a city of the department of Mayaguez, Porto
Rico, in the south-western part of the island, about 10 m. S.S.E.
of the city of Mayaguez. Pop. of the city (1899) 3954; of the
municipal district 20,246, of whom 10,715 were of mixed races.
The city is served by the American railway of Porto Rico.
It is situated near the Guanajibo river, in a fertile agricultural
region which produces sugar, coffee, fruit, cacao and tobacco.
SAN GIMIGNANO SAN JUAN
In one of the public squares is a Dominican church built in
IS38.
San German was founded in 1517, was plundered by the
French in 1528, was destroyed by corsairs in 1554, and was
unsuccessfully attacked by the English in 1748. Until 1782
it was the seat of government of the western district of the island.
It was made a city in 1877.
SAN GIMIGNANO, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province
of Siena, 24 m. N.W. of Siena, at an elevation of 1089 ft. Pop.
(1901) 4060 (town); 10,066 (commune). Being surrounded
by its ancient walls, and retaining thirteen out of its original
fifty towers, it is, with its predominantly Gothic architecture,
a thoroughly medieval town in appearance. In the council
chamber of the town-hall (i 288-1323) is a fresco by Lippo Memmi
of the Madonna enthroned of 1317, copied closely from the
similar fresco (the " Majestas ") by his master Simone di
Martino in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena; there is also a curious
frescoed frieze of 1291, with knights in armour. The museum
in the same building contains pictures and other objects of art.
The tower is the highest in the town (174 ft.), while the Torre
dell' Orologio (167 ft.) close by marks the height beyond which
private individuals might not build. In the same piazza is the
Collegiata (the former cathedral) of the I2th century, enlarged
after 1466 by Giuliano da Maiano, whose brother Benedetto
erected the chapel of S. Fina from his plans in 1468, and carved
the fine marble altar, the original painting and gilding of which
are still preserved. The marble ciborium, a small reproduction
of the splendid one in S. Domenico at Siena, is also by Benedetto.
The beautiful frescoes wit* scenes from the life of the saint (a
local saint who died at the age of fifteen) are the earliest work
of Domenico Ghirlandaio, completed before 1475. There are
also some frescoes of his cousin Bastiano Mainardi (d. 1513).
The cathedral contains other 14th-century and early Renaissance
paintings, the former including some Passion scenes, the only
certain work of Barna da Siena, and some fine choir stalls.
S. Agostino (1280-1298) contains a famous series of seventeen
frescoes by Benozzo Gozzoli, with scenes from the life of St
Augustine (1463-1467). They have been to some extent restored.
The altar of S. Bartoldus, by Benedetto da Maiano, is not unlike
that in the Collegiata (1494). The town was independent in the
i3th century, but in 1353, owing to the dissensions of the
Salvucci (Ghibellines) and Ardinghelli (Guelphs), it fell into the
hands of Florence.
See R. Pantini, San Gimignano e Certaldo (Bergamo, 1905).
SANGLI, a native state of India, in Bombay, ranking as one
of the Southern Mahratta Jagirs. The territory is widely
scattered among other native states and British districts. Area,
iii2 sq. m. Pop. (1001) 226,128; estimated revenue, 10,000.
The river Kistna waters part of the country, which is exceedingly
fertile. Millet, rice, wheat and cotton are the chief crops, and
cotton cloth is manufactured. The chief, whose title is Tatya
Saheb Patwardhan, is a Brahman by caste. The town of
Sangli, on the river Kistna, has a station on the Southern
Mahratta railway, n m. from Miraj Junction. Pop. (1901)
16,829.
SANJO, SANETOMI, PRINCE (1837-1891), Japanese statesman,
was one of the old court nobles (huge) of Japan, and figured
prominently among the little band of reformers who accom-
plished the overthrow of feudalism and the restoration of the
administration to the Mikado. He served as the first
prime minister (daijo daijin) in the newly organized Meiji
government.
SAN JOS, a city and the county-seat of Santa Clara county,
California, U.S.A., situated in the coast ranges, about 46 m.
S.E. of San Francisco and 8 m. S.E. of the southern end of San
Francisco Bay, in thejheart of the beautiful Santa Clara Valley.
Pop. (1890) 18,060; (1000) 21,500, of whom 4577 were foreign-
born; (1910 census) 28,946; land area (1906), about 6 sq. m.
It is served by the Southern Pacific railway, which has car shops
and terminal yards here. The city lies mainly on a gently rising
plateau (altitude, oo to 1 25 ft.) between the Coyote and Guadalupe
rivers. It is a popular health resort.
Besides St James and City Hall parks in the city, San Jos6 has
Alum Rock Canyon Park, a tract of 1000 acres, with sixteen mineral
springs, in Penitencia Canyon, 7 m. east. This park is connected by
electric railway with the city. San Jos6 is the seat of the University
of the Pacific (Methodist Episcopal), which was founded at Santa
Clara in 1851, removed to its present site just outside the city in 1871,
and had 358 students in all departments in 1909-1910; of the
College of Notre Dame (1851; Roman Catholic), and of a State
Normal School. Among charitable institutions are a Home of
Benevolence (1878) for orphans and abandoned children, the Notre
Dame Institute (for orphans) under the Sisters of Notre Dame, and
the O'Connor Sanatorium. The Lick Observatory, opened in 1888
on the top of Mount Hamilton (4209 ft.) with a legacy of $700,000
left by James Lick (1796-1876) of San Francisco, is 26 m. distant by
road, and the New Almaden quicksilver mine (the greatest producer
in California and long among the greatest in the world) is about 14 m.
south. The Santa Clara Valley has many vegetable and flower-seed
farms; it is one of the most fertile of the fruit regions of California,
prunes, grapes, peaches and apricots being produced in especial
abundance. More than half the prune crop of California comes from
Santa Clara county. In 1905 the total value of the factory product
of San Jos6 was $6,388,445 (94-1 % more than in 1900) ; nearly one-
half ($3,039,803) was the value of canned and preserved fruits and
vegetables, $619,532 of planing-mill products, and $518,728 of malt
liquors much barley is grown in the Santa Clara Valley.
San Jose de Guadalupe (after 1836 for a time " de Alvarado "
in honour of Governor J. B. Alvarado) was founded in November
1777, and was the first Spanish pueblo of California. The mission
of Santa Clara was founded in the vicinity in January 1777,
and the mission of San Jose, about 12 m. north-east, in 1797.
Near the original site of the former, in the town of Santa Clara
(pop. 1900, 3650), a suburb of San Jose, now stands Santa Clara
College (Jesuit; founded 1851, chartered 1855). Throughout
the Spanish-Mexican period San Jose was a place of considerable
importance. In 1840 its population was about 750. In the last
years of Mexican dominion it was the most prominent of the
northern settlements in which the Hispano-Californian element
predominated over the new American element. The town was
occupied by the forces of the United States in July 1846; and
a skirmish with the natives occurred in its vicinity in January
1847. San Jose was the first capital of the state of California
(1849-1851), and in 1850 was chartered as a city.
SAN JOSE, or SAN Jos DE COSTA RICA, the capital of the
republic of Costa Rica, and of the department of San Jose;
in the central plateau of the country, 3868 ft. above sea-level,
and on the transcontinental railway from the Pacific port of
Puntarenas to the Atlantic port of Limon. Pop. (1908) about
26,500. San Jose is an episcopal see, the most populous city in
Costa Rica, and the centre of a rich agricultural region; its
climate is temperate, its water-supply pure and abundant. The
city was founded in 1738, and became the capital in 1823 (see
COSTA RICA: History). It is thoroughly modern in appearance,
with macadamised streets lighted by electricity; its houses
are one-storeyed so as to minimize the danger from earthquake.
The suburbs consist chiefly of cane huts, tenanted by Indians
and half-castes. The larger of two public gardens, the Morazan
Park, contains a representative collection of the Costa Rican
flora. The principal buildings are the cathedral, founded in
the i8th century but restored after 1870, the hospital, govern-
ment offices, institutes of law and medicine and of physical
geography, training school for teachers, national bank, museum,
library and barracks. The staple trade of San Jose is in coffee.
SAN JUAN, an Andine province of Argentina, bounded N.
and E. by La Rioja, S. by San Luis and Mendoza, and W. by,
Chile, from which it is separated by the Andean Cordilleras.
Area, 33,715 sq. m.; pop. (1904, estimate) 99,955. It is roughly
mountainous, and belongs to the closed drainage basin of
western Argentina, centring in the province of Mendoza. It
is traversed by several rivers, fed by the melting snows of the
Andes and discharging into the swamps and lagoons in the S.E.
part of the province, the largest of which are the Huanacache
lagoons. The largest of these rivers are the Vermejo, Zanj6n
or Jachal and San Juan. They are all used for irrigation. The
climate is extremely hot and dry in summer, but the winter
temperature is mild and pleasant. Agriculture is the principal
occupation of its inhabitants, though the soil is generally sterile
SAN JUAN SANKT JOHANN
and the rainfall uncertain and very light. Cereals are grown
in some localities, and there are large vineyards where irrigation
is possible, from which excellent wine is made. The province
contains gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, coal and salt, but mining
has never been developed to any extent. Pastoral interests
are largely in feeding cattle for the Chilean markets, for which
large areas of alfalfa are grown in the irrigated valleys of the
Andes. The Argentine Great Western railway connects Mendoza
with the capital of the province, and with the principal cities
of the republic.
The capital of the province is SAN JUAN, once called SAN
JUAN DE LA FRONTERA (pop. 1904, estimate, 11,500), in a great
bend of the San Juan river, 95 m. N. of Mendoza and 730 m.
from Buenos Aires by rail. The great bend of the river affords
easy irrigation, and the surrounding country is covered by a
network of irrigating canals, even the paved streets of the
town having streams of cool water running through them.
The pubh'c buildings include a cathedral, three churches, and
several schools, including the " Escuela Sarmiento, " a fine
edifice with a Greek facade, named after President Domingo
Faustino Sarmiento (1811-1886), who was a native of this city.
There is also a botanical garden.
San Juan was founded in 1561 by Juan Yufre, a companion
of Captain Castillo, the founder of Mendoza. Both came from
Chile, to which these outlying colonies were at first subject.
From 1776 to 1820 it was governed from Mendoza, and then a
popular uprising made the province independent and the town
its capital. It has suffered severely from political disorders, and
in 1894 was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. The original
settlement, now called Pueblo Viejo, 4 m. N., was abandoned
on account of frequent inundations. The present town is
situated about 2165 ft. above sea-level and is defended from
inundations by an embankment above the town, called the
Murallon. San Juan exports wine, and has a profitable trade
with Chile over the Patos and Uspallata passes.
SAN JUAN (SAN JUAN BAUTISTA DE PUERTO Rico), the
capital and largest city of Porto Rico, on a small and narrow
island which lies near the north coast, about 35 m. from the
east end of Porto Rico, and is united to the mainland by the
bridge of San Antonio. Pop. (1899) 32,048, including 5236
negroes and 11,529 of mixed races; (1910) 48,716. San Juan is
served by the American railroad of Porto Rico and by steam-
boats from New York and other ports. The harbour lies between
the city and the mainland. It is capacious and landlocked,
except on the north. A portion of it is 30 ft. in depth, and in
1907 Congress passed an Act for enlarging this area by dredging
and especially for widening the entrance for large vessels; the
work was virtually completed in 1909. San Juan is noteworthy
for its fortifications and public buildings, and is the only fortified
city of Porto Rico.
On a bluff about 100 ft. high at the west end of the island and
commanding the entrance to the harbour rise the battlements of
Morro Castle, which was completed about 1584 and in which there
is a lighthouse. The Castle of San Cristobal (begun early in the 1 7th
century, completed in 1771) extends across the island in the rear
portion of the city. A wall on each side of the island connects the
two castles. The Canuelo is an abandoned fort on an islet opposite
the Morro and less than 1000 yds. from it, the main channel lying
between the two; and Forts San Antonio and San Geronimo protect
the bridge of San Antonio. Inland rises a range of lofty mountains.
Within the walls (which are 50-100 ft. high) the streets are narrow,
smoothly paved with glazed brick and well cleaned. Princessa,
Covadonga and Puerta de Tierra are lined with shady trees and
occasionally widen into refreshing plazas. Between streets the
space is packed closely with massive, flat-roofed brick and stone
buildings, the walls of which, like the fortifications, are covered with
plaster of various colours green, blue, white, brown, pink, yellow
and vermilion ; red tile roofs add to the effect. Near Morro Castle
is the Casa Blanca, a palace on land which belonged to the family of
Ponce de Leon. The tomb of Ponce de Leon is in the Cathedral, and
in the Plaza de San Jos6 is a bronze statue (said to have been cast
from cannon taken from the English in 1797) to his memory. In the
Plaza Colon is a marble and granite monument to Columbus. In
the church of San Francisco are some good paintings by Jos6
Campeche (1752-1809), a local artist. Other churches are the
severely beautiful Santo Domingo, the Santa Ana, the Cathedral,
with a rich shrine of Nuestra Senora de la Providencia, and the
church of San Jos<5, which was formerly the Dominican convent.
Among the prominent buildings and institutions are the custom-
house, the executive mansion (formerly the palace of the governor-
general) situated near the Casa Blanca, the archiepiscopal palace,
a Seminary College, the City Hall, the Intendencia, the Post Office,
the large barracks (Cuartel de Ballaja), the Penitentiary, the Military
Hospital, the Presbyterian Hospital, two municipal hospitals (one
surgical, one medical), a municipal bath-house and a small public
library (the " Cervantes "). At Rio Piedras, not far from San Juan,
is the Normal School and Agricultural School of Porto Rico. Other
suburbs are Marina, with wharves and piers, Puerta de Tierra and
on the mainland, Santurce, with a country club, the Union Club, a
beautiful market-place, two charity schools and some attractive
villas. Industries are of little importance. The sanitation of the
city has been installed since the American occupation; sewers have
been laid and a water-supply is piped from Rio Piedras.
From Caparra, established in 1508 by Juan Ponce de Leon
and now known as Pueblo Viejo, the Spanish settlement removed
in 1520 to San Juan or San Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico,
nearer the coast. The new settlement became the capital of
the eastern district of the island, to the whole of which the latter
part of the name came to be applied. It was sacked by Sir
Francis Drake in 1595, and captured by Admiral George Clifford,
earl of Cumberland (1558-1605), in 1597, but was abandoned
by the conquerors on account of an epidemic. It was unsuccess-
fully attacked by the English under Sir Ralph Abercromby in
April 1797; and it was bombarded by an American fleet under
Rear- Admiral William T. Sampson on the I2th of May 1898
during the Spanish-American wart an d was blockaded by the
auxiliary cruiser " St Paul," which on the 22nd of June drove
back into the harbour the Spanish destroyer " Terror " and the
gunboat " Isabella II."; but the city was not occupied by the
Americans until after the suspension -of hostilities.
SAN JUAN (or HARO) ISLANDS, an archipelago (San Juan,
Orcas, Shaw, Lopez, Blakely, Cypress, &c.) lying between
Vancouver Island and the mainland of North America. These
islands were for many years the subject of dispute between the
British and the United States governments, and were finally
assigned to the latter country by the arbitration of the emperor
of Germany (on the 2ist of October 1872). Geographically the
cluster certainly belongs to the mainland, from which it is
separated by Rosario Strait, generally much under 50 fathoms
in depth, while Haro Strait, separating it from Vancouver Island,
has depths ranging from 100 to 190 fathoms. In 1873 the
islands, formerly considered part of Whatcom county, Washing-
ton, were made the separate county of San Juan. Of the total
area of 200 sq. m., about 60 are in San Juan, 60 in Orcas and
30 in Lopez.
See Papers relating to the Treaty of Washington, vol. v. (Washing-
ton, 1872), and the map in Petermann's Mitteilungen (1873).
SANKARA ACHARYA (c. 789-820), Hindu theologian, was
born about the year 789, probably at the village of Kaladi
in Malabar. He belonged to the Nambudri class of Brahmins.
He wandered far and wide, and engaged in much philosophical
and theological debate. He taught the existence of the Supreme
God and founded the sect of the Smarta Brahmins. His great
achievement was the perfecting of the Mimansa or Vedanta
philosophy. So great were his learning and piety that he was
regarded as an incarnation of Siva, and his works (commentaries
on the Vedanta Sutras, the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads)
exercised a permanent influence on Hindu thought. He died at
Kedarnata in the Himalayas when only 32 years of age.
See Sri Sankaracharya, by C. N. Krishnasurami Aiyar and Pandit
Sitanath Tattvabhushan (Madras, 1902).
SANKT JOHANN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the right bank of the Saar, opposite Saarbrucken
with which it is connected by three bridges. It is 49 m. N.E.
from Metz and at the junction of lines from Trier, Bingerbriick
and Zweibrucken. Pop. (1905) 24,140. Sankt Johann is the
seat of extensive industries, the chief being the manufacture
of railway plant and machinery, iron-founding, wire-drawing and
brewing; its rapid industrial development is due mainly to the
extensive railway system of which it is the centre.
Sankt Johann obtains its name from a chapel erected here.
From 1321 to 1859 it formed a single town with Saarbrucken,
152
SANKT POLTEN SAN LUIS POTOSI
and then was united to form one municipality with Saarbriicken
and Malstatt-Burbach (united population, 90,000).
SANKT POLTEN, an old town and episcopal see of Austria,
in Lower Austria, 38 m. W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900)
14,510. It is situated on the Traisen, a tributary of the Danube,
and contains an interesting old abbey church, founded in 1030
and restored in 1266 and again at the beginning of the i8th
century. There are several religious educational institutions in
the town, and a military academy for engineers. The industries
include cotton spinning and milling, as well as the manufacture
of iron and hardware, and small arms. Sankt Pollen was an
inhabited place in the Roman period. An abbey dedicated
to St Hippolytus was founded here in the gth century, around
which the town developed. It was called Fanum Sancti Hippolyti,
from which, by corruption, the actual name is derived. It
was surrounded with walls and fortifications in the time of
Rudolf of Habsburg, but these were demolished in modern
times.
See Lampel, Urkundenbuch des Chorherrenstifts Sankt Pollen
(Wien, 1891-1901, 2 vols.).
SAN LUCAR (or SANLUCAR DE BARRAMEDA), a fortified
seaport of southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz; 27 m. by
sea from Cadiz, on the left bank of the Guadalquivir estuary,
and on the Puerto de Santa Maria-San Lucar and Jerez de la
Frontera-Bonanza railways. Pop. (1900) 23,883. The town
is divided into two parts, Alta (" upper ") and Baja (" lower ") ;
for it is built partly on the flat foreshore, partly on the rising
ground to the south. The upper part is the older; it culminates
in the ruins of a Moorish citadel. On the outskirts are many
villas surrounded by pine; palm and orange groves, and often
occupied in summer by families from Seville, who come to San
Lucar for the excellent sea-bathing. The 14th-century church
and the palace of the dukes of Medina Sidonia contain many
valuable pictures. The hospital of St George was established
by Henry VIII. of England in 1517 for English sailors. The
Guadalquivir estuary is deep and sheltered, and lighted by
four lighthouses. Bonanza, 2 m. by rail up the river, and on
the same bank, is the headquarters of the shipping and fishing
trades. It is named after a chapel dedicated here by the South
American Company of Seville to the Virgin of Fair Weather
(Virgen de la Bonanza). The fisheries and agricultural trade
of San Lucar are considerable; there are flour mills in the town
and a dynamite factory among the surrounding sandhills.
Coal is imported from Great Britain, sulphur from France.
The imports include sherry, manzanilla and other wines, salt,
oats and fruit..
Inscriptions and ruins prove that San Lucar and Bonanza
were Roman settlements, though the original names are unknown.
San Lucar was captured from the Moors in 1 264, after an occupa-
tion lasting more than five and a half centuries. After 1492
it became an important centre of trade with America. From
this port Columbus sailed across the Atlantic in 1498, and
Magellan started in 1519 to circumnavigate the world.
SAN LUIS, a- province of Argentina, bounded N. by Rioja, E.
by Cordoba, S. by the La Pampa territory and W. by Mendoza.
Area, 28,535 sq. m. Pop. (1904, estimated) 97,458. San Luis
belongs partly to the semi-arid pampa region, and partly to the
mountainous region of the eastern Andes and Cordoba whose
ranges terminate between the 33rd and 34th parallels. It is
one of the least important of the Argentine provinces because
of its aridity and lack of available resources. The rough northern
districts, where an occasional stream affords irrigation for a
fertile soil, are noted for a remarkably uniform, dry, mild and
healthful climate. The Rio Quinto has its sources in these
ranges; the Desaguadero, or Salado, forms its western boundary;
and the Conlara flows northward among its broken ranges to the
great salinas of western Cordoba. Only in the mountains are
these streams available, as they soon become impregnated with
saline matter on the plains. The southern part of the province
is a great, arid, saline plain, practically uninhabitable. Agri-
culture and grazing occupy some attention in the north, but are
handicapped by lack of water. The mountains are rich in
minerals, however, and a number of gold mines have been
opened. The exports include cattle, hides, skins, wool and
ostrich feathers. The capital is San Luis (pop. 1904, about
10,500) on the Arroyo Chorillos, a little S. of the cerro called
Punta de los Venados, 374 m. by rail (the Argentine Great
Western) W. of Rosario, and magnificently situated on a plateau
2490 ft. above sea-level. Next in importance is the town of
Mercedes or Villa Mercedes (pop. 1904, about 6000) on the Rio
Quinto, an important railway junction where the railways
from Buenos Aires, Rosario, Mendoza and San Jose unite.
San Luis, the capital, was founded in 1697 by Martin de
Loyola and was for nearly 200 years only a frontier outpost.
It suffered much in the civil wars of 1831-1865.
SAN LUIS POTOSf, a central state of Mexico, bounded N. by
Coahuila, E. by Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas and Vera Cruz, S. by
Hidalgo, Queretaro and Guanajuato, and W. by Zacatecas.
Area, 25,316 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 575,432. The state belongs
wholly to the high plateau region, with the exception of a
small area in the S.E. angle, where the tableland breaks down
into the tropical valley of the Panuco. The surface is compara-
tively level, with some low mountainous wooded ridges. The
eastern part borders on the Sierra Madre Oriental, where there
are extensive forests. The mean elevation is about 6000 ft.,
insuring a temperate climate. The state lies partly within the
arid zone of the north, the southern half receiving a more liberal
rainfall through the influence of the " northers " on the Gulf
coast. The rainfall, however, is uncertain and the state is poorly
provided with rivers. The soil is fertile and in favourable
seasons large crops of wheat, Indian corn, beans and cotton are
grown on the uplands. In the low tropical valleys, sugar,
coffee, tobacco, peppers and fruit are staple products. Stock-
raising is an important industry and hides, tallow and wool are
exported. Fine cabinet and construction woods are also exported
to a limited extent. At one time San Luis Potosi ranked among
the leading mining provinces of Mexico, but the disorders
following independence resulted in a great decline in that
industry. The Catorce district has some of the richest silver
mines in the country. Other well-known silver mining districts
are Penon Blanco, Ramos and Guadalcazar. The development
of Guadalcazar dates from 1620 and its ores yield gold, copper,
zinc and bismuth, as well as silver. In the Ramos district, the
Cocinera lode is said to have a total yield of over $60,000,000.
Railway facilities are provided by the Mexican Central and
Mexican National lines, the former crossing a corner of ,the state
and having a branch from the capital to Tampico, and the latter
passing through the state from N. to S. The capital is San Luis
Potosi, and other towns, with their populations, are: Matehuala
(13,101 in 1895), a mining town 20 m. E. by W. of Catorce, with
which it is connected by a branch railway; Catorce (9547 in
1895), an important mining town no m. N. (direct) of San Luis
PotosJ (capital) and 8 m. from its railway station on the Mexican
National; at an elevation of 8780 ft., Santa Maria del Rio
(8440 in 1900), 37 m. S.E. of the capital; Venado (5750 in 1895),
45 m. N. of the capital; Rio Verde (5759 in 1900), an agricultural
centre with a national agriculture experiment station in its
vicinity; Soledad Diez Gutierrez (5730 in 1895), near the
capital.
SAN LUIS POTOSf, a city of Mexico and capital of a state of
the same name, near the head of the valley of the Rio Verde
(a tributary of the Panuco), 215 m. by rail N.W. of the city of
Mexico. Pop. (1900) 61,019. The city is served by the Mexican
Central and the Mexican National railways. It is built on a
broad level space, laid out regularly with straight well-paved
streets and shady plazas. The altitude of the city, 6168 ft.
above sea-level, gives it a cool temperate climate, though the
sun temperatures are high. The water-supply was formerly
very deficient, but two artesian wells have been drilled to a
depth of 450 ft. and furnish 30,000 gallons a day each, in addition
to which a large dam 3 m. above the city has been built, having
a storage capacity of 7,500,000 cubic meters (1,650,000,000
gallons), or 1 8 months' supply, which is used for irrigation and
domestic purposes. The better class of residences are usually
SAN MARINO SAN MARTIN
153
two storeys high, and include many fine specimens of Spanish
colonial architecture; but the suburbs consist chiefly of wretched
hovels and stretch out over a large area. Among the more
notable public buildings are the cathedral and government
palace fronting on the Plaza Mayor, the latter conspicuous for
its facade of rose-coloured stone; the churches of El Carmen,
San Francisco and Guadalupe; the La Paz theatre, mint,
penitentiary and the Institute Cientifico, in which law, medicine
and science are taught. San Luis Potosi is an important railway
and distributing centre, with a considerable trade in cattle,
tallow, wool, hides and minerals. Its proximity to the port
of Tampico, with which it was connected by a branch of the
Mexican Central railway in 1885, has greatly increased its
commercial importance, though in earlier days it was also one
of the principal centres of the diligence and pack-train traffic
of this part of Mexico. The city has cotton and woollen factories
using modern machinery, and the smelting works of the Metal-
urgica Mexicana company, an American enterprise.
San Luis Potosi was founded in 1586. It was an important
centre of colonial administration and played an important part
in the civil wars and political disorders following Mexican
independence. It was the seat of the Mexican government
of Benito Juarez in 1863, but was soon afterwards captured
by the French under Bazaine. It was recovered by Juarez in
1867, after the French had retired.
SAN MARINO, a republic in northern Italy, 14 m. S.W. of
Rimini by road. Pop. (1901) about 1600 (town); 9500 (whole
territory). It is the smallest republic in the world (32 sq. m.
in area). According to tradition, the republic was founded by
St Marinus during the persecutions under Diocletian, while his
companion, St Leo, founded the village of that name 7 m. to the
S.W., with La Rocca its old castle, now a prison, in which the
impostor Cagliostro died in 1795. The history of S. Marino
begins with the pth century, the monastery of S. Marino having
existed demonstrably since 885. In the loth century a communal
constitution was established. The republic as a rule avoided
the faction fights of the middle ages, but joined the Ghibellines
and was interdicted by the pope in 1247-1249. After this it
was protected by the Montefeltro family, later dukes of Urbino,
and the papacy, and successfully resisted the attempts of
Sigismondo Malatesta against its liberty. In 1503 it fell into
the hands of Caesar Borgia, but soon regained its freedom.
Other attacks failed, but civil discords in the meantime increased.
Its independence was recognized in 1631 by the papacy. In
1739 Cardinal Alberoni attempted to deprive it of its independ-
ence, but this was restored in 1 740 and was respected by Napoleon.
Garibaldi entered it in 1849, on his retreat from Rome, and there
disbanded his army. The town stands on the north end of
a precipitous rock (2437 ft.) which bears the name of Monte
Titano; each of the three summits is crowned by fortifications
that on the north by a castle, the other two by towers. The
arms of the republic are three peaks, each crowned with a tower.
There are traces of three different enceintes, of the I4th, isth
and i6th centuries. The chief square, the Pianello, contains
the new Palazzo del Governo in the Gothic style (1894) and a
statue of Liberty (1876). The principal church (Pieve), in
classical style, dates from 1826-1838, and contains the body of
St Marinus. The old church, then demolished, is first mentioned
in 1113, but was several times restored. S. Francesco has
some paintings- by Niccolo Alunno of Foligno and other later
artists, and a pretty loggia. The museum contains a few pictures
of various schools and some Umbrian antiquities. Bartolommeo
Borghesi, the epigraphist and numismatist, resided here from
1821 until his death in 1860. The Borgo at the base of the rock
is a chiefly commercial village.
The supreme power of the republic resides in the general
assembly (Arringo) which meets twice a year. It is governed
by two Capitani Reggenti, selected twice a year from the 60
life-members of the Great Council, which is composed of 20
representatives of the nobility, 1 20 of the landowners and 20 of
the citizens. They are assisted by a small committee of 12 of the
1 Not a few Italians possess titles of nobility of San Marino.
Great Council. The available armed forces of the republic form
a total of about 1200 men, all citizens able to bear arms being
technically obliged to do so from the age of 16 to 60 years. San
Marino issues its own postage-stamps, and makes thereby a
considerable income. It also issues its own copper coinage,
which circulates in Italy also; but Italian money is current for
the higher values. Most of the republic falls within the diocese
of Montefeltro, a small portion within that of Rimini.
See C. Ricci, La Repubblica di San Marino (Bergamo, 1903).
SAN MARTIN, JOSfi DE (1778-1850), South American soldier
and statesman, was born at Yapeyu on the Uruguay river on
the 25th of February 1778. His father was a captain in the
Spanish army, and young San Martin was taken to Madrid
and educated for a military career. He served in the Moorish
wars and in the great struggle against Napoleon, and his dis-
tinguished conduct at the battle of Baylen brought him the rank
of lieutenant-colonel. In 1812 he offered his services to the
government of Buenos Aires in the struggle for the independ-
ence of Argentina. He was appointed early in 1814 to the
command of the revolutionary army operating against the
royalists on the borders of Upper Peru. But he soon resigned
his command, realizing that for the permanent success of the
revolutionary cause it was necessary first to oust the Spaniards
from Chile and then to organize an expedition thence against
the stronghold of Spanish power on Peru. With this end in view
he secured his appointment to the governorship of the province
of Cuyo, bordering on the Chilean Andes, and established him-
self at Mendoza, where he prepared for the invasion of Chile.
Assisted by Bernardo O'Higgins, he rallied the Chilean patriots
who had fled across the mountains after their defeat at Rancagua;
he enlisted the sympathies of the Argentine government, and
after two years succeeded in raising a well-trained army of
Chileans and Argentines and in collecting the material resources
necessary for a crossing of the Andes. In January 1 8 1 7 he set out
on his enterprise. By the swiftness of his movements and by a
clever feint he evaded opposition, and he led his army, of about
3000 infantry and 1000 cavalry, together with artillery and large
baggage trains, through a barren and difficult region, and over
passes 13,000 ft. above sea-level. The victory of Chacabuco
(Feb. 12, 1817) over the royalist army led to the re-establishment
of a nationalist government at Santiago under Bernardo
O'Higgins, as San Martin himself wished to prepare for the
invasion of Peru; but in 1818 he took command of the Chilean
forces against a fresh royalist army, and by his victory at the
river Maipo in April finally secured the independence of Chile.
This left him free to organize the expedition against Peru, and
assisted by O'Higgins and the Argentine government, he pro-
cured the necessary fleet and the army. He set out in August
1820, landed his forces for a short time at Pisco, where he tried
to enter into negotiations with the viceroy of Lima, and then
transported his army with the help of the fleet to a point on the
coast a little way north of Lima. Here he spent several months
of inaction, hoping that the demonstration of force and the
influence of popular feeling would lead to a peaceful withdrawal
of the Spaniards. In July 1821 the Spaniards evacuated Lima,
San Martin entered the city, proclaimed the independence of Peru
and assumed the reins of government with the title of Protector.
His position, however, was far from secure. The royalist party,
never having been decisively crushed, organized risings in the
interior, and San Martin was embarrassed by the jealousy which
his authority roused among the patriots, and by the rivalry of
Bolivar, who had arrived with an army on the northern frontier
of Peru. San Martin resigned his authority on the 2oth of
September 1822 and left the country. He spent a short time in
Chile and in Argentina, but his many enemies had embittered
popular feeling against him, and constant attempts were made
to involve him in political intrigues. Unable to live a peaceful
private life, he was compelled to exile himself in Europe, where
he lived, often in great poverty, till his death at Boulogne on the
I7th of August 1850.
San Martin did more than any man for the cause of independence jn
the Argentine, Chile and Peru. He was not only an able soldier; in
154
SANMICHELE SAN REMO
the clearness with which he realized that the independence of each
state could only be secured by the co-operation of all, and in the
perseverance with which he carried his views into execution he showed
himself a far-seeing and honest statesman.
See W. Pilling, Emancipation of South America (London, 1893), a
translation of B. Mitre's life of San Martin; P. B. Figueroa, Diccio-
nario biografico de Chile (Santiago, 1888) and J. B. Suarez, Rasgos
biograficos de hombres notables de Chile (Valparaiso, 1886), both
giving sketches of prominent characters in Chilean history. See also
works on the period mentioned under CHILE: Bibliography.
SANMICHELE, MICHELE (1484-1559), Italian architect,
was born in San Michele near Verona. He learnt the elements
of his profession from his father Giovanni and his uncle Barto-
lommeo, who both practised as architects at Verona with much
success. He went at an early age to Rome to study classic
sculpture and architecture. Among his earliest works are the
duomo of Montefiascone (an octagonal building surmounted
with a cupola), the church of San Domenico at Orvieto, and
several palaces at both places. He also executed a fine tomb
in S. Domenico. He was no less distinguished as a military
architect, and was much employed by the signoria of Venice,
not only at home, but also in strengthening the fortifications
of Corfu, Cyprus and Candia. One of Sanmichele's most graceful
designs is the Cappella de' Peregrini in the church of S. Bernardino
at Verona square outside and circular within, of the Corinthian
order. He built a great number of fine palaces at Verona,
including those of Canossa, Bevilacqua and Pompei, as well
as the graceful Ponte Nuovo. In 1527 Sanmichele began to
transform the fortifications of Verona according to the newer
system of corner bastions a system for the advancement of
which he did much valuable service. His last work, begun in
1559, was the round church of the Madonna di Campagna, i m.
from Verona on the road to Venice. Like most other distin-
guished architects of his time he wrote a work on classic archi-
tecture, / Cinque Ordini dell' archiletlura, printed at Verona
in 1735.
See Ronzani and Luciolli, Fabbriche . . . di M. Sanmichele
(Venice, 1832) ; and Selva, Elogio di Sanmichele (Rome, 1814).
SAN MIGUEL, the capital of the department of San Miguel,
Salvador; 80 m. E. by S. of San Salvador, near the right bank
of the Rio Grande, and at the foot of the volcano of San Miguel
or Jucuapa (7120 ft.). Pop. (1905) about 25,000. San Miguel
is an important and attractive city, although the extensive
swamps in the Rio Grande Valley render malaria common.
It possesses several handsome churches, municipal buildings,
law courts and two well-equipped hospitals. Near it are the
ruins of an ancient Indian town. San Miguel has a flourishing
trade in indigo, grain, rubber and cattle. Its port is La Union
(q.v.). San Miguel was founded in 1530 by Spanish settlers, and
became a city in 1586. Its fairs formerly attracted merchants
from all parts of Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, and it is
now third in size among the cities of the republic.
SAN MIGUEL DE MAYUMO, a town of the province of
Bulacan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about 40 m. N. of Manila.
Pop. (1903) 14,919. In 1903, after the census had been taken,
San Ildefonso (pop. 5326) was annexed to San Miguel. It has a
cool and very healthy climate, and commands a beautiful view
of the surrounding country. The soil is very fertile, and many
of the inhabitants have acquired much wealth from the cultiva-
tion of rice. Sugar-cane, Indian corn and cotton are also
produced in abundance, and cattle are raised. Near the town
are iron mines and quarries of limestone, and on the neighbouring
mountains are forests containing valuable hardwood timber.
About 8 m. N.E. are the medicinal springs of Sibul, to which
large numbers of patients from the neighbouring provinces
come. The San Miguel river, which flows near, affords a means
of transportation, and the town has considerable commerce.
Some beautiful furniture is made out of the hardwood from the
mountains, and cotton fabrics are woven in considerable quantities
by the women. The principal language is Tagalog. The chief
buildings were destroyed in 1901 in a fire started by a band of
thieves.
SAN MINIATO, a town and episcopal see of Tuscany, Italy,
in the province of Florence, 26 m. W. by S. of Florence by the
railway to Pisa, 512 ft. above sea-level, on a hill 2 m. S. of the
railway. Pop. (1901) 4421 (town); 20,242 (commune). Its
cathedral dates from the icth century. It was remodelled
in 1488, and has a facade decorated with disks of majolica.
It manufactures glass, olive oil, leather and hats. It has a
castle of the emperor Frederick I., the residence of the imperial
governors of Tuscany from 1226 to 1286, and from them bears
the name of San Miniato al Tedesco.
SANNAZARO, JACOPO (1458-1530), Italian poet of the
Renaissance, was born in 1458 at Naples of a noble family,
said to have been of Spanish origin, which had its seat at San
Nazaro near Pavia. His father died during the boyhood of
Jacopo, who was brought up at Nocera Inferiore. He afterwards
studied at Naples under Giovanni Pontanus, when, according to
the fashion of the time, he assumed the name Actius Syncerus,
by which he is occasionally referred to. After the death of his
mother he went abroad driven, we are told, by the pangs of
despised love for a certain Carmosina, whom he has celebrated
in his verse under various names; but of the details of- his
travels nothing is recorded. On his return he speedily achieved
fame as a poet and place as a courtier, receiving from Frederick
III. as a country residence the Villa Mergillina near Naples.
When his patron was compelled to take refuge in France in 1501
he was accompanied by Sannazaro, who did not return to Italy
till after his death (1504). The later years of the poet seem to
have been spent at Naples. He died on the 27th of April 1530.
The Arcadia of Sannazaro, begun in early life and published in
1504, is a somewhat affected and insipid Italian pastoral, in which
in alternate prose and verse the scenes and occupations of pastoral
life are described. See Scherillo's edition (Turin, 1888). His now
seldom read Latin poem De partu Virginis, which gained for him the
name of the " Christian Virgil," appeared in 1526, and his collected
Sonetti e canzoni in 1530.
SAN NICOLAS DE LOS ARROYOS, a town and river port of
Argentina, in the province of Buenos Aires, on the W. bank of
the Parani, 150 m. by rail N.W. of the city of Buenos Aires.
Pop. (1904, estimate), 18,000. It is a flourishing commercial
town, and a port of call both for river and ocean-going steamers
of medium tonnage. It is a station on the Buenos Aires &
Rosario, and the terminus of a branch from Pergamino of the
Central Argentine railway, and exports wheat, flour, wool and
frozen mutton. The town is the judicial centre for the northern
district of Buenos Aires. San Nicolas was founded in 1749
by Jose de Aguillar on lands given for that purpose by his wife
(nee Ugarte). Its growth was very slow until near the end of
the i gth century.
SAN PABLO, a town of the province of Laguna, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, g m. S. of Laguna de Bay and about 35 m.
S.S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 22,612. It is an important road
centre, and in the vicinity are five small mountain lakes. Coco-
nut palms grow in great abundance in the town and vicinity,
and copra is the principal product; hemp and, to a less degree,
rice, are grown here. The language is Tagalog.
SANQUHAR, a royal and police burgh of Dumfriesshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1379. It is situated on the Nith, 26 m.
N.W. of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South -Western railway.
It became a burgh of barony in 1484 and a royal burgh in 1596,
and was the scene of the exhibition of the Covenanters' Declara-
tion, attached to the market cross in 1680 by Richard Cameron
and in 1685 by James Renwick. The industries include coal-
mining and the making of bricks and tiles, spades and shovels.
The coal-field, measuring 7 m. long by 2j m. broad, is the most
extensive in the shire and is the main source of supply for
Dumfries and other towns. The cattle and sheep fairs are
important, and an agricultural show is held every May. Sanquhar
Castle, on a hill overlooking the Nith, once belonged to the
Crichtons, ancestors of the marquess of Bute, but is now a ruin.
Eliock House, in the parish, was the birthplace of James (" the
Admirable ") Crichton in 1560.
SAN REMO, a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of
Porto Maurizio, on the Riviera di Ponente, 9! m. E. of Venti-
miglia by rail, and 84 m. S.W. of Genoa. Pop. (1901) 17,114
(town); 20,027 (commune). Climbing the slope of a steep hill
SAN SALVADOR SAN SEVERING
it looks south over a small bay, and, protected towards the north
by hills rising gradually from 500 to 8000 ft., it is in climate
one of the most favoured places on the whole coast, a fact which
accounts for the great reputation as a winter resort which it
has enjoyed since 1861. The older town, with its narrow steep
streets and lofty sombre houses protected against earthquakes
by arches connecting them, contrasts with the new visitors'
town, containing all the public buildings, which has grown
up at the foot of the hill. The fort of S. Tecla protects the small
harbour, sheltered by its sickle-shaped mole, 1300 ft. long. The
promenade of San Remo is the Corso dell' Imperatrice, running
from the main street, the Via Vittorio Emanuele, along the coast
to the Giardino dell' Imperatrice; it is a broad road shaded
by palm-trees, and was, like the garden, constructed at the
expense of the empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (d. 1880).
The Villa Thiem has a valuable picture-gallery, containing
for the most part examples of the great 17th-century masters
of the Netherlands. Besides the Gothic ex-cathedral of San
Siro, the white-domed church of the Madonna della Costa, at the
top of the old town, may be mentioned. In front of it is a large
hospital. On the east of the harbour, the promenade along the
coast is called the Passeggiata Imperatore Federico in memory
of the German emperor Frederick, whose visit to the town in
1887-1888 greatly increased its repute as a winter resort.
Flowers, especially roses and carnations, are extensively grown
for export, and olives, lemons and palms are also cultivated.
San Remo appears to have been dependent on Genoa in its early
days, but became independent in 1361. In 1544 the town was
attacked by Barbarossa, and in 1625 by the French and Savoyards.
The Genoese, against whose encroachments it had long defended its
independence, subjugated it in 1753; in 1797 it was incorporated in
the Ligurian republic, and in 1814 passed to Piedmont.
SAN SALVADOR, the capital of the republic of Salvador;
situated in the valley of Las Hamacas, on the river Asalguate,
at an altitude of 2115 ft., and 30 m. inland from the Pacific.
Pop. (1905) about 60,000. San Salvador is connected by rail
with Santa Ana on the north-west and with the Pacific ports
of La Libertad and Acajutla. In addition to the government
offices, its buildings include a handsome university, a wooden
cathedral, a national theatre, an academy of science and litera-
ture, a chamber of commerce, and astronomical observatory and
a number of hospitals and charitable institutions. There are
two large parks and an excellent botanical garden. In the
Plaza Morazan, the largest of many shady squares, is a handsome
bronze and marble monument to the last president of united
Central America, from whom the plaza takes its name. San
Salvador is the only city in the republic which has important
manufactures; these include the production of soap, candles,
ice, shawls and scarves of silk, cotton cloth, cigars, flour and
spirits. The city is admirably policed, has an abundant water
supply, and can in many respects compare favourably with the
smaller provincial capitals of Europe and America. It was
founded by Don Jorge de Alvarado in 1528, at a spot near the
present site, to which it was transferred in 1539. Except for
the year 1830-1840 it has been the capital of the republic since
1834. It was temporarily ruined by earthquakes in 1854 and
1873-
SANS-CULOTTES (French for " without knee-breeches "), the
term originally given during the early years of the French
Revolution to the ill-clad and ill-equipped volunteers of the
Revolutionary army, and later applied generally to the ultra-
democrats of the Revolution. They were for the most part men
of the poorer classes, or leaders of the populace, but during the
Terror public functionaries and persons of good education styled
themselves citoyens sans-culolles. The distinctive costume of
the typical sans-culotte was the panlalon (long trousers) in
place of the culottes worn by the upper classes the carmagnole
(short-skirted coat), the red cap of liberty and sabots (wooden
shoes). The influence of the Sans-culottes ceased with the
reaction that followed the fall of Robespierre (July 1794), and
the name itself was proscribed. In the Republican Calendar
the complementary days at the end of the year were at first
called Sans-culottides; this name was, however, suppressed
by the Convention when the constitution of the year III. (1795)
was adopted, that of jours complementaires being substituted.
SAN SEBASTIAN (Basque Iruchulo), a seaport and the
capital of the Spanish province of Guipuzcoa, on the Bay of
Biscay, and on the Northern railway from Madrid to France.
Pop. (1900) 37,812. In 1886 San Sebastian became the summer
residence of the court. The influx of visitors, attracted by the
presence of the royal family, by the prolonged local festivities,
the bull-fights and the bathing, increases the number of the
inhabitants in summer to about 50,000. The city occupies
a narrow sandy peninsula, which terminates on the northern
or seaward side in a lofty mass of sandstone, Monte Urgull;
it is flanked on the east by tHe estuary of the river Urumea,
on the west by the broad bay of La Concha. The old town,
rebuilt after the fire of 1813, lies partly at the foot of Monte
Urgull, partly on its lower slopes. Until 1863 it was enclosed
by walls and ramparts, and a strong fort, the Castillo de la Mola,
still crowns the heights of Urgull. There are also batteries and
redoubts facing landward and seaward below this fort; but the
other defences have been either razed or dismantled. The
Alameda, one of many fine avenues, was laid out on the site of
the chief landward wall, and separates the old town from the
new in which the houses are uniformly modern, and built
in straight streets or regular series of squares. The bay of La.
Concha has a broad sandy shore, the Playa de Banos, admirable
for bathing and sheltered from sea-winds by the rocky islet of
Santa Clara. Its centre is faced by the casino, a handsome
building, and the summer palace and park of Miramar occupy
the rising ground towards its western extremity. The other
noteworthy buildings are the bull-ring, capable of seating 10,000
spectators, the theatre, fine provincial and municipal halls,
barracks, a hospital, a Jesuit college, the American International
School for girls, and many other schools. There are numerous
breweries, saw and flour mills, and manufactures of preserves,
soap, candles, glass and paper, especially in the busy suburb
that has sprung up on the right bank of the Urumea. The
fisheries are important. The harbour consists of three artificial
basins, opening into La Concha Bay, and situated in the midst
of the old town; it is chiefly frequented by coasting and fishing
vessels, and cannot accommodate large ships. From its position
near the frontier San Sebastian was long a first-class fortress,
and has sustained many sieges. The last and most memorable
was in August 1813, when the allied British, Portuguese and
Spanish armies under Lord Wellington captured the city from
the French, and then sacked and burned it.
SAN SEPOLCRO, or BORGO S. SEPOLCRO, a town and episcopal
see of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Arezzo, from which
it is 28 m. N.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 4537 (town); 9077 (com-
mune). It is situated 1083 ft. above sea-level, on the Tiber.
It was the birthplace of Piero della Francesca (1420-1492) and
of Raffaello del Colle (1490-1540), a pupil of Raphael. The
Romanesque cathedral and the picture-gallery contain works
by both these artists.
SAN SEVERING (anc. Septempeda), a town and episcopal see
of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Macerata, from which
it is 18 m. W. by S. by rail. Pop. (1901) 3227 (town); 14,932
(commune). The lower town is situated 781 ft. above sea-level,
and contains the new cathedral of S. Agostino, with a fine
altar-piece by Pinturicchio (1489). The Palazzo Comunale
has some interesting pictures by artists of the Marches. Lorenzo
and Giacomo Salimbeni da San Severino, who painted an
important series of frescoes in the oratory of S. Giovanni Battista
at Urbino in 1416, were natives of the town. So was also the
later master Lorenzo di Maestro Alessandro, of the end of the
1 5th century, whose pictures are mainly to be found in the
Marches. The old cathedral of S. Severino is in the upper town
(1129 ft. above sea-level); it contains frescoes by the two
Salimbeni, while an altar-piece by Niccolo Alunno of Foligno
(1468) has been removed hence to the picture gallery. The
ancient Septempeda lay i m. below the modern town, on the
branch road which ran from Nuceria Camellaria, on the Via
Flaminia; and here the road divided one branch going to
i 5 6
SAN SEVERO SANSKRIT
Ancona and the other through Tolentinum to Urbs Salvia and
Firmum. No ruins of the old town exist, but a considerable
number of inscriptions have been found, from which it may
be gathered that it was a colonia.
SAN SEVERO, a city in Apulia, Italy, in the province of
Foggia, from which it is 17 m. N.N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901)
28,550. San Severe lies at the foot of the spurs of Monte Gargano,
292 ft. above sea-level. It is the see of a bishop (since 1580),
and has some remains of its old fortifications. San Severo
dates from the middle ages. It was laid in ruins by Frederick II.,
and in 1053 was the scene of a victory by Robert Guiscard over
the papal troops under Leo IX. In 1799 the town was taken
by the French and again almost entirely destroyed. The over-
lordship was held in succession by the Benedictines of the abbey
of Torre Maggiore, the Knights Templars, the crown of Naples
and the Sangro family (commendatories of Torre Maggiore).
In 1627, 1828 and 1851 the town suffered from earthquakes.
SAN-SHUI, a treaty port in the province of Kwang-tung,
China, on the left bank of the West river, 99 m. from Canton,
opened to foreign trade in 1897. Pop. about 5000. Its position is
at the junction of the North and West rivers, and it is favourably
situated as a distributing centre for foreign goods. Two lines
of steamers converge at San-shui, from Canton and Hong-Kong
respectively. The town is surrounded by a handsome wall built
in the i6th century, but within this rampart the houses are mean.
The foreign trade shows little signs of expansion. In 1902 the
net foreign imports amounted in value to 474,175, and in 1904
to only 380,000, while the exports during the same two years
amounted to 225,000 and 317,000 respectively. The direct
foreign trade in 1908 was 507,827. There is a large junk traffic,
and the local likin station is one of the richest in the province.
SANSKRIT, the name applied by Hindu scholars to the
ancient literary language of India. The word saipskrita is the
past participle of the verb kar(kr), " to make " (cognate with
Latin creo), with the preposition sam, "together" (cog. &fia,
i/i6s, Eng. " same "), and has probably to be taken here in the
sense of " completely formed " or " accurately made, polished,
refined " some noun meaning " speech " (esp. bhasha) being
either expressed or understood with it. The term was, doubtless,
originally adopted by native grammarians to distinguish the
literary language from the uncultivated popular dialects the
forerunners of the modern vernaculars of northern India which
had developed side by side with it, and which were called (from
the same root kar, but with a different preposition) Prdkrita,
i.e. either " derived " or " natural, common " forms of speech.
This designation of the literary idiom, being intended to imply
a language regulated by conventional rules, also involves a
distinction between the grammatically fixed language of Brah-
manical India and an earlier, less settled, phase of the same
language exhibited in the Vedic writings. For convenience the
Vedic language is, however, usually included in the term, and
scholars generally distinguish between the Vedic and the classical
Sanskrit.
I. SANSKRIT LANGUAGE
The Sanskrit language, with its old and modern descendants,
represents the easternmost branch of the great Indo-Germanic,
or Aryan, stock of speech. Philological research has clearly
established the fact that the Indo-Aryans must originally have
immigrated into India from the north-west. In the oldest
literary documents handed down by them their gradual advance
can indeed be traced from the slopes of eastern Kabulistan
down to the land of the five rivers (Punjab), and thence to the
plains of the Yamuna (Jumna) and Ganga (Ganges). Numerous
special coincidences, both of language and mythology, between
the Vedic Aryans and the peoples of Iran also show that these
two members of the Indo-Germanic family must have remained
in close connexion for some considerable period after the others
had separated from them.
The origin of comparative philology dates from the time when
European scholars became accurately acquainted with the
ancient language of India. Before that time classical scholars
had been unable to determine the true relations between the
then known languages of our stock. This fact alone shows the
importance of Sanskrit for comparative research. Though its
value in this respect has perhaps at times been overrated, it
may still be considered the eldest daughter of the old mother-
tongue. Indeed, so far as direct documentary evidence goes,
it may be said to be the only surviving daughter; for none of the
other six principal members of the family have left any literary
monuments, and their original features have to be reproduced,
as best they can, from the materials supplied by their own
daughter languages: such is the case as regards the Iranic,
Hellenic, Italic, Celtic, Teutonic and Letto-Slavic languages.
To the Sanskrit the antiquity and extent of its literary docu-
ments, the transparency of its grammatical structure, the
comparatively primitive state of its accent system, and the
thorough grammatical treatment it has early received at the
hand of native scholars must ever secure the foremost place in
the comparative study of Indo-Germanic speech.
The Sanskrit alphabet consists of the following sounds:
(o) Fourteen vowels, viz:
Ten simple vowels : a, a, i, i, u, u, r., f, I (I) ; and Alphabet
Four diphthongs : e, di, 6, au.
(b) Thirty-three consonants, viz. :
Five series of mutes and nasals :
guttural : k kh g gh A
palatal : c ch i jh n
lingual : f ffc n 9
dental : t ih d dh n
labial: p ph b bh m;
Four semivowels : y r Iv (w)
Three sibijants: palatal ({), lingual .j (sh), dental s; and
A soft aspirate: n.
(c) Three unoriginal sounds, viz.
visarga (h), a hard aspirate, standing mostly for original
s or r; and two nasal sounds of less close contact than
the mute-nasals, viz. anusvdra (r/i) and anundsika (m).
As regards the vowels, a prominent feature of the language
is the prevalence of o-sounds, these being about twice as
frequent as all the others, including diphthongs taken
together (Whitney).
The absence of the short vowels e and 6 from the Sanskrit alpha-
bet, and the fact that Sanskrit shows the o-vowel where other
vowels appear in other languages e.g. bharanlam = QepovTa,
ferentem; janas=ytvm, genus were formerly considered as strong
evidence in favour of the more primitive state of the Sanskrit vowel
system as compared with that of the sister languages. Recent
research has, however, shown pretty conclusively from certain
indications in the Sanskrit language itself that the latter must at
one time have possessed the same, or very nearly the same, three
vowel-sounds, and that the differentiation of the original a-sound
must, therefore, have taken place before the separation ot the
languages. Thus, Sans, carati, he walks, would seem to require an
original kereti (Gr. irtXei = queleti, Lat. colit), as otherwise the
guttural k could not have changed to the palatal c (see below) ; and
similarly Sans, jdnu, knee, seems to stand iorgenu (Lat. genu,Gr.ybvv).
Not impossibly, however, this prevalence of pure a-sounds in Sanskrit
may from the very beginning have been a mere theoretical or graphic
feature of the language, the difference of pronunciation having not
yet been pronounced enough for the early grammarians to have
felt it necessary to clearly distinguish between the different shades
of o-sounds.
The vowels e and o, though apparently simple sounds, are classed
as diphthongs, being contracted from original di and au respectively,
and liable to be treated as such in the phonetic modifications they
have to undergo before any vowel except o.
As regards the consonants, two of the five series of
mutes, the palatal and lingual series, are of secondary Con-
(the one of Indo-Iranian, the other of purely Indian) sonants.
growth.
' The palatals are, as a rule, derived from original gutturals, the
modification being generally due to the influence of a neighbouring
palatal sound i or y, or e (d). The surd aspirate ch, in words of Indo-
Germanic origin, almost invariably goes back to original sk: e.g.
chid- (chind-) scindo, irxifu: chaya = oxiA (O.K. scin, shine);
Sans. gacchati=p&oK(i.
The palatal sibilant S (pronounced sh) likewise originated from a
guttural mute k, but one of somewhat different phonetic value from
that represented by Sanskrit k or c. The latter, usually designated
by k* (or q), is frequently liable to labialization (or dentalization)
in Greek, probably owing to an original pronunciation kw (qu) :
e.g. katara = ir6rtpos, uter; while the Former (&') shows invariably
K in Greek, and a sibilant in the Letto-Slavic and the Indo-Iranian
languages: e.g. fvan ($un) = K<>wv (KW), canis, Ger. Hund; dasan =
Sixo, decent, Goth, taihun.
LANGUAGE]
SANSKRIT
'57
Declen-
sion.
The non-original nature of the palatals betrays itself even in
Sanskrit by their inability to occur at the end of a word e.g.
ace. vacant = Lat. vocem, but nom. vak = vox and by otherwise
frequently reverting to the guttural state.
The linguals differ in pronunciation from the dentals in their
being uttered with the tip of the tongue turned up to the dome of
the palate, while in the utterance of the dentals it is pressed against
the upper teeth, not against the upper gums as is done in the English
dentals, which to Hindus sound more like their own linguals. The
latter, when occurring in words of Aryan origin, are, as a rule,
modifications of original dentals, usually accompanied by the loss
of an r or other adjoining consonant; but more commonly they
occur in words of foreign, probably non-Aryan, origin. Of regular
occurrence in the language, however, is the change of dental n into
lingual n, and of dental i into lingual 3, when preceded in the same
word by certain other letters. The combination k$ seems sometimes
to stand for ks (? kst) as in Sans, aksa, Gr. a&v, axle; Sans, dakshina,
Gr. 5fios (but Lat. dexter) ; sometimes for kt, e.g. Sans, kshiti, Gr.
KTi<m (but Sans. kshili = Gr. <Stcris) ; Sans, takshan, Gr. rkuruv.
The sonant aspirate h is likewise non-original, being usually de-
rived from original sonant aspirated mutes, especially gh, e.g.
hamsa = \T\v (for xaps), anser, Ger. Cans; aham = kyav, ego, Goth. ik.
The contact of final and initial letters of words in the same sentence
is often attended in Sanskrit with considerable euphonic modifica-
. . tions; and we have no means of knowing how far the
practice of the vernacular language may have corresponded
changes. tQ t jj ese phonetic theories. There can be no doubt, how-
ever, that a good deal in this respect has to be placed to the account
of grammatical reflection ; and the very facilities which the primitive
structure of the language offered for grammatical analysis and an
insight into the principles of internal modification may have given
the first impulse to external modifications of a similar kind.
None of the cognate languages exhibits in so transparent a manner
as the Sanskrit the cardinal principle of Indo-Germanic word-
formation by the addition of inflectional endings either case-endings
or personal terminations (themselves probably original roots)
to stems obtained, mainly by means of suffixes, from monosyllabic
roots, with or without internal modifications.
There are in Sanskrit declension three numbers and seven cases,
not counting the vocative, viz. nominative, accusative, instru-
mental (or sociative), dative, ablative, genitive and
locative. As a matter of fact, all these seven cases
appear, however, only in the singular of a-stems and of
the pronominal declension. Other noun-stems have only one case-
form for the ablative and genitive singular. In the plural, the
ablative everywhere shares its form with the dative (except in the
personal pronoun, where it has the same ending as in the singular),
whilst the dual shows only three different case-forms one for the
nominative and accusative, another for the instrumental, dative,
and ablative, and a third for the genitive and locative.
The declension of o-stems corresponding to the first and second
Latin declensions is of especial interest, not so much on account
of its being predominant from the earliest time, and becoming more
and more so with the development of the language, but because it
presents the greatest number of alternative forms, which supply a
kind of test for determining the age of literary productions, a test
which indeed has already been applied to some extent by Professor
Lanman, in his excellent Statistical Account of Noun Inflexion in
the Veda. These alternative case-forms are :
1 . asas and as for the nominative plural masc. and fem. : e.g.
aSvdsas and asvds = equi (equae). The forms in asas explained by
Bopp as the sign of the plural as applied twice, and by Schleicher
as the sign of the plural as added to the nominative singular
occur to those in as (i.e. the ordinary plural sign as added to the
o-stem) in the Rigveda in the proportion of I to 2, and in the peculiar
parts of the Atharvaveda in that of I to 25, whilst the ending as
alone remains in the later language.
2. a and ani for the nominative and accusative plural of neuters:
as yugd, yugani = ^vya, juga. The proportion of the former ending
to the latter in the Rik is II to 7, in the Atharvan 2 to 3, whilst
the classical Sanskrit knows only the second form.
3. ebhis and ais for the instrumental plural masc. and neuter,
e.g. devebhis, devais. In the Rik the former forms are to the latter
in the proportion of 5 to 6, in the Atharvan of I to 5, while in the
later language only the contracted form is used. The same con-
traction is found in other languages; but it is doubtful whether it
did not originate independently in them.
4. d and au for the nominative and accusative dual masc., e.g.
ubha, ubhau = &tut>a. In the Rik forms in a outnumber those in au
more than eight times; whilst in the Atharvan, on the contrary,
those in au (the only ending used in the classical language) occur
five times as often as those in a.
5. a and ena (end) for the instrumental singular masc. and neut.,
as ddnd, danena = dono. The ending ena is the one invariably used
in the later language. It is likewise the usual form in the Veda;
but in a number of cases it shows a final long vowel which, though
it may be entirely due to metrical requirements, is more probably a
relic of the normal instrumental ending a, preserved for prosodic
reasons. For the simple ending d, as compared with that in ena,
Professor Lanman makes out a proportion of about I to 9 in the
Verb
system.
Rigveda (altogether 1 14 cases) ; while in the peculiar parts of the
Atharvan he finds only 1 1 cases.
6. am and anam for the genitive plural, e.g. (asvdm), asvdnam
= 1iriruv, equum (equorum). The form with inserted nasal (doubt-
less for anam, as in Zend aSpandm), which is exclusively used in the
later language, is also the prevailing one in the Rik. There are,
however, a few genitives of a-stems in original dm (for a-dm), which
also appear in Zend, Professor Lanman enumerating a dozen in-
stances, some of which are, however, doubtful, while others are
merely conjectural.
The Sanskrit verb system resembles that of the Greek in variety
and completeness. While the Greek excels in nicety and definite-
ness of modal distinction, the Sanskrit surpasses it in
primitiveness and transparency of formation. In this
part of the grammatical system there is, however, an even
greater difference than in the noun inflection between the Vedic and
the classical Sanskrit. While the former shows, upon the whole,
the full complement of modal forms exhibited by the Greek, the
later language has practically discarded the subjunctive mood. Tlie
Indo-Aryans never succeeded in working out a clear formative dis-
tinction between the subjunctive and indicative moods; and, their
syntactic requirements becoming more and more limited, they at
last contented themselves, for modal expression, with a present
optative and imperative, in addition to the indicative tense-forms,
and a little-used aorist optative with a special " precative " or
" benedictive " meaning attached to it.
Another part of the verb in which the later language differs
widely from Vedic usage is the infinitive. The language of the old
hymns shows a considerable variety of case-forms of verbal abstract
nouns with the function of infinitives, a certain number of which
can still be traced back to the parent language, as, for instance,
such dative forms as jit-ase = viv-ere; sdh-adhyai = txfa9ai.; dd'-
56nvai; da' -vane = Sovvai. Further, ji-she, "to conquer,"
for ji-se, apparently an aorist infinitive with the dative ending
(parallel to the radical forms, such as yudh-e, "to fight," dr.s'-6, "to
see "), thus corresponding to the Greek aorist infinitive XDtrot (but cf.
also Latin da-re, for dase, es-se, &c.). The classical Sanskrit, on
the other hand, practically uses only one infinitive form, viz. the
accusative of a verbal noun in tu, e.g. sthdtum, etum, corresponding
to the Latin supinum datum, Hum. But, as in Latin another
case, the ablative (datu), of the same abstract noun is utilized for
a similar purpose, so the Vedic language makes two other cases do
duty as infinitives, viz. the dative in lave (e.g. ddtave, and the an-
omalous 6tavai) and the gen.-abl. in tos (datos). A prominent feature
of the later Sanskrit syntax is the so-called gerund or indeclinable
participle in tva, apparently the instrumental of a stem in ltd (prob-
ably a derivative from that in tu), as well as the gerund in ya (or
tya after a final short radical vowel) made from compound verbs.
The old language knows not only such gerunds in tva, using them,
however, very sparingly, but also corresponding dative forms in
tvdya (yuktvdya) and the curious contracted forms in tm' (kr.tin,
" to do "). And, besides those in ya and tya, it frequently uses
forms with a final long vowel, as bhid-yd, i-tyd, thus showing the
former to be shortened instrumentals of abstract nouns in and ti.
The Sanskrit verb, like the Greek, has two voices, active and
middle, called, after their primary functions, parasmdi-pada, " word
for another," and atmane-pada, " word for one's self." While
in Greek the middle forms have to do duty also for the passive in
all tenses except the^aorist and future, the Sanskrit, on the other
hand, has developed for the passive a special present-stem in ya,
the other tenses being supplied by the corresponding middle forms,
with the exception of the third person singular aorist, for which a
special form in i is usually assigned to the passive.
The present-stem system is by far the most important part of the
whole verb system, both on account of frequency of actual occur-
rence and of its excellent state of preservation. It is with regard
to the different ways of present-stem formation that the entire stock
of assumed roots has been grouped by the native grammarians under
ten different classes. These classes again naturally fall under two
divisions or " conjugations," with this characteristic difference that
the one (corresponding to Gr. conj. in a) retains the same stem
(ending in a) throughout the present and imperfect, only lengthening
the final vowel before terminations beginning with v or m (not
final); while the other (corresponding to that in /ii) shows two
different forms of the stem, a strong and a weak form, according as
the accent falls on the stem-syllable or on the personal ending:
e.g. 3 sing, bhdra-ti, $kpti 2 pi. bhdra-tha, <j>tpert: but 6-ti, tlai
i-thd, Zre (for irt) : i sing, str.no-mi, oripm/M i pi. strnu-mds
As several of the personal endings show a decided similarity to
personal or demonstrative pronouns, it is highly probable that, as
might indeed be a priori expected, all or most of them are of pro-
nominal origin though, owing to their exposed position and
consequent decay, their original form and identity cannot now be
determined with certainty. The active singular terminations, with
the exception of the second person of the imperative, are unaccented
and of comparatively light appearance; while those of the dual
and plural, as well as the middle terminations, have the accent,
being apparently too heavy to be supported by the stem-accent,
either because, as Schleicher supposed, they are composed of two
i 5 8
SANSKRIT
different pronominal elements, or otherwise. The treatment of
the personal endings in the modifying, and presumably older,
conjugation may thus be said somewhat to resemble that of enclitics
in Greek.
In the imperfect the present-stem is increased by the augment,
consisting of a prefixed a. Here, as in the other tenses in which
it appears, it has invariably the accent, as being the distinctive
element (originally probably an independent demonstrative adverb
" then ") for the expression of past time. This shifting of the
word-accent seems to have contributed to the further reduction of
the personal endings, and thus to have caused the formation of a
new, or secondary, set of terminations which came to be appropriated
for secondary tenses and mocds generally. As in Greek poetry, the
augment is frequently omitted in Sanskrit.
The mood-sign of the subjunctive is a, added to (the strong form
of) the tense-stem. If the stem ends already in a, the latter becomes
lengthened. As regards the personal terminations, some persons
take the primary, others the secondary forms, while others again
may take either the one or the other. The first singular active,
however, takes ni instead of mi, to distinguish it from the indicative.
But besides these forms, showing the mood-sign a, the subjunctive
(both present and aorist) may take another form, without any
distinctive modal sign, and with the secondary endings, being thus
identical with the augmentless form of the preterite.
The optative invariably takes the secondary endings, with some
peculiar variations. In the active of the modifying conjugation its
mood-sign is yd, affixed to the weak form of the stem : e.g. root as
syam=Lat. stem, sim (where Gr., from analogy to iarl, &c., shows
irregularly the strong form of the stem, t'riv, for ka-ai-v. as in
1st sing, of verbs in u, it also has irregularly the primary ending,
\fiiroim=S. rece-y-am) ; while in the o-conjugation and throughout
the middle the mood-sign is J, probably a contraction of ya: e.g.
Besides the ordinary perfect, made from a reduplicated stem,
with distinction between strong (active singular) and weak forms,
and a partly peculiar set of endings, the later language makes
large use of a periphrastic perfect, consisting of the accusative of
a feminine abstract noun in a (-dm) with the reduplicated perfect
forms of the auxiliary verbs kar, " to do," or as (and occasionally
bhu), " to be." Though more particularly resorted to for the
derivative forms of conjugation viz. the causative (including the
so-called tenth conjugational class), the desiderative, intensive and
denominative this perfect-form is also commonly used with roots
beginning with prosodically long vowels, as well as with a few
other isolated roots. In the Rigveda this formation is quite un-
known, and the Atharvan offers a single instance of it, from a
causative verb, with the auxiliary kar. In the Vedic prose, on the
other hand, it is rather frequent, 1 and it is quite common in the later
language.
In addition to the ordinary participles, active and middle, of
the reduplicated perfect e.g. jajan-van, ytyov-us: bubudh-dnd,
Ttrva-ntvo there is a secondary participial formation, obtained
by affixing the possessive suffix vat (vant) to the passive past parti-
ciple: e.jf. kr.ta-vant, lit. " having (that which is) done." A second-
ary participle of this kind occurs once in the Atharvaveda, and it is
occasionally met with in the Brahmanas. In the later language,
however, it not only is of rather frequent occurrence, but has assumed
quite a new function, viz. that of a finite perfect-form; thus kr.tavan,
kriavanlas, without any auxiliary verb, mean,' not " having done,"
but " he has done," " they have done."
The original Indo-Germanic future-stem formation in sya, with
primary endings-^-.g. dasydti=&tlxrct (for iowtri) is the ordinary
tense-form both in Vedic and classical Sanskrit a preterite of it,
with a conditional force attached to it (dddsyat), being also common
to all periods of the language.
Side by side with this future, however, an analytic tense-form
makes its appearance in the Brahmanas, obtaining wider currency
in the later language. This periphrastic future is made by means
of the nominative singular of a nomen agentis in tar (ddtar, nom.
dd/a = Lat. dator), followed by the corresponding present forms of
is. " to be " (data-'smi, as it were, daturus sum), with the exception
of the third persons, which need no auxiliary, but take the respective
nominatives of the noun.
The aorist system is somewhat complicated, including as it does
augment-preterites of various formations, viz. a radical aorist,
sometimes with reduplicated stem e.g. dsthdm=laTi]v: Srudhi
=*X50i; ddudrot; an o-aorist (or thematic aorist) with or without
reduplication e.g. d ricas = ZXiires : dpaptam, cf. lire^vov; and
several different forms of a sibilant-aorist. In the older Vedic
language the radical aorist is far more common than the a-aorist,
which becomes more frequently used later on. Of the different
kinds of sibilant-aorists, the most common is the one which makes
its stem by the addition of 5 to the root, either with or without a
connecting vowel i in different roots: e.g. root j i I sing, djdisham,
I pi. djaishma; dkramisham, dkramishma. A limited number of
roots take a double aorist-sign with inserted connecting vowel (sish
for sis) e.g. dyasisham (cf. scrip-sis-ti) ; whilst others very rarely
1 It also shows occasionally other tense-forms than the perfect of
the same periphrastic formation with kar.
[LANGUAGE
in the older but more numerously in the later language make their
aorist-stem by the addition of sa e.g. ddikshas = ldj;as.
As regards the syntactic functions of the three preterites the
imperfect, perfect and aorist the classical writers laake virtually
no distinction between them, but use them quite indiscriminately.
In the older language, on the other hand, the imperfect is chiefly
used as a narrative tense, while the other two generally refer to a
past action which is now complete the aorist, however, more
frequently to that which is only just done or completed. The
perfect, owing doubtless to its reduplicative form, has also not
infrequently the force of an iterative, or intensive, present.
The Sanskrit, like the Greek, shows at all times a considerable
power and facility of noun-composition. But, while in the older
language, as well as in the earlier literary products of the Won / m
classical period, such combinations rarely exceed the / orm atloa
limits compatible with the general economy of inflectional
speech, during the later, artificial period of the language they
gradually become more and more excessive, both in size and fre-
quency of use, till at last they absorb almost the entire range of
syntactic construction.
One of the most striking features of Sanskrit word-formation is
that regular interchange of light and strong vowel-sounds, usually
designated by the native terms of guna (quality) and vriddhi (in-
crease). The phonetic process implied in these terms consists in
the raising, under certain conditions, of a radical or thematic light
vowel i, u, r, I, by means of an inserted a-sound, to the diphthongal
(guna) sounds di (Sans, e), du (Sans, d), and the combination ar
and al respectively, and, by a repetition of the same process, to the
(vriddhi) sounds di, du, ar, and al respectively. Thus from root vid,
" to know," we have vcda, " knowledge," and therefrom vdidika;
from yuj, yoga, yaugika. While the interchange of the former
kind, due mainly to accentual causes, was undoubtedly a common
feature of Indo-Germanic speech, the latter, or vriddhi-change,
which chiefly occurs in secondary stems, is probably a later develop-
ment. Moreover, there can be no doubt that the vriddhi-vowels
are really due to what the term implies, viz. to a process of " in-
crement," or vowel-raising. The same used to be universally as-
sumed by comparative philologists as regards the relation between
the guna-sounds ai (e) and du (d) and the respective simple i- and
M-sounds. According to a more recent theory, however, which has
been very generally accepted, we have rather to look upon the
heavier vowels as the original, and upon the lighter vowels as the
later sounds, produced through the absence of stress and pitch.
The grounds on which this theory is recommended are those of
logical consistency. In the analogous cases of interchange between
r and ar, as well as { and al, most scholars have indeed been wont to
regard the syllabic r, and / as weakened from original ar and al,
while the native grammarians represent the latter as produced from
the former by increment. Similarly the verb as (es), " to be," loses
its vowel wherever the radical syllable is unaccented, e.g. dsti, Lat.
est smds, s(u)mus; opt. sydm, Lat. siem (sim). On the
strength of these analogous cases of vowel-modification we are,
therefore, to accept some such equation as this :
dsmi: smds = Sipnonai : iSp(a)xov = XeiTra: Xiirew
= emi (elm): imds (Zju< for IpAv)
= <t>tvyw : <t>vyt!i>
= dohmi ( I milk) : duhmds.
Acquiescence, in this equation would seem to involve at, least
one important admission, viz. that original root-syllables contained
no simple i- and w-yowels, except as the second element of the
diphthongs ai, ei, oi; au, eu, ou. We ought no longer to speak
of the roots vid, " to know," dik, " to show, to bid, dhueh, " to
milk," yug, " to join," but of veid, deik, dhaugh or dheugh, yeug,
&c. Nay, as the same law would apply with equal force to suffixal
vowels, the suffix nu would have to be called nau or neu; and, in
explaining, for instance, the irregularly formed fnUvvm, delnwntv,
we might say that, by the affixion of vtv to the root ie, the present-
stem &.iKt<i was obtained (SotceD/u). which, as the stress was shifted
forward, became I plur. &uit>vnta((.), the subsequent modifications
in the radical and formative syllables being due to the effects of
" analogy " (cf. G. Meyer, Griech. Gramm., 487). Now, if there be
any truth in the " agglutination " theory, according to which the
radical and formative elements of Indo-Germanic speech were at one
time independent words, we would have to be prepared for a pretty
liberal allowance, to the parent language, of diphthongal mono-
syllables such as deik neu, while simple combinations such as dik nu
could only spring up after separate syllable-words had become
united by the force of a common accent. But, whether the agglu-
tinationists be right or wrong, a theory involving the priority of the
diphthongal over the simple sounds can hardly be said to be one
of great prima facie probability; and one may well ask whether
the requirements of logical consistency might not be satisfied in
some other, less improbable, way.
Now, the analogous cases which have called forth this theory
turn upon the loss of a radical or suffixal a (e), occasioned by the
shifting of the word-accent to some other syllable, e.g. ace. mdtdram,
instr. matra; irtrojuoi, iflrAjuTjK : Jip/to/iai, Up(a)mv: dsmi, smds.
Might we not then assume that at an early stage of noun and verb
inflection, through the giving way, under certain conditions, of the
stem-a (e), the habit of stem-gradation, as an element of inflection,
LITERATURE]
SANSKRIT
lion.
came to establish itself and ultimately to extend its sphere over
stems with - and K-vowels, but that, on meeting here with more
resistance 1 than in the a (e)-vowel, the stem-gradation then took
the shape of a raising of the simple vowel, in the " strong " cases
and verb-forms, by that same a-element which constituted the
distinctive element of those cases in the other variable stems? In
this way the above equation would still hold good, and the corre-
sponding vowel-grades, though of somewhat different genesis, would
yet be strictly analogous. At all events in the opinion of the
present writer, the last word has not yet been said on the important
point of Indo-Germanic vowel-gradation.
The accent of Sanskrit words is marked only in the more important
Vedic texts, different systems of notation being used in different
works. Our knowledge of the later accentuation of
words is entirely derived from the statements of gram-
marians. As in Greek, there are three accents, the
udatta (" raised," i.e. acute), the anudatta (" not raised," i.e. grave),
and the svarila (" sounded, modulated," i.e. circumflex). The last
is a combination of the two others, its proper use being confined
almost entirely to a vowel preceded by a semivowel y or , repre-
senting an original acuted vowel. Hindu scholars, however, also
include in this term the accent of a grave syllable preceded by an
acuted syllable, and itself followed by a grave.
The Sanskrit and Greek accentuations present numerous coinci-
dences. Although the Greek rule, confining the accent within the last
three syllables, has frequently obliterated the original likeness,
the old features may often be traced through the later forms. Thus,
though augmented verb-forms in Greek cannot always have the
accent on the augment as in Sanskrit, they have it invariably as
little removed from it as the accentual restrictions will allow ; e.g.
dbharam, &t>epov: dbharama, i<t>ipofitv : dbharamahi, i<t>epont8a.
The most striking coincidence in noun declension is the accentual
distinction made by both languages between the " strong " and
" weak " cases of monosyllabic nouns the only difference in this
respect being that in Sanskrit the accusative plural, as a rule, has
the accent on the case-ending, and consequently shows the weak
form of the stem; e.g. stem pad, iroS: pAdam, iroSa: padas, iroWs:
padi, Tto&l: padas, TroSes: padds, iroSas: padam, woSav: patsu, iroal.
In Sanskrit a few other classes of stems (especially present participles
in ant, at), accented on the last syllable, are apt to yield their accent
to heavy vowel (not consonantal) terminations; compare the
analogous accentuation of Sanskrit and Greek stems in tar: pitdram,
jraTtpo: pitre, irarpos: pitdras,_ 7rarep: pitfshu, 7raTp(4)crt.
The vocative, when heading a sentence (or verse-division), has
invariably the accent on the first syllable; otherwise it is not
accented.
Finite verb-forms also, as a rule, lose their accent, except when
standing at the beginning of a sentence or verse-division (a vocative
not being taken into account), or in dependent (mostly relative)
clauses, or in conjunction with certain particles. Of two or more
co-ordinate verb-forms, however, only the first is unaccented.
In writing Sanskrit the natives, in different parts of India, generally
employ the particular character used for writing their own vernacular.
The character, however, most widely understood and
i cie em pl ove d by Hindu scholars, and used invariably in
c amcters. European editions of Sanskrit works (unless printed in
Roman letters) is the Nagari, or " town-script," also commonly
called Devanagari, or nagari of the gods.
The origin of the Indian alphabets is still enveloped in doubt.
The oldest hitherto known specimens of Indian writing are a number
of rock-inscriptions, containing religious edicts in Pali (the Prakrit
used in the southern Buddhist scriptures), issued by the emperor
Asoka (Piyadasi) of the Maurya dynasty, in 253251 B.C., and
scattered over the area of northern India from the vicinity of Pesha-
war, on the north-west frontier, and Girnar in Gujarat, to Jaugada
and Dhauli in Katak, on the eastern coast. The most western of
these inscriptions those found near Kapurdagarhi or Shahbaz-
garhi, and Mansora are executed in a different alphabet from the
others. It reads from right to left, and is usually called the Arian
Pali alphabet, it being also used on the coins of the Greek and
Indo-Scythian princes of Ariana; while the other, which reads from
left to right, is called the Indian Pali alphabet. The former also
called Kharoshflii or Gandhara alphabet (lipi) which is manifestly
derived from a Semitic (probably Aramaean) source, has left no
traces on the subsequent development of Indian writing. Thelndo-
Pali (or Brahmi) alphabet, on the other hand, from which the
modern Indian alphabets are derived, is of more uncertain origin.
The similarity, however, which several of its letters present to those
of the old Phoenician alphabet (itself probably derived from the
Egyptian hieroglyphics) suggests for this alphabet also the proba-
bility of a Semitic origin, though, already at Aspka's time, the
Indians had worked it up to a high degree of perfection and wonder-
1 We might compare the different treatment in Sanskrit of an and
in bases (murdhdni-murdhnA ; vddini-vadina) ; for, though the latter
are doubtless of later origin, their inflection might have been
expected to be influenced by that of the former. Also a comparison of
such forms as (devd) devanam (agni) agnlnam, and (dhenii) dheniinam,
tells in favour of the i- and tt-vowels, as regards power of resistance,
inasmuch as it does not require the accent in order to remain intact.
fully adapted it to their peculiar scientific ends. The question as
to the probable time and channel of its introduction can scarcely
be expected ever to be placed beyond all doubt. The late Professor
Biihler has, however, made it very probable that this alphabet was
introduced into India by traders from Mesopotamia about 800 B.C.
At all events, considering the high state of perfection it exhibits
in the Maurya and Andhra inscriptions, as well as the wide area
over which these are scattered, it can hardly be doubted that the
art of writing must have been known to and practised by the Indians
for various purposes long before the time of Asoka. The fact that
no reference to it is found in the contemporary literature has
probably to be accounted for by a strong reluctance on the part of
the Brahmans to commit their sacred works to writing.
As regards the numeral signs used in India, the Kharoshthi
inscriptions of the early centuries of our era show a numerical
system in which the first three numbers are represented by as many
vertical strokes, whilst 4 is marked by a slanting cross, and 5-9 by
4(.+) i, &c., to 4(+)4(+)i; then special signs for 10, 20 and 100,
the intervening multiples of 10 being marked in the vigesimal
fashion, thus 5p = 2o(+)2o(+)io. This system has been proved
to be of Semitic, probably Aramaic, origin. In the Brahmi in-
scriptions up to the end of the 6th century of our era, another
system is used in which 1-3 are denoted by as many horizontal
strokes, and thereafter by special syllabic signs for 4-9, the decades
10-90, and for 100 and 1000. This system was most likely derived
from hieratic sources of Egypt. The decimal system of cipher
notation, on the other hand, which is first found used on a Gujarat
inscription of A.D. 595, seems to be an invention of Indian astronomers
or mathematicians, based on the existing syllabic (or word) signs or
equivalents thereof.
The first two Sanskrit grammars published by Europeans were
those of the Austrian Jesuit Wesdin, called Paulinus a Sancto
Bartholomaeo (Rome, 1790-1804). These were followed by those of
H. C. Colebrooke (1805; based on Panini's system), Carey (1806),
Wilkins (1808), Forster (1810), F. Bopp (1827), H. H. Wilson, Th.
Benfey, &c. These, as well as those of Max Miiller, Monier Williams
and F. Kielhorn, now most widely used, deal almost exclusively
with classical Sanskrit; whilst that of W. D. Whitney treats the
whole language historically; as does also J. Wackernagel's not yet
completed Altindische Grammatik.
The first Sanskrit dictionary was that of H. H. Wilson (1819;
2nd ed., 1832), which was followed by the great Sanskrit-German
Worterbuch, published at St Petersburg in 7 vols. by Professors
Bohtlingk and Roth. Largely based on this great thesaurus are the
Sanskrit-English dictionaries by Sir M. Williams (2nd ed., 1899),
Th. Benfey, A. A. Macdonell, &c. On the history of the Indian
alphabets, cf. G. Biihler, Indische Paldographie (1896); A. C.
Burnell, Elements of South Indian Palaeography (2nd ed., 1878),
R. Gust's rdsume- in Jour. Roy. As. Soc., N.S. vol. xvi.
II. SANSKRIT LITERATURE
The history of Sanskrit literature labours under the same dis-
advantage as the political history of ancient India from the total
want of anything like a fixed chronology. In that vast range
of literary development there is scarcely a work of importance
the date of which scholars have fixed with absolute certainty.
The original composition of most Sanskrit works can indeed
be confidently assigned to certain general periods of literature,
but as to many of them, and these among the most important,
scholars have but too much reason to doubt whether they have
come down to us in their original shape, or whether they have
not undergone alterations and additions so serious as to make
it impossible to regard them as genuine witnesses of any one
phase of the development of the Indian mind. Nor can we expect
many important chronological data from new materials brought
to light in India. Though by such discoveries a few isolated
spots may be lighted up here and there, the real task of clearing
away the mist which at present obscures our view, if ever it can
be cleared away, will have to be performed by patient research
and a more minute critical examination of the multitudinous
writings which have been handed down from the remote past.
In the following sketch it is intended to take a rapid view of the
more important works and writers in the several departments
of literature.
In accordance with the two great phases of linguistic develop-
ment referred to, the history of Sanskrit literature readily
divides itself into two principal periods the Vedic and the
classical. These periods partly overlap, and some of the later
Vedic work are included in that period on account of the
subjects with which they deal, and for their archaic style,
rather than for any just claim to a higher antiquity than may
have to be assigned to the oldest works of the classical Sanskrit.
i6o
SANSKRIT
i. THE VEDIC PERIOD l
of
The term vedai.e. " knowledge," (sacred) " lore "embraces
a body of writings the origin of which is ascribed to divine
Samhitas. revelation (Sruti, literally "hearing"), and which
forms the foundation of the Brahmanical system of
religious belief. This sacred canon is divided into three or
(according to a later scheme) four co-ordinate collections, likewise
called Veda: (i) the Rig-veda, or lore of praise (or hymns);
(2) the Sdma-veda, or lore of tunes (or chants); (3) the Yajur-
veda, or lore of prayer (or sacrificial formulas); and (4) the
Atharva-veda, or lore of the Atharvans. Each of these four
Vedas consists primarily of a collection (samhita) of sacred,
mostly poetical, texts of a devotional nature, called mantra.
This entire body of texts (and particularly the first three collec-
tions) is also frequently referred to as the trayi vidya, or threefold
wisdom, of hymn (rich 2 ), tune or chant (samari), and prayer
(yajus) the fourth Veda, if at all included, being in that case
classed together with the Rik.
The Brahmanical religion finds its practical expression chiefly
in sacrificial performances. The Vedic sacrifice requires for its
pr P er P erf nnance the attendance of four officiating
priests, each of whom is assisted by one or more
(usually three) subordinate priests, viz.: (i) the
Hotor (or hotri, i.e. either " sacrificer," or " invoker "), whose
chief business is to invoke the gods, either in short prayers
pronounced over the several oblations, or in liturgical recitations
(iastra), made up of various hymns and detached verses; (2) the
Udgalar (udgatri), or chorister, who has to perform chants
(stotra) in connexion with the hotar's recitations; (3) the
Adhvaryu, or offering priest par excellence, who performs all the
material duties of the sacrifice, such as the kindling of the fires,
the preparation of the sacrificial ground and the offerings, the
making of oblations, &c.; (4) the Brahman, or chief " priest,"
who has to superintend the performance and to rectify any
mistakes that may be committed. Now, the first three of these
priests stand in special relation to three of the Vedic Samhitas
in this way: that the Samhitas of the Samaveda and Yajurveda
form special song and prayer books, arranged for the practical
use of the udgatar and adhvaryu respectively; whilst the
Rik-samhita, though not arranged for any such practical purpose,
contains the entire body of sacred lyrics whence the hotar
draws the material for his recitations. The brahman, however,
had no special text-book assigned to him, but was expected
to be familiar with all the Samhitas as well as with the
practical details of the sacrificial performance (see BRAHMAN and
BRAHMANA). It sometimes happens that verses not found
in our version of the Rik-samhita, but in the Atharvaveda-
samhita, are used by the hotar; but such texts, if they did not
actually form part of some other version of the Rik as Sayana
in the introduction to his commentary on the Rik-samhita
assures us that they did were probably inserted in the liturgy
subsequent to the recognition of the fourth Veda.
The several Samhitas have attached to them certain theological
prose works, called Brahmana, which, though subordinate in
authority to the Mantras or Samhitas, are like them
held to be divinely revealed and to form part of the
canon. The chief works of this class are of an exegetic
nature, their purport being to supply a dogmatic exposition
of the sacrificial ceremonial and to explain the mystic import
of the different rites and utterances included therein (see
BRAHMANA).
More or less closely connected with the Brahmanas (and in a
few exceptional cases with Samhitas) are two classes of treatises,
called Aranyaka and Upanishad. The Aranyakas, i.e. works
" relating to the forest," being intended to be read by those
who have retired from the world and lead the life of anchorites,
do not greatly differ in character and style from the Brahmanas,
1 J. Muir's Original Sanskrit Texts (5 vols., 2nd ed.) forms the most
o "!PJete general survey of the results of Vedic research.
The combination ch, used (in conformity with the usual English
practice) in this sketch of the literature, corresponds to the simple
c as r does to r in the scheme of the alphabet.
Hrgh-
[VEDIC PERIOD
but like them are chiefly ritualistic, treating of special cere-
monies not dealt with, or dealt with only imperfectly, in the
latter works, to which they thus stand in the relation Xnayabu
of supplements. The Upanishads, however, are of a W
purely speculative nature, and must be looked upon as t/ " an/ "
the first attempts at a systematic treatment of meta- * bads '
physical questions. The number of Upanishads hitherto known
is very considerable (about 170); but, though they nearly all
profess to belong to the Atharvaveda, they have to be assigned
to very different periods of Sanskrit literature some of them
being evidently quite modern productions. The oldest treatises
of this kind are doubtless those which form part of the Samhitas,
Brahmanas and Aranyakas of the three older Vedas, though not
a few others which have no such special connexion have to be
classed with the later products of the Vedic age. 3
As the sacred texts were not committed to writing till a much
later period, but were handed down orally in the Brahmanical
schools, it was inevitable that local differences of
reading should spring up, which in course of time
gave rise to a number of independent versions. Such
different text-recensions, called Sakha (i.e. branch),
were at one time very numerous, but only a limited number have
survived. As regards the Samhitas, the poetical form of the
hymns, as well as the concise style of the sacrificial formulas,
would render these texts less liable to change, and the dis-
crepancies of different versions would chiefly consist in various
readings of single words or in the different arrangement of the
textual matter. But the diffuse ritualistic discussions and
loosely connected legendary illustrations of the Brahmanas
offered scope for very considerable modifications in the tradi-
tional matter, either through the ordinary processes of oral
transmission or through the special influence of individual
teachers.
Besides the purely ceremonial matter, the Brahmanas also
contained a considerable amount of matter bearing on the
correct interpretation of the Vedic texts; and, indeed, vcdBaras
the sacred obligation incumbent on the Brahmans of
handing down correctly the letter and" sense of those texts
necessarily involved a good deal of serious grammatical and
etymological study in the Brahmanical schools. These literary
pursuits could not but result in the accumulation of much learned
material, which it would become more and more desirable to
throw into a systematic form, serving at the same time as a
guide for future research. These practical requirements were
met by a class of treatises, grouped under six different heads or
subjects, called Vedangas, i.e. members, or limbs, of the (body
of the) Veda. None of the works, however, which have come
down to us under this designation can lay any just claim to
being considered the original treatises on their several subjects;
they evidently represent a more or less advanced stage of
scientific development. Though a few of them are composed
in metrical form especially in the ordinary epic couplet, the
anushtubh Sloka, consisting of two lines of sixteen syllables (or of
two octosyllabic padas) each the majority belong to a class
of writings called sutra, i.e. " string," consisting of _.
strings of rules in the shape of tersely expressed
aphorisms, intended to be committed to memory. The Sutras
form a connecting link between the Vedic and the classical
periods of literature. But, although these treatises, so far
as they deal with Vedic subjects, are included by the native
authorities among the Vedic writings, and in point of language
may, generally speaking, be considered as the latest products
of the Vedic age, they have no share in the sacred title of Sruti
or revelation. They are of human, not of divine, origin. Yet,
as the production of men of the highest standing, profoundly
versed in Vedic lore, the Sutras are regarded as works of great
authority, second only to that of the revealed Scriptures; and
their relation to the latter is expressed in the generic title of
Smriti, or Tradition, usually applied to them.
8 Cf. P Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads (Edinburgh,
1906), where these treatises are classified; Jacob, A Concordance
to the Principal Upanishads and Bhagavadglta (Bombay S.S., 1891)
VEDIC PERIOD]
SANSKRIT
161
The six branches of Vedic science, included under the term
Vedanga, are as follows:
1. Siksha, or Phonetics. The privileged position of representing
this subject is assigned to a small treatise ascribed^ to the great
grammarian Panini, viz. the Paninlya siksha, extant
Phonetics. !> n two diff erent (Rik and Yajus) recensions. But
neither this treatise nor any other of the numerous sikshas which
have recently come to light can lay claim to any very high age.
Scholars, however, usually include under this head certain works,
called Pratisakhya, i.e. " belonging to a certain saklia or recension,"
which deal minutely with the phonetic peculiarities of the several
Samhitas, and are of great importance for the textual criticism of the
Vedic Samhitas.
2. Chhandas, or Metre. Tradition makes the Chhandah-sutra of
Pingala the starting-point of prosody. The Vedic metres, however,
occupy but a small part of this treatise, and they are
Metre. evidently dealt with in a more original manner in the
Nidana-sutra of the Samaveda.and in a chapter of theRik-pratisakhya.
For profane prosody, on the other hand, Pingala's treatise is rather
valuable, no less than 160 metres being described by him.
3. Vyakarana, or Grammar. Panini's famous grammar is said
to be the Vedanga; but it marks the culminating point of
Grammar. g rammat j ca i research rather than the beginning, and
besides treats chiefly of the post-Vedic language.
4. Nirukta, or Etymology. Yaska's Nirukta is the traditional
representative of this subject, and this important work certainly
_. deals entirely with Vedic etymology and explanation. It
Etymology. cons ; stSj j n t h e fi rst p l ace , of strings of words in three
chapters: (i) synonymous words; (2) such as are purely or
chiefly Vedic; and (3) names of deities. These lists are followed
by Yaska's commentary, interspersed with numerous illustrations.
Yasika, again, quotes several predecessors in the same branch of
science; and it is probable that the original works on this subject
consisted merely of lists of words similar to those handed down by
him.
5. Jyotisha, or Astronomy. Although astronomical calculations
are frequently referred to in older works in connexion with the
performance of sacrifices, the metrical treatise which has
Astronomy. come <j own to us ; n two different recensions under the
title of Jyotisha, ascribed to one Lagadha, or Lagata, seems
indeed to be the oldest existing systematic treatise on astrono-
mical subjects. With the exception of some apparently spurious
verses of one of the recensions, it betrays no sign of the Greek
influence which shows itself in Hindu astronomical works from about
the 3rd century of our era; and its date may therefore be set down
as probably not later than the early centuries after Christ.
6. Kalpa, or Ceremonial. Tradition does not single out any
special work as the Vedanga in this branch of Vedic science; but
the sacrificial practice gave rise to a large number of
'" . systematic sutra-manuals for the several classes of priests.
moalMl. -p^g most important of these works have come down to us,
and they occupy by far the most prominent place among the literary
productions of the sutra-period. The Kalpa-sOtras, or rules of
ceremonial, are of two kinds: (i) the Srauta-sutras, which are based
on the sruti, and teach the performance of the great sacrifices,
requiring three sacrificial fires; and (2) the Smarta-sutras, or rules
based on the smfiti or tradition. The latter class again includes
two kinds of treatises: (i) the Grihya-siitras, or domestic rules,
treating of ordinary family rites, such as marriage, birth, name-
giving, &c., connected with simple offerings in the domestic fire;
and (2) the Samayacharika- (or Dharma-) sutras, which treat of
customs and temporal duties, and are supposed to have formed the
chief sources of the later law-books. Besides, the Srauta-sutras of
the Yajurveda have usually attached to them a set of so-called
Sulva- sutras, i.e. " rules of the cord," which treat of the measure-
ment by means of cords, and the construction, of different kinds of
altars required for sacrifices. These treatises are of special interest
as supplying important information regarding the earliest geometrical
operations in India. Along with the Sutras may be classed a jarge
number of supplementary treatises, usually called Parisishfa
(vapa.\ur6tuva) , on various subjects connected with the sacred
texts and Vedic religion generally.
After this brief characterization of the various branches of
Vedic literature, we proceed to take a rapid survey of the several
Vedic collections.
A. Rigceda? The Rigveda-samhita has come down to us in the
'The Rigveda has been edited, together with the commentary of
Sayana (of the I4th century), by Max Muller (6 vols., London, 1849-
1874; 2nd ed., 4 vols., 1890 1892). The same scholar has published an
edition of the hymns, both in the connected (sarfihita) and the disjoined
(pada) texts, 1873-1877. An edition in Roman transliteration was
published by Th. Aufrecht (Berlin, 1861-1863, 2nd ed. 1877). Part of
an English translation (chiefly based on Sayana's interpretation) was
brought out by the late Professor H. H.Wilson (vols. i.-iii., 1850-1857)
and completed by Professor E. B. Cowell (vols. iv.-vi., 18661888).
We have also the first volume of a translation, with a running
xxrv. 6
recension of the Sakala school. Mention is made of several other
versions; and regarding one of them, that of the Bashkalas, we
have some further information, according to which it seems, oimdm
however, to have differed but little from the Sakala text. *
The latter consists of 1028 hymns, including eleven
so-called Valakhilyas , which were probably introduced into the
collection subsequently to its completion. The hymns are composed
in a great variety of metres, and consist, on an average, of rather
more than 10 verses each, or about 10,600 verses altogether. This
body of sacred lyrics has been subdivided by ancient authorities in a
twofold way, viz. either from a purely artificial point of view, into
eight ashtakas of about equal length, or, on a more natural principle,
based on the origin of the hymns, and invariably adopted by Euro-
pean scholars, into ten books, or maridalas, of unequal length.
Tradition (not, however, always trustworthy in this respect) has
handed down the names of the reputed authors, or rather inspired
" seers " (rishi), of most hymns. These indications have enabled
scholars to form some idea as to the probable way in which the
Rik-samhita originated, though much still remains to be cleared up
by future research.
Mandalas ii.-vii. are evidently arranged on a uniform plan. Each
of them is ascribed to a different family of rishis, whence they are
usually called the six "family-books": ii., the Gritsamadas; iii.,
the Visvamitras or Kusikas; iv., the Vamadevyas; v., the
Atris; vi., the Bharadvajas; and vii., the Vasishthas. Further,
each of these books begins with the hymns addressed to Agni, the
god of fire, which are followed by those to Indra, the Jupiter Pluvius,
whereupon follow those addressed to minor deities the Visve
Devab (" all-gods "), the Maruts (storm-gods), &c. Again, the
hymns addressed to each deity are arranged in a descending order,
according to the number of verses of which they consist.
Mandala i., the longest in the whole Samhita, contains 191 hymns,
ascribed, with the exception of a few isolated ones, to sixteen poets
of different families, and consisting of one larger (50 hymns) and
nine shorter collections. Here again the hymns of each author are
arranged on precisely the same principle as the " family-books."
Mandalas viii. and ix., on the other hand, have a special character
of their own. To the Samaveda-samhita, which, as we shall see,
consists almost entirely of verses chosen from the Rik for chanting
purposes, these two mandalas have contributed a much larger
proportion of verses than any of the others. Now, the hymns of the
eighth book are ascribed to a number of different rishis, mostly
belonging to the Kanva family. The productions of each poet are
usually, though not always, grouped together, but no other principle
of arrangement has yet been discovered. The chief peculiarity of
this mandala, however, consists in its metres. Many of the hymns
are composed in the form of stanzas, called pragatha (from ga, " to
sing "), consisting of two verses in the brihafi and satobrihaK metres;
whence this book is usually known under the designation of Praga-
thas. The other metres met with in this book are likewise such as
were evidently considered peculiarly adapted for singing, viz. the
gayatri (from ga, " to sing ) and other chiefly octosyllabic metres.
It is not yet clear how to account for these peculiarities ; but further
research may perhaps show either that the Kanvas were a family
of udgatars, or chanters, or that, before the establishment of a
common system of worship for the Brahmanical community, they
were accustomed to carry on their liturgical service exclusively by
means of chants, instead of using the later form of mixed recitation
and chant. One of the rishis of this family is called Pragatha
Kanva; possibly this surname " pragatha " may be an old, or local,
synonym of udgatar, or perhaps of the chief chanter, the so-called
Prastotar, or precentor. Another poet of this family is Medhatithi
Kanva, who has likewise assigned to him twelve hymns in the first
and largest groups of the first book. The ninth mandala, on the
other hand, consists entirely of hymns (114) addressed to Soma,
the deified juice of the so-called " moon-plant " (Sarcostemma
viminale, or Asclepias acida), and ascribed to poets of different
families. They are called pavamam, " purificational," because they
were to be recited by the hotar while the juice expressed from the
soma plants was clarifying. The first sixty of these hymns are
arranged strictly according to their length, ranging from ten down
to four verses; but as to the remaining hymns no such principle of
arrangement is observable, except perhaps in smaller groups of
hymns. One might, therefore, feel inclined to look upon that first
section as the body of soma hymns set apart, at the time of the first
redaction of the Samhita, for the special purpose of being used as
pavamanyas, the remaining hymns having been added at subsequent
redactions. It would not, however, by any means follow that all,
commentary, by M. Muller, containing 12 hymns to the Maruts or
storm-gods (1869). These were reprinted, together with the Re-
maining hymns to the Maruts, and those addressed to Rudra, Vayu
and Vata, Vedic Hymns I. in S.B.E., vol. xxxii. (1891); where
(vol. xlvi.) H. Oldenberg has also translated the hymns to Agni,
in mandalas 1-5. A metrical English translation was published
by R. 'H. T. Griffith (2 vols., Benares, 1896-1897). Complete
German translations have been published, in verse, by H. Grass-
mann (1876-1877) and, in prose, with comm., A. Ludwig (1876-
1888). Cf. also Kaegi, The Rigveda (Eng. trans, by Arrowsmith,
Boston, 1886).
162
SANSKRIT
[VEDIC PERIOD
or even any, of the latter hymns were actually later productions,
as they might previously have formed part of the family collections,
or might have been overlooked when the hymns were first collected.
Other mandalas (viz. i. viii. and x.) still contain four entire hymns
addressed to Soma, consisting together of 58 verses, of which only
a single one (x. 25, i) is found in the Samaveda-samhita, as also
some 28 isolated verses to Soma, and four hymns addressed to Soma
in conjunction with some other deity, which are entirely unrepre-
sented in that collection.
Mandala x. contains the same number of hymns (191) as
the first, which it nearly equals in actual length. The hymns are
ascribed to many rishis, of various families, some of whom appear
already in the preceding mandalas. The traditional record is,
however, less to be depended upon as regards this book, many
names of gods and fictitious personages appearing in the list of its
rishis. In the latter half of the book the hymns are clearly arranged
according to the number of verses, in decreasing order occasional
exceptions to this rule being easily adjusted by the removal of a
few apparently added verses. A similar arrangement seems also
to suggest itself in other portions of the book. This mancjala stands
somewhat apart from the preceding books, both its language and
the general character of many of its hymns betraying a more recent
origin. In this respect it comes nearer to the level of the Atharvaveda-
samhita, with which it is otherwise closely connected. Of some
1350 Rik-verses found in the Atharvan, about 550, or rather more
than 40%, occur in the tenth mandala. In the latter we meet
with the same tendencies as in the Atharvan to metaphysical specula-
tion and abstract conceptions of the deity on the one hand, and to
superstitious practices on the other. But, although in its general
appearance the tenth mandala is decidedly more modern than the
other books, it contains not a few hymns which are little, if at all,
inferior, both in respect of age and poetic quality, to the generality
of Vedic hymns, being perhaps such as had escaped the attentions
of the former collectors.
It has become the custom, after Roth's example, to call the Rik-
samhita (as well as the Atharvan) an historical collection, as com-
pared with the Samhitas put together for purely ritualistic pur-
poses. And indeed, though the several family collections which
make up the earlier mandalas may originally have served ritual
ends, as the hymnals of certain clans or tribal confederacies, and
although the Sarnhita itself, in its oldest form, may have been
intended as a common prayer-book, so to speak, for the whole of
the Brahmanical community, it is certain that in the stage in which
it has been finally handed down it includes a certain portion of
hymn material (and even some secular poetry) which could never
have been used for purposes of religious service. It may, there-
fore, be assumed that the Rik-samhita contains all of the nature of
popular lyrics that was accessible to the collectors, or seemed to them
worthy of being preserved. The question as to the exact period
when the hymns were collected cannot be answered with any ap-
proach to accuracy. For many reasons, however, which cannot
be detailed here, scholars have come to fix on the year 1000 B.C. as
an approximate date for the collection of the Vedic hymns. From
that time every means that human ingenuity could suggest was
adopted to secure the sacred texts against the risks connected with
oral transmission. But, as there is abundant evidence to show that
even then not only had the text of the hymns suffered corruption,
but their language had become antiquated to a considerable extent,
and was only partly understood, the period during which the great
mass of the hymns were actually composed must have lain con-
siderably farther back, and may very likely have extended over
the earlier half of the second millenary, or from about 2000 to
1500 B.C.
As regards the people which raised for itself this imposing monu-
ment, the hymns exhibit it as settled in the regions watered by the
mighty Sindhu (Indus), with its eastern and western tributaries,
the land of the five rivers thus forming the central home of the Vedic
people. _ But, while its advanced guard has already debouched upon
the plains of the upper Ganga and Yamuna, those who bring up
the rear are still found loitering far behind in the narrow glens of
the Kubha (Cabul) and Gomati (Gomal). Scattered over this tract
of land, in hamlets and villages, the Vedic ^ryas are leading chiefly
the life of herdsmen and husbandmen. The numerous clans and
tribes, ruled over by chiefs and kings, have still constantly to
vindicate their right to the land but lately wrung from an inferior
race of darker hue; just as in these latter days their Aryan kinsmen
in the Far West are ever on their guard against the fierce attacks of
the dispossessed red-skin. Not unfrequently, too, the light-coloured
Aryas wage internecine war with one another as when the Bharatas,
with allied tribes of the Panjab, goaded on by the royal sage Visva-
mitra, invade the country of the Tritsu king Sudas, to be defeated
in the " ten kings' battle, ' through the inspired power of the priestly
singer Vasishtha. The priestly office has already become one of
high social importance by the side of the political rulers, and to
a large extent an hereditary profession; though it does not yet
present the baneful features of an exclusive caste. The Aryan
housewife shares with her husband the daily toil and joy, the privilege
of worshipping the national gods and even the triumphs of song-
craft, some of the finest hymns being attributed to female seers.
The religious belief of the people consists in a system of natural
symbolism, a worship of the elementary forces of nature, regarded
as beings endowed with reason and power superior to those of man.
In giving utterance to this simple belief, the priestly spokesman
has, however, frequently worked into it his own speculative and
mystic notions. Indra, the stout-hearted ruler of the cloud-region,
receives by far the largest share of the devout attentions of the
Vedic singer. His ever-renewed battle with the malicious demons
of darkness and drought, for the recovery of the heavenly light and
the rain-spending cows of the sky, forms an inexhaustible theme of
spirited song. Next to him, in the affections of the people, stands
Agni (ignis), the god of fire, invoked as the genial inmate of the
Aryan household, and as the bearer of oblations, and mediator
between gods and men. Indra and Agni are thus, as it were, the
divine representatives of the king (or chief) and the priest of the
Aryan community; and if, in the arrangement of the Sarnhita, the
Brahmanical collectors gave precedence to Agni. it was but one of
many avowals of their own hierarchical pretensions. Hence also
the hymns to Indra are mostly followed, in the family collections,
by those addressed to the Visve Devah (the ' all-gods ") or to the
Maruts, the warlike storm-gods and faithful companions ot Indra,
as the divine impersonations of the Aryan freemen, the vis or clan.
But, while Indra and Agni are undoubtedly the favourite figures of
the Vedic pantheon, there is reason to believe that these gods had
but lately supplanted another group of deities who play a less
prominent part in the hymns, viz. Father Heaven (Dyaus Pitar,
ZeC-j irarijp, Jupiter) ; Varuna (probably oipavis), the all-embracing
(esp. nocturnal) heavens; Mitra (Zend. Mithra), the genial light of
day ; and Savitar, the quickener, and Surya (ijeXioj), the vivifying
sun.
Of the Brahmanas that were handed down in the schools of the
Bahvrichas (i.e. " possessed of many verses "), as the followers of
the Rigveda are called, two have come down to us, viz.
those of the Aitareyins and the Kaushitakins. The man asot
Aitareya-brdhmana 1 and the Kaushitaki- 2 (or San- Kiirveda
khayo.no.-) brdhmana evidently have for their groundwork
the same stock of traditional exegetic matter. They differ, however,
considerably as regards both the arrangement of this matter and their
stylistic handling of it, with the exception of the numerous legends
common to both, in which the discrepancy is comparatively slight.
There is also a certain amount of material peculiar to each of them.
The Kaushitaka is, upon the whole, far more concise in its style and
more systematic in its arrangement features which would lead
one to infer that it is probably the more modern work of the two.
It consists of thirty chapters (adhyaya) ; while the Aitareya has
forty, divided into eight books (or pentads, panchaka), of five chapters
each. The last ten adhyayas of the latter work are, however,
clearly a later addition though they must have already formed part
of it at the time of Panini (c. 400 B.C. ?), if, as seems probable, one
of his grammatical sutras, regulating the formation of the names of
Brahmanas, consisting of thirty and forty adhyayas, refers to these
two works. In this last portion occurs the well-known legend (also
found in the Sankhayana-sutra, but not in the Kaushitaki-brahmana)
of SunabSepa, whom his father Ajigarta sells and offers to slay, the
recital of which formed part of the inauguration of kings. While
the Aitareya deals almost exclusively with the Soma sacrifice, the
Kaushitaka, in its first six chapters, treats of the several kinds of
haviryajna, or offerings of rice, milk, ghee, &c., whereupon follows
the Soma sacrifice in this way, that chapters 7-10 contain the
practical ceremonial and 1 1-30 the recitations (fastra) of the hotar.
Sayana, in the introduction to his commentary on the work, ascribes
the Aitareya to the sage Mahidasa Aitareya (i.e. son of Itara), also
mentioned elsewhere as a philosopher; and it seems likely enough
that this person arranged the Brahmaija and founded the school of
the Aitareyins. Regarding the authorship of the sister work we
have no information, except that the opinion of the sage Kaushitaki
is frequently referred to in it as authoritative, and generally in
opposition to the Paingya the Brahmaija, it would seem, of a
rival school, the Paingins. Probably, therefore, it is just what one
of the manuscripts calls it the Brahmana of Sankhayana (composed)
in accordance with the views of Kaushitaki.
Each of these two Brahmanas is supplemented by a " forest-
book," or Aranyaka. The Aitareydranyaka 3 is not a uniform
production. It consists of five books (drayyaka), three of which,
the first and the last two, are of a liturgical nature, treating of the
ceremony called mahavrata, or great vow. The last of these books,
composed in sutra form, is, however, doubtless of later origin, and is,
indeed, ascribed by native authorities either to Saunaka or to Asvala-
yana. The second and third books, on the other hand, are purely
speculative, and are also styled the Bahvr.icha-brahmana-upanishad.
Again, the last four chapters of the second book are usually singled
1 Edited, with an English translation, by M. Haug (2 vols.,
Bombay, 1863). An edition in Roman transliteration, with extracts
from the commentary, has been published by Th. Aufrecht (Bonn,
1879).
2 Edited by B. Lindner (Jena, 1887).
"Edited, with Sayana's commentary, by Rajendralala Mitra, in
the Bibliotheca Indica (1875-1876). The first three books have been
translated by F. Max Muller in S.B.E. vol. i. A new edition of the
work was published, with translation, by A. B. Keith (Oxford, 1909).
VEDIC PERIOD]
SANSKRIT
163
out as the Aitareyopanishad, 1 ascribed, like its Brahmana (and the
first book), to Mahidilsa Aitareya; and the third book is also
referred to as the Samhita-upanishad. As regards the Kaushitaki-
dranyaka, 1 this work consists of fifteen adhyayas, the first two
(treating of the mahavrata ceremony) and the seventh and eighth
of which correspond to the first, fifth, and third books of the
Aitareyaranyaka respectively, whilst the four adhyayas usually
inserted between them constitute the highly interesting Kaushitaki-
(brahmana-) upanishad, 3 of which we possess two different re-
censions. The remaining portions (9-15) of the Aranyaka treat of
the vital airs, the internal Agnihotra, &c., ending with the vamsa,
or succession of teachers. Of Kalpa-sutras, or manuals of sacrificial
. ceremonial, 4 composed for the use of the hotar priest,
" v da ^ wo different ssts are in existence, the Asvalayana- and
the Sankhayana-sutra. Each of these works follows one
of the two Brahma nas of the Rik as its chief authority, viz. the
Aitareya and Kaushitaka respectively. Both consist of a Srauta-
and a Grihya-sutra. Asvalayana seems to have lived about the
same time as Panini ( ? C-_4OO B.C.) his own teacher, Saunaka,
who completed the Rik-pratisakhya, being probably intermediate
between the great grammarian and Yaska, the author of the Nirukta.
Saunaka himself is said to have been the author of a Srauta-sutra
(which was, however, more of the nature of a Brahmana) and to
have destroyed it on seeing his pupil's work. A Grihya-sutra is
still quoted under his name by later writers. The Asvalayana
Srauta-sutra 6 consists of twelve, the Grihya of four, adhyayas.
Regarding Sankhayana still less is known; but he, too, was
doubtless a comparatively modern writer, who, like Asvalayana,
founded a new school of ritualists. Hence the Kaushltaki-brahmana,
adopted (and perhaps improved) by him, also, goes under his name,
just as the_ Aitareya is sometimes called Asvalayana-brahmana.
The Sankhayana Srauta-sutra consists of eighteen adhyayas. The
last two chapters of the work are, however, a later addition, 6 while
the two preceding chapters, on the contrary, present a compara-
( tively archaic, brahmana-like appearance. The Grihya-sutra 7
consists of six chapters, the last two of which are likewise later
appendages. The Sambavya Gr.ihya-sutra, of which a single MS.
is at present known, seems to be closely connected with the preceding
work. Professor Biihler also refers to the Rigveda the Vdsishfha-
dharmasdstra? composed of mixed sutras and couplets.
A few works remain to be noticed, bearing chiefly on the textual
form and traditionary records of the Rik-samhita. In our remarks
on the Vedangas, the Pratiskhyas have already been referred to
as the chief repositories of siksha or Vedic phonetics. Among these
works the Rik-pratisakhya^ occupies the first place. The original
composition of this important work is ascribed to the same Sakalya
from whom the vulgate recension of the (Sakala) Samhita takes
its name. He is also said to be the author of the existing Pada-
pafha (i.e. the text-form in which each word is given unconnected
with those that precede and follow it), which report may well
be credited, since the pada-text was doubtless prepared with a
view to an examination, such as is presented in the Pratisakhya,
of the phonetic modifications undergone by words in their syntactic
combination. In the Pratisakhya itself, Sakalya's father (or
Sakalya the elder) is also several times referred to as an authority
on phonetics, though the younger Sakalya is evidently regarded
as having improved on his father's theories. Thus both father
and son probably had a share in the formulation of the rules of
1 Edited and translated by Dr Roer, in the Bibl. Ind. The last
chapter of the second book, not being commented upon by Sayana,
is probably a later addition.
2 Translated by A. B. Keith (1908), _who has also published (as
an appendix to his ed. of the Aitareyaranyaka) the text of adhy.
7-15; whilst W. F. Friedlander edited adhy. I and 2 (1900). Cf.
Keith, J.R.As.S. (1908), p. 363 sqq., where the date of the first
and more original portion (adhy. 1-8) is tentatively fixed at 600-
550 B.C.
8 Text, commentary and translation published by E. B. Cowell,
in the Bibl. Ind. Also a translation by F. Max Muller in S.B.E.
vol. i.
4 Cf. A. Hillebrandt, " Ritual-Litteratur," in Buhler's Grundriss
(1897).
* Both wojks have been published with the commentary of
Gargya Narayana, by native scholars, in the Bibl. Ind. Also the
text of the Grihya, with a German translation, by A. Stenzler.
6 See A. Weber's analysis, Ind. Studien, ii. 288 seq. The work
was edited by Hillebrandt, in Bibl. Ind.
'Edited, with a German translation, by H. Oldenberg (Ind.
Stud. vol. xv.), who also gives an account of the Sambavya
Gfihya. An English translation in S.B.E. vol. xxix. by the same
scholar, who would assign the two_sutra works to Sarvajna San-
khayana, whilst the Brahmana (and Aranyaka) seem to him to have
been imparted by Kahola Kaushitaki to Gunakhya Sankhayana.
8 Text with Krishnapandita's commentary, published at Benares;
also critically edited by A. A. Fiihrer (Bombay, 1883) ; translation
by G. Buhler in S.B.E. vol. xiv.
9 Edited, with a French translation, by A. Regnier, in the Journal
Asiatique (1856-1858); also, with a German translation, by M.
Muller (1869).
pronunciation and modification of Vedic sounds. The completion
or final arrangement of the Rik-pratisakhya, in its present form, is
ascribed to Saunaka, the reputed teacher of Asvalayana. Saunaka,
however, is merely a family name (" descendant of Sunaka "),
which is given even to the rishi Gritsamada, to whom nearly the
whole of the second mandala of the Rik is attributed. How long
after Sakalya this particular Saunaka lived we do not know; but
some generations at all events would seem to lie between them,
considering that in the meantime the Sakalas, owing doubtless to
minor differences on phonetic points in the Samhita text, had
split into several branches, to one of which, the Saisira (or Saisiriya)
school, Saunaka belonged. While Sakalya is referred to both by
Yaska and Panini, neither of these writers mentions Saunaka. It
seems, nevertheless, likely, for several reasons, that Panini was
acquainted with Saunaka's work, though the_ point has by no
means been definitely settled. The Rik-pratisakhya is composed
in mixed slokas, or couplets of various metres, a form of com-
position for which Saunaka seems to have had a special predilection.
Besides the Pratisakhya, and the Grihya-sutra mentioned above,
eight other works are ascribed to Saunaka, viz. the Br.ihaddevata, 10
an account, in epic slokas, of the deities of the hymns, which supplies
much valuable mythological information ; the Rig-vidhdna, 11 a treatise,
likewise in epic metre, on the magic effects of Vedic hymns and
verses; the Pada-vidhana, a similar treatise, apparently no longer in
existence; and five different indexes or catalogues (anukramanl) of
the rishis, metres, deities, sections (anuvaka) and hymns of the Rig-
veda. It is,_hpwever, doubtful whether the existing version of the
Brihaddevata is the original one; and the Rigvidhana would seem
to be much more modern than Saunaka's time. As regards the
Anukramanis, they seem all to have been composed in mixed slokas;
but, with the exception of the Anuvakanukramani, they are only
known from quotations, having been superseded by the Sandnu-
kramam,' or complete index, of Katydyana. Both these indexes
have been commented upon by Shadgurusishya, towards the end of
the I2th century of our era.
B. Sdma-veda. The term saman, of uncertain derivation, denotes
a solemn tune or melody to be sung or chanted to a r.ich or verse.
The set chants (stotra) of the Soma sacrifice are as a rule ggaia-
performed in triplets, either actually consisting of three ve d a -
different verses, or of two verses which, by the repetition \mhlla
of certain parts, are made, as it were, to form three.
The three verses are usually chanted to the same tune ; but in certain
cases two verses sung to the same tune had a different saman enclosed
between them. One and the same saman or tune may thus be sung
to many different verses; but, as in teaching and practising the
tunes the same verse was invariably used for a certain tune, the term
" saman," as well as the special technical names of samans, are not
infrequently applied to the verses themselves with which they were
ordinarily connected, just as one would quote the beginning of the
text of an English hymn, when the tune usually sung to that hymn is
meant. For a specimen of the way in which samans are sung, see
Burnell, Arsheyabrahmana, p. xlv. seq.
The Indian chant somewhat resembles the Gregorian or Plain
Chant. 13 Each saman is divided into five parts or phrases (prastdva,
or prelude, &c.), the first four of which are distributed between the
several chanters, while the finale (nidhana) is sung in unison by all
of them.
In accordance with the distinction between rich or text and
saman or tune, the saman-hymnal consists of two parts, viz. the
Samaveda-samhita, or collection of texts (rich) used for making up
saman-hymns, and the Gana, or tune-books, song-books. The
textual matter of the Sarnhita consists of somewhat under 1600
different verses, selected from the Rik-samhita, with the exception
of some seventy-five verses, some of which have been taken from
Khila hymns, whilst others which also occur in the Atharvan or
Yajurveda, as well as such not otherwise found, may perhaps have
formed part of some other recension of the Rik. The Samaveda,-
samhitd 1 * is divided into two chief parts, the piirva- (first) and the
utla.ro- (second) archika. The second part contains the texts of
the saman-hymns, arranged in the order in which they are actually
required for the stotras or chants of the various Soma sacrifices.
The first part, on the other hand, contains the body of tune-verses,
or verses used for practising the several samans or tunes upon the
tunes themselves being given in the Grama-geya-gdna (i.e. songs
to be sung in the village), the tune-book specially belonging to the
Purvarchika. Hence the latter includes all the first verses of those
triplets of the second part which had special tunes peculiar to
them, besides the texts of detached samans occasionally used
outside the regular ceremonial, as well as such as were perhaps
10 Edited, with translation, by A. A. Macdonell (2 vols.), in the
Harvard Or. series (1904).
11 Edited R. Meyer (Berlin, 1878).
12 Edited, with commentary, by A. A. Macdonell (Oxford, 1886).
13 Burnell, Arsheyabrahmana, p. xli.
14 Edited and translated by J. Stevenson (1843); a critical
edition, with German translation and glossary, was published by
Th. Benfey (1848); also an edition, with the Ganas and Sayana's
commentary, by Satyavrata Samasraml, in the Bibl. Ind. in 5 vols. ;
and Eng. trans, by R. H. T. Griffith (Benares, 1893).
164
SANSKRIT
[VEDIC PERIOD
Sima-
veda-
brah-
mapas.
no longer required but had been so used at one time or other. The
verses of the Purvarchika are arranged on much the same plan
as the family-books of the Rik-samhita, viz. in three sections con-
taining the verses addressed to Agni, Indra and Soma (pavamdna)
respectively each section (consisting of one, three, and one adhyayas
respectively) being again arranged according to the metres. Hence
this part is also called Chhandas- (metre) archika. Over and above
this natural arrangement of the two archikas, there is a purely formal
division of the texts into six and nine prapa^hakas respectively, each
of which, in the first part, consists of ten decades (dasat) of verses.
We have two recensions of the Samhita, belonging to the Ranayaniya
and Kauthuma schools, the latter of which is but imperfectly known,
but seems to have differed but slightly from the other. Besides the
six prapa^hakas (or five adhyayas) of the Purvarchika, some schools
have an additional " forest " chapter, called the Aranyaka-samhita,
the tunes of which along with others apparently intended for being
chanted by anchorites are partly contained in the Aranya-gana.
Besides the two tune-books belonging to the Purvarchika, there are
two others, the Oha-gana (" modification-songs ") and Uhya-gdna,
which follow the order of the Uttararchika, giving the several saman-
hymns chanted at the Soma sacrifice, with the modifications the
tunes undergo when applied to texts other than those for which
they were originally composed. The Saman hymnal, as it has come
down to us, has evidently passed through a long course of develop-
ment. The practice of chanting probably goes back to very early
times; but the question whether any of the tunes, as given in the
Ganas, and which of them, can lay claim to an exceptionally high
antiquity will perhaps never receive a satisfactory answer.
The title of Brahmana is bestowed by the Chhandogas, or followers
of the Samaveda, on a considerable number of treatises. In accord-
ance with the statements of some later writers, their
number was usually fixed at eight; but within the last
few years one new Brahmana has been recovered, while
at least two others which are found quoted may yet be
brought to light in India. The majority of the Samaveda-
brahmaijas present, however, none of the characteristic features of
other works of that class; but they are rather of the nature of sutras
and kindred treatises, with which they probably belong to the same
period of literature. Moreover, the contents of these works as
might indeed be expected from the nature of the duties of the priests
for whom they were intended are of an extremely arid and technical
character, though they all are doubtless of some importance, either
for the textual criticism of the Samhita or on account of the legendary
and other information they supply. These works are as follows:
(i) the T&n4ya-maha- (or Praudha-) brShmana, 1 or " great " Brah-
maoa usually called Panchavimfa-brahmana from its " consisting
of twenty-five " adhyayas which treats of the duties of the udgatars
generally, and especially of the various kinds of chants; (2) the
Shadvimfa,* or " twenty-sixth," being a supplement to the preceding
work its last chapter, which also bears the title of Adbhuta-brah-
mana, 1 or " book of marvels," is rather interesting, as it treats of all
manner of portents and evil influences, which it teaches how to avert
by certain rites and charms; (3) the S&mavidhana,* analogous to the
Rigvidhana, descanting on the] magic effects of the various samans ;
(4) the Arsheya-brahmana, a mere catalogue of the technical names of
the samans in the order of the Purvarchika, known in two different
recensions; (5) the Devatadhy&ya, which treats of the deities of the
samans; (6) the Chhandogya-brahmana, the last eight adhyayas
(3-10) of which constitute the important Chhandogyopanishad ; 6
(7) the Samhitopanishad-brahmana, treating of various subjects con-
nected with chants; (8) the Vamia-brahmana, a mere list of the Sama-
veda teachers. To these works has to be added the Jaiminiya- or
Talavak&ra-brahmana, which, though as yet only known by extracts,'
seems to stand much on a level with the Brahmanas of the Rik and
Yajurveda. A portion of it is the well-known Kena- (or Talavak&ra-)
upanishad, 7 on the nature of Brahma, as the supreme of deities.
If the Samaveda has thus its ample share of Brahmaqa-literature,
though in part of a somewhat questionable character, it is not less
richly supplied with sutra-treatises, some of which prob-
ably belong to the oldest works of that class. There are
three Srauta-siitras, which attach themselves more or less
_ closely to the Panchavimsa-brahmana : Masaka's^rsAeya-
kalpa, which gives the beginnings of the samans in their sacrificial
1 Edited, with Sayana's commentary by Anandachandra Vedan-
tavagisa, in the BM. Ind. (1869-1874).
' Ed. J. Vidyasagara (1881); also, with German translation,
K. Klemm (1804).
' A. Weber, Omina et Portenta," Abhandlungen of Berlin Royal
Academy of Sciences (1858).
4 The works enumerated under (3), (4), (5), (7), (8) have been edited
by A. Burnell; (8) also previously by A. Weber, Ind. St. vol. iv. ;
whilst 7 was translated by Sten Konow (Halle, 1893).
* Edited and translated by Dr Roer, BM. Ind. ; also translated
by M. Miiller, S.B.E. vol. i., text, with German translation, by
O. v. Bohtlingk (1889).
Given by Burnell (1878), and (with translation) by H. Oertel,
J. Am. Or. S. vol. xvi. See also Whitney's account of the work,
Proceedings of Am. Or. Soc. (May 1883).
7 Transl. by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. i.
sutras.
order, thus supplementing the Arsheya-brahmana, which enumerates
their technical names; and the Srauta-sutras of Ldfyayana 6 and
Drahyayana, of the Kauthuma and Raoayamya schools respectively,
which differ but little from each other, and form complete manuals
of the duties of the udgatars. Another sutra, of an exegetic character,
the Anupada-sutra, likewise follows the Panchavirpsa, the difficult
passages of which it explains. Besides these, there are a considerable
number of sutras and kindred technical treatises bearing on the
prosody and phonetics of the sama-texts. The more important of
them are the Riktantra? apparently intended to serve as a Prati-
sakhya of the Samaveda; the Nidana-sutra, a treatise on prosody;
the Pushpa- or Phulla-sutra, ascribed either to Gobhila or to Vara-
ruchi, and treating of the phonetic modifications of the rich in the
samans; and the Samatantra, a treatise on chants of a very technical
nature. Further, two Grihya-sutras, belonging to the Samaveda,
are hitherto known, viz. the Drahyayana-grihya, ascribed to Khradira,
and that of Gobhila ll (who is also said to have composed a srauta-
sutra), with a supplement, entitled Karmapradipa, by Katyayana.
To the Samaveda seems further to belong the Gautama-dharmasastra, 1 '
composed in sutras, and apparently the oldest existing compendium
of Hindu law.
C. Yajur-veda. This, the sacrificial Veda of the Adhvaryu priests,
divides itself into an older and a younger branch, or, as they are
usually called, the Black (krishna) and the White (Sukla)
Yajurveda. Tradition ascribes the foundation of the S "P""'^
Yajurveda to the sage Vaisampayana. Of his disciples ' Blaclt
three are specially named, viz. Ka^ha, Kalapin and Yaska Ya l urvea *-
Painei, the last of whom again is stated to have communicated the
sacrificial science to Tittiri. How far this genealogy of teachers
may be authentic cannot now be determined ; but certain it is that
in accordance therewith we have three old collections of Yajus-
texts, viz. the K&fhaka, 13 the Kalapaka or Maitrayani Samhita, 1 *
and the Taittmya-samhita. 16 The Kanaka and Kalapaka are fre-
quently mentioned together; and the author of the great com-
mentary " on Panini once remarks that these works were taught
in every village. _ The Kathas and Kalapas are often referred to
under the collective name of Charakas, which apparently means
"wayfarers" or itinerant scholars; but according to a later
writer (Hemachandra) Charaka is no other than Vaisampayana
himself, after whom his followers would have been thus called.
From the Kashas proper two or three schools seem early to have
branched off, the Prachya- (eastern) Kathas and the Kapish^hala-
Ka{has, the text-recension of the latter of whom has recently
been discovered in the Kapishthala-kafha-samhitd, and probably
also the Charayanlya-Kathas. The Kalapas also soon became sub-
divided into numerous different schools. Thus from one of Kalapin's
immediate disciples, Haridru, the Haridraviyas took their origin,
whose text-recension, the Haridravika, is quoted together with the
Kathaka as early as in Yaska's Nirukta; but we do not know
whether it differed much from the original Kalapa texts. As regards
the Taittiriya-samhita, that collection, too, in course of time gave
rise to a number of different schools, the text handed down being
that of the Apastambas; while the contents of another recension,
that of the Atreyas, are known from their Anukramani, which has
been preserved.
The four collections of old Yajus texts, so far known to us, while
differing more or less considerably in arrangement and verbal
points, have the main mass of their textual matter in common.
This common matter consists of both sacrificial prayei's (yajus) in
verse and prose, and exegetic or illustrative prose portions (brfih-
mana). A prominent feature of the old Yajus texts, as compared
with the other Vedas, is the constant intermixture of textual and
exegetic portions. The Charakas and Taittiriyas thus do not
recognize the distinction between Samhita and Brahmana in the
sense of two separate collections of texts, but they have only a
Samhita, or collection, which includes likewise the exegetic or
Brahmana portions. The Taittiriyas seem at last to have been
impressed with their want of a separate Brahmana and to have set
about supplying the deficiency in rather an awkward fashion:
instead of separating from each other the textual and exegetic por-
tions of their Samhita, they merely added to the latter a supplement
(in three books), which shows the same mixed condition, and applied
to it the title of Taittiriya-brahmana. 1 * But, though'the main'.body of
8 Arsheyakalpa, ed. W. Caland (1908) ; Latyayana-sutra, with
Agnisvamm's commentary and the vo. ll. of the Drahyayana-sutra,
by Anandachandra Vedantavagisa, Bibl. Ind. (i 872).
Ed. and trans., A. Burnell (Mangalore, 1879).
10 Two chapters published by A. Weber, Ind. St. vol. viii.
11 Edited, with a commentary, by Chandrakanta Tarkalankara,
Bibl. Ind. (1880); also ed. and trans, by F. Knauer (1884-1887);
Eng. trans, by H. Oldenberg, S.B.E. vol. xxx.
12 Edited by A. Stenzler; translated by G. Biihler, S.B.E. vol. ii.
u Books I., II., ed. by L. v. Schroder (Leipzig, 1900, 1909).
' Ed. by L. v. Schroder (Leipzig, 1881-1886).
16 With Sayana's commentary, by E. Roer, E. B. Cowell, &c., in
Bibl. Ind.; also, in Roman character, by A. Weber, Ind. Stud,
xi., xii.
" Edited, with Sayana's commentary, by Rajendralala Mitra,
Bibl. Ind.; N. Godabole, Anand. Ser. (1898).
VEDIC PERIOD]
SANSKRIT
165
Samhtta
of White
Yajur-
vetla.
this work is manifestly of a supplementary nature, a portion of it
may perhaps be old, and may once have formed part of the Samhita,
considering that the latter consists of seven ashtakas, instead of
eight, as this term requires, and that certain essential parts of the
ceremonial handled in the Brahmana are entirely wanting in the
Samhita. Attached to this work is the Taittinya-aranyaka, 1 in ten
books, the first six of which are of a ritualistic nature, while of the
remaining books the first three (7-9) form the Taittiriyopanishad 2
(consisting of three parts, viz. the Sikshavalli or Samhitopanishad, and
the Anandavalii and Bhriguvalli, also called together the Varuni-
upanishad), and the last book forms the Narayaniya- (or Yajniki-)
upanishad.
The Maitrayarn Samhita, the identity of which with the original
Kalapaka has been proved pretty conclusively by Dr L. y. Schroder,
who attributes the change of name of the Kalapa-Maitrayanlyas
to Buddhist influences, consists of four books, attached to which is
the Maitri- (or Maitrayani) upanishad. 3 The K&lhaka, on the other
hand, consists of five parts, the last two of which, however, are per-
haps later additions, containing merely the prayers of the hotar
priest, and those used at the horse-sacrifice. There is, moreover, the
beautiful Ka(ha- or Kalhaka-upanishad,* which is also, and more
usually, ascribed to the Atharvaveda, and which seems to show a
decided leaning towards Sankhya-Yoga notions.
The defective arrangement of the Yajus texts was at last remedied
by a different school of Adhvaryus, the Vajasaneyins. The reputed
originator of this school and its text-recension is Yajna-
valkya Vajasaneya (son of Vajasani). The result of the
rearrangement of the texts was a collection of sacrificial
mantras, the Vajasaneyi-samhita, and a Brahmana, the
Satapatha. On account of the greater lucidity of this
arrangement, the Vajasaneyins called their texts the White (or clear)
Yajurveda the name of Black (or obscure) Yajus being for opposite
reasons applied to the Charaka texts. Both the Samhita and
Brahmana of the Vajasaneyins have come down to us in two different
recensions, viz. those of the Madhyandina and Kanva schools; and we
find besides a considerable number of quotations from a Vajasaneyaka,
from which we cannot doubt that there must have been at least one
other recension of the Satapatha-brahmana. The difference between
the two extant recensions is, on the whole, but slight as regards the
subject-matter; but in point of diction it is quite sufficient to make a
comparison especially interesting from a philological point of view.
Which of the two versions may be the more original cannot as yet be
determined; but the phonetic and grammatical differences will
probably have to be accounted for by a geographical separation of
the two schools rather than by a difference of age. In several
points of difference the Kanva recension agrees with the practice of
the Rik-samhita, and there probably was some connexion between
the Yajus school of Kanvas and the famous family of rishis of that
name to which the eighth mandala of the Rik is attributed.
The Vajasaneyi-samhita 6 consists of forty adhyayas, the first
eighteen of which contain the formulas of the ordinary sacrifices.
The last fifteen adhyayas are doubtless a later addition as may
also be the case as regards the preceding seven chapters. The last
adhyaya is commonly known under the title of Vajasaneyi-sarnhita
(or Isavasya-) upanishad.' Its object seems to be to point out the
fruitlessness of mere works, and to insist on the necessity of man's
acquiring a knowledge of the supreme spirit. The sacrificial texts
of the Adhvaryus consist, in about equal parts, of verses (rich) and
prose formulas (yajus). The majority of the former occur likewise
in the Rik-samhita, from which they were doubtless extracted.
Not infrequently, however, they show considerable discrepancies
of reading, which may be explained partly from a difference of
recension and partly as the result of the adaptation of these verses
to their special sacrificial purpose. As regards the prose formulas,
though only a few of them are actually referred to in the Rik, it is
quite possible that many of them may be of high antiquity.
The Satapatha-brahmana,'' or Brahmana of a hundred paths, derives
its name from the fact of its consisting of 100 lectures (adhyaya),
which are divided by the Madhyandinas into fourteen, by
the Kanvas into seventeen books (kanda). The first nine
books of the former, corresponding to the first eleven of
the Kanvas, 'and consisting of sixty adhyayas, form a
kind of running commentary on the first eighteen books
of the Vaj. -Samhita; and it has been plausibly suggested by
Professor Weber that this portion of the Brahmana may be referred
to in the Mahabhashya on Pan. iv. 2, 60, where a Satapatha and
Yajur-
veda.
1 Ed. R. Mitra, Bibl. Ind. ; H. N. Apte, Anand. Ser. (1898).
2 Trans, by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. xv.
* Text and translation published by E. B. Cowell, Bibl. Ind.
Also trans, by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. xv.
4 Text, commentary and translation published by E. Roer, Bibl.
Ind.; also translation by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. xv., and others.
6 Edited in the Madhyandina recension, with the commentary of
Mahldhara, and the w. II. of the Kanva text, by A. Weber (1849)
trans, by R. H. T. Griffith (Benares, 1899).
"Translation by E. Roer, Bibl. Ind.; by F. M. Muller, S.B.E.
vol. i.
' Edited by A. Weber, who also translated the first chapter into
German. English translation (5 vols.) by J. Eggeling, in S. B. E.
a Shashd-patha (i.e. " consisting of 60 paths ") are mentioned
together as objects of study, and that consequently it may at one
time have formed an independent work. This view is also supported
by the circumstance that of the remaining five books (10-14) of the
Madhyandinas the third is called the middle one (madhyama);
while the Kanvas apply the same epithet to the middlemost of the
five books (12-16) preceding their last one. This last book would
thus seem to be treated by them as a second supplement, and not
without reason, as it is of the Upanishad order, and bears the special
title of Brihad- (great) aranyakaf the last six chapters of which are
the Brihadaranyaka-upanishad, 9 the most important of all Upani-
shads. Except in books 6-10 (M.), which treat of the construction of
fire-altars, and recognize the sage Sandilya as their chief authority,
Yajnavalkya's opinion is frequently referred to in the Satapatha as
authoritative. _ This is especially the case in the later books, part
of the Brihad-aranyaka being even called Yaj navalkiya-kanda. As
regards the age of the Satapatha, the probability is that the main
body of the work is considerably older than the time of Panini, but
that some of its latter parts were considered by Panini's critic Katya-
yana to be of about the same age as, or not much older than, Panini.
Even those portions had probably been long in existence before
they obtained recognition as part of the canon of the White Yajus.
The contemptuous manner in which the doctrines of the Charaka-
adhvaryus are repeatedly animadverted upon in the Satapatha
betrays not a little of the odium theologicum on the part of the
divines of the Vajasaneyins towards their brethren of the older
schools. Nor was their animosity confined to mere literary war-
fare, but they seem to have striven by every means to gain ascendancy
over their rivals. The consolidation of the Brahmanical hierarchy
and the institution of a common system of ritual worship, which
called forth the liturgical Vedic collections, were doubtless consum-
mated in the so-called Madhya-desa, or " midland," lying between
the Sarasvati and the confluence of the Yamuna and Ganga; and
more especially in its western part, the Kuru-kshetra, or land of the
Kurus. with the adjoining territory of the Panchalas, between the
Yamuna and Ganga. From thence the original schools of Vaidik
ritualism gradually extended their sphere over the adjacent parts.
The Charakas seem for a long time to have held sway in the western
and north-western regions; while the Taittiriyas in course of time
spread over the whole of the peninsula south of the Narmada (Ner-
budda), where their ritual has remained pre-eminently the object of
study till comparatively recent times. The Vajasaneyins, on the
other hand, having first gained a footing in the lands on the lower
Ganges, chiefly, it would seem, through the patronage of King Janaka
of Videha, thence gradually worked their way westwards, and eventu-
ally succeeded in superseding; the older schools north of the Vindhya,
with the exception of some isolated places where even now families
of Brahmans are met witb which profess to follow the old Samhitas.
In Kalpa-sutras the Black Yajurveda is particularly rich ; but,
owing to the circumstances just indicated, they are almost entirely
confined to the Taittiriya school. The only Srauta-sutra
of a Charaka school which has hitherto been recovered is Sirfras ol
that of the Manavas, a subdivision of the Maitrayaniyas.
The Manava-srauta-sulra 10 seems to consist of eleven
books, the first nine of which treat of the sacrificial ritual, while the
tenth contains the Sulva-sutra ; and the eleventh is made up of a
number of supplements (pari-sishfa) . The Manava-gzihya-sutra 11 is
likewise in existence; but so far nothing is known, save one or two
quotations, of a Manava-dharma-siilra, the discovery of which might
be expected to solve some important questions regarding the de-
velopment of Indian law. Of sutra-works belonging to the Kathas,
a single treatise, the (Charayantya-) Kathaka-gr.ihya-sutra, is known ;
while Dr Jolly considers the Vishnu-smriti, 1 '* a compendium of law,
composed in mixed sutras and slokas, to be nothing; but a Vaishnava
recast of the Kathaka-dharma-sutra, which, in its original form,
seems no longer to exist. As regards the Taittiriyas, _the Kalpa-
sutra most widely accepted among them was that of Apastamba,
to whose school, as we have seen, was_also due our existing recension
of the Taittiriya-samhita. The Apastamba-kalpa-sutra consists
of thirty prasna (questions); the first twenty-five of these con-
stitute the Srauta-sutra; 13 26 and 27 the Grihya-sutra; 14 28 and 29
the Dharma-sutra ; 16 and the last the Sulva-sutra. Professor
Biihler has tried to fix the date of this work somewhere between the
5th and 3rd centuries B.C. ; but it can hardly yet be considered as
definitely settled. Considerably more ancient than this work are the
8 The text, with Sankara's commentary, and an English trans-
lation, published by E. Roer, Bibl. Ind.
'Trans, by F. M. Muller, S.B.E. vol. xv., and others.
10 See P. v._ Bradke, Z.D.M.G. vql. xxxvi. A MS. of a portion of
the Srauta-sutra, with the commentary of the famous Mimamsist
Kumarila, has been photo-lithographed by the India Office, under
Goldstucker's supervision.
1 Edited by F. Knauer (Leipzig, 1897).
12 Edited and translated by J. Jolly.
13 Edited by R. Garbe, in Bibl. Ind.
14 Ed. M. Winternitz (Vienna, 1887) ; trans. H. Oldenberg, S.B.E.
vol. xxx.
15 G. Biihler has published the text with extracts from Haradatta's
commentary, Bombay Sansk. Ser. ; also a trans, in S.B.E.
i66
SANSKRIT
[VEDIC PERIOD
Baudhayana-kalpa-sutra^ which consists of the same principal divi-
sions, and the Bharadvaja-sutra, of which, however, only a few por-
tions have as yet been discovered. The Hiranyakesi-sulra, 2 which is
more modern than that of Apastamba, from which it differs blU little,
is likewise fragmentary, as is also the'Vaikhanasa-sutra; 3 while
several other Kalpa-sutras, especially that of Laugakshi, are found
quoted. The recognized compendium of the White Yajus ritual is
the Srauta-sutra of Katyayana, 4 in twenty-six adhyayas. This
work is supplemented by a large number of secondary treatises,
likewise attributed to Katyayana, among which may be mentioned
the Charana-vyuhaf a statistical account of the Vedic schools,
which unfortunately has come down to us in a very unsatisfactory
state of preservation. A manual of domestic rites, closely connected
with Katyayana's work, is the Katiya-grihya-sutraf ascribed to
Paraskara. To Katyayana we further owe the Vajasaneyi-prati-
sakhya, 1 and a catalogue (anukramani) of the White Yajus texts.
As regards the former work, it is still doubtful whether (with Weber)
we have to consider it as older than Panini, or whether (with Gold-
stucker and M. Muller) we are to identify its author with Panini's
critic. The only existing Pratisakhya 8 of the Black Yajus belongs
to the Taittiriyas. Its author Js unknown, and it confines itself
entirely to the Taittiriya-samhita, to the exclusion of the Brahmana
and Aranyaka.
D. Atharva-veda. The Atharvan was the latest of Vedic col-
lections to be recognized as part of the sacred canon. That it is
Athan-a- a ' so tne y oun g es t Veda is proved by its language, which
both from a lexical and a grammatical point of view,
i blta. mar ' cs an intermediate stage between the main body of
the Rik and the Brahmana period. In regard also to
the nature of its contents, and the spirit which pervades them, this
Vedic collection occupies a position apart from the others. Whilst
the older Vedas seem clearly to reflect the recognized religious notions
and practices of the upper, and so to speak, respectable classes of the
Aryan tribes, as jealously watched over by a priesthood deeply
interested in the undiminished. maintenance of the traditional
observances, the fourth Veda, on the other hand, deals mainly with
all manner of superstitious practices such as have at all times found
a fertile soil in the lower strata of primitive and less advanced
peoples, and are even apt, below the surface, to maintain their
tenacious hold on the popular mind in comparatively civilized com-
munities. Though the constant intermingling with the aboriginal
tribes may well be believed to have exercised a deteriorating in-
fluence on the Vedic people in this respect, it can scarcely be doubted
that superstitious practices of the kind revealed by the Atharvan
and the tenth book of the Rik must at all times have obtained
amongst the Aryan people, and that they only came to the surface
when they received the stamp of recognized forms of popular belief
by the admission of these collections of spells and incantations into
the sacred canon. If in this phase of superstitious belief the old
gods still find a place, their character has visibly changed so as to be
more in accordance with those mystic rites and magic performances
and the part they are called upon to play in them, as the promoters
of the votary's cabalistic practices and the averters of the malicious
designs of mortal enemies and the demoniac influences to which he
would ascribe his fears and failures as well as his bodily ailments.
The fourth Veda may thus be said to supplement in a remarkable
manner the picture of the domestic life of the Vedic Aryan as pre-
sented in the Grihya-sutras or house-rules; for whilst these deal
only with the orderly aspects of the daily duties and periodic ob-
servances in the life of the respectable householder, the Atharvayeda
allows us a deep insight into " the obscurer relations and emotions
of human life "; and, it may with truth.be said that " the literary
diligence of the Hindus has in this instance preserved a document of
priceless value for the institutional history of early India as well as
for the ethnological history of the human race " (M. Bloomfield).
It is worthy of note that the Atharvaveda is practically unknown
in the south of India. 9
This body of spells and hymns is traditionally associated with
two old mythic priestly families, the Atharvans and Angiras, their
names, in the plural, serving either singly or combined (Atharvan-
'The Sulva-sutra has been published, with the commentary of
Kapardisvamin, and a translation by G.'Thibaut, in the Benares
Pandit (1875). The Dharma-sutra has been edited by E. Hultzsch
(Leipzig, 1884), and translated by G. Btihler, S.B.E. xiv.
8 The H. Grihya-sutra, ed. J. Kirste (Vienna, 1889); trans.
H. Oldenberg, S.B.E. vol. xxx.
'An account of the Vaikh. Dharmasutra given by T. Bloch
(Vienna, 1896).
4 Edited by A. Weber, 1858.
* Weber, Ind. Stud. m.
Text and German translation by A. Stenzler.
'Edited, with Uva{a's commentary, and a German translation, by
A. Weber, Ind. Stud, iv.; another ed. in Benares Sansk. Ser. (1888).
The work has been published by W. D. Whitney, with a trans.
lation and a commentary by an unknown author, called Tribhash-
yaratna, i.e. " jewel of the three commentaries," it being founded on
three older commentaries by Vararuchi (? Katyayana), Mahisheya
and Atreya.
A. Burnell. Classif. Index of Tanjore Sansk. MSS. p. 37.
girasas) as the oldest appellation of the collection. The two families
or classes of priests are by tradition connected with the service of
the sacred fire; but whilst the Atharvans seem to have devoted
themselves to the auspicious aspects of the fire-cult and the per-
formance of propitiatory rites, the Angiras, on the other hand, are
represented as having been mainly engaged in the uncanny practices
of sorcery and exorcism. Instead of the Atharvans, another mythic
family, the Bhrigus, are similarly connected with the Angiras
(Bhrigvangirasas) as the depositaries of this mystic science. In
course of time the lore of the Atharvans came also to have applied
to it the title of Brahmaveda; a designation which was apparently
meant to be understood both in the sense of the Veda of the Brahman
priest or superintendent of the sacrifice, and in that of the lore of the
Brahma or sacred (magic) word, and the supreme deity it is sup-
posed to embo'dy. The current text of the Athania-sattihitd. w
apparently the recension of the Saunaka school-^-consists of some
750 different pieces, about five-sixths of which is in various metres,
the remaining portion being in prose. The whole mass is divided
into twenty books. The principle of distribution is for the most
part a merely formal one, in books i.-xiii. pieces of the same or about
the same number of verses being placed together in the same book.
The next five books, xiv.-xviii., have each its own special subject:
xiv. treats of marriage and sexual union ; xv., in prose, of the Vratya,
or religious vagrant; xvi. consists chiefly of prose formulas of
conjuration; xvii. of a lengthy mystic hymn; and xviii. contains
all that relates to death and funeral rites. Of the last two books no
account is taken in the Atharva-pratisakhya, and they indeed stand
clearly in the relation of supplements to the original collection.
The nineteenth book evidently was the result of a subsequent
gleaning of pieces similar to those of the earlier books, which had
probably escaped the collectors' attention; while the last book,
consisting almost entirely of hymns to Indra, taken from the Rik-
samhita, is nothing more than a liturgical manual of recitations and
chants required at the Soma sacrifice ; its only original portion being
the ten so-called kuntapa hymns (127-136), consisting partly of
laudatory recitals of generous patrons of sacrificial priests and
partly of riddles and didactic subjects.
The Atharvan has come down to us in a much less satisfactory
state of preservation than any of the other Samhitas, and its inter-
pretation, which offers considerable difficulties on account of numer-
ous popular and out-of-the-way expressions, has so far received
comparatively little aid from native sources. Less help, in this
respect, than might have been expected, is afforded by a recently
published commentary professing to have been composed by Sayana
Acharya; serious doubts have indeed been thrown on the authenti-
city of its ascription to the famous Vedic exegetic. Of very con-
siderable importance, on the other hand, was the discovery in
Kashmir of a second recension of the Atharva-samhita, contained
in a single birch-bark MS., written in the Sarada character, and
lately made available by an excellent chromo-photographic repro-
duction. This new recension, 11 ascribed in the colophons of the MS.
to the Paippalada school, consists likewise of twenty books (kanda),
but both in textual matter and in its arrangement it differs very
much from the current text. A considerable portion of the latter,
including the whole of the eighteenth book, is wanting; while the
hymns of the nineteenth book are for the most part found also in
this text, though not as a separate book, but scattered over the
whole collection. The twentieth book is wanting, with the exception
of a few of the verses not taken from the Rik. As a set-off to these
shortcomings the new version offers, however, a good deal of fresh
matter, amounting to about one-sixth of the whole. From the
Mahabhashya and other works quoting as the beginning of the
Atharva-saiphita a verse that coincides with the first verse of the
sixth hymn of the current text, it has long been known that at
least one other recension must have existed; but the first leaf of
the Kashmir MS. having been lost, it cannot be determined whether
the new recension (as seems all but certain) corresponds to the one
referred to in those works.
The only Brahmana of the Atharvan, the Gopalha-brShmaita,
is doubtless one of the most modern and least important works
of its class. It consists of two parts, the first of which ...
contains cosmogonic speculations, interspersed with an
legends, mostly adapted from other Brahmanas, and ^'- / ' 7 "
general instructions on religious duties and observances;
while the second part treats, in a very desultory manner, of various
points of the sacrificial ceremonial.
10 Edited by Professors Roth and Whitney (1856); with SSyaija's
commentary, by Shankar P. Pandit (4 vols., Bombay, 1895-1898).
Index verborum, by Whitney, in J. Am. Or. S. vol. xii., Eng. trans,
by R. H. T. Griffith (in verse) (2 vols., Benares, 1897); by W. D.
Whitney (with a critical and exegetical commentary), revised and
edited by Ch. R. Lanman (2 vols., Harvard Or. Ser., 1905) ; and (with
some omissions) by M. Bloomfield, S.B.E. vol. xlii.; cf. also Bloom-
field, " The Atharvaveda," in Buhler' s Encycl. (1899).
"The first account of a copy of it was given by Professor R. v.
Roth, in his academic dissertation, " Der Atharvaveda in Kaschmir "
(1875). The reproduction on 544 plates, edited by M. Bloomfield
and R. Garbe (Baltimore, 1901).
" Edited in the Bibl. Ind. by Rajendralala Mitra.
CLASSICAL PERIOD]
SANSKRIT
167
Atbarva-
veda-
sBtras.
Upanl-
shads.
The Kalpa-sutras belonging to this Veda comprise both a manual
of srauta rites, the Vaitana-sutra, 1 and a manual of domestic rites,
the Kausika-sutra? The latter treatise is not only the
more interesting of the two, but also the more ancient,
being actually quoted in the other. The teacher Kausika
is repeatedly referred to in the work on points of ceremonial
doctrine. Connected with this Sutra are upwards of seventy Parisish-
tas, 3 or supplementary treatises, mostly in metrical form, on various
subjects bearing on the performance of grihya rites. The last sutra-
work to be noticed in connexion with this Veda is the Saunaklya
Chaturadhyayikd, 4 being a Pratisakhya of the Atharva-samhita, so
called from its consisting of four lectures (adhyaya). Although
Saunaka can hardly be credited with being the actual author of the
work, considering that his opinion is rejected in the only rule where
his name appears, there is no reason to doubt that it chiefly em-
bodies the phonetic theories of that teacher, which were afterwards
perfected by members of his school. Whether this Saunaka is
identical with the writer of that name to whom the final redaction
of the Sakalapratisakhya of the Rik is ascribed is not known; but
it is worthy of note that on at least two points where Sakalya is
quoted by Panini, the Chaturadhyayika seems to be referred to
rather than the Rik-pratisakhya. Saunaka is quoted once in the
Vajasaneyi-pratisakhya ; and it is possible that Katyayana had the
Chaturadhyayika in view, though his reference does not quite tally
with the respective rule of that work.
Another class of writings already alluded to as traditionally
connected with the Atharvaveda are the numerous Upanishads 6
which do not specially attach themselves to one or other
of the Samhitas or Brahmanas of the other Vedas. The
Atharvapa-upanishads, mostly composed in slokas, may
be roughly divided into two classes, viz. those of a purely speculative
or general pantheistic character, treating chiefly of the nature of
the supreme spirit, and the means of attaining to union therewith,
and those of a sectarian tendency. Of the former category, a limited
number such as the Prasna, Mundaka, and Mandukya-upanishads
have probably to be assigned to the later period of Vedic literature ;
whilst the others presuppose more or less distinctly the existence
of some fully developed system of philosophy, especially the Vedanta
or the Yoga. The sectarian Upanishads, on the other hand
identifying the supreme spirit either with one of the forms of Vishnu
(such as the Narayana, Nrisirnha-tapaniya, Rama-tapaniya, Gopala-
tapaniya Upanishads), or with Siva (e.g. the Rudropanishad), or with
some other deity belong to post-Vedic times.
2. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD
The Classical Literature of India is almost entirely a product
of artificial growth, in the sense that its vehicle was not the
language of the general body of the people, but of a small and
educated class. It would scarcely be possible, even approxi-
mately, to fix the time when the literary idiom ceased to be
understood by the common people. We only know that in the
3rd century B.C. there existed several dialects in different parts
of northern India which differed considerably from the Sanskrit ;
and Buddhist tradition states that Gautama Sakyamuni himself,
in the 6th century B.C., used the local dialect of Magadha (Behar)
for preaching his new doctrine. Not unlikely, indeed, popular
dialects, differing perhaps but slightly from one another, may
have existed as early as the time of the Vedic hymns, when the
Indo-Aryans, divided into clans and tribes, occupied the Land
of the Seven Rivers; but such dialects must have sprung up
after the extension of the Aryan sway and language over the
whole breadth of northern India. But there is no reason why,
even with the existence of local dialects, the literary language
should not have kept in touch with the people in India, as else-
where, save for the fact that from a certain time that language
remained altogether stationary, allowing the vernacular dialects
more and more to diverge from it. Although linguistic research
had been successfully carried on in India for centuries, the actual
grammatical fixation of Sanskrit seems to have taken place about
contemporaneously with the first spread of Buddhism; and
1 Text and a German translation published by R. Garbe (1878);
German trans, by W. Caland (1910).
2 This difficult treatise has been published with extracts from
commentaries by Professor Bloomfield. Two sections of it had
been printed and translated by A. Weber, " Omina et Portenta "
(1859).
3 These tracts have been edited by G. M. Boiling and J. v.
Negelein, part i. (1909).
4 Edited and translated by W. D. Whitney.
6 For a full list of existing translations of and essays on the
Upanishads, see Introd. to Max Miiller's " Upanishads, S.B.E. i.
Cf. also P. Deussen, Sechzig Upanishads (1897).
The
national
epics.
indeed that popular religious movement undoubtedly exercised
a powerful influence on the linguistic development of India.
A. Poetical Literature.
i. Epic Poems. The Hindus, like the Greeks, possess two
great national epics, the Mahdbhdrata and the Rdmdyana.
The Mahabharataf i.e. " the great (poem or tale) of
the Bharatas," is not so much a uniform epic poem as
a miscellaneous collection of poetry, consisting of a
heterogeneous mass of legendary and didactic matter,
worked into and round a central heroic narrative. The author-
ship of this work is aptly attributed to Vyasa, "the arranger,"
the personification of Indian diaskeuasis. Only the bare outline
of the leading story can here be given.
In the royal line of Hastinapura (the ancient Delhi) claiming
descent from the moon, and hence called the Lunar race (soma-
varpsa), and counting among its ancestors King Bharata, after
whom India is called Bharata-varsha (land of the Bharatas) the
succession lay between two brothers, when Dhritarashtra, the elder,
being blind, had to make way for his brother Paijqlu. After a time
the latter retired to the forest to pass the remainder of his life in
hunting; and Dhptarashtra assumed the government, assisted by
his uncle Bhishma, the Nestor of the poem. After some years
Pandu died, leaving five sons, viz. Yudhishthira, Bhima and
Arjuna by his chief wife Kunti, and the twins Na'kula and Sahadeva
by Madri. The latter haying burnt herself along with her dead
husband, Kunti returned with the five princes to Hastinapura, and
was well received by the king, who offered to have his nephews
brought up together with his own sons, of whom he had a hundred,
Duryodhana being the eldest. From their great-grandfather Kuru
both families are called Kauravas; but for distinction that name is
more usually applied to the sons of Dhritarashtra, while their
cousins, as the younger line, are named, after their father, Pandavas.
The rivalry and varying fortunes of these two houses form the
main plot of the great epopee. The Paodu princes soon proved
themselves greatly superior to their cousins; and Yudhishthira,
the eldest of them all, was to be appointed heir-apparent. But,
by his son's advice, the king, good-natured but weak, induced his
nephews for a time to retire from court and reside at a house where
the unscrupulous Duryodhana meant to destroy them. They
escaped, however, and passed some time in the forest with their
mother. Here Draupadi, daughter of King Drupada of Panchala,
won by Arjuna in open contest, became the wife of the five brothers.
On that occasion they also met their cousin, Kunti's nephew, the
famous Yadava prince Krishna of Dvaraka, who ever afterwards
remained their faithful friend and confidential adviser. Dhrita-
shtra now resolved to divide the kingdom between the two houses;
whereupon the Pandavas built for themselves the city of Indraprastha
(on the site of the modern Delhi). After a time of great prosperity,
Yudhishthira, in a game of dice, lost everything to Duryodhana,
when it was settled that the Pandavas should retire to the forest
for twelve years, but should afterwards be restored to their kingdom
if they succeeded in passing an additional year in disguise, without
being recognized by any one. During their forest-life they met with
many adventures, among which may be mentioned their encounter
with King Jayadratha of Chedi, who had carried off Draupadi
from their hermitage. After the twelfth year had expired they
leave the forest, and,_ assuming various disguises, take service at
the court of King Virata of Matsya. Here all goes well for a time
till the queen's brother Kichaka, a great warrior and commander of
the royal forces, falls in love with Draupadi, and is slain by Bhima.
The Kauravas, profiting by Kichaka's death, now invade the
Matsyan kingdom, when the Pandavas side with King Virata, and
there ensues, on the field of Kurukshetra, during eighteen days, a
series of fierce battles, ending in the annihilation of the Kauravas.
Yudhishthira now at last becomes yuva-raja, and eventually king
Dhritarashtra having resigned and retired with his wife and Kunti
to the forest, where they soon after perish in a conflagration. Learn-
ing also the death of Krishna, Yudhishthira himself at last becomes
tired of life and resigns his crown; and the five princes, with their
faithful wife, and a dog that joins them, set out for Mount Meru,
to seek admission to Indra's heaven. On the way one by one drops
off, till Yudhishthira alone, with the dog, reaches the gate of heaven ;
but, the dog being refused admittance, the king declines entering
6 Three complete Indian editions, the handiest in 4 vols., includ-
ing the Harivamsa (Calcutta, 1834-1839); a Bombay edition, with
Nilakantha's commentary (1863) ; and a third, in Telugu characters,
containing the Southern recension (Madras, 1855-1860). Another
Southern edition, in Nagari, is now appearing at Bombay, edited
by Krishnacharya and Vyasacharya of Kumbakonam. An English
translation has been brought out at Calcutta by Pratap Chundra
Roy (1883-1894); and another by M. N. Dutt (5 vols., Calcutta,
1896); whilst numerous episodes have been printed and translated
by European scholars. For a critical analysis of this epic consult
A. Hpltzmann, Das Mahdbhdrata (4 vols., Kiel, 1892-1895); W.
Hopkins, The Great Epic of India (New York, 1902).
i68
SANSKRIT
[NATIONAL EPICS
without it, when the dog turns out to be no other than the god of
Justice himself, having assumed that form to test Yudhishthira's
constancy. But, finding neither his wife nor his brothers in heaven,
and being told that they are in the nether world to expiate their
sins, the king insists on sharing their fate, when this, too, proves a
trial, and they are all reunited to enjoy perpetual bliss.
The complete work consists of upwards of 100,000 couplets
its contents thus being nearly eight times the bulk of the Iliad
and Odyssey combined. It is divided into eighteen books, and
a supplement, entitled Harivamsa, or genealogy of the god Hari
( Krishna- Vishnu). In the introduction, Vyasa, being about to
dictate the poem, is made to say (i. 81) that so far he and some
of his disciples knew 8800 couplets; and farther on (i. 101) he
is said to have composed the collection relating to the Bharatas
(bhdrata-sarithitd) , and called the Bhdratam, which, not including
the episodes, consisted of 24,000 slokas. Now, as a matter of
fact, the portion relating to the feud of the rival houses con-
stitutes somewhere between a fourth and a fifth of the work;
and it is by no means improbable that this portion once formed
a separate poem, called the Bhdrata. But, whether the former
statement is to be understood as implying the existence, at a still
earlier time, of a yet shorter version of about one-third of the
present extent of the leading narrative, cannot now be determined.
While some of the episodes are so loosely connected with the
story as to be readily severed from it, others are so closely inter-
woven with it that their removal would seriously injure the very
texture of the work. This, however, only shows that the original
poem must have undergone some kind of revision, or perhaps
repeated revisions. That such has indeed taken place, at the
hand of Brahmans, for sectarian and caste purposes, cannot be
doubted. According to Lassen's opinion, 1 which has been very
generally accepted by scholars, the main story of the poem would
be based on historical events, viz. on a destructive war waged
between the two neighbouring peoples of the Kurus and Pan-
chalas, who occupied the western and eastern parts of the
Madhyadesa (or " middle land " between theGanges and Jumna)
respectively, and ending in the overthrow of the Kuru dynasty.
On the original accounts of these events perhaps handed down
in the form of lays or sagas the Pandava element would
subsequently have been grafted as calculated to promote the
class interests of the Brahmanical revisers. It is certainly a
strange coincidence that the five Pandava princes should have
taken to wife the daughter of the king of the Panchalas, and
thus have linked their fortunes to a people which is represented,
in accordance with its name, to have consisted of five (pancha)
tribes.
The earliest direct information regarding the existence of epic
poetry in India is contained in a passage of Dion Chrysostom
(c. A.D. 80), according to which " even among the Indians, they
say, Homer's poetry is sung, having been translated by them
into their own dialect and tongue "; and " the Indians are well
acquainted with the sufferings of Priam, the lamentations and
wails of Andromache and Hecuba, and the prowess of Achilles
and Hector." Now, although these allusions would suit either
poem, they seem to correspond best to certain Incidents in the
Mahdbhdrata, especially as no direct mention is made of a warlike
expedition to a remote island for the rescue of an abducted
woman, the resemblance of which to the Trojan expedition
would naturally have struck a Greek becoming acquainted with
the general outline of the Rdmdyaya. Whence Dion derived
his information is not known; but as many leading names of
the Mahabharata and even the name of the poem itself 2 are
mentioned in Panini's grammatical rules, not only must the
Bharata legend have been current in his time (? c. 400 B.C.),
but most probably it existed already in poetical form, as
undoubtedly it did at the time of Patanjali, the author of the
" great commentary " on Paijini (c. 150 B.C.). The great epic is
also mentioned, both as Bhdrata and Mahdbhdrata, in the
Grikya-sulra of Asvalayana, whom Lassen supposes to have
lived about 350 B.C. Nevertheless it must remain uncertain
whether the poem was then already in the form in which we
1 Lassen, Indische Allertumskunde, i. 733 sqq.
2 Viz. as an adj., apparently with " war " or " poem " understood.
now have it, at least as far as the leading story and perhaps
some of the episodes are concerned, a large portion of the
episodical matter being clearly of later origin. It cannot, how-
ever, be doubted that long before that time heroic song had
been diligently cultivated in India at the courts of princes and
among Kshatriyas, the knightly order, generally. In the
Mahdbhdrata itself the transmission of epic legend is in some way
connected with the Sutas, a social class which, in the caste-
system, is defined as resulting from the union of Kshatriya men
with Brahmana women, and which supplied the office of
charioteers and heralds, as well as (along with the Magadhas)
that of professional minstrels. Be this as it may, there is reason
to believe that, as Hellas had her aoi8oL who sang the K\ea &v8pSiv,
and Iceland her skalds who recited favourite sagas, so India had
from olden times her professional bards, who delighted to sing
the praises ofJkings and inspire the knights with warlike feelings.
If in this way a stock of heroic poetry had gradually accumulated
which reflected an earlier state of society and manners, we can
well understand why, after the Brahmanical order of things
had been definitely established, the priests should have deemed
it desirable to subject these traditional memorials of Kshatriya
chivalry and prestige to their own censorship, and adapt them to
their own canons of religious and civil law. Such a revision
would doubtless require considerable skill and tact; and if in
the present version of the work much remains that seems contrary
to the Brahmanical code and pretensions e.g. the polyandric
union of DraupadI and the Pandu princes the reason probably
is that such features were too firmly rooted in the popular tradi-
tion to be readily eliminated; and all the revisers could do was
to explain them away as best they could. Thus Draupadl's ab-
normal position is actually accounted for in five different ways,
one of these representing it as an act of duty and filial obedience
on the part of Arjuna who, on bringing home his fair prize and
announcing it to his mother, is told by her, before seeing what it
is, to share it with his brothers. Nay, it has even been seriously
argued that the Brahmanical editors have completely changed
the traditional relations of the leading characters of the story.
For, although the Pandavas and their cousin Krishna are con-
stantly extolled as models of virtue and goodness, while the
Kauravas and their friend Karna a son of the sun-god, borne by
KuntI before her marriage with Paijdu, and brought up secretly
as the son of a Suta are decried as monsters of depravity, these
estimates of the heroes' characters are not unfrequently belied
by their actions especially the honest Karna and the brave
Duryodhana (i.e. " the bad fighter," but formerly called Suyo-
dhana, " the good fighter ") contrasting not unfavourably with
the wily Krishna and the cautious and somewhat effeminate
Yudhishthira. These considerations, coupled with certain
peculiarities on the part of the Kauravas, apparently suggestive
of an original connexion of the latter with Buddhist institutions,
have led Dr Holtzmann to devise an ingenious theory, viz.
that the traditional stock of legends was first worked up into
a connected narrative by some Buddhist poet most likely at
the time of the emperor Asoka (c. 250 B.C.), whom the Kaurava
hero Suyodhana might even seem to have been intended to
represent and that this poem, showing a decided predilection
for the Kuru party as the representatives of Buddhist principles,
was afterwards revised in a contrary sense, at the time of the
Brahmanical reaction, by votaries of Vishnu, when the Buddhist
features were generally modified into Saivite tendencies, and
prominence was given to the divine nature of Krishna, as an
incarnation of Vishnu. As this theory would, however, seem to
involve the Brahmanical revision of the poem having taken place
subsequent to the decline of Buddhist predominance, it would
shift the completion of the work to a considerably later date than
would be consistent with other evidence. From inscriptions we
know that by the end of the sth century A.D. the Mahabharata
was appealed to as an authority on matters of law, and that its
extent was practically what it now is, including its supplement,
the Harivamsa. Indeed, everything seems to point to the
probability of the work having been complete by about A.D. 200.
But, whilst Bharata and Kuru heroic lays may, and probably
NATIONAL EPICS]
SANSKRIT
169
do, go back to a much earlier age, it seems hardly possible to
assume that the Papdava epic in its present form can have been
composed before the Greek invasion of India, or about 300 B.C.
Moreover, it is by no means impossible that the epic narrative
was originally composed as some other portions of the works
are in prose, either continuous or mixed with snatches of verse.
Nay, in the opinion of some scholars, this poem (as well as the
Ramayana) may even have been originally composed in some
popular dialect, which would certainly best account for the
irregular and apparently prakritic or dialectic forms in which
these works abound. The leading position occupied in the exist-
ing epic by Krishna (whence it is actually called karshna veda,
or the veda of Krishna), and the Vaishnava spirit pervading it,
make it very probable that it assumed its final form under the
influence of the Bhagavata sect with whom Vasudeva (Krishna),
originally apparently a venerated local hero, came to be regarded
as a veritable god, and incarnation of Vishnu. Its culminating
point this sectarian feature attains in the Bhagaiiad-glta (i.e. the
upanishad), " sung by the holy one " the famous theosophic
episode, in which Krishna, in lofty and highly poetic language,
expounds the doctrine of faith (bhakti) and claims adoration as
the incarnation of the supreme spirit. Of the purely legendary
matter incorporated with the leading story of the poem, not a
little, doubtless, is at least as old as the latter itself. Some of
these episodes especially the well-known story of Nala and
Damayanti, and the touching legend of Savitri form themselves
little epic gems of considerable poetic value.
The Ramayana, i.e. poem " relating to Rama," is ascribed to
the poet Valmiki; and, allowance being made for some later
additions, the poem indeed presents the appearance of being
the work of an individual genius. In its present form it consists
of some 24,000 slokas, or 48,000 lines of sixteen syllables, divided
into seven books.
(I.) King Dasaratha of Kosala, reigning at Ayodhya (Oudh),
has four sons borne him by three wives, viz. Rama, Bharata and
the twins Lakshmana and Satrughna. Rama, by being able to
bend an enormous bow, formerly the dreaded weapon of the god
Rudra, wins for a wife Slta, daughter of Janaka, king of Videha
(Tirhut). (II.) On his return to Ayodhya he is to be appointed
heir-apparent (yuva-raja, i.e. juvenis rex); but Bharata 's mother
persuades the king to banish his eldest son for fourteen years to
the wilderness, and appoint her son instead. Separation from his
favourite son soon breaks the king's heart; whereupon the ministers
call on Bharata to assume the reins of government. He refuses,
however, and, betaking himself to Rama's retreat on the Chitrakuta
mountain (in Bundelkhund), implores him to return; but, unable
to shake Rama's resolve to complete his term of exile, he consents
to take charge of the kingdom in the meantime. (III.) After a
ten years' residence in the forest, Rama attracts the attention of a
female demon (rakshasi) ; and, infuriated by the rejection of her
advances, and by the wounds inflicted on her by Lakshmana, who
keeps Rama company, she inspires her brother Ravana, demon-
king of Ceylon, with love for Slta, in consequence of which the
latter is carried off by him to his capital Lanka. While she resolutely
rejects the Rakshasa's addresses, Rama sets out with his brother
to her rescue. (IV.) After numerous adventures they enter into an
alliance with Sugriva, king of the monkeys; and, with the assistance
of the monkey-general Hanuman, and Ravapa's own brother
Vibhlshana, they prepare to assault Lanka. (V.) The monkeys,
tearing up rocks and trees, construct a passage across the straits
the so-called Adam's Bridge, still designated Rilma's Bridge in India.
(VI.) Having crossed over with his allies, Rama, after many hot
encounters and miraculous deeds, slays the demon and captures the
stronghold; whereupon he places Vibhlshana on the throne of
Lanka. To allay Rama's misgivings as to any taint she might have
incurred through contact with the demon, Slta now successfully
undergoes an ordeal by fire; after which they return to Ayodhya,
where, after a triumphal entry, Rama is installed. (VII.) Rama, how-
ever, seeing that the people are not yet satisfied of Sita's purity,
resolves to put her away; whereupon, in the forest, she falls m with
Valmiki himself, and at his hermitage gives birth to two sons.
While growing up there, they are taught by the sage the use of the
bow, as well as the Vedas, and the Ramayana as far as the capture
of Lanka and the royal entry into Ayodhya. Ultimately Rama
discovers and recognizes them by their wonderful deeds and their
likeness to himself, and takes his wife and sons back with him.
The last book, as will be noticed from this bare outline, presents
a somewhat strange appearance. There can be little doubt that
it is a later addition to the work; and the same is apparently
the case as regards the first book, with the exception of certain
portions which would seem to have formed the beginning of the
original poem. In these two books the character of Rama
appears changed: he has become deified and identified with the
god Vishnu, whilst in the body of the poem his character is
simply that of a perfect man and model hero. As regards the
general idea underlying the leading story, whilst the first part of
the narrative can hardly be said to differ materially from other
historical and knightly romances, the second part the expedi-
tion to Lanka on the other hand has called forth different
theories, without, however, any general agreement having so
far been arrived at. Whilst Lassen and Weber would see in
this warlike expedition a poetical representation of the spread
of Aryan rule and civilization over southern India, Talboys
Wheeler took the demons of Lanka, against whom Rama's
campaign is directed, to be intended for the Buddhists of Ceylon.
More recently, again, Professor Jacobi L of Bonn has endeavoured
to prove that the poem has neither an allegorical nor a religious
tendency, but that its background is a purely mythological one
Rama representing the god Indra, and Slta in accordance with
the meaning of the name the personified " Furrow," as which
she is already invoked in the Rigveda, and hence is a tutelary
spirit of the tilled earth, wedded to Indra, the Jupiter Pluvius.
Moreover, from a comparison of the narrative of the poem with
a popular version of it, contained in one of the Pali " birth-
stories," the Dasaratha-jataka, which lacks the second part of
the story, Professor Weber tried to show that the expedition of
Lanka cannot have formed part of the original epic, but was
probably based on some general acquaintance with the Troy
legend of Greek poetry.
A remarkable feature of this poem is the great variation of its
textual condition in different parts of the country, amounting
in fact to at least three different recensions. The text most
widely prevalent both in the north and south has been printed
repeatedly, with commentary, at Bombay, and was taken by
Mr R. T. H. Griffith as the basis for his beautiful poetical transla-
tion. 2 The so-called Gauda or Bengal recension, on the other
hand, which differs most of all, has been edited, with an Italian
prose translation, by G. Gorresio; 3 whilst the third recension,
recognized chiefly in Kashmir and western India, is so far known
only from manuscripts. The mutual relation of these versions
will appear from the fact that about one-third of the matter
of each recension is not found in the other two; whilst in the
common portions, too, there are great variations both in regard
to the order of verses and to textual readings. To account for
this extraordinary textual diversity, it has been suggested that
the poem was most likely originally composed in a popular
dialect, and was thence turned into Sanskrit by different hands
trying to improve on one another; whilst Professor Jacobi
would rather ascribe the difference to the fact that the poem
was for a long time handed down orally in Sanskrit by rhap-
sodists, or professional minstrels, when such variations might
naturally arise in different parts of the country. Yet another
version of the same story, with, however, many important
variations of details, forms an episode of the Mattdbhdrata, the
Ramopakhyana, the relation of which to Valmiki's work is still
a matter of uncertainty. In respect of both versification and
diction the Ramayana is of a distinctly more refined character
than the larger poem; and, indeed, Valmiki is seen already to
cultivate some of that artistic style of poetry which was carried
to excess in the later artificial Kavyas, whence the title of
ddi-kavi, or first poet, is commonly applied to him. Though the
political conditions reflected in the older parts of the Ramayana
seem to correspond best to those of pre-Buddhistic times, this
might after all only apply to the poetic material handed down
orally and eventually cast into its present form. To characterize
the Indian epics in a single word: though often disfigured
by grotesque fancies and wild exaggerations, they are yet noble
works, abounding in passages of remarkable descriptive power,
1 Das Ramayana (Bonn, 1893).
2 London, 1870-1874; there is also an English prose translation
by M. N. Dutt (Calcutta, 1894) ; and a condensed version in English
verse by Romesh Dutt (London, 1899).
3 Turin, 1843-1867.
SANSKRIT
[MODERN EPICS
Puraaas.
intense pathos, and high poetic grace and beauty; and while,
as works of art, they are far inferior to the Greek epics, in some
respects they appeal far more strongly to the romantic mind of
Europe, namely, by their loving appreciation of natural beauty,
their exquisite delineation of womanly love and devotion, and
their tender sentiment of mercy and forgiveness.
2. Puranas and Tantras. The Puranas 1 are partly legendary
partly speculative histories of the universe, compiled for the
purpose of promoting some special, locally prevalent
form of Brahmanical belief. They are sometimes
styled a fifth Veda, and may indeed in a certain sense be looked
upon as the scriptures of Brahmanical India. The term purana,
signifying " old,'^ applied originally to prehistoric, especially
cosmogonic, legends, and then to collections of ancient traditions
generally. The existing works of this class, though recognizing
the Brahmanical doctrine of the Trimurti, or triple manifestation
of the deity (in its creative, preservative and destructive activity),
are all of a sectarian tendency, being intended to establish, on
quasi-historic grounds, the claims of some special god, or holy
place, on the devotion of the people. For this purpose the
compilers have pressed into their service a mass of extraneous
didactic matter on all manner of subjects, whereby these works
had become a kind of popular encyclopaedias of useful know-
ledge. It is evident, however, from a comparatively early
definition given of the typical Purana, as well as from numerous
coincidences of the existing works, that they are based on, or
enlarged from, older works of this kind, more limited in their
scope and probably of a more decidedly tritheistic tendency of
belief. Thus none of the Puranas, as now extant, is probably
much above a thousand years old, though a considerable propor-
tion of their materials is doubtless much older, and may perhaps
in part go back to several centuries before the Christian era.
In legendary matter the Puranas have a good deal in common
with the epics, especially the Mahabharata the compilers or
revisers of both classes of works having evidently drawn their
materials from the same fluctuating mass of popular traditions.
They are almost entirely composed in the epic couplet, and indeed
in much the same easy flowing style as the epic poems, to which
they are, however, as a rule greatly inferior in poetic value.
According to the traditional classification of these works, there
are said to be eighteen {Malta-, or great) Puranas, and as many
Upa-puranas, or subordinate Puranas. The former are by some
authorities divided into three groups of six, according as one or
other of the three primary qualities of external existence ^goodness,
darkness (ignorance), and passion is supposed to prevail in them,
viz. the Vishnu, Naradlya, Bhagavata, Garuda, Padma, Vardha
Matsya, Kurma, Linga, Siva, Skanda, Agni Brahmunda, Brahma-
vaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavishya, Vdmana and Brakma-Puranas.
In accordance with the nature of the several forms of the Trimurti,
the first two groups chiefly devote themselves to the commenda-
tion of Vishnu and Siva respectively, whilst the third group, which
would properly belong to Brahman, has been largely appropriated
for the promotion of the claims of other deities, viz. Vishnu in his
sensuous form of Krishga, Devi, Ganesa, and Surya. As Professor
Baneriea has shown in his preface to the Markandeya, this seems to
have been chiefly effected by later additions and interpolations.
The insufficiency of the above classification, however, appears even
from the fact that it omits the Vayu-pur&na, probably one of the
oldest of all, though some MSS. substitute it for one or other name
of the second group. The eighteen principal Puranas are said to
consist of together 400,000 couplets. In northern India the Vaish-
nava Puranas, especially the Bhagavata and Vishnu,' are by far the
most popular. The Bhagavata was formerly supposed to have been
composed by Vopadeva, the grammarian, who lived in the I3th
century. It has, however, been shown * that what he wrote was a
synopsis of the Pur&na, and that the latter is already quoted in a
work by Ballala Sena of Bengal, in the iith century. It is certainly
held in the highest estimation, and, especially through the vernacular
1 Cf. H. H. Wilson, Essays on the Religion of the Hindus, ii. pp.
67 sqq.
"There are several Indian editions of these two works. The
Bhagavata has been partly printed, in an edition de luxe, with a
French translation at Paris, in 3 vols., by E. Burnouf, and a fourth
by M. Hauyette-Besnault. Of the Vishnu, there is a translation
by H. H. Wilson, 2nd ed., enriched with valuable notes by F. Hall.
This and most other Puranas have been printed in India, especially
in the Bibl. Ind. and the " Anand. series."
1 R&jendralala Mitra, Notices of Sans k. MSS. ii. 47.
versions of its tenth book, treating of the story of Krishna, has
powerfully influenced the religious belief of India.
From the little we know regarding the Upa-puranas, their char-
acter does not seem to differ very much from that of the principal
sectarian Puranas. Besides these two classes of works there is a
large number of so-called Sthala-puranas , or chronicles recounting
the history and merits of some holy " place " or shrine, where their
recitation usually forms an important part of the daily service.
Of much the same nature are the numerous Mahdtmyas (literally
" relating to the great spirit "), which usually profess to be sections
of one or other Purana. Thus the Devt-mahatmya, which celebrates
the victories of the great "goddess " over the Asuras, and is daily
read at the temples of that deity, forms a section, though doubtless
an interpolated one, of the Markapdeya-purana. Similarly the
Adhydtma-Rdmdyana, a kind of spiritualized version of Valmiki's
poem, forms part of the Brahmanda-purana which (like the Skanda)
seems hardly to exist in an independent form, but to be made up
of a large number of Mahatmyas.
The Tantras* have to be considered as partly a collateral and
partly a later development of the sectarian Puranas; though,
unlike these, they can hardly lay claim to any intrinsic poetic
value. These works are looked upon as their sacred writings
by the numerous Saktas, or worshippers of the female energy
(sakti) of some god, especially the wife of Siva, in one of her
many forms (ParvatI, Devi, Kali, Bhavanl, Durga, &c.). This
worship of a female representation of the divine power appears
already in some of the Puranas; but in the Tantras it assumes
quite a peculiar character, being largely intermixed with magic
performances and mystic rites, partly, indeed, of a grossly immoral
nature (see Hinduism) . Of this class of writings no specimen would
appear to have as yet been in existence at the time of Amarasirnha
(6th century), though they are mentioned in some of thePuranas.
They are usually in the form of a dialogue between Siva and
his wife. The number of original Tantras is fixed at sixty-four,
but they still await a critical examinational the hands of scholars.
Among the best known may be mentioned the Rudrayamala,
Kularnava, Syama-rahasya and Kdlika-lantra.
3. Artificial Epics and Romances. In the early centuries of
the Christian era a new class of epic poems begins to make its
appearance,diff ering widely in character from those that
had preceded it. The great national epics, composed epics" 1
though they were in a language different from the
ordinary vernaculars, had at least been drawn from the living
stream of popular tradition, and were doubtless readily under-
stood and enjoyed by at least the educated classes of the people.
The later productions, on the other hand, are of a decidedly
artificial character, and must necessarily have been beyond
the reach of any but the highly cultivated. They are, on the
whole, singularly deficient in incident and invention, their
subject matter being almost entirely derived from the old epics.
Nevertheless, these works are by no means devoid of merit
and interest; and a number of them display considerable
descriptive power and a wealth of genuine poetic sentiment,
though unfortunately often clothed in language that deprives
it of half its value. The simple heroic couplet has mostly been
discarded for various more or less elaborate metres; and in
accordance with this change of form the diction becomes gradu-
ally more complicated a growing taste for unwieldy compounds,
a jingling kind of alliteration, or rather agnomination, and an
abuse of similes marking the increasing artificiality of these
productions.
The generic appellation of such works is kSvya, which, meaning
" poem, ' or the work of an individual poet (kavi), is, as we have
seen, already applied to the Rdmdyana. Six poems of this kind are
singled out by native rhetoricians as standard works, under the title
of Mahakaoya, or great poems. Two of these are ascribed to the
famous dramatist Kalidasa, the most prominent figure of this period
of Indian literature and truly a master of the poetic art. In a com-
paratively modern couplet he is represented as having been one of
nine literary " gems " at the court of a king Vikramaditya, who was
supposed to have originated the so-called Vikrama era, dating from
56-57 B.C. Recent research has, however, shown that this name
was only applied to the era from about A.D. 800, and that the latter
was already used in inscriptions of the 5th century under the name
of the Malava era. Hence also Fergusson's theory that it was
founded by King Vikramaditya Harsha of Ujjayini (Ujjain or
4 Cf. H. H. Wilson, Essays on the Religion of the Hindus, ii. pp.
77 sqq.
DRAMA]
Oujein) in A.D. 544 and ante-dated by 600 years, falls to the ground;
and with it Max Mtiller's theory l of an Indian Renaissance in-
augurated during the reign of that king. Though Kalidasa's date
thus remains still uncertain, the probability is that he flourished
at Ujjayini about 440-448 A.D. Of the principal poets of this
class, whose works have come down to us, he appears to be one of the
earliest; but there can be little doubt that he was preceded in this
as in other departments of poetic composition by many lesser lights,
eclipsed by the sun of his fame, and forgotten. Thus the recently
discovered B^lddhacharita? a Sanskrit poem on the life of the re-
former, which was translated into Chinese about A.D. 420, and the
author of which, Asvaghosha, is placed by Buddhist tradition as
early as the time of Kanishka (who began to reign in A.D. 78), calls
itself, not without reason, a "mahakavya"; and the panegyrics
contained in some of the inscriptions of the 4th century 3 likewise
display, both in verse and ornate prose, many of the characteristic
features of the kavya style of composition. Indeed, a number of
quotations in the Mahabhashya, 4 the commentary on Paijini, go far
to show that the kavya style was already cultivated at the time of
Patanjali, whose date can hardly be placed later than the 1st century
of the Christian era, though it may, and probably does, go back to
the 2nd century B.C.
Of the six universally recognized " great poems " here enumerated
the first two, and doubtless the two finest, are those attributed to
Kalidasa. (i) The Raghuvamsa,* 1 or " race of Raghu," celebrates the
ancestry and deeds of Rama. The work, consisting of nineteen
cantos, is manifestly incomplete; but hitherto no copy has been
discovered of the six additional cantos which are supposed to have
completed it. (2) The Kumdra-sambhava, 6 or " the birth of (the
war-god) Kumara " (or Skanda), the son of Siva and Parvati, con-
sists of seventeen cantos, the last ten of which were, however, not
commented upon by Mallinatha, and are usually omitted in the MSS. ;
whence they are still looked upon as spurious by many scholars,
though they may only have been set aside on account of their
amorous character rendering them unsuitable for educational
purposes, for which the works of Kalidasa are extensively used in
India; the 8th canto, at any rate, being quoted by Vamana (c. A.D.
700). Another poem of this class, the Nalodaya, 1 or " rise of Nala "
describing the restoration of that king, after havingjost his king-
dom through gambling is wrongly ascribed to Kalidasa, being far
interior to the other works, and of a much more artificial character.
(3) The Kiratarjumya? or combat between the Pandaya prince
Arjuna and the god Siva, in the guise of a Kirata or wild moun-
taineer, is a poem in eighteen cantos, by Bharavi, who is mentioned
together with Kalidasa in an inscription dated A.D. 634. (4) The
$isupala-badha t or slaying of Sisupala, who, being a prince of Chedi,
reviled Krishna, who had carried off his intended wife, and was killed
by him at the inauguration sacrifice of Yudhishthira, is a poem
consisting of twenty cantos, attributed to Magha, 9 whence it is also
called Mdghakavya. (5) The Rdvanabadha, or " slaying of Ravana,"
more commonly called Bha((ikdvya, to distinguish it from other
poems (especially one by Pravarasena) , likewise bearing the former
title, was composed for the practical purpose of illustrating the less
common grammatical forms and the figures of rhetoric and poetry.
In its closing couplet it professes to have been written at Vallabhl,
under Sridharasena, but, several princes of that name being men-
tioned in inscriptions as haying ruled there in the 6th and 7th
centuries, its exact date is still uncertain. Bha^ti, apparently the
author's name, is usually identified with the well-known grammarian
Bhartrihari, whose death Professor M. Miiller, from a Chinese
statement, fixes at A.D. 650, while others make him Bhartrihari's
son. (6) The Naishadhlya, or Naishadha-charita, the life of Nala,
king of Nishadha, is ascribed to Sri-Harsha (son of HIra), who is
supposed to have lived in the latter part of the I2th century. A
small portion of the simple and noble episode of the Mahabhdrata
is here retold in highly elaborate and polished stanzas, and with
a degree of lasciviousness which (unless it be chiefly due to the
poet's exuberance of fancy) gives a truly appalling picture of social
corruption. Another highly esteemed poem, the Rdghava-pandaviya,
composed by Kaviraja C' king of poets ") whose date is uncertain,
SANSKRIT
171
1 Propounded in Note G of his India, What can it Teach Us ?
2 Ed. by E. B. Cowell (Oxford, 1893) ; trans, by the same, S.B.E.
3 See G. Biihler, " Die indischen Inschriften und das Alter der
indischen Kunstpoesie," in Sitzungsber. Imp. Ac. (Vienna, 1890).
4 Collected by F. Kielhorn^ 2nd. Ant. vol. 16.
6 Edited with a Latin trans, by F. Stenzler ; also text, with com-
mentary, by S. P. Pandit; also repeatedly in India with and without
translation.
6 Text and Latin trans, of cantos 1-7 published by F. Stenzler;
an English trans, by R. T. H. Griffith; also several Indian editions,
with comm.
'Text with comm. and Latin trans., edited by F. Benary; with
Eng. trans., in verse, by W. Yates; also repeatedly ed. in India.
8 Editions of this and the three following poems have been
published in India.
9 Magha probably lived in the gth century, though Bhao Daji,
in his paper on Kalidasa, would make him " a contemporary of the
Bhoja of the nth century."
some scholars placing him about A.D. 800, others later than the loth
century is characteristic of the trifling uses to which the poet's
art was put. The well-turned stanzas are so ambiguously worded
that the poem may be interpreted as relating to the leading story
of either the Ramayana or the Mahabharala. Less ambitious in
composition, though styling itself a mahakavya, is the Vikramanka-
devacharita, w a panegyric written about A.D. 1085 by the Kashmir
poet Bilhana, in jionour of his patron the Chalukya king Vikra-
maditya of Kalyana, regarding the history of whose dynasty it
supplies some valuable information.
In this place may also be mentioned, as composed in accordance
with the Hindu poetic canon, the Rdjatarangim, 11 or " river of kings,"
being a chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, and the only important
historical work in the Sanskrit language, though even here con-
siderable allowance has to be made for poetic licence and fancy.
The work was composed by the Kashminan poet Kalhaija about
1150, and was afterwards continued by three successive supple-
ments, bringing down the history of Kashmir to the time of the
emperor Akbar. Worthy of mention, in this place, are also two
works on the life of Buddha, which may go back to the 1st century
of the Christian era, viz. the Lalitavistara a and the Mahavastu,
written in fairly correct Sanskrit prose mixed with stanzas
(gatha) composed in a hybrid, half Prakrit, half Sanskrit form
of language.
Under the general term " kavya " Indian critics include, however,
not only compositions in verse, but also certain kinds of prose works
composed in choice diction richly embellished with flowers of rhetoric.
The feature generally regarded by writers on poetics as the chief
mark of excellence in this ornate prose style is the frequency and
length of its compounds; whilst for metrical compositions the use
of long compounds is expressly discouraged by some schools of
rhetoric. Moreover, the best specimens of this class of prose writing
are not devoid of a certain musical cadence adapting itself to the
nature of the subject treated. Amongst the works of this class the
most interesting are four so-called kathas (tales) or akhydyikds
(novels). The oldest of these is the DaGakumaracharita, 14 or " ad-
ventures of the ten princes " a vivid, though probably exaggerated,
picture of low-class city life by Dandin, the author of an excellent
manual of poetics, the Kavyadarsa, who most likely lived in the
6th century. Probably early in the 7th century, Subandhu composed
his tale Vdsavadattd, u taking its name from a princess of Ujjayini
(Oujein), who in a dream fell in love with Udayana, king of Vatsa,
and, on the latter being decoyed to that city and kept in captivity
by her father, was carried off by him from a rival suitor. The
remaining two works were composed by Bana, the court poet of
King Harshavardhana of Thanesar and Kanauj -who ruled over
the whole of northern India, A.D. 606-648, and at whose court the
Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Thsang resided for some time during his
sojourn in India (630-646) viz. the Kadambari, 16 a romantic tale
of a princess of that name; and the apparently never completed
Harshacharitaf intended as an historical novel, but practically a
panegyric (praSasti) in favour of the poet's patron, supplying,
however, a valuable picture of the life of the time. Whilst these
tales have occasionally stanzas introduced into them, this feature of
mixed (misra) verse and prose is especially prominent in another
popular class of romances, the so-called Champus. Of such works,
which seem to have been rather numerous, it must suffice to mention
two specimens, viz. the Bhdrata-champil, in twelve cantos, by
Ananta Bhatt.a; and the Champu-ramayana, or Bhoja-champu, in
seven books, the first five of which are attributed, doubtless by way
of compliment, to King Bhojaraja of Dhara.
4. The Drama. 1 ' The early history of the Indian drama is
enveloped in obscurity. The Hindus themselves ascribe the
origin of dramatic representation to the sage Bharata,
who is fabled to have lived in remote antiquity, and to
have received this science directly from the god Brahman,
by whom it was extracted from the Veda. The term bharata (?)
i.e. one who is kept, or one who sustains( a part) also signifies
" an actor "; but it is doubtful which of the two is the earlier
10 Edited by G. Biihler.
11 The Calcutta edition (1835) and that of A. Troyer, with a French
trans., based on insufficient material, have been superseded by
M. A. Stein's ed. (Bombay, 1892), trans, by Y. C. Datta (Calcutta,
1898).
12 Ed. and trans. Raj. Mitra, Bibl. Ind.; trans. S. Lefmann.
13 Ed. E. Senart.
14 Ed. H. H. Wilson; again (Bombay Skt. Ser.) pt. i., G. Biihler;
ii., P. Peterson; freely trans, by P. W. Jacob.
15 Ed. Fitzedw. Hall (Bibl. Ind.) ; with comm. J. Vidyasagara
(Calcutta, 1874).
16 Ed. P. Peterson (Bomb. 5.5.) ; with comm. M. R. Kale (1896) ;
trans, with some omissions, C. M. Ridding.
17 Ed. J. Vidyasagara (Calcutta, 1883); with comm. (Jammu,
1879; Bombay, 1892); trans. E. B. Cowell and F. W. Thomas
(1897)-
18 Cf. H. H. Wilson, Select Specimens of the Theatre of the Hindus
(3rd ed., 2 vols., 1871) ; Sylvain Levi, Le Theatre indien (Paris, 1890).
Drama.
172
SANSKRIT
[DRAMA
the appellative use of the word, or the notion of an old teacher
of the dramatic art bearing that name. There still exists an
extensive work, in epic verse, on rhetoric and dramaturgy,
entitled Na ya-Sdstra, 1 and ascribed to Bharata. Though this
is probably the oldest theoretic work on the subject that has come
down to us, it can hardly be referred to an earlier period than
several centuries after the Christian era. Not improbably,
however, this work, which presupposes a fully developed scenic
art, had an origin similar to that of some of the metrical law-
books, which are generally supposed to be popular and improved
editions of older sutra-works. We know that such treatises
existed at the time of Panini, as he mentions two authors of
Nata-sutras, or " rules for actors, " viz. Silalin and Krisasva.
Now, the words nata and natya as well as nataka, the common
term for " drama " being derived (like the modern vernacular
" Nautch " = nritya) from the root nat (nrt) " to dance, " seem
to point to a pantomimic or choral origin of the dramatic art.
It might appear doubtful, therefore, in the absence of any
clearer definition in Panini's grammar, whether the " actors'
rules " he mentions did not refer to mere pantomimic perform-
ances. Fortunately, however, Patanjali,. in his " great com-
mentary," speaks of the actor as singing, and of people going " to
hear the actor." Nay, he even mentions two subjects, taken
from the cycle of Vishnu legends viz. the slaying of Kamsa
(by Krishna) and the binding of Bali (by Vishnu) which were
represented on the stage both by mimic action and declamation.
Judging from these allusions, theatrical entertainments in those
days seem to have been very much on a level with the old religious
spectacles or mysteries of Europe, though there may already
have been some simple kinds of secular plays which Patanjali
had no occasion to mention. It is not, however, till some five
or six centuries later that we meet with the first real dramas,
which mark at the same time the very culminating point of
Indian dramatic composition. In this, as in other departments
of literature, the earlier works have had to make way for later
and more perfect productions; and no trace now remains of the
intermediate phases of development. Thus we know of at least
five predecessors of Kalidasa from whom nothing but a few
quotations have been preserved.
Here, however, the problem presents itself as to whether the
existing dramatic literature has naturally grown out of such
popular religious performances as are alluded to by Patanjali,
or whether some foreign influence has intervened at some time
or other and given a different direction to dramatic composition.
The question has been argued both for and against the probability
of Greek influence; but it must still be considered as sub judice;
the latest investigator, M. Sylvain LeVi, having given a decided
opinion against outside influence. There are doubtless some
curious points of resemblance between the Indian drama and
the Modern Attic (and Roman) comedy, viz. the prologue, the
occasional occurrence of a token of recognition, and a certain
correspondence of characteristic stage figures especially the
Vidushaka, or jocose companion of the hero, presenting a certain
analogy to the servus of the Roman stage, as does the Vita,
the hero's dissolute, though accomplished, boon-companion,
of some plays, to the Roman parasite for which the assumption
of some acquaintance with the Greek comedy on the part of the
earlier Hindu writers would afford a ready explanation. On
the other hand, the differences between the Indian and Greek
plays are perhaps even greater than their coincidences, which,
moreover, are scarcely close enough to warrant our calling in
question the originality of the Hindus in this respect. Certain,
however, it is that, if the Indian poets were indebted to Greek
playwrights for the first impulse in dramatic composition, in
the higher sense, they have known admirably how to adapt the
Hellenic muse to the national genius, and have produced a
dramatic literature worthy to be ranked side by side with both
the classical and our own romantic drama. It is to the latter
especially that the general character of the Indian play presents
a striking resemblance, much more so than to the classical drama.
The Hindu dramatist has little regard for the " unities " of the
1 Ed., in Kavyamiila (Bombay, 1894) ; by Grosset (Lyons, 1897).
classical stage, though he is hardly ever guilty of extravagance
in his disregard of them. Unlike the Greek dramatic theory, it
is an invariable rule of Indian dramaturgy, that every play,
however much of the tragic element it may contain, must have a
happy ending. The dialogue is invariably carried on in prose,
plentifully interspersed with those neatly turned lyrical stanzas
in which the Indian poet delights to depict some natural scene,
or some temporary physical or mental condition. The most
striking feature of the Hindu play, however, is the mixed nature
of its language. While the hero and leading male characters
speak Sanskrit, women and inferior male characters use various
Prakrit dialects. As regards these dialectic varieties, it can
hardly be doubted that at the time when they were first employed
in this way they were local vernacular dialects; but in the course
of the development of the scenic art they became permanently
fixed for special dramatic purposes, just as the Sanskrit had,
long before that time, become fixed for general literary purposes.
Thus it would happen that these Prakrit dialects, having once
become stationary, soon diverged from the spoken vernaculars,
until the difference between them was as great as between the
Sanskrit and the Prakrits. As regards the general character
of the dramatic Prakrits, they are somewhat more removed
from the Sanskrit type than the Pali, the language of the Buddhist
canon, which again is in a rather more advanced state than the
language of the Asoka inscriptions (c. 250 B.C.). And, as the
Buddhist sacred books were committed to writing about 80 B.C.,
the state of their language is attested for that period at latest;
while the grammatical fixation of the scenic Prakrits has probably
to be referred to the early centuries of the Christian era.
The existing dramatic literature is not very extensive. The
number of plays of all kinds of any literary value will scarcely
amount to fifty. The reason for this paucity of dramatic produc-
tions doubtless is that they appealed to the tastes of only a limited
class of highly cultivated persons, and were in consequence but
seldom acted. As regards the theatrical entertainments of the
common people, their standard seems never to have risen much
above the level of the religious spectacles mentioned by Patanjali.
Such at least is evidently the case as regards the modern Bengali
jatras (Skt. yatras) described by Wilson as exhibitions of some
incidents in the youthful life of Krishna, maintained in extempore
dialogue, interspersed with popular songs as well as the similar
rasas of the western provinces, and the rough and ready performances
of the bhanrs, or professional buffoons. Of the religious drama
Sanskrit literature offers but one example, viz. the famous Gita-
govinda, 1 composed by Jayadeva in the I2th century. It is rather
a mytho-lyrical poem, which, however, in the opinion of Lassen,
may be considered as a modern and refined specimen of the early
form of dramatic composition. The subject of the poem is as
follows: Krishna, while leading a cowherd's life in Vfindavana,
is in love with Radha, the milkmaid, but has been faithless to her
for a while. Presently, however, he returns to her " whose image
has all the while lingered in his breast," and after much earnest
entreaty obtains her forgiveness. The emotions appropriate to
these situations are expressed by the two lovers and a friend of
Radha in melodious and passionate, if voluptuous, stanzas of great
poetic beauty. Like the Song of Solomon, the Gitagovinda, more-
over, is supposed by the Hindu commentators to admit of a mystic
interpretation; for, " as Krishna, faithless for a time, discovers the
vanity of all other loves, and returns with sorrow and longing to
his own darling Radha, so the human soul, after a brief and frantic
attachment to objects of sense, burns to return to the God from
whence it came " (Griffith).
The Mfichchhakafika,' or " little clay cart," has been usualjy
placed at the head of the existing dramas; but, though a certain
clumsiness of construction might seem to justify this distinction, the
question of its relative antiquity remains far from being definitively
settled. Indeed, the fact that neither Kalidasa, who mentions three
predecessors of his, or Bana, in reviewing his literary precursors,
makes any allusion to the author of this play, as well as other points,
seem rather to tell against the latter's priority. But seeing that
Vamana quotes from the Mrichcnhakatika, this play must at any
rate have been in existence in the latter part of the 8th century.
According to several stanzas in the prologue, the play was com-
posed by a king Sudraka, who is there stated to have, through Siva's
2 Edited, with a Latin translation, by C. Lassen ; English transla-
tion by E. Arnold.
Edited by F. Stenzler; with commentary, by K. P. Parab
(Bombay), and several times at Calcutta; translated by H. H.
Wilson ; also into English prose and verse by A. W. Ryder (Harvard
Or. Scr., 1905); German by O. v. Bohtlingk and L. Fritze; French
by P. Regnaud.
DRAMA]
SANSKRIT
favour, recovered his eyesight, and, after seeing his son as king, to
have died at the ripe age of a hundred years and ten days. Accord-
z. . ing to the same stanzas, the piece was enacted after the
king's death ; but it is probable that they were added for
a subsequent performance. In Bana's novel Kddambari (c. A.D. 630),
a king Sudraka is represented as having resided at Bidisa (Bhilsa)
some 130 m. east of Ujjayini (Ujjain), where the scene of the play
is laid. Charudatta, a Brahman merchant, reduced to poverty, and
Vasantasena, an accomplished courtezan, meet and fall in love with
each other. This forms the main plot, which is interwoven with a
political underplot, resulting in a change of dynasty. The con-
nexion between the two plots is effected by means of the king's
rascally brother-in-law, who pursues Vasantasena with his addresses,
as well as by the part of the rebellious cowherd Aryaka, who, having
escaped from prison, finds shelter in the hero's house. The wicked
prince, on being rejected, strangles Vasantasena, and accuses
Charudatta of having murdered her; but, just as the latter is
about to be executed, his lady love appears again on the scene.
Meanwhile Aryaka has succeeded in deposing the king, and, having
himself mounted the throne of Ujjain, he raises Vasantasena to the
position of an honest woman, to enable her to become the wife of
Charudatta. The play is one of the longest, consisting of not less
than ten acts, some of which, however, are very short. The interest
of the action is, on the whole, well sustained; and, altogether, the
piece presents a vivid picture of the social manners of the time,
whilst the author shows himself imbued with a keen sense of humour,
and a master in the delineation of character.
In Kalidasa the dramatic art attained its highest point of perfec-
tion. From this accomplished poet we have three well-constructed
Kolld' p'ays, abounding in stanzas of exquisite tenderness and fine
descriptive passages, viz. the two well-known mytho-
pastoral dramas, Sakuntala in seven and Vikramorvasi 1 in five acts,
and a piece of court intrigue, distinctly inferior to the other two,
entitled Mdlavikdgmmitra 2 in five acts. King Agnimitra, who
has two wives, falls in love with Malavika, maid to the first queen.
His wives endeavour to frustrate their affection for each other, but
in the end Malavika turns out to be a princess by birth, and is
accepted by the queens as their sister.
Sri-Harshadeva identical with the king (Siladitya) Harshavar-
dhanaof Kanyakubja (Kanauj) mentioned above, who ruled in the first
' -,,., half of the 7th century has three plays attributed to him ;
va *
though possibly only dedicated to him by poets patronized
by him. This at least commentators state to have been the
case as regards the Ratndvali, the authorship of which they assign to
Bana. Indeed, had they been the king's own productions, one might
have expected the Chinese pilgrims (especially I-tsing, who saw one of
the plays performed) to mention the fact. The Ratndvali, 3 " the pearl
necklace," is a graceful comedy of genteel domestic manners, in four
acts, of no great originality of invention ; the author having been
largely indebted to Kalidasa's plays. A decided merit of the poet's
art is the simplicity and clearness of his style. Ratnavali, a Ceylon
princess, is sent by her father to the court of King Udayana of
Vatsa to become his second wife. She suffers shipwreck, but is
rescued and received into JJdayana's palace under the name of
Sagarika, as one of Queen Vasavadatta's attendants. The king falls
in love with her, and the queen tries to keep them apart from each
other t but, on learning the maiden's origin, she becomes reconciled,
and recognizes her as a " sister." According to H. H. Wilson, " the
manners depictured are not influenced by lofty principle or pro-
found reflection, but they are mild, affectionate and elegant. It
may be doubted whether the harems of other eastern nations, either
in ancient or modern times, would afford materials for as favourable
a delineation." Very similar in construction, but distinctly in-
ferior, is the Priyadar&ka, in four acts, haying for its plot another
amour of the same king. The scene of the third play, the Nagananda,*
or " joy of the serpents " (in five acts), on the other hand, is laid in
semi-divine regions. Jimutavahana, a prince of the Vidyadharas,
imbued with Buddhist principles, weds Malayavati, daughter of the
king of the Siddhas, a votary of Gauri (Siva's wife). But, learning
that Garuda, the mythic bird, is in the habit of consuming one snake
daily, he resolves to offer himself to the bird as a victim, and finally
succeeds in converting Garuda to the principle of ahimsa, or ab-
stention from doing injury to living beings; but he himself is about
1 Both these plays are known in different recensions in different
parts of India. The Bengali recension of the Sakuntala was trans-
lated by Sir W. Jones, and into French, with the text, by Chezy, and
again edited by R. Pischel, who has also advocated its greater
antiquity. Editions and translations of the western (Devanagari)
recension have been published by O. Bohtlingk and Mon. Williams.
The Vikramorvasi has been edited critically by S. P. Pandit, and the
southern text by R. Pischel. It has been translated by H. H. Wilson
and E. B. Cowell.
2 Edited critically by S. P. Pandit ; translated by C. H. Tawney
(1875), and into German by A. Weber (1856), and L. Fritze (1881).
' Edited by Taranatha Tarkavachaspati, and by C. Cappeller in
Bohtlingk's Sanskrit- Chrestomathie ', with commentary (Bombay,
1895); translated by H. H. Wilson.
4 Edited by Madhava Chandra Ghosha and translated by P. Boyd,
with a preface by E. B. Cowell.
Bhava-
bhuti.
to succumb from the wounds he has received, when, through the
timely intervention of the goddess Gauri, he is restored to his
former condition. The piece seems to have been intended as a
compromise between Brahmanical (Saiva) and Buddhist doctrines,
being thus in keeping with the religious views of king Harsha,
who, as we know from Hiuen Thsang, favoured Buddhism, but was
very tolerant to Brahmans. It begins with a benedictory stanza
to Buddha, and concludes with one to Gauri. The author is generally
believed to have been a Buddhist, but it is more likely that he was
a Saiva Brahman, possibly Bana himself. Nay, one might almost
feel inclined to take the hero's self-sacrifice in favour of a Naga as
a travesty of Buddhist principles. In spite of its shortcomings of
construction the Nagananda is a play of considerable merit, the
characters being drawn with a sure hand, and the humorous element
introduced into it of a very respectable order.
Bhavabhuti, surnamed Sri-kantha, " he in whose throat there is
beauty (eloquence)," 6 was a native of Padmapura in the Vidarbha
country (the Berars), being the son of the Brahman
Nilakantha and his wife Jatukarnl. He passed his
literary life chiefly at the court of Yasovarman of Kanauj,
who must have reigned in the latter part of the 7th century, seeing
that, after a successful reign, he suffered defeat at the hands of
Laladitya_ of Kashmir, who had mounted his throne in A.D. 695.
Bhavabhuti was the author of three plays, two of which, the Maha-
mracharita & (" life o^the great hero ") and the Uttarardmacharita''
(" later life of Rama "), in seven acts each, form together a drama-
tized version of the story of the Ra.ma.yana. The third, the MdlaK-
mddhava? is a domestic drama in ten acts, representing the fortunes
of Madhava and Malati, the son and daughter of two ministers of
neighbouring kings, who from childhood have been destined for each
other, but, by the resolution of the maiden's royal master to marry
her to an old and ugly favourite of his, are for a while threatened
with permanent separation. The action of the play is full of life,
and abounds in stirring, though sometimes improbable, incidents.
The poet_is considered by native critics to be not only not inferior
to Kalidasa, but even to have surpassed him in his Utlarardma-
charita, which certainly contains many fine poetic passages instinct
with pathos and genuine feeling. But, though he ranks deservedly
high as a lyric poet, he is far inferior to Kalidasa as a dramatic
artist. Whilst the latter delights in depicting the gentler feelings
and tender emotions of the human heart and the peaceful scenes of
rural life, the younger poet finds a peculiar attraction in the sterner
and more imposing aspects of nature and the human character.
Bhavabhuti's language, though polished and felicitous, is elaborate
and artificial compared with that of Kalidasa, and his genius is
sorely shackled by a slavish adherence to the arbitrary rules of
dramatic theorists.
Bha^ta Narayana, surnamed Mrigaraja or Simha, " the lion,"
the author of the Vemsamhdra* (" the binding up of the braid of
hair "), is a poet of uncertain date. Tradition, makes
him one of the five Kanauj Brahmans whom king Adisura
of Bengal, desirous of establishing the pure Vaishnava
doctrine, invited to his court, and from whom the modern
Bengali Brahmans are supposed to be descended. But be this as it
may, a copperplate grant was issued to our poet in A.D. 840; and,
besides, he is quoted in Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka, written
in the latter part of the 9th century. The play, consisting of six
acts, takes its title from an incident in the story of the Mahdbhardta
when.Draupadi, having been lost at dice by Yudhishthira, has her
braid of hair unloosened, and is dragged by the hair before the
assembly by one of the Kauravas; this insult being subsequently
avenged by Bhima slaying the offender, whereupon Draupadi's
braid is tied up again, as beseems a married woman. The piece is
composed in a style similar to that of Bhavabhuti's plays, but is
inferior to them in dramatic construction and poetic merit, though
valued by critics for its strict adherence to the rules of the dramatic
theory.
The Hanuman-nd(aka w is a dramatized version of the story of
Rama, interspersed with numerous purely descriptive poetic passages.
It consists of fourteen acts, and on account of its length is also called
the Maha-nafaka, or great drama. Contrary to the general practice,
it has no prologue, and Sanskrit alone is employed in it. Tradition
relates that it was composed by Hanuman, the monkey general, and
inscribed on rocks; but, Valmiki, the author of the Rdmdyana,
Bhatta
Mb*.
6 This is the commentator's explanation of the name, whilst
M. Leyi would render it by " the divine throat."
6 Edited by F. H. Trithen (1848) ; with commentary, A. Barooah
(Calcutta, 1877) and Parab (Bombay, 1892); translated by J.
Pickford (1871).
7 Edited with commentary and translation (Nagpur, 1895);
with commentary, Aiyar and Parab (1899); translation by H. H.
Wilson and C. H. Tawney.
8 Edited by R. G. Bhandarkar (1876); translated by H. H.
Wilson. Whether, as M. S. Lev! suggests, the fact of the play con-
sisting of ten acts points to its having been composed in imitation
of the Mrichchhakaf-ika must remain uncertain.
'Edited by J. Grill (1871); twice with commentary (Bombay);
English translation by S. M. Tagore (Calcutta).
10 Printed with Mohanadasa's commentary (Bombay, 1861).
SANSKRIT
[POETRY
being afraid lest it might throw his own poem into the shade, Hanu-
man allowed him to cast his verses into the sea. Thence frag-
ments were ultimately picked up by a merchant, and brought to
King Bhoja, who directed the poet Damodara Misra to put them
together and fill up the lacunae; whence the present composition
originated. Whatever particle of truth there may be in this story,
the " great drama " seems certainly to be the production of different
hands. " The language," as Wilson remarks, " is in general very
harmonious, but the work is after all a most disjointed and non-
descript composition, and the patchwork is very glaringly and
clumsily put together." It is nevertheless a work of some interest,
as compositions of mixed dramatic and declamatory passages of this
kind may have been common in the early stages of the dramatic
art. The connexion of the poet with King Bhoja, also confirmed
by the Bhoja-prabandha, would bring the composition, or final
redaction, down to about the loth or nth century. A Mahana(aka
is, however, already referred to by Anandavardhana (9th century) ;
and, besides, there are two different recensions of the work, a shorter
one commented upon by Mohanadasa, and a longer one arranged by
Madhusudana. A Damodara Gupta is mentioned as having lived
under Jayapida of Kashmir (755-786) ; but this can scarcely be the
same as the writer connected with this work.
The Mudrarakshasa, 1 or " Rakshasa (the minister) with the
signet," is a drama of political intrigue, in seven acts, partly based
on historical events, the plot turning on the reconciliation of Rak-
shasa, the minister of the murdered king Nanda, with the hostile
party, consisting of Prince Chandragupta (the Greek Sandrocottus,
315-291 B.C.), who succeeded Nanda, and his minister Chanakya.
The plot is developed with considerable dramatic skill, in vigorous,
if not particularly elegant, language. The play was composed by
Visakhadatta, prior, at any rate, to the 1 1 th century, whilst Professor
Jacobi infers from astronomical indications that it was written in
A.D. 860.
The Prabodka-chandrodaya? or " the moon-rise of intelligence,"
composed by Krishnamisra about the I2th century, is an allegorical
play, in six acts, the dramatis personae of which consist entirely of
abstract ideas, divided into two conflicting hosts.
Of numerous inferior dramatic compositions we may mention as
the best the A narghya-raghava, by Murari; the B&la-r&mayana,
one of six plays (four of which are known) by Rajasekhara, 3 and
the Prasanna-raghava,* by Jayadeva, the author of the rhetorical
treatise Chandr&loka. Abstracts of a number of other pieces are
given in H. H. Wilson's Hindu Theatre, the standard work on this
subject. The dramatic genius of the Hindus may be said to have
exhausted itself about the I4th century.
5. Lyrical, Descriptive and Didactic Poetry. Allusion has
already been made to the marked predilection of the medieval
Indian poet for depicting in a single stanza some
peculiar physical or mental situation. The profane
lyrical poetry consists chiefly of such little poetic
pictures, which form a prominent feature of dramatic composi-
tions. Numerous poets and poetesses are only known to us
through such detached stanzas, preserved in native anthologies
or manuals of rhetoric, and enshrining a vast amount of descrip-
tive and contemplative poetry. Thus the Saduktikarndmrilaf
or " ear-ambrosia of good sayings, " an anthology compiled by
Sridhara Disa in 1205, contains verses by 446 different writers;
while the Sdrngadharapaddhali* of the i4th century, contains
some 6000 verses culled from 264 different writers and works;
and Vallabhadeva's Subhdshildvali? another such anthology,
consists of some 3500 verses ascribed to some 350 poets. These
verses are either of a purely descriptive or of an erotic character;
or they have a didactic tendency, being intended to convey, in an
attractive and easily remembered form, some moral truth or
useful counsel. An excellent specimen of a longer poem, of a
partly descriptive, partly erotic character, is Kalidasa's Megha-
duta* or " cloud messenger, " in which a banished Yaksha
1 Edited (Bombay, 1884, 1893) by K. T. Telang, who discusses
the date of the work in his preface; transl. H. H. Wilson;
German, L. Fritze; French, Victor Hehn.
* Translated by J. Taylor (1810) ; by T. GoldstUcker into German
(1842). Edited by H. Brockhaus (1845); also Bombay (1898).
' Another play, composed entirely in Prakrit, by Rajasekhara
(c. A.D. 900), the Karpuramanjarl, has been critically edited by Sten
Konow, with English translation by Ch. R. Lanman, Harvard Or.
Ser. (1901).
4 Ed. Shivarama Raoji Khopakar (Bombay, 1894).
* Rajendralala Mitra, Notices, iii. p. 134.
Ed. P Peterson (Bombay, 1888).
7 Ed P. Peterson and Durgaprasada (Bombay, 1886).
Text and translation by H. H. Wilson; with vocabulary by
S._ Johnson; with German vocabulary by Stenzler (1874); often,
with commentary, in India.
Lyric
poetry.
(demi-god) sends a love-message across India to his wife in the
Himalaya, and describes, in verse-pictures of the stately manda-
kranta metre the various places and objects over which the
messenger, a cloud, will have to sail in his airy voyage. This
little masterpiece has called forth a number of more or less
successful imitations, such as Lakshmlddsa's Suka-sandesa, or
" parrot-message," lately edited by the maharaja of Travancore.
Another much-admired descriptive poem by Kalidasa is the
Ritu-satrthara* or " collection of the seasons," in which the
attractive features of the six seasons are successively set forth.
As regards religious lyrics, the fruit of sectarian fervour, a
large collection of hymns and detached stanzas, extolling some
special deity, might be made from Puranas and other works.
Of independent productions of this kind only a few of the more
important can be mentioned here. Sankara Acharya, the great
Vedantist, who seems to have flourished about A. D. 800, is credited
with several devotional poems, especially the Ananda-lahari,
or " wave of joy," a hymn of 103 stanzas, in praise of the goddess
Parvati. The Surya-sataka, or century of stanzas in praise of
Surya, the sun, is ascribed to Mayura, the contemporary (and,
according to a tradition, the father-in-law) of Bana (in the
early part of the 7th century). The latter poet himself composed
the Charfdikastotra, a hymn of 102 stanzas, extolling Siva's
consort. The KhandapraSasli, a poem celebrating the ten
avataras of Vishnu, is ascribed to no other than Hanuman, the
monkey general, himself. Jayadeva's beautiful poem Gilago-
vinda, which, like most productions concerning Krishna, is of a
very sensuous character, has already been referred to.
The particular branch of didactic poetry in which India is
especially rich is that of moral maxims, expressed in single
stanzas or couplets, and forming the chief vehicle of
the Niti-sastra or ethic science. Excellent collections
of such aphorisms have been published in Sanskrit
and German by O. v. Bohtlingk, and in English by John Muir.
Probably the oldest original collection of this kind is that ascribed
to Chanakya, and entitled Rdjanilisamuchchaya, 10 " collection
on the conduct of kings " traditionally connected with the
Machiavellian minister of Chandragupta, but (in its present form)
doubtless much later of which there are several recensions,
especially a shorter one of one hundred couplets, and a larger one
of some three hundred. Another old collection is the Kaman-
dakiya-NUisdra, 11 ascribed to Kamandaki, who is said to have
been the disciple of Chanakya. Under the name of Bhartrihari
have been ha'nded down three centuries of sententious couplets, 12
one of which, the nlta-sataka, relates to ethics, whilst the other
two, the sringdra- and vairdgya-satakas, consist of amatory and
devotional verses respectively. The NUi-pradipa, or " lamp of
conduct," consisting of sixteen stanzas, is ascribed to Vetala-
bhatta who is mentioned as one of " nine gems." The AmarH-
iataka, a consisting of a hundred stanzas, ascribed to a King
Amaru (sometimes wrongly to Sankara); the Bhdmini-vildsa, 1 *
or " dalliance of a fair woman," by Jagannatha; and the Chaura-
suratapanchdsikd, u by Bilhana (nth century), are of an entirely
erotic character.
6. Fables and Narratives. For purposes of popular instruction
stanzas of an ethical import were early worked up with existing
prose fables and popular stories, probably in imitation
of the Buddhist jdtakas, or birth-stories. A collection *""""'
of this kind, intended as a manual for the guidance of tires.
princes (in usum delphini), was translated into Pahlavi
in the reign of the Persian king Chosru Nushirvan, A.D. 531-579;
The first Sanskrit book published (by Sir W. Jones), 1792.
Text and Latin translation by P. v. Bohlen, edited, with notes and
translation, by S. Ayyar (Bombay, 1897); partly translated, in
verse, by R. T. H. Griffith, Specimens of Old Indian Poetry.
' Ed. Klatt (1873); German transl. O. Kressler (1906).
11 Edited by Rajendralala Mitra, Bibl. Ind.\ with translation and
notes (Madras, 1895).
u Translation, in English verse, by C. H. Tawney.
Ed. R. Simon (1893).
^"Edited, with French translation, by A. Bergaigne (1872); with
English translation, by Sheshadri lyar (Bombay, 1894).
16 Edited by P. v. Bohlen (1833); with German translation, W.
Solf (1886); English translation by Edwin Arnold (1896).
POETRY]
SANSKRIT
but neither this translation nor the original is any longer extant.
A Syriac translation, however, made from the Pahlavi in the
same century, under the title of " Qualilag and Dimnag " from
the Sanskrit " Karataka and Damanaka," two jackals who
play an important part as the lion's counsellors has been
discovered and published. The Sanskrit original, which probably
consisted of fourteen chapters, was afterwards recast the
result being the -Panchalantra, 1 or " five books " (or headings),
of which several recensions exist. A popular summary of this
work, in four books, the HitopadeSa? or " Salutary Counsel,"
has been shown by Peterson to have .been composed by one
Narayana. Other highly popular collections of stories and fairy
tales, interspersed with sententious verses, are: the Vetdla-
panchavimsati? or " twenty-five (stories) of the Vetala " (the
original of the Baital Pachlsl), ascribed either to Jambhala
Datta, or to Sivadasa (while Professor Weber suggests that
Vetala-bhatta may have been the author), and at all events
older than the nth century, since both Kshemendra and Soma-
deva have used it; the Suka-saptati* or "seventy (stories
related) by the parrot," the author and age of which are un-
known; and the Simhasana-dvatriijiSika,* 1 or "thirty-two (tales)
of the throne," being laudatory stories regarding Vikramaditya
of AvantI, related by thirty-two statues, standing round the
old throne of that famous monarch, to King Bhoja of Dhara to
discourage him from sitting down on it. This work is ascribed
to Kshemankara, and was probably composed in the time of
Bhoja (who died in 1053) from older stories in the Maharashtra
dialect. The original text has, however, undergone many
modifications, and is now known in several different recen-
sions. Of about the same date are two great-houses of fairy
tales, composed entirely in slokas, viz. the rather wooden and
careless Brihat-kathii-manjari* or " great cluster of story," by
Kshemendra, also called Kshemankara, who wrote, c. 1020-1040,
under King Ananta of Kashmir; and the far superior and truly
poetical Kathd-sarit-sagara, 7 or " ocean of the streams of story,"
composed in some 21,500 couplets by Somadeva, early in the
1 2th century, for the recreation of Ananta's widow, Suryavati,
grandmother of King Harshadeva. Both these works are based
on an apparently lost work, viz. Gunadhya's Brihat-katha, or
" great story," which was composed in some popular dialect,
perhaps as early as the ist or 2nd century of our era, and which
must have rivalled the Mahabharata in extent, seeing that it is
stated to have consisted of 100,000 slokas (of 32 syllables each).
B. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL LITERATURE
I. LAW (Dharma)? Among the technical treatises of the later
Vedic period, certain portions of the Kalpa-sutras, or manuals of
ceremonial, peculiar to particular schools, were referred to
as the earliest attempts at a systematic treatment of law
subjects. These are the Dharma-sutras, or " rules of (religious) law,"
also called Samayachdrika-sutras, or " rules of conventional usage
(samaya-achara). ' It is doubtful whether such treatises were at any
time quite as numerous as the Grihyasutras, or rules of domestic or
family rites, to which they are closely allied ; and of which indeed
they may originally have been an outgrowth. That the number of
those actually extant is comparatively small is, however, chiefly
due to the fact that this class of works was supplanted by another
of a more popular kind, which covered the same ground. The
Dharmasutras consist chiefly of strings of terse rules, containing
the essentials of the science, and intended to be committed to
memory, and to be expounded orally by the teacher thus forming,
as it were, epitomes of class lectures. These rules are interspersed
1 Edited by Kosegarten, by G. Buhler and F. Kielhorn; translated
by Th. Benfey, E. Lancereau, L. Fritze; edited in Purnabhadra's
recension by J. Hertel, in Harv. Or. Ser. (1908).
1 Ed. and transl. F. Johnson, ed. P. Peterson and others in India.
"Ed. H. Uhle (Leipzig, 1881); cf. R. F. Burton, Vikram and
the Vampire (new ed., 1893).
4 Edited, with German translation, R. Schmidt (Leipzig, 1893), and
translation of some stories of a larger recension (1896).
6 German translation, with introduction, A. Weber, Ind. Stud. xv.
6 Edited, with translation and notes, by L. v. Mankowski (Leipzig,
1892); chapters 1-8 edited and translated by Sylvain LeVi, Journ.
As. (1886); cf. F. Lacote, Essai sur Gunadhya el la Brihatkatha.
(1909), where part of a Nepalese version is given.
7 Edited by H. Brockhaus (1839-1862) ; by Durgapratapa(Bombay,
1889); translated by C. H. Tawney, Bibl. Ind. (1880-1886).
8 Cf. J. Jolly's exhaustive treatise, Recht und Sitle, in Buhler's
Grundriss (1896).
with stanzas or " gathas," in various metres, either composed by
the author himself or quoted from elsewhere, which generally give
the substance of the preceding rules. One can well understand
why such couplets should gradually have become more popular, and
should ultimately have led to the appearance of works entirely
composed in verse. Such metrical law-books did spring up in
large numbers, not all at once, but over a long period of time,
extending probably from about the beginning of our era, or even
earlier, down to well-nigh the Mahommedan conquest; and, as at
the time of their first appearance the epic impulse was particularly
strong, other metres were entirely discarded for the epic sloka.
These works are the metrical Dharma-sastras, or, as they are usually
called, the Sntriti, " recollection, tradition," a term which, as we
have seen, belonged to the whole body of Sutras (as opposed to the
Sruti, or revelation), but which has become the almost exclusive
title of the versified institutes of law (and the few Dharmasutras
still extant). Of metrical Smritis about forty are hitherto known to
exist, but their total number probably amounted to at least double
that figure, though some of these, it is true, are but short and in-
significant tracts, while others are only different recensions of one
and the same work.
With the exception of a few of these works such as the Agni-,
Yama- and Vishnu-Smritis which are ascribed to the respective
gods, the authorship of the Smritis is attributed to old
rishis, such as Atri, Kanva, Vyasa, Sandilya, Bharadvaja. Manu.
It is, however, extremely doubtful whether in most cases this attri-
bution is not altogether fanciful, or whether, as a rule, there really
existed a traditional connexion between these works and their
alleged authors or schools named after them. The idea, which early
suggested itself to Sanskrit scholars, that Smritis which passed by
the names of old Vedic teachers and their schools might simply be
metrical recasts of the Dharma- (or Grihya-) sutras ofthese schools,
was a very natural one, and, indeed, is still a very probable one,
though the loss of the original Sutras, and the modifications and
additions which the Smritis doubtless underwent in course of
time, make it very difficult to prove this point. One could, how-
ever, scarcely account for the disappearance of the Dharmasutras
of some of the most important schools except on the ground that
they were given up in favour of other works; and it is not very likely
that this should have been done, unless there was some guarantee
that the new works, upon the whole, embodied the doctrines of the
old authorities of the respective schools. Thus, as regards the most
important of the Smritis, the Manavo-Dharmaiastraf there exist
both a Srauta- and a Gphya-sutra of the Manava school of the
Black Yajus, but no such Dharmasutra has hitherto been discovered,
though the former existence of such a work has been made all but
certain by Professor Buhler's discovery of quotations from a Mana-
vam, consisting partly of prose rules, and partly of couplets, some of
which occur literally in the Manusmriti, whilst others have been
slightly altered there to suit later doctrines, or have been changed
from the original trish^ubh into the epic metre. The idea of an
old law-giver Manu Svayambhuva " sprung from the self-existent
(svayam-bhu) " god Brahman (m.) reaches far back into Vedic
antiquity: he is mentioned as such in early texts; and in Yaska's
Nirukta a sloka occurs giving his opinion on a point of inheritance.
But whether or not the Manaya-Dharmasutra embodied what were
supposed to be the authoritative precepts of this sage on questions
of sacred law we do not know; nor can it as yet be shown that
the Manusmriti, which seems itself to have undergone considerable
modifications, is the lineal descendant of that Dharmasutra. It
is, however, worthy of note that a very close connexion exists
between the Manusmriti and the Vishnusastra ; and, as the latter
is most likely a modern, only partially remodelled, edition of the
Sutras of the Black Yajus school of the Kashas, the close relation
between the two works would be easily understood, if it could be
shown that the Manusmriti is a modern development of the Sutras of
another school of the Charaka division of the Black Yajurveda.
The Manava Dharmasastra consists of twelve books, the first
and last of which, treating of creation, transmigration and final
beatitude, are, however, generally regarded as later additions. In
them the legendary sage Bhrigu, here called a Manava, is introduced
as Manu's disciple, through whom the great teacher has his work
promulgated. Why this intermediate agent should have been con-
sidered necessary is by no means clear. Except in these two books
the work shows no special relation to Manu, for, though he is occa-
sionally referred to in it, the same is done in other Smritis. The
question as to the probable date of the final redaction of the work
cannot as yet be answered. Dr Burnell has tried to show that it
was probably composed under the Chalukya king Pulakesi, about
A.D. 500, but his argumentation is anything but convincing. From
several slokas quoted from Manu by Varahamihira, in the 6th cen-
tury, it would appear that the text which the great astronomer had
before him differed very considerably from our Manusmriti. It is,
however, possible that he referred either to the Brihat-Manu (Great
The standard edition is by G. C. Haughton, with Sir W. Jones's
translation (1825); the latest translations by A. Burnell and G.
Buhler. There is also a critical essay on the work by F. Johantgen.
On the relation between the Dharmasutras and Smritis see especially
West and Buhler, Digest of Hindu Law (yd ed.), i. p. 37 seq.
176
SANSKRIT
[SCIENTIFIC AND
M.) or the Vfiddha-Manu (Old M.), who are often found quoted, and
apparently represent one, if not two, larger recensions of this Smriti.
The oldest existing commentary on the Manava-Dharmas'dstra is by
Medhatithi, who is first quoted in 1200, and is usually supposed
to have lived in the gth or loth century. He had, however, several
predecessors to whom he refers as purve, " the former ones." The
most esteemed of the commentaries is that of Kulluka Bhafta,
composed at Benares in the I5th century.
Next in importance among Smritis ranks the Yajnavalkya Dharma-
jastra. 1 Its origin and date are not less uncertain except that,
_..- in the opinion of Professor Stenzler, which has never been
questioned, it is based on the Manusmriti, and represents a
"*?* more advanced stage of legal theory and definition than
that work. Yajnavalkya, as we have seen, is looked upon as the
founder of the Vajasaneyins or White Yaius, and the author of the
Satapatha-brahmana. In the latter work he is represented as having
passed some time at the court of King Janaka of Videha (Tirhut) ;
and in accordance therewith he is stated, in the introductory couplets
of the Dharmasastra, to have propounded his legal doctrines to the
sages, while staying at Mithila (the capital of Videha). Hence, if the
connexion between the metrical Smritis and the old Vedic schools be
a real one and not one of name merely, we should expect to find in the
Yajfiavalkya-smriti special coincidences of doctrine with the Katiya-
sutra, the principal Sutra of the Vajasaneyins. Now, some sufficiently
striking coincidences between this Smriti and Paraskara's Kaftya-
Grihyasutra have indeed been pointed out ; and if there ever existed
a Dharmasutra belonging to the same school, of which no trace has
hitherto been found, the points of agreement between this and
the Dharmasastra might be expected to be even more numerous.
A connexion between this Smriti and the Manava-grihyasutra seems,
however, likewise evident. As in the case of Manu, slokas are
quoted in various works from a Br.ihat- and a Vriddha- Yajnavalkya.
The Yajnavalkya-smrjti consists of three books, corresponding to
the three great divisions of the Indian theory of law: achdra,
rule of conduct (social and caste duties); vyavahara, civil and
criminal law; and prayaichitta, penance or expiation. There are
two important commentaries on the workj the famous Mitakshara*
by Vijnanesvara, who lived under the Chalukya king Vikramaditya
of Kalyana (1076-1127); and another by Apararka or Aparaditya,
a petty Sllara prince of the latter half of the I2th century.
The Naradlya-DharmaSastra, or Ndradasmr_iti,* is a work of a more
practical kind ; indeed, it is probably the most systematic and business-
Nt d ''k? ^ a " tne Smritis. It does not concern itself with
religious and moral precepts, but is strictly confined to law.
Of this work again there are at least two different recensions.
Besides the text translated by Dr Jolly, a portion of a larger recension
has come to light in India. This version has been commented upon
by Asahaya, the peerless " a very esteemed writer on law who is
supposed to have lived before Medhatithi (? o,th century) and it
may therefore be considered as the older recension of the two. But,
as it has been found to contain the word diniini, an adaptation of
the Roman denarius, it cannot, at any rate, be older than the 2nd
century; indeed, its date is probably several centuries later.
The Paraiara-smr.iti* contains no chapter on jurisprudence, but
treats only of religious duties and expiations in 12 adhyayas. The
_ , deficiency was, however, supplied by the famous exegete
"* Madhaya (in the latter half of the I4th century), who
made use of Parasara's text for the compilation of a large digest of
religious law, usually called Pardfara-madhaviyam, to which he
added a third chapter on vyavahara, or law proper. Besides the
ordinary text of the Parasara-smriti, consisting of rather less than
600 couplets, there is also extant a Brihat-Par&iarasmr.iti, probably
an amplification of the former, containing not less than 2980 (accord-
ing to others even 3300) slokas.
Whether any of the Dharmasastras were ever used in India as
actual " codes of law " for the practical administration of justice
is very doubtful; indeed, so far as the most prominent works of
this class are concerned, it is highly improbable.' No doubt these
works were held to be of the highest authority as laying down the
principles of religious and civil duty; but it was not so much any
single text as the whole body of the Smriti that was looked upon as
the embodiment of the divine law. Hence, the moment the actual
work of codification begins in the nth century, we find the jurists
engaged in practically showing how the Smritis confirm and supple-
ment each other, ana in reconciling seeming contradictions between
them. This new phase of Indian jurisprudence commences with
Vijnanesvara's Mit6.ksha.r5., which, though primarily a commentary
on Yajnavalkya, is so rich in original matter and illustrations from
other Smritis that it is far more adapted to serve as a code of law
than the work it professes to explain. This treatise is held in high
esteem all over India, with the exception of the Bengal or Gauriya
1 Edited, with a German translation, by F. Stenzler.
1 Translated by H. T. Colebrooke.
Ed. (Bibl. Ind., 1885) I. jolly, trsl. S.B.E. xxxiii.
4 Edited in Bombay Sansk. Ser. (1893) ; translated Bibl. Ind. (1887).
The chapter on inheritance (daya-vibhaga) translated by A. C.
Burnell (1868).
' See West and BUhler, Digest, i. p. 55. A different view is ex-
pressed by A. Burnell, Ddyavibhdga, p. xiii.
school of law, which recognizes as its chief authority the digest of
its founder, Jimutavahana, especially the chapter on succession,
entitled Dayabhdga.* Based on the Mitakshara are the Smr.iti-
chandrikd, 1 a work of great common-sense, written by Devanda
Bhatta, in the I3th century, and highly esteemed in Southern
India; and the Vlramitrodaya, a compilation consisting of two
chapters, on achara and vyavahara, made in the first half of the
1 7th century by Mitramisra, for Raja Virasimha, or Birsinh Deo of
Orchha, who murdered Abul Fazl, the minister of the emperor
Akbar, and author of the Am i Akbari. There is no need here to
enumerate any more of the vast number of treatises on special
points of law, of greater or less merit, the more important of which
will be found mentioned in English digests of Hindu law.
II. PHILOSOPHY. 8 The contemplative Indian mind shows at all
times a strong disposition for metaphysical speculation. In the old
religious lyrics this may be detected from the very first. Not to
speak of the abstract nature of some even of the oldest Vedic deities,
this propensity betrays itself in a certain mystic symbolism, tending
to refine and spiritualize the original purely physical character ana
activity of some of the more prominent gods, and to impart a deep
and subtle import to the rites of the sacrifice. The primitive worship
of more or less isolated elemental forces and phenomena had evidently
ceased to satisfy the religious wants of the more thoughtful minds.
Various syncretist tendencies show the drift of religious thought
towards some kind of unity of the divine powers, be it in the
direction of the pantheistic idea, or in that of an organized poly-
theism, or even towards monotheism. In the latter age of the
hymns the pantheistic idea is rapidly gaining ground, and finds vent
in various cosmogonic speculations; and in the Brahmana period
we see it fully developed. The fundamental conception of this
doctrine finds its expression in the two synonymous terms brahman
(neutr.), probably originally " mystic effusion, devotional utterance,"*
then " holy impulse," and atman 1 " (masc.), " breath, self, soul."
The recognition of the essential sameness of the individual souls,
emanating all alike (whether really or imaginarily) from the ultimate
spiritual essence (parama-brahman) " as sparks issue from the fire,"
and destined to return thither, involved some important problems.
Considering the infinite diversity of individual souls of the animal
and vegetable world, exhibiting various degrees of perfection, is it
conceivable that each of them is the immediate efflux of the Supreme
Being, the All-perfect, and that each, from the lowest to the highest,
could re-unite therewith directly at the close of its mundane exist-
ence ? The difficulty implied in the latter question was at first
met by the assumption of an intermediate state of expiation and
purification, a kind of purgatory; but the whole problem found at
last a more comprehensive solution in the doctrine of transmigration
(samsdra). Some scholars have suggested u that metempsychosis
may have been the prevalent belief among the aboriginal tribes of
India, and may have been taken over from them by the Indo-
Aryans. This, no doubt, is possible; but in the absence of any
positive proof it would be idle to speculate on its probability; the
more so as the pantheistic notion of a universal spiritual essence
would probably of itself sufficiently account for the spontaneous
growth of such a belief. In any case, however, we can only assume
that speculative minds seized upon it as offering the most satisfactory
(if not the only possible) explanation of the great problem of pheno-
menal existence with its unequal distribution of weal and woe. It
is certainly a significant fact that, once established in Indian thought,
the doctrine of metempsychosis is never again called in question
that, like the fundamental idea on which it rests, viz. the essential
sameness of the immaterial element of all sentient beings, the notion
of sar/isdra has become an axiom, a universally conceded principle
of Indian philosophy. Thus the latter has never quite risen to the
heights of pure thought; its object is indeed jijndsd, the search for
knowledge; but it is an inquiry (mimdrfisd) into the nature of things
undertaken not solely for the attainment of the truth, but with a
view to a specific object the discontinuance of samsara, the
cessation of mundane existence after the present life. Every sentient
being, through ignorance, being liable to sin, and destined after each
existence to be born again in some new form, dependent on the
actions committed during the immediately preceding life, all mun-
dane existence thus is the source of ever-renewed suffering; and the
task of the philosopher is to discover the means of attaining moksha,
" release " from the bondage of material existence, and union with
the Supreme Self in fact, salvation. It is with a view to this,
Translated by H. C. Colebrooke (1810).
7 The section on inheritance has been translated by T. Kristna-
sawmy Iyer (1866).
8 Cf. F. Max Muller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (1899);
R. Garbe, Philosophy of Ancient India (Chicago, 1897).
* The etymological connexion of brahman (from root varh, vardh)
with Latin verbum, English word (corresponding to a Sanskrit vardha),
assumed by some scholars, though doubtful, is not impossible. The
development of its meaning would be somewhat like that of \6yot.
10 The derivation of atman (Ger. A tern) from root an, to breathe
(or perhaps av, to blow) seems still the most likely. A recent attempt
to connect it with afrrij can scarcely commend itself.
11 See, e.g. A. E. Gough, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, p. 24;
A. A. Macdonell, Hist, of Sanskrit Lit. p. 387.
TECHNICAL LITERATURE]
SANSKRIT
177
and to this only, that the Indian metaphysician takes up the great
problems of life the origin of man and the universe, and the
relation between mind and matter.
It is not likely that these speculations were viewed with much
favour by the great body of Brahmans engaged in ritualistic
practices. Not that the metaphysicians actually discountenanced
the ceremonial worship of the old mythological gods as vain and
nugatory. On the contrary, they expressly admitted the propriety
of sacrifices, and commended them as the most meritorious of
human acts, by which man could raise himself to the highest degrees
of mundane existence, to the worlds of the Fathers and Devas.
But, on the other hand, metaphysical speculation itself had gradually
succeeded in profoundly modifying the original character of the
sacrificial ritual: an allegorical meaning had come to be attached
to every item of the ceremonial, in accordance with the strange
monotheistic-pantheistic theory of the Brahmanas which makes
the performance of the sacrifice represent the building up of Praja-
pati.the Purusha or "world man," and thus the creation of repro-
duction of the universe. In the Satap. Br. (vii. 3, 4, 41) he is said
to be the whole Brahman (n.), and (vii. I, 2, 7; xi. I, 6, 17) he is
represented as the breath or vital air (prana), and the air_being his
self (atman). It needed but the identification of the Atman, or
individual self, with the Brahman or Paramatman (supreme self),
to show that the final goal lay far beyond the worlds hitherto striven
after through sacrifice, a goal unattainable through aught but a
perfect knowledge of the soul's nature and its identity with the
Divine Spirit. " Know ye that one Self," exhorts one of those old
idealists, 1 " and have done with other words; for that (knowledge)
is the bridge to immortality! " Intense self-contemplation being,
moreover, the only way of attaining the all-important knowledge,
this doctrine left little or no room for those mediatorial offices of
the priest, so indispensable in ceremonial worship; and indeed
we actually read of Brahman sages resorting to Kshatriya princes 2
to hear them expound the true doctrine of salvation. But, in spite
of their anti-hierarchical tendency, these speculations continued to
gain ground; and in the end the body of treatises propounding the
pantheistic doctrine, the Upanishads, were admitted into the sacred
canon, as appendages to the ceremonial writings, the Brahmanas.
The Upanishads 3 thus form literally "the end of the Veda," the
Vedanta ; but their adherents claim this title for their doctrines in a
metaphorical rather than in a material sense, as " the ultimate aim
and consummation of the Veda." In later times the radical dis-
tinction between these speculative appendages and the bulk of the
Vedic writings was strongly accentuated in a new classification of
the sacred scriptures. According to this scheme they were supposed
to consist of two great divisions the Karma-kanda, i.e. " the work-
section," or practical ceremonial (exoteric) part, consisting of the
Samhitas and Brahmanas (including the ritual portions of the
Aranyakas), and the Jndnakdnda, " the knowledge-section," or
speculative (esoteric) part. These two divisions are also called
respectively the Purva- (" former ") and Uttara- (" latter," or higher 4 )
kanda', and when the speculative tenets of the Upanishads came to
be formulated into a regular system it was deemed desirable that
there should also be a special system corresponding to the older and
larger portion of the Vedic writings. Thus arose the two systems
the Puna- (or Karma-) mimamsa, or" prior (practical) speculation,"
and the Uttara- (or Brahma-) mimamsa, or higher inquiry (into the
nature of the godhead), usually called the Vedanta philosophy.
It is not yet possible to determine, even approximately, the
time when the so-called DarSanas (literally " demonstrations "),
or systems of philosophy which subsequently arose,
hi I were fi rst formulated. And, though they have certainly
developed from the tenets enunciated in the Upanishads,
systems. tnere ; s some & ou \x as to the exact order in
which these systems succeeded each other. Of all the systems the
Vedanta has indeed remained most closely in touch with the specu-
lations of the Upanishads, which it has further developed and
systematized. The authoritative exposes of the systems have,
however, apparently passed through several redactions; and, in
their present form, these sutra-works 6 evidently belong to a com-
1 Mundaka-upanishad.-ii. 2, 5.
2 From such allusions, or statements, in the Upanishads, some
scholars have actually gone the length of claiming the origin of this
cardinal doctrine of Vedanta philosophy for the Kshatriyas. It
seems to us, however, very much more likely that these anecdotes
were introduced by the Brahmanical sages of set purpose to win over
their worldly patrons from their materialistic tendencies to their
own idealistic views. Kapila, the author of the materialistic
Sankhya, is supposed to have been a Kshatriya, and so, we know,
was the Sakya Muni.
3 Cf. P. Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads (Edinburgh,
1906).
4 Cf. Mundaka-upanishad, i. 4, 5, where these two divisions are
called " the lower (apara) and the higher (para) knowledge."
6 These works have all been printed with commentaries in India ;
and they have been partly translated by T. Ballantyne and by
K. M. Banerjea. The best general view of the systems is to be
obtained from H. C. Colebrooke's account, Misc. Essays, i. (and ed.),
with Professor Cowell's notes. Compare also the brief abstract
paratively recent period, none of them being probably older than the
early centuries of our era. By far the ablest general review of the
philosophical systems (except the Vedanta) produced by a native
scholar is the Sarva-darsana-sangraha* (" summary of all the
Darsanas"), composed in the I4th century, from a Vedantist point of
view, by the great exegete Madhava Acharya.
Among the different systems, six are generally recognized as
orthodox, as being (either wholly or for the most part) consistent
with the Vedic religion two and two of which are again more
closely related to each other than to the rest, viz.:
(i) Purva-mimamsa (Mimamsa), and (2) Uttara-mlmamsa (Ve-
danta) ;
(3) Sankhyafend (4) Yoga;
(5) Nyaya, and (6) Vaiseshika.
1. The (Purva-) Mimamsa is not a system of philosophy in the
proper sense of the word, but rather a system of dogmatic criticism
and scriptural interpretation. It maintains the eternal
existence of the Veda, the different parts of which Mlma V sa -
are minutely classified. Its principal object, however, is to
ascertain the religious (chiefly ceremonial) duties enjoined in the
Veda, and to show how these duties must be performed, and what
are the special merits and rewards attaching to them. Hence
arises the necessity of determining the principles for rightly inter-
preting the Vedic texts, as also of what forms its only claim to being
classed among speculative systems, viz. a philosophical examination
of the means of, and the proper method for, arriving at accurate
knowledge. The foundation of this school, as well as the composition
of the Sutras or aphorisms, the Mimamsa-darsana,' 1 which constitute
its chief doctrinal authority, is ascribed to Jaimini. The Sutras
were commented on by Sahara Svamin; and further annotations
(varttika) thereon were supplied by the great theologian Kumarila
Bhat^a, who is supposed to have lived about A.D. 700 and to have
worked hard for the re-establishment of Brahmanism. The most
approved general introduction to the study of the Mimamsa is the
metrical Jaiminlya-Nyaya-mala-vislara? with a prose commentary,
both by Madhava Acharya. This distinguished writer, who has
already been mentioned several times, was formerly supposed,
from frequent statements in MSS., to have been the brother of
Sayana, the well-known interpreter of the Vedas. The late Dr
Burnell 9 has, however, made it very probable that these two are
one and the same person, Sayana being his Telugu and Madhava-
charya his Brahmanical name._ In 1331 he became the jagadguru,
or spirituaj head, of the Smartas (a Vedantist sect founded by
Sankaracharya) at the Math of Sringeri, where, under the patronage
of Bukka, king of Vidyanagara, he composed his numerous works.
He sometimes passes under a third name, Vidyaranya.-svamin,
adopted by him on becoming a sannyasin, or religious mendicant.
2. The Vedanta philosophy, in the comparatively primitive
form in which it presents itself in most of the older Upanishads, con-
stitutes the earliest phase of sustained metaphysical v j~ t
speculation. In its essential features it remains to this
day the prevalent belief of Indian thinkers, and enters largely into
the religious life and convictions of the people. It is an idealistic
monism, which derives the universe from an ultimate conscious
spiritual principle, the one and only existent from eternity the
Atman, the Self, or the Purusha, the Person, the Brahman. It is this
primordial essence or Self that pervades all things, and gives life and
light to them, " without being sullied by the visible outward im-
purities or the miseries of the world, being itself apart" and into
which all things will, through knowledge, ultimately resolve them-
selves. " The wise who perceive him as being within their own Self,
to them belongs eternal peace, not to others." 10 But, while the
commentators never hesitate to interpret the Upanishads as being in
perfect agreement with the Vedantic system, as elaborated in later
times, there is often considerable difficulty in accepting their ex-
planations. In these treatises only the leading features of the
pantheistic theory find utterance, generally in vague and mystic,
though often in singularly powerful and poetical language, from
which it is not always possible to extract the author's real idea on
fundamental points, such as the relation between the Supreme
Spirit and the phenomenal world whether the latter was actually
evolved from the former by a power inherent in him, or whether
the process is altogether a fiction, an illusion of the individual
self. Thus the Katha-upanishad 11 offers the following summary:
" Beyond the senses [there are the objects; beyond the objects!
there is the mind (manas); beyond the mind there is the intellect
(buddhi); beyond the intellect there is the Great Self. Beyond
the Great One there is the Highest Undeveloped (avyaktam) ; beyond
given in Goldstucker's Literary Remains, vol. i. A very useful
classified index of philosophical works was published by F. Hall
(1859).
6 Edited in the Bibl. Ind.; translated by E. B. Cowell and A. E.
Gough (1882).
7 Text and Commentary, Bibl. Ind.
'Edited by Th. Goldstucker, completed by E. B. Cowell; also
ed. Anand-Ser. (Bombay, 1892).
9 Vamsa-brahmana, Introd.
10 Katha-upanisliad, ii. 5, 12.
11 Kaiha-up., i. 3, 10; ii. 6, 7.
SANSKRIT
[SCIENTIFIC AND
the Undeveloped there is the Person (purusha), the all-pervading,
characterless (alinga). Whatsoever knows him is liberated, and
attains immortality." Here the Vedantist commentator assures
us that the Great Undeveloped, which the Sankhyas would claim
as their own primary material principle (pradhana, prakriti), is in
reality Maya, illusion (otherwise called Avidya, ignorance, or Sakti,
power), the fictitious energy which in conjunction with the Highest Self
(Atman, Purusha) produces or constitutes _ the Isvara, the Lord,
or Cosmic Soul, the first emanation of the Atman, and himself the
(fictitious) cause of all that seems to exist. It must remain doubtful,
however, whether the author of the Upanishad really meant this,
or whether he regarded the Great Undeveloped as an actual material
principle or substratum evolved from out of the Purusha, though not,
as the Sankhyas hold, coexisting with him from eternity. Besides
passages such as these which seem to indicate realistic or materialistic
tendencies of thought, which may well have developed into the
dualistic Sankhya and kindred systems, there are others which indi-
cate the existence even of nihilist theories, such as the Bauddhas
the sunya-i'adins, or affirmers of a void or primordial nothingness
profess. Thus we read in the Chhandogya-upanishad : l "The
existent alone, my son, was here in the beginning, one only, without
a second. Others say, there was the non-existent alone here in the
beginning, one only, without a second and from the non-existent
the existent was born. But how could this be, my son? How could
the existent be born from the non-existent? No, my son, only the
existent was here in the beginning, one only, without a second."
The foundation of the Vedanta system, as " the completion of the
Veda," is naturally ascribed to Vyasa, the mythic arranger of the
Vedas, who is said to be identical with Badarayana the reputed
author of the Brahma- (or Sdriraka-) sutra, the authoritative, though
highly obscure, summary of the system. The most distinguished
interpreter of these aphorisms is the famous Malabar theologian
* -^ Sankara Acnarya, 2 who also commented on the principal
Samara. Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita, and is said to have
spent the greater part of his life in wandering all over India,
as far as Kashmir, and engaging in disputations with teachers
whether of the Saiva, or Vaishnava, or less orthodox persua-
sions with the view of rooting out heresy and re-establishing
the doctrine of the Upanishads. His controversial triumphs
(doubtless largely mythical) are related in a number of treatises
current in South India, the two most important of which
are the Sankara-dig-vijaya (" Sankara's world-conquest "), ascribed
to his own disciple Anandagiri, and the Sankara-vijaya, by Ma-
dhavacharya. In Sankara's philosophy * the theory that the
material world has no real existence, but is a mere illusion of the
individual soul wrapt in ignorance, that, therefore, it has only a
practical or conventional (vydvahdrika) but not a transcendental or
true (paramdrthika) reality, is strictly enforced. In accordance
with this distinction, a higher (para) and a lower (apard) form of
knowledge is recognized; the former being concerned with the
Brahman (n.), whilst the latter deals with the personal Brahma, the
Isvara, or lord and creator, who, however, is a mere illusory form
of the divine spirit, resulting from ignorance of the human soul.
To the question why the Supreme Self (or rather his fictitious de-
velopment, the Highest Lord) should have sent forth this phantasma-
gory this great thinker (with the author of the Sutras 4 ) can return
no better answer than that it must have been done for sport (Ilia),
without any special motive since to ascribe such a motive to the
Supreme Lord would be limiting his self-sufficiency and that the
process of creation has been going on from all eternity. Sankara's
Sdriraka-mlmdmsd-bhdshya' has given rise to a large number of
exegetic treatises, of which Vachaspati-misra's* exposition, entitled
Bhamafi,' 1 is the most esteemed. Of numerous other commentaries
_, _ / on the Brahma-sutras, the Sn-bhdshya, by Ramanuja,
"' the founder of the Sri- Vaishnava sect, is the most note-
worthy. This religious teacher, who flourished in the first half of
the I2th century, caused a schism in the Vedanta school. Instead
of adhering to Sankara's orthodox advaita, or non-duality, doctrine,
he interpreted the obscure Sutras in accordance with his theory of
viSishfadvaita, i.e. non-duality of the (two) distinct (principles), or,
as it is more commonly explained, non-duality of that which is
qualified (by attributes). According to this theory the Brahman is
neither devoid of form and quality, nor is it all things; but it is
endowed with all good qualities, and matter is distinct from it;
whilst bodies consist of souls (chit) and matter (achit) ; and God is
the soul. On the religious side, Ramanuja adopts the tenets of
the ancient Vishnuite Pancharatra sect, and, identifying the Brahman
with Vishnu, combines with his theory the ordinary Vaishnava
doctrine of periodical descents (avatdra) of the deity, in various
1 vi. 2. i.
1 Die Sutras des Vedanta, text and commentary translated by P.
Deussen (Leipzig, 1887); English translation by G. Thibaut, S.B.E.
1 P. Deussen, Das System des Vedanta (1883). A. E. Gough, The
Philosophy of the Upanishads, also follows chiefly Sankara's inter-
pretation.
* Brahmasutra, iii. I. 32-34.
'Translated by G. Thibaut, S.B.E. ; German, P. Deussen.
Professor Cowell assigns him to about the loth century.
' Bibl. Ind.
forms, for the benefit of creatures; and allowing considerable play
to the doctrine that faith (bhakti), not knowledge (vidya), is the
means of final emancipation. This phase of Indian religious belief,
which has attached itself to the Vedanta theory more closely than
to any other, makes its appearance very prominently in the Bha-
gavadgita, the episode of the Mahabharata, already referred to
where, however, it attaches itself to Sankhya-yoga rather than to
Vedanta tenets and is even more fully developed in some of the
Puranas, especially the Bhagavata. Some scholars would attribute
this doctrine of fervid devotion to Christian influence, but it is
already alluded to by Panini and in the Mahabhashya. In the
Sdndilya- (Bhakti-) sutra,* the author and date of which are unknown,
the doctrine is systematically propounded in one hundred aphorisms.
According to this doctrine mundane existence is due to want of
faith, not to ignorance; and the final liberation of the individual
soul can only be effected by faith. Knowledge only contributes to
this end by removing the mind's foulness, unbelief. Its highest phase
of development this doctrine probably reached in the Vaishnava sect
founded, towards the end of the isth century, by Chaitanya, whose
followers subsequently grafted the Vedanta speculations on his
doctrine. In opposition both to Sankara's theory of absolute unity,
and to Ramanuja's doctrine of qualified unity though leaning
more towards the latter Madhva Acharya, or Purnaprajna (A. D.
1118-1198), started his dvaita, or duality doctrine, according to
which there is a difference between God and the human soul (jiva),
as well as between God and nature; whilst the individual souls,
which are innumerable, eternal, and indestructible, are likewise
different from one another; but, though distinct, are yet united
with God, like tree and sap, in an indissoluble union. This doctrine
also identifies the Brahman with Vishnu, by the side of whom,
likewise infinite, is the goddess Lakshmi, as Prakriti (nature), from
whom inert matter (jada) derives its energy. Here also bhakti,
devotion to God, is the saving element. A popular summary of
the Vedanta doctrine is the Vedanta-sara by Sadananda, which has
been frequently printed and translated.'
3. The Sankhya 10 system seems to derive its name from its
systematic enumeration (sankhyd) of the twenty-five principles (tattva)
it recognizes consisting of twenty-four material and an in- __ ..
dependent immaterial principle. In opposition to the '
Vedanta school, which maintains the eternal coexistence of a spiritual
principle of reality and an unspiritual principle of unreality, the
Sankhya assumes the eternal coexistence of a material first cause,
which it calls either mula-Prakr.iti (fern.) ."prime Originant" (Nature),
or Pradhana, " the principal " cause, and a plurality of spiritual ele-
ments or Selves, Purusha. The system recognizes no intelligent
creator (such as the Isvara, or demiurgus, of the Vedanta) whence
it is cajled niriSvara, godless; but it conceives the Material First
Cause, itself unintelligent, to have become developed, by a gradual
process of evolution, into all the actual forms of the phenomenal
universe, excepting the souls. Its first emanation is buddhi, intelli-
gence; whence springs ahamkdra, consciousness (or " conscious
mind-matter," Davies) ; thence the subtle elements of material forms,
viz. five elementary particles (tanmatra) and eleven organs of sense;
and finally, from the elementary particles, five elements. The souls
have from all eternity been connected with Nature, having in the
first place become invested with a subtle frame (linga-, or sukshma-,
iarira), consisting of seventeen principles, viz. intelligence, con-
sciousness, elementary particles, and organs of sense and action,
including mind. To account for the spontaneous development of
matter, the system assumes the latter to consist of three constituents
(guna) which are possessed of different qualities, viz. sattva, of pleas-
ing^ qualities, such as "goodness," lightness, luminosity; rajas, of
pain-giving qualities, such as "gloom," passion, activity; and
lamas, of deadening qualities, such as " darkness," rigidity, dullness,
and which, if not in a state of equipoise, cause unrest and develop-
ment. Through all this course of development, the soul itself
remains perfectly indifferent, its sole properties being those of
purity and intelligence, and the functions usually regarded as
psychic " being due to the mechanical processes of the internal
organs themselves evolved out of inanimate matter. Invested with
its subtle frame, which accompanies it through the cycle of trans-
migration, the soul, for the sake of fruition, connects itself ever anew
with Nature, thus, as it were, creating for itself ever new forms of
material existence; and it is only on his attaining perfect knowledge,
whereby the ever-changing modes of intelligence cease to be reflected
on him, that the Purusha is liberated from the miseries of Samsara,
and continues to exist in a state of absolute unconsciousness and
detachment from matter. The existence of God, on the other hand,
is denied by this theory, or rather considered as incapable of proof;
the existence of evil and misery, for one thing, being thought
incompatible with the notion of a divine origin of the world.
The reputed originator of this school is the sage Kapila, to whom
tradition ascribes the composition of the fundamental text-book,
'Text, with Svapnesvara's commentary, edited by J. R. Ballan-
tyne; translated by E. B. Cowell.
9 Last by G. A. Jacob.
10 E. Roer, Lecture en the Sankhya Philosophy (Calcutta, 1854);
B. St Hilaire, Memoire sur le Sankhya (1852); R. Garbe, Sankhya
PhUosophie (Leipzig, 1894); Sankhya and Yoga (Strassburg, 1896).
TECHNICAL LITERATURE]
SANSKRIT
179
the (Sankhya-sutra, or) Sdnkhya-pravachana, 1 as well as the Tatlva-
samasa, a mere catalogue of the principles. But, though the founder
would seem to have promulgated his system, in some form or other,
at a very early period, these works, in their present form, have
existing . . .
gives, in the narrow compass of sixty-nine slokas, a lucid and com-
plete sketch of the system. Though nothing certain is known
regarding its author, 3 this work must be of tolerable antiquity,
considering that it was commented upon by Gaudapada, 4 the
preceptor of Govinda, who, on his part, is said to have been the
teacher of Sankaracharya. Of the commentaries on the Sutras, the
most approved are those of Aniruddha 6 and Vijnana Bhikshu, 6 A
writer probably of the latter part of the i6th century, who also
wrote an independent treatise, the Sankhya-sara, 1 consisting of a
prose and a verse part, which is probably the most useful com-
pendium of Sankhya doctrines.
4. The Yoga system is merely a schismatic branch of the preceding
school, holding the same opinions on most points treated in common
in their Sutras, with the exception of one important point,
the existence of God. To the twenty-five principles
(laitva) of the Nirisvara Sankhya, the last of which was the Purusha,
the Yoga adds, as the twenty-sixth, the Nirguna Purusha, or Self
devoid of qualities, the Supreme God of the system. Hence the
Yoga is called the SeSvara (theistical) Sankhya. But over and above
the purely speculative part of its doctrine, which it has adopted
from the sister school, the theistic Sankhya has developed a complete
system of mortification of the senses by means of prolonged
apathy and abstraction, protracted rigidity of posture, and similar
practices, many of which are already alluded to in the Upanishads,
with the view of attaining to complete concentration (yoga) on,
and an ecstatic vision of, the Deity, and the acquisition of miraculous
powers. It is from this portion of the system that the school derives
the name by which it is more generally known. The authoritative
Sutras of the Yoga, bearing the same title as those of the sister
school, viz. Sdnkhya-pravachana, but more commonly called Yoga-
sdstra, are ascribed to Patanjali, who is perhaps identical with the
author of the " great commentary " on Panini. The oldest com-
mentary on the Sutras, the Patanjala-bhashya, is attributed to no
other than Vyasa, the mythic arranger of the Veda and founder of
the Vedanta. Both works have again been commented upon by
Vachaspati-misra, Vijnana-bhikshu, and other writers.
5, 6. The Nyaya* and Vaiseshika are but separate branches of
one and the same school, which supplement each other and the
_. . doctrines of which have virtually become amalgamated
into a single system of philosophy. The special part
taken by each of the two branches in the elaboration of
the system may be briefly stated in Dr Roer's words:
.-AiA.-t. -j- tne Ny ava belong the logical doctrines of the forms
of syllogisms, terms and propositions; to the Vaiseshikas the
systematical explanation of the categories (the simplest meta-
physical ideas) of the metaphysical, physical and psychical notions
which notions are hardly touched upon in the Nyaya-sutras. They
differ in their statement of the several modes of proof the Nyaya
asserting four modes of proof (from perception, inference, analogy
and verbal communication), the Vasieshikas admitting only the two
first ones." The term Nyaya (ni-aya, " in-going," entering), though
properly meaning " analytical investigation," as applied to philo-
sophical inquiry generally, has come to be taken more
Logic. commonly in the narrower sense of " logic," because this
school has entered more thoroughly than any other into the laws
and processes of thought, and has worked out a formal system of
reasoning which forms the Hindu standard of logic.
The followers of these schools generally recognize seven categories
(padartha) : substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma),
generality (samanya), particularity (msesha), intimate relation
(samavaya) and non-existence or negation (abhava). Substances,
forming the substrata of qualities and actions, are of two kinds:
eternal (without a cause), viz. space, time, ether, soul and the
atoms of mind, earth, water, fire and air; and non-eternal, com-
prising all compounds, or the things we perceive, and which must
have a cause of their existence. Causality is of three kinds: that
of intimate relation (material cause) ; that of non-intimate relation
(between parts of a compound) ; and instrumental causality (effect-
1 Translated by J. R. Ballantyne; 2nd ed. by F. Hall.
2 Edited by C. Lassen (1832). Translations by H. T. Colebrooke
and J. Davies.
3 A writer makes him the pupil of Panchasikha, whilst another
even identifies him with Kalidasa; cf. F. Hall, Sankhyasara, p. 29.
4 Translated by H. H. Wilson. A Chinese translation of a com-
mentary resembling that of Gaudapada is said (M. Miiller, India, p.
360) to have been made during the Ch'en dynasty (A.D. 557-583).
6 Translated by R. Garbe, Bibl. Ind.
'Edited by Garbe (Harvard, 1895); translated (Leipzig, 1889).
7 Edited by F. Hall.
8 Besides Colebrooke's Essay, with Cowell's notes, see Ballantyne's
translation of the Tarka-sangraha and the introduction to Roer's
translation of the Bhashdparichheda, and his article, Z.D.M.G. xxi.
ing the union of component parts). Material things are thus
composed of atoms (anu), i.e. ultimate simple substances, or units
of space, eternal, unchangeable and without dimension, characterized
only by " particularity (visesha)." It is from this predication
of ultimate " particulars " that the Vaiseshikas, the originators of
the atomistic doctrine, derive their name. The Nyaya draws a
clear line between matter and spirit, and has worked out a careful
and ingenious system of psychology. It distinguishes between
individual or living souls (jvuatman), which are numerous, infinite
and eternal, and the Supreme Soul (Paramalman), which is one
only, the seat of eternal knowledge, and the maker and ruler (Isvara)
of all things. It is by his will and agency that the unconscious
living souls (soul-atoms, in fact) enter into union with the (material)
atoms of mind, &c., and thus partake of the pleasures and sufferings
of mundane existence. On the Hindu syllogism compare Professor
Cowell's notes to Colebrooke's Essays, 2nd ed., i. p. 314.
The original collection of Nyaya-sutras is ascribed to Gotama,
and that of the Vaiseshika-sutras to Kanada. The etymological
meaning of the latter name seems to be " little-eater, particle-
eater," whence in works of hostile critics the synonymous terms
Kana-bhuj or Kana-bhaksha are sometimes derisively applied to
him, doubtless in allusion to his theory of atoms. He is also occasion-
ally referred to under the name of Kasyapa. Both sutra-wprks have
been interpreted and ^upplemented by a number of writers, the
commentary of Visvanatha on the Nyaya and that of Sankara-misra
on the Vaiseshika-sutras being most generally used. There are,
moreover, a vast number of separate works on the doctrines of these
schools, especially on logic. Of favourite elementary treatises on
the subject may be mentioned Kesava-misra's Tarka-bhdsha, the
Tarka-sangraha 9 and the Bhasha-parichchheda. 1 " A large and im-
portant book on logic is Gangesa s Chintamani, which formed the
text-book of the celebrated Nuddea school of Bengal, founded by
Raghunatha-siromani about the beginning of the i6th century.
An interesting little treatise is the Kusumanjali, 11 in which theauthor,
Udayana Acharya (about the 1 2th century, according to Professor
Cowell), attempts, in 72 couplets, to prove the existence of a Supreme
Being on the principles of the Nyaya system.
As regards the different heretical systems of Hindu philosophy,
there is no occasion, in a sketch of Sanskrit literature, to enter into
the tenets of the two great anti-Brahmanical sects, the ..
Jainas and Buddhists. While the original works of the '
former are written mostly in a popular (the Ardha- y
magadhi) dialect, the northern Buddhists, it is true, have produced
a considerable body of literature, 12 composed in a kind of hybrid
Sanskrit, but only a few of their sacred books have as yet been
published ; 13 and it is, moreover, admitted on all hands that for the
pure and authentic Bauddha doctrines we have rather to look to the
Pali scriptures of the southern branch. Nor can we do more here
than briefly allude to the theories of a few of the less prominent
heterodox systems, however interesting they may be for a history of
human thought.
The Charvakas, an ancient sect of undisguised materialism, who
deny the existence of the soul, and consider the human person
(purusha) to be an organic body endowed with sensibility and with
thought, resulting from a modification 'of the component material
elements, ascribe their origin to Brihaspati; but their authoritative
text-book, the Barhaspatya-sutra, is only known so far from a few
quotations.
The Pancharatras, or Bhagavatas, are an early Vaishnava sect,
in which the doctrine of faith, already alluded to, is strongly
developed. Hence their tenets are defended by Ramanuja, though
they are partly condemned as heretical in the Brahma-sutras. Their
recognized text-book is the Ndrada-Pdncharatra, 14 whilst the Bhaga-
vadglta is also supposed to have had some connexion with this sect.
According to their theory the Supreme Being (Bhagavat, Vasudeva,
Vishnu) became four separate persons by successive production.
While the Supreme Being himself is indued with the six qualities of
knowledge, power, strength, absolute sway, vigour and energy, the
three divine persons successively emanating from him and from one
another represent the living soul, mind and consciousness respectively.
The Pdsupatas, one of several Saiva (Mahesvara) sects, hold the
Supreme Being (Isvara), whom they identify with Siva (as pasu-pati,
or " lord of beasts "), to be the creator and ruler of the world, but
not its material cause. With the Sankhyas they admit the notion of
a plastic material cause, the Pradhana; while they follow Patanjali
in maintaining the existence of a Supreme God.
III. GRAMMAR (Vyakarana). We found this subject enumerated
as one of the six " limbs of the Veda," or auxiliary sciences, the study
9 Edited and translated by J. R. Ballantyne.
10 Edited and translated, with commentary, by E. Roer.
11 Edited and translated, with commentary, by E. B. Cowell.
12 See B. H. Hodgson, The Languages, Literature and Religion of
Nepal and Tibet.
13 Lalita-vistara, ed. and partly transl. Rajendralala Mitra; ed. S.
Lefmann (1908); Mahavastu, edited E. Senart; Vajra-parichchheda,
edited M. Miiller; Saddharma-puncjarika, translated by E. Burnouf
(" Lotus de la bonne loi "); and H. Kern, Sacred Books of the East.
14 It consists of six Sarnhitas, one of which has been edited by
K. M. Banerjea, Bibl. Ind.
i8o
SANSKRIT
[SCIENTIFIC AND
of which was deemed necessary for a correct interpretation of
the sacred Mantras, and the proper performance of Vedic rites.
Linguistic inquiry, phonetic as well as grammatical, was
Grammar, indeed early resorted to both for the purpose of elucidating
the meaning of the Veda and with the view of settling its textual
form. The particular work which came ultimately to be looked upon
as the " vedanga " representative of grammatical science, and has
ever since remained the standard authority on Sanskrit
Pinlai. grammar in India, is Panini's Ashfadhyayt, * so called from
its " consisting of eight lectures (adhyaya) ," of four padas each.
For a comprehensive grasp of linguistic facts, and a penetrating in-
sight into the structure of the vernacular language , this work stands
probably unrivalled in the literature of any nation though few
other languages, it is true, afford such facilities as the Sanskrit
for a scientific analysis. Panini's system of arrangement differs
entirely from that usually adopted in our grammars, viz. according
to the so-called parts of speech. As the work is composed in aphor-
isms intended to be learnt by heart, economy of memory-matter
was the author's paramount consideration. His object was chiefly
attained by the grouping together of all cases exhibiting the same
phonetic or formative feature, no matter whether or not they be-
longed to the same part of speech. For this purpose he also makes
use of a highly artificial and ingenious system of algebraic symbols,
consisting of technical letters (anubandha) , used chiefly with suffixes,
and indicative of the changes which the roots or stems have to
undergo in word-formation.
It is self-evident that so complicated and complete a system of
linguistic analysis and nomenclature could not have sprung up all
at once and in the infancy of grammatical science, but that many
generations of scholars must have helped to bring it to that degree
of perfection which it exhibits in Panini's work. Accordingly we
find Paiiini himself making reference in various places to ten different
grammarians, besides two schools, which he calls the " eastern
(pranchas)" and " northern (udanchas)" grammarians. Perhaps
the most important of his predecessors was Sakatayana, 2 also
mentioned by Yaska the author of the Nirukta, who is likewise
supposed to have preceded Panini as the only grammarian (vaiya-
karana) who held with the etymologists (nairukta) that all nouns
are derived from verbal roots. Unfortunately there is little hope
of the recovery of his grammar, which would probably have enabled
us to determine somewhat more exactly to what extent Panini was
indebted to the labours of his predecessors. There exists indeed a
grammar in South Indian MSS., entitled Sabdanuiasana, which is
ascribed to one Sakatayana ; 3 but this has been proved* to be the
production of a modern Jaina writer, which, however, seems to be
partly based on the original work, and partly on Panini and others.
Panini is also called Dakshlputra, after his mother Dakshi. As
his birthplace the village Salatura is mentioned, which was situated
some few miles north-west of the Indus, in the country of the Gan-
dharas, whence later writers also call him Salaturiya, the formation
of which name he himself explains in his grammar. Another name
sometimes applied to him is S:il;inki. In the Katha-sarits&fiara, a
modern collection of popular tales mentioned above, Panini is said
to have been the pupil of Varsha, a teacher at Pataliputra, under
the reign of Nanda, the father (?) of Chandragupta (315-291 B.C.).
The real date of the great grammarian is, however, still a matter
of uncertainty. While Goldstucker attempted to put his date back
to ante-Buddhist times (about the 7th century B.C.), Professor Weber
held that Paijini's grammar cannot have been composed till some
time after the invasion of Alexander the Great. This opinion is
chiefly based on the occurrence in one of the Sutras of the word
yavananl, in the sense of " the writing of the Yavanas (lonians),"
thus implying, it would seem, such an acquaintance with the Greek
alphabet as it would be impossible to assume for any period prior to
Alexander's Indian campaign (326 B.C.). But, as it is by no means
certain* that this term really applies to the Greek alphabet, it is
scarcely expedient to make the word the corner-stone of the argument
regarding Panini's age. If Patanjali's "great commentary" was
written, as seems most likely, about the middle of the 2nd century
B.C., it is hardly possible to assign to Panini a later date than about
400 B.C. Though this grammarian registers numerous words and
formations as peculiar to the Vedic hymns, his chief concern is with
the ordinary speech (bhasha) of his period and its literature ; and it is
noteworthy, in this respect, that the rules he lays down on some
important points of syntax (as pointed out by Professors Bhandarkar
and Kielhorn) are in accord with the practice of the Brahmanas
rather than with that of the later classical literature.
Paijini's Sutras continued for ages after to form the centre of
grammatical activity. But, as his own work had superseded those
of his predecessors, so many of the scholars who devoted themselves
1 Printed, with a commentary, at Calcutta; also, with notes,
indexes and an instructive introduction, by O. Bohtlingk (1839-
1840); and again with a German translation (1887).
1 I.e. son ofSakata, whence he is also called Sakatangaja.
1 Compare G. Buhler's paper, Orient und Occident, p. 691 seq.
4 A. Burnell, On the Aindra School of Sanskrit Grammarians.
1 Panini, his Place in Sanskrit Literature (1861).
See' Lassen, Ind. All. i. p. 723; M. Muller, Hist, of A.S. Lit.
p. 521; A. Weber, Ind. Stud. v. p. 2 seq.
to the task of perfecting his system have sunk into oblivion.
The earliest of his successors whose work has come down to us
(though perhaps not in a separate form) is Katyayana, the _
author of a large collection of concise critical notes, called
Vdrttika, intended to supplement and correct the Sutras, or yana.
give them greater precision. The exact date of this writer is likewise
unknown ; but there can be little doubt that he lived at least a
century after Paijini. During the interval a new body of literature
seems to have sprung up 7 accompanied with considerable changes
of language and the geographical knowledge of India extended
over large tracts towards the south. Whether this is the same
Katyayana to whom the Vajasaneyi-pratisakhya (as well as the
Sarvanukrama) is attributed, is still doubted by some scholars. 8
Katyayana being properly a family or tribal name, meaning " the
descendant of Katya," later works usually assign a second name
Vararuchi to the writers (for there are at least two) who bear it.
The Kathasaritsagara makes the author of the Varttikas a fellow-
student of Panini, and afterwards the minister of King Nanda;
but, though this date might have fitted Katyayana well enough,
it is impossible to place any reliance on the statements derived
from such a source. Katyayana was succeeded again, doubtless
after a considerable interval, by Patanjali, the author of
the (Vy'akarana-) Maha-bhashya? or Great Commentary. "*/*"
For the great variety of information it incidentally supplies regarding
the literature and manners of the period, this is, from an historical
and antiquarian point of view, one of the most important works of
the classical Sanskrit literature. Fortunately the author's date has
been fairly settled by synchronisms implied in two passages of his
work. In one of them the use of the imperfect as the tense referring
to an event, known to people generally, not witnessed by the speaker,
and yet capable of being witnessed by him is illustrated by the
statement, " The Yavana besieged Saketa," which there is reason to
believe can only refer to the Indo-Bactrian king Menander (144-
c. 124 B.C.), who, according to Strabo, extended his rule as far as the
Yamuna. 10 In the other passage the use of the present is illustrated
by the sentence, " We are sacrificing for Pushpamitra " this prince
(178-c. 142 B.C.), the founder of the Sunga dynasty, being known
to have fought against the Greeks. 10 We thus get the years 144-142
B.C. as the probable time when the work, or part of it, was composed.
Although Patanjali probably gives not a few traditional grammatical
examples mechanically repeated from his predecessors, those here
mentioned are fortunately such as, from the very nature of the case,
must have been made by himself. The Mahabhashya is not a con-
tinuous commentary on Panini's grammar, but deals only with those
Sutras (some 1720 out of a total of nearly 4000) on which Katyayana
had proposed any Varttikas, the critical discussion of which, in
connexion with the respective Sutras, and with the views of other
grammarians expressed thereon, is the sole object of Patanjali's
commentatorial remarks. Though doubts have been raised as to the
textual condition of the work, Professor Kielhorn has clearly shown
that it has probably been handed down in as good a state of preser-
vation as any other classical Sanskrit work. Patanjali is also called
Gonardiya which name Professor Bhandarkar takes to mean
" a native of Gonarda," a place, according to the same scholar,
probably identical with Gonda, a town some 20 m. north-west of
Oudh and Gonikaputra, or son of Gonika. Whether there is any
connexion between this writer and the reputed author of the Yoga-
sastra is doubtful. The Mahabhashya has been commented upon
by Kaiya^a, in his Bhashyapradipa, and the latter again by NagojI-
bha(ta, a distinguished grammarian of the earlier part of the 1 8th
century, in his Bhashya-pradtpoddyota.
Of running commentaries on Panini's Sutras, the oldest extant
and most important is the Kasika Vr.itti, 11 or " comment of Kasi
(Benares)," the joint production of two Jaina writers of ,
probably the first half of the 7th century, viz. Jayaditya vrf /
and Vamana, each of whom composed one half (four vrtti/.
adhyayas) of the work. The chief commentaries on this work are
Haradatta Misra's Padamanjart, which also embodies the substance,
of the Mahabhashya, and Jinendra-buddhi's Nyasa. n
Educational requirements in course of time led to the appear-
ance of grammars, chiefly of an elementary character, constructed
7 F. Kielhorn, Katyayana und Patanjali (1876). The Sangraha, a
huge metrical work on grammar, by Vyadi, which is frequently
referred to, doubtless belonged to this period.
* E.g. A. Weber. Goldstucker and M. Muller take the opposite
view.
9 Part of this work was first printed by Ballantyne; followed by a
lithographed edition, by two Benares pandits (1871); and a photo-
lithographic edition of the text and commentaries, published by the
India Office, under Goldstucker's supervision (1874); finally, a
critical edition by F. Kielhorn. For a review of the literary and
antiquarian data supplied by the work, see A. Weber, Ind. Stud.
xiii. 293 seq. The author's date has been frequently discussed,
most thoroughly and successfully, by R. G. Bhandarkar in several
papers. See also A. Weber, Hist, of I.L. p. 223.
10 Lassen, Ind. Alt. ii. 341, 362.
11 Edited by Pandit Bala Sastri (Benares, 1876-1878).
" As it is quoted by Vopadeva it cannot be later than the I2th
century.
TECHNICAL LITERATURE]
SANSKRIT
181
on a more practical system of arrangement the principal heads
under which the grammatical matter was distributed usually
being : rules of euphony (sandhi) ; inflection of nouns
(naman), generally including composition and secondary
* derivatives; the verb (akhyata); and primary (kr.id-anta)
derivatives. In this way a number of grammatical schools 1 sprang
up at different times, each recognizing a special set of Sutras, round
which gradually gathered a more or less numerous body of com-
mentatorial and subsidiary treatises. As regards the grammatical
material itself, these later grammars supply comparatively little that
is not already contained in the older works the difference being
mainly one of method, and partly of terminology, including modifi-
cations of the system of technical letters (anubandha). Of the
grammars of this description hitherto known, the Chdndra-
vyakarana. is probably the oldest its author Chandra
Acharya having flourished under King Abhimanyu of Kashmir,
who is supposed to have lived towards the end of the 2nd century, 2
and in whose reign that grammarian is stated, along with others,
to have revived the study of the Mahabhashya in Kashmir. Only
portions of this grammar, with a commentary by Anandadatta,
have, however, as yet been recovered.
The Katantra, 3 or Kdldpa, is ascribed to Kumara, the god of war,
whence this school is also sometimes called Kaumdra. The real
author probably was Sarva-varman, who also wrote the
a * original commentary (vr.itti), which was afterwards recast
by Durgasimha, and again commented upon by the same writer,
and subsequently by Trilochana-dasa. The date of the Katantra
is unknown, but it will probably have to be assigned to about the
6th or 7th century. It is still used in many parts of India, especially
in Bengal and Kashmir. Other_ grammars are the SarasvaR
Prakriyd, by Anubhuti Svarupacharya ; the Sankshipta-sdra, com-
posed by Kramadisvara, and corrected by Jumara-nandin, whence
it is also called Jaumara', the Haima-vyakarana,* by the Jaina
writer Hemachandra (1088-1172, according to Dr Bhao
Daji) ; the Mugdha-bodhaf composed, in the latter part
" of the I3th century, by _Vopadeva, the court pandit of
King Mahadeva (Ramaraja) of Devagiri (or Deoghar) ;
the Siddhanta-kaumudi, the favourite text-book of Indian students,
by Bhattoji Dikshita (i7th century); and a clever abridgment of
it, the Laghu- (Siddhdnta-) kaumudif by Varadaraja.
Several subsidiary grammatical treatises remain to be noticed.
The Paribhdshds are general maxims of interpretation presupposed
by the Sutras. Those handed down as applicable to
ildiary pj n ; n ;' s system have been interpreted most ably by
Ta " Nagojibhatta, in his Paribdshendusekhara. 7 In the case of
rules applying to whole groups of words, the complete
lists (gaya) of these words are given in the Ganapdfha,
and only referred to in the Sutras. Vardhamana's Ganaratna-
mahodadhi? a comparatively modern recension of these lists (A.D.
1140), is valuable as offering the only available commentary on the
Ganas which contain many words of unknown meaning. The
Dhdtupdthas are complete lists of the roots (dhdtu)''oi the language,
with their general meanings. The Jists handed down under this
title,' as apparently arranged by Panini himself, have been com-
mented upon, amongst others, by Madhava. The Unddi-sutras are
rules on the formation of irregular derivatives. The oldest work
of this kind, commented upon by Ujjvaladatta, 10 is by some writers
ascribed to Katyayana Vararuchi, by others even to Sakatayana.
The oldest known treatise on the philosophy of grammar and syntax
is the Vdkya-padiya, 11 composed in verse, by Bhartrihari (? 7th
century), whence it is also called Harikdrikd. Of later works on
this subject, the Vaiydkaraya-bhushana, by Kondabhatta, and the
Vaiydkararja-siddhdnta-manjiishd, by Nagojlbhatta, are the most
important.
IV. LEXICOGRAPHY. Sanskrit dictionaries (kosha), invariably
composed in verse, are either homonymous or synonymous, or partly
nictian the one and partly the other. Of those hitherto published,
Sasvata's Anekdrtha-samuchchaya, 12 or " collection of
homonyms," is probably the oldest. While in the later
homonymic vocabularies the words are usually arranged according
to the alphabetical order of the final (or sometimes the initial) letter,
and then according to the number of syllables, Sasvata's principle
1 Dr Burnell, in his Aindra School, proposes to apply this term to
all grammars arranged on this plan.
2 Professor Bhandarkar, Early History of. the Dekhan, p. 20, pro-
poses to fix him about the end of the 3rd century.
3 Edited, with commentary, by J. Eggeling.
4 The Prakrit part edited and translated by R. Pischel.
6 Edited by O. Bohtlingk (1847).
6 Edited and translated by J. R. Ballantyne. For other modern
grammars see Colebrooke, Essays, ii. p. 44; Rajendralala Mitra,
Descriptive Catalogue, {., Grammar.
7 Edited and translated by F. Kielhorn.
8 Edited by J. Eggeling.
9 Edited by N. L. Westergaard ; also given in Bohtlingk's edition
of Panini.
'"Text and commentary, edited by Th. Aufrecht.
11 Edited, with commentaries, at Benares.
12 Edited by Th. Zachariae.
of arrangement viz. the number of meanings assignable to a word
seems to be the more primitive. The work probably next in time
is the famous A mar a-kosha " ("immortal treasury") by Amara-
simha, one of " the nine gems," who probably lived early in the 6th
century. This dictionary consists of a synonymous and a short
homonymous part; whilst in the former the words are distributed
in sections according to subjects, as heaven and the gods, time and
seasons, &c., in the latter they are arranged according to their final
letter, without regard to the number of syllables. This Kosha has
found many commentators, the oldest of those known being Kshlra-
svamin. 14 Among the works quoted by commentators as Amara's
sources are the_Trikdnda and Utpalinl-koshas, and the glossaries
of Rabhasa, Vyadi, Katyayana, and Vararuchi. A Kosha ascribed
to Vararuchi whom tradition makes likewise one of the nine
literary " gems " consisting of ninety short sections, has been printed
at Benares (1865) in a collection of twelve Koshas. The Abhidhdna-
ratnamdld, by Halayudha ; the Vi&aprakasa, by Mahesvara (nil) ;
and the Abhid'hdna-chintdmani 16 (or Haima-kosha) , by the Jaina
Hemachandra, seem all three to belong to the I2th century. Some-
what earlier than these probably is Ajaya Pala, the author of the
(homonymous) Ndnartha-sangraha, being quoted by Vardhamana
(A.D. 1140). Of more uncertain date is Purushottama Deva, who
wrote the Trikdnda-sesha, a supplement to the Amarkosha, besides
the Hardvali, a collection of uncommon words, and two other short
glossaries. Of numerous other works of this class the most important
is the Medinl, a dictionary of homonyms, arranged in the first place
according to the finals and the syllabic length, and then alphabeti-
cally. Two important dictionaries, compiled by native scholars of
the last century, are the Sabdakalpadruma by Radhakanta Deva,
and the Vdchaspatya, by Taranatha Tarka-vachaspati. A full
account of Sanskrit dictionaries is contained in the preface to the
first edition of H. H. Wilson's Dictionary, reprinted in his Essays on
Sanskrit Literature, vol. iii.
V. PROSODY (Chhandas). The oldest treatises on prosody have
already been referred to in the account of the technical branches
of the later Vedic literature. Among more modern -^ .
treatises the most important are the Mrita-sanjivani, a
commentary on Pingala's Sutra, by Halayudha (perhaps identical
with the author of the glossary above referred to); the Vr.itta-
ratndkara, or " jewel-mine of metres," in six chapters, composed
before the I3th century by Kedara Bhatta, with several commen-
tariesj and the Chhando-manjari, likewise in six chapters, by
Gangadasa._ The Srutabodha, ascribed, probably wrongly, to the
great Kalidasa, is a comparatively insignificant treatise which deals
only with the more common metres, in such a way that each stanza
forms a specimen of the metre it describes. The Vr.ilta-darpana
treats chiefly of Prakrit metres. Sanskrit prosody, which is probably
not surpassed by any other either in variety of metre or in har-
moniousness of rhythm, recognizes two classes of metres, viz. such
as consist of a certain number of syllables of fixed quantity, and such
as are regulated by groups of breves or metrical instants, this latter
class being again of two kinds, according as it is or is not bound
by a fixed order of feet. A pleasant account of Sanskrit poetics is
given in Colebrooke's Essays, vol. ii. ; a more complete and syste-
matic one by Professor Weber, Ind. Stud. vol. viii.
VI. Music (Sangita). The musical art has been practised in
India from early times. The theoretic treatises on profane music
now extant are, however, quite modern productions. fc
The two most highly esteemed works are the Sangita-
ratndkara (" jewel-mine of music "), by Sarngadeva, and the Sanglta-
darpana (" mirror of music "), by Damodara. Each of these works
consists of seven chapters, treating respectively of (l) sound and
musical notes (svara) ; (2) melodies (rdga) ; (3) music in connexion
with the human voice (praklrnaka) ; (4) musical compositions
(prabandha) ; (5) time and measure (tola) ; (6) musical instruments
and instrumental music (vddya); (7) dancing and acting (nritta or
nritya}. The Indian octave consists like pur own of seven chief
notes (svara) ; but, while with us it is subdivided into twelve semi-
tones, the Hindu theory distinguishes twenty-two intervals (sruti,
audible sound). There is, however, some doubt as to whether these
Srutis are quite equal to one another in which case the intervals
between the chief notes would be unequal, since they consist of eithei
two or three or four srutis, or whether, if the intervals between the
chief notes be equal, the srutis themselves vary in duration between
quarter-, third-, and semi-tones. There are three scales (grama),
differing from each other in the nature of the chief intervals (eithei
as regards actual duration, or the number of srutis or sub-tones).
Indian music consists almost entirely in melody, instrumental
accompaniment being performed in unison, and any attempt at
harmony being confined to the continuation of the key-note. A
13 Edited by H. T. Colebrooke (1808), and by L. Deslongchamps
(1839-1845).
14 A grammarian of this name is mentioned as the tutor of King
Jayapi<Ja of Kashmir (A.D. 755-786) ; but Kshira, the commentatoi
on Amara, is placed by Professor Aufrecht between the nth and
1 2th centuries, because he quotes the Sabdanusasana ascribed tc
Bhojaraja.
16 Edited by Th. Aufrecht (1861).
16 Edited by O. Bohtlingk and C. Rieu (184.7).
182
SANSKRIT
[TECHNICAL LITERATURE
number of papers, by various writers, have been reprinted with
additional remarks on the subject, in Sourindro Mohun Tagore's
Hindu Music (Calcutta, 1875). Compare also Bh. A. Pingle, Indian
Music, 2nd ed. (Bombay 1898).
VII. RHETORIC (Alankara-saslra). Treatises on the theory of
literary composition are very numerous. Indeed, a subject of this
Bh t ' description involving such nice distinctions as regards
the various kinds of poetic composition, the particular
subjects and characters adapted for them, and the different senti-
ments or mental conditions capable of being both depictured and
called forth by them could not but be congenial to the Indian mind.
H. H. Wilson, in his Theatre of the Hindus, has given a detailed account
of these theoretic distinctions with special reference to the drama,
which, as the most perfect and varied kind of poetic production,
usually takes an important place in the theory of literary com-
position. The Bharata-sastra has already been alluded to as pro-
bably the oldest extant work in this department of literature.
Another comparatively ancient treatise is the Kavyadarsa, 1 or
" mirror of poetry," in three chapters, by Dandin, the author of the
novel Dasakumaracharita, who probably flourished towards the end
of the 6th century. The work consists of three chapters, treating
(l) of two different local styles (nti) of poetry, the Gaudi or eastern
and the Vaidarbhl or southern (to which later critics add four others,
the Panchali, Magadhi, Lati, and Avantika) ; (2) of the graces and
ornaments of style, as tropes, figures, similes; (3) of alliteration,
literary puzzles and twelve kinds of faults to be avoided in com-
posing poems. Another treatise on rhetoric, in Sutras, with a
commentary entitled Kavyalankara-vr.itti* is ascribed to Vamana
of probably the 8th century. The Kavyalankara, by the Kashmirian
Rudrata, was probably composed in the 9th century, a gloss on it
(by Nami), which professes to be based on older commentaries,
having been written in 1068. Dhananjaya, the author of the Dasa-
rupa,' or " ten forms (of plays)," the favourite compendium of
dramaturgy, appears to have flourished in the loth century. In
the concluding stanza he is stated to have composed his work at
the court of King Munja, who is probably identical with the well-
known Malava prince, the uncle and predecessor of King Bhoja of
Dhara. The Dasarupa was early commented upon by Dhanika,
possibly the author's own brother, their father's name being the
same (Vishnu). Dhanika quotes Rajasekhara, who is supposed to
have flourished about A.D. 1000,* but may after all have to be put
somewhat earlier. The Sarasvaii-kan(habharana, " the neck-orna-
ment of Sarasvatl (the goddess of eloquence)," a treatise, in five
chapters, on poetics generally, remarkable foritswealth of quotations,
is ascribed to King Bhoja himself (nth century), probably as a
compliment by some writer patronized by him. The Kavya-prakasa,*
" the lustre of poetry," another esteemed work of the same class, in
ten sections, was probably composed in the 1 2th century the
author, Mamma^a, a Kashmirian, having been the maternal uncle
of Sri-Harsha, the author of the Naishadhiya. The Sahitya-darpana,'
or " mirror of composition," the standard work on literary criticism,
was composed in the isth century, on thebanksof the Brahmaputra,
by Visvanatha Kaviraja. The work consists of ten chapters, treating
of the following subjects: (l) the nature of poetry; (2) the sentence;
(3) poetic flavour (rasa); (4) the divisions of poetry; (5) the func-
tions of literary suggestion; (6) visible and audible poetry (chiefly
on dramatic art); (7) faults of style; (8) merits of style; (9) dis-
tinction of styles; (10) ornaments of style.
VIII. MEDICINE (Ayur-veda, Vaidya-sQstra). Though the early
cultivation of the healing art is amply attested by frequent allusions
in the Vedic writings, it was doubtless not till a much later
Medicine, pgrj^j tnat the medical practice advanced beyond a
certain degree of empirical skill and pharmaceutic routine.
From the simultaneous mention of the three humours (wind, bile,
phlegm) in a varttika to P&oini (v. I, 38), some kind of humoral
pathology would, however, seem to have been prevalent among
Indian physicians several centuries before our era. The oldest
existing work is supposed to be the Charaka-samhila,' 1 a bulky cyclo-
paedia in slokas, mixed with prose sections, which consists of eight
chapters, and was probably composed for the most part in the early
centuries of our era. Whether the Chinese tradition which makes
Charaka the court physician of King Kanishka (c. A.D. 100) rests
on fact is very doubtful. Of equal authority, but doubtless _some-
what more modern, is the Susruta (-samhita) ,* which Susruta is said
to have received from Dhanvantari, the Indian Aesculapius, whose
name, however, appears also among the " nine gems." It consists
' 1 Edited, with commentary, by Premachandra Tarkabagisa,
Bibl. Ind. ; with German translation by O. v. B6htlingk (1890).
1 Edited by Capeller (1875).
1 Edited by Fitzedw. Hall, Bibl. Ind. (1865); with commentary
(Bombay, 1897).
4 R. Pischel, Gott. Gel. A. (1883) ; G. BUhler, Ind. Ant. (1884), p. 29.
'Edited by Mahesa Chandra Nyayaratna (1866).
Text and translation in Bibl. Ind.; edited by Jibananda Vidya-
sagara (1897).
* Edited by Jibananda Vidyasagara (Calcutta, 1877). Cf. A. F. R.
Hoernle, " Studies in Anc. Indian Medicine " (/. Roy. As. S. 1906-9).
Edited by Madhusudana Gupta (1835-1837), and by Jibananda
Vidyasagara (1873).
of six chapters, and is likewise composed in mixed verse and prose
the greater simplicity of arrangement, as well as some slight attention
paid in it to surgery, betokening an advance upon Charaka. Both
works are, however, characterized by great prolixity, and contain
much matter which has little connexion with medicine. The late
Professor E. Haas, in two very suggestive papers, 9 tried to show
that the work of Susruta (identified by him with Socrates, so often
confounded in the middle ages with Hippocrates) was probably not
composed till after the Mohammedan conquest, and that, so far
from the Arabs (as they themselves declare) having derived some
of their knowledge of medical science from Indian authorities, the
Indian Vaidyasastra was nothing but a poor copy of Greek medicine,
as transmitted by the Arabs. But even though Greek influence may
be traced in this as in other branches of Indian science, there can
be no doubt, 10 at any rate, that both Charaka and Susruta were
known to the Arab Razi (c. A.D. 932), and to the author of the
Fihrist (completed A.D. 987), and that their works must therefore
have existed, in some form or other, at least as early as the gth
century. Among the numerous later medical works published and
greatly esteemed in India, the most important general compendiums
are Vagbhata's Asht&nga-hr.idaya, " the heart of the eight-limbed
(body of medical science)," supposed to have been written in the
9th century, or still earlier; and Bhava ,Misra's Bhava-prakasa,
probably of the early part of the 1 6th century; while of special
treatises may be mentioned Madhava's system of pathology, the
Rugvinischaya, or Madhava-Nidana, of the 8th or 9th century;
and Sarngadhara's compendium of therapeutics, the Sarngadhara-
samhita, composed before 1300, having been commented upon by
Vopadeva. Materia medica, with which India is so lavishly en-
dowed by nature, is a favourite subject with Hindu medical writers,
the oldest treatise being apparently the Dhanvantari-nighanlu, of
uncertain, but not veryTiigh, age; besides which may be mentioned
Madanapala's Madanavinoda, written A.D. 1374; the more modern
Raja-nighantu, by the Kashmirian Narahari ; besides other, still
more recent esteemed works of this class, to which may be added
the valuable medical dictionary Vaidyakasabdasindhu by Umesa-
chandra Gupta. A useful general view of this branch of Indian
science is contained in T. A. Wise's Commentary on Hindu Medicine
(1845), and in his History of Medicine, vol. i. (1867) ; but the subject
has since then been treated in a much fuller and more critical way
in Professor J. Jolly's " Medicin " in Biihler's Grundriss der indo-
arischen Philologie.
IX. ASTRONOMY AND MATHEMATICS. Hindu astronomy may
be broadly divided into a pre-scientific and a scientific period.
While the latter clearly presupposes a knowledge of the re-
searches of Hipparchus and other Greek astronomers,
it is still doubtful whether the earlier astronomical and s "
astrological theories of Indian writers were entirely of
home growth or partly derived from foreign sources.
From very ancient (probably Indo-European) times
chronological calculations were based on the synodical revolutions
of the moon the difference between twelve such revolutions (making
together 354 days) and the solar year being adjusted by the insertion,
at the time of the winter solstice, of twelve additional days. Besides
this primitive mode the Rigveda also alludes to the method prevalent
in post-Vedic times, according to which the year is divided into
twelve (s&vana or solar) months of thirty days, with a thirteenth
month intercalated every fifth year. This quinquennial cycle
(yuga), is explained in the Jyotisha, regarded as the oldest astro-
nomical treatise. An institution which occupies an important
part in those early speculations is the theory of the so-called lunar
zodiac, or system of lunar mansions, by which the planetary path,
in accordance with the duration of the moon's rotation, is divided
into twenty-seven or twenty-eight different stations, named after
certain constellations (nakshatra) which are found alongside of the
ecliptic, and with which the moon (masc.) was supposed to dwell
successively during his circuit. The same institution is found in
China and Arabia; but it is still doubtful 11 whether the Hindus, as
some scholars hold, or the Chaldaeans, as Professor Weber thinks,
are to be credited with the invention of this theory. Professor G.
Thibaut, 12 who has again thoroughly investigated the problem, comes
to the conclusion that it is improbable that the nakshatra-theory
arose independently in India, but that it is still doubtful whence the
Hindus derived it. The principal works of this period are hitherto
known from quotations only, viz. the G&rgi Samhita, which Professor
Kern would fix at c. 50 B.C., the Naradi Samhita. and others.
The new era, which the same scholar dates from c. A.D. 250, is
marked by the appearance of the five original Siddhantas (partly
extant in revised redactions and in quotations), the very names of
two of which suggest Western influence, viz. the Paitamaha-, Surya-,"
Vasishtha-, Romaka- (i.e. Roman) and Paulisa-siddhantas. Based
gad
Z.D.M.G. (1876), p. 617 seq.; (1877), p. 647 seq.
10 See Professor Aug. Muller's paper, Z.D.M.G. (1880), p. 465.
11 See especially Professor Whitney's essay on the Lunar Zodiac, in
his Oriental and Linguistic Studies.
a G. Thibaut, " Astronomic, Astrologie und Mathematik, in
Biihler's Grundriss.
"The Surya-siddhanta, translated by (W. D. Whitney and)
E. Burgess (1860).
SANSON, C. H. SANSOVINO, J.
183
on these are the works of the most distinguished Indian astronomers,
viz. Aryabhata, 1 probably born in 476; Varaha-mihira, 2 probably
505-587; Brahma-gupta, who completed his Brahma-siddhanta in
628; Bhatta Utpala (loth century), distinguished especially as com-
mentator of Varaha-mihira ; and BhaskaraAcharya,who,bornin 1114,
finished his great course of astronomy, the Siddhdnta-siromani, in
1150. In the works of several of these writers, from Aryabha^a on-
wards, special attention is paid to mathematical (especially arith- :
metical and algebraic) computations; and the respective chapters i
of Bhaskara's compendium, viz. the Lllavati and Vija-ganita, 3 still
form favourite text-books of these subjects. The question whether
Aryabhata was acquainted with the researches of the Greek algebraist
Diophantus (c. A.D. 560) remains still unsettled, but, even if this
was the case, algebraic science seems to have been carried by him
beyond the point attained by the Greeks.
On Sanskrit literature generally may be consulted Max Miiller,
History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature; A Weber, History of Indian
Literature; A. A. Macdonell, History of Sanskrit Literature. (J. E.)
SANSON, CHARLES HENRI (b. 1739), public executioner
of Paris from 1788 to 1795, was the son of Charles Sanson or
Longval, who received in 1688 the office of execuleur des hautes
<euvres de Paris, which became hereditary in his family. Sanson's
brothers exercised the same trade in other towns. In the last
days of 1 789 Gorsas in the Courrier de Paris accused Sanson of
harbouring a Royalist press in his house. Sanson was brought
to trial, but acquitted, and Gorsas withdrew the accusation.
After the execution of Louis XVI., a statement by Sanson was
inserted in the Thermomctre politique (i3th February 1793) in
contradiction of the false statements made in respect of the king's
behaviour when confronted with death. He. surrendered his
office in 1795 to his son Henri, who had been his deputy for some
time, and held his father's office till his death in 1840. There is
no record of the elder Sanson's death. Henri's son Clement
Henri was the last of the family to hold the office.
The romantic tales told of C. H. Sanson have their origin in the
apocryphal Memoires pour servir a Vhistoire de la Revolution Franc,aise
par Sanson (2 vols., 1829; another ed., 1831), of which a few pages
of introduction emanate from Balzac, and some other matter from
Lh6ritier de 1'Ain. Other Memoires of Sanson, edited by A. Gregoire
(ps. for V. Lombard) in 1830, and by M. d'Olbreuze (6 vols., 1862-
1863) are equally fictitious. The few facts definitely ascertainable
are collected by G. Len6tre in La Guillotine pendant la Revolution
(1893). Cf. M .Tourneux, Bibliographie de Vhistoire de Paris . . .
(1890, &c.), vol. i. Nos. 3963-3965, and vol. iv., s.v. " Sanson."
SANSON, NICOLAS (1600-1667), French cartographer, wrongly
termed by some the creator of French geography, was born of an
old Picardy family of Scottish descent, at Abbeville, on the
2oth (or 3ist) of December 1600, and was educated by the
Jesuits at Amiens. In 1627 he attracted the attention of Riche-
lieu by a map of Gaul which he had constructed (or at least begun)
while only eighteen. He gave lessons in geography both to Louis
XIII. and to Louis XIV. ; and when Louis XIII., it is said, came
to Abbeville, he preferred to be the guest of Sanson (then em-
ployed on the fortifications), instead of occupying the lodgings
provided by the town. At the conclusion of^this visit the king
made Sanson a councillor of state. In 1647 Sanson accused the
Jesuit Labbe of plagiarizing him in his Pharus Galliae Antiquae;
in 1648 he lost his eldest son Nicolas, killed during the Fronde.
Among the friends of his later years was the great Conde. He
died at Paris on the 7th of July 1667. Two younger sons,
Adrien (d. 1708) and Guillaume (d. 1703), succeeded him as
geographers to the king.
Sanson's principal works are : Galliae antiquae descriptio gepgraphica
(1627); Graeciae antiquae descriptio (1636) ; L' Empire remain (1637) ;
Britannia, ou recherches de I'antiquite d' Abbeville (1638), in which he
seeks to identify Strabo's Britannia with Abbeville; La France
(1644); Tables methodiques pour les divisions des Gaules . . .
(1644); L' Angleterre, I'Espagne, I'ltalie^et^ I'Allemagne ^1644);
Le Cours du
Labbe disquisit
Gaule de Cesai X __ V/ _, T *--,. a u . v ~. -
Geographia sacra (1653); L'Afrique (1656). In 1692 Hubert Jaillot
collected Sanson's maps in an Atlas nouveau. See also Niceron,
1 The Aryabhafiya, edited by H. Kern (1874).
8 The Brihat-samhita and Yogayatra, edited and translated by
H. Kern; the Laghu-jataka, edited by A. Weber and H. Jacobi.
8 A translation of both treatises, as well as of the respective
chapters of Brahma-gupta's work, was published (1817) by H. T.
Colebrooke, with an important " Dissertation on the Algebra of the
Hindus," reprinted in the Misc. Essays, ii. pp. 375 seq.
Memoires, vols. xiii. and xx. ; the 18th-century editions of some of
Sanson's works on Delamarche under the titles of Atlas degeographie
ancienne and Atlas, britanmque; and the Catalogue des cartes et hvres
de geographie de Sanson (1702).
SANSOVINO, ANDREA CONTUCCI DEL MONTE (1460-1520),
Florentine sculptor, was the son of a shepherd called Niccolo di
Domenico Contucci, and was born at Monte Sansavino near
Arezzo, whence he took his name, which is usually softened to
Sansovino. He was a pupil of Antonio Pollaiuolo, and at first
worked in the purer style of 15th-century Florence. Hence his
early works are by far the best, such as the terra-cotta altarpiece
in Santa Chiara at Monte Sansavino, and the marble reliefs of
the " Annunciation," the " Coronation of the Virgin," a " Pieta,"
the " Last Supper," and various statuettes in the Corbinelli chapel
of S. Spirito at Florence, all executed between the years 1488
and 1492. From 1491 to 1500 Andrea worked in Portugal for the
king, and some pieces of sculpture by him still exist in the
monastic church of Coimbra. (See Raczinski, Les Arts en
Portugal, Paris, 1846, p. 344.) These early reliefs show strongly
the influence of Donatello. The beginning of a more pagan style
is shown in the statues of " St John baptizing Christ " over the east
door of the Florentine baptistery. This group was, however,
finished by the weaker hand of Vincenzo Danti. In 1502 he
executed the marble font at Volterra, with good reliefs of the
" Four Virtues "and the "Baptism of Christ." In 1505 Sansovino
was invited to Rome by Julius II. to make the monuments of
Cardinal Ascanio Maria Sforza and Cardinal Girolamo della
Rovere for the retro-choir of S. Maria del Popolo. The architect-
ural parts of these monuments and their sculptured foliage are
extremely graceful and executed with the most minute delicacy,
but the recumbent effigies show the beginning of a serious decline
in taste. These tombs became models which for many years were
copied by most later sculptors with increasing exaggerations of
their defects. In 1512, while still in Rome, Sansovino executed
a very beautiful group of the " Madonna and Child with St Anne,"
now over one of the side altars in the church of S. Agostino.
From 1513 to 1528 he was at Loreto, where he cased the outside
of the Santa Casa in white marble, covered with reliefs and
statuettes in niches between engaged columns; a small part of
this sculpture was the work of Andrea, but the greater part was
executed by Montelupo, Tribolo and others of his assistants and
pupils. Though the general effect is rich and magnificent,
the individual pieces of sculpture are both dull and feeble. The
earlier reliefs, those by Sansovino himself, are the best.
SANSOVINO, JACOPO (1477-1570), Italian sculptor, was called
Sansovino after his master Andrea, his family name being Tatti.
He became a pupil of Andrea in 1500, and in 1510 accompanied
him to Rome, devoting himself there to the study of antique
sculpture. Julius II. employed him to restore damaged statues,
and he made a full-sized copy of the Laocoon group, which was
afterwards cast in bronze, and is now in the Uffizi at Florence.
In 1511 he returned to Florence, and began the statue of St
James the Elder, which is now in a niche in one of the great piers
of the Duomo. He carved a nude figure of " Bacchus and Pan,"
nowin the Bargello, near the "Bacchus" of Michelangelo, from the
contrast with which it suffers much. Soon afterwards Jacopo
returned to Rome, and designed for his fellow-citizens the grand
church of S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini, which was carried out by
Antonio Sangallo the younger. A marble group of the " Madonna
and Child," heavy in style, now at the west of S. Agostino, was his
next important work. In 1527 Jacopo fled from the sack of
Rome to Venice, where he was welcomed by Titian and Pietro
Aretino; henceforth till his death he was occupied in adorning
Venice with magnificent buildings and many second-rate pieces
of sculpture Among the latter Jacopo's poorest works are the
colossal statues of "Neptune " and " Mars " on the grand staircase
of the ducal palace. His best are the bronze doors of the sacristy
of St Mark, cast in 1562; inferior to these are the series of six
bronze reliefs round the choir of the same church. In 1565 he
completed a small bronze gate with a graceful relief of " Christ
surrounded by Angels "; this gate shuts off the altar of the
Reserved Host in the choir of St Mark's.
184
SANTA ANA SANTA BARBARA
Jacopo's chief claim to distinction rests upon the numerous
fine Venetian buildings which he designed, such as the public
library, the mint, the Scuola della Misericordia, the Palazzo de'
Cornari and the Palazzo Delfino, with its magnificent staircase
the last two both on the grand canal. Among his ecclesiastical
works the chief were the church of S. Fantino, that of S. Martino,
near the arsenal, the Scuola di S. Giovanni degli Schiavoni and,
finest of all, the church, now destroyed (see VENICE), of S. Gemi-
niano, a very good specimen of the Tuscan and Composite orders
used with the graceful freedom of the Renaissance.
In 1545 the roof of the public library, which he was then con-
structing, fell in; on this account he was imprisoned, fined and
dismissed from the office of chief architect of the cathedral, to
which he had been appointed by a decree of the signoria on the
7th of April 1529. Owing to the intervention of Titian, Pietro
Aretino and others, he was soon set at liberty, and in 1549 he
was restored to his post. He did good service for St Mark's by
encircling its failing domes with bands of iron. Sansovino's
architectural works have much beauty of proportion and grace
of ornament, a little marred in some cases by an excess of sculp-
tured decoration, though the carving itself is always beautiful,
both in design and execution. He used the classic orders with
great freedom and tasteful invention. His numerous pupils
were mostly men of but little talent.
SANTA ANA, a city and the county-seat of Orange county,
southern California, U.S.A., 34 m. S.E. of Los Angeles. Pop.
(1900) 4933 (506 foreign-born) ; (1910) 8429. It is served by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, the Southern Pacific and the
Pacific Electric railways. The city is situated about 10 m. from
the ocean, in the lower western foothills of the Santa Ana moun-
tains. There are numerous artesian wells in the surrounding
region, and there is a good irrigation system. (For a description
of the irrigation canal see AQUEDUCT.) Santa Ana is in the
orange, lemon and walnut region of southern California, and in
the only important celery-growing district of the state; the
celery is grown in great quantities in the large district known as
the " Peatlands " (about 9 m. from the city), which is underlaid
by a deposit of peat from i to 100 ft. deep. Other important
products of the county are petroleum, barley, sugar beets,
apricots and lima beans. Santa Ana was first platted in 1869
and was incorporated in 1888. Its growth since 1900 has been
rapid.
SANTA ANA, the capital of the department of Santa Ana,
Salvador, 50 m. by rail N.W. of San Salvador. Pop. (1905)
about 48,000. It is situated about 2100 ft. above sea-level, in a
valley surrounded by high mountains, which are covered by
coffee and sugar plantations and woods. It is the second city
of the republic in size, and has broad shady streets and fine open
squares. The municipal offices, hospital, literary institute and
barracks are noteworthy buildings, and the parish church,
Doric in style, is generally regarded as one of the finest in Central
America. Cigars, pottery, starch, spirits, sugar and various
textiles are manufactured, and the export trade in coffee and
sugar has developed rapidly since the opening in 1900 of a railway
to San Salvador and the Pacific port of Acajutla.
SANTA-ANNA, ANTONIO LOPEZ DE (1795-1876), Mexican
soldier and politician, was born at Jalapa in the province of
Vera Cruz on the 2 ist of February 1795. He was neither a general
nor a statesman, nor even an honest man, but he was the most
conspicuous and continuously active of the military adventurers
who filled Spanish America with violence during the first two
generations of its independence. He entered the colonial army
of Spain as a cadet in 1810, and served as one of the Creole
supporters of the Spanish government till 1821. In that year
Mexico fell away from the mother country. Iturbide, who was
master of the country for the time, made Santa-Anna brigadier
and governor of La Vera Cruz. Till about 1835 he pursued the
policy of keeping his hold on his native province of Vera Cruz,
and influencing the rest of the country by alternately supporting
and upsetting the central government. He first helped to ruin
Iturbide, who wished to make himself emperor. He proclaimed
the Republic, and was then a supporter of the successful federal
party. Federalism suited him very well since it left him in
command of Vera Cruz. In 1829 he defeated a foolish attempt of
the Spaniards to reassert their authority in Mexico. He kept
himself in reserve till events gave him a chance to upset the
president of the day, Bustamente, whom he defeated at Casas
Blancas on the I2th of November 1832. He could now have
become president himself, but preferred to rule through dummies.
Now that he saw an opportunity to become master he became
reactionary and abolished the federal constitution. This led
to the revolt of Texas, which was full of settlers from the United
States. Santa-Anna invaded Texas and gained some successes,
but was surprised and taken prisoner at San Jacinto on the
2ist of April 1836. The Texans had a good excuse for shooting
him, as he conducted war in a ferocious way. They preferred
to let him save his life by ordering his troops to evacuate the
country. He was released in February 1 83 7 , and had for a time to
" retire to his estates " in Vera Cruz. In 1838 the French govern-
ment made an attack on the town, and Santa-Anna, by a display
of his redeeming virtue of personal courage, lost a leg but regained
his influence. He became military dictator in 1 84 1 , and governed
by violence till he was driven into exile by mutiny in 1845. He
fled to Cuba, but was recalled to command against the invading
army from the United States in 1846. The Americans beat him,
and once more (1848) he went into exile. In 1853 he was recalled
and named president for life, with the title of Serene Highness.
In less than two years he was again overthrown and had to go
abroad in August 1855. For the rest of his life Santa- Anna was
hanging on the outskirts of Mexico, endeavouring to find an
opening to renew his old adventures. He tried the emperor
Maximilian, the French and the United States to see if they would
serve his turn. But he had outlived his time. The empty title
of grand-marshal given by Maximilian was all he gained. When
in 1867 he attempted to head a rising, he was captured and
condemned to death, but spared on the ground that he was in
his dotage. At last, worn out by age, he accepted an amnesty
and returned to the city of Mexico, where he died in obscurity
on the 2oth of June 1876.
See H. H. Bancroft, History of the Pacific States of North America,
vols. viii. and ix. (San Francisco, 1882-1890).
SANTA BARBARA, a city and the county-seat of Santa
Barbara county, in southern California, U.S.A., on the coast-
plain on the southern slope of the Santa Ynez Mountains. Pop.
(1900) 6587(1143 foreign-born); (1910) 11,659. It is served by
the Coast Line of the Southern Pacific railway system. With
picturesque surroundings, excellent bathing beach and ideal
climate, Santa Barbara is one of the most popular of the health
and pleasure resorts of California. The monthly average of the
mean temperatures for 23 years (1881-1903 inclusive) varied
from 53 in January to 67 in August. Nowhere in California
is plant life more varied and beautiful; in the vicinity are walnut,
olive, lemon and orange groves. North-west of the city are the
valuable oil fields of Santa Barbara county, notably the Santa
Maria field, 6 m. S. of Santa Maria, and the region between
Lompoc and Santa Maria, first developed in 1903. A presidio
(Spanish military post) was established here in 1782, and a
Franciscan mission, by Junipero Serra, about four years later.
The mission building is well preserved, and is probably the
greatest single attraction of Santa Barbara. It is now the
Franciscan headquarters of the Pacific coast, and near it is a
Franciscan college. Immediately behind it is the picturesque
Mission Canyon. Santa Barbara took part in the revolution of
1829, and in the sectional struggles following leaned to the side
of Monterey and the North. It was occupied by the Americans
in August 1846, then (without bloodshed) by the Californians
in October, and again definitively by the American forces on the
27th of November 1846. In 1850 it was incorporated as a city,
though already long a Mexican " ciudad." It remained off the
railway route until 1887.
SANTA BARBARA, a town of Iloilo province, island of Panay,
Philippine Islands, on the S.E. coast, on the Jalaur river, a
few miles N. of Iloilo, the capital of the province. Pop. (1903),
after the annexation of Zarragk, Lucena, Pavfa and Leganes,
SANTA CATHARINA SANTA CRUZ
185
37,621; subsequently Pavla (pop. in 1903, S7) was annexed
to Jaro. There are 87 barrios or villages in the town, only three
of these had a population in 1903 exceeding 1000. The language
is Visayan. The principal industries are the cultivation of sugar
cane, Indian corn, rice, cacao, coco-nut palm and tobacco, and
the raising of cattle.
SANTA CATHARINA, a southern maritime state of Brazil,
bounded N. by Parana, E. by the Atlantic, S. by Rio Grande do
Sul, and W. by Rio Grande do Sul and the Misiones territory of
Argentina. Pop. (1900) 320,289; area 28,633 SC L- m - The
Serra do Mar rises not far from the coast and leaves only a
narrow coast zone, and the plateau above is much broken with
irregular ranges of mountains. The coast region, though in the
temperate zone, is hot and humid. It is densely forested, is
broken by swamps and lagoons, and is crossed by numerous
short streams from the wooded slopes of the serras. The plateau
is less densely wooded, but has some highly fertile plains, the
open campos being partly devoted to stock raising. Except in
the malarious coast zone, the climate is temperate, bracing and
P exceptionally healthy. The drainage is westward to the Parana,
the rivers being tributaries of the Iguassu, which forms its
northern boundary, and of the Uruguay, which forms its southern
boundary. A number of prosperous German colonies the largest
and best known of which are Blumenau, Dona Francisca,
Joinville, Itajahy, Brusque, Dom Pedro and Sao Bento are
devoted chiefly to agriculture. There is no cultivation on a large
scale, as in Sao Paulo and the northern provinces. Coffee is
produced to a limited extent. Indian corn, beans, onions, fruit
and mandioca are the principal products. A prominent industry
is the gathering and preparation of matt or Paraguayan tea
(Ilex paraguayensis) , which is an article of export. The mineral
resources include coal, iron, silver, gold and petroleum, the first
alone is mined. The only railway of the state, the Dona Thereza
Christina, runs from Laguna, at the mouth of a lagoon of that
name on the southern coast, northward to the port of Imbituba
(about 4 m.) and thence westward up the valley of the Rio
Tubarao to the coal fields of that name (69 m.). The coal is of
inferior quality and the development of the mines, which were
discovered in 1841, has not been a success. A later investigation
shows that there are beds of better coal at a greater depth
extending from Rio Grande do Sul to Sao Paulo. The capital
of the state is Florianopolis (q.v.) also called Santa Catharina and
Desterro, and its other towns are Blumenau, Lages (9356),
Laguna (7282), Joinville (13,996), Itajahy (887 5), Brusque (8094),
Sao Jose (11,820), opposite Florianopolis, Tubarao (5495) and
Sao Francisco (5583), a good port in the northern part of the
state in direct communication with a majority of the German
colonies.
SANTA CLARA (or VILLA-CLARA), the capital of Santa Clara
province, Cuba, about 185 m. (by rail) E.S.E. of Havana.
Pop. (1907) 16,702. It is situated near the centre of the island,
on a plateau, between two small streams, and is served by the
United Railways of Havana and by the Cuba and the Cuba
Central railways, the last connecting the east and west lines with
the north and south coasts. The streets are straight and wide,
and there are many fine buildings. The oldest church is of the
last third of the i8th century. The city is surrounded by fertile
plains, which are cultivated in cane or devoted to grazing.
Santa Clara was founded in 1689 by a band of schismatics from
Remedios.
SANTA CRUZ, ALVARO DE BAZAN, IST MARquis or (1526-
1588), Spanish admiral, was born at Granada on the I2th of
December 1526, of an ancient family originally settled in the valley
of Baztan in Navarre, from which they are said to have taken their
name. His grandfather, Alvaro de Bazan, took part in the
conquest of Granada from the Moors in 1492, and his father,
who had the same Christian name, was distinguished in the service
of Charles V., by whom he was made general of the galleys or
commander-in-chief of the naval forces of the crown of Spain
in the Mediterranean. The future admiral followed his father
in his youth, and was early employed in high commands. He
was a member of the military order of St lago. In 1 564 he aided
in the capture of Velez de Gomera, commanded the division of
galleys employed to blockade Tetuan, and to suppress the piracy
carried on from that port. The service is said to have been
successfully performed. Bazan certainly earned the confidence
of Philip II., by whom he was appointed to command the galleys
of Naples in 1568. This post brought him into close relations
with Don John of Austria, when the Holy League was formed
against the Turks in 1 5 70. During the operations which preceded
and followed the battle of Lepanto (7th of October 1571), Bazan
was always in favour of the more energetic course. In the battle
he commanded the reserve division, and his prompt energy
averted a disaster when Uluch Ali, who commanded the left wing
of the Turks, outmanoeuvred the commander of the Christian
right, Giovanni Andrea Doria, and broke the allied line. He
accompanied Don John of Austria at the taking of Tunis in the
following year. When Philip II. enforced his claim as heir to
the crown of Portugal in 1580-1581, Santa Cruz held a naval
command. The prior of Crato, 1 an illegitimate representative
of the Portuguese royal family, who conducted the popular
resistance to the annexation of the country by Philip, continued
however, to hold the island possessions of Portugal in the Atlantic.
He was supported by a number of French adventurers under
Philip Strozzi, a Florentine exile in the service of France. Santa
Cruz was sent as admiral of the Ocean to drive the pretender and
his friends away in 1583. His victory off Terceira over the
Portuguese, and a loose confederation of adventurers and semi-
pirates, French and English, decided the struggle in favour of
Spain. Santa Cruz, who recognized that England was the most
formidable opponent of Spain, became the zealous advocate of
war. A letter written by him to King Philip from Angla in
Terceira, on the gth of August 1583, contains the first definite
suggestion of the Armada. Santa Cruz himself was to have
commanded. His plans, schemes and estimates occupy a
conspicuous place in the documents concerning the Armada
collected by Don Cesareo Duro. The hesitating character of the
king, and his many embarrassments, political and financial,
caused many delays, and left Santa Cruz unable to act with
effect. He was at Lisbon without the means of fitting out his
fleet, when Drake burnt the Spanish ships at Cadiz in 1587.
The independence of judgment shown by Santa Cruz ended by
offending the king, and he was held responsible for the failures
and delays which were the result of the bad management of his
master. His death, which occurred on the 9th of February 1588
at Lisbon, was said to have been hastened by the unjustified
reproaches of the king. The marquis de Santa Cruz was the
designer of the great galleons which were employed to carry the
trade between Cadiz and Vera Cruz in Mexico.
The documents relating to the Armada have been collected by
Don Cesareo Duro in La Armada Invenciblc, and he gives a biography
of the marquis in his Conquista de las Islas Azores. A separate life
has been published by Don Angel de Altplaguirre. There are various
notices of Santa Cruz in Sir W. Stirling Maxwell's Don John of
Austria. (D. H.)
SANTA CRUZ, an eastern department of Bolivia, bounded
N. by El Beni, E. by Brazil, S. by Chuquisaca and W. by
Chuquisaca and Cochabamba. Area 141, 368 sq.m. Pop. (1900)
209,592; (1906 estimated) 234,743. It is only partly explored.
It consists of a great plain extending eastward from the base
of the Andes to the frontiers of Brazil, broken by occasional
isolated hills, and in the N.E. by a detached group of low sierras
known collectively under the name Chiquitos, which belong to
the Brazilian highlands rather than to the Andes. On the
western side of the department is an upland zone belonging to
the eastern slope of the Andes, and here the Bolivian settlements
are chiefly concentrated. The Chiquitos contain a number of
old missions, now occupied almost exclusively by Indians. The
great plains, whose general elevation is about 900 ft. above the
sea, are so level that the drainage does not carry off the water
in the rainy season, and immense areas are flooded for months
at a time. Extensive areas are permanently swampy. There
are forests in the N. and W. , but the larger part of the department
consists of open grassy plains, suitable for grazing. The Llanos
1 A priory of the Maltese knights of St John of Jerusalem.
i86
SANTA CRUZ SANTA FE
de Chiquitos, adjacent to the sierras of that name, have long been
used for this purpose. There are two river systems, on,e belonging
to the Amazon and the other to the La Plata basins. The first
includes the Guapay or Rio Grande, Piray or Sara, Yapacani
and Maraco, upper tributaries of the Mamore, and the San
Miguel, Blanco, Baures and Paragua, tributaries of the Guapore
both draining the western and northern parts of the department.
In the extreme east a number of streams flow eastward into the
Paraguay, the largest of which is the Otuquis; their channels
are partly hidden in swamps and lagoons. The climate of the
plains is hot and malarial, and the rainfall heavy. On the
Andean slopes the temperature is more agreeable. Stock-
raising is followed to some extent on the plains. Other products
of the western districts are sugar, rum, cacao, rice, cotton, coffee
and indigo. Rubber and medicinal products are also exported.
The Guapay is navigable for small boats in high water, and
also the lower courses of the other rivers named, but they are
of little service except in the transport of rubber. The principal
markets for Santa Cruz products are in the Bolivian cities of the
Andes where sugar, rum, cacao and coffee find a ready sale.
There is a trade route across the plains from Santa Cruz de la
Sierra to Puerto Suarez, on the Paraguay, and the Bolivian
government contracted in 1908 for a railway between these two
points (about 497 m.) but the traffic is inconsiderable.
The capital and only large town of the department is SANTA
CRUZ DE LA SIERRA (pop., in 1900, 15,874; in 1906, estimated,
20,535), on the Piray, a tributary of the Mamore, 1450 ft. above
sea-level, about 160 m. in a straight line N.E. of Sucre. It is
situated on a lower terrace of the Andean slope in a highly fertile
district, devoted to sugar-cane and stock-raising. It is a dusty,
straggling, frontier town with rough habitations and a half-
civilized population, chiefly Indians and mestizos. It is the seat
of a bishop and has a partly finished cathedral, seminary and
mission station for the Indians. It has also a national college.
There are flour mills, sugar mills, distilleries, tanneries and
leather manufactories. The original site of Santa Cruz de la Sierra
was in the uplands, but it was removed to its present site about
1 590, the phrase " de la Sierra " being kept. It has been used as
a centre for missionary work among the Indians and as a centre
of trade. Expeditions to the Brazilian frontier or to the Chiquitos
missions are fitted out here, and it is the objective point for expedi-
tions entering Bolivia from Matto Grosso, Brazil, and Paraguay.
SANTA CRUZ, a city and the county-seat of Santa Cruz county,
California, U.S.A., on the northern headland of the Bay of
Monterey, about 75 m. S. of San Francisco. Pop. (1900) 5659
(1123 foreign-born); (1910) 11,146. It is served by the Southern
Pacific railway. Santa Cruz is a popular seaside resort. The site
of the city, which spreads back over bluffs and terraces to the
foothills of the mountains (2000-3800 ft. in altitude), is very
picturesque, and the scenery in the environs beautiful. Hills nearly
enclose the city, protecting it from the ocean fogs. Monterey
Bay has a remarkable variety of fish; and there is a large fish
hatchery near the city. Fruits in great variety are grown in the
valley and foothills. The mountains are covered with one of the
noblest redwood forests of the state the only one south of San
Francisco; two groves, the Sempervirens Park (4000 acres)
and the Fremont Grove of Big Trees, 5 m. from Santa Cruz, have
been permanently preserved by the state. A Franciscan mission
was established at Santa Cruz in 1791 and secularized in 1834,
but was later destroyed. A pueblo or villa called Branciforte,
one of the least important of the Spanish settlements (now a
suburb of Santa Cruz), was founded in the vicinity in 1797,
and before the American conquest was merged with the settle-
ment that had grown up about the mission. The flag of the
United States was raised over Santa Cruz in July 1846. The city
was chartered in 1876.
SANTA CRUZ, an archipelago of the Pacific Ocean, in the
division of Melanesia, belonging to Great Britain. It is a scattered
group of small volcanic islands, irregularly disposed from N.W.
to S.E. between 8 31' and 11 40' S., 165 38' and 168 E.
The total land area is 380 sq. m., and the population is estimated
at 5000.
At the north-western extremity, separated by a deep channel
from the Solomon Islands, the following islands are clustered: the
Duff and Matema or Swallow groups, Analogo, Tinakula or Volcano
Island and others; from these a single chain curves S.E. and then
E., consisting of Nitendi or Santa Cruz, the largest island, Tupua or
Edgecombe, Vanikoro (Recherche), Tucopia, Anuda (Cherry) and
Fataka (Mitie). In Vanikoro there are volcanic mountains up to
3030 ft. in height, and Tinakula is a constantly active volcano of
2200 ft. Nitendi is of less elevation (1215 ft. at the highest). Coral
reefs are not extensive, excepting those surrounding Vanikoro.
The islands are densely wooded, and have a flora akin to that of
New Guinea. The land fauna is very scanty; that of the sea ex-
tremely rich and valuable to the natives, who are skilled fishermen
and navigators. The climate is hot and humid, and storms are
frequent. The natives are of Papuan stock, with an intermixture
of other blood; but an exception is found in the Duff group, Tucopia
and Anuda, which are inhabited by pure Polynesians. The natives
live in villages (sometimes fortified). In the past they have proved
treacherous, and cannibalism is not extinct. The work of mission-
aries, however, has borne good fruit. The islands are included in
the British protectorate of the Southern Solomons. Some trade in
copra is carried on.
The islands were discovered by the Spaniard Alvaro Mendana
in 1 595, in which year he attempted to found a colony on Nitendi,
but died there on the i8th of October. In 1767 Philip Carteret
visited the archipelago, and called it the Queen Charlotte Islands,
a name still sometimes used. During the next century, owing
to the practice of kidnapping them as labourers, the natives
became so much embittered against foreigners that in 1871 they
murdered Bishop John Coleridge Patteson on Nukapu, one of
the Swallow group. In 1875 James Graham Goodenough,
commodore of the Australian station, was shot with a poisoned
arrow on Nitendi during a cruise, and died of his wound.
Patteson's murder, however, had roused public feeling in
England; steps were taken to regulate the labour traffic, and
subsequently Bishop John Selwyn was able to establish friendly
relations with the natives. He erected the cross which com-
memorates his predecessor on Nukapu. The British protectorate
was declared in 1898.
SANTA CRUZ, chief town and capital of the province of La
Laguna, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on the S.E. shore of Laguna
de Bay, about 35 m. S.E. of Manila. Pop. of the municipality
(1903) 12,747. Santa Cruz has numerous fine buildings and a
large trade with Manila by way of the lake and Pasig river.
Agriculture and manufacturing are important pursuits, the
town being noted for its manufacture of palm wine. The
language is Tagalog.
SANTA CRUZ DE TENERIFE, or DE SANTIAGO, a seaport and
the capital of Teneriffe and of the Canary Islands; in 28 28' N.
and 16 15' W., on the east coast. Pop. (1900) 38,419. Santa Cruz
is the residence of the governor-general of the Canaries, the civil
lieutenant-governor of the Teneriffe district, and the military
governor of the island. It occupies a small plain bounded by
rugged volcanic rocks, and seamed by watercourses which are
dry almost throughout the year. Scarcely any vegetation,
except cactuses and euphorbias, is to be seen in the neighbour-
hood. Almost the entire town was rebuilt in the igth century,
when its population more than trebled. The houses are generally
low, with flat roofs; those of the better class are large, with a
courtyard in the middle, planted with shrubs in the Spanish
fashion. There are many good public buildings, including a
school of navigation, technical institute, library, natural history
museum and hospital. An aqueduct 5 m. long brings pure
water from the mountains of the interior. Dromedaries from
the adjacent islands of Lanzarote and Fuerteventura are used
to convey merchandise and in agricultural operations. The town
is defended by modern forts, but its ancient batteries have also
been preserved. It was bombarded by the British fleet under
Blake in 1657, and by Nelson, who lost his arm during the attack,
in 1797. Some British flags lost on that occasion hang in one of
the churches. The anchorage is good, and a mole facilitates
landing. Santa Cruz is an important coaling station and com-
mercial centre. (See CANARY ISLANDS.)
SANTA F, the capital of New Mexico, U.S.A., and the county-
seat of Santa Fe county, about 20 m. E. of the Rio Grande, and
339 m. N. of El Paso, Texas. Pop. (1900) 5603, (256 foreign-
SANTA FE
187
born and 466 Indians); (1910) 5072. Santa Fe is served by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, the Denver & Rio Grande, and
the New Mexico Central railways. The city lies about 7000 ft.
above the sea, at the foot of the southern extremity of the Rocky
Mountains, in the Sangre de Cristo range. Its climate is dry,
equable and healthy; the mean annual temperature is 49 F.,
and the mean annual rainfall 14*2 in. The hills surrounding the
city on all sides shelter it from the sandstorms which afflict some
parts of New Mexico, and its pleasant climate, attractive moun-
tain scenery and historical interest make it a favourite resort.
Santa Fe is built round a plaza or square. Crooked streets,
bordered with low adobe houses, are characteristic of the older part
of the city and give an impression of antiquity. Around the plaza
and elsewhere in the city, however, the Mexican style of architecture
has given way to the American. The plaza itself had been con-
verted from a barren, sandy square into a well-shaded park, through
the efforts of the Woman's Board of Trade, an unique institution,
which also controls the public library, housed in a brick and stone
building (1907) in the Mission style of architecture. Within the
plaza are a monument to the soldiers who fell in New Mexico during
the Civil War and the Indian wars, a stone marking the spot where
the first American flag was raised by General Kearny in 1846, and
a bronze drinking fountain erected as a memorial to John Baptist
Lamy (1814-1888), the first Roman Catholic bishop (1853) and
archbishop (1875) of Santa Fe. Facing the plaza is the old Governor's
Palace, a low, spreading, adobe structure, erected early in the 1 7th
century, but partially destroyed in the Pueblo revolt of 1680 and
later restored. It was occupied continuously by the Spanish,
Mexican and American governors of New Mexico until 1909, and
houses the historical museum of the Historical Society of New
Mexico (founded in 1859, incorporated in 1880), the School of
American Archaeology and the New Mexico Museum of Archaeology.
In this building General Lew Wallace (governor 1878-1881) wrote the
concluding chapters to Ben Hur. San Miguel chapel was built
probably in the middle of the 1 7th century, was destroyed in 1680,
and was rebuilt in 1710, but has been greatly altered in recent times.
The church of Nuestra Sefiora de Guadalupe (modernized with a
shingle roof and a wooden steeple) contains interesting paintings
and antique wood-carvings. The cathedral of San Francisco,
though not completed, has been used as a place of worship since
about 1880. In its walls is incorporated part of a church erected,
it is thought, in 1627. Also of interest are the Rosario chapel; the
ruined earthworks of Fort Marcy, north of the city, constructed by
General Kearny in 1846; the ruins of the Garita', an old Spanish
fortification used as a custom house under the Mexican government;
the so-called " oldest house," a dilapidated adobe structure claimed
to be the oldest building, continuously inhabited, in the United
States; the state library; and the national cemetery, in which 1022
American soldiers are buried.
Among the public buildings and institutions are the state
capitol, the executive mansion (1909), the Federal building (in front
of which is a monument to Kit Carson), the county court house, a
National Guard armoury, a Federal industrial boarding school for
Indians (with 300 pupils in 1908) and Saint Catherine's Industrial
School for Indians (Roman Catholic). About 7 m. east of the city
is the Pecos Forest Reserve, across which the Territory undertook
the building, with convict labour, of a " scenic highway " from
Santa Fe to Las Vegas. In Pajarito Park, 20 m. west of Santa Fe,
are many prehist6ric cave, cliff and communal dwellings, and near
the city are several prehistoric mounds.
The chief manufactures of Santa Fe are brick, pottery (made by
Pueblo Indians), and filigree jewelry (made by Mexican artisans).
The surrounding country is devoted to agriculture and mining,
chiefly for coal.
Santa Fe is considered the oldest city save one (St Augustine,
Florida) in the United States. A settlement, known as San
Gabriel, was planted at the junction of the Rio Chama and the
Rio Grande by Juan de Ofiate in 1598, and about 1605,' some
30 m. S.E., Santa Fe, officially the Villa Real de Santa Fe de San
Francisco, was founded on the site of a deserted Indian pueblo
and became the seat of the government of New Mexico. In
1630 it contained a population of 250 Spaniards, 700 Indians
and about 50 half-breeds. In August 1680 the Pueblo Indians,
embittered by the exactions of the civil and ecclesiastical
authorities, revolted (see NEW MEXICO : History) . Four hundred
Spaniards were massacred, and the remainder took refuge in
Santa F6, where they were closely besieged. On the 2ist of
August, while the Indians were demoralized by a sortie from the
garrison, the town was evacuated, and the inhabitants made a
1 The exact date of the founding of Santa Fe is not known, but
the best opinion has fixed the date between 1604 and 1608, and
favours the year 1605.
six weeks' journey down the Rio Grande to the mission of
Guadalupe, near the modern El Paso, Texas. The Indians then
took possession, destroyed the crops, churches and archives, and
revived their pagan ceremonies. Several unsuccessful attempts
were made to regain the town, but finally, in September 1692,
Diego de Vargas quietly secured the fresh submission of the
Indians. In December 1693 a new Spanish colony of about 800
persons arrived. There were two other Indian revolts, in 1694
and in 1696. During the i8th century a considerable trade in
sheep, wool, wine and pelts developed, chiefly with Chihuahua
and with the Indians of the plains. (After the independence of
Mexico Santa Fe became the centre of a growing commerce with
the United States, conducted at first by pack animals, and later
by wagon trains over the old Santa Fe Trail leading south-west
from Independence, Kansas City, and, in earlier years, other
places in Missouri, to Santa Fe. On the i8th of August 1846,
soon after the outbreak of the war between the United States
and Mexico, Santa Fe was occupied by an American force under
General S. W. Kearny. The Mexicans revolted a few months
later, and the newly appointed governor, Charles Bent, and a
number of American sympathizers were assassinated; but the
rising was quickly suppressed. In 1847 the first English news-
paper in New Mexico was established at Santa Fe, and an
English school was founded in 1848. Santa Fe remained the
capital when a Territorial government was inaugurated in 1851.
The arrival of the first railway train, on the gth of February
1880, marked a new epoch in the history of Santa Fe, which until
then had remained essentially a Mexican town; but with the
discontinuance of the wagon caravans over the old trail, it lost its
importance as the entrepot for the commerce of the South-west.
See the sketch by F. W. Hodge in Historic Towns of the Western
States (New York, 1901), edited by Lyman P. Powell; H. H. Ban-
croft, History of Arizona and New Mexico (San Francisco, 1884);
and Henry Inman, The Old Santa Fe Trail (New York, 1897).
SANTA FE, a central province of Argentina, bounded N. by
the Chaco territory, E. by Entre Rios and Corrientes, S. by
Buenos Aires, and W. by Cordoba and Santiago del Estero.
Area, 50,916 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 397> I 88, (1904 estimated)
640,755. Santa Fe belongs to the great pampa region of Argen-
tina, and has no wooded districts in the south except on the
river courses. In the N. which is borderland to the Gran Chaco
region, there are extensive forests, intermingled with grassy
campos. The surface is a level alluvial plain, with a saline
substratum at no great depth. Salt is found on the surface over
large areas, and throughout the province the water is brackish
1 5 to 20 ft. below the surface. The soil, however, produces wheat,
corn, alfalfa, linseed and other crops in abundance. Stock-
raising (cattle, horses, sheep and swine) is also an important
industry, with the related industries of butter and cheese-making,
meat-curing and lard-refining. Many colonies have been made,
especially near the provincial capital. It is one of the most
productive provinces in the republic, in spite of notorious mis-
government. The Parana, forms its eastern boundary for
about 435 m., and provides unfailing transport facilities. The
great river is broken into many channels, forming islands and
sand bars which are constantly changing their outlines. It
receives two large tributaries flowing across the province the
Salado, the upper course of which is called the Pasage and
Juramento (the last given to commemorate the circumstance
that the oath to wrest their independence from Spain was sworn
on its banks in 1816), and which enters the Santa Fe channel of
the Parana near the capital; and the Carcarana, or Carcaranai,
whose sources are in the Cordoba sierras. The northern districts
are well watered by numerous tributaries of the Salado. The
railway communications of the province are good, comprising
the trunk lines of the Buenos Aires and Rosario railway with
its extension to Tucuman, which crosses the province from
S.E. to N.W.; the Central Argentine from Rosario to Cordoba,
and to Buenos Aires; the Cordoba Central; Santa Fe to Tucu-
man; and the Provincia de Santa Fe; a network of small lines
connects all the important towns; and the Buenos Aires and
Pacific which crosses near its southern boundary. The river
i88
SANTA FE SANTA MARIA
ports having railway connexions are Reconquista, Santa Fe,
Colastine, Coronda, Puerto Gomez, San Lorenzo, Rosario and
Villa Constitution. The capital is Santa Fe, and other important
towns are Rosario, Esperanza (pop. 1904 estimated 10,000), San
Lorenzo (7000), Rafaela, Ocampo, Galvez, Canada de Gomez
and Villa Casilda.
SANTA F6, a city of Argentina and capital of the province of
that name, on the Santa Fe channel of the Parand near the
mouth of the Salado, about 299 m. N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop.
(1895) 24,755, (1904 estimated) 33,200. It is built on a sandy
plain little above the river level. It is regularly laid out and
contains a cathedral, bishop's palace, Jesuits' college and church
dating from 1654, the cabildo or town hall facing on the principal
square and provincial government buildings. The town is less
modern in appearance than Rosario, and has a number of old
residences and educational and charitable institutions. It is a
port of call for small river steamers and is in ferry communication
with Parana on the opposite bank of the Parana. Its shipping
port for larger steamers is at Colastine, on a deeper channel,
with which it is connected by rail. Santa Fe also has railway
communication with Rosario, Cordoba, Tucuman and the
frontier of the Chaco.
Santa Fe was founded by Juan de Garay in 1573, and was
designed to secure Spanish communications between Asuncion
and the mouth of the La Plata. It has been the centre of much
political intrigue, but its growth has been very slow. In 1852
a constituent congress met there, and in 1860 a national con-
vention for the revision of the constitution.
SANTAL (or SONTHAL) PARGANAS, THE, a district of British
India, in the Bhagalpur division of Bengal. Area 5470 sq. m.
In the east a sharply denned belt of hills stretches for about
loo m. from the Ganges to the river Naubil; west of this a rolling
tract of long ridges with intervening depressions covers about 2500
sq. m. ; while there is a narrow strip of alluvial country about 170 m.
long, lying for the most part along the loop line of the East Indian
railway. The Rajmahal hills occupy an area of 1366 sq. m. ; they
nowhere exceed 2000 ft. There are several other hill ranges which
with few exceptions are covered almost to their summits with dense
jungle ; they are all difficult of access. There are, however, numerous
passes through all the ranges. Coal and iron are found in almost
all parts, but of inferior quality. The alluvial tract has the damp
heat and moist soil characteristic of Bengal, while the undulating
and hilly portions are swept by the hot westerly winds of Behar,
and are very cool in the winter months. The annual rainfall averages
52 in. In 1901 the population was 1,809,737, showing an increase
of 3 % in the decade.
The Santals, who give their name to the district, are the most
numerous aboriginal tribe in Bengal; they work the coal-mines
of Raniganj and Karharbari and migrate to the tea-gardens of
Assam. In 1832 officials were deputed to demarcate with solid
masonry pillars the present area of the Daman-i-Koh, or " skirts
of the hills." The permission to Santals to settle in the valleys
and on the lower slopes stimulated Santal immigration to an
enormous extent. The Hindu money-lender soon made his
appearance among them, and caused the rebellion of 1855-56.
The insurrection led to the establishment of a form of administra-
tion congenial to the immigrants; and a land settlement has
since been carried out on conditions favourable to the occupants
of the soil. The Church Missionary Society and the Scandinavian
Home Mission have been very successful, especially in promoting
education. The district is traversed by both the chord and loop
lines of the East Indian railway. It contains the old Mahom-
medan city of Rajmahal and the modern commercial mart of
Sahibganj, both on the Ganges; and also the Hindu place of
pilgrimage of Deogarh, which is important enough to have a
branch railway. The administrative headquarters are at
Dumka, or Naya Dumka: pop. (1901) 5326.
See F. B. Bradley-Birt, The Story of the Indian Upland (1905).
SANTALS, an aboriginal tribe of Bengal, who have given their
name to the Santal Parganas (q.v.). Their early history is un-
known; but it is certain that they have not occupied their
present home for longer than a century, having migrated from
Hazaribagh, and they are still moving on into Northern Bengal.
Their total number in all India is nearly two millions. They
speak a language of the Munda or Kolarian family.
The Santals as a race care little for permanent homes. They are
not true nomads, but they like to be " on the move." In the low-
lands they are agriculturists; in the jungles and on the mountains
they are skilful hunters, bows and arrows being their chief weapons;
on the highlands they are cattle breeders. But if fond of change the
Santals like comfort, and their villages are neat, clean and well
built, usually in an isolated position. Their social arrangements are
patriarchal. In every village is a headman supposed to be a de-
scendant of the founder of the village. A deputy looks after details;
a special officer has charge of the children's morals, and there is a
watchman. Physically the Santals are not prepossessing. The face
is round and blubbery; the cheekbones moderately prominent;
eyes full and straight, nose broad and depressed, mouth large and
lips full, hair straight, black and coarse. The general appearance
approximates to the negroid type. They are somewhat below the
average height of the Hindus. They are divided into twelve tribes.
In character they are a bright, joy-loving people, hospitable and
seizing every chance of a feast. " They have neither the sullen
disposition nor the unconquerable laziness of the very old hill-
tribes of central India," writes Sir W. W. Hunter in Annals of Rural
Bengal (1868). " They have carried with them from the plains a
love of order, a genial humanity, with a certain degree of civilization
and agricultural habits. Their very vices are the vices of an op-
pressed and driven-out people who have lapsed from a higher state,
rather than those of savages who have never known better things."
Each village has its priest who has lands assigned to him; out of
the profits he must twice a year feast the people. At the Sohrai
feast the " harvest-home " in December, the headman entertains
the villagers, and the cattle are anointed and daubed with vermilion
and a share of the rice-beer is given to each animal. The Santals
have many gods whose attributes are ill-defined, but whose festivals
are strictly observed. Marang Buru, the great spirit, is the deity
to whom sacrifices are made at the Sohrai. Among some Santals,
e.g. in Chota Nagpur, Sing Bonga, the sun, is the supreme deity to
whom sacrifices are made. Generally there is no definite idea of a
beneficent god, but countless demons and evil spirits are propitiated,
and ancestors are worshipped at the Sohrai festival. There is a vague
idea of a future life where the spirits of the dead are employed in the
ceaseless toil of grinding the bones of past generations into a dust
from which the gods may recreate children. In some villages the
Santals join with the Hindus in celebrating the Durga Puja festival.
In the eastern districts the tiger is worshipped. For a Santal to be
sworn on a tiger-skin is the most solemn of oaths. The Santals are
omnivorous, but they will not touch rice cooked by a Hindu. Santal
parents undergo purification five days after childbirth. Santals
have adopted as a rite the tonsure of children. Child marriage is not
practised, and the young people make love matches, but the septs
are exogamous as a rule. Santals seldom have more than one wife
and she is always treated kindly. An open space in front of the
headman's house is set apart for dancing, which is very elaborate
and excellent. The flute, upon which they play well, is the chief
Santal instrument. The Santals burn their dead, and the few
charred bones remaining are taken by the next of kin in a basket
to the Damodar, the sacred river of the Santals in Hazaribagh
district, and left where the current is strongest to be carried to the
ocean, the traditional origin and resting place of the Santal
race.
See E. Tuite Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal (Calcutta,
1872); F. B. Bradley-Birt, The Story j>} an Indian Upland (1905).
SANTA MARIA (DA BOCCA DO MONTE), an inland town of
Brazil, in Rio Grande do Sul, 162 m. by rail W. of Margem do
Taquary, the railway terminus for Porto Alegre (1908), about
80 m. by water N.W. of that city. Pop. (1900) 13,628. Santa
Maria, which lies 382 ft. above the sea, is the commercial centre
of a rich district on the slopes of short mountain ranges, one of
which, the Serra do Pinhal, forms the water parting between the
eastern and western river systems of the state. There are
prosperous colonies in its vicinity, including one founded by the
Jewish Colonisation Association under the provisions of the
Hirsch Fund. The industries of this region include the cultiva-
tion of wheat, Indian corn, rice, mandioca, beans, grapes (for
wine), nuts, olives and tobacco, and stock-raising. The town
derives its chief importance, however, from its becoming the
junction of the Porto Alegre to Uruguayana, and the Santa
Maria to Passo Fundo railways. In 1905 the national and state
governments leased to the " Compagnie Auxiliaire de Chemin de
Per au Bresil" the Rio Grande to Bag, the Porto Alegre to
Uruguayana, the Santa Maria to Passo Fundo, and the Porto
Alegre to Nova Hamburgo railways, with their branches and
connexions, and it was decided to establish the general admini-
stration offices for the whole system at Santa Maria. The shops
and offices of the Porto Alegre to Uruguayana line had been
removed to that place in 1902.
SANTA MARIA DI LICODIA SANTANDER
189
SANTA MARIA DI LICODIA, a village of Sicily, in the province
of Catania, 18 m. N.W. of Catania by rail, on the S.W. slopes of
MountEtna. Pop. (1901) 4101. It is believed to occupy the site
of the ancient Aetna, a settlement founded by the colonists
whom Hiero I. had placed at Catania after their expulsion by the
original inhabitants in 461 B.C., which absorbed or incorporated
an already existing Sicel town named Inessa. Its subsequent
history is uneventful, though it suffered from the exactions of
Verres; and its inscriptions are unimportant. A large hoard
of coins was found here in 1891. Near it, in a district called
Civita, is a large elliptical area of about 1300 by 380 yds., en-
closed by a wall of masses of lava, which is about 28 ft. wide
at the base, and u ft. high. The ground is covered with frag-
ments of tiles and pottery of the classical period, and it is probably
a hastily built encampment of historic times rather than a
primitive fortification, as there are no prehistoric traces (Orsi
in Notizie degli scavi, 1903, 442).
See Casagrandi, Su due antiche cittH sictde Vessa ed Inessa
(Acireale, 1892).
SANTA MARTA, a city and port of Colombia and the capital
of a department of the same name, on a small bay 40 m. E.N.E.
of the mouth of the Magdalena river. Pop. (1908) about 6500.
It is built partly on the beach and partly on the slopes of the
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta towards the S.E. Though small,
the harbour is one of the best and safest on the coast, as no river
flows into it to fill its anchorage with silt. The depth ranges
from 18 to 19 fathoms at the entrance to 45 fathoms along the
inner shore line. The city is an episcopal see and has a
cathedral. A railway (23 m.) runs southward a little beyond
Cienaga (on a large lagoon of the same name), connects with
steamers running to Barranquilla (50 m. farther) by way of the
lagoon and inland channels, and is to be extended to San
Carlos, farther S., as the fruit-growing industry of this region is
developed.
Santa Marta was founded by Rodrigo de Bastidas in 1525,
and became an important port and centre of trade during the
Spanish colonial era. It was also a base of operations in the
exploration and conquest of the interior.
SANTA MAURA, or LEUCADIA (Aeu/caSa, ancient Aeu/cds), one
of the Ionian Islands, with an area of no sq. m. and a population
of about 30,000. It lies off the coast of Acarnania (Greece),
immediately south of the entrance to the Gulf of Arta. The
shallow strait separating it. from the mainland is liable to be
blocked by sand-banks; a canal was cut through these in the
7th century B.C. by the Corinthians, and was again after a long
period of disuse opened up by the Romans.
During the British occupation a canal for boats of 4 to 5 ft.
draught was formed from Fort Santa Maura to the town, but the
16 ft. deep ship canal which it was proposed (1844) to carry right
across the lagoon or submerged isthmus to Fort Alexander was only
partially excavated. In 1903, however, a canal was completed
rendering navigable the channel between the island and the main-
land. Its breadth is 50 ft. and its depth 17 ft. Santa Maura,
measuring about 20 m. from north to south and 5 to 8 m. in breadth,
is a rugged mass of limestone and bituminous shales (partly Tertiary),
rising in its principal ridges to heights of 2000 and 3000 ft. and
presenting very limited areas of level ground. The grain crop
suffices only for a few months' local consumption ; but considerable
quantities of olive oil of good quality are produced. The vineyards
(in the west especially) yield much red wine (bought mainly by
Rouen, Cette, Trieste and Venice) ; the currant, introduced about
1859, has gradually come to be the principal source of wealth (the
crop averaging 2,500,000 Ib) ; and small quantities of cotton, flax,
tobacco, valonia, &c., are also grown. The salt trade, formerly of
importance, has suffered fromiGreek customs regulations. The
chief town (5000 inhabitants), properly called Amaxikhi or Hamaxichi
but more usually Santa Maura, after the neighbouring fort, is situated
at the N.E. end of the island opposite the lagoon. In the S.W. is
the village of Vasiliki, whence the currant crop is exported.
Remains of Cyclopean and polygonal walls exist at Kaligoni
(south of Amaxikhi), probably the site of the ancient acropolis
of Neritus (or Nericus), and of the later and lower Corinthian
settlement of Leucas. From this point a Roman bridge seems
to have crossed to the mainland. Between the town and Fort
Santa Maura extends a remarkably fine Turkish aqueduct partly
destroyed along with the town by the earthquake of 1825.
Forts Alexander and Constantine commanding the bridge are
relics of the Russian occupation; the other forts are of Turko-
Venetian origin. The magnificent cliff, some 2000 ft. high, which
forms the southern termination of the modern island still bears
the substructions of the temple of Apollo Leucatas (hence the
modern name Capo Ducato). At the annual festival of Apollo
a criminal was obliged to plunge from the summit into the sea,
where, however, an effort was made to pick him up; and it was
by the same heroic leap that Sappho and Artemisia, daughter of
Lygdamis, are said to have ended their lives.
A theory has been proposed by Professor Dorpfeld that Leucas
is the island described in the Odyssey under the name of Ithaca;
in support of this theory he quotes the fact that the Homeric
description of the island and its position, and also the identifica-
tion of such sites as the palace of Odysseus, the harbour of
Phorcys, the grotto of the Nymphs and the island Asteris,
where the suitors lay in wait for Telemachus, suit Leucas far
better than the island called Ithaca in classical and modern times.
See under CORFU; also P. Goessler, Leukas-Ithaka (Stuttgart,
1904).
SANTANDER.'a maritime province of northern Spain, bounded
N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by the province of Biscay, S. by
Burgos and Palencia, and W. by Leon and Oviedo. Pop. (1900)
276,003; area 2108 sq. m. The province is traversed from east
to west by the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.), which in the Penas de
Europa reach a height of over 8600 ft., and send off numerous
branches to the sea. On the north side of the range the streams
are all short, the principal being the Ason, the Miera, the Pas,
the Besaya, the Saja and the Nansa, which flow into the Bay of
Biscay; part of the province lies south of the watershed, and
is drained by the upper Ebro (q.v.). The province is- traversed
from north to south by the railway and high road from Santander
by Palencia to Madrid ; the highest point on the railway (Venta
de Pazozal) is 3229 ft. above the sea. Other railways connect
Santander with Bilbao on the east and with Cabezona de la Sal
on the west; there are also many good state, provincial and
municipal roads, besides several narrow-gauge mining railways.
Santander was part of the Roman province of Cantabria,
which, after passing under the empire of the Goths, became the
principality of Asturias (q.v.). The portion called Asturia de
Santa Juliana, or Santillana, was included in the kingdom of Old
Castile, and, on the subdivision of the old provinces of Spain in
1833, became the province of Santander.
SANTANDER (ancient Portus Blendium or Fanum S. Andreae),
the capital of the Spanish province of Santander, the seat of a
bishop and one of the chief seaports of Spain; 316 m. by rail N.
of Madrid, in 43 27' N. and 3 47' W., on the Bay of Santander,
an inlet of the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1900) 54,564- It is situated
on the inside of a rocky peninsula, Cabo Mayor, which shelters
a magnificent harbour from 2 to 3 m. wide and 4 m. long. The
entrance is at the eastern extremity of the promontory, and is
deep, broad, and illuminated by lighthouses on Cabo Mayor and
the rocky islet of Mouro. Santander is the terminus of railways
from Valladolid and Bilbao, of a branch line from Cabezona de
la Sal, and of several mining railways. It is divided into an
upper and a lower town. The cathedral, originally Gothic of
the I3th century, has been so altered that little of the old work
remains. In the crypt, or Capilla del Cristo de Abajo, is an
interesting font of Moorish workmanship. The castle of San
Felice contains a prison, which was one of the first examples of
the radiating system of construction. The city is essentially
modern; its principal buildings are the markets, barracks,
theatre, bull-ring, clubs, civil and military governors' residences,
custom house, hospitals, nautical school, ecclesiastical seminary,
and training school for teachers. Many of the houses on the bay
front and public buildings were restored after the catastrophe
of the 3rd of November 1893, when the steamer " Cabo Machi-
chaco," laden with 1 700 cases of dynamite, blew up near the quay.
The harbour was greatly improved during the second half of
the i gth century. In the same period the population nearly
trebled, and there was a corresponding development of commerce
and manufactures.
192
SANTIAGO DE CUBA
a city of N.W. Spain, in the province of Corunna; at the northern
terminus of a railway from Tuy, near the confluence of the Sar
and Sarela rivers, and 32 m. S. by W. of the city of Corunna.
Pop. (1900) 24,120. Santiago is built on the eastern slope of
Monte Pedroso, surrounded by the mountains which draw down
the incessant rain that gives the granite buildings of its deserted
streets an extra tint of melancholy and decay. Its annual
rainfall is 66 in., a total rarely exceeded on the mainland of
Europe. The city was formerly the capital of Galicia; it gives
its name to one of the four military orders of Spain, which rank
as follows: Compostela, Calatrava, Alcantara and Montesa;
and it is still the seat of a university and of an archbishopric,
which long disputed the claim of Toledo to the primacy of all
Spain. In the middle ages its shrine, which contained the body
of St James the Great, was one of the most famous in Europe;
so numerous were the pilgrims that the popular Spanish name
for the Milky Way is El Camino de Santiago, or " The Santiago
Road." The city became, in fact, the focus of all the art and
chivalry of neighbouring Christendom, and a spot where con-
flicting interests could meet on neutral ground. The Congrega-
tion of Rites declared in 1884 that the cathedral still enshrines
the veritable body of the apostle, and few places of pilgrimage in
Europe are more frequented. The city contains many hospitals
and other charitable institutions, which are open to the pilgrims.
In 1900 its ecclesiastical buildings numbered forty-six. Its chief
industries, apart from agriculture, are brewing, distillation of
spirits and the manufacture of linen, paper, soap, chocolate and
matches. The city has also been long celebrated for its silver-
smiths' work.
The belief that St James had preached in Spain was certainly
current before A.D. 400. The relics of the saint were said, though
the tradition cannot be traced back farther than to the I2th
century, to have been discovered in 835 by Theodomir, bishop of
Iria, who was guided to the spot by a star. Hence Compostela is
regarded by some authorities as a corruption of Campus Stellae,
" Plain of the Star "; others derive it from San Jacome Apostol.
According to the legend a chapel was forthwith erected, and
the bishopric was transferred thither by a special bull of Pope
Leo III. A more substantial building was begun in 868, but
was totally destroyed in 997 by the Moors, who, however,
respected the sacred relics. On the reconquest of the city by
Bermudo III. the roads were improved, and pilgrims began to
flock to the shrine, which fast grew in reputation.
In 1078 the erection of the present cathedral was begun during the
episcopate of Diego Pelaez, and was" continued until 1 1 88, when the
western doorway was completed. Minor additions prolonged the
work until 1211, when the cathedral was consecrated. It is a
cruciform Romanesque building, and keeps its original form in the
interior, but is disfigured externally by much poor late work. Besides
the classic dome and clock-tower, the two western towers have been
raised to a height of 220 ft. and crowned with cupolas, and between
them has been erected a classic portico, above which is a niche
containing a statue of St James. The facade was the work of Fer-
nando Casas y Noboa in 1738, and the statue was by Ventura
Rodriguez in 1764. The design is mediocre, and gains its chief
effect from forming part of an extended architectural composition
on the Plaza Mayor, a grand square surrounded by public buildings.
The ground rises to the cathedral, which is reached by a magnificent
quadruple flight of steps, flanked by statues of David and Solomon.
Access to the staircase is through some fine wrought-iron gates, and
in the centre, on the level of the Plaza, is the entrance to a Roman-
esque chapel, La Iglesia Baja, constructed under the portico and
contemporary with the cathedral. To the north and south, and in a
line with the west front, are dependent buildings of the i8th century,
grouping well with it. Those to the south contain a light and elegant
arcade to the upper windows, and serve as a screen to the cloisters,
built in 1533 by Fonseca, afterwards archbishop of Toledo. They
are said to be the largest in Spain, and are a fair example of the
latest Gothic. The delicate sculpture over the heads of the windows
and along the wall of the cloister is very noticeable. On the north
of the cathedral is the Plazuela S. Juan, where the peasants collect
to do their marketing. Here is the convent of S. Martin, built in
1636, which, after serving as a barrack, is now used as an ecclesi-
astical seminary, restored to the church. It has a tolerable cloister
and bell-tower. The north side of the cathedral is much overlaid
by the ugly and extravagant ornamentation styled, after its chief
Spanish exponent Churriguera (d. 1715), Churrigueresque work.
The same treatment has been applied to the east end, where is the
Puerta Santa; this gate is kept closed, except in jubilee years, when
it is opened by the archbishop. The corner of the south transept on
the Plaza de los Plateros has been mutilated by the erection of the
clock-tower, but the facade is intact. Perhaps the chief beauty of
the cathedral, however, is the Portico de la Gloria, behind the western
classic portal. It is a work of the 1 2th century, and probably the
utmost development of which round-arched Gothic is capable. The
shafts, tympana and archivolts of the three doorways which open
on to the nave and aisles are a mass of strong and nervous sculpture.
The design is a general representation of the Last Judgment, and the
subjects are all treated with a quaint grace which shows the work of
a real artist. Faint traces of colour remain and give a tone to the
whole work. It is probable that, until the erection of the present
grand staircase, the portico could not be reached from the Plaza,
but stood open to the air. There are no marks of doors in the jambs,
and the entrance to the chapel beneath would have been blocked
by any staircase which differed much in plan from the present one.
The interior of the church is one of the purest and best examples of
Romanesque work to be met with in Spain. The absence of a
clerestory throws an impressive gloom over the barrel-vaulted roof,
which makes the building seem larger than it is. A passage leads
from the north transept to the Parroquia of San Juan, or LaCorticela,
a small but interesting portion of the original foundation. Many
fine examples of metal work are in the cathedral, as, for instance,
the two bronze ambos in the choir by Juan B. Celma of 1563, the
gilt chandeliers of 1763 and the enamelled shrines of Sts Cucufato
and Fructuoso. The great censer which hangs from the cathedral
roof, and is swung by an iron chain, is about 6 ft. high. In the
Capilla del Relicano are a gold crucifix, dated 874, containing a piece
of the true cross, and a silver gilt custodia of 1544.
The Hospicio de los Reyes, on the north of the Plaza Mayor, for
the reception of pilgrims, was begun in 1504 by Enrique de Egas
under Ferdinand and Isabella. It consists of two Gothic and two
classic courtyards with a chapel in the centre. The gateway is fine,
and there is some vigorous carving in the courtyards, one of whick
contains a graceful fountain. The suppressed Colegio de Fonseca
and the adjoining convent of S. Gerommo have good Renaissance
doorways. The university, which was created in 1504 by a bull of
Pope Julius II., has a library containing 60,000 volumes and several
MSS., many valuable and one dating from 788. Those of the Semi-
nario (1777) have no merit. The chapel of the convent of S. Fran-
cisco, the cloisters of the half-ruined S. Augustin, the belfry of S.
Domingo, the church of S. Feliz de Celorio, modernized I4th
century, and the facades of several houses of the I2th and I3th
centuries are also good examples of different architectural styles.
SANTIAGO DE CUBA, a city and seaport of Cuba, on the S.
coast of the E. end of the island, capital of the province of
Oriente, and next to Havana the most important city of the
Republic. Pop. (1907) 45,470, of whom 56-7% was coloured
and 13-6% was foreign-born. It is connected by the Cuba
railway with Havana, 540 m. to the W.N.W.; short railways
extend into the interior through gaps in the mountains north-
ward; and there are steamer connexions with other Cuban ports
and with New York and Europe.
Santiago is situated about 6 m. inland on a magnificent land-
locked bay (6 m. long and 3 m. wide), connected with the Caribbean
Sea by a long, narrow, winding channel with rocky escarpment
walls, in places less than 200 yds. apart. The largest vessels have
ready entrance to the harbour which has a periphery of 15 m. or
more in length but direct access to the wharves is impossible for
those of more than moderate draft (about 14 ft.). Smith Key, an
island used as a watering-place, divides it into an outer and an inner
basin. To the E. of the sea portal stand the Morro, a picturesque
fort (built 1633 seq.), on a jutting point 200 ft. above the water,
and the Estrella; and to the W. the Socapa. West of the harbour
are low hills, to the E. precipitous cliffs, and N. and N.E., below the
superb background of the Sierra Maestra, is an amphitheatre of
hills, over which the city straggles in tortuous streets. The houses
are almost all of one storey, built in the quaint style of southern
Spain, with red-tile roofs, and the better ones with verandas and
court gardens. There is a promenade along the harbour and a
botanical garden. Facing the Plaza de Cespedes (once Plaza de
la Reina and then Plaza de Armas) are hotels and clubs, the large
municipal building formerly the governor's palace (1855 seq.)
and the cathedral. In the cathedral, which is in better taste than
the cathedral of Havana, Diego Velazquez (c. 14601524), conqueror
of Cuba, was buried. It has suffered much from earthquakes and
has been extensively repaired. Probably the oldest building in Cuba
is the convent of San Francisco (a church since the secularization of
the religious orders in 1841), which dates in part from the first half
of the i6th century. The 18th-century Filarmonia theatre is now
dilapidated. The other public buildings are hardly noteworthy.
Great improvements have been made in the city since the end of
colonial rule, especially as regards the streets, the water-supply
and other public works, and sanitation. On a hill overlooking the
city is a beautiful school-house of native limestone, erected by the
American military government as a model for the rest of the island.
Santiago is the hottest city of Cuba (mean temperature in winter
SANTIAGO DE LAS VEGAS SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO 193
about 82 F., in summer about 88), owing mainly to the mountains
that shut off the breezes from the E. There is superb mountain
scenery on the roads to El Caney and San Luis (pop. 1907, 3441), in
the thickly populated valley of the Cauto. In the barren mountain-
ous country surrounding the city are valuable mines of iron, copper
and manganese. On these the prosperity of the province largely
depends. There are also foundries, soap-works, tan-yards and cigar
factories. The city has an important trade with the interior, with
other Cuban ports, and to a less extent with New York and European
ports. Mineral ores, tobacco and cigars, coffee, cacao, sugar and rum
and cabinet-woods are the main articles of export. Copper ore was
once exported in as great quantities as 25,000 tons annually, but
the best days of the mines were in the middle of the igth century.
The mines of Cobre, a few miles W. of Santiago, have an interesting
history. They were first worked for the government by slaves,
which were freed in 1799.
History. Santiago is less important politically under the
Republic than it was when Cuba was a Spanish dependency. The
place was founded in 1514 by Diego Velazquez, and the capital
of the island was removed thither from Baracoa. Its splendid
bay, and easy communication with the capital of Santo Domingo,
then the seat of government of the Indies, determined its original
importance. From Santiago in 1518-1519 departed the historic
expeditions of Juan de Grijalva, Hernan Cortes and Pamfilo de
Narvaez the last of 18 vessels and noo men of arms, excluding
sailors. So important already was the city that its ayuntamiento
had the powers of a Spanish city of the second class. In 1522 it
received the arms and title of ciudad, and its church was made
the cathedral of the island (Baracoa losing the honour). But
before 1550 the drain of military expeditions to the continent,
the quarrels of civil, military and ecclesiastical powers, and of
citizens, and the emigration of colonists to the Main (not in
small part due to the abolition of the encomiendas of the Indians) ,
produced a fatal decadence. In 1589 Havana became the
capital. Santiago was occupied and plundered by French
corsairs in 1553, and again by a British military force from
Jamaica in 1662. The capture of that island had caused an
immigration of Spanish refugees to Santiago that greatly in-
creased its importance; and the illicit trade to the same island
mainly in hides and cattle that flourished from this time on-
ward was a main prop of prosperity. From 1607 to 1826 the
island was divided into two departments, with Santiago as the
capital of the E. department under a governor who until 1801
in political matters received orders direct from the crown. After
1826 Santiago was simply the capital of a province. In July 1741
a British squadron from Jamaica under Admiral Edward Vernon
and General Thomas Wentworth landed at Guantanamo (which
they named Cumberland Bay) and during four months operated
unsuccessfully against Santiago. The climate made great ravages
among the British, who lost perhaps 2000 out of 5000 men. The
bishopric became an archbishopric in 1788, when a suffragan
bishopric was established at Havana. J. B. Vaillant (governor
in 1788-1796) and J. N. Quintana (governor in 1796-1799) did
much to improve the city and encourage literature. After the
cession of Santo Domingo to France, and after the French
evacuation of that island, thousands of refugees settled in and
about Santiago. They founded coffee and sugar plantations
and gave a great impulse to trade. The population in 1827 was
about 27,000. There were destructive earthquakes in 167 5, 1679,
1766 and 1852. Dr Francesco Antommarchi (1780-1838), the
physician who attended Napoleon in his last illness, died in
Santiago, and a monument in the cemetery commemorates his
benefactions to the poor. In the igth century some striking
historical events are associated with Santiago. One was the
" Virginius " affair. The " Virginius " was a blockade-runner
in the Civil War; it became a prize of the Federal government,
by which it was sold in 1870 to an American, J. F. Patterson,
who immediately registered it in the New York Custom House.
It later appeared that Patterson was merely acting for a number
of Cuban insurgents. On the 3ist of October, then commanded
by Joseph Fry, a former officer of the Federal and Confederate
navies, and having a crew of fifty-two (chiefly Americans and
Englishmen) and 103 passengers (mostly Cubans), she was
captured off Morant Bay, Jamaica, by the Spanish vessel
" Tornado," and was taken to Santiago, where, after a summary
xxiv. 7
court-martial, 53 of the crew and passengers, including Fry and
some Americans and Englishmen, were executed on the 4th, 7th
and 8th of November. Relations between Spain and the United
States became strained, and war seemed imminent; but on the
8th of December the Spanish government agreed to surrender
the " Virginius " on the i6th, to deliver the survivors of the crew
and passengers to an American war-ship at Santiago, and to salute
the American flag at Santiago on the 25th if it should not be
proved before that date that the " Virginius " was not entitled
to sail under American colours. The " Virginius " foundered off
Cape Hatteras as she was being brought to the United States. The
Attorney-General of the United States decided before the 25th
that the " Virginius " was the property of General Quesada and
other Cubans, and had had no right to carry the American flag.
Under an agreement of the 27th of February 1875, the Spanish
government paid to the United States an indemnity of $80,000
for the execution of the Americans, and an indemnity was also
paid to the British government. 1 The most notable military and
naval events (in Cuba) of the Spanish-American War (q.v.) of 1898
took place at and near Santiago. Monuments commemorate the
actions at El Caney and San Juan Hill.
SANTIAGO DE LAS VEGAS, an inland city of Havana
province, Cuba, about 12 m. S. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6462.
Tobacco is the principal industry. An agricultural experiment
station is maintained here by the Cuban government. The
town dates from 1688, when a church was built for a colony of
tobacco cultivators of the neighbourhood. In 1721 it received
the title and privileges of a villa, and in 1824 those of a
ciudad.
SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO, a province of Argentina, bounded
N. by Salta' and the Chaco territory, E. by the Chaco and Santa
Fe, S. by Cordoba, and W. by Catamarca, Tucuman and Salta.
Area 39,764 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 161,502; (1904, estimated)
186,205, chiefly Christianized Indians. The surface of the
province is flat and low, chiefly open plains thinly covered with
grass. There are forests in the W. and N., extensive swamps
along the river courses and large saline areas, especially in the
S.W. The Salado (called Pasage, and Juramento in Salta)
crosses the province from N.W. to S.E. and empties into the
Parana, and the Duke, or Saladillo, which has its sources in the
Sierra de Aconquija, crosses the province in the same general
direction, and is lost in the great saline swamps of Porongos,
on the Cordoba frontier. The climate is extremely hot, the
maximum temperature being 111 (Mulhall), minimum 32,
and the mean annual 71, with an annual rainfall of 25 in.
Sugar, wheat, alfalfa, Indian corn, tobacco and hides are the
principal products, and cotton, which was grown here under
the Incas, is still produced. The province is traversed by the
Tucuman extension of the Buenos Aires and Rosario railway,
by a French line from Santa F6 to Tucuman, and by a branch of
the Central Northern (Cordoba section) railway.
The provincial capital, SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO, is on the left
bank of the Rio Dulce, 745 m. N.W. of Buenos Aires, with
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1904, estimated) 12,000,
chiefly of Indian descent. The city stands on a level open
plain, 520 ft. above sea-level, and in the vicinity of large
swamps (esteros) bordering the Rio Dulce, from which its
name is derived. There are a number of interesting old
buildings in the city a government house, several churches, a
Jesuit college, a Franciscan convent and a girls' orphanage.
The city was founded in 1553 by Francisco de Aguirre and was
the first capital of the province of Tucuman, the earliest settled
of the La Plata provinces. In 1615 the cathedral was accidentally
burnt and the bishop removed to Cordoba. The city has suffered
much through inundations from the Rio Dulce, and from frequent
local revolutions caused by misgovernment and the struggles of
rival factions. In 1663 an inundation carried away half the
capital, and the population was so reduced that in 1680 the seat
of government was removed to San Miguel, now Tucuman.
In 1820 Santiago del Estero became a separate province.
1 See F. E. Chadwick, The Relations between the United States and
Spain: Diplomacy (New York, 1909).
SANTIAGO DE CUBA
a city of N.W. Spain, in the province of Corunna; at the northern
terminus of a railway from Tuy, near the confluence of the Sar
and Sarela rivers, and 32 m. S. by W. of the city of Corunna.
Pop. (1900) 24,120. Santiago is built on the eastern slope of
Monte Pedroso, surrounded by the mountains which draw down
the incessant rain that gives the granite buildings of its deserted
streets an extra tint of melancholy and decay. Its annual
rainfall is 66 in., a total rarely exceeded on the mainland of
Europe. The city -was formerly the capital of Galicia; it gives
its name to one of the four military orders of Spain, which rank
as follows: Compostela, Calatrava, Alcantara and Montesa;
and it is still the seat of a university and of an archbishopric,
which long disputed the claim of Toledo to the primacy of all
Spain. In the middle ages its shrine, which contained the body
of St James the Great, was one of the most famous in Europe;
so numerous were the pilgrims that the popular Spanish name
for the Milky Way is El Camino de Santiago, or " The Santiago
Road." The city became, in fact, the focus of all the art and
chivalry of neighbouring Christendom, and a spot where con-
flicting interests could meet on neutral ground. The Congrega-
tion of Rites declared in 1884 that the cathedral still enshrines
the veritable body of the apostle, and few places of pilgrimage in
Europe are more frequented. The city contains many hospitals
and other charitable institutions, which are open to the pilgrims.
In 1900 its ecclesiastical buildings numbered forty-six. Its chief
industries, apart from agriculture, are brewing, distillation of
spirits and the manufacture of linen, paper, soap, chocolate and
matches. The city has also been long celebrated for its silver-
smiths' work.
The belief that St James had preached in Spain was certainly
current before A.D. 400. The relics of the saint were said, though
the tradition cannot be traced back farther than to the i2th
century, to have been discovered in 835 by Theodomir, bishop of
Iria, who was guided to the spot by a star. Hence Compostela is
regarded by some authorities as a corruption of Campus Stellae,
" Plain of the Star "; others derive it from San Jacome A postal.
According to the legend a chapel was forthwith erected, and
the bishopric was transferred thither by a special bull of Pope
Leo III. A more substantial building was begun in 868, but
was totally destroyed in 997 by the Moors, who, however,
respected the sacred relics. On the reconquest of the city by
Bermudo III. the roads were improved, and pilgrims began to
flock to the shrine, which fast grew in reputation.
In 1078 the erection of the present cathedral was begun during the
episcopate of Diego Pelaez, and was continued until 1188, when the
western doorway was completed. Minor additions prolonged the
work until 1211, when the cathedral was consecrated. It is a
cruciform Romanesque building, and keeps its original form in the
interior, but is disfigured externally by much poor late work. Besides
the classic dome and clock-tower, the two western towers have been
raised to a height of 220 ft. and crowned with cupolas, and between
them has been erected a classic portico, above which is a niche
containing a statue of St James. The facade was the work of Fer-
nando Casas y Noboa in 1758, and the statue was by Ventura
Rodriguez in 1764. The design is mediocre, and gains its chief
effect from forming part of an extended architectural composition
on the Plaza Mayor, a grand square surrounded by public buildings.
The ground rises to the cathedral, which is reached by a magnificent
quadruple flight of steps, flanked by statues of David and Solomon.
Access to the staircase is through some fine wrought-iron gates, and
in the centre, on the level of the Plaza, is the entrance to a Roman-
esque chapel, La Iglcsia Baja, constructed under the portico and
contemporary with the cathedral. To the north and south, and in a
line with the west front, are dependent buildings of the i8th century,
grouping well with it. Those to the south contain a light and elegant
arcade to the upper windows, and serve as a screen to the cloisters,
built in 1533 by Fonseca, afterwards archbishop of Toledo. They
are said to be the largest in Spain, and are a fair example of the
latest Gothic. The delicate sculpture over the heads of the windows
and along the wall of the cloister is very noticeable. On the north
of the cathedral is the Plazuela S. Juan, where the peasants collect
to do their marketing. Here is the convent of S. Martin, built in
1636, which, after serving as a barrack, is now used as an ecclesi-
astical seminary, restored to the church. It has a tolerable cloister
and bell-tower. The north side of the cathedral is much overlaid
by the ugly and extravagant ornamentation styled, after its chief
Spanish exponent Churriguera (d. 1715), Churrigueresque work.
The same treatment has been applied to the east end, where is the
Puerta Santa; this gate is kept closed, except in jubilee years, when
it is opened by the archbishop. The corner of the south transept on
the Plaza de los Plateros has been mutilated by the erection of the
clock-tower, but the facade is intact. Perhaps the chief beauty of
the cathedral, however, is the Portico de la Gloria, behind the western
classic portal. It is a work of the 1 2th century, and probably the
utmost development of which round-arched Gothic is capable. The
shafts, tympana and archivolts of the three doorways which open
on to the nave and aisles are a mass of strong and nervous sculpture.
The design is a general representation of the Last Judgment, and the
subjects are all treated with a quaint grace which shows the work of
a real artist. Faint traces of colour remain and give a tone to the
whole work. It is probable that, until the erection of the present
grand staircase, the portico could not be reached from the Plaza,
but stood open to the air. There are no marks of doors in the jambs,
and the entrance to the chapel beneath would have been blocked
by any staircase which differed much in plan from the present one.
The interior of the church is one of the purest and best examples of
Romanesque work to be met with in Spain. The absence of a
clerestory throws an impressive gloom over the barrel-vaulted roof,
which makes the building seem larger than it is. A passage leads
from the north transept to the Parroquia of San Juan, or LaCorticela,
a small but interesting portion of the original foundation. Many
fine examples of metal work are in the cathedral, as, for instance,
the two bronze ambos in the choir by Juan B. Celma of 1563, the
gilt chandeliers of 1763 and the enamelled shrines of Sts Cucufato
and Fructuoso. The great censer which hangs from the cathedral
roof, and is swung by an iron chain, is about 6 ft. high. In the
Capilla del Relicano are a gold crucifix, dated 874, containing a piece
of the true cross, and a silver gilt custodia of 1544.
The Hospicio de los Reyes, on the north of the Plaza Mayor, for
the reception of pilgrims, was begun in 1504 by Enrique de Egas
under Ferdinand and Isabella. It consists of two Gothic and two
classic courtyards with a chapel in the centre. The gateway is fine,
and there is some vigorous carving in the courtyards, one of whick
contains a graceful fountain. The suppressed Colegio de Fonseca
and the adjoining convent of S. Gerommo have good Renaissance
doorways. The university, which was created in 1504 by a bull of
Pope Julius II., has a library containing 60,000 volumes and several
MSS., many valuable and one dating from 788. Those of the Semi-
nario (1777) have no merit. The chapel of the convent of S. Fran-
cisco, the cloisters of the half-ruined S. Augustin, the belfry of S.
Domingo, the church of S. Feliz de Celorio, modernized I4th
century, and the facades of several houses of the I2th and I3th
centuries are also good examples of different architectural styles.
SANTIAGO DE CUBA, a city and seaport of Cuba, on the S.
coast of the E. end of the island, capital of the province of
Oriente, and next to Havana the most important city of the
Republic. Pop. (1907) 45,470, of whom 56-7% was coloured
and 13-6% was foreign-born. It is connected by the Cuba
railway with Havana, 540 m. to the W.N.W. ; short railways
extend into the interior through gaps in the mountains north-
ward ; and there are steamer connexions with other Cuban ports
and with New York and Europe.
Santiago is situated about 6 m. inland on a magnificent land-
locked bay (6 m. long and 3 m. wide), connected with the Caribbean
Sea by a long, narrow, winding channel with rocky escarpment
walls, in places less than 200 yds. apart. The largest vessels have
ready entrance to the harbour which has a periphery of 15 m. or
more in length but direct access to the wharves is impossible for
those of more than moderate draft (about 14 ft.). Smith Key, an
island used as a watering-place, divides it into an outer and an inner
basin. To the E. of the sea portal stand the Morro, a picturesque
fort (built 1633 seq.), on a jutting point 200 ft. above the water,
and the Estrella; and to the W. the Socapa. West of the harbour
are low hills, to the E. precipitous cliffs, and N. and N.E., below the
superb background of the Sierra Maestra, is an amphitheatre of
hills, over which the city straggles in tortuous streets. The houses
are almost all of one storey, uuilt in the quaint style of southern
Spain, with red-tile roofs, and the better ones with verandas and
court gardens. There is a promenade along the harbour and a
botanical garden. Facing the Plaza de Cespedes (once Plaza de
la Reina and then Plaza de Armas) are hotels and clubs, the large
municipal building formerly the governor's palace (1855 seq.)
and the cathedral. In the cathedral, which is in better taste than
the cathedral of Havana, Diego Velazquez (c. 1460-1524), conqueror
of Cuba, was buried. It has suffered much from earthquakes and
has been extensively repaired. Probably the oldest building in Cuba
is the convent of San Francisco (a church since the secularization of
the religious orders in 1841), which dates in part from the first half
of the i6th century. The 18th-century Filarmonia theatre is now
dilapidated. The other public buildings are hardly noteworthy.
Great improvements have been made in the city since the end of
colonial rule, especially as regards the streets, the water-supply
and other public works, and sanitation. On a hill overlooking the
city is a beautiful school-house of native limestone, erected by the
American military government as a model for the rest of the island.
Santiago is the hottest city of Cuba (mean temperature in winter
SANTIAGO DE LAS VEGAS SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO 193
about 82 F., in summer about 88), owing mainly to the mountains
that shut off the breezes from the E. There is superb mountain
scenery on the roads to El Caney and San Luis (pop. 1907, 3441), in
the thickly populated valley of the Cauto. In the barren mountain-
ous country surrounding the city are valuable mines of iron, copper
and manganese. On these the prosperity of the province largely
depends. There are also foundries, soap-works, tan-yards and cigar
factories. The city has an important trade with the interior, with
other Cuban ports, and to a less extent with New York and European
ports. Mineral ores, tobacco and cigars, coffee, cacao, sugar and rum
and cabinet-woods are the main articles of export. Copper ore was
once exported in as great quantities as 25,000 tons annually, but
the best days of the mines were in the middle of the igth century.
The mines of Cobre, a few miles W. of Santiago, have an interesting
history. They were first worked for the government by slaves,
which were freed in 1799.
History. Santiago is less important politically under the
Republic than it was when Cuba was a Spanish dependency. The
place was founded in 1514 by Diego Velazquez, and the capital
of the island was removed thither from Baracoa. Its splendid
bay, and easy communication with the capital of Santo Domingo,
then the seat of government of the Indies, determined its original
importance. From Santiago in 1518-1519 departed the historic
expeditions of Juan de Grijalva, Hernan Cortes and Pamfilo de
Narvaez the last of 18 vessels and noo men of arms, excluding
sailors. So important already was the city that its ayuntamiento
had the powers of a Spanish city of the second class. In 1522 it
received the arms and title of ciudad, and its church was made
the cathedral of the island (Baracoa losing the honour). But
before 1550 the drain of military expeditions to the continent,
the quarrels of civil, military and ecclesiastical powers, and of
citizens, and the emigration of colonists to the Main (not in
small part due to the abolition of the encomiendas of the Indians) ,
produced a fatal decadence. In 1589 Havana became the
capital. Santiago was occupied and plundered by French
corsairs in 1553, and again by a British military force from
Jamaica in 1662. The capture of that island had caused an
immigration of Spanish refugees to Santiago that greatly in-
creased its importance; and the illicit trade to the same island-
mainly in hides and cattle that flourished from this time on-
ward was a main prop of prosperity. From 1607 to 1826 the
island was divided into two departments, with Santiago as the
capital of the E. department under a governor who until 1801
in political matters received orders direct from the crown. After
i826Santiago was simply the capital of a province. In July 1741
a British squadron from Jamaica under Admiral Edward Vernon
and General Thomas Wentworth landed at Guantanamo (which
they named Cumberland Bay) and during four months operated
unsuccessfully against Santiago. The climate made great ravages
among the British, who lost perhaps 2000 out of 5000 men. The
bishopric became an archbishopric in 1788, when a suffragan
bishopric was established at Havana. J. B. Vaillant (governor
in 1788-1796) and J. N. Quintana (governor in 1796-1799) did
much to improve the city and encourage literature. After the
cession of Santo Domingo to France, and after the French
evacuation of that island, thousands of refugees settled in and
about Santiago. They founded coffee and sugar plantations
and gave a great impulse to trade. The population in 1827 was
about 27,000. There were destructive earthquakes in 1675, 1679,
1766 and 1852. Dr Francesco Antommarchi (1780-1838), the
physician who attended Napoleon in his last illness, died in
Santiago, and a monument in the cemetery commemorates his
benefactions to the poor. In the igth century some striking
historical events are associated with Santiago. One was the
" Virginius " affair. The " Virginius " was a blockade-runner
in the Civil War; it became a prize of the Federal government,
by which it was sold in 1870 to an American, J. F. Patterson,
who immediately registered it in the New York Custom House.
It later appeared that Patterson was merely acting for a number
of Cuban insurgents. On the 3ist of October, then commanded
by Joseph Fry, a former officer of the Federal and Confederate
navies, and having a crew of fifty-two (chiefly Americans and
Englishmen) and 103 passengers (mostly Cubans), she was
captured off Morant Bay, Jamaica, by the Spanish vessel
" Tornado," and was taken to Santiago, where, after a summary
xxiv. 7
court-martial, 53 of the crew and passengers, including Fry and
some Americans and Englishmen, were executed on the 4th, 7th
and 8th of November. Relations between Spain and the United
States became strained, and war seemed imminent; but on the
8th of December the Spanish government agreed to surrender
the " Virginius " on the i6th, to deliver the survivors of the crew
and passengers to an American war-ship at Santiago, and to salute
the American flag at Santiago on the 25th if it should not be
proved before that date that the " Virginius " was not entitled
to sail under American colours. The " Virginius " foundered off
Cape Hatteras as she was being brought to the United States. The
Attorney-General of the United States decided before the 25th
that the " Virginius " was the property of General Quesada and
other Cubans, and had had no right to carry the American flag.
Under an agreement of the 27th of February 1875, the Spanish
government paid to the United States an indemnity of $80,000
for the execution of the Americans, and an indemnity was also
paid to the British government. 1 The most notable military and
naval events (in Cuba) of the Spanish-American War (?..) of 1898
took place at and near Santiago. Monuments commemorate the
actions at El Caney and San Juan Hill.
SANTIAGO DE LAS VEGAS, an inland city of Havana
province, Cuba, about 12 m. S. of Havana. Pop. (1907) 6462.
Tobacco is the principal industry. An agricultural experiment
station is maintained here by the Cuban government. The
town dates from 1688, when a church was built for a colony of
tobacco cultivators of the neighbourhood. In 1721 it received
the title and privileges of a villa, and in 1824 those of a
ciudad.
SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO, a province of Argentina, bounded
N. by Salta and the Chaco territory, E. by the Chaco and Santa
Fe, S. by Cordoba, and W. by Catamarca, Tucuman and Salta.
Area 39,764 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 161,502; (1904, estimated)
186,205, chiefly Christianized Indians. The surface of the
province is flat and low, chiefly open plains thinly covered with
grass. There are forests in the W. and N., extensive swamps
along the river courses and large saline areas, especially in the
S.W. The Salado (called Pasage, and Juramento in Salta)
crosses the province from N.W. to S.E. and empties into the
Parana, and the Dulce, or Saladillo, which has its sources in the
Sierra de Aconquija, crosses the province in the same general
direction, and is lost in the great saline swamps of Porongos,
on the Cordoba frontier. The climate is extremely hot, the
maximum temperature being m (Mulhall), minimum 32,
and the mean annual 71, with an annual rainfall of 25 in.
Sugar, wheat, alfalfa, Indian corn, tobacco and hides are the
principal products, and cotton, which was grown here under
the Incas, is still produced. The province is traversed by the
Tucuman extension of the Buenos Aires and Rosario railway,
by a French line from Santa F6 to Tucuman, and by a branch of
the Central Northern (Cordoba section) railway.
The provincial capital, SANTIAGO DEL ESTERO, is on the left
bank of the Rio Dulce, 745 m. N.W. of Buenos Aires, with
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1904, estimated) 12,000,
chiefly of Indian descent. The city stands on a level open
plain, 520 ft. above sea-level, and in the vicinity of large
swamps (esteros) bordering the Rio Dulce, from which its
name is derived. There are a number of interesting old
buildings in the city a government house, several churches, a
Jesuit college, a Franciscan convent and a girls' orphanage.
The city was founded in 1553 by Francisco de Aguirre and was
the first capital of the province of Tucuman, the earliest settled
of the La Plata provinces. In 16 1 5 the cathedral was accidentally
burnt and the bishop removed to Cordoba. The city has suffered
much through inundations from the Rio Dulce, and from frequent
local revolutions caused by misgovernment and the struggles of
rival factions. In 1663 an inundation carried away half the
capital, and the population was so reduced that in 1680 the seat
of government was removed to San Miguel, now Tucuman.
In 1820 Santiago del Estero became a separate province.
1 See F. E. Chadwick, The Relations between the United States and
Spain: Diplomacy (New York, 1909).
194
SANTILLANA SANTO DOMINGO
SANTILLANA, ifilGO LOPEZ DE MENDOZA, MARQUIS OF
(1398-1458), Castilian poet, was born at Carrion de los Condes in
Old Castile on the igth of August 1398. His father, Diego
Hurtado de Mendoza, grand admiral of Castile, having died
in 1405, the boy was educated under the eye of his mother,
Dona Leonor de la Vega, a woman of great strength of character.
From his eighteenth year onwards he became an increasingly
prominent figure at the court of Juan II. of Castile, distinguishing
himself in both civil and military service; he was created
marques de Santillana and conde del Real de Manzanares
for the part he took in the battle of Olmedo (igth of May 1455).
In the struggle of the Castilian nobles against the influence of
the constable Alvaro de Luna he showed great moderation,
but in 1452 he joined the combination which effected the fall
of the favourite in the following year. From the death of
Juan II. in 1454 Mendoza took little part in public affairs,
devoting himself mainly to the pursuits of literature and to pious
meditation. He died at Guadalajara on the 25th of March 1458.
Mendoza shares with Juan de Villalpando the distinction of intro-
ducing the sonnet into Castile, but his productions in this class are
conventional metrical exercises. He was much more successful in
the serranitta and vaqueira highland pastorals after the Provengal
manner. His rhymed collection of Praverbios de gloriosa doctrina e
fructuosa ensenanza was prepared for the use of Don Enrique, the
heir-apparent. To the same didactic category belong the hundred
and eighty stanzas entitled Didlogo de Bias contra Fortuna, while the
Doctrinal de Privados is a bitter denunciation of Alvaro de Luna.
The Comedieta de Ponza is a Dantesque dream-dialogue, in octave
stanzas (de arte mayor), founded on the disastrous sea-fight off
Ponza in 1425, when the kings of Aragon and Navarre and the
Infante Enrique were taken prisoners by the Genoese. The three
last-named compositions are the best of Santillana's more ambitious
poems, but they are deficient in the elegant simplicity of the
serranittas. These unpretentious songs are in every Spanish antho-
logy, and are familiar even to uneducated Spaniards.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Obras, edited by Jose Amador de los Rtos
(Madrid, 1852); M. Menfindez y Pelayo, Antologia de poetas liricas
castellanos (Madrid, 1894), vol. v. pp. 78-144; B. Sanvisenti, /
Primi Influssi di Dante, del Petrarca e del Boccaccio sulla letteratura
spagnuola (Milan, 1902), pp. 127-186.
SANTINI, GIOVANNI (1787-1877), Italian astronomer, was
born on the 30th of January 1787 at Caprese, in the province
of Arezzo. He was from 1813 professor of astronomy at the
university and director of the observatory at Padua. He
wrote Elemenfi di astronomia (2 vols. 1820, 2nd ed. 1830),
Teoria degli slromenti ottici (2 vols. 1828), and many scientific
memoirs and notices, among which are five catalogues of tele-
scopic stars between + 10 and - 15 declination, from observa-
tions made at the Padua observatory. He died on the 26th
of June 1877.
See Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 90; Month. Not. Roy. Astr.
Soc., No. 38.
SANTLEY, SIR CHARLES (1834- ), English vocalist,
son of an organist at Liverpool, was born on the z8th of February
1834. He was given a thorough musical education, and having
determined to adopt the career of a singer, he went in 1855 to
Milan and studied under Gaetano Nava. He had a fine baritone
voice, and while in Italy he began singing small parts in
opera. In 1857 he returned to London, and on i6th November
made his first appearance in the part of Adam in The Creation
at St Martin's Hall. In 1858, after appearing in January in
The Creation, he sang the title-part in Elijah in March, both at
Exeter Hall. In 1859 he sang at Covent Garden as Hoel in the
opera Dinorah, and in 1862 he appeared in Italian opera in //
Trovatore. He was then engaged by Mapleson for Her Majesty's,
and his regular connexion with the English operatic stage only
ceased in 1870, when he sang as Vanderdecken in The Flying
Dutchman. His last appearance in opera was in the same
part with the Carl Rosa Company at the Lyceum Theatre in
1876. Meanwhile, in 1861 he sang Elijah at the Birmingham
Festival, and in 1862 was engaged for the Handel Festival
at the Crystal Palace. At the musical festivals and on the
concert stage his success was immense. In such songs as " To
Anthea," " Simon the Cellarer " or " Maid of Athens," he was
unapproachable, and his oratorio singing carried on the finest
traditions of his art. He was knighted in 1907. In 1858 Santley
married Gertrude Kemble, and their daughter, Edith Santley,
had a great success as a concert singer.
SANTO DOMINGO [SAN DOMINGO, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, or
officially REPUBLICA DOMINICANA], a state in the West Indies.
It occupies two-thirds of the island of Haiti (q.v.) and has an
area of about 18,045 sq. m. The administration is in the hands
of three co-ordinate " powers " the executive, the legislative
and the judicial. Under the constitution of 1844, modified in
1879, 1880, 1881, 1887, 1896, and 1908, the president is the head
of the executive. He is chosen by an electoral college and
serves for six years, and he is assisted by a cabinet of seven
ministers. The legislature, called the National Congress, con-
sists of a Senate of 12 members, and a Chamber of Deputies
of 24 members elected for four years by a limited suffrage.
The Supreme Court comprises a chief-justice, six justices
appointed by the Congress, and one justice appointed by the
president. The republic is divided into six provinces and six
maritime districts. Each province and district is administered
by a governor appointed by the Cabinet. There is a small army,
most of which is stationed at the City of Santo Domingo, and
military service is compulsory in the event of foreign war. The
navy consists of one small gun-boat. Primary education is
free and compulsory: elementary schools are supported largely
by the local authorities, and the higher, technical and normal
schools by the government. There is a professional school
with the character and functions of a university. The Roman
Catholic is the state religion, but all others are allowed under
certain restrictions. The monetary unit is a silver coin of the
value of a franc, called the dominicano, but in 1897 the United
States gold dollar was adopted as the standard of value. The
roads in the interior are primitive, but the government encourages
the construction of railways. A line runs between Sanchez
and La Vega, and another between Santiago and Porto Plata.
The republic joined the Postal Union in 1880. The exports
include tobacco, coffee, cacao, sugar, mahogany, logwood, cedar,
satinwood, hides, honey, gum and wax. The collection of the
customs and other revenues specially assigned to the secur-
ance of bonds was in the hands of an American company
until 1899, when this defaulted in the payment of interest
and the government took over the collection. In 1905, to
forestall foreign intervention for securing payment of the State
debt, President Roosevelt made an agreement with Santo
Domingo, under which the United States undertook to adjust
the republic's foreign obligations, and to assume charge of the
customs houses. A treaty was ratified by the United States
Senate in 1907, and an American citizen is temporarily receiver
of customs. In June 1907 the debts amounted to $17,000,000.
Santo Domingo has the finest sugar lands in the West Indies;
tobacco and cacao flourish; the mountain regions are especially
suited to the culture of coffee, and tropical fruits will grow any-
where with a minimum of attention. During the earlier years of the
Spanish occupation gold to the value of 90,000 was sent annually
to Spain, besides much silver. Platinum, manganese, iron, copper,
tin, antimony, opals and chalcedony are also found. In the Neyba
valley there are two remarkable hills, composed of pure rock salt.
Only an influx of capital and an energetic population are needed to
develop these resources.
Santo Domingo, the capital of the republic, is situated on the
south coast. At a distance of 45 m. N. lies the town of Azua (pop.
1500) founded in 1504 by Diego Columbus. It stands in a plain, rich
in salt and asphalt, which was the scene of the first planting of sugar
in the West Indies. Santiago (pop. 12,000), the capital of the Vega
Real, stands on the banks of the Yaqui river, 160 m. N.W. of the
capital, in the richest agricultural district in the state. It controls
the tobacco trade which is chiefly in German and Dutch hands. Its
port, Porto Plata (pop. 15,000), is the outlet of the entire Vega .Real
district. La Vega, perhaps the most beautiful city of Santo Domingo,
lies in the midst of a lovely savanna, or plain, surrounded by well-
wooded hills, and has a magnificent old cathedral. Six miles away
is the Cerro Santo, a hill 787 ft. in height, rising abruptly from the
plain, on the summit of which Columbus planted a great cross on his
first visit in 1493. Seybo (5000), Monti Cristi (3000) and Samana
(1500) are the only other towns of any size. The population of the
republic is about 500,000. The people are mainly mulattoes of
Spanish descent, but there are a considerable number of negroes
and whites of both Creole and European origin. Politically the
SANTO DOMINGO SANTORIN
whites have the predominating influence. The people, on the whole,
are quiet, lazy and shiftless, but subject at times to great political
excitement. They are Spanish in their mode of life and habits of
thought. Spanish too is the common language, though both French
and English are spoken in the towns.
History. After the downfall of Toussaint POuverture (see
HAITI) there followed the initiation of the black Haitian Empire
under Jean Jacques Dessalines in 1803. Spain, however, estab-
lished herself anew on the eastern end of the island in 1806,
Haiti remaining independent. Santo Domingo continued thus
a Spanish possession until 1821, when, under the authority and
flag of Colombia, a republic was proclaimed, and the Spaniards
withdrew. In the following year the Haitian president Boyer
invaded Santo Domingo, joined it to Haiti and ruled the entire
island till his fall in 1843. The Spanish part of the island again
became independent of Haiti in 1844, when the Dominican
Republic was founded, and since that time the two political
divisions have been maintained, and their respective inhabitants
have grown more and more estranged. The earlier years of the
new republic were marked by the struggles between Pedro
Santana and Buenaventura Baez, who with the exception of a
few months under Jiminez, occupied the presidency in turn
until 1861. In that year Santana, with the consent of the people,
proclaimed the annexation of Santo Domingo by Spain. The
Spaniards, however, did not long enjoy their sovereignty, for the
harshness of their rule provoked a successful revolution under
Jose Maria Cabral in 1864; and in the following year they
withdrew all claim to the country. Baez was again chosen
president, but was driven out by Cabral after a year of
power.
From 1868 to 1873 Baez was once again in office, and during
this term overtures were made to the United States with a view
to annexation. General O. E. Babcock was despatched by
President Grant to report on the condition and resources of Santo
Domingo, and while there, in 1869, he negotiated a treaty by
which the republic was to become part of the United States.
Although ratified by the Dominican Senate, this treaty was
opposed in the United States Senate, under the leadership of
Charles Sumner, and was finally rejected. In 1871 three com-
missioners were appointed by President Grant to report further,
but although their report was favourable to annexation, no action
was taken.
Baez was succeeded by Gonzalez (1873-1879), under whom
the country enjoyed a period of tranquillity. Great political
agitation followed, which terminated in 1882 with the election
of Ulises Heureaux, a negro, and capable statesman. Under
his despotic rule of nearly 1 7 years, the republic enjoyed greater
prosperity and tranquillity than it had ever known. He was
assassinated in July 1899, and was succeeded by Jiminez, who
was driven out by General Vasquez in 1902. Vasquez, in turn,
was deposed by a revolution headed by General Wos y Gil,
who became president in 1903, but was overthrown by Jiminez
in November of that year. In 1904 Jiminez was expelled and
C. F. Morales became president. Ramon Caceres was installed
in 1906, and in 1908 a new constitution was proclaimed and
Caceres was elected for the term 1908-1914.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. B. Edwards, Hist. Survey of the Island of Santo
Domingo (London, 1801); Monte y Tejada, Historic, de Santo
Domingo (Havana, 1853); J. de Maries, Hist, descript. et pittor. de
Saint Dominique (Paris, 1869); S. Hazard, Santo Domingo, Past and
Present (London, 1873); J. G. Garcia, Compendia de la Historia de
Santo Domingo (Santo Domingo, 1879); F. A. Leal, La Republique
Dominicane (Paris, 1888) ; H. Thomasset, La Republique Dominicane
en 1890 (Santo Domingo, 1890); J. R. Abad, La Republica
Dominicana (Santo Domingo, 1889); El Padre Merino, Elementos
de geografia fisica, politica, e historica de la Republica Dominicana
(Santo Domingo, 1889) ; Bureau of American Republics, Bulletin No.
52, 1892. (See also HAITI.)
SANTO DOMINGO, the capital of the republic of the same
name, in the island of Haiti, West Indies. Pop. about 25,000.
It is situated on the S. coast, at the mouth of the river Ozama.
Founded in 1496, it is the oldest existing settlement of white
men in the New World, and perhaps the most perfect example
of a Spanish colonial town of the i6th century. It is surrounded
by ancient walls with bastions. The streets are straight, narrow,
and intersect at right angles. The massive houses are built
of stone with coloured walls pierced with huge doors and windows.
The cathedral, in the Spanish Renaissance style, dates from
1512, and contains the reputed tomb of Columbus (q.v.). The
cell in which he and his brother were confined by order of
Bobadilla is still shown in the old fortress. The city is the seat
of an archbishop. It has a small and rather poor harbour, but
the river is navigable for 4 m. from its mouth. The climate is
healthy and cool.
SANTONIN, a drug used in the U.S.P. and B.P., consisting of
colourless flat prisms, turning slightly yellow from the action of
light and soluble in alcohol, chloroform and boiling water. It
is derived from santonica which is the unexpanded flower-heads
of Artemisia maritima. The dose is 2 to 5 grs. The only B.P.
preparation is the trochiscus santonini, but the preparation
sodii santoninas is official in the U.S.P. Santonin is an anthel-
mintic used to poison the round worm Ascaris lumbricoides.
It has no influence on tape-worms. It must be administered
fasting and be followed by a purgative in order to expel the worm.
The most convenient mode of administration is in capsules.
For thread worms which infest the anus of young children, a
suppository containing 2 to 3 grs. of santonin and used on alter-
nate nights for three nights is effective. The U.S. preparation
sodii santoninas is useless as a vermifuge and is used in diseased
conditions of the optic nerve. Even small doses of santonin
cause disturbances of vision, usually yellow vision or perhaps
green (xanthopsia or chromatopsia). The urine also turns
yellow and finally purple or red. These effects usually pass off
in a few days. Large doses, however, produce toxic effects,
aphasia, muscular tremors and epileptiform convulsions, and
the disturbances of vision may go on to total blindness.
SANTORIN (corruption of St Irene; anc. THERA), a volcanic
island in the Aegean Sea, the southernmost of the Sporades.
In shape Santorin forms a crescent, and encloses a bay on the
north, east and south, while on the western side lies the smaller
island of Therasia. The encircling wall thus formed, which is
elliptical in shape and 18 m. round in its inner rim, is broken in
two places towards the north-west by a strait a mile in breadth,
where the water is not less than 1100 ft. deep, and towards the
south-west by an aperture about 3 m. wide, where the water
is shallow, and an island called Aspronisi or White Island lies
in the middle, ^he cliffs rise perpendicularly from the bay,
in some places to the height of 1000 ft.; but towards the open
sea, both in Santorin and Therasia, the ground slopes gradually
away, and has been converted into broad level terraces, every-
where covered with tufaceous agglomerate, which, though bare
and ashen, produces the famous Santorin wine. Towards the
south-east rises the limestone peak of Mount Elias, the highest
point of the island (1910 ft.); this existed before the volcano
was formed. In the middle of the basin lie three small islands,
which are the centre of volcanic activity, and are called Palaea,
Mikra and Nea Kaumene, or the Old, the Little and the New
Burnt Island; the highest of these, Nea Kaumene, is 351 ft.
above the sea. Owing to the depth of the water there is no
anchorage, and vessels have to be moored to the shore, except
at one point in the neighbourhood of the modern town, where
there is a slight rim of shallow bottom. The cliffs of Santorin
and Therasia are marked in horizontal bands by black lava,
white porous tufa, and other volcanic strata, some parts of which
are coloured dark red. The modern town of Thera (or Phera,
as it is more commonly pronounced) is built at the edge of these,
overlooking the middle of the bay at a height of 900 ft. above
the water, and the foundations of the houses and in some cases
their sides also, are excavated in the tufa, so that occasionally
they are hardly traceable except by their chimneys. Owing
to the absence of timber for, except the fig, cactus and palm,
there are hardly any trees in the island they are roofed with
barrel vaults of stone and cement. Both wood and water have
occasionally to be imported from the neighbouring islands,
for there are no wells, and the rain water, collected in cisterns,
does not always suffice. The largest of the other villages is
Apanomeria, near the northern entrance, which is crowded
196
SANTOS SANUTO
together in a white mass, while the rocks below it are the reddest
in the island.
Santonin is closely connected with the earthquake movements to
which the countries in the neighbourhood of the Aegean are subject.
It is hardly accurate to speak of the basin which forms the harbour
as a crater, for most geologists support the view that the whole of
this space was once covered by a single volcanic cone, the incline of
which is represented by the outward slope of Santorin and Therasia,
while the position of the crater was that now occupied by the
Kaumene Islands; and that owing to a volcanic explosion and the
subsidence of the strata the basin was formed. The Kaumene
Islands arose subsequently, and that of Palaea Kaumene is con-
sidered to have been prehistoric. The principal eruptions that have
taken place within historic times are that of 196 B.C., when, as we
learn from Strabo (i. 3, 16, p. 57), flames rose from the water half-
way between Thera and Therasia for four days; that of A.D. 726,
during the reign of the Emperor Leo the Isaurian (on both these
occasions islands were thrown up, but it is supposed that they after-
wards disappeared); that of 1570, when Mikra Kaumene arose;
that of 1650, which destroyed many lives by noxious exhalations,
and ended in the upheaval of an island in the sea to the north-east
of Santorin, which afterwards subsided and became a reef below
sea-level; that of 1707, when Nea Kaumene arose; and that of
1866, when Nea Kaumene was extended towards the south and en-
larged threefold.
In the southern parts both of Santorin and Therasia pre-
historic dwellings have been found at some height above the sea,
and there is no doubt that these date from a period antecedent
to the formation of the bay. This is proved by their position
underneath the layer of tufa which covers the islands, and by
these layers of tufa being broken off precipitously, in the same
way as the lava-rocks, a fact which can only be explained by
the supposition that they all fell in together. The foundations
of the dwellings rested, not on the tufa, but on the lava below it;
and here and there between the stones branches of wild olive
were found, according to a mode of building that still prevails
in the island, in order to resist the shocks of earthquakes. Very
few implements of metal were found. Some of the vases found
were Cretan ware which had been imported; and the correspond-
ence between these and various specimens of the native pottery
proves that to some extent this primitive art was derived from
Crete.
In Greek legend the island of Thera was connected with the
story of the Argonauts, for it was represented as sprung from a clod
of earth which was presented to those heroes by Triton (Apollon.,
Argonaut., iv., 1551 sq., 1731 sq.). According to Herodotus
(iv. 147), a Phoenician colony was established there by Cadmus.
Subsequently a colony from Sparta, including some of the
Minyae, was led thither by Theras, who gave the island his own
name, in place of that of Calliste which it had borne before.
But the one event which gave importance to Thera in ancient
history was the planting of its famous colony of Cyrene on the
north coast of Africa by Battus in 631 B.C., in accordance with
a command of the Delphic oracle.
The ancient capital, which bore the same name as the island,
occupied a site on the eastern coast now called Mesavouno,
between Mount Elias and the sea. Since 1895 this place has
been excavated by Baron Hiller von Gartringen and other
German explorers. There are extensive ancient cemeteries.
A steep ascent leads from a Heroum of Artemidorus to the
Agora; in its neighbourhood were the Stoa Basilice, a vast hall
with a row of pillars; a temple of Dionysus and the Ptolemies,
which at a later period was dedicated to the Caesars; and the
barrack of the garrison of the Ptolemies and a gymnasium.
The names which occur here remind us that Thera, as a member
of the League of the Cyclades, was from B.C. 308 to 145 under the
protectorate of the Ptolemies. The main street has narrow
lanes diverging from it to right and left; one of these leads to
the sanctuary of the Egyptian gods. Near the street there is
a small theatre, beneath the seats of which a vast cistern was
constructed, arranged so that rain-water should drain into it
from the whole of the auditorium. The way then descends
south-eastwards first to the temple of Ptolemy Euergetes III.,
and then to that of Apollo Carneius; finally, at the point where
the rocks fall precipitously, there is a gymnasium of the Ephebi.
Numerous rock-carvings and inscriptions have been discovered,
as well as statues and vases of various periods. Near the western
foot of Mount Elias is the temple of Thea Basileia, which,
though very small, is perfect throughout even to the roof. It
is now dedicated to St Nicolas Marmorites.
Tournefort mentions that in his time nine or ten chapels were
dedicated to St Irene, the patron saint of the place; the name
Santorin was given to the island after the fourth crusade, when the
Byzantine empire was partitioned among the Latins, and the island
formed a portion of the duchy of the Archipelago. Santorin is
prosperous, for, in addition to the wine trade, there is a large export
of pozzolana, which, when mixed with lime, forms a hard cement.
Santorin (officially Thera) is a province in the department of the
Cyclades. It is divided into 9 communes (see CYCLADES), with a
total population of 19,597 in 1907.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. L. Ross, Inselreisen (Stuttgart, 1840, vol. i.);
C. Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland (Leipzig, 1872, vol.
ii.); F. Fouqu, Santorin et ses Eruptions (Paris, 1879); Neumann
and Partsch, Physicalische Geographic von Griechenland (Breslau,
1885); J. Th. Bent, The Cyclades (London, 1885); H. F. Tozer,
The Islands of the Aegean (Oxford, 1890); Hiller von Gartringen,
Thera (Berlin, 1899 foil.) ; Baedeker's Greece, 3rd Eng. ed. (1905).
(H. F. T.)
SANTOS, a city and seaport of Brazil, in the state of Sao Paulo,
about 230 m. W.S.W. of Rio de Janeiro, and 49 m. by rail S.E.
of Sao Paulo city. Pop. (1890) 13,012; (1902 estimate)
35,000. Santos covers an alluvial plain on the inner side of an
island (called Sao Vicente) formed by an inland tidal channel
sometimes called the Santos river. The commercial part of
the city is some miles from the mouth of the channel, but the
residential sections extend across the plain and line the beach
facing the sea. The city is only a few feet above sea-level, the
island is swampy, and deep, cement-lined channels drain the
city. The Santos river is deep and free from obstructions, and
in front of the city widens into a bay deep enough for the largest
vessels. The water front, formerly beds of mud and slime,
the source of many epidemics of fever, is now faced by a wall of
stone and cement. Vessels moor alongside this quay, which is
lined with warehouses and provided with railway tracks, &c.
Formerly coffee was transported in carts from the railway station
to the warehouses, thence loaded into lighters by porters, and
from these transferred to vessels anchored in midstream. The
improvements were planned by an American engineer, William
Milnor Roberts (1810-1881). The thorough drainage of the city
has made Santos comparatively healthy. The heavy rainfall
(88i in. per annum), neighbouring swamps, rank vegetation and
great heat give rise to malarial and intestinal disorders, rheum-
atism and other diseases. Beri-beri and smallpox are also
common, and bubonic plague has appeared since 1900. The
temperature ranges from 41 to 101-3 F. in the shade.
The development of coffee production in the state of Sao
Paulo during the closing years of the igth century has made
Santos the largest coffee shipping port in the world, the exports
amounting to 5,849,114 bags, of 132 Ib each, in 1900, and
8,940,144 bags in 1908. The other exports include sugar, rice,
rum, fruit, hides and manufactured goods. Bananas are grown
in the vicinity for the River Plate markets. The most popular
suburb in the vicinity of Santos is the bathing resort of Guaruja.
The Sao Paulo railway, an English double-track line, provides
communication with the interior, ascending the steep wooded
slopes of the Serra do Mar by a series of inclines up which the cars
are drawn by stationary engines on the old line, and by a series
of gradients on the new line.
The first settlement on the Sao Paulo coast was that of Sao
Vicente in 1532, about 6 m. S. of Santos on the same island.
Other settlements soon followed, among them that of Santos
in 1543-1546, and later on the small fort at the entrance to its
harbour, which was used for protection against Indian raids from
thenorth. Sao Vicente did not prosper, and was succeeded (1681)
by Sao Paulo as the capital and by Santos as the seaport of the
colony. It was captured by the English privateer, Thomas
Cavendish, in 1591, when Sao Vicente was burned. The growth
of the town was slow down to the end of the rpth century, because
of insanitary conditions and epidemics.
SANUTO (SANUDO), MARINO, the elder, of Torcello (c. 1260-
1338), Venetian statesman, geographer, &c. He is best known
SANUTO SAN VICENTE
for his life-long attempts to revive the crusading spirit anc
movement; with this object he wrote his great work, the Secreta
(or Liber Secretoruni) Fidelium Crucis, otherwise called Historic,
Hierosolymitana, Liber de expeditione Terrae Sanclae, and Opus
Terrae Sanctae, the last being perhaps the proper title of the
whole treatise as completed in three parts or " books." This
work has much to say of trade and trade-routes as well as oi
political and other history; and through its accompanying maps
and plans it occupies an important place in the development
of cartography. It was begun in March 1306, and finished (in its
earliest form) in January 1307, when it was offered to Pope
Clement V. as a manual for true Crusaders who desired the
reconquest of the Holy Land. To this original Liber Secretorum
Sanuto added largely; two other " books " were composed
between December 1312 and September 1321, when the entire
work was presented by the author to Pope John XXII., together
with a map of the world, a map of Palestine, a chart of the
Mediterranean, Black Sea and west European coasts, and
plans of Jerusalem, Antioch and Acre. A copy was also offered
to the king of France, to whom Sanuto desired to commit the
military and political leadership of the new crusade. Marino
himself tells us that he had spent the best part of his life in
Romania, the lands of the Eastern empire; of the Morea he
had especially intimate knowledge; he had also visited Cyprus,
Rhodes, parts of the Syrian, Cilician and Egyptian coasts, France,
Flanders and north Germany, both west and east of Denmark.
He had been in Acre, Alexandria, Constantinople, Avignon,
Bruges and Sluys, as well as (apparently) in Hamburg, Lttbeck,
Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, Greifswald and Stettin. Among
his friends and correspondents were Guglielmo Bernardi de
Furvo, a Venetian nobleman who had travelled extensively
in Moslem and Mongol lands (to Tabriz, Bagdad, Damascus and
Cairo), Bishop Jerome of Kaffa, in the Crimea, who in 1312 had
been sent to reinforce the Catholic mission in China, and perhaps
Peter, the English-born bishop of Sevastopolis or Sukhum Kale
in western Caucasia, who makes an appeal for aid to the prelates
of England in 1330. Marino Sanuto's ancestor, Marco, had
founded the greatness of his family after the Fourth Crusade as
duke of the Archipelago and conqueror of Naxos, Pares, &c.
(from 1207); and his descendant wrote with a personal interest
in the question of crushing Moslem power in the Levant.
197
The crusading plans of the Secreta are double: first, Egypt and
islem world on the side towards Europe (Syria, Asia Minor, the
V ^taf/c f"^ratiar1:i jirf* \ ^re* *-* Vm m^.^...l 1... 1. I l.-j.
tne ivioslem wor*u w* *.m, ^n^v iwvaiua i^uinjn- ^oyrm, /\si;i ivunor, me
Barbary States, Granada, &c.) are to be ruined by the absolute
stoppage of all Christian trade with the same. By such an interdict
Sanuto hopes that Egypt, dependent on its European and other
imports of metals, provisions, weapons, timber, pitch and slaves,
would be fatally weakened, and the way thus prepared for the
second part of the campaign the armed attack of the crusading
fleet and army on the Nile delta. With the aid of the Mongol Tatars
of Asia, natural allies of western Christendom, and of the Nubian
Christians, the conquest of the Delta and of all Egypt was to be
followed by that of Palestine, invaded and held from Egypt. Sanuto
deprecates any other route for the crusade, and unfolds his plan of
campaign, his bases of supply, his sources for the supply of good
seamen, with great detail. Not only Mediterranean seaports, but
the lakes of North Italy and central Europe, and the Hanseatic
ports, are enumerated as nurseries of crusading mariners and marine
skill. Finally, after the conquest of Egypt, Marino designs the
establishment of a Christian fleet in the Indian Ocean to dominate
and subjugate its coasts and islands. He also gives a sketch of the
trade-routes crossing Persia and Egypt, as well as of the course of
Indian trade from Coromandel and Gujarat to Ormuz and the Persian
Gulf and to Aden and the Nile. The maps and plans which illustrate
the Secreta are probably (in the main, at least) the work of the great
portolano-draughtsman Pietro Vesconte: practically the whole of
this map-work corresponds with what Vesconte has left under his
own name; much of it is indistinguishable. Among the plans that
of Acre is of peculiar interest, being the most complete representation
known of the great crusading fortress on the eve of its destruction,
with the quarters of all its contingents of defenders (Templars, &c )
indicated. The chart of the Mediterranean and Euxine and of the
Atlantic coasts of Europe is composed of five map-sheets, which
together form a good example of the earliest scientific design or
fortolano ; in the world-map a portolano of the Mediterranean world
is combined with work of pre-portolan type in remoter regions.
Here the shore-lines of the countries well known to Italian mariners,
from Flanders to Azov, are well laid down; the Caspian and the
north German and Scandinavian coasts appear with an evident,
though far slighter, relation to practical knowledge; and some idea
is shown of the great continental rivers of the north, such as the Don
Volga, Vistula, Oxus and Syr Daria. Africa, away from the Medi-
terranean, is conventional, with its south-east projected after the
manner of Idrisi, so as to face Indian Asia, and with a western Nile
traversing the continent to the Atlantic. Chinese and Indian Asia
show little trace of the new knowledge which had been imparted by
European pioneers from the Polos' time, and which appears so
strikingly in the Catalan Atlas of 1375. Sanuto's Palestine map is
remarkable tor its space-defining network of lines, which roughly
answer to a kind of scheme of latitude and longitude, though properly
speaking they are not scientific at all. Of the Secreta, twenty-three
MSS. exist, of which the chief are : (i) Florence, Riccardian Library,
No. 237, 162 fols. (Secreta and Letters), with maps and plans on fols
I4 J', V ;~ 144 .' r -' ( 2 > London, British Museum, Addt. MSS., 27 -576
178 fols. with maps, &c. on fols. 180, v.-i 9 o, r.; (3) Paris, National
Library, MSS. Lat. 4939, with maps, &c. on fols. 9, r.-n, r. 27,
98-99. All these are of the I4th century. The Secreta has only once
been printed entire, by Bongars, in Gesta Dei per Francos, vol ii
pp. 1-288 (Hanover, 1611).
See also Friedrich Kunstmann, " Studien uber Marino Sanudo
den alteren, nut emem Anhange seiner ungedruckten Briefe " in
Abhandlungen der historisch. Classe der Konigl. Bayerisch. Akademie
derWissenschaften, vol yii. pp. 695-819 (Munich, 1855); Foscarini,
Letteratura Veneziana; Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Italiana
vol. v.; Postansque, De Marino Sanuto (Montpellier, 1856)- C R
Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 309-319, 391-392, 520-521,
549, 555- (C. R. B.)
SANUTO (or SANUDO), MARINO, the younger (1466-1533),
Venetian historian, was the son of the senator, Leonardo Sanuto,
and was born on the 2 2nd of May 1466. Left an orphan at the age
of eight, he lost his fortune owing to the bad management of his
guardian, and was for many years hampered by want of means.
In 1483 he accompanied his cousin Mario, who was one of the three
sindici inquisitori deputed to hear appeals from the decisions of
the rettori, on a tour through Istria and the mainland provinces,
and he wrote a minute account of his experiences in his diary.
Wherever he went he sought out learned men, examined libraries,
and copied inscriptions. The result of this journey was the
publication of his Itinerario in terra ferma and a collection of
Latin inscriptions. Sanuto was elected a member of the Maggior
Consiglio when only twenty years old (the legal age was twenty-
five) solely on account of his merit, and he became a senator in
1498; he noted down everything that was said and done in
those assemblies and obtained permission to examine the secret
archives of the state. He collected a fine library, which was
especially rich in MSS. and chronicles both Venetian and foreign,
including the famous Altino chronicle, the basis of early Venetian
history, and became the friend of all the learned men of the day,
Aldo Mannzio dedicating to him his editions of the works of
Angelo Poliziano and of the poems of Ovid. It was a great grief
to Sanuto when Andrea Navagero was appointed the official
historian to continue the history of the republic from the point
where Marco Antonio Sabellico left off, and a still greater mortifi-
cation when, Navagero having died in 1529 without executing his
task, Pietro Bembo was appointed to succeed him. Finally in
1531 the value of his work was recognized by the senate, which
granted him a pension of 150 gold ducats per annum. He died
in 1533-
His chief works are the following: Itinerario in terra ferma,
published by M. Rawdon Brown in 1847; / commentarit della
guerra di Ferrara, an account of the war between the Venetians and
Ercole d'Este, published in Venice in 1829; La Spedizione di Carlo
VIII. (MS. in the Louvre) ; Le Vite dei Dogi, published in vol. xxii.
of Muratori's Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (1733); the Diarii, his
most important work, which cover the period from the 1st of January
1496 to September 1533, and fill 58 volumes. The publication of
these ^records was begun by Rinaldo Fulin, in collaboration with
Federigo Stefani, Guglielmo Berchet, and Niccol6 Barozzi; the last
volume was published in Venice in 1903. Owing to the relations of
:he Venetian republic with the whole of Europe and the East it is
sractically a universal chronicle, and is an invaluable source of
nformation for all writers on that period.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M. Rawdon Brown, Ragguagli sulla vita e sulle
jpere di Marino Sanuto (3 vpls., Venice, 1837-1838); G. Tiraboschi,
Storia della Letteratura Italiana, vol. vi. pt. ii. ; R. Fulin, Marin
Sanudo (Turin, 1880); Ricotti, I Diarii di Marin Sanudo (Turin,
1880); and Giuseppe de Leva, Marin Sanudo (Venice, 1888).
SAN VICENTE, the capital of the department of San Vicente,
Salvador; 30 m. E. of San Salvador, on the river Acahuapa,
a left-hand tributary of the Lempa. Pop. (1905) about 18,000.
198
SAO FRANCISCO SAO LUIZ
San Vicente is situated in a volcanic region abounding in hot
springs and geysers. The volcano of San Vicente, the highest in
the department, reaches an altitude of more than 7000 ft. The
city is surrounded by indigo and tobacco plantations, and has
considerable commerce, a large portion of which is transacted at
the All Saints' fair, held annually on the ist of November.
Shoes, hats, cloth, silk, spirits and cigars are manufactured here.
San Vicente was founded in 1634 on the site of Tehuacan, an
ancient Indian city. For one year (1839-1840) it was the capital
of the republic.
SXO FRANCISCO, a river of eastern Brazil rising in the S.W.
part of the state of Minas Geraes, about 20 30' S., 46 40' W.,
near the narrow valley of the Rio Grande, a tributary of the
Parana, and within 240 m. of the coast W. of Rio de Janeiro.
It flows in a general N.N.E. direction across the great central
plateau of Brazil to about lat. 9 30' S., long. 42 W., where it
turns N.E. ad then S.E. in a great bend, entering the Atlantic
in lat. 10 29' S. It has a total length of about 1800 m. and
a fall of 2700-2800 ft. It is navigable from the Atlantic to
Piranhas (148 m.) and is nearly i m. wide at Penedo, 22 m. from
the sea. Above Piranhas, about 193 m. from its mouth, are the
falls of Paulo Affonso where the river plunges through a narrow
gorge in one place only 51 ft. wide and over three successive
falls, all together 265 ft. The obstructed part of the river is
about 190 m. long and consists of a series of rapids above the
falls and a deep canon with whirlpools for some distance below.
The Brazilian government has built a railway around these falls
from Piranhas (151 ft. elevation) to Jatoba (978 ft.) with an
extension of 71 m. Above Jatoba there is another series of
rapids called the Sobradinho nearly 90 m. above the lower rapids,
which are navigable at high water, and above these an un-
obstructed channel for light-draught river boats up to Pirapora
a little above the mouth of the Rio das Velhas, a distance of
984 m. Here the river runs through a barren, semi-arid region,
sparsely settled. There are no tributaries of consequence along
a large part of this region, and the few people living beside the
river are dependent on its annual floods for the fertilization
of its sandy shores on which their scanty plantations of Indian
corn and beans are made. The rapids of Pirapora are 17 m.
above the mouth of the Rio das Velhas, and this point, the head of
navigation on the river, and 1742 ft. above sea-level, is the
objective point of the Central do Brazil railway, the purpose being
to create by rail and river a central route from Rio de Janeiro to
the northern ports of Bahia and Recife. The principal tributaries
of the Sao Francisco are: on the right, the Para, Paraopeba,
Velhas, and Verde-Grande; on the left, the Indaya, Abaet6,
Paracatu, Urucuya, Carinhanha, Corrente and Grande. Several
of these tributaries are navigable for long distances by small
boats theaggregate being a little over 1000 m. Some authorities
give the aggregate navigable channels of the Sao Francisco as
4350 m. The upper valley of the Sao Francisco is partly forested,
has a temperate climate, with a mean annual temperature of
85 and a rainfall of 1637 millimetres. The rainy season is
from December to March, but on the lower river the rainfall is
light and the season much shorter, sometimes varied by droughts
covering several years.
An admirable description of this great river is given by Richard
Burton in The Highlands of Brazil (2 vols., London), and a more
technical description by E. Liais in Hydrpgraphie du Haul San-
Francisco et du Rio das Velhas (Rio de Janeiro, 1865).
SAO LEOPOLDO, a city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul,
Brazil, on the left bank of the Rio dos Sinos, 2oJ m. by rail N.
of Porto Alegre. It is the chief town of a municipio (commune)
of the same name, having an area of about 347 sq. m. and in-
habited chiefly by German colonists. Pop. (1900) of the city,
11,015; of the municipio, 32,600. Sao Leopoldo has river and
railway communication with Porto Alegre. It is a prosperous
industrial town, with broad straight streets and substantial
buildings. It has good schools, and its Jesuits' college ranks high
throughout northern Rio Grande. Among its manufactures are
matches, hats, boots and shoes, soap, liqueurs and artificial
drinks, leather and leather-work and earthenware. In the sur-
rounding districts cattle and hogs are raised, and jerked beef,
hides, pork, lard, potatoes, beans, farinha de mandioca (cassava
flour), Indian corn, tobacco and a great variety of vegetables and
fruits are produced.
The city was originally a German colony founded by the
emperor Pedro I. in 1824 and established at a place known as the
Feitoria Real de Canhamo (Royal flan factory). The first
colonists (26 families and 17 unmarried persons, or 126 souls)
arrived on the 2Sth of June 1825, and were followed a tew month
later by another party of 909 colonists. These were the firs
German colonists in Rio Grande do Sul. Up to 1830 the arriva
numbered 3701, but the civil war which broke out in 183;
checked further arrivals and nearly ruined the colony, its
inhabitants being forced to serve in the contending forces and
their property being seized. Sao Leopoldo was occupied by the
revolutionists for some years and was practically ruined at the
termination of the war in 1844. The introduction of colonists
was immediately resumed, however, and the colony was soon as
prosperous as ever. The early colonists were engaged in Germany
by a representative of the Brazilian government, and were given
free transportation, 130 acres of land each, farming implements,
seeds, and a subsidy of 320 reis a day for the first year and
half that for the second year. Subsequent settlers received less,
but the system of assisting colonists and making contracts with
companies and individuals for their introducton became the
settled policy of the national and provincial governments.
SAO LUIZ, or in full, SAO LUIZ DE MARANHAO (also spelt
MARANHAM), a seaport of northern Brazil, capital of the state of
Maranhao, on the W. side of an island of the same name, in
2 30' S., 44 17' W., about 300 m. E.S.E. of Belem (Para).
Pop. of the whole island (1890) 29,308; (1908, estimate) 32,000.
An important part of the population is made up of the planters
of the state, who live in town and leave their estates to the care
of overseers. The island of Maranhao lies off the mouths of the
rivers Mearim and Itapicuru, between the Bay of Sao Marcos
on the W. and the Bay of Sao Jos6 on the E., and is separated
from the mainland by a small channel called the Canal do
Mosquito. It is irregular in outline, its greatest length from
N.E. to S.W. being 34 m., and its greatest breadth 19 m. Its
surface is broken by a number of low hills and short valleys. The
city is built upon a tongue of land between two small estuaries,
Anil and Bacanga, which unite and open upon the Bay of Sao
Marcos. It covers two low hills and the intervening valley,
the transverse streets sloping sharply to the estuary on either
side. These slopes make it difficult to use vehicles in the streets,
but they afford a natural surface drainage which makes Sao Luiz
cleaner and more healthy than the coast towns of tropical
Brazil usually are. The city is regularly laid out with com-
paratively wide longitudinal, and steep, narrow transverse
streets, roughly paved and provided with sidewalks. The build-
ings are of the old Portuguese type, with massive walls of broken
stone and mortar, having an outside finish of plaster or glazed
tiles and roofs of red tiles. The principal public buildings are
the cathedral, a large and severely plain structure, the episcopal
palace, the Carmelite church, the government palace, town hall,
custom-house, hospital, and a number of asylums, convents and
charitable schools. An excellent lyceum and a church seminary
are the most important educational institutions, and Sao Luiz long
enjoyed a high reputation in Brazil for the culture of its in-
habitants. The trade of Sao Luiz was once very important, but
the commercial activity of Para and Fortaleza, the decay of
agricultural industry in the state, and the silting up of its harbour,
have occasioned a decline in its commerce. Its exports comprise
cotton, sugar and rice. Communication with the mainland and
interior towns is by means of small steamers.
Sao Luiz was founded in 1612 by La Rivardiere, a French officer
commissioned by Henri IV. to establish a colony in this vicinity.
The French colony was expelled in 1615 by the Portuguese, who,
in turn, surrendered to the Dutch in 1641. In 1644 the Dutch
abandoned the island, when the Portuguese resumed possession
and held the city to the end of their colonial rule in Brazil.
The city became the seat of a bishopric in 1679.
SAONE SAO PAULO
199
SAONE, a river of eastern France, rising in the Faucilles
mountains (department of Vosges), 15 m. W.S.W. of Epinal
at a height of 1300 ft. and uniting with the Rhone at Lyons.
Length, 301 m.; drainage area, 11,400 sq. m. The oldest
Celtic name of the river was Arar. In the 4th century another
name appears, Sauconna, from which the modern name is derived.
The Sa&ne, moving slowly in a sinuous channel, has its course
in the wide depression between the Plateau of Langres, the C6te
d'Or and the mountains of Charolais and Beaujolais on the west
and the western slopes of the Vosges and Jura and the plain of
Bresse and the plateau of Dombes on the east. In the depart-
ment of Sa&ne-et-Loire, the Saone unites with the Doubs, an
affluent rivalling the Sa6ne in volume and exceeding it in length
at this point. At the important town of Chalon-sur-Saone
the river turns south, and passes Macon. Below Treveux its
valley, now narrower, winds past the Mont d'Or group and joins
the Rhone just below the Perrache quarter of Lyons. The
Saone is canalized from Corre to Lyons, a distance of 233 m.,
the normal depth of water being 6 ft. 6 in. At Corre (confluence
with the Coney) it connects with the southern branch of the
Eastern Canal, at Heuilley (below Gray) with the Sa6ne-Marne
Canal, at St Symphorien (above St Jean-de-Losne) with the
Rhone-Rhine Canal, and at St Jean-de-Losne with the Canal de
Bourgogne and at Chalon with the Canal du Centre.
SAONE-ET-LOIRE, a department of east-central France
formed from the districts of Autunois, Brionnais, Chalonnais,
Charollais and Maconnais, previously belonging to Burgundy.
It is bounded N. by the department of C6te d'Or, E. by that of
Jura, S.E. by Ain, S. by Rh&ne and Loire, W. by Allier and
Nievre. Pop. (1906) 613,377. Area, 3330 sq. m. Of the two
rivers from which the department takes its name the Loire
forms its south-western boundary, and the Sa&ne traverses its
eastern region from north to south. On the left bank of the
Sa6ne the department forms part of the wide plain of Bresse;
on its right bank the centre of the department is occupied by the
northern CeVennes, here divided by the river Grosne into two
parallel ranges the mountains of Maconnais to the east, and
the mountains of Charollais to the west. The general direction
of these ranges is from south, where their altitude is greatest,
to north. The north-west region of Sa6ne-et-Loire is occupied
by the southern portion of Morvan, which includes the highest
point in the department the Bois du Roi (2959 ft.). South-east
of the Morvan lies the hilly region of Autunois, consisting of the
basin of the Arroux, a right affluent of the Loire, and divided
from the Charollais mountains by the Bourbince, a tributary
of the Arroux. Besides those mentioned, the chief rivers of the
department are the Doubs, which joins the Sa&ne in the extreme
north-east, the Seille, also an affluent of the Sa&ne, and the
Arconce, a tributary of the Loire watering the Charollais. The
average temperature at Macon ( 5 2 or 53 F.) , the most temperate
spot in the department, is slightly higher than at Paris, the winter
being colder and the summer hotter. At the same town the yearly
rainfall is about 33 in., but both the rigour of the climate and
the amount of rain increases in the hilly districts, reaching their
maximum in the mountains of Morvan.
Agriculture prospers in Sa6ne-et-Loire. Wheat, oats and maize are
the cereals most cultivated; potatoes, clover and other fodder, and
mangold-wurzels are important crops, and beetroot, hemp, colza and
rape are also grown. Excellent pasture is found in the valleys of
the Sa6ne and other rivers. The vine, one of the principal resources
of the department, is cultivated chiefly in the neighbourhood of
Chalon and Macon. Of the wines of Maconnais, the vintage of
Thorins is in high repute. The white Charollais oxen are one of the
finest French breeds; horses, pigs and sheep are reared, and poultry
farming is a thriving occupation in the Bresse. The industrial im-
portance of the department is great, chiefly owing to its coal and iron
mines; the chief coal mines are those in the vicinity of Creusot,
Autun and Chapelle-sous-Dun. A pit at Epinac is over 2600 ft.
in depth. Iron is mined at Mazenay and Change, and manganese is
found at Romaneche and there are quarries of various kinds. There
are well-known warm mineral springs containing chloride of sodium
and iron at Bourbon-Lancy. The iron and engineering works of
Schneider & Company at Le Creusot are the largest in France.
The department also has numerous flour-mills and distilleries,
together with potteries, porcelain-works (Digoin), tile-works, oil-
works and glass factories, and carries on various branches of the
textile, chemical, leather and wood-working industries. It exports
coal, metals, machinery, wine, Charollais cattle, bricks, pottery, glass.
Its commerce is facilitated by navigable streams the Loire, Sa&ne,
Doubs and Seille, the Canal du Centre, which unites Chalon-sur-
Sa&ne with Digoin on the Loire, and the canal from Roanne to
Digoin and the lateral Loire Canal, both following the main river
valley. The chief railway of the department is the Paris-Lyon-
Mediterrane'e. Sa&ne-et-Loire forms the diocese of Autun; it is
part of the district of the VIII. army corps (Bourges); its educa-
tional centre is Lyons and its court of appeal that of Dijon. It is
divided into 5 arrondissements Macon, Chalon-sur-Sa&ne, Autun,
Charolles, Louhans 50 cantons, and 589 communes.
Mftcon, Chalon, Autun, Le Creusot, Cluny, Montceau-Les-Mines,
Tournus, Paray-le-Monial, Louhans and Charolles are the most note-
worthy towns in the department and receive separate treatment.
Other places of interest are St Marcel-l&s-Chalon, where there is a
Romanesque church, once attached to an abbey where Aboard
died; Anzy, which has a Romanesque church and other remains of
an important monastery; St Bonnet-de-Joux and Sully, both of
which have chateaus of the i6th century; and Semur-en-Brionnais
and Varennes-1' Arconce, with fine Romanesque churches. Prehistoric
remains of the stone age have been found at Solutr6 near Macon.
SAO PAULO, a state of Brazil extending from 19 54' to
25 15' S. lat. and bounded N. by Matto Grosso and Minas
Geraes', E. by Minas Geraes, Rio de Janeiro and the Atlantic,
S. by the Atlantic and Parana, and W. by Parana and Matto-
Grosso. Pop. (1900) 2,282,279; area, 112,312 sq. m. The
state has a coast-line 373 m. long, skirted closely by the Sierra
do Mar, below which is a narrow coastal zone broken by lagoons,
tidal channels and mountain spurs. Above is an extensive
plateau (1500 to 220x3 ft. above sea-level) with a mild temperate
climate. The southern and eastern borders are broken by
mountain chains, and isolated ranges of low elevation break
the surface elsewhere, but in general the state may be described
as a tableland with an undulating surface sloping westward
to the Parana. The extreme eastern part, however, has an
eastward slope and belongs to the Parahyba basin. The state
is traversed by a number of large rivers, tributaries of the
Parani, the largest of which are the Rio Grande, a part of the
N. boundary, Dourados, Tiete, Aguapehy, Tigre, and, a part of
the S. boundary, the Paranapanema. The Parana forms the
W. boundary of the state. The basins of the Pardo and the
Tiet6 include some of the richest coffee estates of Brazil. The
state is well wooded, especially on the slopes of theSerra do Mar,
but there are extensive grassy campos (plains) on the plateau.
A large part of western Sao Paulo is still unsettled. The coastal
zone is hot and generally malarial, with heavy rainfall. On the
plateau the rainfall is sufficiently abundant, but the air is drier
and more bracing, the sun temperature being high and the
nights cool. The open country is singularly healthy, but the
river courses are generally malarial. Some of the cities have
suffered from fever epidemics, due to bad drainage and insanitary
conditions.
The great industries are agricultural, and the most conspicuous is
coffee production. Sao Paulo produces more than one-half the total
Brazilian crop and its one great port, Santos, is the largest coffee-
shipping port in the world. The terra roxa (red earth) lands of the
central and northern parts of the state, especially in the basins of the
Tiet6 and Pardo, are peculiarly favourable. This soil is ferruginous,
pasty, deep red in colour, and free from stone, and it covers the
higher surface of the plateau with a thick layer. The best
plantations are on the high divides between the river courses,
and not in their eroded valleys. The Rio Pardo (Brown
river) probably derives its name from this soil. For the crop-
year (July to June) of 1895-1896 the production was 3,053,804
bags, and in 1905-1906 it was 6,977,175 bags these figures
being the deliveries at Santos for exportation and not includ-
ing the reserves on the plantations and the home consumption.
The crop for the last year mentioned was not a maximum, however,
for the deliveries at Santos in 1901-1902 were 10,165,043 bags and
in 1902-1903, 8,349,828 bags. These immense crops were produced
in spite of appeals to producers not to_ increase production, and even
of a special tax on new plantations imposed by the state in 1903.
Over-production was keeping the price below a remunerative figure
and threatened to ruin the industry. In 1906 the state entered into
an accord, known as the " Convemo de Taubata," with the states of
Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes, to maintain the home selling price
of Type No. 7 at 55 to 65 francs gold per bag of 60 kilogrammes
(other types in proportion) for the first year, and then to increase
this price to 70 francs, according to the state of the market ; and to
check as far as possible the exportation of coffees inferior to Type
200
SAO PAULO
No. 7, which was a grade largely exported to the United States for
the roasted coffee package trade, although large quantities of inferior
grades were used in the same trade. In addition to the suspension or
limitation of the export of grades below Type No. 7, coffee was to be
bought and stored until it could be sold through accredited agents
abroad at a satisfactory price. To do this, the state of Sao Paulo was
authorized to float a loan of 15,000,000. Failing to accomplish this
by itself, the state secured the endorsement of the national congress
in December 1908, guaranteeing the above loan, to meet the service
of which a surtax of 5 francs per bag was decreed. The guarantee
was to endure for ten years, during which time all the transactions
of the combination, which undertook to limit the sales abroad to
500,000 bags in 1910, 600,000 bags in 1911, 700,000 bags in 1912,
800,000 bags in 1913 and 700,000 per annum thereafter, were to be
subject to the approval of the national government. Another
measure was the imposition of an additional tax of 20% on all
exports for the year above 9,500,000 bags. At the time this guarantee
was obtained the state of Sao Paulo already held nearly 7,000,000
bags of coffee, the larger part on storage in foreign markets, and had
apparently reached the limit of its resources, as the foreign markets
had failed to respond to its expectations. At the end of the follow-
ing year this reserved stock had increased to 8,400,000 bags, and
the position had become desperate. The loan of 15,000,000 was
floated in 1909, and the pressure was relieved, but the situation was
then further complicated by a movement among the coffee planters
to have the 9,500,000 bags limit on annual sales removed, and the
loan service tax of 5 francs a bag reduced. There had been some
improvement in the commercial situation in 1909, but the influence
of a reserve of over 8,000,000 bags, increasing crops, and the reckless
purpose of planters to realize on their crops regardless of the effect
on the government, all conspired to make the situation critical.
The other agricultural products of the state include sugar, cotton,
rice, tobacco, Indian corn, beans, mandioca, grapes, bananas and
other fruits, and many of the vegetables of the temperate zone.
Cereals can be grown, but climatic conditions have been considered
unfavourable. Sugar cane was the first exotic to be cultivated in
Sao Paulo, and was its principal product in colonial times. Cotton
was largely produced, especially during the American Civil War, but
the industry nearly disappeared, and now is again improving because
of the demand for fibre by the national cotton factories. The
cultivation of rice also is increasing, under the stimulus of protective
duties. Although Sao Paulo is not classed as a pastoral region, the
state possesses large herds of cattle, which are being improved by
the importation of pure-bred stock from Europe. Butter and cheese
are produced to a limited extent, and the supply of fresh milk to
the cities is attracting some attention. Attention is also given, to a
limited extent, to the breeding of horses and mules. The most
general and profitable of the animal industries is the breeding of
swine, which thrive remarkably on the plateau. The state has an
excellent agricultural school and experiment station at Piracicaba,
and there is also a zootechnic station near the capital.
The principal manufactures are cotton and woollen textiles, jute
bagging, aramina fabrics, furniture, iron and bronze, coffee machinery
and agricultural implements, beer, artificial liquors, mineral waters,
biscuits, macaroni, conserves, chocolate and other food products,
glass bottles, glassware, earthenware, soap, gloves, boots and shoes,
trunks and musical instruments. Steam power is generally used,
though both electric and hydraulic power are employed. There are
several large cotton factories, which are chiefly employed in the
manufacture of the coarser grades of cloth for the working classes.
The iron mines and works at Ypanema, near Sorocaba, are one of the
oldest industries of the state, dating back to the first quarter of the
igth century. It is a government enterprise and has absorbed an
immense sum of money, but has never reached a self-supporting
stage.
Sao Paulo is well provided with railways, which include the pioneer
line from Santos to Jundiahy (an English enterprise) which has a
double track from Santos to the city of Sao Paulo, the Paulista lines
which are a continuation of the English line into the interior, the
Mogyana lines running northward from Campinas through rich
coffee districts to Uberaba in Minas Geraes and farther on toward
Goyaz, the Sorocabana running south-westward from Sao Paulo
toward the Paran4 frontier, the Sao Paulo branch of the Central do
Brazil line which passes through the E. part of the state and provides
communication with the national capital, and the Sao Paulo and Rio
Grande which is designed to cross the states of Parana and Santa
Catharina to connect with the railways of Rio Grande do Sul. All
these lines except the two last are tributary to the English line and
the port of Santos. In addition to these many of the large planta-
tions have private railways, of the Decauville type, for the transport-
ation of produce and material to and from the nearest railway station,
and all the large cities have tramway lines, many using electric
traction. The ports of the state are Santos, which is visited by
large steamers in the foreign trade, and Cananea, Iguape, Sao
Sebastiao and Ubatuba which are engaged in the coasting trade only.
Cananea and Iguape are chiefly known for the rice grown in their
vicinity. Ubatuba, near the E. end of the Sao Paulo coast, has
a fine, almost landlocked bay, but is without good communication
with the interior.
An important contributory element to the prosperity of the state
is the large number of immigrants. Between 1827 and 1900 the
arrivals numbered 969,230, of which seven-tenths were Italians.
A considerable part of the immigrant movement consists of itinerant
labourers who go to Sao Paulo for the coffee-picking, just as they go
to Argentina for the wheat harvest.
The capital of the state is Sao Paulo (3.11.) and its principal port
and second city in importance is Santos (q.v.). The chief cities and
towns, with populations in 1890 where not otherwise stated, are as
follows, the enumeration being for municipalities, or parishes, in-
cluding large rural areas and sometimes including separate villages:
Campinas (q.v.); Guarantingueta (30,690; estimate 45,000 in 1906),
on the Parahyba, 120 m. E.N.E. of Sao Paulo; Piracicaba (25,275),
85 m. N.W. of Sao Paulo; Limeira (21,605), in a fertile thickly-
settled district; Rio Claro (20,843), '35 m- N.W. of Santos, on a
branch of the Paulista railway, in a fertile coffee-producing region,
2030 ft. above the sea; Taubati (20,773), one of the oldest cities of
the state, on the Parahyba 80 m. E.N.E. of the capital, in a rich
agricultural district, with works for refining oil from the petroleum-
bearing shales in the vicinity; Braganza, or Braganga (19.787),
50 m. r>J. of Sao Paulo in a fertile country partly devoted to sugar
production and stock; Sao Jos dos Campos (18,884); Tiet6
(18,878), on the Tiet6 river N.W. of S. Paulo; Pindamonhangaba
(17,542 ; estimate 25,000 in 1906), on the Parahyba river and Central
do Brazil railway 105 m. N.E. of Sao Paulo in a long settled district,
1770 ft. above the sea, producing coffee, sugar, rice, Indian corn,
beans, rum and cattle; Sorocaba (17,068; estimate 30,000 in 1906),
a prosperous manufacturing and commercial town on the Rio
Sorocaba and Sorocabana railway, 50 m. W. of Sao Paulo; Itu, or
Ytii (13,790) about 70 m. W.N.W. of Sao Paulo on the Tiet6 river
and Ituana railway, with water power derived from the Salto (falls)
de Itu, and with important manufactures; Sao Carlos do Pinhal
(12,651); Casa Branca (13,482), in the N. coffee region; Parahybuna
(13,395); Pirassununga (12,494); Batataes (12,438); Franca
(12,425); Jacarehy (12,279); Botucatu (12,089); Jundiahy (12,051),
86 m. N. of Santos, an important manufacturing town and railway
junction, 2320 ft. above sea-level; Ribeirao Preto (12,033), '97 m -
N. of Campinas on the Mogyana railway in a fertile coffee-producing
region; Iguape (i 1,888), a port on the southern coast of the state, on
a tidewater channel of sufficient depth for coastwise steamers, with
exports of rice and timber; Lorena (10,342), 130 m. N.E. of Sao
Paulo, beautifully situated, 1760 ft. above the sea, a station on the
Central do Brazil railway, and the junction of a branch railway to
the Campos do Jordao where the national government has established
a military sanatorium because of its dry, bracing climate; and
Cruzeiro (8883).
Sao Paulo was settled in 1532 by the Portuguese under Martim
Affonso de Souza, who established a colony near Santos, at Sao
Vicente, now an unimportant village. It was originally called
the capitania of Sao Vicente (organized 1534) and covered the
whole of southern Brazil from Rio de Janeiro south. After the
suppression of the captaincy grants, parts of this enormous
territory were cut off from time to time to form other captaincies,
from which developed the present states of Rio de Janeiro,
Minas Geraes, Matto Grosso, Parana, Santa Catharina and Rio
Grande do Sul. In 1681 Sao Paulo succeeded Sao Vicente
as the capital of the captaincy, and the original name of the
latter gradually fell into disuse. The people of the state have
always been distinguished for their energy and enterprise,
especially during the colonial period. The early population
was largely composed of half breeds, known as Mamelucos, and
the exploration of the greater part of the interior of Brazil is
due to them. Their exploring parties, called bandeiras, dis-
covered the first gold mines of Minas Geraes and Matto Grosso,
drove the Jesuit missions from Parana, and traversed the
interior northward into Piauhy, north-westward almost to
Quito, westward into Bolivia and southward into Rio Grande
and Paraguay. They were slave-hunters by profession, and
were noted for cruelty as well as energy.
SAO PAULO, a city of Brazil, capital of a state of the same
name, and seat of a bishopric, on the Tiete river 49 m. by rail
N.W. of the port of Santos and 308 m. by rail W. of Rio de
Janeiro. Pop. (1890) 64,934; ( I 9 O2 > estimate) 332,000. Sao
Paulo is connected with Santos, its port, by a double-track
railway built, owned and worked by a British company (S.
Paulo Railway Co.); with Rio de Janeiro, by the Sao Paulo
branch of the Central do Brazil line; with Campinas and other
inland cities by the Silo Paulo and Paulista railways; with the
N.E. part of the state, Minas Geraes, and Goyaz by the Mogyana
line starting from Campinas; and with Sorocaba and the southern
parts of the state, Parana, and with Santa Catharina and Rio
Grande, by the Sorocabana line and the Sao Paulo and Rio
SAP SAPPHIRE
201
Grande line. In great part the city occupies an elevated open
stretch of tableland commanding extensive views of the surround-
ing country; and a small part of it is in the low alluvial land
bordering the Tiete. The upper part has several slight elevations
forming healthy residential districts. The elevations above
sea-level are 2382 ft. at the Central do Brazil railway station
in the lower town, 2418 ft. at the Sao Paulo railway station,
2841 ft. in the Consolacao suburb, and 2953 ft. in Villa Mariana.
The city is just within the tropics, but its elevation above the
sea gives it a temperate climate, bracing in the cool season and
yet with high sun temperatures in summer. The broad eroded
bed of the Tiete is swampy and is subject to extensive inundations
causing malarial and intestinal disorders; otherwise the city
is singularly healthy, though its sanitary condition is poor.
The picturesqueness of the city is heightened by the ravine of
a small stream passing through it and spanned by viaducts
and bridges. The city squares are commonly open places with
an occasional statue but without ornamental gardens. The
Public Garden, near the Sao Paulo railway station in the Luz
section, is a recreation ground embellished with tropical plants
and an artificial lake. The streets are well paved and lighted
with gas and electricity, and have electric tramways. Although
there are still many old structures and residences to be seen in
the old town, most of the public and business buildings and private
residences are of the modern Italian and French type. Brick
is used to some extent, but the building material most used is
broken stone and mortar, plastered outside, and covered with
stucco mouldings and ornaments. The private residences of the
city are the finest in the republic. There is much wealth in the
state, especially among the large coffee planters, and the city
is their favourite residence. Some of their palatial dwellings
are surrounded with beautiful gardens and parks. The water-
supply is derived from Cantareira hills, and there is a modern
sewerage system, constructed by an English company. The more
important public buildings are the new government palace,
the palaces of agriculture, finance and justice, the executive
residence, the immense Polytechnic School, the Normal School,
the School of Agriculture, the public hospital called the Isola-
mento, the charity hospital, the Sao Paulo railway station with
a beautiful stone tower, and the theatre, rivalling some 'of the
best in Europe. Like other Brazilian cities Sao Paulo has a
number of old religious buildings. There are also several
excellent educational and scientific institutions which are in
great part supported by the state, among which are the Mackenzie
College, created through the gift of an American capitalist, a
school of law, a Pasteur Institute, and a bacteriological institute.
The police force of the state is a military organization and con-
sists of a brigade of about 5000 men (infantry, cavalry, civic
guards, firemen, and a body of hospital attendants for public
emergency cases), under a colonel of the regular army. Manu-
factures include textiles, footwear, clothing, food products,
beer, artificial liquors, furniture, domestic utensils, &c. The
Sao Paulo Light and Power Co., whose works are situated at
the falls of the Tiet6 a considerable distance N.W. of the city,
supplies about 8000 horse-power to local industries in addition
to what is needed for the electric railway (108 m.), the oldest
enterprise of this character in Brazil. The city has a large
Italian population and many Italian shops and industries.
Sao Paulo was founded by the Jesuits under Manoel de
Nobrega in 1534 and at first bore the name of Piratininga.
In 1 68 1 it succeeded Sao Vicente as the capital of the captaincy.
The declaration of Brazilian independence occurred on Sept. 7,
1822, on the plain of Ypiranga, near the city, where a monument
commemorates the event.
SAP. (i) Juice, the circulating fluid of plants (see PLANTS,
Physiology). The word appears in Teutonic languages, cf.
Ger. Saft, and may be connected ultimately with the root seen
in Lat. sapere, taste, hence to know, cf. sapientia, wisdom,
cf. Gr. ffo0os, wise. On the other hand it may, like Fr. stve,
Span, saba, have come direct from Lat. sapa, must, new wine,
itself also from the same root. The Gr. orris is represented
in Lat. by sucus. (2) A military term for a trench dug by a
besieging force for the purpose of approach to the point of attack
when within range, hence " to sap," to undermine, dig away
the foundations of a wall, &c. The word is derived through the
Old Fr. from the Med. Lat. sapa, sappa, a spade, entrenching
tool, Gr. aKairavri, ffKfarrfu>, to dig. (See FORTIFICATION AND
SIEGE-CRAFT.)
SAPAN WOOD (Malay sapang),a. soluble red dyewood from
a tree belonging to the leguminous genus Caesalpinia, a native of
tropical Asia and the Indian Archipelago. The wood is somewhat
lighter in colour than Brazil wood and its other allies, but the
same tinctorial principle, brazilin, appears to be common to all.
SAPPHIC METRE, SAPPHICS, an ancient form of quantitative
verse, named after the Aeolian poetess Sappho, who is supposed
to have invented it, and who certainly used it with unequalled
skill. A sapphic line consists of five equal beats, of which the
central one alone is of three syllables, while the others consist
of two each. The original Greek sapphic was of this type:
| \ASpov' I tB&var' \ 'A<t>po | Sira
The sapphic strophe consists of three of these lines followed
by an adonic, thus:
Horace adopted, and slightly adapted, this form of verse, for some
of his most engaging metrical effects. The Greek poets had per-
mitted the caesura to come where it would, but Horace, to give
solidity to the form, introduced the practice of usually ending a
word on the fifth syllable :
jam satis terris nivis atque dirae,
the second half of the sapphic leaping off, as it were, with a long
syllable which connects it with the first half. This is a typical
example of the Latin sapphic strophe :
Inte|ger vi|tae scelerjisque | purus
non e|get Maur|is jacu|lis ne|que arcu,
nee ve|nena|tis gravi|da sa|gittis,
Fusee, pharletra.
Before the days of Horace, Catullus had used this form in Latin, and
afterwards sapphics were introduced by the pseudo-Seneca into his
tragedies. In the middle ages the sapphic strophe was frequently
employed in the Latin hymns, especially by Gregory the Great.
Later on, considerable laxity was introduced, and a dactyl was
frequently substituted for the first trochee; this quite destroys the
true character of the measure. It makes it a more easy metre,
however, for those who write modern accentuated verse. We see a
loose but effective specimen of it in the famous
Needy knife | grinder! | whither I are you | going ?
Rough is the | road, your | wheel is | out of | order.
But nearer to the effect of the antique verse would be:
Needy | grinder! | whither oh! | are you | going?
Rough the | road ; your | destitute | wheel is | broken,
although this certainly does not suit English versification so well.
English sapphics were written by the Elizabethan poet, Thomas
Campion (q.v.) , and by William Cowper. Mr Swinburne has attempted
to create the effect of the ancient Aeolian metre in a daring and
brilliant stanza. Sapphics have been written more successfujly in
German than in any other modern language. The earliest original
German poem in the form is said to be an anonymous hymn to St
Mary Magdalene, dated 1500. Voss kept strictly to the metrical
scheme of the Latin in his famous translation of the Odes of Horace
(1806), and among German poets who have cultivated sapphics are
to be mentioned Klopstock, Platen, Hamerling and Geibel.
SAPPHIRE, 1 a blue transparent variety of corundum, or
native alumina, much valued as a gem-stone. It is essentially
the same mineral as ruby, from which it differs chiefly in colour.
The colour of the normal sapphire varies from the palest blue to
deep indigo, the most esteemed tint being that of the blue
cornflower. Many of the crystals are parti-coloured, the blue
being distributed in patches in a colourless or yellow stone; but
by skilful cutting, the deep-coloured portion may be caused to im-
part colour to the entire gem. As the sapphire crystallizes in
the hexagonal system it is dichroic, but in pale stones this character
may not be well marked. In a deep-coloured stone the colour
may be resolved, by the dichroscope, into an ultramarine
1 Indirectly from Gr. <rair<pos, but there seems no doubt that this
term, like the Hebrew sapir of the Old Testament, was formerly
applied to what is now called lapis lazuli ; the modern sapphire was
probably known as id/x0os (hyacinthus).
202
SAPPHO SAPPORO
blue and a bluish or yellowish green. In blue tourmaline
and in iolite stones sometimes mistaken for sapphire the
dichroism is much more distinct. The blue colour in sapphire
has been variously referred to the presence of oxides of chromium,
iron or titanium, whilst an organic origin has also been suggested.
On exposure to a high temperature, the sapphire usually loses
colour, but, unlike ruby, it does not regain it on cooling.
A. Verneuil succeeded in imparting a sapphire-blue colour to
artificial alumina by addition of 1-5% of magnetic oxide of
iron and 0-5% of titanic acid (Comptes rendus, Jan. 17, 1910).
According to F. Bordas, the blue colour of sapphire exposed to
the action of radium changes to green and then to yellow.
Under artificial illumination many sapphires appear dark and
inky, whilst in some cases the blue changes to a violet, so that
the sapphire seems to be transformed to an amethyst. According
to lapidaries the hardness of sapphire slightly exceeds that of
ruby, and it is also rather denser. Notwithstanding its hardness
it has been sometimes engraved as a gem.
Ceylon has for ages been famous for sapphires. They occur, with
many other gem-stones, as pebbles or rolled crystals in alluvial
deposits of sand and gravel; the gem-gravel being known locally
as illam. The principal localities are Ratnapura, Rakwana in the
province of Sabara-Gamawa and Matara. Some of the slightly-
cloudy Ceylon sapphires, usually of greyish-blue colour, display
when cut with a convex face a chatoyant luminosity, sometimes
forming a luminous star of six rays, whence they are called " star-
sapphires " (see ASTERIA). The asterism seems due to the presence
of microscopic tubular cavities, or to enclosure of crystalline minerals,
arranged in a definite system. In 1875 sapphires were discovered in
deposits of clay and sand in Battambang (Siam), where they have
been worked on a considerable scale. They occur also with rubies in
the provinces of Chantabun and Krat. Many of the Siamese
sapphires are of very dark colour, some being so deeply tinted as to
appear almost black by reflected light. In Upper Burma sapphires
occur in association with rubies, but are much less important (see
RUBY). Sapphires are also found in Kashmir, where they occur,
associated with tourmaline, in the Zanskar range, especially near the
village of Soomjam. Madagascar yields sapphires generally of very
deep colour, occurring as rolled crystals. Sapphire is widely distri-
buted through the gold-bearing drifts of Victoria, New South Wales
and Queensland, but the blue colour of the Australian stones is
usually dark, and it is notable that green tints are not infrequent.
The Anakie sapphire-fields of Queensland are situated near Anakie
station on the Central railway, to the west of Emerald and east of
the Drummond Range. Sapphire occurs also in Tasmania. Coarse
sapphire is found in many parts of the United States, and the mineral
occurs of gem quality in North Carolina and Montana. The great
corundum deposits ofCorundumHill.Macon county, N.C., have yielded
good sapphires, and they are found also at Cowee Creek in the same
county. In Montana, sapphires were discovered as far back as 1865,
and have been worked on a large scale. They were originally found
in washing for gold. The rolled crystals of sapphire occur, with
garnet and other minerals, in glacial deposits, and have probably
been derived from dykes of igneous rocks, like andesite and
lamprophyre. They display much variety of colour, and exhibit
peculiar brilliancy when cut, but are often of pale tints. The
principal localities are at Missouri Bar, Ruby Bar and other places
near Helena, where they were first worked, and also at Yogo Gulch,
tiear Utica. The Helena crystals are of tabular habit, being com-
posed of the basal pinacoid with a very short hexagonal prism,
whilst at Yogo Gulch many of the crystals affect a rhombonedral
habit. The Montana sapphires and the matrix have been described
by Dr G. F. Kunz, Professor L. V. Pirsson and Dr J. H. Pratt (Amer.
Jour. Sc., ser. 4, vol. iv., 1897). The sapphire occurs also in Europe,
being found in the Iserweise of Bohemia and in the basalt of the
Rhine valley and of Le-Puy-en-Velay in France, but the European
stones have no interest as gems.
Although the term sapphire is primarily applied to blue corundum,
it is often used in a general sense so as to include all corundum of
gem quality, regardless of colour. Hence clear colourless corundum
is known as white sapphire or " leucosapphire." Such stones have
been occasionally cut as lenses for microscopes, being recommended
for such use by their high refractivity, weak dispersion and great
hardness. White topaz is sometimes called " water-sapphire," a
name which should, however, be restricted to iolite (q.v.). Yellow
corundum is not uncommon in Ceylon and is termed yellow sapphire
or " oriental topaz," the prefix oriental " being often applied to
corundum. When of pale yellowish-green colour the sapphire is
called " oriental chrysolite, when greenish-blue " oriental aqua-
marine," when of brilliant green colour " oriental emerald," and when
violet " oriental amethyst." (For figure of crystal of sapphire see
CORUNDUM and for artificial sapphire see GEM, Artificial.)
The so-called " Hope sapphires " of trade have been shown to be
artificial blue spinels, coloured by cobalt.
Sapphirine is a rare mineral, not related to sapphire except in
colour. It is a silicate, containing aluminium, magnesium and iron,
brought originally from Greenland, and since found in a rock from
the Vizagapatam district in India. (F. W. R.*)
SAPPHO (7th-6th centuries B.C.), Greek poetess, was a native
of Lesbos, contemporary with Alcaeus, Stesichorus and Pittacus,
in fact, with the culminating period of Aeolic poetry. One of
her brothers, Charaxus, fell in love with a courtesan named
Doricha upon whom he squandered his property. Sappho wrote
an ode, in which she severely satirized and rebuked him. Another
brother, Larichus, was public cup-bearer at Mytilene a position
for which it was necessary to be well born. It is said that
she had a daughter, named after her grandmother Cleis, and she
had some personal acquaintance with Alcaeus. He addressed
her in an ode of which a fragment is preserved: " Violet-
weaving (or dark-haired), pure, sweet-smiling Sappho, I wish
to say somewhat, but shame hinders me "; and she answered
in another ode: " Hadst thou had desire of aught good or fair,
shame would not have touched thine eyes, but thou wouldst have
spoken thereof openly." The story of her love for the disdainful
Phaon, and her leap into the sea from the Leucadian promontory,
together with that of her flight from Mytilene to Sicily, has no
confirmation; we are not even told whether she died of the leap or
not. Critics again are agreed that Suidas was simply gulled by
the comic poets when he tells of her husband, Cercolas of Andros.
Both the aspersions which these poets cast on her character and
the embellishments with which they garnished her life passed for
centuries as undoubted history. Six comedies entitled Sappho
and two Phaon, were produced by the Middle Comedy; but,
when we consider, for example, the way in which Socrates was
caricatured by Aristophanes, we are justified in putting no faith
whatever in such authority. We may conclude that Sappho
was not utterly vicious, though by no means a paragon of virtue.
All ancient tradition and the character of her extant fragments
show that her morality was what has ever since been known as
" Lesbian."
At Lesbos she was head of a great poetic school, for poetry
in that age and place was cultivated as assiduously and appar-
ently as successfully by women as by men. Her most famous
pupils were Erinna of Telos and Damophyla of Pamphylia. In
antiquity her fame rivalled that of Homer. She was called
" the poetess," he " the poet." Different writers style her
" the tenth Muse," " the flower of the Graces," " a miracle,"
" the beautiful," the last epithet referring to her writings, not
her person, which is said to have been small and dark.
Her poems were arranged in nine books, on what principle is un-
certain; she is said to have sung them to the Mixo-Lydian mode,
which she herself invented. The perfection and finish of every line,
the correspondence of sense and sound, the incomparable command
over all the most delicate resources of verse, and the exquisite sym-
metry of the complete odes which are extant, raise her into the very
first rank of technical poetry at once, while her painting of passion,
which caused Longinus to quote the ode to Anactoria as an example
of the sublime, has never been since surpassed, and only approached
by Catullus and in the Vita Nuova. Her fragments also bear witness
to a profound feeling for the beauty of nature. The ancients also
attributed to her a considerable power in satire, but in hexameter
verse they considered her inferior to her pupil Erinna.
The fragments of Sappho have been preserved by other authors
incidentally. Three fragments ascribed to her have been found on
Egyptian papyri within recent years. The first two were published
by W. Schubart in Sitzungsberichte d. konigl. preuss. Akademie d.
Wissenschaften (1902), i. 195 and re-edited (with bibliography) in
the Berliner Klassikertexte, v. 2 (1907) ; the third, discovered in 1879,
and attributed to Sappho by Blass, is re-edited in the Berlin. Klass. v.
For these three fragments see especially J. M. Edmonds, in Classical
Review (June, 1909), pp. 99-10*1 (text, trans., comment.) and on the
text of the " Ode to the Nereids " in Classical Quarterly (October,
1909). The poems were separately edited with translation by
Wharton (3rd ed., 1895) ; also in H. Weir Smyth's Greek Melic Poets
(1900). See also P. Brandt, Sappho (Leipzig, 1905); B. Steiner,
Sappho (1907). (J. A. PL.)
SAPPORO, the official capital of the island of Yezo, Japan,
situated in 43 4' N. and 141 zi'E. Pop. 39,000. It was chosen
in 1870, and owed its prosperity at the outset chiefly to the public
institutions established by the Japanese government in con-
nexion with the colonization bureau, which had for its object the
development of the resources of Yezo. It is now a garrison town
SARABAND SARAGOSSA
203
and has an agricultural college, a museum, saw-mills, flour-mills,
breweries, and hemp and flax factories.
SARABAND (Ital. Sarabanda, Zarabanda; Fr. Sarabande),
a slow dance, generally believed to have been imported from
Spain in the earlier half of the i6th century, though attempts
have been made to trace it to an Eastern origin. The most
probable account of the word is that the dance was named after
Zarabanda, a celebrated dancer of Seville. During the i6th
and 1 7th centuries the saraband was exceedingly popular in
Spain, France, Italy and England. Its music was in triple time
generally with three minims in the bar and almost always con-
sisted of two strains, each beginning upon the first beat, and most
frequently ending on the second or third. Many very fine
examples occur in the Suites and Partitas of Handel and J. S.
Bach; by far the finest is that which Handel first composed for
his overture to Almira, and afterwards adapted to the words
" Lascia, ch'io pianga," in Rinaldo.
SARACCO, GIUSEPPE (1821-1907), Italian politician and
financier, and knight of the Annunziata, was born at Bistagno
on the pth of October 1821, and, after qualifying as an advocate,
entered the Piedmontese parliament in 1849. A supporter of
Cavour until the latter's death he joined the party of Rattazzi
and became under-secretary of state for public works in the
Rattazzi cabinet of 1862. In 1864 he was appointed, by Sella,
secretary-general of finance, and after being created senator
in 1865, acquired considerable fame as a financial authority.
In 1879 he. succeeded in postponing the total abolition of the
grist tax, and was throughout a fierce opponent of Magliani's
loose financial administration. Selected as minister of public
works by Depretis in 1887, and by Crispi in 1893, he contrived
to mitigate the worst consequences of Depretis's corruptly
extravagant policy, and introduced a sounder system of govern-
ment participation in public works. In November 1898 he was
elected president of the senate, and in June 1900 succeeded in
forming a " Cabinet of pacification " after the Obstructionist
crisis which had caused the downfall of General Pelloux. His
term of office was clouded by the assassination of King Humbert
(2gth July 1900), and his administration was brought to an end
in February 1901 by a vote of the chamber condemning his weak
attitude towards a great dock strike at Genoa. After his fall he
resumed his functions as president of the senate; but on the
advent of the third Giolitti cabinet, he was not reappointed
to that position. He died on the igth of January 1907. He
received the supreme honour of the knighthood of the Annunziata
from King Humbert in 1898.
SARACENS, the current designation among the Christians
in the middle ages for their Moslem enemies, especially for
the Moslems in Europe. In earlier times the name Saraceni
was applied by Greeks and Romans to the nomad Arabs of the
Syro-Arabian desert who harassed the frontier of the empire.
Zapa/aji^, a district in the Sinaitic peninsula, is mentioned by
Ptolemy (v. 16). Its inhabitants, though unknown to Arab
tradition, made themselves notorious in the adjacent Roman
provinces. Thus all Bedouins in that region came to be called
Saraceni, in Aramaic Sarkaje, usually with no very favourable
meaning. The latter form occurs in a dialogue concerning Fate
written about A.D. 210 by a pupil of Bardesanes (Cureton,
Spicilegium Syriacum, 16 ult.). The appellation then became
general, and occurs frequently in Ammianus Marcellinus.
The name " Saracen " continued to be used in the West in later
times, probably rather through the influence of literature
than by oral tradition, and was applied to all Arabs, even to all
Moslems.
SARAGHARI, a small signalling post on the Samana Range
in the North- West Frontier Province of India between Forts
Lockhart and Gulistan. It is memorable for the stout defence
made by its garrison of 21 sepoys of the 3<jth Sikhs in 1897.
Saraghari, a mere mud block-house with a wooden door and a
dead-angle, was held for six and a half hours against seven or
eight thousand Orakzais, till the 21 Sikhs were finally over-
whelmed and killed to a man. A memorial in commemoration
was unveiled at Ferozepore in 1904.
SARAGOSSA (Zaragoza), an inland province of northern
Spain, one of the three into which Aragon was divided in 1833;
bounded on the N. by Logrono and Navarre, N.E. and E. by
Huesca, S.E. by Lerida and Tarragona, S. by Teruel and Guadala-
jara and W. by Soria. Pop. (1900) 421,843; area, 6726 sq. m.
Saragossa belongs wholly to the basin of the Ebro (q.v.). The
main valley is bounded on the south-west by the Sierra de
Moncayo (with the highest elevation in the province, 7707 ft.),
and is continued in a south-easterly direction by the lower
sierras of La Virgen and Vicor; on the north-west are the spurs
of the Pyrenees. The principal tributaries of the Ebro within
the province are the Jalon (q.v.), Huerva and Aguas on the right
and the Arba and Gallego on the left; the Aragon also, which
flows principally through Navarre, has part of its course in the
north of this province. At its lowest point, where the Ebro quits
it, Saragossa is only 105 ft. above sea-level. There are large
tracts of barren land, but where water is abundant the soil is
fertile; its chief productions are wheat, rye, barley, oats, hemp,
flax, oil and wine. Silkworms are bred; and on the higher
grounds sheep are reared. The manufactures are less import-
ant than the agricultural interests. Since 1885, however, the
Aragonese have bestirred themselves, especially since the
extremely protectionist policy of 1890 gave great impetus to
native industries all over Spain. The industries include iron-
founding and manufactures of paper, leather, soap, brandies,
liqueurs, machinery, carriages of all sorts, railway material,
pianos, beds, glass, bronze, chocolate, jams and woollen and
linen goods. Much timber is obtained from the Pyrenean forests;
the chief exports are live stock, excellent wines, flour, oil and
fruit. The province contains important mineral resources, the
bulk of which, however, await development.
Saragossa is traversed by the Ebro Valley Railway, which connects
Miranda with L6rida, Barcelona and Tarragona, and has a branch
to Huesca; it also communicates via Calatayud with Madrid and
Sagunto; and there are local lines to Carinena (south-west from
Saragossa) and to Tarazona and Borja (near the right bank of the
Ebro). The only towns with upwards of 5000 inhabitants in 1900
were Saragossa (99, 1 1 8)and Calatayud (i I ,526) (see separate articles) ;
Tarazona (8790), an episcopal see, with a curious 13th-century
cathedral; Caspe (7735); and Borja (5701), the original home of the
celebrated family of Borgia (q.v.). (For an account of the imperial
canal, and of the inhabitants and history of this region, see ARAGON.)
SARAGOSSA (Zaragoza), the capital of the Spanish province
of Saragossa and formerly of the kingdom of Aragon, seat of
an archbishop, of a court of appeal, and of the captain-general
of Aragon; on the right bank of the river Ebro, 212 m. by rail
N.E. of Madrid. Pop. (1900) 99,1 18. Saragossa is an important
railway junction; it is connected by direct main lines with
Valladolid, Madrid and Valencia in the west and south, and by
the Ebro Valley Railway with Catalonia and the Basque Pro-
vinces; it is also the starting-point of railways to the northern
districts of Aragon and to Carinena on the south-west. The
city is built in an oasis of highly cultivated land, irrigated by a
multitude of streams which distribute the waters of the Imperial
Canal, and surrounded by an arid plain exposed to the violent
gales which blow down, hot in summer and icy in winter, from
the Castilian plateau. The monthly range of temperature
frequently varies by as much as 50 Fahr., and the climate is
rarely pleasant for many consecutive days except in spring,
when warm easterly winds blow from the Mediterranean. The
city is surrounded by gardens, farms and country-houses (locally
known as torres, " towers "). Seen from a distance it has a fine
appearance owing to the number of its domes and towers; on a
nearer approach it presents a remarkable contrast between the
older streets, narrow, gloomy, ill-paved and lined with the
fortress-like palaces of the old Aragonese nobility, and the
business and residential quarters, which are as well built as
any part of Madrid or Barcelona. Saragossa is thus in appear-
ance at once one of the oldest and one of the newest of Spanish
cities.
One of its two stone bridges, the seven-arched Puente de Piedra,
dates from 1447; ; there is also an iron bridge for the railway to
Pamplona. Beside the river there are public walks and avenues pf
poplar; the suburb on the left bank is named Arrabal. The two
most important buildings of Saragossa are its cathedrals, to each of
SARAGOSSA, COUNCILS OF SARASIN
204
which the chapter is attached for six months in the year. La Seo
(" The See ") is the older of the two, dating chiefly from the I4th
century; its prevailing style is Gothic, but the oldest portion, the
lower walls of the apse, is Byzantine. The Iglesia Metropolitana del
Pilar is the larger building, dating only from the latter half of the
I7th century; it was built after designs by Herrera el Mozo, and
owes it name to one of the most venerated objects in Spain, the
" pillar " of jasper on which the Virgin is said to have alighted when
she manifested herself to St James as he passed through Saragossa.
It has little architectural merit; externally its most conspicuous
features are its cupolas, which are decorated with rows of green,
yellow and white glazed tiles. The church of San Pablo dates
mainly from the I3th century. The Torre Nueva, an octangular
clock tower in diapered brickwork, dating from 1504, was pulled
down in 1892; it leaned some 9 or 10 ft. from the perpendicular,
owing to faulty foundations, which ultimately rendered it unsafe.
Among other conspicuous public buildings are the municipal build-
ings, the exchange (Lonja), and the civil and military hospitals and
almshouse (Hospicio provincial), which are among the largest in
Spain. The university was founded in 1474, but its history has not
been brilliant. To the west of the town is the Aljaferia or old citadel,
originally built as a palace by the Moors and also used as such by its
Christian owners. Late in the isth century it was assignee: by
Ferdinand and Isabella to the Inquisition, and has since been used as
a military hospital, as a prison and as barracks. Saragossa is the
headquarters of a large agricultural trade; its industries include
iron-founding, tanning, brewing, distillation of spirits, and manu-
factures of machinery, candles, soap, glass and porcelain.
History. Saragossa (Celtiberian, Salduba) was made a colony
by Augustus at the close of the Celtiberian War (25 B.C.), and
renamed Caesar ea Augusta or Caesaraugusta, from which
" Saragossa " is derived. Under the Romans it was a highly
privileged city, the chief commercial and military station in the
Ebro valley, and the seat of one of the four conventus juridici
(assizes) of Hither Spain. It is now, however, almost destitute
of antiquities dating from the Roman occupation. It was
captured in 452 by the Suebi, and in 476 by the Visigoths, whose
rule lasted until the Moorish conquest in 712, and under whom
Saragossa was the first city to abandon the Arian heresy. In
777 its Moorish ruler, the viceroy of Barcelona, appealed to
Charlemagne for aid against the powerful caliph of Cordova,
Abd-ar-Rahman I. Charlemagne besieged the Cordovan army
in Sarkosta, as the city was then called; but a rebellion of his
Saxon subjects compelled him to withdraw his army, which
suffered defeat at Roncesvalles (?..), while recrossing the
Pyrenees. The Moors were finally expelled by Alphonso I.
of Aragon in 1118, after a siege lasting nine months in which
the defenders were reduced to terrible straits by famine. As
the capital of Aragon, Saragossa prospered greatly until the
second half of the isth century, when the marriage between
Ferdinand and Isabella (1469) resulted in the transference of the
court to Castile. In 1710 the allied British and Austrian armies
defeated the forces of Philip V. at Saragossa in the war of
the Spanish Succession; but it was in the Peninsular War
(q.v.) that the city reached the zenith of its fame. An ill-armed
body of citizens, led by Jose de Palafox y Melzi (see PALAFOX),
whose chief lieutenants were a priest and two peasants, held
the hastily-entrenched city against Marshal Lefebvre from the
iSth of June to the isth of August 1808. The siege was then
raised in consequence of the reverse suffered by the French at
Hail en (q.v.), but it was renewed on the 2oth of December, and
on the 27th of January the invaders entered the city. Even
then they encountered a desperate resistance, and it was not
until the 2oth of February that the defenders were compelled
to capitulate, after more than three weeks of continuous street
fighting. About 50,000 persons, the majority non-combatants,
perished in the city, largely through famine and disease. Among
the defenders was the famous " Maid of Saragossa," Maria
Agustin, whose exploits were described by Byron in Chtide
Harold (i, 55 sqq.).
SARAGOSSA, COUNCILS OF (Concilia Cacsaraugusta.no). In
or about 380 a council of Spanish and Aquitanian bishops
adopted at Saragossa eight canons bearing more or less directly
on the prevalent heresy of Priscillianism. A second council,
held in 502, solved practical problems incident to the recent
conversion of the West Goths from Arianism to orthodox
Christianity. The third council, in 691, issued five canons
on discipline. In 1318 a provincial synod proclaimed the
elevation of Saragossa to the rank of an archbishopric; and
from September 1565 to February 1566 a similar synod made
known the decrees of Trent.
H. T. Bruns, Canones apostolorum et conciliorum saectdorum iv., v.,
vi., vii., pars altera (Berlin, 1839) ; P. B. Gams, Die Kirchengeschichte
von Spanien (Regensburg, 1862-1879). (W. W. R.*)
SARAN, a district of British India, in the Tirhut division
of Bengal. Area, 2674 sq. m. It is a vast alluvial plain, possess-
ing scarcely any undulations, but with a general inclination
towards the south-east, as indicated by the flow of the rivers
in that direction. The principal rivers, besides the Ganges,
are the Gandak and Gogra, which are navigable throughout the
year. The district has long been noted for its high state of
cultivation. It yields large crops of rice, besides other cereals,
pulses, oil seeds, poppy, indigo and sugar-cane.
The population in 1901 was 2,409,509, showing a decrease of 2-2 %,
compared with an increase of 7-4% in the previous decade. The
average density of population, 901 per square mile, is the highest
rate for all India. The indigo industry, formerly of the first import-
ance, has declined, and sugar refining has in great part taken its
place. Some saltpetre is produced, and shellac is manufactured.
Saran is exposed to drought and flood. It suffered from the famine
of 1874, and again in 1896-1899. An irrigation scheme from the
river Gandak, started in 1878, proved a failure, after a capital ex-
penditure of Rs. 7,00,000. The Bengal North-Western railway runs
through the south of the district. The administrative headquarters
are at Chapra.
See Saran District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
SARAPUL, a town of N. Russia, in the government of Vyatka,
on the river Kama, 333 m. by river E.N.E. of Kazan and
266 m. S.W. of Perm. Pop. (1855) 12,367; (1897) 21,395. Boots,
shoes and gloves are manufactured, the first-named being
mostly exported to Siberia, Caucasia and Turkestan. It has
also tanneries, flax mills, distilleries, ironworks and rope-works,
and is a busy river-port, trafficking in corn and timber. There
are a lace-making school and a municipal library.
SARASATE Y NAVASCUES, PABLO MARTIN MELITON DE
(1844-1908), Spanish violinist, was born at Pamplona on the
loth of March 1844. From his early years he displayed his
aptitude for the violin, and at the age of 12 he began to study
under Alard at the Paris Conservatoire. His first public appear-
ance as a concert violinist was in 1860. He played in London
in 1861, and in the course of his career he visited all parts of
Europe and also both North and South America. His artistic
pre-eminence was due principally to the purity of his tone,
which was free from any tendency towards sentimentality and
rhapsodic mannerism, and to the astonishing facility of execution
which made him in the best sense of the word a virtuoso. Al-
though in the Beethoven and Mendelssohn concertos, and in
modern French and Belgian works, his playing was unrivalled,
his qualities were most clearly revealed in the solos which he
himself composed, which were " the spirit of Spanish dance
translated into terms of the violin virtuoso." Sarasate died
at Biarritz on the aoth of September 1908.
SARASIN, or SARRAZIN, JEAN FRANCOIS (i6n?-i65 4 ),
French author, son of Roger Sarasin, treasurer-general at Caen,
was born at Hermanville near Caen. He was educated at Caen,
and settled in Paris. As a writer of tiers de societt he rivalled
Voiture, but he was never admitted to the inner circle of the
h6tel de Rambouillet. He was on terms of intimate friendship
with Scarron, with whom he exchanged verses, with M6nage,
and with Pellisson. In 1639 he supported Georges de Scud6ry
in his attack on Corneille with a Discours de la tragtdie. He
accompanied L6on Bouthillier, comte de Chavigny, secretary
of state for foreign affairs, on various diplomatic errands. He
was to have been sent on an embassy to Rome, but spent the
money allotted for the purpose in Paris. This weakened his
position with Chavigny, from whom he parted in the winter of
1643-1644. To restore his fallen fortunes he married a rich
widow, but the alliance was of short duration. He joined in
the pamphlet war against Pierre de Montmaur, against whom
he directed his satire, Bellum parasiticum (1644). He was
accused of writing satires on Mazarin, and for a short time gave
up the practice of verse. In 1648, supported by the cardinal
SARASUATI SARATOGA SPRINGS
205
de Retz and Madame de Longueville, he entered the household
of Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti, whose marriage with
Mazarin's niece he helped to negotiate. He died of fever at
Pezenas, in Languedoc on the 5th of December 1654. His
biographers have variously stated on inadequate evidence that
his death was caused by the prince de Conti in a moment of
passion, or that he was poisoned by a jealous husband. The
most considerable of his poems were the epic fragments of Rollon
conquerant, la guerre espagnole, with Dulot vaincu and the Pompe
funebre in honour of Voiture. As a poet he was overrated, but
he was the author of two excellent pieces of prose narration,
the Histoire du siege de Dunkerque (1649) an d the unfinished
Conspiration de Walstein (1651). The Walstein has been
compared for elegance and simplicity of style to Voltaire's
Charles XII.
His (Euvres appeared in 1656, Nouvelles (Euvres (2 vols.) in 1674.
His Poesies were edited in 1877 by Octave Uzanne with an intro-
ductory note. Much of his correspondence is preserved in the
library of the Arsenal, Paris. See Albert Mennung's Jean Francois
Sarasins Leben und Werke (2 vols., Halle, 1902-1904).
SARASUATI, in early Hindu mythology, a river-goddess;
in later myths the wife of Brahma, goddess of wisdom and
science, mother of the Vedas, and inventor of the Devanagari
letters. There has been much dispute as to the stream of which
she is a personification. Some have identified it with the
Avestan river, Haragaiti, in Afghanistan, while others think
the term a general one for any great river, and in particular the
sacred name for the Indus, Sindhu being the popular one.
Two small but sacred rivers in India are still called Saraswati, one
in the Punjab and the other in Gujarat, both of which ultimately
lose themselves in the sand. According to one legend, the Punjab
river reappears to unite with the Ganges and Jumna at Allahabad.
From this river is derived the name of the Sarswat Brahmans, the
most numerous and influential of the priestly class in the Punjab, with
whom the Gaur Sarswats or Shenvis of the Konkan claim connexion.
SARATOGA, BATTLES OF. The British campaign for the
year 1777 in America (see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE)
involved the operations of two armies moving from opposite
and distant points. The lack of co-operation between the two
led to the loss of one of them. This was General Burgoyne's
force of 7000 men which marched from Canada in June 1777
with the view of reaching the upper Hudson and combining with
British troops from New York to isolate New England from
the colonies below. Lord Howe, commander-in-chief of the
British in America, who had received no instructions binding
him in detail to co-operate with Burgoyne, moved southward
and captured Philadelphia. In drawing Washington after him
he claimed to be assisting Burgoyne. Burgoyne pushed down
by way of Lakes Champlain and George and approached the
American army under General Horatio Gates in its fortified
camp near Stillwater on the W. bank of the Hudson, about
24 m. N. of Albany. On the ipth Burgoyne attacked the
American left under General Benedict Arnold. The battle,
fought in densely wooded country till nightfall, was severe but
indecisive. The British suffered heavy losses, especially in
officers. This is variously known as the First Battle of Saratoga,
the Battle of Freeman's Farm, the First Battle of Bemis
Heights or the First Battle of Stillwater. Burgoyne fortified
himself on the site of the action, and on October 7th made
another attempt to turn the American left. An engagement
still more severe than that of the igth, known as the Second
Battle of Saratoga, followed, in which the Americans under
Benedict Arnold, E. Poor and D. Morgan drove the enemy
into their works. Among many British officers killed was
Brigadier-General Simon Fraser, who had been the life of the
expedition. Crippled to an alarming extent, Burgoyne re-
treated. He was closely followed and harassed, and on the i6th
of October nearly surrounded. On the i7th he surrendered, with
about 6000 men, near the present village of Saratoga Springs.
See W. L. Stone, Campaign of Lieut.-Gen. John Burgoyne (Albany,
1877).
SARATOGA SPRINGS, a village of Saratoga county, New
York, U.S.A., about 38 m. N. of Albany, and about 12 m.
W. of the Hudson river. Pop. (1900) 12,409, of whom 1684
were foreign-born and 619 were negroes; (1910) 12,693.
Saratoga Springs is served by the Delaware & Hudson and the
Boston & Maine railways and by several interurban electric
lines. The village is in a region of great historic interest, is famous
for its medicinal mineral springs, and has long been one of the
most popular watering places in America. Its hotels accommo-
date more than 20,000 guests. Of the hotels, the best known
are the United States, Congress Hall, the Grand Union and the
American-Adelphi. The springs, of which there are more than
forty, were known in colonial times.
The waters, all having the same ingredients but in varying pro-
portions, are heavily charged with carbonic acid gas, and contain
considerable quantities of bicarbonates of lime and magnesium,
and chloride of sodium. They rise in a stratum of Potsdam sandstone,
underlaid by Laurentian gneiss, &c., and reach the surface after
passing through a bed of blue clay. The most noteworthy springs are
Congress, Vichy, Arondack, Hathorn, Patterson, High Rock, Put-
nam, Star, Red, Lincoln, Victoria, Carlsbad and Geyser. Some of the
springs originally rose above the surface by their own force, but with
the boring of new springs and the pumping for carbonic acid gas
south of the village the pressure was greatly lessened; the courts
interfered to stop the pumping and it was prohibited by the state
legislature. These measures, however, were not effective, and in
May 1909 an act was passed establishing a state reservation at
Saratoga, creating a commission of three to select the lands to be
taken over by the state, and providing for an issue of bonds for
$600,000 to buy the springs. Saratoga Lake, a beautiful body of
water 6 m. long and I m. wide, 3! m. south-east of the village, is a
favourite resort.
The streets are well-shaded and broad, with side stretches
of lawn between the sidewalk and the curb. There is a speedway
and a famous race-track, where there are annual running races.
In the village are Woodlawn Park (1200 acres), a town-hall, a
state armoury, a public library, several theatres and a number of
private hospitals and sanatoriums. The Convention Hall has
been the meeting place of many conventions; near it is a re-
production of the House of Pansa at Pompeii, built by Franklin
W. Smith. The principal business is the bottling and shipping
of the mineral waters which are sold in krge quantities and
exported to many foreign countries. Among the manufactures
are patent medicines, druggists' preparations and chemicals,
silk gloves, textiles, foundry products and boilers and engines.
In 1905 the value of the factory product was $1,709,073, an
increase of 28-1% since 1900.
The Saratoga country was a favourite summer camping ground
of the Iroquois, particularly the Mohawks, who were attracted
thither by the medicinal value of the springs long before Europeans
visited the region. The Indian name, " Sa-ragh-to-ga " or
" Se-rach-ta-gue," is said to have meant " hillside country of
the great water " or " place of the swift water." The district
became during the colonial wars a theatre of hostilities between
the French and English colonists and their Indian allies. In
1693 a French expedition was checked in a sharp conflict near
Mt MGregor by an English and colonial force under Governor
Benjamin Fletcher and Peter Schuyler. Early in the i8th
century the region along the upper Hudson began to be settled,
the settlement on the Hudson a't the mouth of the Fishkill,
directly east of the present Saratoga Springs, being known first
as Saratoga (later " Old Saratoga ") and finally as Schuylerville
(pop. in 1905, 1529), in honour of the Schuyler family. Upon
the settlement the French and Indians descended in 1745,
and massacred many of the inhabitants. After the close of the
Seven Years' War, there was a new influx of settlers. Near
Stillwater (pop. in 1905, 973), about 5 m. south-east of the present
village, the battles of Saratoga (q.i>.) were fought during the War
of Independence. On the site of the present village a small log
lodging house for the reception of visitors was built in 1771.
After the close of the War of Independence, the fame of the
Springs as a health resort spread abroad, and many sought them
annually. In 1791 Gideon Putnam (1764-1812), a nephew of
Major-General Israel Putnam, bought a large tract of land here;
he built the first inn (on the site of the present Grand Union
Hotel). Other hotels were erected within the next few years ;
between 1820 and 1830, by which time the Springs had become
one of the most popular of American resorts, several large barn-
like wooden hotels were constructed; and Saratoga Springs
was incorporated as a village in 1826.
206
SARATOV
See G. G. Scott and J. S. L'Amoreaux, History of Saratoga
County (New York, 1876), N. B. Sylvester, History of Saratoga
County (Philadelphia, 1878), and G, B. Anderson, Saratoga County
(New York, 1899).
SARATOV, a government of south-eastern Russia, on the
right bank of the lower Volga, having the governments of Penza
and Simbirsk on the N., Samara and Astrakhan on the E. and
the Don Cossacks territory and the governments of Voronezh
and Tambov on the W. The area is 32,614 sq. m. The govern-
ment has an irregular shape; and a narrow strip 140 m. long
and 20 to 45 m. wide, extending along the Volga as far south
as its Sarepta bend, separates the river from the territory of
the Don Cossacks.
Saratov occupies the eastern part of the great central plateau of
Russia, which slopes gently towards the south until it merges im-
perceptibly into the steppe region ; its eastern slope, deeply cut into
by ravines, falls abruptly towards the Volga. As the higher parts of
the plateau range from 700 to 900 ft. above the sea, while the Volga
flows at an elevation of only 20 ft. at Khvalyhsk in the north, and is
48 ft. below sea-level at Sarepta, the steep ravine-cut slopes of the
plateau give a hilly aspect to the banks of the river In the south,
and especially in the narrow strip above mentioned, the country
assumes the characteristics of elevated steppes, intersected by
waterless ravines.
Every geological formation from the Carboniferous up to the
Miocene is represented in Saratov; the older formations are, how-
ever, mostly concealed under the Cretaceous, whose fossiliferous
marls, flint-bearing clays and iron-bearing sandstones cover ex-
tensive areas. The Jurassic deposits seldom crop out from beneath
them. Eocene sands, sandstones and marls, abounding in marine
fossils and in fossil wood, extend over wide tracts in the east. The
boulder-clay of the Finland and Olonets ice-sheet penetrates as far
south-east as the valleys of the Medvyeditsa and the Sura; and
extensive layers of loess and other deposits of the Lacustrine or Post-
Glacial period emerge in the south-east and elsewhere above the
Glacial deposits. Iron-ore is abundant; chalk, lime and white
pottery clay are extracted to a limited extent. The mineral waters
at Sarepta, formerly much visited, have been superseded in public
favour by those of Caucasia.
Saratov is well drained, especially in the north. The Volga
separates it from the governments of Samara and Astrakhan for a
length of 500 m. ; its tributaries are but small, except the Sura,
which rises in Saratov, and serves for the northward transit of
timber. The tributaries of the Don are more important : the upper
Medvyeditsa and the Khoper, which both have a southward course
parallel to the Volga and drain Saratov each for about 200 m., are
navigated notwithstanding their shallows, ready-made boats being
brought in separate pieces from, the Volga. The Ilovlya, which
flows in the same direction into the Don, is separated from the
Volga by a strip of land only 15 m. wide; Peter the Great proposed
to utilize it as a channel for connecting the Don with the Volga, but
the idea has never been carried out, and the two rivers are now
connected by the railway (45 m.) from Tsaritsyn to Kalach which
crosses the southern extremity of Saratov. The region is rapidly
drying up, and the forests diminishing. In the south, about Tsaritsyn,
they nave almost wholly disappeared. In the north they still occupy
more than a third of the surface, the aggregate area under wood
being reckoned at nearly 13 % of the total. The remainder is distri-
buted as follows: arable land, 58%; prairies and pasture lands,
19 %. Such is the scarcity of timber that the peasants' houses are
made of clay, the corner posts and door and window frames being
largely shipped from the wooded districts of the middle Volga.
The climate is severe and continental. The average yearly tempera-
-.__ average
of 162 days at Saratov and 153 days at Tsaritsyn. The soil is very
fertile, especially in the north, where a thick sheet of black-earth
covers the plateaus ; sandy clay and saline clay appear in the south.
The population numbered 2,113,077 in 1882 and 2,419,884 in
1897. The density in the different districts in 1897 varied from
55 to 107 inhabitants per sq. m., and the urban population
amounted to 319,918; the female population numbered 1,230,957.
The estimated population in 1906 was 2,862,600. There are a few
Germans, a fair number of Mordvinians, Chuvashes and Tatars,
but nearly all the rest are Russians; 83% belong to the Orthodox
Greek Church, 5% are Nonconformists, 6% Lutherans and 2%
Roman Catholics. The government is divided into ten districts,
the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897, are
Saratov (q.v.), Atkarsk (9750), Balashov (12,160), Kamyshin
(16,834), Khvalynsk (15,455), Kuznetsk (21,740), Petrovsk
(13,212), Serdobsk (12,721), Tsaritsyn (67,650 in 1900) and
Volsk (27,572 in 1900). Education makes some progress: in
1897, 40% of the military recruits were able to read, as against
21% in 1874. The proportion of illiterate women, however,
continues very large. Of the total area, 52% belonged to the
peasants in 1896, 38% to private landowners, 5% to the crown
and 5% to the imperial family and the municipal authorities;
the peasants, however, are constantly buying land in considerable
quantities. Green crops are being cultivated more widely, both
on the private estates and among the peasants. Agriculture
suffers, however, very much from droughts, and the attacks
of marmots, mice and insects. The principal crops are wheat,
rye, oats, barley, potatoes and beetroot, with some tobacco and
fruit. Oil-yielding plants are cultivated; linseed in all districts
except Tsaritsyn; and mustard, both for grain and oil, exten-
sively about Sarepta and in the Kamyshin district. Gardening is
a considerable source of income around Saratov, Volsk, Atkarsk
and Kamyshin, the cucumbers, melons and water-melons being
specially famous. Fishing and the preparation of caviare are
of some importance at Kamyshin and elsewhere. Live-stock
breeding is declining. On the other hand, the export trade in
poultry, especially geese, has developed greatly. The factories
comprise mainly steam flour-mills, oil-works, distilleries, oil-
mills, timber-mills, tanneries, fur-dressing works and tobacco
factories. Weaving, the fabrication of agricultural machinery
and pottery, boot-making, &c., are carried on in the villages.
The fairs of the government have lost much of their importance;
that at Bekovo, however, in the district of Serdobsk, has held
its ground, especially as regards cattle and animal products.
The peasants are no better off than those of the other govern-
ments of south-east Russia (see SAMARA). Years of scarcity
are common, and many peasants leave their homes in search of
work on the Volga and elsewhere. An active trade is carried
on in corn, hides, tallow, oils, exported; the merchants of
Saratov, moreover, are intermediaries in the trade between south-
east Russia and the central governments. The chief ports are
Saratov, Tsaritsyn, Kamyshin and Khvalynsk. The German
colony of Sarepta is a lively little town with 5650 inhabitants,
which carries on an active trade in mustard, woollen cloth and
manufactured wares.
The district of Saratov has been inhabited since at least the Neo-
lithic period. The inhabitants of a later epoch have left numerous
bronze remains in their kurgans (burial-mounds), but their ethno-
logical position is still uncertain. In the 8th and 9th centuries the
semi-nomad Burtases peopled the territory and recognized the
authority of the Khazar princes. Whether the Burtases were the
ancestors of the Mordvinians has not yet been determined. At the
time of the Mongol invasion in 1239-1242, the Tatars took possession
of the territory, and one of their settlements around the khan's
palace at Urek, 10 m. from Saratov, seems to have had some im-
portance, as well as those about Tsaritsyn and Dubovka. The
Crimean Tatars devastated the country in the I5th century, and
after the fall of Kazan and Astrakhan the territory was annexed to
Moscow. Saratov and Tsaritsyn, both protected by forts, arose in
the second half of the l6th century. Dmitrievsk (now Kamyshin)
and Petrovsk were founded about the end of the 1 7th century, and
a palisaded wall was erected between the Volga and the Don.
Regular colonization may be said to have begun only at the end of
the i8th century, when Catherine II. called back the runaway dis-
senters, invited German colonists and ordered her courtiers to settle
here their serls, deported from central Russia.
(P.-A. K.; J. T. BE.)
SARATOV, a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, on the right bank of the Volga, 532 m. by rail
S.E. of Moscow. It is one of the most important cities of eastern
Russia, and is picturesquely situated on the side of hills which
come close down to the Volga. One of these, the Sokolova (560
ft.), is liable to frequent landslips, and is a continual source of
danger. The city is divided into three parts by two ravines;
the outer two may be considered as suburbs. A large village,
Pokrovsk (pop. 20,000), situated on the opposite bank of the
Volga, though in the government of Samara, is in reality a suburb
of Saratov. Apart from this suburb, Saratov had in 1882 a
population of 112,430 (49,660 in 1830, and 69,660 in 1859),
and 143,431 in 1900. It is the see of an Orthodox Greek bishop
and of a Roman Catholic bishop, and is better built than many
towns of central Russia. Its old cathedral (1697) is a very plain
structure, but the new one, completed in 1825, is fine, and has a
SARAVIA, A. SARAWAK
207
striking campanile. The theatre and the railway station are
also fine buildings. The streets are wide and regular, and there
are several broad squares. A new fine-art gallery was erected
in 1884 by the painter Bogolubov, who bequeathed to the city
his collection of modern pictures and objects of art. A school
of drawing and the public library are in the same building,
the Radishchev Museum.
Agriculture and gardening support a section of the population.
The cultivation of the sunflower deserves special mention. Of the
manufacturing establishments the distilleries rank first in import-
ance ; next come the liqueur factories, flour-mills, oil-works, railway
workshops and tobacco-factories. The city has a trade not only
in corn, oil, hides, tallow, woollen cloth, wool, fruits and various raw
produce exported from Samara, but also in salt from the Crimea and
Astrakhan, in iron from the Urals and in wooden wares from the
upper Volga governments. Saratov also supplies south-eastern
Russia with manufactured articles and grocery wares imported from
central Russia. The shallowness of the Volga opposite the town
and the immense shoals along its right bank are, however, a great
drawback to its usefulness as a river-port.
The town of Saratov was founded at the end of the i6th century,
on the left bank of the Volga, some 7 m. above the present site, to
which it was removed about 1605. The place it now occupies
(Sary-tau or Yellow Mountain) has been inhabited from remote
antiquity. Although founded for the maintenance of order in the
Volga region, Saratov was several times pillaged in the I7th and 1 8th
centuries. The peasant leader Stenka Razin took it, and his followers
kept it until 1671 ; the insurgent Cossacks of the Don pillaged it in
1708 and the rebel Pugachev in 1774.
SARAVIA, ADRIAN (1531-1613), theologian, was born at
Hesdin, Pas-de-Calais, of a Spanish father and Flemish mother,
both Protestants. He entered the ministry at Antwerp, had a
hand in the Walloon Confession and gathered a Walloon con-
gregation in Brussels. He migrated to the Channel Islands early
in the reign of Elizabeth; and, after a period as schoolmaster,
officiated (1564-1566) at St Peter's, Guernsey, then under
Presbyterian discipline. Subsequently he held the mastership
of the grammar school at Southampton, and in 1582 was professor
of divinity and minister of the reformed church at Leiden.
From Leiden he wrote (9 June 1 585) to Lord Burghley advising
the assumption of the protectorate of the Low Countries by
Elizabeth. He became domiciled in England in 1 587-1 588, leav-
ing Holland on the discovery of his complicity in a political plot,
and was appointed (i 588) rector of Tattenhall, Staffordshire. His
first work, De diversis gradibus ministrorum Evangdii (1590;
in English, 1592, and reprinted), was an argument for episcopacy,
which led to a controversy with Theodore Beza, and gained him
incorporation (9 June 1590) as D.D. at Oxford, and a prebend
at Gloucester (22 Oct. 1591). On 6th December 1595 he
was admitted to a canonry at Canterbury (which he resigned in
1602), and in the same year to the vicarage of Lewisham, Kent,
where he became an intimate friend of Richard Hooker, his near
neighbour, whom he absolved on his deathbed. He was made
prebendary of Worcester (1601) and of Westminster (5 July
1601). In 1604, or early in 1605, he presented to James I. his
Latin treatise on the Eucharist, which remained in the Royal
Library unprinted, till in 1885 it was published (with translation
and introduction) by Archdeacon G. A. Denison. In 1607 he was
nominated one of the translators of the Authorised Version of
1611, his part being Genesis to end of Kings ii. On the 23rd of
March 1610 he exchanged Lewisham for the rectory of Great
Chart, Kent. He died at Canterbury on the isth of January
1612, and was buried in the cathedral on the igth of January.
See the particulars collected in Denison's " Notice of the Author "
prefixed to De sacra eucharistia. (A. Go. *)
SARAVIA, a town of the province of Negros Occidental,
island of Negros, Philippine Islands, on the N.W. coast and the
coast road, 16 m. N.N.E. of Bacolod, the capital. Pop. (1903)
13,132. The town is in a rich sugar-producing region, and sugar
culture is the only important industry. The language is Panay-
Visayan.
SARAWAK, a state situated in the north-west of Borneo;
area, 55,ooosq. m.; pop. about 500,600. The coast line extends
from Tanjong Datu, a prominent cape in 2 3' N., northwards to
the mouth of the river Lawas 5 10' N. and 115 30' W., the whole
length of the coast line being about 440 m. in a straight line;
but a tract, 80 m. in length, of Brunei territory still remains
between the mouths of the Baram and Limbang rivers. The
frontier of the southern portion of Sarawak is formed by the
Serang, Kelingkang and Batang Lupar ranges of mountains.
The inland or eastern boundary is formed by the broken range of
mountains which constitutes the principal watershed of the island.
Of these the highest peaks are: Batu Puteh (5400 ft.), Tebang
(10,000 ft.), Batu Bulan (7000 ft.), Ubat Siko (4900 ft.), Bela Lawing
(7000 ft.) and Batu Leihun (6000 ft.), from which the Rejang and
Baram rivers, on the Sarawak side, and the Koti and Balungun rivers,
on the Dutch side, take their rise. North of Sarawak is the Pamabo
mountain range (8000 ft.),whence flow the rivers Limbang and Trusan,
and the mountains Batu Lawei (8000 ft.) and Lawas (6000 ft.).
The interior is mountainous, the greatest elevations being Mount
Mulu (9000 ft.), of limestone formation, Batu Lawei (8000 ft.),
Pamabo (8000 ft.), Kalulong, Dulit, Poeh and Penrisam. The
Rejang is the largest river, the Baram ranking second, the Batang
Lupar third and the Limbang fourth. The Rejang is navigable for
small steamers for about 160 m., the Baram for about 100 m., but
there is a formidable bar at the mouth of the Baram. The chief
town of Sarawak, Kuching, with a population of about 30,000, is
situated on the Sarawak river 20 m. from its mouth, and can be
reached by steamers of a thousand tons.
The fauna is rich. The most important mammals are the maias,
or orang utan, the gibbon, the proboscis, semnopithecus and macacus
monkeys; lemurs, cats, otters, bears, porcupines, wild pigs, wild
cattle, deer and pangolin. Bats, shrews, rats and squirrels are in-
cluded among the smaller mammals, while sharks, porpoises and
dugongs are found along the coast. Of birds, Sarawak has over five
hundred species; fish and reptiles are abundant ; the jungle swarms
with insect life, and is rich in many varieties of fern and orchid.
The mineral wealth gives promise of considerable development.
The Borneo Company for some years have successfully worked gold
from the quartz reefs at Bau, on the Sarawak river, by the cyanide
process, as well as antimony and cinnabar. Antimony occurs in
pockets in various localities, notably at Sariki, in the Rejang district,
and at Burok Buang and Telapak, in the Baram district and in the
river Atun. Cinnabar has also been found in small quantities at
Long Liman and in the streams about the base of Mount Mulu.
Sapphires of good quality, but too small to be of commercial value,
are found in large numbers in the mountain streams of the interior.
Coal is worked at Sadong and Brooketon, and shipped to Singapore.
The great coal-field of Selantik, along the Kelingkang range in the
Batang Lupar district, is being developed. Indications of coal seams
have also been found in the river Mukah; at Pelagus in the Rejang;
at Similajau and Tutau and on Mount Dulit, in the Baram district.
Timber is one of the most valuable products, but with the ex-
ception of bilian (iron wood) from the river Rejang, little is exported.
The most important timbers are bilian, merebo, rasak, kruin, tapang,
kranji, benaga, bintangor, gerunggang, medang, meranti and kapor.
Except near the banks of the rivers, which have been cleared by the
natives for farming purposes, the whole country is thickly clothed
with timber. The industrial establishments also comprise sago-
mills, brick-works, cyanide-works and saw-mills.
In 1904 the total trade of Sarawak (Foreign and Coastwise)
reached a value of 816,466,241 as compared with $4,564,200 in 1890.
The remarkable increase in trade is shown by the following table :
1900. 1904.
Gold . . . 884,370 81,819,200
Pepper . . 125,442 2,611,478
Sago flour . 75,026 830,319
Rubber . . 35,i8i 351.735
Gutta . . 78,829 637,348
Gambier . 20,060 173,500
The revenue increased from 8457,596. in 1894 to 81,321,879 in
1904; and the expenditure increased in the same period from
$486,533 to 81,225,384. The Public Debt of Sarawak on the 1st of
January 1905 was 825,000.
The population of the state, in addition to a small number
of Europeans, government officials and others, a few natives of
British India, and a large number of Chinese traders and pepper
planters, consists of semi-civilized Malays in the towns and
villages of the coast districts and of a number of wild tribes of
Indonesian affinities in the interior. Of these the most important
are the Dyaks, Milanaus, Kayans, Kenyahs, Kadayans and
Muruts. No census has ever been taken. " Without the China-
man," said the Raja(Potf Mall Gazette, I9th September 1883),
" we could do nothing. When not allowed to form secret
societies he is easily governed, and this he is forbidden to do on
pain of death." The Milanaus, who live in the northern districts,
have adopted the Malay-dress, and in many cases have become
Mahommedans; they are a contented and laborious people.
Slavery has been abolished, except among certain of the inland
tribes among whom it still obtains in a very mild form:
208
SARCASM SARCODINA
head-hunting has been entirely suppressed by the government,
save for occasional outbreaks among the Dyaks.
The government consists of the raja (the succession is
hereditary) who is absolute, assisted by a supreme council of
seven, consisting of the three chief European officials and
four Malay magistrates, nominated by him. There is also a
general council of fifty which meets every three years. It
includes, besides European and Malay officials, native chiefs
chosen from all the principal tribes of the country. The whole
country comprises four administrative divisions, each of these
being subdivided into several districts. The first division
consists of Sarawak proper, which comprises the districts of
the river Sarawak, and those of Lundu and Sadong. The second
division is formed by the Batang Lupar, Saribas and Kelakah
districts. The third division consists of the Rejang, Mukah,
Oya and Bintulu; the fourth of the Baram, Limbang, Trusan
and Lawas districts. The military force some 250 men,
Dyaks and Sikhs is under the control of an English command-
ant. There is also a small police force, and the government
possesses a few small steam vessels. The civil service is regularly
organized and pensioned. The superior posts, about 50 in
number, are filled by Englishmen. There are both Roman
Catholic and Protestant missions in Sarawak, the latter forms
part of the see of the bishop of Singapore. Sarawak is easily
accessible from Singapore, whence the passage occupies about
forty-six hours: steamers run at intervals of seven days. The
coast is well lighted, lighthouses having been built and maintained
in good order at Tanjong Po, Sirik, Mukah, Oya, Tanjong,
Kidurong, Baram Mouth and Brooketon. The climate is equable,
the daily temperature ranging on the average between 70 and
90. The nights are generally cool. The rainfall averages
about 200 in. annually, it is heaviest during the north-east
monsoon (October-March), but continues through the south-
west monsoon, which blows for the rest of the year.
History. In 1830-1840 Sarawak (which then comprised only
the districts now constituting the first and second divisions),
the most southern province of the sultanate of Brunei, was in
rebellion against the tyranny of the Malay officials, insufficiently
controlled by the raja Muda Hassim. The insurgents held out
at Blidah fort in the Siniawan district, and there Sir James
Brooke first took part in the affairs of the territory. By his
assistance the insurrection was suppressed, and on September
24th Muda Hassim resigned in his favour and he became raja
of Sarawak. In 1843-1844 Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir
Henry) Keppel (q.v.) and Raja Brooke expelled the Malay and
Dyak pirates from the Saribas and Batang Lupar rivers, and
broke up the fleets of Lanun pirates, which, descending from the
Sulu Islands and the territory which is now British North
Borneo, had long been the scourge of the seas.
In 1857 the Chinese, who for many generations had been working
the alluvial deposits of gold in Upper Sarawak, sacked Kuching,
killed two or three of the English residents and seized the govern-
ment; Raja Brooke narrowly escaping with his life. His nephew,
afterwards raja, quickly raised a force of Malays and Dyaks
in the Batang Lupar district and suppressed the insurrection,
driving the main body of the rebels out of the Sarawak territory.
Raja Sir Charles Johnson Brooke (b. 1829) succeeded his uncle
at his death in 1868 ; in 1888 he was created G.C.M.G. and
Sarawak was made a British Protectorate, and in 1904 the position
of his highness as raja of Sarawak was formally recognized by
King Edward. His eldest son, the raja Muda (Charles Vyner
Brooke, b. 1874), has for some years taken part in the administra-
tion of the country.
The extent of the raj of Sarawak, at the time when Sir James
Brooke became its ruler, was not more than 7000 sq. m.;
since that time the basins of the four rivers, Rejang, Muka,
Baram and Trusan, have been added. The sultan of Brunei,
who claimed suzerainty over them, ceded them on succes-
sive occasions in consideration of annual money payments. A
few years after these cessions had been made many of the people
of the river Limbang rose in rebellion against the sultan, and
their territory was annexed by Sarawak, with the subsequent
approval of the British government. In 1905 the basin of yet
another river, the Lawas, was added to the northern end of
Sarawak, the territory being acquired by purchase from the
British North Borneo Company.
See Charles Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak (1866); Gertrude L.
Jacob, The Raja of Sarawak (1876); Spencer St John, Life in the
Forests of the Far East (1862), and Life of Sir James Brooke (1879) ;
"Notes on Sarawak" in Proc.Roy.Geogr.Soc. (1881), by W.M.Crocker;
" In the Heart of Borneo," Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc. (July 1900), by
Charles Hose; and The Far Eastern Tropics (1905), by Alleyne
Ireland. (C. H.)
SARCASM, an ironical or sneering remark or taunt, a biting
or satirical expression. The word comes through the Latin
from the Greek <rapKafu>, literally to tear flesh (ffdp) like
a dog; hence, figuratively, to bite the lips in rage, to speak
bitterly (cf. Stobaeus, Eclog. ii. 222). The etymology of this
may be paralleled by the English " sneer," from Dan. snarre,
to grin like a dog, cognate with " snarl," to make a rattling r
sound in the throat, Ger. schnarren, and possibly also by
" sardonic." This latter word appears in Greek in the form
ffa.p8a.vuK, always in the sense of bitter or scornful laughter,
in such phrases as aapdaviov ye\av, 7Xws aapSavios and the
like. It is probably connected with aaiptiv, to draw back,
i.e. the lips, like a dog, but was usually explained (by the early
scholiasts and commentators) as referring to a Sardinian plant
(Ranunculus Sardous), whose bitter taste screwed up the mouth.
Thus, later Greek writers wrote Zapftwiw, and it was adopted
into Latin; cf. Servius on Virg. Eel. vii. 41 " immo ego
Sardois videar tibi amarior herbis."
SARCEY, FRANCISQUE (1827-1899), French journalist and
dramatic critic, was born at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise), on the
8th of October 1827. He spent some years as schoolmaster,
but his temperament was little fitted to the work. In 1858 he
devoted himself to journalism. He contributed to the Figaro,
L' Illustration, Le Gaulois, Le XIX' Si&cle and other periodicals;
but his chief bent was towards dramatic criticism, of which
he had his first experience in L'Opinion nationale in 1859. In
1867 he began to contribute to Le Temps the " feuilleton " with
which his name was associated till his death. His position as
dictator of dramatic criticism was unique. He had the secret
of taking the public into his confidence, and his pronouncements
upon new plays were accepted as final. He was a masterly
judge of acting and of stage effect; his views as to the drama
itself were somewhat narrow and indifferent to the march of
events. He published several miscellaneous works, of which
the most interesting are Le Sitge de Paris, an account compiled
from his diary (1871), Comfdiens et comediennes (1878-1884),
Souvenirs de jeunesse (1884) and Souvenirs d'dge mur (1892;
Eng. trans., 1893). Quarante ans de thidtre (1900, &c.) is a selec-
tion from his dramatic feuilletons edited by A. Brisson. He
died in Paris, on the i6th of May 1899.
SARCOCARP (Gr. ffdp, flesh, Kaprrfc, fruit), a botanical term
for the succulent and fleshy part of a fruit.
SARCODINA, a principal group or phylum of Protista, defined
by O. Butschli as those which during their active and motile
existence discharge the functions of motion and nutrition by
simple flowing movements of their protoplasm or by the extension
of simple pseudopods, which merge without trace into the proto-
plasmic body (Bronn's Tierreich, vol. i. pt. i., 1882). Thus
defined, it is co-extensive with the older group Rhizopoda
(Dujardin), and comprises five classes: Proteomyxa (Lankester),
Rhizopoda (Dujardin), Foraminifera (d'Orbigny), Heliozoa
(Haeckel) and Radiolaria (Haeckel).
The delimitation of Sarcodina is not unattended with difficulties.
A very few of those we include possess in addition to the pseudo-
pods one or more flagella, such as Dimorpha and Myriophrys
(Heliozoa) , A rcuothrix (Rhizopoda) , and might equally be referred
to the Flagella ta (q.v.). The Sporozoa differ in that their active
state is usually (not always, e.g. Haemosporidia, &c.) a wriggling,
sickle-shaped cell, that growth takes place in the whole surface
of the body, and not by ingestion of food and consequently
without the active deformations that characterize Sarcodina,
SARCOPHAGUS SARDARPUR
209
and that the life-cycle embraces at least two alternating modes
of brood formation.
The subdivision of the phylum is no less difficult. The char-
acter of the pseudopods (see AMOEBA) is the most obvious one
to select, as it appears to be fairly constant. The surface may
be a " precipitation-pellicle," not wetted by water, and the
cytoplasm immediately within (" ectosarc ") free from granules,
so that no streaming movement is visible at the surface of the
pseudopods, which are blunt or taper sharply to a point
(Rhizopoda Lobosa); or the cytoplasm has no such protective
outer layer, and the granules extend to the surface where they
show a constant streaming, and the pseudopods are fine-pointed,
and taper very slowly to the tip, as in all the other groups.
For convenience, however, from general similarity of habit,
habitat and general structure, we have been obliged to give a
minor importance to this character within Rhizopoda. The
divisions then stand thus:
1. PROTEOMYXA. Pseudopods fine granular, not branching freely ;
fission usually multiple, in a cyst; no conjugation process known.
2. RHIZOPODA. Simple forms, sometimes with a simple shell,
chitinous, siliceous or of cemented particles, never calcareous;
pseudopods lobose, in the tapering and branching never either stiff
or reticulate.
3. HELIOZOA. Pseudopods granular, finely radiate, and gradually
tapering, stiff; skeleton variable, never calcareous nor of cemented
particles.
4. FORAMINIFERA. Pseudopods branching freely and anastomos-
ing, flexible except in a few pelagic forms where they are more
radiate; shell variable, mostly of cemented sand-grains, calcare-
ous, very rarely siliceous in a few deep-sea forms, not generically
separable from
5. RADIOLARIA. Cytoplasm divided into a central and a peri-
pheral region by a perforated membranous central capsule; pseudo-
pods radiate flexible branching or not ; skeleton either of a proteid (?)
substance (" a canthin ") or siliceous, of spicules or forming an
elegant lattice, more rarely continuous.
6. LABYRINTHULIDEA. Body a reticulate plasmodium, formed
by cells more or less coalescent, and connected by a network of
anastomosing threadlike pseudopods. Cells aggregated into loose
networks without distinct boundaries, the minor aggregates con-
nected by fine threadlike pseudopodia.
7. MYXOMVCETES. Cells at first free, finally aggregated to form a
coalescent fructification, usually preceded by a continuous or
fenestrated plasmodium stage in which all cytoplasmic boundaries
may be lost.
The reproduction processes of the Sarcodina are (i) Binary
fission, equal or nearly so. (2) Multiple fission or " sporulation "
(also termed " brood formation "). Conjugation (equal or
unequal) usually occurs between cells produced by the latter
mode (microgametes) ; or if not, there are antecedent processes
suggesting that brood formation has been lost. Conjugation
is entirely unknown in Proteomyxa, Labyrinthulidea and Myxo-
mycetes, even at stages where it occurs in other groups, and it
has only been definitely made out in a very limited number of
genera in the remaining groups. The zygote or product of cell
fusion is usually here, as in the majority of types of conjugation,
a resting cell. (See the separate articles on the classes.)
The young of the Sarcodina, formed from the outcome of
multiple fission, or single resting cells (spores) , may be provided
with pseudopodia from the first (myxopods or amoebulae),
or come into active life for a short time with flagella (mastigopods
or flagellulae).
LITERATURE. Butschli in Bronn's Tierreich, vol. i. pt. i. (1882) ;
Y. Delage and E. HeVouard, TraM de zoologie concrete, vol. i., La
Cellule el les protozoaires (1896) ; A. Lang, Handb. der Zoologie, ed. 2,
pt. i. " Protozoen " (1002); M. Hartog, Cambridge Natural History,
vol. i. (1906) ; in the first four books full bibliographies are given.
(M. HA.)
SARCOPHAGUS (Gr. aapKoj&yos, literally "flesh-eating,"
from <r<xp, flesh, <j>ayiv, to eat), the name given to a coffin in
stone, which on account of its caustic qualities, according to
Pliny (H.N. xxxvi. 27), consumed the body in forty days; also
by the Greeks to a sepulchral chest, in stone or other material,
which was more or less enriched with ornament and sculpture.
One of the finest examples known is the sarcophagus of Seti,
the second king of the XIX. Egyptian dynasty (1326-1300 B.C.),
which is carved out of a block of Aragonite or hard carbonate
of lime, now in the Soane Museum; of later date are the green
porphyry sarcophagus and the terra-cotta sarcophagus from
Clazomenae; both of these date from the early 6th century
B.C., and are in the British Museum. The finest Greek examples
are those found at Sidon in 1887 by Hamdy Bey, which are now
in the Imperial Museum at Constantinople (see GREEK ART).
Of Etruscan sarcophagi there are numerous examples in terra-
cotta; occasionally they are miniature representations of temples,
and sometimes in the form of a couch on which rest figures of
the deceased; one of these in the British Museum dates from
500 B.C. The earliest Roman sarcophagus is that of Scipio
in the Vatican (3rd century B.C.), carved in peperino stone. Of
later Roman sarcophagi, there is an immense series enriched
with figures in high relief, of which the chief are the Niobid
example in the Lateran, the Lycomedes sarcophagus in the
Capitol, the Penthesilea sarcophagus in the Vatican, and the
immense sarcophagus representing a battle of the Romans and
the barbarians in the Museo delle Terme. In later Roman work
there was a great decadence in the sculpture, so that in the
following centuries recourse was had to the red Egyptian
porphyry, of which the sarcophagi of Constantia (A.D. 355)
and of the empress Helena (A.D. 589), both in the Vatican, are
fine examples. Of later date, during the Byzantine period, there
is a large series either in museums or in the cloisters of the
Italian churches. They are generally decorated with a series of
niches with figures in them, divided by small attached shafts
with semicircular or sloping covers carved with religious emblems,
one of the best examples being the sarcophagus of Sta Barbara,
dating from the beginning of the 6th century, at Ravenna, where
there are many others. The term sarcophagus is sometimes
applied also to an altar tomb.
SARD, a reddish-brown chalcedony much used by the
ancients as a gem-stone. Pliny states that it was named from
Sardis, in Lydia, where it was first discovered; but probably the
name came with the stone from Persia (Pers. sered, yellowish-
red). Sard was used for Assyrian cylinder-seals, Egyptian and
Phoenician scarabs, and early Greek and Etruscan gems. The
Hebrew odem (translated sardius), the first stone in the High
Priest's breastplate, was a red stone probably sard, but perhaps
carnelian or red jasper (see J. Taylor, " Sardius," in Hastings's
Diet. Bibl.). Some kinds of sard closely resemble carnelian,
but are usually rather harder and tougher, with a duller and
more hackly fracture. Mineralogically the two stones pass into
each other, and indeed they have often been regarded as identical,
both being chalcedonic quartz coloured with oxide of iron.
The range of colours in sard is very great, some stones being
orange-red, or hyacinthine, and others even golden, whilst some
present so dark a brown colour as to appear almost black by
reflected light. The hyacinthine sard, resembling certain
garnets, was the most valued variety among the ancients for
cameos and intaglios. Dark-brown sard is sometimes called
" sardoine," or " sardine "; whilst certain sards of yellowish
colour were at one time known to collectors of engraved gems
as "beryl."
SARDANAPALUS, or SARDANAPALLUS, according to Greek
fable, the last king of Assyria, the thirtieth in succession from
Ninyas. The name is derived from that of Assur-danin-pal,
the rebel son of Shalmaneser II., whose reign ended with the
fall of Nineveh in 823 B.C. (or perhaps from that of Assur-dan
III., the last king but one of the older Assyrian dynasty); his
character is that ascribed to Assur-bani-pal. He was the most
effeminate and corrupt of a line of effeminate princes; hence
Arbaces, satrap of Media, rebelled and, with the help of Belesys,
the Babylonian priest, besieged Nineveh. Sardanapalus now
threw off his sloth and for two years the issue was doubtful.
Then, the Tigris having undermined part of the city wall, he
collected his wives and treasures and burned them with himself
in his palace (880 B.C.). His fate is an echo of that of Samas-
sum-yukin, the brother of Assur-bani-pal (<?..).
See J. Gilmore, Fragments of the Persika of Ktesias (1888).
(A. H. j')
SARDARPUR, a British station in Central India, within the
state of Gwalior, on the Mahi river, 58 m. by road E. of Mhow;
2IO
SARDH AN A SARDINIA
pop. (1901) 2783. It is the headquarters of the political agent
for the Bhopawar agency, and of the Malwa Bhil corps, originally
raised in 1837 and recently converted into a military police
battalion.
SARDHANA, a town of British India, in Meerut district of
the United Provinces, 12 m. by rail N.W. of Meerut. Pop.
(1901), 12,467. Though now a decayed place, Sardhana is
historically famous as the residence of the Begum Samru (d.
1836). This extraordinary woman was a Mussulman married
to Reinhardt or Sombre (Samru), the perpetrator of the massacre
of British prisoners at Patna in 1763. On his death in 1778 she
succeeded to the command of his mercenary troops. Ultimately
she was baptized into the Roman Catholic Church, and be-
queathed an immense fortune to charitable and religious uses.
She built in Sardhana a Roman Catholic cathedral, a college
for training priests, and a handsome palace.
SARDICA, COUNCIL OF, an ecclesiastical council convened
in 343 by the emperors Constantius and Constans, to attempt
a settlement of the Arian controversies, which were then at their
height. Of the hundred and seventy bishops assembled, about
ninety were Homousians principally from the West while
on the other side were eighty Eusebians from the East. The
anticipated agreement, however, was not attained; and the
result of the council was simply to embitter the relations between
the two great religious parties, and those between the Western
and Eastern halves of the Empire. For as Athanasius and
Marcellus of Ancyra appeared on the scene, and the Western
bishops declined to exclude them, the Eusebian bishops of the
East absolutely refused to discuss, and contented themselves
with formulating a written protest addressed to numerous
foreign prelates. That they instituted a rival congress of their
own in Philippopolis is improbable. The bishops, however,
who remained in Sardica (mod. Sofia in Bulgaria) formed
themselves into a synod, and naturally declared in favour of
Athanasius and Marcellus, while at the same time they anathema-
tized the leaders of the Eusebian party. The proposal to draw
up a new creed was rejected.
Especial importance attaches to this council through the fact that
Canons 3-5 invest the Roman bishop with a prerogative which
became of great historical importance, as the first legal recognition
of his jurisdiction over other sees and the basis for the further de-
velopment of his primacy. " In order to honour the memory of St
Peter," it was enacted that any bishop, if deposed by his provincial
synod, should be entitled to appeal to the bishop of Rome, who was
then at liberty either to confirm the first decision or to order a new
investigation. In the latter case, the tribunal was to consist of
bishops from the neighbouring provinces, assisted if he so chose
by legates of the Roman bishop. The clauses thus made the bishop
of Rome president of a revisionary court; and afterwards Zpsimus
unsuccessfully attempted to employ these canons of Sardica, as
decisions of the council of Nice, against the Africans. In the middle
ages they were cited to justify the claim of the papacy to be the
supreme court of appeal. Attacks on their authenticity have been
conclusively repelled.
The canons are printed in C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des
Papsttums (Tubingen, 1001), p. 46 f. ; Hefele, Conciliengeschichte,
ed. 2, i. 533 sqq. See also, J. rriedrich, Die Unechtheit der Canones
von Sardtka (Vienna, 1902) ; on the other side F. X. Funk, " Die
Echtheit der Canones von Sardica," Historisches Jahrbuch der
Gorresgesellschaft, xxiii. (1902), pp. 497-516; ibid. xxvi. (1905),
pp. 1-18, 255-274; C. H. Turner, The Genuineness of the Sardican
Canons," The Journal of Theological Studies, iii. (London, 1902),
PP- 370-397- (C. M.)
SARDINIA (Gr. '\xvwaa., from a fancied resemblance to a
footprint in its shape, Ital. Sardegna), an island of the Mediter-
ranean Sea, belonging to the kingdom of Italy. It lies 7j m. S.
of Corsica, from which it is separated by the Strait of Bonifacio,
which is some 50 fathoms deep. The harbour of Golfo degli
Aranci, in the north-eastern portion of the island, is 138 m. S.W.
of Civitavecchia, the nearest point on the mainland of Italy.
Sardinia lies between 8 7' and 9 49' E., and extends from 38 52'
to 41 15' N. The length from Cape Teulada in the S.W. to
Punta del Falcone in the N. is about 160 m., the breadth from
Cape Comino to Cape Caccia about 68 m. The area of the island
is 9187 sq. m. that of the department (compartimenlo) , including
the small islands adjacent, being 9294 sq. m. It ranks sixth
in point of size (after Sicily) among the islands of Europe, but
it is much more sparsely populated.
The island is mountainous in the main, almost continuously
so, indeed, along the east coast, and very largely granitic, with
a number of lofty upland plains in the east, and volcanic in the
west. The highest point in the north-east group of the island
(called Gallura) is Monte Limbara (4468 ft.), S.E. of Tempio.
This mountain group is bounded on the S.E. and S.W. by valleys,
which are followed by the railways from Golfo degli Aranci to
Chilivani, and from Chilivani to Sassari. The north-western
portion of the island, called the Nurra, lies to the west of Sassari
and to the north of Alghero, and is entirely volcanic; so are
the mountains to the south of it, near the west coast; the highest
point is the Monte Ferru (3448 ft.). East of the railway from
Chilivani to Oristano, on the other hand, the granitic mountains
continue. The highest points are Monte Rasu (4127 ft.), S. of
Ozieri, in the district called Logudoro, on the chain of the
Marghine, which runs to Macomer, and, farther S., in the region
called Barbargia, the Punta Bianca Spina, the highest summit
of the chain of Gennargentu (6016 ft.). These two groups are
divided by the deep valley of the Tirso, the only real river in
Sardinia, which has a course of 94 m. and falls into the sea in the
Gulf of Oristano. South of Gennargentu, in the district of
the Sarcidano, is the Monte S. Vittoria (3980 ft.), to the west of
which is the deep valley of the Flumendosa, a stream 76 m. long,
which rises south of Gennargentu, and runs S.E., falling into the
sea a little north of Muravera on the east coast. Still farther
W. is the volcanic upland plain of the Giara (1998 ft.) and south
of the Sarcidano are the districts known as the Trexenta, with
lower, fertile hills, and the Sarrabus, which culminates in the
Punta Serpeddi (3507 ft.), and the Monte dei Sette Fratelli
(3333 ft.), from the latter of which a ridge descends to the Capo
Carbonara, at the S.E. extremity of the island. South of Oristano
and west of the districts last described, and traversed by the
railway from Oristano to Cagliari, is the Campidano (often
divided in ordinary nomenclature into the Campidano of Oristano
and the Campidano of Cagliari), a low plain, the watershed of
which, near S. Gavino, is only about 100 ft. above sea-level.
It is 60 m. long by 7-14 broad, and is the most fertile part of the
island, but much exposed to malaria. South-west of it, and
entirely separated by it from the rest of the island, are the
mountain groups to the north and south of Iglesias, the former
culminating in the Punta Perda de Sa Mesa or Monte Linas
(4055 ft.), and the latter, in the district known as the Sulcis,
reaches 3661 ft. It is in this south-western portion of the
island, and more particularly in the group of mountains to
the north of Iglesias, that the mining industry of Sardinia is
carried on.
The scenery is fine, but wild and desolate in most parts, and
of a kind that appeals rather to the northern genius than to the
Italian, to whom, as a rule, Sardinia is not attractive. The rail-
way between Mandas and Tortoli traverses some of the boldest
scenery in the island, passing close to the Monte S. Vittoria.
The mountains near Iglesias are also very fine.
Coast. The coast of Sardinia contains few seaports, but a good
proportion of these are excellent natural harbours. At the north-
eastern extremity is a group of islands, upon one of which is the naval
station of La Maddalena: farther S.E. is the well-protected Gulf of
Terranova, a part of which, Golfo degli Aranci, is the port of arrival
for the mail steamers from Civitavecchia, and a port of call of the
British Mediterranean squadron. To the south of Terranova there
is no harbour of any importance on the east coast (the Gulf of
Orosei being exposed to the E., and shut in by a precipitous coast)
until Tortoli is reached, and beyond that to the Capo Carbonara at
the south-east extremity, and again along the south coast, there is no
harbour before Cagliari, the most important on the island. In the
south-west portion of Sardinia the island of S. Antioco, joined by a
narrow isthmus and a group of bridges to the mainland, forms a
good natural harbour to the south of the isthmus, the Golfo di
Palmas; while the north portion of the peninsula, with the island of
S. Pietro, forms a more or less protected basin, upon the shores of
which are several small harbours (the most important being Carlo-
forte), which are centres of the export of minerals and of the tunny
fishery. Not far from the middle of the west coast, a little farther
S. than the Gulf of Orosei on the east coast, is the Gulf of Oristano,
exposed to the west winds, into which, besides the Tirso, several
SARDINIA
streams fall, forming considerable lagoons. For some way beyond
the only seaport is Bosa, which has only an open roadstead; and at
the southern extremity of the Nurra come the Gulf of Alghero and
the Porto Conte to the W., the latter a fine natural harbour but
not easy of ingress or egress. The northern extremity of the Nurra,
the Capo del Falcone, is continued to the N.N.E. by the island of
Asinara, about 1 1 m. in length, the highest point of which, the Punta
della Scomunica, is 1339 ft. high. This small island serves as a
quarantine station. On the mainland, on the south shore of the
Golfo dell' Asinara, is the harbour of Porto Torres, the only one of
any importance on the north-west coast of Sardinia.
Geology. Geologically Sardinia consists of two hilly regions of
Pre-Tertiary rock, separated by a broad depression filled with
Tertiary deposits. This depression runs nearly from north to south,
from the Gulf of Asinara to the Gulf of Cagliari. Physically its
continuity is broken by Monte Urticu and several smaller hills which
rise within it, but these are all composed of volcanic rock and are the
remains of Tertiary volcanoes. It is in the south that the depression
remains most distinct and it is there known as the Campidano.
In the north it forms the plain of Sassari. Both to the east and to the
west of this depression the Archean and Palaeozoic rocks which
form the greater part of the island are strongly folded, with the excep-
tion of the uppermost beds, which belong to the Permian system.
In the eastern region this was the last folding which has affected the
country, and the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds are almost undisturbed.
In the western region, on the other hand, all the Mesozoic beds are
involved in a later system of folds; but here also the Tertiary beds
lie nearly horizontal. There were, therefore, two principal epochs
of folding in the island, one at the close of the Palaeozoic era which
affected the whole of the island, and one at the close of the Mesozoic
which was felt only in the western region. Corresponding with this
difference of structure there is also a difference in the geological
succession. In the western region all the Mesozoic systems, in-
cluding the Trias, are well developed. The Trias does not belong,
as mignt have been expected, to the Alpine or Mediterranean type;
but resembles that of Germany and northern Europe. In the
eastern region the Trias is entirely absent and the Mesozoic series
begins with the Upper Jurassic.
Granite and Archean schists form nearly the whole of the eastern
hills from the Strait of Bonifacio southwards to the Flumendosa
river, culminating in Monti del Gennargentu. The Palaeozoic rocks
form two extensive masses, one in the south-east and the other in
the south-west. They occur also on the extreme north-western
coast, in the Nurra. Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian beds have
been recognized, the Upper Cambrian consisting of a limestone which
is very rich in metalliferous ores (especially galena and calamine).
The Permian, which contains workable coal seams, lies uncon-
formably upon the older beds and seems to have been deposited in
isolated basins (e.g. at Fondu Corrongiu and San Sebastiano), like
those of the Central Plateau of France. The Mesozoic beds are
limited in extent, the most extensive areas lying around the Gulf of
Orosei on the east and west of Sassari in the north. The Tertiary
deposits cover the whole of the central depression, where they are
associated with extensive flows of lava and beds of volcanic ash.
The most widely spread of the sedimentary beds belong to the
Miocene period. 1
Climate. The climate of Sardinia is more extreme than that of
Italy, but varies considerably in different districts. The mean
winter temperature for Sassari for 18711900 was 48 F., the mean
summer temperature 73 F., while the mean of the extremes reached
in each direction were 99 F. and 31-5 F. The island is subject to
strong winds, which are especially felt at Cagliari owing to its
position at the south-east end of the Campidano, and the autumn
rains are sometimes of almost tropical violence. The lower districts
are hot and often unhealthy in the summer, while the climate of the
mountainous portion of the island is less oppressive, and would be
still cooler if it possessed more forest. There are comparatively few
streams and no inland lakes. Snow hardly ever falls near the coast,
but is abundant in the higher parts of the island, though none
remains throughout the summer. The rainfall in the south-west
portion of the island is considerably greater than in other districts.
The mean annual rainfall for Sassari for 1871-1900 was 24-45 ' n ->
the average number of days on which rain fell being 109, of which
37 were in winter and only 8 in summer the latter equal with
Palermo, but lower than any other station in Italy.
Malaria. The island has a bad reputation for malaria, due to the
fact that it offers a considerable quantity of breeding places for the
Anopheles claviger, the mosquito whose bite conveys the infection.
Such are the various coast lagoons, formed at the mouths of streams
1 See A. de la Marmora, Voyage en Sardaigne, vol. iii. (1857) ;
J. C. Bornemann, " Die Versteinerungen des Cambrischen Schichten-
systems der Insel Sardinian," Nova A eta k. L-C. Akad. Naturf. vol.
li. (1886), pp. 1-148, pis. i.-xxxiii., and ib. vol. Ivi. (1891), pp.
427-528, pis. xix.-xxviii. ; A. Tornquist, " Ergebnisse einer
Bereisung der Insel Sardinien," Sitz. k. preuss. Akad. Wiss. (1902),
pp. 808-829, an d " Der Gebirgsbau Sardinians und seine Beziehungen
zu den jungen, circum-mediterranen Faltenzugen," ib. (1903),
pp. 685-699; A. Dannenberg, " Der Vulkanberg Mte Ferru in
Sardinien," Neues Jahrb.f. Min. Beil. Bd. xxi. (1906), pp. 1-62, pi. i.
211
for lack of proper canalization, while much of the harm is also due to
the disforestation of the mountains, owing to which the rains collect
in the upland valleys, and are brought down by violent torrents,
carrying the soil with them, and so impeding the proper drainage and
irrigation of these valleys, and encouraging the formation of un-
healthy swamps; moreover, the climate has become much more
tropical in character. The mortality from malaria in 1902 was
higher than for any other part of Italy 1037 persons, or 154 per
100,000 (Basilicata, 141; Apulia, 104; Calabria, 77; Sicily, 76;
province of Rome, 27).
Customs and Dress. The population of Sardinia appears
(though further investigation is desirable) to have belonged in
ancient times, and to belong at present, to the -so-called Mediter-
raneanrace (see G. Sergi, LaSardegna, Turin, 1907). In theaeneo-
lithic necropolis of Anghelu Ruju, near Alghero, of 63 skulls, 53
belong to the" Mediterranean "dolico-mesocephalictypeandioto
a Eurasian brachycephalic type of Asiatic origin, which has been
found in prehistoric tombs of other parts of Europe. The race
has probably suffered less here than in most parts of the Mediter-
ranean basin from foreign intermixture, except for a few Catalan
and Genoese settlements on the coast (Alghero and Carloforte
are respectively the most important of these) ; and the popula-
tion in general seems to have deteriorated slightly since pre-
historic times, the average cranial capacity of the prehistoric
skulls from the Anghelu Ruju being i49O'C.c. for males and 1308
for females, while among the modern population 60% of males
and females together fall below 1250 c.c.; and the stature is
generally lower than in other parts of Italy, as is shown by the
measurements of the recruits (R. Livi, Antropometria Mililare,
Rome 1896). Anthropologists, indeed, have recently observed
a large proportion of individuals of exceptionally small stature,
not found in Sardinia only, but elsewhere in south Italy also;
though in Sardinia they are distributed over the whole island, and
especially in the southern half. In the province of Cagliari
29-99% of the recruits born in 1862 were under 5 ft. I in., and
in that of Sassari 21-99%, the percentage for ten provinces of
south Italy being 24-35. These small individuals present appar-
ently no other differences, and Sergi maintains that the difference
is racial, these being the descendants of a race of pygmies who
had emigrated from central Africa. But the lowness of stature
extends to the lower animals cattle, horses, donkeys, &c.
and this may indicate that climatic causes have some part in the
matter also, though Sergi denies this.
The dialects differ very much in different parts of the island, so
that those who speak one often cannot understand those who speak
another, and use Italian as the medium of communication. They
contain a considerable number of Latin words, which have remained
unchanged. The two main dialects are that of the Logudoro in the
north and that of Cagliari in the south of the island.
The native costumes also vary considerably. In the south-east
they have largely gone out of use, but elsewhere, especially in the
mountainous districts, they are still habitually worn. In the
Barbargia the men have a white shirt, a black or red waistcoat and
black or red coat, often with open sleeves; the cut and decorations
of these vary considerably in the different districts. They have a
kind of short kilt, stiff, made of black wool, with a band from back
to front between the legs; under this they wear short linen trousers,
which come a little below the knee, and black woollen leggings with
boots. They wear a black cap, about I j ft. long, the end of which
falls down over one side of the head. In other districts the costume
varies considerably, but the long cap is almost universal. Thus at
Ozieri the men wear ordinary jackets and trousers with a velvet
waistcoat ; the shepherds of the Sulcis wear short black trousers
without kilt and heavy black sheepskin coats, and the two rows of
waistcoat buttons are generally silver or copper coins. The costume
of the women is different (often entirely so) in each village or district.
Bright colours (especially red) are frequent, and the white chemise
is an integral part of the dress. The skirts are usually of the native
wool (called orbacia). For widows or deep mourning the peculiar
cut of the local costume is preserved, but carried out entirely in
black. The native costume is passing out of use in many places
(especially among the women, whose costume is more elaborate than
that of the men), partly owing to the spread of modern ideas, partly
owing to its cost ; and in the Campidano and in the mining districts
it is now rarely seen. The curious customs, too, of which older
writers tell us, are gradually dying out. But the festivals, especially
those of mountain villages or of pilgrimage churches, attract in the
summer a great concourse of people, all in their local costumes.
There may be seen the native dances and break-neck horse-races
the riders bareback through the main street of the village. The
people are generally courteous and kindly, the island being still
212
SARDINIA
comparatively rarely visited by foreigners, while Italians seem to
regard it as almost a place of exile. They have the virtues and
delects of a somewhat isolated mountain race a strong sense of
honour and respect for women, of hospitality towards the stranger,
and a natural gravity and dignity, accompanied by a considerable
distrust of change and lack of enterprise. Despite their poverty
begging is practically unknown. The houses are often of one storey
only. Chimneys are unknown in the older houses; the hearth is in
the centre of the chief room, and the smoke escapes through the roof.
In the mountain villages the parish priest takes the lead among
his people, and is not infrequently the most important person.
Agriculture. The rest of the island is mainly devoted to agricul-
ture; according to the statistics of 1901, 151,853 individuals out of a
total rural population of 708,034 (i.e. deducting the population of
Cagliari and Sassari) are occupied in it. Of these 41,661 cultivate
their own land, 15,408 are fixed tenants, 24,031 are regular labourers,
and no less than 72,753 day labourers; while there are 35,056
shepherds. Emigration is a comparatively new phenomenon in
Sardinia, which began only in 1896, but is gaining ground. A con-
siderable proportion of the emigrants are miners who proceed to
Tunis, and remain only a few years, but emigration to America is
increasing.
Much of the island is stony and unproductive; but cultivation
has not been extended nearly as much as would be possible, and the
implements are primitive. Where rational cultivation has been
introduced, it has almost always been by non-Sardinian capitalists.
Two-fifths of the land belongs to the state, and two-fifths more to the
various communes; the remaining fifth is minutely subdivided
among a large number of small proprietors, many of whom have been
expropriated from inability to pay the taxes, which, considering the
low value of the land, are too heavy; while the state is unable to let
a large proportion of its lands. Comparatively little grain is now
produced, whereas under the republic Sardinia was one of the chief
granaries of Rome. The Campidano and other fertile spots, such as
the so-called Ogliastra on the east side of the island, inland of
Tortoli, the neighbourhood of Oliena, Bosa, &c., produce a con-
siderable quantity of wine, the sweet, strong, white variety called
Vernaccia, produced near Oristano, being especially noteworthy.
Improved methods are being adopted for protecting vines against
disease, and the importation of American vines has now ensured
immunity against a repetition of former disasters. The cultivation
of the vine prevails far more in the province of Cagliari than in that
of Sassari, considerable progress having been made both in the extent
of land under cultivation and in the ratio of produce to area. The
entire island produced 28,613,000 gallons of wine in the year 1899
and 19,809,000 in 1900. In 1902 the production fell to 13,491,517
gallons; in 1903 it was 26,997,680; in 1904 it reached the pheno-
menal figure of 63,105,577 gallons, of which the province of Cagliari
produced 53,995,362 gallons; in 1905 it fell to 36,700,000, of which
the province of Cagliari produced 32,500,000 gallons. Though much
land previously devoted to grain culture has been planted with vines,
the area under wheat, barley, beans and maize is still considerable.
Most of the soil, except the rugged mountain regions, is adapted to
corn growing. In 1896 the grain area was 380,000 acres, a slight
diminution having taken place since 1882. Trie yield of corn varies
from six to ten times the amount sown. In 1902 the total production
of wheat in the island was 2,946,070 bushels, but in 1903 it rose to
4,823,800 bushels, in 1904 it fell to 4,015,020, and in 1905 rose again
to 4,351,987 bushels, fa of the whole production of Italy. The
cultivation of olives is widespread in the districts of Sassari, Bosa,
Iglesias, Alghero and the Gallura. The government, to check the
decrease of olive culture in Sassari, has offered prizes for the grafting
of wild olive trees, of which vast numbers grow throughout the
island. Tobacco, vegetables and other garden produce are much
cultivated ; cotton could probably be grown with profit.
The houses of the Campidano are mostly built of sun-dried un-
baked bricks. The ox-wagons with their solid wheels, and the
curious water-wheels of brushwood with earthenware pots tied on to
them and turned by a blindfolded donkey, are picturesque. Both
European and African fruit trees grow in the island; there are in
places considerable orange groves, especially at Milis, to the north of
Oristano. The olive oil produced is mainly mixed with that from
Genoa or Provence, and placed on the market under the name of the
latter. Among the natural flora may be noted the wild olive, the
lentisk (from which oil is extracted), the prickly pear, the myrtle,
broom, cytisus, the juniper. Large tracts of mountain are clothed
with fragrant scrub composed of these and other plants. 1 The higher
regions produce cork trees, oaks, pines, chestnuts, &c., but the
forests have been largely destroyed by speculators, who burned the
trees for charcoal and potash, purchasing them on a large scale from
the state. This occurred especially in the last half of the igth
century, largely owing to the abolition of the so-called beni adem-
privili. These were lands over which, in distinction from the other
feudal lands, rights of pasture, cutting of wood, &c. &c., existed.
When, in 1837, the baronial fiefs were suppressed by Charles Albert,
and the land transferred to the state, the ademprivio was maintained
on the lands subject to it, and it was thus to the interest of all that
'The herba Sardoa, said to cause the risue Sardontcus (sardonic
laugh), cannot be certainly identified (Pausanias x. 17, 13).
the woods should be maintained. In 1865, however, it was sup-
pressed, and one half of the beni ademprivili was assigned to the
state, the other half being given to the communes, with the obliga-
tion of compensating those who claimed rights over these lands.
The state, which had already sold not only a considerable part of the
domain land, but a large part of the beni ademprivili, continued the
process, and the forests of Sardinia were sacrificed; and, as has been
said, the necessity of reafforestation, of the regulation of streams,
and of irrigation 2 is urgent. Laws to secure this object have been
passed, but funds are lacking for their execution on a sufficiently
large scale. Another difficulty is that Italian and foreign capitalists,
have produced a great rise in prices which has not been compensated
by a rise in wages. Native capital is lacking, and taxation on un-
remunerative lands is, as elsewhere in Italy, too heavy in proportion
to what they may be expected to produce, and not sufficiently
elastic in case of a Dad harvest.
Live-Stock. A considerable portion of Sardinia, especially in the
higher regions, is devoted to pasture. The native Sardinian cattle
are small, but make good draught oxen. A considerable amount of
cheese is manufactured, but largely by Italian capitalists. Sheep's
milk cheese (pecorino) is largely made, but sold as the Roman
product. Horses are bred to some extent, while the native race of
donkeys is remarkably small in size. Pigs, sheep and goats are also
kept in considerable numbers. Whereas in 1881 Sardinia was
estimated to possess only 157,000 head of cattle, 478,000 sheep and
165,000 goats, the numbers in 1896 had increased to 1,159,000 head
of cattle, 4,960,000 sheep and 1 ,780,000 goats. The nomadic system
prevails in the island. Breeding is unregulated and natural selection
prevails. A more progressive form of pastoral industry is that of the
tanche (enclosed holdings), in which the owner is both agriculturist
and cattle raiser. On these farms the cultivation of the soil and the
rearing of stock go hand in hand, to the great advantage of both.
Nevertheless the idea of the value of improving breeds is gaining
ground. Good cattle for breeding purposes are being imported
from Switzerland and Sicily, and efforts are likewise being made to
improve the breed of horses, which are bought mainly for the army.
The opportunity of utilizing the wool for textile industries has not
yet been taken, though Sardinian women are accustomed to weave
strong and durable cloth. Everywhere capital and enterprise are
lacking. Agricultural products require perfecting and fitting for
export.
Of wild animals may be noted the moufflon (Ovis Amman), the
stag, and the wild boar, and among birds various species of the
vulture and eagle in the mountains, and the pelican and flamingo
(the latter coming in August in large flocks from Africa) in the
lagoons.
Fisheries. The tunny fishery is considerable; it is centred
principally in the south-west. The sardine fishery, which might also
be important, at present serves mainly for local consumption.
Lobsters are exported, especially to Paris. The coral fishery
mainly on the west coast has lost its former importance. Neither
the tunny nor the coral fishery is carried on by the Sardinians
themselves, who are not sailors by nature; the former is in the hands
of Genoese and the latter of Neapolitans. The unhealthy lagoons
contain abundance of fish. The mountain streams often contain
small but good trout.
In Roman times Sardinia, relatively somewhat more prosperous
than at present, though not perhaps greatly different as regards its
products, was especially noted as a grain-producing country. It is
also spoken of as a pastoral country (Diod. v. i), but we do not hear
anything of its wine. Solinus (4, 4) speaks of its mines of silver and
iron, Suidas (s.v.) of its purple and tunny fisheries, Horace (Art
Poet. 375) of the bitterness of its honey. Pausanias (x. 17, 12)
mentions its immunity from wolves and poisonous snakes which it
still enjoys, but Solinus (I.e.) mentions a poisonous spider, called
solifuga, peculiar to the island.
Minerals. The mining industry in Sardinia is confined in the
main to the south-western portion of the island. The mines were
known to the Carthaginians, as discoveries of lamps, coins, &c.
(now in the museum at Cagliari), testify. The Roman workings too,
to judge from similar finds, seem to have been considerable. The
centre of the mining district (Metalla of the itineraries) was probably
about 5 m. south of Fluminimaggiore, in a locality known as Antas,
where are the remains of a Roman temple (Corpus Inscr. Lai. x.
7539)i dedicated to an emperor, probably Commodus but the
inscription is only in part preserved. A pig of lead found near
Fluminimaggiore bears the imprint Imp. Goes. Hadr. 'Aug. (C.I.L.
x. 8073, i, 2). After the fall of the Roman Empire the workings
remained abandoned until the days of the Pisan supremacy, 8 and
were again given up under the Spanish government, especially after
the discovery of America. When the island passed to Savoy, in 1720,
the mines passed to the state. The government let the mines to
contractors for forty years and then took them over; but in the
period from 1720 to 1840 only 14,620 tons of galena were extracted
and 2772 of lead. In 1840 the freedom of mining was introduced,
By the law of 1906 the state has not assumed the responsibility
of the construction of reservoirs for irrigation.
'The Pisan workings are only distinguished from the Roman by
the character of the small objects (lamps, coins, &c.) found in them.
SARDINIA
213
the state giving perpetual concessions in return for 3 % of the gross
production, in 1904-1905, 14,188 workmen were employed in the
mines of the province of Cagliari. The following table (from the
consular report of 1905) shows the amount and value of the minerals
extracted, the whole amount being exported:
Zinc
Calamine
Blende
Lead .
Silver .
Manganese
Antimony
Lignite
Anthracite
Copper
Tons.
99,749
26,051
24,798
167
2,362
1,005
15,429
577
170,236
Value .
466,070
135,569
140,534
5,012
3,360
4,700
8,778
586
445
765,054
,The chief mines are those of Gennamare and Ingurtosu and others
of the group owned by the Pertusola Company, Monteponi and
Montevecchio. The mining and washing plant is extremely good and
largely constructed at Cagliari. The most important minerals are
lead and zinc, obtained in lodes in the forms of galena and calamine
respectively. In most cases, owing to the mountainous character
of the country, horizontal galleries are possible. The Monteponi
Company smelts its own zinc, but the lead is almost all smelted at
the furnaces of Pertusola near Spezia. Silver has also been found in
the district of Sarrabus, iron at S. Leone to the west of Cagliari, and
antimony and other metals near Lanusei, but in smaller quantities
than in the Iglesias district, so that comparatively little mining has
as yet been done there. Lignite is also mined at Bacu Abis, near
Gonnesa, and Anthracite in small quantities near Seui.
The salt-pans at Cagliari and of Carloforte are of considerable im-
portance; they are let by the government to contractors, who have
the sole right of manufacture, but are bound to sell the salt necessary
for Sardinian consumption at 35 centesimi (3Jd.) per cwt.; the
government does not exercise the salt monopoly in Sardinia any
more than in Sicily, but in the latter island the right of manufacture
is unrestricted. The total production in 1905 was 149,431 tons;
the average price of salt for the island in 1905 was 2jd. per cwt.
(unground), and is. per cwt. ground; whereas for Italy, where the
government monopoly exists, the price is i, 123. the cwt.
Commerce. The total exports of the province of Cagliari in
1905 attained a value of 1,388,735, of which 550,023 was foreign
trade, while the imports amounted to 1,085,514, of which
360,758 was foreign trade. Among the exports may be noticed
minerals, wines and spirits, tobacco, hides, live animals; and
among the imports, groceries, cotton and cereals. The tonnage
of the shipping entering and clearing the ports of the province
in 1905 was 1,756,866, of which 352,992 was foreign.
Communications. The railway system of Sardinia is in the
hands of two companies the Compagnia Reale delle Ferrovie
Sarde, and the Compagnia delle Ferrovie Secondarie della
Sardegna. The former company's lines (of the ordinary gauge)
run from Cagliari, past Macomer, to Chilivani (with a branch at
Decimomannu for Iglesias and Monteponi). From Chilivani
the line to Sassari and Porto Torres diverges to the N.W., and
that to Golfo degli Aranci to the N.E. The latter company
owns narrow-gauge lines from Cagliari to Mandas (whence lines
diverge N. to Sorgono and E. to Tortoli, the latter having a
short branch from Cairo to Ierzu),from Macomer E. to Nuoro
and W. to Bosa, from Sassari S.W. to Alghero, from Chilivani
S. to Tirso (on the line between Macomer and Nuoro), and from
Monti (on the line from Chilivani to Golfo degli Aranci) N.W.
to Tempio. In the south-western portion of the island are
several private railways belonging to various mining companies,
of which the lines from Monteponi to Portoscuso, and from S.
Gavino to Montevecchio, are sometimes available for ordinary
passengers. There is also a steam tramway from Cagliari to
Quartu S. Elena. The trains are few and the speed on all these
lines is moderate, but the gradients are often very heavy.
Communication is thus most wanted with the northern and
south-eastern extremities of the island, and between Tortoli
and Nuoro, and Nuoro and Golfo degli Aranci. The main road
system, which dates from 1828, previous to which there were only
tracks, is good, and the roads well engineered; many of them
are traversed daily by post vehicles. Some road motor services
have been instituted. The total length of the railways is 602 m.,
and of the roads of all classes 3101 m., i.e. 596 yds. per sq. m.
There is daily steam communication (often interrupted in
bad weather) with Civitavecchia from Golfo degli Aranci (the
mail route), and weekly steamers run from Cagliari to Naples,
Genoa (via the east coast of the island), Palermo and Tunis, and
from Porto Torres to Genoa (calling at Bastia in Corsica and
Leghorn) and Leghorn direct. A fortnightly line also runs
along the west coast of the island from Cagliari to Porto Torres.
All these lines (and also the minor lines from Golfo degli Aranci to
La Maddalena and from Carloforte to Porto Vesme and Calasetta)
are in the hands of the Navigazione Generale Italiana, there
being no Sardinian steamship companies. There is also a weekly
French service between Porto Torres and Ajaccio in Corsica.
Administration. Sardinia is divided into two provinces
Cagliari and Sassari; the chief towns of the former (with their
communal population in 1901) are: Cagliari (53,057); Iglesias
(20,874); Quartu S. Elena (8510), really a large village; Oristano
(7107); Fluminimaggiore (9647); Lanusei (3250); and the
total population of the province is 486,767: while the chief
towns of the latter are Sassari (38,053); Alghero (10,741);
Ozieri (9555); Nuoro (7051); Tempio Pausania (14,573);
Terranova Pausania (4348); Porto Torres (4225); and the
total population of the province 309,026. The density of popula-
tion is 85-38 per sq. m. (294-55 for the whole of Italy), by far
the lowest figure of any part of Italy.
The archiepiscopal sees of the island are: Cagliari (under which
are the suffragan sees of Galtelli-Nuoro, Iglesias and Ogliastra),
Oristano (with the suffragan see of Ales and Terralba) and
Sassari (under which are the suffragan sees of Alghero, Ampurias
and Tempio, Bisarchio and Bosa). The number of monastic
institutions in the island is very small.
Education. The number of scholars in the elementary schools
for 1901-1902 was 59-09 per 1000 (Calabria 42-27, Tuscany
67-09, Piedmont 118-00); the teachers are 1-34 per 1000,
a total of 1084 of both sexes (among whom only one priest)
(Calabria 1-18, Tuscany 1-29, Piedmont 2-0), while the rural
schools are not buildings adapted for their purpose. In some
of the towns, however, and especially at Iglesias, they are good
modern buildings. Still, the percentage of those unable to read
and write is 72-8, while for the whole of Italy it is 56-0. The
male scholars at the secondary schools amounted in 1900 to
2-74 per 1000 inhabitants. The university of Cagliari, which in
1874-1875 had only 60 students, had 260 in 1902-1903. At
Sassari in the same year there were 162. There are besides in
the island 10 gymnasia, 3 lycees, 6 technical and nautical schools
and institutes (including a school of mines at Iglesias), and 9
other institutes for various branches of special education. A
tendency is growing up towards the extension of technical and
commercial education in place of the exclusively classical
instruction hitherto imparted. To the growth of this tendency
the excellent results of the agricultural schools have especially
contributed.
Crime. For the years 1897-1901 statistics show that Sardinia has
more thefts and frauds than any other region of Italy (1068-15 f r
Sardinia and 210-56 per 100,000 inhabitants per annum for the rest
of Italy). This is no doubt accounted for by the extreme poverty
which prevails among the lower classes, though beggars, on the other
hand, are very few, the convictions being 8-95 per 100,000 against
258-15 per 100,000 for the province of Rome. Sardinia has less
convictions for serious crimes than any other compartimento of south
Italy. Public security is considerably improved, and regular
brigandage (as distinct from casual robbery) hardly exists. The
vendetta, too, is now hardly ever heard of.
Finance. In 1887 a severe banking crisis occurred in Sardinia.
Though harmful to the economic condition of the island, it left
agriculture comparatively unaffected, because the insolvent institu-
tions had never fulfilled the objects of their foundation. Agri-
cultural credit operations in Sardinia are carried on by the Bank of
Italy, which, however, displays such caution that its action is almost
imperceptible. An agricultural loan and credit company has been
formed on the ruins of the former institutions, but hitherto no
charter has been granted it. Institutions possessing a special
character are the monti frumentarii, public grain deposits, founded
for the purpose of supplying peasant proprietors with seed corn,
debts being paid in kind with interest after harvest. But they, too,
lack funds sufficient to assure extensive and efficient working, even
after the law of 1906. Meantime much evil arises from usury in the
poorer districts. It is estimated that Sardinia pays, in local and
214
SARDINIA
general, direct and indirect taxation of all kinds, 23,000,000 lire
(920,000), a sum corresponding to 35-44 lire per head.
History and Archaeology. The early history of Sardinia is
entirely unknown. 1 The various accounts of Greek writers of
the early colonizations of the island cannot be accepted, and it
appears rather to have been the case that though there were
various schemes formed by Greeks for occupying it or parts of
it (e.g. that recorded by Herodotus i. 170, when it was proposed,
after the capture of Phocaea and Teos in 545 B.C., that the
remainder of the Ionian Greeks should emigrate to Sardinia)
none of them ever came to anything.
On the other hand, the island contains a very large number of
important prehistoric monuments, belonging to the Bronze Age,
N n hi during which it must have been comparatively well
populated. The most conspicuous and important of
these are the nuraghi (the word is said to be a corruption of
muraglie, i.e. large walls, but. it is more probably a native word). Of
ii'A I
i ffii
f
From Papers of the British School at Rome. v. QI, fig. i.
FIG. I. Nuraghe of Voes (Plans and Sections),
these there are, as has been estimated, as many as 6000 still traceable
in the island. The nuraghe in its simplest form is a circular tower
about 30 ft. in diameter at the base and decreasing in diameter as it
ascends; it is built of rough blocks of stone, as a rule about 2 ft.
high (though this varies with the material employed); they are
not mortared together, but on the inside, at any rate, the gaps
between them were often filled with clay. The entrance almost in-
variably faces south, and measures, as a rule, 5 or 6 ft. in height by
2 in_ width. The architrave is flat, and there is a space over it,
serving both to admit light and to relieve the pressure on it from
above, and the size decreases slightly from the bottom to the top.
Within the doorway is, as a rule, a niche on the right, and a stair-
case ascending in the thickness of the wall to the left; in front is
another similar doorway leading to the chamber in the interior,
which is circular, and about 15 ft. in diameter; it has two or three
niches, and a conical roof formed by the gradual inclination of the
walls to the centre. It is lighted by the two doorways already
mentioned. The staircase leads either to a platform on the top
of the nurighe or, more frequently, to a second chamber con-
centric with the first, lighted by a window which faces, as a rule, in
the same direction as the main doorway. A third chamber above the
second does not often occur. The majority perhaps of the nuraghi
of Sardinia present this simple type; but a very large number, and,
among them, those best preserved, have considerable additions.
The construction varies with the site, obviously with a view to the
best use of the ground from a strategic point of view. Thus, there
may be a platform round the nuraghe, generally with two, three or
four bastions, each often containing a chamber; or the main nuraghe
may have additional chambers added to it. In a few cases, indeed,
we find very complicated systems of fortification a wall of circum-
vallation with towers at the corners, protecting a small settlement of
nuraghe-like buildings, as in the case of the Nuraghe Losa near
Abbasanta and the Nuraghe Saurecci near Guspini; 2 or, as in the
1 It has been widely believed that the Shardana, who occur as
foreign mercenaries in Egypt from the time of Rameses II. down-
wards, are to be identified with the Sardinians; but the question is
uncertain. There were certainly no Egyptian colonies in Sardinia;
the Egyptian objects and their imitations found in 'the island were
brought there by the Phoenicians (W. H. Roscher, Lexikon der
griechischen und rdmischen Mythologie, ii. 392).
1 In neither of these cases have the subsidiary buildings been fully
traced out. The plan of the former is given by Pinza (op. cit.), and
that of the latter by La Marmora (op. cit.). The latter seen from a
distance resembles a medieval castle crowning a hill-top.
Nuraghe Lugheras near Paulilatino, or the Nuraghe de S'Orcu near
Domusnovas, the entrance may be protected by a regular system
of courtyards and subsidiary nuraghi. Roughness of construction
cannot be regarded as a proof of antiquity, inasmuch as in some cases
we find the additions less well built than the original nuraghe ; and
it is often clear from the careful work at points where it was necessary
that the lack of finer construction was often simply economy of
labour. That the simpler forms, on the other hand, preceded those
of more complicated plan is probable. The manner of their arrange-
ment seems to indicate clearly that they were intended to be fortified
habitations, not tombs or temples. The niche at the entrance,
which is rarely wanting, served, no doubt, for the sentry on guard
From Papas of the British School at Rome, v. 97, fig. 3.
FIG. 3. Nuraghe Aiga (Plan and Section).
and would be on the unprotected side of any one coming in; the
door, too, is narrow and low, and closed from within. The approach
is, as we have seen, often guarded by additional constructions ; the
fact that the door and window face south is another argument in
favour of this theory, and the access from one part of the interior to
another is sometimes purposely rendered difficult by a sudden vertical
rise of S or 6 ft. in the stairs; while the objects found in them
household pottery, &c. and near them (in some cases silos contain-
ing carbonized grain and dolia) point to the same conclusion. Numer-
ous fragments of obsidian arrow-heads and chips are also found in
and near them all over the island. The only place where obsidian is
known to be found in Sardinia in a natural state is the Punta Trebina,
a mountain south-east of Oristano. The choice of site, too, is
decisive. Sometimes they occupy the approaches to tablelands, the
narrowest points of gorges, or the fords of rivers; sometimes almost
inaccessible mountain tops or important points on ridges; and it
may be noticed that, where two important nuraghi are not visible
from one another, a small one is interpolated, showing that there was
a system of signalling from one to another. Or again, a group of
them may occupy a fertile plain, a river valley or a tableland, 3
or they may stand close to the seashore. Generally there is, if possible,
a water-supply in the vicinity; sometimes a nuraghe guards a
spring, or there may be a well in the nuraghe itself.
A final argument is the existence in some cases of a village of
circular stone buildings of similar construction to the nuraghi, but
only 15 to 25 ft. in diameter, at the foot of a nuraghe, which, like
the baronial castle of a medieval town, towered above the settlement.
* Those of the Giara are fully described by A. Taramelli and
F. Nissardi in Monumenti dei Lincei, vol. xviii. ; Nissardi's map of
the Nurra, published by G. Pinza, ibid. vol. xi. sqq., may also be
consulted.
SARDINIA
PLATE.
FIG. i. NURAGHE MELAS, NEAR GUSPINI.
FIG. 2. NURAGHE LOSA, NEAR ABBASANTA.
FIG. 3. NURAGHE MADRONE, NEAR SILANUS.
XXIV. 214.
FIG. 4 NURAGHE OROLO, NEAR BORDIGHALI.
Photos by Dr T. Ashby.
SARDINIA
215
They are distributed over the whole island, but are perhaps roost
frequent towards the centre and in the Nurra. They seem to be
almost entirely lacking in the north-east extremity, near Terra-
nova, and in the mountains immediately to the north of Iglesias,
though they are found to the north of the Perda de sa Mesa. In
the district of Gennargentu they occur, rarely, as much as 3600 ft.
above sea-level. The tombs of their inhabitants are of two classes
the so-called lombe dei giganti, or giants' tombs, and the domus de
gianas, or houses of the spirits. The former are generally found
_ . close to, or at least in sight of, the nuraghe to which they
Tombs. belong. They consist of a chamber about sJ ft. or less
in height and width, with the sides slightly inclined towards one
another, and from 30 to 40 ft., or even more, in length ; the sides are
composed sometimes of slabs, sometimes of rough walling, while the
roof is composed of flat slabs; and the bodies were probably dis-
posed in a sitting position. At the front is a large slab, sometimes
carved, with a small aperture in it, through which offerings might
be inserted. On each side of this is a curve formed of two rows of
SECTION AA.
From Papers of the British School at Rome, v. p. 119, fig. n.
FIG. 4. Giant's Tomb of Srigidanu.
slabs or two small walls; the semicircular space thus formed has a
diameter of about 45 ft., and was probably intended for sacrifices.
The tomb proper was no doubt covered with a mound of earth, which
has in most cases disappeared. Close to these tombs smaller round
enclosures, about 4 ft. in diameter, covered with a heap of stones,
like a small cairn, may sometimes be seen; these were possibly
intended for the burial of slaves or less important members of the
tribe. Dolmens (probably to be regarded as a simpler form of the
tomba dei giganti, inasmuch as specimens with chambers elongated
after their first construction have been found) and menhirs are also
present in Sardinia, though the former are very rare that known as
Sa Perda e S'altare, near the railway to the south of Macomer is
illustrated by A. Taramelli in Bullettino di Paleoetnologia, xxxii.
(1906), 268, but there are others. The latter, however, are widely
distributed over the island, being especially frequent in the central
and most inaccessible part. The domus de gianas, on the other hand,
resemble closely the rock tombs of the prehistoric cemeteries of
Sicily. They are small grottos cut in the rock. We thus have two
classes of tombs in connexion with the nuraghi, and if these were to
be held to be tombs also, habitations would be entirely wanting. 1
1 The whole question is well dealt with by F. Nissardi in AM del
Congresso delle Scienze Storiche (Rome, 1903), vol. v. (Archeologia),
651 sqq.; cf. Builder, May 18, 1907 (xcii. 589).
Among the most curious relics of the art of the period is a group
of bronze statuettes, some found at Uta near Cagliari and others near
Teti, west of Fonni, in the centre of the island, of which many
specimens are now preserved in the museum at Cagliari.
It is thus clear that in the Bronze Age Sardinia was fairly
thickly populated over by far the greater part of its extent;
this may explain the lack of Greek colonies, except
for Olbia, the modern Terranova, and Neapolis on the j
west coast, which must from their names have been
Greek, though we do not know when or by whom they were
founded. Pausanias (x. 17. 5) attributes the foundation of
Olbia to the Thespians and Athenians under lolaus, while
Solinus (i. 61) states that he founded other cities also. In any
case the Phoenician settlements are the earliest of which we
have any accurate knowledge. The date of the conquest by
Carthage may perhaps be fixed at about
500-480 B.C., following the chronology of
Justin Martyr (xviii. 7), inasmuch as up
till that period colonization by the Greeks
seems to have been regarded as a possible
enterprise. The cities which they founded
Cornus, Tharros, Sulci, Nora, Carales
are all on the coast of the island, and it is
doubtful to what extent they penetrated
into the interior. Even in the ist century
B.C. there were still traces of Phoenician
influence (Cicero, Pro Scauro, 15, 42, 45).
There are signs of trade with Etruria as
early as the 7th century B.C. The Cartha-
ginians made it into an important grain-
producing centre; and the Romans set
foot in the island more than once during
the First Punic War.
In 238 B.C. the Carthaginian mercen-
aries revolted, and the Romans took
advantage of the fact to demand
that the island should be given
up to them, which was done.
The native tribes opposed the Romans, but
were conquered after several campaigns;
the island became a province under the
government of a praetor or propraetor, to
whose jurisdiction Corsica was added soon
afterwards. A rebellion in 215 B.C.,
fostered by the Carthaginians, was quelled
by T. Manlius Torquatus (Livy xxiii. 40).
After this the island began to furnish con-
siderable supplies of corn; it was treated
as a conquered country, not containing a
single free city, and the inhabitants were
obliged to pay a tithe in corn and a further
money contribution. It was classed with
Sicily and Africa as one of the main
sources of the corn-supply of Rome. There were salt-works
in Sardinia too as early as about 150 B.C., as is attested by an
inscription assigned to this date in Latin, Greek and Punic,
being a dedication by one Cleon salari(us) soc(iorum) s(ervus)
(Corp. Inscr. Lat. x. 7856). We only hear of two insurrections
of the mountain tribes, in 181, when no less than 80,000 Sardinian
slaves 2 were brought to Rome by T. Sempronius Gracchus,
and in 114 B.C., when M. Caecilius Metellus was proconsul and
earned a triumph after two years' fighting: but even in the time
of Strabo there was considerable brigandage. Inscriptions record
the boundaries of the territories of various tribes with outlandish
names otherwise unknown to us (Corp. Inscr. Lat. x. 7889. 7930).
Some light is thrown on the condition and administration of the
island in the 1st century B.C. by Cicero's speech (of which a part only
is preserved) in defence of M. Aemilius Scaurus (?..), praetor in
53 B.C. Cicero, speaking no doubt to his brief, gives them a very
bad character, adding " ignoscent alii yiri boni ex Sardinia; credo
enim esse quosdam " ( 43). In the division of provinces made by
2 The large number of slaves is said to have given rise to the phrase
Sardi venales for anything cheap or worthless.
Roman
period.
2i6
SARDINIA
Augustus, Sardinia and Corsica fell to the share of the senate, but in
A.D. 6, Augustus, owing to the frequent disturbances, took them over
and placed them under a praefectus. Tiberius sent 4000 Jewish anc
Egyptian freedmen to the island to bring the brigands to sub-
mission (Tac. Ann. ii. 85). Later on two cohorts were quarterec
there and also detachments of the Classis Misenas, as the discharge
certificates (tabulae honestae missionis) of the former and tombstones
of the latter found in the island 1 show (C.I.L. x. 777). In A.D. 67
Nero restored Sardinia to the senate (but not Corsica) in exchange
for Achaea, and the former was then governed by a legatus pro
praetore; but Vespasian took it over again before A.D. 78, and
placed it under an imperial procurator as praefectus. It returned to
the senate, not before A.D. 83 but certainly before the reign of M.
Aurelius, when we find it governed by a proconsul, as it was under
Commodus; the latter, or perhaps Septimius Severus, took it over
again and placed it under a procurator as praefectus once more
(D. Vaglieri in Notizie degli scavi, 1897, 280).
A bronze tablet discovered in 1866 near the village of Esterzili is
inscribed with a decree of the time of Otho with regard to the
boundaries of three tribes, the Gallienses, Patulienses and Campani,
who inhabited the eastern portion of the island. The former tribe
had crossed the boundaries of the other two, and was ordered to with-
draw immediately under pain of punishment (Corp. inscr. Lai. x.
7852). Carales was the only city with Roman civic rights in Sardinia
in Pliny's time (when it received the privilege is unknown) and by
far the most important place in the island; a Roman colony had
been founded at Turris Libisonis (Porto Torres) and others, later on,
at Usellis and Cornus.
We hear little of the island under the Empire, except as a granary
and as remarkable for its unhealthiness and the audacity of its
brigands. It was not infrequently used as a place of exile.
A number of Roman towns are known to us. Besides those already
mentioned, including the Phoenician cities (all of which continued to
Town* exist in Roman days) the most important were Bosa (q.v.),
Forum Traiani (mod. Fordungianus) (q.v.), Neapolis and
trlbet Othoca (mod. Oristano, q.v.). An interesting group of
Roman houses was found in 1878 at Bacu Abis, 5 m. W.
of Iglesias, but has been covered up again (F. Vivanet in Notizie
degli scavi, 1878, 271). The name Barbaria for the mountainous
district in the east centre of Sardinia, in the district of Nuoro, which
still exists in the form Barbargia, goes back to the Roman period, the
civitates Barbariae being mentioned in an inscription of the time of
Tiberius (Corp. inscr. Lot. xiv. 2954). The Barbaricini are mentioned
in the 6th century A.D. by Procopius, who wrongly derives the name
from several thousand Moors and Numidians who were banished to
the island by the Vandal kings, while Gregory the Great speaks of
them in a letter (iv. 23) to Hospito, their chief, as a still pagan race,
worshipping stocks and stones. The towns were connected by a
considerable network of roads, with a total length of 958 Roman
Roads miles according to the Itineraries, the most important of
which ran from Carales to Turris Libisonis (Porto Torres)
through the centre of the island, passing Othoca (Oristano) and
Forum Traiani. Its line is followed closely by the modern highroad
and railway. A portion of its course, however, between Forum
Traiani and the modern Abbasanta, is not so followed, and is still
well preserved. Its width is as a rule about 24 ft.; at present its
surface is formed of rough cobbling, upon which there was probably
a gravel layer, now washed away. Several milestones belonging to
it have been discovered, including one of the time of Augustus and
one of Claudius near Forum Tratani, and one of Nero near Turris
Libisonis, though it was probably not completed right through
until a later period (T. Mommsen in Corp. inscr. Lot. x. 833; cf.
Eph. epigr. viii. 181-183). A branch from this road ran to Olbia
(followed closely by the modern highroad and railway also), and was
perhaps the main line of communication, though the itineraries state
that the road from Carales to Olbia ran through the centre of the
island by Biora, Valentia, Sorabile (near Fonni) and Caput Thyrsi.
Many milestones belonging to the road from Carales to Olbia nave
been found, but all but one of them (which was seen at Valentia)
belong to the portion of the road within 12 m. of the latter place, so
that they might belong to either line (see OLBIA). The distance seems
to be identical by either route. The itineraries give it as 176 m.
the exact distance in English miles by the modern railway! The
difference between English and Roman miles would be compensated
for by the more devious course taken by the railway. Turris
Libisonis was also connected with Othoca by a road along the west
coast, passing through Tharros, Cornus and Bosa ; this road went on
to Tibula* (Capo della Testa) at the north extremity of the island
and so by the coast to Olbia. From Tibula another road ran inland
to join the road from Carales to Olbia some 16 m. west of the latter.
1 The discharge certificates of sailors from the Classis Misenas
and Classis Ravennatis belonged to Sardinians who had returned home
after service in those fleets.
* Excavations made in 1880 at Tibula and Sorabile resulted in the
discovery at the former of a necropolis of the late Empire, in which
the dead were buried in long amphorae, while at the latter Roman
baths were explored (F. Vivanet in Notizie degli scavi, 1879, 350;
1881, 29 sqq.).
Carales was also connected with Olbia by a road along the east coast.
The south-west corner of the island was served by a direct road from
Carales westward through Decimomannu (note the name Decimo, a
survival, no doubt, of a Roman post-station ad decimum lapidem),
where there is a fine Roman bridge over 100 yds. long of fourteen
arches, still well preserved. The width of the roadway is only 1 1 ft.
There is also a road through Nora and along the coast past Sulci to
Metalla and Neapolis, and thence to Othoca.
After the time of Constantine, the administration of Sardinia
was separated from that of Corsica, each island being governed
by a praeses dependent on the vicarius urbis Romae.
In 456 it was seized by Genseric. It was retaken
for a short time by Marcellianus, but was not
finally recovered until the fall of the Vandal kingdom in
Africa in 534, by Cyril. In 551 it was taken by Totila, but
reconquered after his death by Narses for the Byzantine Empire.
Under Byzantium it remained nominally until the loth century,
when we find the chief magistrate still bearing the title of 6.p\<av?
In the 8th century 4 (720) the period of Saracen invasion began ;
but the Saracens never secured a firm footing in the island. In
725 Luidprand purchased and removed to Pavia the body
of St Augustine of Hippo from Cagliari, whither it had i>aracfa *-
been brought in the 6th century by the exiled bishop of Hippo.
In 815 Sardinia submitted to Louis the Pious, begging for his pro-
tection ; ' but the Saracens were not entirely driven out, and about
A.D. looo the Saracen chief Musat established himself in Cagliari.
Pope John XVIII. preached a crusade in 1004, promising to bestow
the island (when or whether it had ever definitely passed into the
power of the papacy is not absolutely clear) upon whoever should
drive out the Saracens. The Pisans took up the challenge, and
Musat was driven put of Cagliari with the help of the Genoese in
1022 for the third time. The Pisans and Genoese now disputed about
the ownership of Sardinia, but the pope and the emperor decided
in favour of Pisa. Musat returned to the island once more and
made himself master of it, but was defeated and taken prisoner
under the walls of Cagliari in 1050, when the dominion of Pisa was
established.
The island had (probably since the end of the gth century)
been divided into four districts Cagliari, Arborea, Torres (or
Logudoro) and Gallura each under a giudice or
judge, in whom the dignity became hereditary. Judices
are already mentioned as existing in the account of
the mission sent by Nicholas I. in 864 (Duchesne, Liber pontifi-
calis, ii. 162), as though the single authority of the Byzantine
Hpxuiv was already weakened. The three &pxovrts who appear in
the loth-century inscriptions just mentioned bear alternately
the names Torcotorius and Salusius; and, inasmuch as this is
the case with thejudices of Cagliari from the nth to the I3th
century, there seems no doubt that they were the successors of
these Byzantine ftpxcvres, who were perhaps the actual founders
of the dynasty. These names, indeed, continue even after the
Pisan family of Lacon-Massa had by marriage succeeded to the
judicature. The Greek language occurs in their official seals
down to the I3th century. Intermarriage (sometimes illicit)
was apparently freely used by the dominant families for the
concentration of their power. Thus we find that after the
:ailure of Musat members of the family of Lacon-Unali filled
all the four judicatures of the island (Taramelli, Arch. star. Sard.,
cit. 105). In the continual struggles between Pisa and Genoa
some of these princes took the side of the latter. In 1 164 Barisone,
giudice of Arborea, was given the title of king of the whole
sland by Frederick Barbarossa, but his supremacy was never
;ffective. In 1241 Adelasia, heiress of Gallura and Logudoro,
was married as her third husband to Enzio, the natural son of
Frederick II., who received the title of kjng of Sardinia from his
"ather, but fell into the hands of the Bolognese in 1249, and
8 Three inscriptions of the middle of this century, set up by the
tpxw Eapfoji'taj with the title protospatarius, are illustrated by
A. Taramelli in Notizie degli scavi (1906), 123 sqq.; cf. Archivto
iorico Sardo (1907), 92 ; and there are a few churches of the Byzan-
jne period and style, a considerable number of Byzantine inscrip-
ions, dedications to Greek saints, and other traces of the influence
of the Eastern Empire in the island.
4 Some authorities attribute to 774, others to 817, a donation of
Sardinia to the papacy ; we hear of Pope Nicholas I. sending legates
n 865 to quell disturbances and check evil practices in the island.
'There is no authentic history for the intervening period; the
amous_" pergamene d'Arborea," published by P. Martini in 1863
at Cagliari, have been shown to be modern forgeries.
/'/.van
period.
SARDIS
remained a prisoner at Bologna until his death. After this
the Pisan supremacy of the island seems to have become more
of a reality, but Arborea remained independent, and after the
defeat of the Pisans by the Genoese at the naval battle of Meloria
in 1284 they were obliged to surrender Sassari and Logudoro
to Genoa. In 1297 Boniface VIII. invested James II., the king
of Aragon, with Sardinia; but it was not until 1323 that he
attempted its conquest, nor until 1326 that the Pisans were
finally driven out of Cagliari, which they had fortified in 1305-
1307 by the construction of the Torre di S. Pancrazio and the
Torre dell' Elefante, and which became the seat of the Aragonese
government. To the Pisan period belong a number of fine
Romanesque churches, among which may be specially mentioned
those of Ardara, S. Giusta near Oristano, La Trinita di Saccargia
and Tratalias (see D. Scano, op. ell. infra).
The Aragonese enjoyed at first the assistance of the gittdici
of Arborea, who had remained in power; but in 1352 war broke
out Between Mariano IV. and the Aragonese, and was
carried on by his daughter Eleonora, wife of Branca-
leone Doria of Genoa, until her death in 1403. Peter
IV. had meanwhile in 1355 called together the Cortes (parlia-
ment) of the three estates (the nobles, the clergy and the
representatives of the towns) for the first time after the model
of Aragon. After 1403 the Aragonese became masters of Arborea
also. The title of giudice was abolished and a feudal marquisate
substituted. The carlo, de logu (del luogo) or code of laws issued
by her was in 1421 extended to the whole island by the cortes
under the presidency of Alphonso V., who visited Sardinia in
that year. In 1478 the marquisate of Oristano was suppressed,
and henceforth the island was governed by Spanish viceroys
with the feudal r6gime of the great nobles under them, the
Cortes being convoked once every ten years. Many of the
churches show characteristic Spanish Late Gothic architecture
which survived until a comparatively recent period. The
Renaissance had little or no influence on Sardinian architecture
and culture.
The island remained a Spanish province until the War of the
Spanish Succession, when in 1708 Cagliari capitulated to an
English fleet, and the island became Austrian; the
status quo was confirmed by the peace of Utrecht in
1713. In 1717, however, Cardinal Alberoni retook
Cagliari for Spain; but this state of things was short-lived, for
in 1720, by the treaty of London, Sardinia passed in exchange
for Sicily to the dukes of Savoy, to whom it brought the royal
title. The population was at that time a little over 300,000;
public security and education were alike lacking, and there
were considerable animosities between different parts of the
island. Matters improved considerably under Charles Emmanuel
III., in whose reign of forty-three years(i73O-i773) the prosperity
of the island was much increased. The French attacks of 1792-
1793 were repelled by the inhabitants, Cagliari being unsuccess-
fully bombarded by the French fleet, and the refusal by Victor
Amadeus III. to grant them certain privileges promised in
consideration of their bravery led to the revolution of 1794-1796.
In 1799 Charles Emmanuel IV. of Savoy took refuge in Cagliari
after his expulsion by the French, but soon returned to Italy.
In 1802 he abdicated in favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel I.,
who in 1806 returned to Cagliari and remained there until 1814,
when he retired, leaving his brother, Carlo Felice, as viceroy.
Carlo was successful in repressing brigands, but had to deal
with much distress from famine. In 1821 he became king of
Savoy by the abdication of his brother, and the construction of
the highroad from Cagliari to Porto Torres was begun (not
without opposition on the part of the inhabitants) hi 1822.
Feudalism was abolished in 1836, and in 1848 complete political
union with Piedmont was granted, the viceregal government
being suppressed, and the island being divided into three divisions
of which Cagliari, Sassari and Nuoro were the capitals. General
A. La Marmora was appointed royal commissioner to supervise
the transformation to the new regime.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. Manno, Sloria delta Sardegna (1825); A. de
La Marmora, Voyage en Sardaigne (Paris and Turin, 1826-1857);
Modern
history.
2iy
Valery, Viaggi alle isole di Corsica e di Sardegna (Milan, 1842);
Tyndal, The Island of Sardinia (London, 1849) ; G. Spano, Bullettino
archeologico Sardo (1855-1864) and other works; A. Bresciani,
R. Tennant, Sardinia and its Resources (London, 1885) ; G. Straf-
fprello, Sardegna (Turin, 1895); F. Pais-Serra, Relazione del-
l' inchiesta suite condizioni economiche delta Sardegna (Rome, 1896);
G. Pinza, " I Monument! primitivi della Sardegna " in Monumenti
dei Lincei, xi. (1901); F. Nissardi, " Contribute alia storia dei
Nuraghi " in Atti del Congresso delle Scienze Storiche (Rome, 1903),
vol. v. (Archeologia) (1904), 651 sqq.; G. Sergi, La Sardegna
(Turin, 1907); Archivib storico Sardo from 1905; D. Scano, Storia
dell' arte in Sardegna dal XI. al XIV. secolo (Cagliari and Sassari,
1907) ; D. Mackenzie, Ausonia, iii. (Rome, 1908), 18, and Memnon, ii.
(Leipzig, 1900) ; and " Dolmens, Tombs of the Gia
rtf C/*~,l In ' !. . I> .1. ,- _J J7. _ T) 'J*_T_ f_ T 1
' r c* J !
of Sardinia,
(1910).
in Papers of the British^
Giants and Nuraghi
School at Rome. v. 80
(T. As.)
SARDIS, more correctly SARDES (01 Sap5e), the capital of
the ancient kingdom of Lydia, the seat of a convenlus under the
Roman Empire, and the metropolis of the province Lydia in
later Roman and Byzantine times, was situated in the middle
Hermus valley, at the foot of Mt. Tmolus, a steep and lofty spur
of which formed the citadel. It was about 2^ m. S. of the
Hermus. The earliest reference to Sardis is in the Persae of
Aeschylus (472 B.C.); in the Iliad the name Hyde seems to be
given to the city of the Maeonian (i.e. Lydian) chiefs, and in
later times Hyde was said to be the older name of Sardis, or the
name of its citadel. It is, however, more probable that Sardis
was not the original capital of the Maeonians, but that it became
so amid the changes which produced the powerful Lydian empire
of the 8th century B.C. The city was captured by the Cimmerians
in the 7th century, by the Persians and by the Athenians in the
6th, and by Antiochus the Great at the end of the 3rd century.
Once at least, under the emperor Tiberius, in A.D. 17, it was
destroyed by an earthquake; but it was always rebuilt, and
was one of the great cities of western Asia Minor till the later
Byzantine time. As one of the Seven Churches of Asia, it was
addressed by the author of the Apocalypse in terms which seem
to imply that its population was notoriously soft and faint-
hearted. Its importance was due, first to its military strength,
secondly to its situation on an important highway leading from
the interior to the Aegean coast, and thirdly to its commanding
the wide and fertile plain of the Hermus.
The early Lydian kingdom was far advanced in the industrial
arts (see LYDIA), and Sardis was the chief seat of its manu-
factures. The most important of these trades was the manu-
facture and dyeing of delicate woollen stuffs and carpets. The
statement that the little stream Pactolus which flowed through
the market-place rolled over golden sands is probably little more
than a metaphor, due to the wealth of the city to which the
Greeks of the 6th century B.C. resorted for supplies of gold;
but trade and the organization of commerce were the real sources
of this wealth. After Constantinople became the capital of the
East a new road system grew up connecting the provinces with
the capital. Sardis then lay rather apart from the great lines of
communication and lost some of its importance. It still, how-
ever, retained its titular supremacy and continued to be the
seat of the metropolitan bishop of the province of Lydia, formed
in A.D. 295. It is enumerated as third, after Ephesus and Smyrna,
in the list of cities of the Thracesian thema given by Constantine
Porphyrogenitus in the loth century; but in the actual history
of the next four centuries it plays a part very inferior to Magnesia
ad Sipylum and Philadelphia (see ALA-SHEHR), which have
retained their pre-eminence in the district. The Hermus valley
began to suffer from the inroads of the Seljuk Turks about the
end of the nth century; but the successes of the Greek general
Philocales in 1118 relieved the district for the time, and the
ability of the Comneni, together with the gradual decay of the
Seljuk power, retained it in the Byzantine dominions. The
country round Sardis was frequently ravaged both by Christians
and by Turks during the I3th century. Soon after 1301 the
Seljuk amirs overran the whole of the Hermus and Cayster
valleys, and a fort on the citadel of Sardis was handed over to
218
SARDONYX SARDOU
them by treaty in 1306. Finally in 1390 Philadelphia, which
had for some time been an independent Christian city, sur-
rendered to Sultan Bayezid's mixed army of Ottoman Turks
and Byzantine Christians, and the Seljuk power in the Hermus
valley was merged in the Ottoman empire. The latest reference
to the city of Sardis relates its capture (and probable destruction)
by Timur in 1402. Its site is now absolutely deserted, except
that a tiny village, Sart, merely a few huts inhabited by semi-
nomadic Yuruks, exists beside the Pactolus, and that there is a
station of the Smyrna & Cassaba railway i m. north of the
principal ruins.
The ruins of Sardis, so far as they are now visible, are chiefly of
the Roman time ; but though few ancient sites offered better hope
of results, the necessity for heavy initial expenditure was a deterrent
(e.g. to H. Schliemann). On the banks of the Pactolus two columns
of a temple of the Greek period, probably the great temple of Cybele,
are still standing. More than one attempt to excavate this temple,
the last by G. Dennis in 1882, has been made and prematurely
brought to an end by lack of funds. In 1904 a few trial pits were
sunk by M. Mendel for the Constantinople Museum, and the site
was ultimately conceded to an American syndicate, for whom
H. C. Butler of Princeton University undertook the task of ex-
cavation. The necropolis of the old Lydian city, a vast series of
mounds, some of enormous size, lies on the north side of the Hermus,
4 or 5 m. from Sardis, a little south of the sacred Gygaean Lake,
Coloe; here the Maeonian chiefs, sons, according to Homer, of the
lake, were brought to sleep beside their mother. The series of mounds
is now called Bin Tepe (Thousand Mounds). Several of them have
been opened by modern excavators, but in every case it was found
that treasure-seekers of an earlier time had removed any articles
of value which had been deposited in the sepulchral chambers.
See K. Buresch, Aus Lydien (1898); G. Radet, La Lydie (1893);
Kybebe (1908); W. M. Ramsay, The Letters to the Several Churches
(1904), and article in Hastings' Diet, of the Bible (1902). (D. G. H.)
SARDONYX, an ornamental stone much used for seals and
cameos. It usually consists of a layer of sard or carnelian with
one of milk-white chalcedony, but it may present several alter-
nating layers of these minerals. The sardonyx is therefore
simply an onyx in which some of the bands are of sard or
carnelian: if, however, the latter is present the stone is more
appropriately called a " carnelian onyx." It was considered by
ancient authorities that a fine Oriental sardonyx should have at
least three strata a black base, a white intermediate zone and
a superficial layer of brown or red; these colours typifying the
three cardinal virtues humility (black), chastity (white) and
modesty or martyrdom (red). The ancients obtained sardonyx
from India, and the Indian locality, Mount Sardonyx, referred
to by Ptolemy, is supposed to have been near Broach, where
agates and carnelians are still worked. In the Revised Version of
the Old Testament, Ex. xxviii. 18, " sardonyx " is given in the
margin as an alternative reading for " diamond," the word by
which the Hebrew yahalom is usually translated. The stone
known to the Romans as aegyptilla may have been a kind of
sardonyx, or perhaps a nicolo, which is an onyx with a thin
translucent milky layer on the surface. Imitations of sardonyx
have been made by cementing together two or three stones
of the required colours, while baser counterfeits have been pro-
duced in paste. By coating a sard or carnelian with sodium
carbonate and then placing the stone on a red-hot iron a white
layer may be produced, so that a kind of sardonyx is obtained
(see CARNELIAN). Most of the modern sardonyx is cut from
South American agate, modified in colour by artificial treatment.
(See AGATE; GEM.)
SARDOU, VICTORIEN (1831-1008), French dramatist, was
born in Paris on the 5th of September 1831. The Sardous were
settled at Le Cannet, a village near Cannes, where they owned
an estate, planted with olive trees. A night's frost killed all
the trees and the family was ruined. Victorien's father, Antoine
Leandre Sardou, came to Paris in search of employment. He
was in succession a book-keeper at a commercial establishment,
a professor of book-keeping, the head of a provincial school, then
a private tutor and a schoolmaster in Paris, besides editing
grammars, dictionaries and treatises on various subjects. With
all these occupations, he hardly succeeded in making a livelihood,
and when he retired to his native country, Victorien was left on
his own resources. He had begun studying medicine, but had
to desist for want of funds. He taught French to foreign pupils:
he also gave lessons in Latin, history and mathematics to
students, and wrote articles for cheap encyclopaedias. At the
same time he was trying to make headway in the literary world.
His talents had been encouraged by an old bas-bleu, Mme de Bawl,
who had published novels and enjoyed some reputation in the
days of the Restoration. But she could do little for her protege.
Victorien Sardou made efforts to attract the attention of Mile
Rachel, and to win her support by submitting to her a drama,
La Reine Ulfra, founded on an old Swedish chronicle. A play of
his, La Taverne des etudiants, was produced at the Odeon on the
ist of April 1854, but met with a stormy reception, owing to a
rumour that the debutant had been instructed and commissioned
by the government to insult the students. La Taverne was
withdrawn after five nights. Another drama by Sardou, Bernard
Palissy, was accepted at the same theatre, but the arrangement
was cancelled in consequence of a change in the management. A
Canadian play, Fleur de Liane, would have been produced at the
Ambigu but for the death of the manager. Le Bossu, which he
wrote for Charles Albert Fechter, did not satisfy the actor;
and when the play was successfully produced, the nominal
authorship, by some unfortunate arrangement, had been
transferred to other men. M Sardou submitted to Adolphe
Montigny (Lemoine-Montigny) , manager of the Gymnase, a play
entitled Paris a Verniers, which contained the love scene, after-
wards so famous, in Nos Intimes. Montigny thought fit to consult
Eugene Scribe, who was revolted by the scene in question
Sardou felt the pangs of actual want, and his misfortunes
culminated in an attack of typhoid fever. He was dying in his
garret, surrounded with his rejected manuscripts. A lady who
was living in the same house unexpectedly came to his assistance.
Her name was Mile de Brecourt. She had theatrical connexions,
and was a special favourite of Mile Dejazet. She nursed him,
cured him, and, when he was well again, introduced him to her
friend. Then fortune began to smile on the author. It is true
that Candide, the first play he wrote for Mile Dejazet, was
stopped by the censor, but Les Premieres Armes de Figaro,
Monsieur Carat, and Les Pres Saint Gervais, produced almost
in succession, had a splendid run, and Les Paltes de mouche
(1860: afterwards anglicized as A Scrap of Paper) obtained
a similar success at the Gymnase. Fedora (1882) was written
expressly for Sarah Bernhardt, as were many of his later plays.
He soon ranked with the two undisputed leaders of dramatic
art, Augier and Dumas. He lacked the powerful humour, the
eloquence and moral vigour of the former, the passionate convic-
tion and pungent wit of the latter, but he was a master of clever
and easy flowing dialogue. He adhered to Scribe's constructive
methods, which combined the three old kinds of comedy the
comedy of character, of manners and of intrigue with the
drame bourgeois, and blended the heterogeneous elements into a
compact body and living unity. He was no less dexterous
in handling his materials than his master had been before him,
and at the same time opened a wider field to social satire. He
ridiculed the vulgar and selfish middle-class person in Nos
Intimes (1861: anglicized as Peril), the gay old bachelors in
Les Vieux Gardens ( 1 865) , the modern Tartufes in Seraphinc ( 1 868) ,
the rural element in Nos Bans Villageois (1866), old-fashioned
customs and antiquated political beliefs in Les Ganaches (1862),
the revolutionary spirit and those who thrive on it in Rabagas
(1872) and Le Roi Carotle (1872), the then threatened divorce
laws in Diwrfons (1880).
He struck a new vein by introducing a strong historic element
in some of his dramatic romances. Thus he borrowed Theodora
(1884) from Byzantine annals, La Haine (1874) from Italian
chronicles, La Duchesse d' Athenes from the forgotten records of
medieval Greece. Patrie (1869) is founded on the rising of the
Dutch gueux at the end of the i6th century. The scene of La
Sorciere (1904) was laid in Spain in the i6th century. The
French Revolution furnished him with three plays, Les Merveil-
leuses, Thermidor (1891) and Robespierre (1902). The last
named was written expressly for Sir Henry Irving, and produced
at the Lyceum theatre, as was Dante (1903). The imperial
SARGASSO SEA SARIPUTTA
219
epoch was revived in La Tosca 1 (1887) and Madame Sans Gtne
(1893). Later plays were La Piste (1905) and Le Drame des
poisons (1907). In many of these plays, however, it was too
obvious that a thin varnish of historic learning, acquired for the
purpose, had been artificially laid on to cover modern thoughts
and feelings. But a few Patrie and LaHaine (1874), for instance
exhibit a true insight into the strong passions of past ages.
M. Sardou married his benefactress, Mile de Br6court, but
eight years later he became a widower, and soon after the revolu-
tion of 1870 was married a second time, to Mile Soulie, the
daughter of the erudite Eudore Soulie, who for many years
superintended the Musee de Versailles. He was elected to the
French Academy in the room of the poet Joseph Autran (1813-
1877), and took his seat on the 22nd of May 1878. He died at
Paris on the 8th of November 1908.
See L. Lacour, Trois thedtres (1880); Brander Matthews, French
Dramatists (New York, 1881); R. Doumic, iLcrivains d'aujourd'hui
(Paris, 1895) ; F. Sarcey, Quarante ans de thedtre (vol. vi., 1901).
SARGASSO SEA, a tract of the North Atlantic Ocean, covered
with floating seaweed (Sargassum, originally named sarga$o
by the Portuguese). This tract is bounded approximately
by 25 and 30 N. and by 38 and 60 W., but its extent varies
according to winds and ocean currents. By these agencies the
weed is carried and massed together, the original source of
supply being probably the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico
(see ALGAE). Similar circumstances lead to the existence of
other similar tracts covered with floating weed, e.g. in the solitary
part of the Pacific Ocean, north of the Hawaiian islands, between
30 and 40 N. and between 150 and 180 W. There is a smaller
tract S.E. of New Zealand, and along a belt of the southern
ocean extending from the Falkland Islands, south of Africa and
south-west of Australia, similar floating banks of weed are
encountered. The Sargasso Sea was discovered by Columbus,
who on his first voyage was involved in it for about a fortnight.
The widely credited possibility of ships becoming embedded in
the weed, and being unable to escape, is disproved by the expedi-
tion of the " Michael Sars, " under the direction of Sir John
Murray and the Norwegian government, in 1910, which found the
surface covered with weed only in patches, not continuously.
SARGENT, JOHN SINGER (1856- ), American artist,
son of a distinguished Boston physician, was born at Florence,
Italy, on the I2th of January 1856. He was educated in Italy
and Germany, and in 1874 entered the atelier of Carolus-Duran
in Paris. He received an " honourable mention " in the Salon
of 1878 for his " En route pour la peche," and in 1881 a second
class medal for his " Portrait of a Young Lady " (made famous
by Henry James's appreciation). In 1886 his "Carnation, Lily,
Lily, Rose," exhibited at the Royal Academy, was bought for
the Chantrey Bequest. He rapidly became known in London
as a brilliant portrait painter, and year by year his Academy
portraits were the leading features of its exhibitions. Though
of the French school, and American by birth, it is as a British
artist that he won fame by his vogue as the most sought-after
portrait painter of the day, his sitters including the men and
women of greatest distinction in the literary, artistic and social
life of Europe and America. While best known, and consequently
busily employed, as a portrait painter, he had at the same time
a disposition towards other, and especially decorative work;
his paintings of Brittany, Venice and Eastern scenes are less
known, but his labour of love, the ornate decorations for the
Boston public library (completed in 1903), " The Pageant of
Religion," shows the other side of his genius. Among his
pictures in public galleries not already mentioned are " El
Jaleo " (exhibited 1882), in the Boston Art Museum; " La
Carmencita," in the Luxembourg; " Coventry Patmore," in
the National Portrait Gallery, London; and " Henry Marquand "
(1887), in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. He was elected
an A.R.A. in 1894, and R.A. in 1897; he was the recipient of
various medals of honour, and was made a member of the chief
artistic societies of Europe and America.
1 Adapted as an opera for the music of Puccini (Rome, I4th Jan.
1900).
SARGON, more correctly SARRU-KINU (" the legitimate king,"
Sargon being a hybrid formation from the Semitic sar and the
Sumerian gina, " established "), an Assyrian general who,
on the death of Shalmaneser IV., during the siege of Samaria,
seized the crown on the I2th of Tebet 722 B.C. He claimed
to be the descendant of the early kings, and accordingly assumed
the name of a famous king of Babylonia who had reigned about
3000 years before him. His first achievement was the capture
of Samaria, 27,200 of its inhabitants being carried into captivity.
Meanwhile Babylon had revolted under a Chaldaean prince,
Merodach-baladan, who maintained his power there for twelve
years. In 720 B.C. Yahu-bihdi of Hamath led Arpad, Damascus
and Palestine into revolt: this was suppressed, and the Philistines
and Egyptians were defeated at Raphia (mod. er-Rafa). In
719 B.C. Sargon defeated the Minni to the east of Armenia, and
in 717 overthrew the combined forces of the Hittites and Moschi
(Old Testament Meshech). The Hittite city of Carchemish was
placed under an Assyrian governor, and its trade passed into
Assyrian hands. The following year Sargon was attacked by a
great confederacy of the northern nations Ararat, the Moschi,
Tibareni; &c. and in the course of the campaign marched into
the land of the Medes in the direction of the Caspian. In 7 1 5 B.C.
the Minni were defeated, and one of their chiefs, Dayuku or
Daiukku (Deioces), transported to Hamath. In 714 B.C. the
army of Rusas of Ararat was annihilated, and a year later five
Median chiefs, including Arbaku (Arbaces) became tributary.
Cilicia and the Tibareni also submitted as well as the city of
Malatia, eastern Cappadocia being annexed to the Assyrian
Empire. A league was now formed between Merodach-baladan
and the princes of the west, but before the confederates could
move, an Assyrian army was sent against Ashdod, and Edom,
Moab and Judah submitted to Sargon, who was thus free to turn
his attention to Babylonia, and Merodach-baladan was accord-
ingly driven from Babylon, where Sargon was crowned king.
Shortly after this Sargon sent a statue of himself to Cyprus and
annexed the kingdom of Commagene. He was murdered in
705 B.C., probably in the palace he had built at Dur-Sargina,
now Khorsabad, which was excavated by P. E. Botta. (A. H. S.)
SARI, a town of Persia, in the province of Mazandaran,
on the left bank of the Tejen river, 80 m. S.W. of Astarabad.
Pop. 10,000. It is the seat of the governor of Mazandaran, and
has post and telegraph offices. The town is picturesque but very
unhealthy, has stone-paved streets and houses built of brick
and covered with green and red glazed tiles.
SARIPUL, or SIRIPUL, a town and khanate of Afghan
Turkestan. The town lies 100 m. S.W. of Balkh; estimated
pop. 18,000. Two-thirds of the people are Uzbegs and the rest
Hazaras. The khanate, which lies between Balkh and Maimana,
is one of the " four domains " which were in dispute between
Bokhara and Kabul, and were allotted to the Afghans by the
Anglo-Russian boundary agreement of 1873.
SARIPUTTA, one of the two principal disciples of Gotama
the Buddha. He was born in the middle of the 6th century
B.C. at Nala, a village in the kingdom of Magadha, the modern
Behar, just south of the Ganges and a little east of where Patna
now stands. His personal name was Upatissa; the name of
his father, who was a brahmin, is unknown; his mother's name
was Sari, and it was by the epithet or nickname of Sariputta
(that is " Sari's son "), that he was best known. He had three
sisters, all of whom subsequently entered the Buddhist Order.
When still a young man he devoted himself to the religious life,
and followed at first the system taught by Sanjaya of the
Belattha clan. A summary of the philosophical position of
this teacher has been preserved in the Dialogue called The
Perfect Net.
According to this account his main tendency was to avoid com-
mitting himself to any decided conclusion on any one of the numerous
points then discussed so eagerly among the clansmen in the valley
of the Ganges. Early in the Buddhist movement Sariputta had a
conversation with one of the men who had just joined it; and the
Buddhist quoted to him the now famous stanza, " Of all the things
that proceed from a cause, the Buddha the cause hath told; and he
tells too how each shall come to an end such alone is the word of
220
SARK SARONNO
the Sage." The result was that Sariputta, with his friend Kolita
and other disciples of Sanjaya, asked for admission, and were re-
ceived into the Buddhist Order. He rapidly attained to mastery in
the Buddhist system of self-training, and is declared to have been
the chief of all the disciples in insight. He was present at a_ dialogue
between the Buddha and a Wanderer named Aggivessana on the
nature of sensations; and at the end of that discourse he attained
to Arahatship. He is constantly represented as discussing points,
usually of ethics or philosophy, either with the Buddha himself,
or with one or other of the more prominent disciples. One whole
book of the Sarpyutta is therefore called after his name. A number
of stanzas inscribed to him are preserved in the Songs of the Elders
(Thera-gatha), and one of the poems in the Sutta Nipata is based on
a question he addressed to the Buddha. Asoka the Great, in his
Bhabra Edict, enjoins on the Buddhists the study of seven passages
in the Scriptures selected for their especial beauty. One of these
is called The Question of Upatissa, and this poem may be the passage
referred to. Feeling his end approaching, he went home, and died
just six months before the death of the Buddha, that is, approximately
in 480 B.C. He was cremated with great ceremony, and the ashes
placed in a tope or burial-mound. An inscribed casket in such a
mound at Sanchi opened by Cunningham in February 1851 con-
tained a portion of these ashes which had been removed to that
spot, in General Cunningham's opinion by Asoka.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the birth, death, cremation and relics, see
Alex. Cunningham, Bhilsa Topes (London, 1854); Rhys Davids and
S. W. Bushell, Walters on Yuan Chwang (London, 1904, 1905). For
names of mother and sisters, Theri Gatha, ed. R. Pischel (London,
1883). For conversion Rhys Davids and H. Oldenberg, Vinaya
Texts (Oxford, 1881), i. 144-151. For attainment of Arahatship,
V. Trenckner, Maijhima Nikaya (London, 1888), i. 501.
(T. W. R. D.)
SARK, a small island of the Channel Islands, 7 m. E. of
Guernsey, much visited on account of its magnificent cliff-
scenery and caves. It is 3 m. long from N. to S. and ij m. in
extreme breadth. Area, 1274 acres; pop. (1901) 504. It i s
divided into two unequal parts, known as Great Sark (the more
northern) and Little Sark, connected by the Coup6e, a lofty
isthmus so narrow at the summit that it bears only a roadway,
artificially built up, and flanked by a precipice on either side.
Many islets and detached rocks lie off the coast; Brechou
Island to the west is large enough to have a few fields and a
house upon it. Some of the rocks are very fine, such as the
four lofty flat-topped pillars called the Autelets (altars).
The harbour of Sark lies on the east coast, a tiny cliff-bound bay
protected by a breakwater, communicating with the interior only
through two tunnels, one of which is modern, while the other dates
from 1588. The harbour is called Creux. This is a term of common
use in the Channel Islands, applying primarily to natural funnels or
pits, but extended also to clefts such as that which forms the harbour.
The Creux du Derrible (Old French, a downfall of rocks) is a wide
shaft opening from the summit of the cliff and communicating with
the sea through a double cave, through which the sea rushes at
high water. Of the many majestic caverns in the cliffs the Boutiques
and the Gouliots, both on the west coast of Great Sark, may be
specially mentioned. The marine fauna is very rich. On Great
Sark are the majority of the houses, the church, and the seigneurie
or manor-house. An ancient mill stands at the summit of the island
(375 ft-)- Agriculture and fishing are carried on. In Little Sark
a disused shaft marks a silver-mine, worked in 1835, but soon
abandoned. The island is included in the bailiwick of Guernsey,
but has a court of justice of feudal character, the officers being
appointed by the seigneur.
SARLAT, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Dordogne, 44 m. E. by
N. of Bergerac on the railway to Aurillac. Pop. (1006) town
4018, commune 6195. The town grew up round a monastery
founded in the 8th century and early in the I4th century became
the seat of a bishopric which was suppressed in 1 790. The former
cathedral and abbey-church preserves interesting architecture of
the Romanesque and later periods and remarkable wood-carving
of the 1 5th century. There is also a curious pyramidical structure
of the 1 2th century, which was probably used as a burial-place.
The house where Etienne de la Boetie (d. 1563), the moralist,
was born, and other houses in the Gothic and Renaissance
styles are to be seen. La Bo6tie has a statue in the town. There
is a large trade in cattle. Distilling, the manufacture of tin-
boxes, and the preparation of truffles, pat6s de foie gras and
other delicacies and of nut-oil are carried on; there are coal and
iron mines and stone-quarries in the vicinity.
SARMATAE, or SAUROMATAE (the second form is mostly
used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks
and the Romans), a people whom Herodotus (iv. 21. 117) puts
on the eastern boundary of Scythia (q.ii.) beyond the Tanais
(Don). He says expressly that they were not pure Scythians,
but, being descended from young Scythian men and Amazons,
spoke an impure dialect and allowed their women to take part
in war and to enjoy much freedom. Later writers call some of
them the " woman-ruled Sarmatae." Hippocrates (De Acre,
&c., 24) classes them as Scythian. From this we may infer that
they spoke a language cognate with the Scythic. The greater
part of the barbarian names occurring in the inscriptions of
Olbia, Tanais and Panticapaeum are supposed to be Sarmatian,
and as they have been well explained from the Iranian language
now spoken by the Ossetes of the Caucasus, these are supposed
to be the representatives of the Sarmatae and can be shown
to have a direct connexion with the Alani (<?..), one of their
tribes. By the 3rd century B.C. the Sarmatae appear to have
supplanted the Scyths proper in the plains of south Russia, where
they remained dominant until the Gothic and Hunnish invasions.
Their chief divisions were the Rhoxolani (<?..), the lazyges
(q.v.), with whom the Romans had to deal on the Danube and
Theiss, and the Alani. The term Sarmatia is applied by later
writers to as much as was known of what is now Russia, includ-
ing all that which the older authorities call Scythia, the latter
name being transferred to regions farther east. Ptolemy gives
maps of European and Asiatic Sarmatia. (E. H. M.)
SARMENTOSE (Lat. sarmentum, twigs), a botanical term
for plants producing long runners.
SARNEN, the capital of the western half (or Obwalden) of
the Swiss canton of Unterwalden. It stands 1558 ft. above sea-
level, at the north end of the lake of Sarnen (3 sq. m. in extent)
and on the river Aa. Pop. (1900) 3949. It has a large parish
church and two convents. In the archives is preserved the
famous MS. known from the colour of its binding as the White
Book of Sarnen, which contains one of the earliest known versions
of the Tell legend (see TELL). Sarnen is a station on the Briinig
Railway, being 4$ m. from Alpnachstad, its port on the lake of
Lucerne. (W. A. B. C.)
SARNI A, a town and port of entry, Ontario, Canada, capital
of Lambton county, 55 m. N.E. of Detroit, on the left bank of
the river St Clair. Pop. (1901) 8176. It is on the Grand Trunk
and Lake Erie & Detroit River railways, and is a port of call
for steamers plying on the Great Lakes. It contains a large
oil-refinery which handles the greater part of the product of
the Ontario oil region. The Grand Trunk railway crosses the
river at this point by the St Clair tunnel, 6025 ft. long or, includ-
ing the approaches, aj m., which connects the town with the
American city of Port Huron (Michigan).
SARNO (anc. Sarnus), a town of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Salerno, ism. N.E. from that city and 30 m. E.
of Naples by the main railway. Pop. (1901) 15,130 (town),
19,192 (commune). It lies at the foot of the Apennines, 92 ft.
above sea-level, near the sources of the Sarno (anc. Sarnus), a
stream connected by canal with Pompeii and the sea. Sarno
has the ruins of a medieval castle, which belonged to Count
Francesco Coppola, who took an important part in the con-
spiracy of the barons against Ferdinand of Aragon in 1485.
Walter of Brienne is buried in the ancient church of S. Maria
della Foce rebuilt in 1701. Paper, cotton, silk, linen and
hemp are manufactured. The travertine which forms round the
springs of the Sarno was used even at Pompeii as building
material. Before its incorporation with the domains of the crown
of Naples Sarno gave its name to a countship held in succession
by the Orsini, Cappola, Suttavilla and Colonna families.
SARONNO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Milan, from which city it is distant 13 m. N.N.W. by rail. Pop.
(1901) 8729 (town), 9533 (commune). The pilgrimage church
of the Madonna dei Miracoli, begun in 1498 by Vincenzo dell'
Orto, has a dome of rich architecture externally; the campanile
dates from 1516, the rest of the church is later. Internally it
is decorated with fine frescoes by Gaudenzio Ferrari, representing
a concert of angels, while those in the choir are by Bernardino
Luini and are among his finest works (see F. Malaguzzi Valeri
SARDS SARPI
221
in Rassegna d'arte, 1904, 69). The place is well known for its
gingerbread (amaretti) and is also a manufacturing town. It is
situated on one of the lines (Ferrovia Nord) from Milan to Como,
and has branch lines to Seregno, Busto Arsizio and Varese.
SARDS, in Babylonian numeration, the number 3600, i.e.
60 times 60. In astronomy and chronology, a remarkable
period of 18 years and 10 or n days, at the end of which every
eclipse of the sun or moon recurs with little change as regards
the time and the character of the eclipse. It is supposed to have
afforded in ancient times the principal method of predicting
eclipses (see ECLIPSE).
SARPEDON, in Greek legend, son of Zeus and Laodameia,
Lycian prince and hero of the Trojan war. He fought on the side
of the Trojans, and after greatly distinguishing himself by his
bravery, was slain by Patroclus. A terrible struggle took place
for the possession of his body, until Apollo rescued it from the
Greeks, and by the command of Zeus washed and cleansed it,
anointed it with ambrosia, and handed it over to Sleep and Death,
by whom it was conveyed for burial to Lycia, where a sanctuary
(Sarpedoneum) was erected in honour of the fallen hero. Virgil
(Aen. i. 100) knows nothing of the removal of the body to Lycia.
In later tradition, Sarpedon was the son of Zeus and Europa and
the brother of Minos. Having been expelled from Crete by the
latter, he and his comrades sailed for Asia, where he finally became
king of Lycia. Euripides (Rhesus, 29) confuses the two Sarpedons.
See Homer, Iliad, v. 479, xii. 292, xvi. 419-683; Apollodorus
iii. I, 2; Appian, Bell. civ. iv. 78; Herodotus i. 173, with
Rawlinson's notes.
SARPI, PAOLO (1552-1623), Venetian patriot, scholar and
church reformer, was born at Venice, on the i4th of August
1552, and was the son of a small trader, who left him an orphan
at an early age. Notwithstanding the opposition of his relatives,
he entered the order of the Servi di Maria, a minor Augustinian
congregation of Florentine origin, at the age of thirteen. He
assumed the name of Paolo, by which, with the epithet Servila,
he was always known to his contemporaries. In 1 5 70 he sustained
no fewer than three hundred and eighteen theses at a disputation
in Mantua, with such applause that the duke made him court
theologian. Sarpi spent four years at Mantua, applying himself
to mathematics and the Oriental languages. After leaving
Mantua, he repaired to Milan, where he enjoyed the protection
of Cardinal Borromeo, but was soon transferred by his superiors
to Venice, as professor of philosophy at the Servile convent.
In 1579 he was sent to Rome on business connected with the
reform of his order, which occupied him several years, and brought
him into intimate relations with three successive popes, as well
as the grand inquisitor and other persons of influence. Having
successfully terminated the affairs entrusted to him, he returned
to Venice in 1588, and passed the next seventeen years in study,
occasionally interrupted by the part he was compelled to take
in the internal disputes of his community. In 1601 he was
recommended by the Venetian senate for the small bishopric of
Caorle, but the papal nuncio, who wished to obtain it for a
protege of his own, informed the pope that Sarpi denied the
immortality of the soul, and had controverted the authority of
Aristotle. An attempt to procure another small bishopric in
the following year also failed, Clement VIII. professing to have
taken umbrage at Sarpi's extensive correspondence with learned
heretics, but more probably determined to thwart the desires of
the liberal rulers of Venice. The sense of injury, no doubt,
contributed to exasperate Sarpi's feelings towards the court of
Rome. For the time, however, he tranquilly pursued his studies,
writing those notes on Vieta which establish his proficiency in
mathematics, and a metaphysical treatise now lost, which, if
Foscarini's account of it may be relied upon, anticipated the
sensationalism of Locke. His anatomical pursuits probably date
from a somewhat earlier period. They illustrate his versatility
and thirst for knowledge, but are far from possessing the import-
ance ascribed to them by his disciples. His claim to have
anticipated Harvey's discovery rests on no better authority than
a memorandum, probably copied from Caesalpinus or Harvey
himself, with whom, as well as with Bacon and Gilbert, he
maintained a correspondence. The only physiological discovery
which can be safely attributed to him is that of the contractility
of the iris. It must be remembered, however, that his treatises
on scientific subjects are lost, and only known from imperfect
abstracts.
Clement died in March 1605; and Paul V. assumed the tiara
with the resolution to strain papal prerogative to the uttermost.
At the same time Venice was adopting measures to restrict it still
further. The right of the secular tribunals to take cognizance
of the offences of ecclesiastics had been asserted in two remark-
able cases; and the scope of two ancient laws of the city of
Venice, forbidding the foundation of churches or ecclesiastical
congregations without the consent of the state, and the acquisition
of property by priests or religious bodies, had been extended over
the entire territory of the republic. In January 1606 the papal
nuncio delivered a brief demanding the unconditional submission
of the Venetians. The senate having promised protection to all
ecclesiastics who should in this emergency aid the republic by
their counsel, Sarpi presented a memoir, pointing out that the
threatened censures might be met in two ways de facto, by
prohibiting their publication, and de jure, by an appeal to a
general council. The document was received with universal
applause, and Sarpi was immediately made canonist and theo-
logical counsellor to the republic. When in the following April
the last hopes of accommodation were dispelled by Paul's ex-
communication of the Venetians and his attempt to lay their
dominions under an interdict, Sarpi entered with the utmost
energy into the controversy. He prudently began by republishing
the anti-papal opinions of the famous canonist Gerson. In an
anonymous tract published shortly afterwards (Risposta di un
Dottore in Teologia) he laid down principles which struck at the
very root of the pope's authority in secular things. This book
was promptly put upon the Index, and the republication of
Gerson was attacked by Bellarmine with a severity which obliged
Sarpi to reply in an Apologia. The Consider azioni sulle censure
and the Trattato dell' interdetto, the latter partly prepared under
his direction by other theologians, speedily followed. Numerous
other pamphlets appeared, inspired or controlled by Sarpi, who
had received the further appointment of censor over all that
should be written at Venice in defence of the republic. Never
before in a religious controversy had the appeal been made so
exclusively to reason and history; never before had an ecclesi-
astic of his eminence maintained the subjection of the clergy to
the state, and disputed the pope's right to employ spiritual
censures, except under restrictions which virtually abrogated it.
Material arguments were no longer at the pope's disposal. The
Venetian clergy, a few religious orders excepted, disregarded the
interdict, and discharged their functions as usual. The Catholic
powers refused to be drawn into the quarrel. At length (April
1607) a compromise was arranged through the mediation of the
king of France, which, while salving over the pope's dignity, con-
ceded the points at issue. The great victory, however, was not
so much the defeat of the papal pretensions as the demonstration
that interdicts and excommunications had lost their force.
Even this was not wholly satisfactory to Sarpi, who longed for
the toleration of Protestant worship in Venice, and had hoped
for a separation from Rome and the establishment of a Venetian
free church by which the decrees of the council of Trent would
have been rejected, and in which the Bible would have been an
open book. The republic rewarded her champion with the
further distinction of state counsellor in jurisprudence, and,
a unique mark of confidence, the liberty of access to the state
archives. These honours exasperated his adversaries to the
uttermost. On the sth of October he was attacked by a band of
assassins and left for dead, but the wounds were not mortal.
The bravos found a refuge in the papal territories. Their chief,
Poma, declared that he had been moved to attempt the murder
by his zeal for religion, a degree of piety and self-sacrifice which
seems incredible in a bankrupt oil-merchant. " Agnosco stylum
Curiae Romanae," Sarpi himself pleasantly said, when his
surgeon commented upon the ragged and inartistic character
of the wounds, and the justice of the observation is as
222
SARPSBORG SARRETTE
incontestable as its wit. The only question can be as to the
degree of complicity of Pope Paul V.
The remainder of Sarpi's life was spent peacefully in his cloister,
though plots against him continued to be formed, and he occasion-
ally spoke of taking refuge in England. When not engaged in
framing state papers, he devoted himself to scientific studies, and
composed several works. A Machiavellian tract on the funda-
mental maxims of Venetian policy (Opinione come debba eoyernarsi la
repubblicadi Venezia), used by his adversaries to blacken his memory,
is undoubtedly not his. 'It has been attributed to a certain Gradenigo.
Nor did he complete a reply which he had been ordered to prepare to
the Squitinio delta libertd veneta, which he perhaps found unanswer-
able. In 1610 appeared his History of Ecclesiastical Benefices, " in
which," says Ricci, " he purged the church of the defilement intro-
duced by spurious decretals.' In 1611 he assailed another abuse by
his treatise on the right of asylum claimed for churches, which was
immediately placed on the Index. In 1615 a dispute between the
Venetian government and the Inquisition respecting the prohibition
of a book led him to write on the history and procedure of the
Venetian Inquisition ; and in 1619 his chief literary work, the History
of the Council of Trent, was printed at London under the name of
Pietro Soave Polano, an anagram of Paolo Sarpi Veneto. The
editor, Marco Antonio de Dominis, has been accused of falsifying the
text, but a comparison with a MS. corrected by Sarpi himself shows
that the alterations are both unnecessary and unimportant. This
memorable book, together with the rival and apologetic history by
Cardinal Pallayicini, is minutely criticized by Ranke (History of the
Popes, appendix No. 3), who tests the veracity of both writers by
examining the use they have respectively made of their MS. materials.
The result is not highly favourable to either; neither can be taxed
with deliberate falsification, but both have coloured and suppressed.
They write as advocates rather than historians. Ranke rates the
literary qualities of Sarpi's work very highly. Sarpi never acknow-
ledged his authorship, and baffled all the efforts of the prince de
Conde to extract the secret from him. He survived the publication
four years, dying on the 1 5th of January 1623, labouring for his
country to the last. The day before his death he had dictated three
replies to questions on affairs of state, and his last words were
" Esto perpetua." His posthumous History of the Interdict was
printed at Venice the year after his death, with the disguised imprint
of Lyons.
Great light has been thrown upon Sarpi's real belief and the
motives of his conduct by the letters of Christoph von Dohna, envoy
of Christian, prince of Anhalt, to Venice, published by Moritz Ritter
in the Briefe und Acten zur Geschichte dies dreissigjdhrigen Krieges,
vol. ii. (Munich, 1874). Sarpi told Dohna that he greatly disliked
saying mass, and celebrated it as seldom as possible, but that he was
compelled to do so, as he would otherwise seem to admit the validity
of the papal prohibition, and thus betray the cause of Venice. This
supplies the key to his whole behaviour; he was a patriot first and a
religious reformer afterwards. He was " rooted " in what Diodati
described to Dohna as " the most dangerous maxim, that God does
not regard externals so long as the mind and heart are right before
Him." Sarpi had another maxim, which he thus formulated to
Dohna: Le falsitd nan dico mat mat, ma la verita non a ognuno.
It must further be considered that, though Sarpi admired the
English prayer-book, he was neither Anglican, Lutheran nor
Catvinist, and might have found it difficult to accommodate himself
to any Protestant church. On the whole, the opinion of Le Courayer,
"qu'il etait Catholique en gros et quelque fois Protestant en detail,"
seems not altogether groundless, though it can no longer be accepted
as a satisfactory summing up of the question. His scientific attain-
ments must have been great. Galileo would not have wasted
his time in corresponding with a man from whom he could learn
nothing; and, though Sarpi did not, as has been asserted, invent the
telescope, he immediately turned it to practical account by con-
structing a map of the moon.
Sarpi s life was written by his enthusiastic disciple, Father
Fulgenzio Micanzio, whose work is meagre and uncritical. Bianchi-
Giovini's biography (1836) is greatly marred by digressions, and is
inferior in some respects to that by Arabella Georeina Campbell
(1869), which is enriched by numerous references to MSS. unknown
to Bianchi-Giovini. T. A. Trollope's Paid the Pope and Paul the
Friar (1861) is in the main a mere abstract of Bianchi-Giovini, but
adds a spirited account of the conclave of Paul V. The incidents
of the Venetian dispute from day to day are related in the con-
temporary diaries published by Enrico Cornet (Vienna, 1859).
Giusto Fontanini's Storia arcana della vita di Pietro Sarpi (1863), a
bitter libel, is nevertheless important for the letters of Sarpi it
contains, as Grisclini's Memorie e aneddote (1760) is from the author's
access to Sarpi's unpublished writings, afterwards unfortunately
destroyed by fire. Foscarinfs History of Venetian Literature is
important on the same account. Sarpi's memoirs on state affairs
remain in the Venetian archives. Portions of his correspondence
have been printed at various times, and inedited letters from him
are of frequent occurrence in public libraries. The King's library in
the British Museum has a valuable collection of tracts in the Interdict
controversy, formed by Consul Smith.
[In addition to the above works see Balan, Fra Paolo Sarpi
(Venice, 1887) and Pascolato, Fra Paolo Sarpi (Milan, 1893). Some
hitherto unpublished letters of Sarpi were edited by Karl Benrath
and published, under the title Paolo Sarpi. Neue Briefe, 1608-1616
(at Leipzig in 1909).] (R. G.)
SARPSBORG, a seaport and manufacturing town of Norway,
in Smaalenene amt (county), 68 m. S.S.E. of Christiania on the
Gothenburg railway. Pop. (1900) 6888. It is the junction for
an alternative line to Christiania following the Glommen valley.
It sprang into importance through the utilization of the falls
in the river Glommen for driving saw-mills and generating
electric power. The Sarpsfos, south-east of the town, is a
majestic fall, descending 74 ft. with a width of 1 20 ft. There ars
wood-pulp factories (one worked by an English company employ-
ing over 1000 hands), factories for calcium carbide (used for
manufacturing acetylene gas), paper and aluminium; and
spinning and weaving mills. There are two large electric supply
stations, and power and light are furnished from this point to
Frederikstad, 9 m. S.W. The port is at Sannesund, I m. S.;
its quays can be reached by vessels drawing 20 ft. The town
was originally founded in the nth century, and destroyed by
the Swedes in 1567. The existing town dates from 1839.
SARRACENIA, or SIDE-SADDLE FLOWER, a genus of pitcher-
plants with seven species native in the eastern states of North
America. They are perennial herbaceous marsh-plants with a
rosette of leaves from the centre of which springs a tall stalk
bearing a large single nodding flower. The leaves are erect and
in the form of long slender pitchers, with a longitudinal wing
and a terminal hood, to which insects are attracted by the bright
colouring of the upper parts and the nectar which is secreted
there. The interior of the pitcher is half-filled with water and
the wall is lined internally in the lower part with stiff downward
pointing hairs, which prevent the escape of insects. The insects
which are drowned in the pitcher become decomposed and
digested by the fluid, and the products of digestion are ultimately
absorbed by the walls of the pitcher and serve as a source of
nitrogenous food. (See also PITCHER PLANTS.)
SARRAZIN, JACQUES (1588-1660), French painter, born at
Noyon in 1588, went to Rome at an early age and worked there
under a Frenchman named Anguille. Starting thus, Sarrazin
speedily obtained employment from Cardinal Aldobrandini at
Frascati, where he won the friendship of Domenichino, with
whom he afterwards worked on the high altar of St Andrea della
Valle. His return to Paris, where he married a niece of Simon
Vouet, was signalized by a series of successes which attracted
the notice of Sublet des Noyers, who entrusted to him the work
by which Sarrazin is best known, the decoration of the great
portal and the dome of the western facade of the interior court
of the Louvre. The famous Caryatides of the attic show the
profound study of Michelangelo's art to which Sarrazin had
devoted all the time he could spare from bread-winning whilst
in Rome. He now executed many commissions from the queen,
and was an active promoter of the foundation of the Academy.
The mausoleum for the heart of the prince de Cond6 in the
Jesuit church of the Rue Saint Antoine was his last considerable
work (see Lenoir, Music des monuments franfais, v. 5); he
died on the 3rd of December 1660, whilst it was in progress,
and the crucifix of the altar was actually completed by one of
his pupils named Gros.
SARRETTE, BERNARD (1765-1858), founder of the Con-
servatoire National de Musique et de Declamation in Paris,
was born in Bordeaux on the 27th of November 1765, and died
in Paris on the nth of April 1858. Forty-five musicians from
the dep6t of the Gardes Franchises were gathered together by
him after the I4th of July 1789, and formed the nucleus for the
music of the Gaide Nationale. In May 1790, the municipality
of Paris increased the 'body to seventy-eight musicians. When
the financial embarrassments of the commune necessitated the
suppression of the paid guard, Sarrette kept the musicians
near him and obtained from the municipality, in June 1792,
the establishment of a free school of music. On the i8th of
Brumaire in the year II. (Nov. 8, 1793) this school was converted
SARSAPARILLA SARSFIELD
223
into the Institut National de Musique by decree of the convention,
and by the law of the i6th of Thermidor in the year III. (Aug.
3, 1795) it was finally organized under the name of Conservatoire.
The motives for the imprisonment of Sarrette from the 2$th of
March to the loth of May 1794, have been a source of historical
controversy, nor is it possible to ascertain exactly what were his
political views throughout this period of the French Revolution.
But there is no longer foundation for the theory of Zimmermann,
his biographer, that he was imprisoned for singing aloud Cretry's
air, O Richard, d man roil For the last forty years of his life
Sarrette lived in retirement. The protection of Napoleon I.
was a source of disaster to him in 1815, when the conservatoire
was closed; its subsequent history was watched by its founder
as a mere spectator from outside.
See Constant Pierre, B. Sarrette et les origines du Conservatoire,
(Paris, 1895).
SARSAPARILLA, a popular drug, prepared from the long
fibrous roots of several species of the genus Smilax, indigenous
to Central America, and extending from the southern and western
coasts of Mexico to Peru. These plants grow in swampy forests,
and, being dioecious and varying much in the form of leaf in
different individuals, are imperfectly known to botanists, only
two species having been identified with certainty. These are
Smilax officinalis and 5. medica, which yield respectively the
so-called " Jamaica " and the Mexican varieties. They are
large perennial climbers growing from short thick underground
stems, from which rise numerous semi-woody flexuous angular
stems, bearing large alternate stalked long-persistent and
prominently net-veined leaves, from the base of which spring
the tendrils which support the plant. The genus is a member of
the natural order Smiliaceae, and constitutes the tribe Smila-
coidide, characterized by its climbing habit, net-veined leaves
and dioecious flowers.
The introduction of sarsaparilla into European medicine
dates from the middle of the i6th century. Monardes, a
physician of Seville, records that it was brought to that city
from New Spain about 1536-1545. Sarsaparilla must have
come into extensive use soon afterwards, for John Gerard,
about the close of the century, states that it was imported into
England from Peru in great abundance.
When boiled in water the root affords a dark extractive matter,
the quantity of extract yielded by the root being used as a
criterion of its quality. Boiling alcohol extracts from the root
a neutral substance in the form of crystalline prisms, which
crystallize in scales from boiling water. This body, which is
named parillin, is allied to the saponin of quillaia bark, from
which it differs in not exciting sneezing. The presence in the
root of starch, resin and oxalate of lime is revealed by the use
of the microscope. Sarsaparilla still has a popular reputation
as an " alterative," but it has been examined and tested in
every manner known to modern medical science, and is profession-
ally regarded as " pharmacologically inert and therapeutically
useless."
The varieties of sarsaparilla met with in commerce are the follow-
ing: Jamaica, Lima, Honduras, Guatemala, Guayaquil and
Mexican. Of these the first-named yields the largest amount of
extract, viz. from 33 to 44%; it is the only kind admitted into
the British pharmacopoeia. On the Continent, especially in Italy,
the varieties having a white starchy bark, like those of Honduras
and Guatemala, are preferred. " Jamaica " sarsaparilla derives its
name from the fact that Jamaica was at one time the emporium for
sarsaparilla, which was brought thither from Honduras, New Spain
and Peru. Sarsaparilla is grown to a small extent in Jamaica, and
is occasionally exported thence to the London market in small
quantities, but its orange colour and starchy bark are so different in
appearance from the thin reddish-brown bark of the genuine drug,
that it does not meet with a ready sale. The Jamaica sarsaparilla
of trade is collected on the Cordilleras of Chiriqui, in Panama, where
the plant yielding it grows at an elevation of 4000 to 8000 ft. _ The
root bark is reddish-brown, thin and shrivelled, and there is an
abundance of rootlets, which are technically known by the name of
" beard." Lima sarsaparilla resembles the Jamaica kind, but the
roots are of a paler brown colour. In Honduras sarsaparilla the roots
are less wrinkled, and the bark is whiter and more starchy, than in
the Jamaica kind. It is exported from Belize. Guatemala sarsa-
parilla is very similar to that of Honduras, but has a more decided
orange hue, and the bark shows a tendency to split off. Guayaquil
sarsaparilla is obtained chiefly in the valley of Alausi, on the western
side of the equatorial Andes. The bark is thick and furrowed, and
of a pale fawn colour internally ; the rootlets are few, and the root
itself is of larger diameter than in the other kinds. Sometimes there
is attached to the rootstock a portion of stem, which is round and
not prickly, differing in these respects from that of Smilax officinalis,
which is square and prickly. Mexican sarsaparilla has slender,
shrivelled roots nearly devoid of rootlets. It is collected on the
eastern slope of the Mexican Andes throughout the year, and is the
produce of Smilax medica.
The collection of sarsaparilla root is a very tedious business; a
single root takes an Indian half a day or sometimes even a day and
a half to unearth. The roots extend horizontally in the ground on
all sides for about 9 ft., and from these the earth has to be carefully
scraped away and other roots cut through where such come across
them. A plant four years old will yield 16 Ib of fresh root, and a
well-grown one from 32 to 64 ft, but more than half the weight is lost
in drying. The more slender roots are generally left, and the stem
is cut down near to the ground, the crown of the root being covered
with leaves and earth. Thus treated, the plant continues to grow,
and roots may again be cut from it after the lapse of two years, but
the yield will be smaller and the roots more slender and less starchy.
In some varieties, as the Guayaquil and Mexican, the whole plant,
including the rootstock, is pulled up.
In several species of Smilax the roots become thickened here and
there into large tuberous swellings 4 to 6 in. long, and I or 2 in. in
thickness. These tubers form a considerable article of trade in
China, but are used to a limited extent only on the Continent, under
the name of China root, although introduced into Europe about the
same time as sarsaparilla. China root is obtained from 5. China and
is a native of Cochin China, China and Japan, and extensively im-
ported into India, also from S. glabra and S. lanceaefolia, natives of
India and China, the tubers of which closely resemble those of
S. China. A similar root is yielded by 5. pseudo-China and S.
tamnoides in the United States from New Jersey southwards; by
5. balbisiana, in the West Indies, and by S. Japicanga and 5. syring-
oides, and 5. brasiliensis in South America. The name of Indian
sarsaparilla is given to the roots of Hemidesmus indicus, an Asclepia-
daceous plant indigenous to India. These roots are readily dis-
tinguished from those of true sarsaparilla by their loose cracked
bark and by their odour and taste, recalling those of melilot.
SARSFIELD, PATRICK (? -1693), titular earl of Lucan,
Irish Jacobite and soldier, belonged to an Anglo-Norman family
long settled in Ireland. He was born at Lucan, but the date is
unknown. His father Patrick Sarsfield married Anne, daughter
of Rory (Roger) O'Moore, who organized the Irish rebellion of
1641. The family possessed an estate of 2000 a year. Patrick,
who was a younger son, entered Dongan's regiment of foot on
the 9th of February 1678. In his early years he is known to
have challenged Lord Grey for a supposed reflection on the
veracity of the Irish people (September 1681), and in the
December of that year he was run through the body in a duel in
which he engaged as second. During the last years of the reign
of King Charles II. he saw service in the English regiments which
were attached to the army of Louis XIV. of France. The accession
of King James II. led to his return home.
He took part in the suppression of the Western rebellion at the
battle of Sedgemoor on the 6th of July 1685. In the following year
he was promoted to a colonelcy. King James had adopted the
dangerous policy of remodelling the Irish army so as to turn it from
a Protestant to a Roman Catholic force, and Sarsfield, whose family
adhered to the church of Rome, was selected to assist in this re-
organization. He went to Ireland with Richard Talbot, afterwards
earl of Tyrconnel (g..), who was appointed commander-in-chief by
the king. In 1688 the death of his elder brother, who had no son,
put him in possession of the family estate, which in those troubled
times can have been of small advantage to him. When the king
brought over a few Irish soldiers to coerce the English, Sarsfield came
in command of them. As the king was deserted by his army there
was no serious fighting, but Sarsfield had a brush with some of the
Scottish soldiers in the service of the prince of Orange at Wincanton.
When King James disbanded his army and fled to France, Sarsfield
accompanied him. In 1689 he returned to Ireland with the king.
During the earlier part of the war he did good service by securing
Connaught for the Jacobites. The king, who is said to have described
him as a brave fellow who had no head, promoted him to the rank of
brigadier, and then major-general with some reluctance. It was not
till after the battle of the Boyne (ist of July 1690), and during
the siege of Limerick, that Sarsfield came prominently forward. His
capture of a convoy of military stores at one of the two places called
Ballyneety between Limerick and Tipperary, delayed the siege of
the town till the winter rains forced the English to retire. This
achievement, which is said by the duke of Berwick to have turned
Sarsfield's head, made him the popular hero of the war with the
224
SARTAIN SARZANA
Irish. His generosity, his courage and his commanding height, had
already commended him to the affection of the Irish. When the
cause of King James was ruined in Ireland, Sarsfield arranged
the capitulation of Limerick and sailed to France on the 22nd of
December 1691 with many of his countrymen who entered the
French service. He received a commission as lieutenant-general
(marechal de camp) from King Louis XIV. and fought with distinc-
tion in Flanders till he was mortally wounded at the battle of Landen
or Neerwinden, on the igth of August 1693. He died at Huy two or
three days after the battle. In 1691 he had been created earl of
Lucan by King James. He married Lady Honora de Burgh, by
whom he had one son James, who died childless in 1718. His widow
married the duke of Berwick.
J. Todhunter, Life of Patrick Sarsfield (London, 1895).
SARTAIN, JOHN (1808-1897). American artist, was born in
London, England, on the 24th of October 1808. At the age
of twenty-two he emigrated to America, and settled in Phila-
delphia. He was the pioneer of mezzotint engraving in America.
Early in his career he painted portraits in oil and made miniatures;
he engraved plates in 1841-1848 for Graham's Magazine, pub-
lished by George Rex Graham (1813-1894); became editor
and proprietor of Campbell's Foreign Semi-Monthly Magazine
in 1843; and from 1849-1852 published with Graham Sartain's
Union Magazine. He had charge of the art department of the
Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, in 1876; took a prominent
part in the work of the committee on the Washington Memorial,
by Rudolf Siemering, in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia; designed
medallions for the monument to Washington and Lafayette
erected in 1869 in Monument Cemetery, Philadelphia; and was
a member of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and a
cavaliere of the Royal Equestrian Order of the Crown of Italy.
He died in Philadelphia on the 25th of October 1897. His
Reminiscences of a Very Old Man (New York, 1899) are of unusual
interest. Of his children WILLIAM SARTAIN (b. 1843), landscape
and figure painter, was born at Philadelphia on the 2ist of
November 1843, studied under his father and under Leon Bonnat,
Paris, was one of the founders of the Society of American Artists,
and became an associate of the National Academy of Design.
Another son, SAMUEL SARTAIN (1830-1906), and a daughter,
EMILY SARTAIN (b. 1841), who in 1886 became principal of the
Philadelphia School of Design for Women, were also American
artists.
SARTHE, a department of north-western France, formed in
1790 out of the eastern part of Maine, and portions of Anjou
and of Perche. Pop. (1906) 421,470. Area 2410 sq. m. It is
bounded N. by the department of Orne, N.E. by Eure-et-Loir,
E. by Loir-et-Cher, S. by Indre-et-Loire and Maine-et-Loire
and W. by Mayenne. The Sarthe, a sub-tributary of the Loire,
flows in a south-westerly direction through the department;
and the Loire, which along with the Sarthe joins the Mayenne
to form the Maine above Angers, traverses its southern borders.
Broken and elevated country is found in the north and east
of the department, which elsewhere is low and undulating.
The highest point (on the boundary towards Orne) is 1115 ft.
The Sarthe flows past Le Mans and Sable, receiving the
Merdereau and the Vegre from the right, and the Orne Saosnoise
and the Huisne from the left. The Loir passes La Fleche, and
along its chalky banks caves have been hollowed out which,
like those along the Cher and the Loire, serve as dwelling-houses
and stores. The mean annual temperature is 51 to 52 Fahr.
The rainfall is between 25 and 26 in.
The majority of the inhabitants live by agriculture. There are
three distinct districts: the corn lands to the north of the Sarthe
and the Huisne ; the region of barren land and moor, partly planted
with pine, between those two streams and the Loir; and the wine-
growing country to the south of the Loir. Sarthe ranks high among
French departments in the production of barley, and more hemp is
grown here than in any other department. The raising of cattle and
of horses, notably those of the Perche breed, prospers, and fowls
and geese are fattened in large numbers for the Paris market.
Apples are largely grown for cider. The chief forests are those of
Berce in the south and Perseigne in the north, but the department
owes its well-wooded appearance in a great measure to the hedges
planted with trees which divide the fields. Coal, marble and free-
stone are among the mineral products. The staple industry is the
weaving of hemp and flax, and cotton and wool-weaving are also
carried on. Paper and cardboard are made in several localities.
Iron-foundries, copper and bell foundries, factories for provision-
preserving, marble-works at Sable, potteries, tile-works, glass-works
and stained-glass manufactories, currieries, machine factories, wire-
gauze factories, flour-mills and distilleries are also prominent in-
dustrial establishments, a great variety of which are found at Le
Mans. Flour, agricultural products, live stock and poultry form the
bulk of the exports. The department is served by the Western, the
Orleans and the State railways, and the Sarthe and Loir provide
about loo m. of waterway, though the latter river carries little
traffic.
The department forms the diocese of Le Mans and part of the
ecclesiastical province of Tours, has its court of appeal at Angers,
and its educational centre at Caen, and constitutes part of the
territory of the IV. army corps, with its headquarters at Le Mans.
The four arrondissements are named from Le Mans, the chief town,
La Fleche, Mamers and St Calais. The principal places are Le
Mans, La Fleche, La Ferte Bernard, Sable and Solesmes, which
receive separate treatment. Besides these places, those of chief
architectural interest are Le Lude, which has a fine chateau of the
Renaissance period, Sille-le-Guillaume, where there is a Gothic
church and a stronghold of the isth century, and St Calais, the
church of which dates from the I4th to the I7th centuries.
SARTI, GIUSEPPE (1729-1802), Italian composer, was born
at Faenza on the 28th of December 1729. He was educated by
Padre Martini, and appointed organist of the cathedral of
Faenza before the completion of his nineteenth year. Resigning
his appointment in 1750, Sarti devoted himself to the study of
dramatic music, becoming director of the Faenza theatre in
1752. In 1751 he produced his first opera, Pompeo, with great
success. His next works, // Re Pastore, Medonte, Demofoonte
and L'Olimpiade, assured him so brilliant a reputation that in
1753 King Frederick V. of Denmark invited him to Copenhagen,
with the appointments of Hofkapellmeister and director of the
opera. Here he produced his Ciro riconsosciuto. In 1765 he
travelled to Italy to engage some new singers; meanwhile the
death of King Frederick put an end for the time to his engage-
ment. In 1769 he went to London, where he could only contrive
to exist by giving music lessons. In 1770 he obtained a post in
Venice as music master at the Conservatorio dell' Ospedaletto.
In 1779 he was elected maestro di cappella at the cathedral of
Milan, where he remained until 1784. Here he exercised his
true vocation composing, in addition to at least twenty of his
most successful operas, a vast quantity of sacred music for the
cathedral, and educating a number of clever pupils, the most
distinguished of whom was Cherubini. In 1784 Sarti was
invited by the empress Catherine II. to St Petersburg. On his
way thither he stopped at Vienna, where the emperor Joseph II.
received him with marked favour, and where he made the
acquaintance of Mozart. He reached St Petersburg in 1785,
and at once took the direction of the opera, for which he com-
posed many new pieces, besides some very striking sacred music,
including a Te Deum for the victory of Ochakov, in which he
introduced the firing of real cannon. He remained in Russia
until 1801, when his health was so broken that he solicited
permission to return. The emperor Alexander dismissed him
in 1802 with a liberal pension; letters of nobility had been
granted to him by the empress Catherine. His most successful
operas in Russia were Armida and Olega, for the latter of which
the empress herself wrote the libretto. Sarti died at Berlin on
the 28th of July 1802.
Sard's opera / Due Litiganti has been immortalized by Mozart,
who introduced an air from it into the supper scene in Don
Giovanni. It should be noted that Mozart's Nozze di Figaro
owed a great deal to the influence of this opera, which was
performed in Vienna in 1784. The admirable libretto by Da
Ponte, author of the libretti of Figaro and Don Giovanni, shows
similar situations, and the complicated finale of the first act
served as a model to Mozart for the finale of the last act of
Figaro.
SARZANA, a town and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, in the
province of Genoa, 9 m. E. of Spezia, on the railway to Pisa, at the
point where the railway to Parma diverges to the north, 59 ft.
above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 6531 (town); 11,850 (commune).
The handsome cathedral of white marble in the Gothic style,
dating from 1355, was completed in 1474. It contains two
elaborately-sculptured altars of the latter period. The former
SASANA VAMSA SASKATCHEWAN
225
citadel (now gaol), built by the Pisans, was demolished and
re-erected by Lorenzo de' Medici. The castle of Sarzanello was
built by Castruccio Castracani (d. 1328), whose tomb by the
Pisan Giovanni di Balducci is in S. Francesco. The Palazzo
del Capitano, by Giuliano da Maiano (1472), has been entirely
altered. Sarzana has one of the most important glass-bottle
factories in Italy, also brick-works and a patent fuel factory.
Sarzana was the birthplace of Pope Nicholas V. Its position
at the entrance to the valley of the Magra (anc. Macro), the
boundary between Etruria and Liguria in Roman times, gave it
military importance in the middle ages. It arose as the successor
of the ancient Luna, 3 m. S.E.; the first mention of it is found
in 983, and in 1202 the episcopal see was transferred hither.
A branch of the Cadolingi di Borgonuovo family, lords of
Fucecchio in Tuscany from the loth century onwards, which
had acquired the name of Bonaparte, had settled near Sarzana
before 1264; in 1512 a member of the family took up his residence
in Ajaccio, and hence, according to some authorities, was de-
scended the emperor Napoleon I. Sarzana, owing to its position
on the frontier, changed masters more than once, belonging first
to Pisa, then to Florence, then to the Banco di S. Giorgio of
Genoa and from 1572 to Genoa itself. In 1814 it was assigned
to the kingdom of Sardinia, the frontier between Liguria and
Tuscany being now made to run between it and Carrara.
SASANA VAMSA, a history of the Buddhist order in Burma,
which was composed, in that country, by Panna-sami in 1851.
It is written in Pali prose; and is based on earlier documents,
in Pali or Burmese, still extant, but not yet edited. The earlier
part of the work deals with the history of Buddhism outside of
Burma. This is based on the Mahavainsa, and other well-known
Ceylon works; and has no independent value. The latter part
of the work, about three-fifths of the whole, deals with Buddhism
in Burma, and contains information not obtainable elsewhere.
Down to the nth century the account is meagre, legendary and
incredible. After that date it is sober, intelligible and in all
probability mostly accurate. This portion occupies about one
hundred pages 8vo in the excellent edition of the text prepared
for the Pali Text Society in 1897 by Dr Mabel Bode. It shows
a continuous literary effort through the eight and a half centuries,
and constantly renewed ecclesiastical controversy. The latter
is concerned for the most part with minor questions relating to
rules of the order, there being a tendency, as relaxations of the
rules crept in with the lapse of time, to hark back to the original
simplicity. Of differences in matters of doctrine there is no
mention in this manual. Dr Bode has prefixed to her edition a
detailed summary of the contents of the book. (T. W. R. D.)
SASARAM, a town of British India, in the Shahabad district
of Bengal, with a station on the East Indian railway, 406 m. N.W.
from Calcutta. Pop. (1901) 23,644. It is famous as containing
the tomb of the Afghan Sher Shah, who defeated Humayun
and became emperor of Delhi (1540-1545). The tomb, which is
the finest example of Mahommedan architecture in Bengal,
stands on an island in the middle of an artificial lake. Close by
is the tomb of Sher Shah's father.
SASH, (i) A framework of wood in which glass is fixed for
a window, particularly a framework for large panes of glass in
two parts which open and shut by sliding up or down. The word
is a corruption of the Fr. chdssis, chdsse, Lat. capsa, box, case,
caper -e, to hold. The word is, therefore, a doublet of " case "
and " cash " (qq.v.). (2) A long band of silk or other fine or
ornamented material worn round the waist or over the shoulders
as part of a woman's or child's dress, or as a sign or badge of
office, or as part of an official costume or uniform. The word
is an adaptation of the Arab, shash, muslin, especially used (of
the soft muslin or silken bands used for wrapping round the head
in the form of a turban). In its early uses in English it appears
as a term used by oriental travellers and writers on the East as
an equivalent for a Mahommedan.
SASKATCHEWAN, a province of Western Canada, lying
between the two provinces of Alberta and Manitoba. Area,
250,650 sq. m. The south-eastern portion is chiefly prairie,
being the continuation of the second prairie steppe found in
xxiv. 8
Manitoba. About 104 W. the Missouri Coteau, an elevation
of several hundred feet, probably an old glacial moraine, crosses
the southern boundary and runs north-westward, being the
eastern escarpment of the third prairie steppe which runs to
the Rocky Mountains. Several elevations of note are found in
the southern half of the province. On the central part of the
southern boundary is Wood Mountain, a succession of clay hills.
On the lower level is Moose Mountain, and north of it Beaver
Hills and Touchwood Hills. These are elevations of morainal
or glacial deposits. The river Saskatchewan (?..) gives its
name to the province. In central Saskatchewan near the south
send of the South Saskatchewan begins the river Qu'Appelle
[" Who Calls? "), which runs eastward, and crossing the western
Doundary of Manitoba falls into the Assiniboine river. Farther
:o the south rises the Souris river, which flows parallel to the
Missouri Coteau, passes southward into N. Dakota, and again
mtering the province of Manitoba finds its way at length into
the Assiniboine river. North of the Saskatchewan river the
5
226
SASKATCHEWAN SASSANID
surface of the province becomes heavily wooded, and this great
forest continues through the broken Laurentian and Cambrian
region, becoming dwarfed as it goes north. In this portion of
the province are found Reindeer Take, and north-west of this
the easterly portion of Lake Athabasca, which is on the pro-
vincial boundary line of Alberta.
Climate. Extending as the province does from north to south
for more than 750 m., it may be readily seen that, as in the case
of Alberta, there will be a great range of climate and temperature.
The south-western part of the province is influenced much by the
chinook winds which from the Rocky Mountain valleys come
through Alberta. The climate here is dry, and portions of the
country need irrigation. In south-eastern Saskatchewan the
prairie lies on a lower level, there is more moisture, and the climate
m winter is more steady. The whole province of Saskatchewan,
except the south-western part, is well watered. As in the case of
Alberta, the southern third of Saskatchewan has a moderate and
changeable climate; in the central third ranging from Regina to
Prince Albert it is steady, while in the northern third, through the
Laurentian region to 60 N., it is severe. Compare the following
table :
Maple Creek .
Swift Current
Regina .
Prince Albert
Battleford .
Elevation.
Mean Temperature.
Average
Precipitation.
Summer.
Winter.
2495 ft-
2423 ..
1885
1402
1615
62
60
50
54-6
61-4
*!
o 4
f
7-i"
lo-iS in.
17-04 ..
9-03 ..
14-45 ..
13-62
The animal life of Saskatchewan resembles that of Alberta (g.t>.),
excepting the mountain lion, mountain sheep and mountain goat,
which belong to the Rocky Mountains. The plant life of Saskat-
chewan is much like that of eastern Alberta. The Douglas fir and
several varieties of pine found in the Rocky Mountains do not
occur.
Population. By the census of 1906 the population of Saskat-
chewan was found to be 257,763. It had grown from 91,279
in 1901 (the area of the province being in 1906 somewhat greater
than in 1901). The population is to a large extent Canadian,
and the immigration has been largely from (i) the British Isles;
(2) the United States; (3) the continent of Europe. Several large
bodies of foreigners are found. There is a community of upwards
of 8000 Doukhobors a sect of Russian Quakers. Their tenets
are peculiar, involving opposition to form in religion, to marriage
and to submission to governmental requirements. They desire
to hold their land in common. The Russian writer Tolstoy
was a promoter of this immigration. Considerable bodies of
Galicians are also found in the province. On the Indian popula-
tion there were 9049 in 1901; and of Indian half-breeds 7949 in
the same year. The Indians of Saskatchewan are chiefly Plain
or Wood Crees, with a 'mixture among them of Saulteaux. To-
ward the south small bands of Assiniboines are found, and here
and there small companies of refugee Sioux from the United
States. All the Indians are on government reserves. In these
reserves along the Qu'Appelle river are presented many examples
of the successful management of the Indians by the Dominion
government. These reserves are largely self-supporting; the
Indians have comfortable houses, grow considerable crops of
grain, make large quantities of hay and possess herds of cattle.
At Regina, Qu'Appelle, Crooked Lakes and other industrial
schools, young Indians both male and female receive a
practical education. Many of these are making excellent
farmers.
Government, &c. Throughout the province the municipal system
of self-government, especially in the cities, towns and villages, is
being introduced. There are two cities in the province, (l) Regina
(pop. 9804 in 1907), the_ capital; (2) Moose Jaw (pop. 6249). The
latter is a divisional point on the Canadian Pacific railway, and
owes its importance chiefly to its railway connexions. In the
northern portion of the province are two considerable towns (l)
Prince Albert (pop. 3005), on the banks of the North Saskatchewan
river, giving promise of becoming a manufacturing centre, having as
it has the great forest on the north side of the Saskatchewan river,
adjoining it. (2) Saskatoon (pop. 3011), on the South Saskatchewan
river. This, though a new town, bids fair to become a great railway
centre. Here the Canadian Pacific, the Canadian Northern and the
Grand Trunk Pacific railways all cross the great river of the province,
and tributary to this town is a large area of arable and prairie land.
The Saskatchewan is to some extent navigated, but a serious
obstacle, the Grand Rapids, near the mouth of the river, requires
a canal to allow the entrance of steamers into Lake Winnipeg. The
southern part of the province is being covered by railways, the
Canadian Pacific railway having its main line generally parallel to
the international boundary line, at a distance of one hundred to one
hundred and fifty miles. This railway has south of its main line
two important branches: (i) The " Soo " line from Moose Jaw to
Estevan, and connecting with the United States' system of railways.
(2) The Arcola branch from the south-eastern corner of the province
running to Regina. Another branch leaves the main line for the
north at Kirkella, and this will make a direct communication with
Edmonton, while another branch line enters the province at Harrowby
and runs westward to join the Kirkella branch on its way to Saskatoon
and Edmonton. The Canadian Northern railway has a line which
enters the province at Togo and following the Saskatchewan leaves
the province at Lloydminster and pushes on to Edmonton. The
Grand Trunk Pacific railway follows a direct line from Winnipeg
to Edmonton, entering the province at 51 25' N. and leaving it at
52 35' N. for the west.
The chief industries of Saskatchewan are cattle-rearing in the
northern part and grain growing in the south of the province. Coal
is found on the Saskatchewan, and a light variety of lignite on the
Souris river near the international boundary. The province follows
in general the plan of government found in the other provinces of
the Dominion. The capital of the province is Regina (q.v.). A
provincial governor "lives at Regina and he has a cabinet of four
ministers. The legislature consists of twenty-five members. The
province has adopted a public schools act, which has a proviso for
the establishment of separate schools, but this is so surrounded by
restrictions as to be almost non-effective, every such school being
required in all particulars to follow the public school model. The
system covers both secondary and primary public schools. A
normal school is in operation at Regina.
The religions of the people are similar to those in the other western
provinces of Canada. The principal denominations were in 1901 as
follows :
Presbyterians . . 17,151
Roman Catholics . 17,116
Church of England . 16,418
Methodists . . . 11,528
Lutherans . . . 12,098
Baptists . . 2618
Doukhobors . 8700
Greek Church . 2579
Mennonites . 3683
History. The history of Saskatchewan gathers round the
Hudson's Bay Company. The open plains of the south were the
home of the buffalo and few posts were established here, but the
Saskatchewan river was the great line of communication for
the fur-traders. It was first reached by the Montreal fur-traders
in 1766, and by the Hudson's Bay Company from Hudson Bay
in 1772. By this route the traders reached the great fur country
of Mackenzie river, and the forts on the Saskatchewan river were
notable. These were Fort Cumberland, Fort Carlton and
Edmonton House. Alexander Mackenzie in 1789 left Edmonton
and Fort Chipewyan (on Lake Athabasca) and going northward
discovered Mackenzie river and reached the Arctic Sea. On his
second voyage, leaving Fort Chipewyan, he gained the Peace
river, and by means of this crossed the Rocky Mountains and
reached the Pacific coast (July 2 2nd, 1793), being first of white
men, north of Mexico, to cross the continent. The Saskatchewan
and Mackenzie river basins were the real fur country of the
traders. The northern portion of the province of Saskatchewan
is still the home of the fur-trader.
SASKATCHEWAN (Cree: " Rapid River "), a river of Alberta
and Saskatchewan provinces, Canada. Two large streams known
as the North and South Saskatchewan unite near Prince Albert,
and thence flow E. into Lake Winnipeg. The North Saskatchewan
rises in the Rocky Mountains in 52 of N. and 117 06' W.,
and flows east, though with many windings, receiving several
important tributaries, including the Clearwater, Brazeau and
Battle. The South Saskatchewan is formed by the union of the
Bow and the Belly, the former and larger of which rises in western
Alberta in one of the highest districts of the Rockies. Flowing
east in an extremely tortuous course, it receives the waters of the
Red Deer, and farther on turns abruptly north to its junction
with the other branch. The length of the united Saskatchewan
is about 300 m.; shallow draught steamers ascend from its
mouth to Edmonton on the North Branch, a distance of about
850 m.
SASSANID, or SASSANIAN DYNASTY (or SASANIAN), the ruling
dynasty of the neo-Persian empire founded by Ardashir I. in
SASSARI SATELLITE
227
A.D. 226 and destroyed by the Arabs in 637. The dynasty is
name'd after Sasan, an ancestor of Ardashir I. For a list of the
kings and the history of the empire see PERSIA: Ancient History,
section viii.; for its fall see also CALIPHATE, section A, i.
SASSARI, a town and archiepiscopal see of Sardinia, capital
of the province of Sassari, situated in the N.W. corner of the
island, 125 m. by rail S.E. of Porto Torres on the north coast,
and 213 m. N.W. of Alghero on the west coast, 762 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1906) 34,897 (town); 41,638 (commune). The
Aragonese castle and the Genoese walls have been demolished
in recent times, and the town has a modern aspect, with spacious
streets and squares. The cathedral has a baroque facade; but
traces of Romanesque work (i2th century) can be seen at the
sides and in the campanile. The see was transferred from Porto
Torres in 1441. S. Maria di Betlemme has a good facade and
Romanesque portal of the end of the I3th (?) century (D. Scano,
in L'Arte, 1905, 134). In the municipal collection are a few
pictures of interest. The museum in the university has an inter-
esting collection of antiquities, largely formed by G. Spano, from
all parts of the island, and belonging to the prehistoric, Phoenician
and Roman periods. To the east of the town is the Fontana
del Rosello, which supplied the town with water before the
construction of the aqueduct, the water being brought up in small
barrels by donkeys. Sassari is connected by rail by a branch
(285 m. E.S.E. to Chilivani) with the main line from Cagliari
to Golfo degli Aranci, and with Porto Torres and Alghero. To
the district near Sassari belong some of the most picturesque
costumes of the island.
The date of the origin of the town is uncertain; but it was no
doubt founded as the result of migrations from Porto Torres.
This can hardly have occurred during the nth century, when
we find the giudici of Torres or Logudoro residing either at Porto
Torres or at Ardara; but it must have occurred before 1217,
when a body of Corsicans, driven out of their island by the
cruelties of a Visconti of Pisa, took refuge at Sassari, and gave
their name to a part of the town. About this time we find one
of the giudici residing at Sassari for a whole summer, no doubt
to escape the malaria. The giudici continued to exist at least
until 1275, and perhaps till 1284, but about 1260 Sassari seems
to have shaken itself free, and in 1275 and 1286 we find Pisa
treating Sassari as a free commune. In 1 288, four years after the
defeat of Meloria, Pisa ceded Sassari to Genoa; but Sassari
enjoyed internal autonomy, and in 1316 published its statutes
(still extant), which are perhaps in part the reproduction of
earlier ones. These, however, did not last long, for in 1323 Sassari
submitted to the Aragonese king, and lost its independence.
Sassari was sacked by the French in 1527, and disastrous pesti-
lences are recorded in 1528, 1580 and 1652. In 1795 Sassari was
the centre of the reaction of the barons against the popular
ideas sown by the French Revolution; an insurrection of the
people led by one Angioi lasted only a short while, and led to
reactionary measures.
See P. Satta-Branca, // Comune di Sassari nei secoli XIII e XIV
(Rome, 1885). (T. As.)
SASSINA (or Sarsina, the modern form), an ancient town of
Umbria, Italy, on the left bank of the river Sapis (Savio), 16 m.
S. of Caesena (Cesena). In 266 B.C. both consuls, on different
dates, celebrated a triumph over the Sassinates, as is recorded in
the Fasti, and in the enumeration of the Italian allies of the
Romans in 225 B.C. the Umbri and Sassinates are mentioned,
on an equal footing, as providing 20,000 men between them.
It is possible that the tribus Sapinia (the name of which is derived
from the river Sapis) mentioned by Livy in the account of the
Roman marches against the Boii in 201 and 196 B.C. formed a
part of the Sassinates. The poet Plautus was a native of Sassina
(b. 254 B.C.). The town was of some importance, as inscriptions
show; these are preserved in the local museum. Remains of
several buildings, one of which was probably the public baths,
have been found (A. Santarelli in Notizie degli scam, 1892,
370; A. Negrioli, ibid., 1900, 392). Its milk is frequently
mentioned no doubt it was the centre of a pasture district
and it provided a number of recruits for the praetorian guard.
An episcopal see was founded here in the 3rd century A.D. and
still exists. The present town has 2291 inhabitants (commune,
3861).
SASSOON, SIR ALBERT ABDULLAH DAVID, BART. (1818-
1896), British Indian philanthropist and merchant, was born at
Bagdad on the zsth of July 1818, a member of a Jewish family
settled there since the beginning of the i6th century, and previ-
ously in Spain. His father, a leading Bagdad merchant, was
driven by repeated Anti-Semitic outbreaks to remove from Bag-
dad to Bushire, Persia, and, in 1832, he settled in Bombay where
he founded a large banking and mercantile business. Albert
Sassoon was educated in India, and on the death of his father
became head of the firm. He was a great benefactor to the city
of Bombay, among his gifts being the Sassoon dock, completed
in 1875, and a handsome proportion of the cost of the new
Elphinstone High School. In 1867 he was made a C.S.I., and
in 1872 a Knight of the Bath. In 1873 he visited England and
received the freedom of the city of London. Shortly afterwards
he settled in England, and was made a baronet in 1890. He
died at Brighton on the 24th of October 1896.
SATARA, a town and district of British India, in the Central
division of Bombay. The name is derived from the " seventeen "
walls, towers and gates which the fort was supposed to possess.
The town is 2320 ft. above sea-level, near the confluence of the
rivers Kistna and Vena, 56 m. S. of Poona. Pop. (1901) 26,022.
The DISTRICT OF SATARA has an area of 482 5 sq. m. It contains
two hill systems, the Sahyadri, or main range of the Western
Ghats, and the Mahadeo range and its offshoots. The former
runs through' the district from north to south, while the Mahadeo
range starts about 10 m. north of Mahabaleshwar and stretches
east and south-east across the whole breadth of the district.
The Mahadeo hills are bold, presenting bare scarps of black rock
like fortresses. Within Satara are two river systems the
Bhima system in a small part of the north and north-east, and
the Kistna system throughout the rest of the district. The hill
forests have a large store of timber and firewood. The whole of
Satara falls within the Deccan trap area; the hills consist of
trap intersected by strata of basalt and topped with laterite,
while, of the different soils on the plains, the commonest is the
black loamy clay containing carbonate of lime. This when well
watered is capable of yielding heavy corps. Satara contains
some important irrigation works, including the Kistna canal.
In some of the western parts of the district the average annual
rainfall exceeds 200 in. ; but on the eastern side water is scanty,
the rainfall varying from 40 in. in Satara town to less than 1 2 in.
in some places farther east. The population in 1901 was 1,146,559,
showing a decrease of 6% in the preceding decade. The principal
crops are millet, pulse, oil-seeds and sugar-cane. The only
manufactures are cotton cloth, blankets and brass-ware. The
district is traversed from north to south by the Southern
Mahratta railway, passing 10 m. from Satara town. The Satara
agency comprises the two feudatory states of Phaltan and Aundh.
Total area 844 sq.m.; pop. (1901) 109,660.
On the overthrow of the Jadhav dynasty in 1312 the district
passed to the Mahommedan power, which was consolidated in
the reign of the Bahmani kings. On the decline of the Bahmanis
towards the end of the isth century the Bijapur kings finally
asserted themselves, and under these kings the Mahrattas arose
and laid the foundation of an independent kingdom with Satara
as its capital. Intrigues and dissensions in the palace led to the
ascendancy of the Peshwas, who removed the capital to Poona
in 1749, and degraded the raja of Satara into the position of a
political prisoner. The war of 1817 dosed the career of the
peshwas, and the British then restored the titular raja, and
assigned to him the principality of Satara, with an area much
larger than the present district. In consequence of political
intrigues, he was deposed in 1839, and his brother was placed on
the throne. This prince dying without male heirs in 1848,
the state was resumed by the British government.
SATELLITE (from the Lat. satelles, an attendant), in astronomy,
a small opaque body revolving around a planet, as the moon
around the earth (see PLANET). In the theory of cubic curves,
228
SATIN-SPARSATIRE
Arthur Cayley defined the satellite of a given line to be the line
joining the three points in which tangents at the intersections
of the given (primary) line and curve again meet the curve.
SATIN-SPAR, a name given to certain fibrous minerals which
exhibit, especially when polished, a soft satiny or silky lustre,
and are therefore sometimes used as ornamental stones. Such
fibrous minerals occur usually in the form of veins or bands,
having the fibres disposed transversely. The most common
kind of satin-spar is a white finely-fibrous gypsum not infre-
quently found in the Keuper marls cf Nottinghamshire and
Derbyshire, and used for beads, &c. Other kinds of satin-spar
consist of calcium carbonate, in the form of either aragonite
or calcite, these being distinguished from the fibrous gypsum
by greater hardness, and from each other by specific gravity
and optical characters. The satin-spar of Alston, Cumberland,
is a finely-fibrous calcite occurring in veins in a black shale of
the Carboniferous series. Fibrous calcite is known sometimes to
German mineralogists as AUasspath.
SATIN-WOOD, a beautiful light-coloured hard wood, having
a rich, silky lustre, sometimes finely mottled or grained, the
produce of a moderate-sized tree, Chloroxylon Sivietenia (natural
order Meliaceae), native of India and Ceylon. A similar wood,
known under the same name, is obtained in the West Indies,
the tree being probably a species of Zanthoxylum (natural order
Rutaceae). Satin-wood was in request for rich furniture about
the end of the i8th century, the fashion then being to ornament
panels of it with painted medallions and floral scrolls and borders.
It is used for inlaying and small veneers, in covering the backs
of hair and clothes-brushes and in making small articles of
turnery.
SATIRE (Lat. satira, satura; see below). Satire, in its
literary aspect, may be defined as the expression in adequate
terms of the sense of amusement or disgust excited by the
ridiculous or unseemly, provided that humour is a distinctly
recognizable element, and that the utterance is invested with
literary form. Without humour, satire is invective; without
literary form, it is mere clownish jeering. It is indeed exceedingly
difficult to define the limits between satire and the regions of
literary sentiment into which it shades. The first exercise of
satire was no doubt coarse and boisterous. It must have con-
sisted in gibing at personal defects; and Homer's description
of Thersites, the earliest example of literary satire that has come
down to us, probably conveys an accurate delineation of the
first satirists. The character reappears in the heroic romances
of Ireland and elsewhere; and it is everywhere implied that the
licensed backbiter is a warped and distorted being, readier with
his tongue than his hands. To dignify satire by rendering it the
instrument of morality or the associate of poetry was a develop-
ment implying considerable advance in the literary art. The
latter is the course adopted in the Old Testament, where the
few passages approximating to satire, such as Jotham's parable
of the bramble and Job's ironical address to his friends, are
embellished either by fancy or by feeling. An intermediate stage
between personal ridicule and the correction of faults and follies
seems to have been represented in Greece by the Margites,
attributed to Homer, which, while professedly lampooning an
individual, practically rebuked the meddling sciolism imper-
sonated in him. In the accounts that have come down to us
of the writings of Archilochus, the first great master of satire,
we seem to trace the elevation of the instrument of private
animosity to an element in public life. Though a merciless
assailant of individuals, Archilochus was also a distinguished
statesman, naturally for the most part in opposition, and his
writings seem to have fulfilled many of the functions of a news-
paper press. Their merit is attested by Quintilian; and Gorgias's
comparison of them with Plato's persiflage of the Sophists
proves that their virulence must have been tempered by grace
and refinement. Archilochus also gave satiric poetry its accepted
form by the invention of the iambic trimeter, slightly modified
into the scazonic metre by his successors. Simonides of Amorgus
and Hipponax were distinguished like Archilochus for the
bitterness of their attacks on individuals, with which the former
combined a strong ethical feeling and the latter a bright active
fancy. All three were restless and turbulent, aspiring and
discontented, impatient of abuses and theoretically enamoured
of liberty; and the loss of their writings, which would have
thrown great light on the politics as well as the manners of
Greece, is to be lamented. With Hipponax the direct h'ne of
Greek satire is interrupted; but two new forms of literary
composition, capable of being the vehicles of satire, almost
simultaneously appear. Fable is first heard of in Asiatic Greece
about this date; and, although its original intention does not
seem to have been satirical its adaptability to satiric purposes
was soon discovered. A far more important step was the eleva-
tion of the rude fun of rustic merrymakings to a literary status
by the evolution of the drama from the Bacchic festival. The
means had now been found of allying the satiric spirit with
exalted poetry, and their union was consummated in the comedies
of Aristophanes.
A rude form of satire had existed in Italy from an early date in
the shape of the Fescennine verses, the rough and licentious pleasantry
of the vintage and harvest, which, lasting down to the i6tn century,
inspired Tansillo's Vendemmiatore. As in Greece, these eventually,
about 364 B.C., were developed into a rude drama, originally intro-
duced as a religious expiation. This was at first, Livy tells us
(vii. 2), merely pantomimic, as the dialect of the Tuscan actors im-
ported for the occasion was not understood at Rome. Verse, " like
to the Fescennine verses in point of style and manner," was soon
added to accompany the mimetic action, and, with reference to the
variety of metres employed, these probably improvised composition
were entitled Saturae, a term denoting miscellany, and derived from
the satura lanx, " a charger filled with the first-fruits of the year's
produce, anciently offered to Bacchus and Ceres." The Romans
thus had originated the name of satire, and, in so far as the Fescennine
drama consisted of raillery and ridicule, possessed the thing also;
but it had not yet assumed a literary form among them. Livius
Andronicus (24.0 B.C.), the first regular Latin dramatic poet, appears
to have been little more than a translator from the Greek. Satires
are mentioned among the literary productions of Ennius (200 B.C.)
and Pacuvius (170 B.C.), but the title rather refers to the variety of
metres employed than to the genius of the composition. The real
inventor of Roman satire is Gains Lucilius (148-103 B.C.), whose
Satirae seem to have been mostly satirical in the modern acceptation
of the term, while the subjects of some of them prove that the title
continued to be applied to miscellaneous collections of poems, as
was the case even to the time of Varro, whose " Saturae included
prose as well as verse, and appear to have been only partially satirical.
The fragments of Lucilius preserved are scanty, but the verdict of
Horace, Cicero and Quintilian demonstrates that he was a con-
siderable poet. It is needless to dwell on compositions so universally
known as the Satires of Lucilius's successor Horace, in whose hands
this class of composition received a new development, becoming
genial, playful and persuasive. " Arch Horace strove to mend.
The didactic element preponderates still more in the philosophical
satires of Persius. Yet another form of satire, the rhetorical, was
carried to the utmost limits of excellence by Juvenal, the first
example of a great tragic satirist. Nearly at the same time Martial,
improving on earlier Roman models now lost, gave that satirical
turn to the epigram which it only exceptionally possessed in Greece,
but has ever since retained. About the same time another variety
of satire came into vogue, destined to become the most important of
any. The Milesian tale, a form of entertainment probably of Eastern
origin, grew in the hands of Petronius and Apulems into the satirical
romance, immensely widening the satirist's field and exempting him
from the restraints of metre. Petronius's " Supper of Trimalchio "
is the revelation of a new vein, never fully worked till our days.
As the novel arose upon the ruins of the epic, so dialogue sprang up
upon the wreck of comedy. In Lucian comedy appears adapted to
suit the exigencies of an age in which a living drama had become
impossible. With him antique satire expires as a distinct branch of
literature, though mention should be made of the sarcasms and
libels with which the population of Egypt were for centuries ac-
customed to insult the Roman conqueror and his parasites. A
denunciation of the apostate poet Hor-Uta a kind of Egyptian
" Lost Leader " composed under Augustus, has been published by
M. Revillout from a demotic papyrus.
After the great deluge of barbarism has begun to retire, one form
of satire after another peeps forth from the receding flood, the order
of development being determined by the circumstances of time and
place. In the Byzantine empire, indeed, the link of continuity is
unbroken, and such raillery of abuses as is possible under a despotism
finds vent in the pale copies of Lucian published in Adolf Ellissen's
Analekten. The first really important satire, however, is a product
of western Europe, recurring to the primitive form of fable, upon
which, nevertheless, it constitutes a decided advance. Reynard the
Fox, a genuine expression of the shrewd and homely Teutonic mind,
is a landmark in literature. It gave the beast-epic a development of
SATISFACTION
229
which the ancients had not dreamed, and showed how ridicule could
be conveyed in a form difficult to resent. About the same time,
probably, the popular instinct, perhaps deriving a hint from
Rabbinical literature, fashioned Morolf, the prototype of Sancho
Panza, the incarnation of sublunar mother-wit contrasted with the
starry wisdom of Solomon; and the Till Eulenspiegel is a kindred
Teutonic creation, but later and less significant. Piers Ploughman,
the next great work of the class, adapts the apocalyptic machinery
of monastic and anchoritic vision to the purposes of satire, as it had
often before been adapted to those of ecclesiastical aggrandizement.
The clergy were scourged with their own rod by a poet and a Puritan
too earnest to be urbane. Satire is a distinct element in Chaucer and
Boccaccio, who nevertheless cannot be ranked as satirists. The
mock-heroic is successfully revived by Luigi Pulci, and the political
songs of the I4th and isth centuries attest the diffusion of a sense
of humour among the people at large. The Renaissance, restoring
the knowledge and encouraging the imitation of classic models,
sharpened the weapons and enlarged the armoury of the satirist.
Partly, perhaps, because Erasmus was no poet, the Lucianic dialogue
was the form in the ascendant of his age. Erasmus not merely
employed it against superstition and ignorance with infinite and
irresistible pleasantry, but fired by his example a bolder writer, un-
trammelled by the dignity of an arbiter in the republic of letters.
The ridicule of Ulric von Hutten's Epistolae obscurorum virorum is
annihilating, and the art there for the first time fully exemplified
though long previously introduced by Plato, of putting the ridicule
into the mouth of the victim, is perhaps the most deadly shaft in the
quiver of sarcasm. It was afterwards used with even more pointed
wit though with less exuberance of humour by Pascal, the first
modern example, if Dante may not be so classed of a great tragic
satirist. Ethical satire is vigorously represented by Sebastian
Brant and his imitator Alexander Barclay; but in general the
metrical satirists of the age seem tame in comparison with Erasmus
and Hutten, though including the great name of Machiavelli. Sir
Thomas More cannot be accounted a satirist, but his idea of an
imaginary commonwealth embodied the germ of much subsequent
satire.
In the succeeding period politics take the place of literature and
religion, producing in France the Satyre Menippee, elsewhere the
satirical romance as represented by the Argents of Barclay, which
may be defined as the adaptation of the style of Petronius to state
affairs. In Spain, where no freedom of criticism existed, the satiric
spirit took refuge in the novela picaresca, the prototype of Le Sage
and the ancestor of Fielding; Quevedo revived the medieval device
of the vision as the vehicle of reproof; and Cervantes's immortal
work might be classed as a satire were it not so much more. About
the same time we notice the appearance of direct imitation of the
Roman satirists in English literature in the writings of Donne, Hall
and Marston, the further elaboration of the mock-heroic by Tassoni,
and the culmination of classical Italian satire in Salvator Rosa.
The prodigious development of the drama at this time absorbed
much talent that would otherwise have been devoted to satire proper.
Most of the great dramatists of the I7th century were more or less
satirists, Mohere perhaps the most consummate that ever existed;
but, with an occasional exception like Les Precieuses ridicules, the
range of their works is too wide to admit of their being regarded as
satires. The next great example of unadulterated satire is Butler's
Hudibras, and perhaps one more truly representative of satiric aims
and methods cannot easily be found. At the same period dignified
political satire, bordering on invective, received a great develop-
ment in Andrew Marvell's Advices to a Painter, and was shortly
afterwards carried to perfection in Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel;
while the light literary parody of which Aristophanes had given
the pattern in his assaults on Euripides, and which Shakespeare had
handled somewhat carelessly in the Midsummer Night's Dream, was
effectively revived in the du,ke of Buckingham's Rehearsal. In
France Boileau was long held to have attained the ne plus ultra of the
Horatian style in satire and of the mock-heroic, but Pope was soon
to show that further progress was possible in both. The polish,
point and concentration of Pope remain unsurpassed, as do the
amenity of Addison and the daring yet severely logical imagination
of Swift ; while the History of John Bull and the Pseudologia place
their friend Arbuthnot in the first rank of political satirists.
The i8th century was, indeed, the age of satire. Serious poetry
had for the time worn itself out ; the most original geniuses of the
age, Swift, Defoe and Richardson, are decidedly prosaic, and Pope,
though a true poet, is less of a poet than Dryden. In process of time
imaginative power revives in Goldsmith and Rousseau ; meanwhile
Fielding and Smollett have fitted the novel to be the vehicle of satire
and much beside, and the literary stage has for a time been almost
wholly engrossed by a colossal satirist, a man who has dared the
universal application of Shaftesbury's maxim that ridicule is the
test of truth. The world had never before seen a satirist on the scale
of Voltaire, nor had satire ever played such a part as a factor in
impending change. As a master of sarcastic mockery he is un-
surpassed ; his manner is entirely his own ; and he is one of the most
intensely national of writers, notwithstanding his vast obligations to
English humorists, statesmen and philosophers. English humour
also played an important part in the literary regeneration of Germany,
where, after Liscow and Rabener, imitators of Swift and the essayists,
Lessing, imbued with Porje but not mastered by him, showed how
powerful an auxiliary satire can be to criticism a relation which
Pope had somewhat inverted. Another great German writer,
Wieland, owes little to the English, but adapts Lucian and Petronius
to the 1 8th century with playful if somewhat mannered grace.
Kortum's Jobsiad, a most humorous poem, innovates successfully
upon established models by making low life, instead of chivalry, the
subject of burlesque. Goethe and Schiller, Scott and Wordsworth,
are now at hand, and as imagination gains ground satire declines.
Byron, who in the i8th century would have been the greatest of
satirists, is hurried by the spirit of his age into passion and descrip-
tion, bequeathing, however, a splendid proof of the possibility of
allying satire with sublimity in his Vision of Judgment. Moore gives
the epigram a lyrical turn ; Beranger, not for the first time in French
literature, makes the gay chanson the instrument of biting jest;
and the classic type receives fresh currency from Auguste Barbier.
Courier, and subsequently Cormenin, raise the political pamphlet to
literary dignity by their poignant wit. Peacock evolves a new type
of novel from the study of Athenian comedy. Miss Edgeworth skirts
the confines of satire, and Miss Austen seasons her novels with the
most exquisite satiric traits. Washington Irving revives the manner
of The Spectator, and Tieck brings irony and persiflage to the dis-
cussion of critical problems. Two great satiric figures remain one
representative of his nation, the other most difficult to class. In all
the characteristics of his genius Thackeray is thoroughly English,
and the faults and follies he chastises are those especially character-
istic of British society. Good sense and the perception of the
ridiculous are amalgamated in him ; his satire is a thoroughly British
article, a little over-solid, a little wanting in finish, but honest,
weighty and durable. Posterity must go to him for the humours of
the age of Victoria, as they go to Addison for those of Anne's. But
Heine hardly belongs to any nation or country, time or place. He
ceased to be a German without becoming a Frenchman, and a Jew
without becoming a Christian. Only one portrait really suits him,
that in Tieck's allegorical tale, where he is represented as a capricious
and mischievous elf ; but his song is sweeter and his command over
the springs of laughter and tears greater than it suited Tieck's
purpose to acknowledge. In him the satiric spirit, long confined to
established literary forms, seems to obtain unrestrained freedom to
wander where it will, nor have the ancient models been followed since
by any considerable satirist except the Italian Giusti. The machinery
employed by Moore was indeed transplanted to America by James
Russell Lowell, whose Biglow Papers represent perhaps the highest
moral level yet attained by satire.
In no age was the spirit of satire so generally diffused as in the I9th
century, but many of its eminent writers, while bordering on the
domains of satire, escape the definition of satirist. The term cannot
be properly applied to Dickens, the keen observer of the oddities of
human life; or to George Eliot, the critic of its emptiness when not
inspired by a worthy purpose; or to Balzac, the painter of French
society ; or to Trollope, the mirror of the middle classes of England.
If Sartor Resartus could be regarded as a satire, Carlyle would rank
among the first of satirists; but the satire, though very obvious,
rather accompanies than inspires the composition. The number of
minor satirists of merit, on the other hand, is legion. Poole, in his
broadly farcical Little Pedlington, rang the changes with inexhaustible
ingenuity on a single fruitful idea; Jerrold's comedies sparkle with
epigrams, and his tales and sketches overflow with quaint humour;
Mallock, in his New Republic, made the most of personal mimicry,
the lowest form of satire; Samuel Butler (Erewhon) holds an in-
verting mirror to the world's face with imperturbable gravity; the
humour of Bernard Shaw has always an essential character of satire
the sharpest social lash. One remarkable feature of the modern age
is the union of caricature (q.v.) with literature. (R. G.)
SATISFACTION (Lat. satisfacere, to satisfy), reparation for
an injury or offence; payment, pecuniary or otherwise, of a
debt or obligation; particularly, in law, and equitable doctrine
of much importance. It may operate either as between strangers
or as between father and child. As between strangers: it was
laid down in Talbot v. Duke of Shrewsbury, 1714, Pr. Ch. 394,
that where a debtor bequeaths to his creditor a legacy as great
as, or greater than the debt, the legacy shall be deemed a satisfac-
tion of the debt. This rule, however, has fallen under a consider-
able amount of discredit, and very small circumstances are
required to rebut the presumption of satisfaction. If the debt
was incurred after the execution of the will, there is no satisfac-
tion, nor is there where the will giving the legacy contains a
direction to pay debts. As between parent and child, the
doctrine operates (a) in the satisfaction of legacies by portions,
and (b) of portions by legacies. In the case of (a), it has been
laid down that where a parent, or one acting in loco parentis,
gives a legacy to a child, without stating the purpose for which
he gives it, it will be understood as a portion; and if the father
afterwards advance a portion on the marriage, or preferment
230
SATNA SATTERLEE
in life, of that child, though of less amount, it is a satisfaction
of the whole, or in part. This application of the doctrineis based
on the maxim that "equality is equity," as is also the rule
(b) that where a legacy bequeathed by a parent, or one in loco
parentis, is as great as, or greater than, a portion or provision
previously secured to the child, a presumption arises that the
legacy was intended by the parent as a complete satisfaction.
In each of the above cases, of course, the presumption may be
rebutted by evidence of the testator's intentions.
In theology, the doctrine of satisfaction is the doctrine that
the sufferings of Christ are accepted by the divine justice as a
substitute for the punishment due for the sins of the world
(see ATONEMENT).
SATNA, a British station in Central India, within the state
of Rewah, with a station on the East Indian railway, 102 m.
S.W. from Allahabad. Pop. (1901) 7471. It is the headquarters
of the political agent for Baghelkhand, and an important centre
of trade.
SATPURA, a range of hills in the centre of India. Beginning
at the lofty plateau of Amarkantak (about 82 E.), the range
extends westward almost to the W. coast. From Amarkantak an
outer ridge runs S.W. for about 100 m. to a point known as the
Saletekri hills in Balaghat district. As it proceeds westward
the range narrows from a broad tableland to two parallel ridges
enclosing the valley of the Tapti, as far as the famous hill-fortress
of Asirgarh. Beyond this point the Khandesh hills, which
separate the valley of the Nerbudda from that of the Tapti,
complete the chain as far as the Western Ghats. The mean
.elevation is about 2500 ft.; but the plateaus of Amarkantak
and Chauradadar in the east of Mandla district rise to nearly
3500 ft., and many of the peaks and some of the tablelands
exceed this altitude. The hill of Khamla in Betul district is
3700 ft., which is also the general height of the Chikalda hills
overlooking the Berar plain, while the Pachmarhi hills east
of Betul, rising abruptly from the Nerbudda valley, culminate
in Dhokgarh at an elevation of 4500 ft. Just east of Asirgarh
there is a break in the range, through which passes the railway
from Bombay to Jubbulpore, the elevation at this point being
about 1 240 ft. The extreme length of the range is about 600 m. ;
the breadth, which is too m. at its head across Balaghat and
Mandla, diminishes to the narrow ridges of Nimar.
SATRAE, in ancient geography, a Thracian people, inhabiting
part of Mount Pangaeus between the rivers Nestus (Mesta) and
Strymon (Struma). According to Herodotus, they were inde-
pendent in his time, and had never been conquered within the
memory of man. They dwelt on lofty mountains covered with
forests and snow, and on the highest of these was an oracle of
Dionysus, whose utterances were delivered by a priestess. They
were the chief workers of the gold and silver mines in the district.
Herodotus is the only ancient writer who mentions the Satrae,
and Tomaschek regards the name not as that of a people but of
the warlike nobility among the Thracian Dii and Bessi. J. E.
Harrison and others identify them with the Satyri (Satyrs), the
attendants and companions of Dionysus in his revels, and also
with the Centaurs. The name Satrokentae, a Thracian tribe
according to Hecataeus (quoted in Stephanus of Byzantium),
seems to support the second identification.
See Herodotus vii. 110-112; J. E. Harrison, Prolegomena to Greek
Religion (1903), p. 379; W. Tomascheck, Die alien Thraker (1893).
SATRAP [Pers. Khshatrapdvan,i.e." protector (superintendent)
of the country (or district)/' Heb. sakhshadrapan, Gr. i^airpd-mjs
(insc. of Miletus, Sitzungsber. Berl. Ak. 1900, 112), eat5p<Mreuto><
(insc. of Mylasa, Dittenberger, Syttoge, 95), ifarpdinjs (insc. of
MylasaLebasiii.388, Theopompp. in), shortened into aarpinrri^],
in ancient history, the name given by the Persians to the governors
of the provinces. By the earlier Greek authors (Herodotus,
Thucydides and often in Xenophon) it is rendered by farapxos
" lieutenant, governor," in the documents from Babylonia
and Egypt and in Ezra and Nehemiah by pakha, " governor " ;
and the satrap Mazaeus of Cilicia and Syria in the time of Darius
III. and Alexander (Arrian iii. 8) calls himself on his coins
" Mazdai, who is [placed] over the country beyond the Euphrates
and Cilicia." Cyrus the Great divided his empire into provinces;
a definitive organization was given by Darius, who established
twenty great satrapies and fixed their tribute (Herodot . iii. 89 sqq.)
The satrap was the head of the administration of his province;
he collected the taxes, controlled the local officials and the subject
tribes and cities, and was the supreme judge of the province to
whose " chair " (Nehem. iii. 7) every civil and criminal case
could be brought. He was responsible for the safety of the roads
(cf. Xenophon, Anab. i. 9. 13), and had to put down brigands
and rebels. He was assisted by a council of Persians, to which
also provincials were admitted; and was controlled by a royal
secretary and by emissaries of the king (esp. the " eye of the
king "). The regular army of his province and the fortresses
were independent of him and commanded by royal officers; but
he was allowed to have troops in his own service (in later times
mostly Greek mercenaries). The great provinces were divided
into many smaller districts, the governors of which are also
called satraps and hyparchs. The distribution of the great
satrapies was changed occasionally, and often two of them were
given to the same man. When the empire decayed, the satraps
often enjoyed practical independence, especially as it became
customary to appoint them also as generals in chief of their army
district, contrary to the original rule. Hence rebellions of
satraps became frequent from the middle of the 5th century;
under Artaxerxes II. occasionally the greater part of Asia Minor
and Syria was in open rebellion. The last great rebellions were
put down by Artaxerxes III. The satrapic administration was
retained by Alexander and his successors, especially in the
Seleucid empire, where the satrap generally is designated as
slrategus; but their provinces were much smaller than under
the Persians.
In later times the cult of a god Satrapes occurs in Syrian
inscriptions from Palmyra and the Hauran; by Pausanias vi.
25, 6, Satrapes is mentioned as the name of a god who had a
statue and a cult in Elis and is identified with Korybas. The
origin of this god is obscure; perhaps it arose from a cult con-
nected with a statue or a tomb of some satrap.
See further under PERSIA: Ancient History, from the Achaemenid
period onwards, and works there quoted (especially section v. 2).
(ED. M.)
SATRICUM (mod. Conca), an ancient town of Latium, situated
some 30 m. to the S.E. of Rome, in a low-lying region to the S. of
the Alban Hills, to the N.W. of the Pomptine Marshes. It was
accessible direct from Rome by a road running more or less
parallel to the Via Appia, to the S.W. of it. It is said to have
been an Alban colony: it was a member of the Latin league
of 499 B.C. and became Volscian in 488. It was several times
won and lost by the Romans, and twice destroyed by fire. After
346 B.C. we hear of it only in connexion with the temple of Mater
Matuta. A. Nibby (Analisi della carlo, del dintorni di Roma,
Rome, 1848, iii. 64) was the first to fix the site upon the low hill,
surrounded by tufa cliffs, on which were still scanty remains of
walling in rectangular blocks of the same material, which is now
occupied by the farm-house of Conca. One mile W.N.W., on the
hill above Le Ferriere, remains of an archaic temple, ascribed to
Mater Matuta, were discovered by excavation in 1 896. The work
was begun under the direction of Professor H. Graillot of the
University of Bordeaux, member of the French School of Rome,
but after two weeks' work was suspended by order of the Italian
government, and then resumed under the supervision of their
own officials. The objects discovered are in the Museo di Papa
Giulio at Rome. Another Satricum lay on the right bank of the
Liris, not far from Arpinum.
See H. Graillot in Melanges de I' Scale franchise de Rome (1896), 131 ;
and Notizie degli scavi (1896), passim. (T. As.)
SATSUMA ISLANDS, a group of islands belonging to Japan,
lying westward of the province of Satsuma (31 40' N. and 129
40' E.). The two principal are Kami-Koshiki-shima (24^ m. by
5J) and Shimo-Koshiki-shima (8J m. by sJ).
SATTERLEE, WALTER (1844-1908), American figure and
genre painter, was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the i8th of
January 1844. He graduated at Columbia University in 1863,
studied in the National Academy of Design, and with Edwin
SATURN
231
White, in New York, and in 1878-1879 under Leon Bonnat
in Paris. He first exhibited at the National Academy in 1868,
was elected an associate of the Academy in 1879, and received its
Thomas B. Clarke prize in 1886. He was a member of the
American Water Color Society and of the New York Etching
Club, and was an excellent teacher. Satterlee died in Brooklyn
on the 28th of May 1908. Among his favourite subjects were
Arab life and figures in the costume of the colonial period.
SATURN [SATURNUS], a god of ancient Italy, whom the
Romans, and till recently the moderns, identified with the Greek
god Cronus.
1. Cronus was the youngest of the Titans, the children of Sky
(Uranus) and Earth (Gaea). Besides the Titans, Sky and Earth
had other children, the Cyclopes and the Hundred-banders.
When the Cyclopes and the Hundred-handers proved trouble-
some, Sky thrust them back into the bosom of Earth. This vexed
Earth, and she called on her sons to avenge her on their father
Sky. They all shrank from the deed save Cronus, who waylaid
and mutilated his father with a sickle or curved sword. From
the drops of blood which fell to the earth sprang the Furies and
the Giants. Cronus now reigned in room of Sky. His wife was
Rhea, who was also his sister, being a daughter of Sky and Earth.
Sky and Earth had foretold to Cronus that he would be deposed
by one of his own children, so he swallowed them one after another
as soon as they were born. Thus he devoured Hestia, Demeter,
Hera, Hades and Poseidon. But when Rhea had brought forth
Zeus, the youngest, 1 she wrapped up a stone in swaddling clothes
and gave it to Cronus, who swallowed it instead of the babe.
When Zeus, who had been hidden in Crete, grew up, he gave his
father a dose which compelled him to disgorge first the stone and
then the children whom he had swallowed. The stone was
preserved at Delphi ; every day it was anointed and on festivals
it was crowned with wool. Zeus and his brothers now rebelled
against Cronus, and after a ten years' struggle they were victori-
ous. Cronus and the Titans were thrust down to Tartarus,
where they were guarded by the Hundred-handers. According
to others, Cronus was removed to the Islands of the Blest, where
he ruled over the departed heroes, judging them in conjunction
with Rhadamanthus. Plutarch (De Def. Orac. 18) mentions
a story that the dethroned monarch of the gods slept on an island
of the northern seas guarded by Briareus and surrounded by a
train of attendant divinities. The reign of Cronus was supposed
to have been the golden age, when men lived like gods, free from
toil and grief and the weakness of old age (for death was like
sleep) ; and the earth brought forth abundantly without cultiva-
tion. There are few traces of the worship of Cronus in Greece.
Pausanias, in his description of Greece, mentions only one temple
of Cronus; it stood at the foot of the Acropolis at Athens and was
sacred to Cronus and Rhea jointly. The Athenians celebrated
an annual festival in his honour on the i2th of Hecatombaeon.
A mountain at Olympia was called after him, and on its top
annual sacrifices were offered to him at the spring equinox.
The idea that Cronus was the god of time seems to have arisen
from a simple confusion between the words Cronus and Chronus
(" time "). Curtius derives Cronus from the root kra, meaning " to
accomplish." Cronus may have been a god of some aboriginal half-
savage tribe which the Greeks conquered. Hence the savage traits
in his legend, his conquest by Zeus and the scanty traces of his
worship in Greece. The myth of the mutilation of Sky by Cronus
may be a particular form of the widespread story of the violent
separation of Sky and Earth by one of their children. Other forms
of this myth are found in New Zealand, India and China. Parallels
to the swallowing and disgorging incident are to be found in the folk-
lore of Bushmen, Kaffres, Basutos, Indians of Guiana and Eskimo.
2. Saturn and his wife Ops were amongst the oldest deities
of ancient Italy. He is said to have had an altar at the foot of
the Capitol before Rome was founded. Saturn was a god of
agriculture, his name being derived from serere, " to sow." 2
The identification of Saturn with Cronus 3 gave rise to the legend
that after his deposition by Zeus (Jupiter) Saturn wandered to
1 So Hesiod. But, according to Homer, Zeus was the eldest of the
children of Cronus and Rhea.
2 He was also known by the epithet of Stercutus or Sterculius, the
god of fertilizing manure.
3 Cronus himself was a harvest god under one of his aspects.
Italy, where he ruled as king in the golden age and gave the name
Saturnia to the country. 4 Janus, another of the most ancient
gods of Italy, is said to have welcomed him to Rome, and here
he settled at the foot of the Capitol, which was called after him
the Saturnian Hill. His temple stood at the ascent from the
Forum to the Capitol and was one of the oldest buildings in Rome,
but the eight remaining columns of the temple probably formed
a portion of a new temple built in the imperial times. The image
of Saturn in this temple had woollen bands fastened round its
feet all the year through, except at the festival of the Saturnalia;
the object of the bands was probably to detain the deity..
Similarly there was a fettered image of Enyalius (the War God)
at Sparta, and at Athens the image of Victory had no wings,
lest she might fly away. The mode of sacrifice at this temple
was so far peculiar that the head of the sacrificer was bare as in
the Greek ritual, instead of being covered, as was the usual.
Roman practice. Legend said that the Greek ritual was intro-
duced by Hercules, who at the same time abolished the human
sacrifices previously offered to Saturn. Others said that the
rule had been observed by the Pelasgians before. Under or
behind the temple was the Roman treasury, in which the archives
as well as the treasures of the state were preserved. Dionysius
Halicarnassensis (Ant. Rom. i. 34) tells that there were many
sanctuaries of Saturn in Italy and that many towns and places, .
especially mountains, were called after him. The oldest national
form of verse was known as the Saturnian. Like many other
figures in Roman mythology, Saturn is said to have vanished,
at last from earth. His emblem was a sickle. The substitution .
of a great scythe for the sickle, and the addition of wings and an
hour-glass, are modern. 5 Ops (" plenty "), wife of Saturn, was
an earth-goddess, as appears from the custom observed by her:
suppliants of sitting and carefully touching the earth while they,
made their vows to her. As goddess of crops and the harvest;
she was called Consiva, and under this name had a sanctuary
at Rome, to which only the Vestals and the priest were admitted.
As Saturn was identified in later times with Cronus, so was Ops
with Rhea. Another goddess mentioned as wife of Saturn was,
Lua, a goddess of barrenness. She was one of the deities to whom
after a victory the spoils of the enemy were sometimes dedicated .
and burned.
Saturnalia. This, the great festival of Saturn, was celebrated
on the igth, but after Caesar's reform of the calendar on the lyth,
of December. Augustus decreed that the i?th should be sacred to
Saturn and the igth to Ops. 6 Henceforward it appears that the
I7th and i8th were devoted to the Saturnalia, and the igth and
aoth to the Opalia, a festival of Ops. 7 Caligula added a fifth day,-
" the day of youth" (dies juvenalis), devoted no doubt to the-
sports of the young. But in popular usage the festival lasted seven
days. The woollen fetters were taken from the feet of the image of
Saturn, and each man offered a pig. During the festival schools were
closed; no war was declared or battle fought; no punishment was
inflicted. In place of the toga an undress garment (synthesis) was
worn. Distinctions of rank were laid aside: slaves sat at table
with their masters or were waited on by them, and the utmost
freedom of speech was allowed them. Gambling with dice, at other
times illegal, was now permitted. 8 All classes exchanged gifts, the
commonest being wax tapers and clay dolls. These dolls were
especially given to children, and the makers of them held a regular
fair at this time. Varro thought these dolls represented original
sacrifices of human beings to the infernal god. There was, as we have ;
seen, a tradition that human sacrifices were once offered to Saturn,
and the Greeks and Romans gave the name of Cronus and Saturn to a.
cruel Phoenician Baal, to whom, e.g. children were sacrificed at.
Carthage. The Cronus to whom human sacrifices are said to have
been offered in Rhodes was probably a Baal, for there are traces of
Phoenician worship in Rhodes. It may be conjectured that the
Saturnalia was originally a celebration of the winter solstice. Hence
4 He is said to have taught the inhabitants of Latium agriculture,
the art of navigation and the use of stamped pieces of metal for
money.
6 During the first centuries of the Christian era, Saturn was one of
the chief popular divinities of northern Africa, representing the
Carthaginian Baal under the title of Dominus Saturnus; see Toutain,
De Saturni dei in Africa Romano, cultii (1894).
6 There was also a special festival, Opeconsiva, on Aug. 25.
7 The fourth day of the festival was added by some one unknown.
3 It is curious to find a similar rule with a similar exception in
Nepal. See H. A. Oldfield, Sketches from Nepal, vol.ii. pp. 353 sq-
232
SATURN
the legend that it was instituted by Romulus under the name of the
Brumalia (bruma, = winter solstice). The prominence given to
candles at the festival points to the custom of making a new fire at
this time. The custom of solemnly^ kindling fires at the summer
solstice (Eve of St John) has prevailed in most parts of Europe,
notably in Germany, and there are traces (of which the yule-log is
one) of the observance of a similar custom at the winter solstice.
In ancient Mexico a new fire was kindled, amid great rejoicings, at
the end of every period of fifty-two years.
The designation of the planets by the names of gods is at least as
old as the 4th century B.C. The first certain mention of the star of
Cronus (Saturn) is in Aristotle (Metaphysics, p. 1073 b. 35). The
name also occurs in the Epinomis (p. 987 b), a dialogue of uncertain
date, wrongly ascribed to Plato. In Latin, Cicero (ist century B.C.)
is the first author who speaks of the planet Saturn. The application
of the name Saturn to a day of the week (Saturni dies, Saturday)
is first found in Tibullus (i. 3, 18). (J. G. FR.; X.)
SATURN, in astronomy, the sixth major planet in the order
of distance from the sun, and the most distant one known
before the discovery of Uranus in 1781. Its symbol isT?. Its
periodic time is somewhat less than 30 years, and the interval
between oppositions is from 12 to 13 days greater than a year.
It appears as a star of at least the first magnitude, but varies
much in brightness with its orbital position, owing to the varying
phases of its rings. It seems to resemble Jupiter in its physical
constitution, but the belts and cloud-like features so conspicuous
on that planet are so faint on Saturn that they can be seen only
in a general way as a slight mottling. In colour the planet has
a warmish tint, not dissimilar to that of Arcturus. Its density
is the smallest known among the planets, being only 0-13 that
of the earth, and therefore less than that of water.
Owing to the difficulty of distinguishing any individual
feature, the rotation of the planet has been observed only on a
few rare occasions when a temporary bright spot appeared and
continued during several days. The first observation of such a
spot was made by the elder Herschel, who derived a rotation
period of 10 h. 16 m. In December 1876 a bright spot appeared
near the equator of the planet, which was observed by Asaph
Hall at Washington for more than a month. It gradually spread
out in longitude, and finally faded away. The time of rotation
found by Hall was 10 h. 14 m. 24 s. A third spot appeared in 1903
on the northern hemisphere, and had a rotation period of about
10 h. 38 m. The deviation of this period from the others indicates
that, as in the case of Jupiter and the sun, the time of rotation
is least at the equator, and increases toward the poles. Both
from this difference and from the appearance presented by the
planet it is clear that the visible surface is not a solid, as in the
case of Mars, but consists of a layer of cloudy or vaporous matter,
which conceals from view the solid body of the planet, if any such
exists. Owing to the rapid rotation the figure of the disk is
markedly elliptical, but when, owing to the rings being seen
edgewise, the entire disk is visible, the latter sometimes seems
to have the form of a square with its edges rounded off. This
may be an illusion.
The most remarkable feature associated with Saturn is its
magnificent system of ring and satellites. The former is unique
in the solar system. The ring, the seeming ends of which were
first seen by Galileo as handles to the planet, was for some time
a mystery. After Galileo had seen it at one or two oppositions,
it faded from sight, a result which we now know was due to the
advance of the planet in its orbit, bringing our line of sight
edgeways to the ring. When it reappeared, Galileo seems to
have abandoned telescopic observation, but the " ansae" of
Saturn remained a subject of study through a generation of his
successors without any solution of their mystery being reached.
The truth was at length worked out in 1656 by Huygens, who
first circulated his solution in the form of an anagram. When
arranged in order the letters read:
" Annulo cingitur tenui, piano, nusquam cohaerente, ad eclipticam
inclinato."
This designation of a plain thin ring surrounding the planet,
but disconnected from it, and inclined to the ecliptic, is accurate
and as complete as the means of observation permitted.
The varying phases presented by the ring arise from its having an
inclination of 27 to the orbit of the planet, while its plane remains
invariable in direction as the planet performs its orbital revolution.
There are therefore two opposite points of the orbit, at each of
which the plane of the ring passes through the sun, and is seen nearly
edgeways from the earth. At the two intermediate points the ring is
seen as opened out at an angle of 27. The apparent illuminated
surface which it then presents to us exceeds that presented by the
planet, so that the brightness of the entire system to the naked eye
is more than double.
In 1665 William Ball or Balle, joint-founder and first treasurer of
the Royal Society, discovered that the ring was apparently formed
of two concentric rings, separated by a fine dark line. This was
afterwards independently discovered by G. D. Cassini at the Paris
Observatory. As the telescope was improved, yet other shaded
lines concentric with the ring itself were found. These were some-
times regarded as divisions, but if they are such they are by no
means complete and sharp. The universal rule is that, if we con-
sider _any_ portion of the ring contained between two circles con-
centric with the ring itself, the general aspect and brightness of this
circular portion are alike through its whole circumference. That is
to say, if the brightness of different parts of the ring be compared,
it is found to be constant when the parts compared are equally
distant from the centre, but subject tp variation as we pass from the
circumference towards the centre. The inner and broader of the
two rings is brightest near the outer part and shades off toward the
planet, gradually at first, and more rapidly afterwards. Its inner
portion is so dark that it was at one time regarded as separate, and
called the " crape " or " dusky " ring. This supposed discovery
of an inner ring was made independently by W. R. Dawes of England
and G. P. Bond of the Harvard Observatory, though J. G. Galle at
Berlin noticed the actual appearance at an earlier date. The more
powerful telescopes of the present time show this dusky ring to be
continuous with the inner portions of the main ring, and transparent,
at least near its inner edge.
The physical constitution of the rings is unlike that of any other
object m the solar system. They are not formed of a continuous
mass of solid or liquid matter, but of discrete particles of unknown
minuteness, probably widely separated in proportion to their
individual volumes, yet so close as to appear continuous when
viewed from the earth. This constitution was first divined by
Cassini early in the i8th century. But, although the impossibility
that a continuous ring could surround a planet without falling upon
it was shown by Laplace, and must have been evident to all in-
vestigators_ in celestial mechanics, Cassini's explanation was for-
gotten until 1848. In that year James Clerk Maxwell, in an essay
which was the first to gain the newly-founded Adams prize of the
university of Cambridge, made an exhaustive mathematical in-
vestigation of the satellite constitution, showing that it alone could
fulfil the conditions of stability. Although this demonstration
placed the subject beyond doubt, it was of great interest when
J. E. Keeler at the Allegheny Observatory proved this constitution
by spectroscopic observation in 1895. He found by measuring the
velocity of different parts of the ring to or from the earth that, as
we pass from the outer to the inner regions of the ring, the velocity
of revolution around the planet increases, each concentric portion ot
the ring having the speed belonging to a satellite revolving in a
circular orbit at the same distance from the planet.
A remarkable feature of the rings is that they are so thin as to
elude measurement and nearly disappear from view when seen
edgeways even in powerful telescopes. As this can happen only at
tne rare moments when the plane of the ring passes accurately
through the earth, precise observations of the phenomenon with
powerful telescopes are few. But before or after the epochs at which
the plane passes through the sun, there is sometimes a period of
several weeks, during which the sun shines on one face of the ring
while the other is presented to the earth. In October 1907 the
appearance presented by the rings was studied by W. W. Campbell
at the Lick Observatory, and E. E. Barnard at the Yerkes Ob-
servatory. The position of the ring as seen against the planet is
marked by a dark line stretching across the equator, which is the
thin shadow of the ring, on which the sun shines at a very acute
angle.
An interesting question still open is the nature of the so-called
divisions of the rings. Are these divisions real or are they simply
apparent, arising from a darker colour in the matter which composes
them? In the case of the sharpest and best-known division, to
which the name of Cassini has been given from its first observer,
there would seem to be little doubt that the division is real. But
there is some doubt in the case of the other divisions. While many
excellent observers have sometimes thought they saw a complete
separation between the bright and the crape rings, no such pheno-
menon has been seen in the great telescopes of our times, and it is
almost certain that the dark colour of the crape ring arises merely
from its tenuity and transparency. From Barnard's observation of
the passage of Japetus through the shadow of Saturn and its rings
it appears that the transparency gradually diminishes from the
centre of this ring to its line of junction with the bright ring. If
there should ever be a transit of Saturn centrally past a bright star,
many questions as to the constitution of the rings may be settled by
noting the times at which the star was seen through the divisions of
the ring.
SATURNIA SATURNINUS
Elements of the Satellites of Saturn.
233
Mean
Longitude.
Epoch Greenwich
Mean Noon.
Mean Daily
Motion.
Mean
Distance.
Eccentricity.
Long, of Pericentre.
Mass
Saturn.
Mimas .
127 19-0'
1889, April
381-9945
26-814*
Small
Doubtful
16,340,000
Enceladus
199 19-8
272-73199
34-401
t*
4,000,000
Tethys .
284 31-0
f
190-69795
42-586
M
it
921,500
Dione .
253 51-4
I3I-534975
54-543
if
536,000
Rhea
'358 23-8
79-690087
76-170
250,000
Titan .
260 25-1
1890, Jan.
22-5770093
176-578
02886
276 15' + 31-7"
4-700
Hyperion
304 31-8
H
16-919983
213-92
1043
255 47 - 18-663'
unknown
Japetus .
Phoebe .
75 26-4
343 9-o
1885, Sept. I
1900, Jan.
4-537997
-0-65398
5H-59
1871-6
02836
1659
354 30 + 7-9 '
291 2 0-27 '
100,000
unknown
Satellites of Saturn.
Saturn is surrounded by a system of nine or (perhaps) ten
satellites. The brightest of these was discovered by Huygens
in 1665 while pursuing his studies of the ring. The following
table shows the names, distances, times of revolution, discoverer
and date of discovery of the nine whose orbits are well established:
Name.
Dis-
tance.
Periodic
Time.
Discoverer.
Date of
Discovery.
d. h.
I Mimas
3-1
o 23
W. Herschel
1789, Sept. 17
2 Enceladus
4-0
I 9
_g
1789, Aug. 28
3 Tethys
5-o
I 21
G. D. Cassini
1684, March
4 Dione .
6-3
2 18
1684, March
5 Rhea . .
8-9
4 12
1672, Dec. 23
6 Titan .
20-5
15 23
Huygens
1655, Mar. 25
7 Hyperion .
8 Japetus
9 Phoebe
25-1
59-6
. 209-3
21 7
79 8
546 12
W. C. Bond
J. D. Cassini
W. H. Pickering
1848, Sept. 1 6
1671, October
1898, August
The five inner satellites seem to form a class by themselves, of
which the distinguishing feature is that the orbits are so nearly
circular that no eccentricity has been certainly detected in them,
and that the planes of their orbits coincide with that of the ring
and, it may be inferred, with the plane of the planet's equator.
Thus, so far as the position of the planes of rotation and revolu-
tion are concerned, the system keeps together as if it were rigid.
This results from the mutual attraction of the various bodies.
A remarkable feature of this inner system is the near approach
to commensurability in the periods of revolution. The period
of Tethys is nearly double that of Mimas, and the period of
Enceladus nearly double that of Dione. The result of this near
approach to commensurability is a wide libration in the longi-
tudes of the satellites, having periods very long compared with
the times of revolution.
Each of the four outer satellites has some special feature of
interest. Titan is much the brightest of all and has therefore
been most accurately observed. Hyperion is so small as to be
visible only in a powerful telescope, and has a quite eccentric
orbit. Its time of revolution is almost commensurable with that
of Titan, the ratio of the period being 3 to 4. The result is that
the major axis of the orbit of Hyperion has a retrograde motion
of 1 8 40' annually, of such a character that the conjunction
of the two satellites always occurs near the apocentre of the orbit,
when the distance of the orbit from that of Titan is the greatest.
This is among the most interesting phenomena of celestial
mechanics. Japetus has the peculiarity of always appearing
brighter when seen to the west of the planet than when seen
to the east. This is explained by the supposition that, like our
moon, this satellite always presents the same face to the central
body, and is darker in colour on one side than on the other.
In studying a series of photographs of the sky in the neighbour-
hood of Saturn, taken at the branch Harvard observatory at Are-
quipa, Peru, W. H. Pickering found on each of three plates a very
faint star which was missing on the other two. He concluded that
these were the images of a satellite moving around the planet. The
latter was then entering the Milky Way, where minute stars were so
numerous that it was not easy to confirm the discovery. When the
planet began to emerge from the Milky Way no difficulty was found
in relocating the object, and proving that it was_a ninth satellite.
Its motion was found to be retrograde, a conclusion confirmed by
Frank E. Ross. This phenomenon may be regarded as unique in
the solar system, for, although the motion of the satellite of Neptune
is retrograde, it is the only known satellite of that planet.
167' 43' 29'
-
28 10' 22*
166,920
147,670
144,310
109,100
91,780
9-625
nile<
1 1, 680
17,605
8,660
i
28,910
37.570
9,760
(S. N.)
Another extremely faint satellite has probably been established
by Pickering, but its orbit is still in some doubt.
The conclusions from the spectrum of Saturn, and numerical
particulars relating to the planet, are found in the article PLANET.
The planes of the orbits of the inner six satellites are coincident
with the plane of the ring system, of which the elements are as
follow:
Longitude of ascending node on ecliptic .
Inclination
Exterior diameter of outer ring, in miles
Interior
Exterior inner ring
Interior
Interior dark ring
Breadth of outer bright ring
Breadth of division between the rings, in miles
Breadth of inner bright ring
Breadth of dark ring
Breadth of system of bright rings
Breadth of entire system of rings
Space between planet and dark rings
SATURNIA (mod. Saturnia), an ancient town of Etruria
Italy, about 23 m. N.E. of Orbetello and the coast. Dionysius
of Halicarnassus enumerates it among the towns first occupied
by the Pelasgi and then by the Tuscans. A Roman colony was
conducted there in 183 B.C., and it was a praefectura, but other-
wise little is known about it. Remains of the city walls, in the
polygonal style, still exist, to whicH Roman gates were added.
Roman remains have also been discovered within the town, and
remains of tombs outside, originally covered by tumuli, which
have now disappeared, so that Dennis wrongly took them for
megalithic remains. Pitigliano, some 12 m. to the S.W., is
another Etruscan site.
See G. Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria (London, 1883),
i. 496; ii. 275; A. Pasqui in Notizie degli scavi (1882), 52.
(T. As.)
SATURNIAN METRE (Lat. Saturnius, i.e. which relates to
Saturn), the name given by the Romans to the crude and irregular
measures of the oldest Latin folk-songs. The scansion is
generally of the following type:
i_i -L* O" ^J "^w'L/~ O
with which Macaulay compares the nursery rhyme, " The Queen
was in her parlour, eating bread and honey." There was, however,
considerable licence in the scansion, and we can gather only that
the verse was generally of this type, and had a light and vivacious
movement. It occurs in a few inscriptions (the verses on the
tombs of the Scipios: cf. Biicheler, Anihologia Latino, 1895)
in fragments, Livius Andronicus and the Bellum Punicum of
Naevius. Subsequently it was ousted by Greek metres. The
question as to whether it depended upon accent or upon quantity
has been much discussed.
See Keller, Der saturnische Vers (Prague, 1883 and 1886) ; Thurney-
sen, Der Saturnier (Halle, 1885); Havet, De saturnio Latinorvm
versu (Paris, 1880) ; Miiller, Der saturnische Vers und seine Denkmdler
(1885); Leo, Der saturnische Vers (1905); Du Bois, Stress Accent
in Roman Poetry (New York, 1906) ; also Mommsen, Hist, of Rome,
i. chap. xv.
SATURNINUS, LUCIUS APPULEIUS, Roman demagogue.
As quaestor (104 B.C.) he superintended the importation of corn
at Ostia, but had been removed by the Senate (an unusual
proceeding), and replaced by M. Aemilius Scaurus (?..)> one
of the chief members of the government party. He does not
appear to have been charged with incapacity or mismanagement,
234
SATYRS SAUCE
and the injustice of his dismissal drove him into the arms of the
popular party. In 103 he was elected tribune. He entered into
an agreement with C. Marius, and in order to gain the favour of
his soldiers proposed that each of his veterans should receive
an allotment of 100 jugera of land in Africa. He was also chiefly
instrumental in securing the election of Marius to his fourth
consulship (102). An opportunity of retaliating on the nobility
was afforded him by the arrival (101) of ambassadors from Mithra-
dates VI. of Pontus, with large sums of money for bribing the
senate; compromising revelations were made by Saturninus, who
insulted the ambassadors. He was brought to trial for violating
the law of nations, and only escaped conviction by an ad miseri-
cordiam appeal to the people. To the first tribunate of Saturninus
is probably to be assigned his law on majestas, the exact provi-
sions of which are unknown, but its object was probably to
strengthen the power of the tribunes and the popular party;
it dealt with the minuta majestas (diminished authority) of the
Roman people, that is, with all acts tending to impair the
integrity of the Commonwealth, being thus more comprehensive
than the modern word " treason." One of the chief objects of
Saturninus's hatred was Q. Caecilius Metellus Numidicus, who,
when censor, endeavoured to remove Saturninus from the senate
on the ground of immorality, but his colleague refused to assent.
In order to ingratiate himself with the people, who still cherished
the memory of the Gracchi, Saturninus took about with him
Equitius, a paid freedman, who gave himself out to be the son
of Tiberius Gracchus. Although the mother of the Gracchi
refused to acknowledge him, the people stoned Metellus because
he would not admit his claim to citizenship. Equitius was
afterwards elected tribune. Marius, on his return to Rome
after his victory over the Cimbri, finding himself isolated in the
senate, entered into a compact with Saturninus and his ally
C. Servilius Glaucia, and the three formed a kind of triumvirate,
supported by the veterans of Marius and the needy rabble.
By the aid of bribery and assassination Marius was elected (100
consul for the sixth time, Glaucia praetor, and Saturninus
tribune for the second time. Saturninus now brought forward
an agrarian law, an extension of the African law already alluded
to. It was proposed that all the land north of the Padus (Po)
lately in possession of the Cimbri, including that of the inde-
pendent Celtic tribes which had been temporarily occupied by
them, should be held available for distribution among the
veterans of Marius. This was unjust, since the land was really
the property of the provincials who had been dispossessed by
the Cimbri. Colonies were to be founded in Sicily, Achaea and
Macedonia, on the purchase of which the " Tolosan gold," the
temple treasures embezzled by Q. Servilius Caepio (praetor no),
was to be employed. Further, Italians were to be admitted to
these colonies, and as they were to be burgess colonies, the
right of the Italians to equality with the Romans was thereby
partially recognized. This part of the bill was resented by many
citizens, who were unwilling to allow others to share their
privileges. A clause provided that, within five days after the
passing of the law, every senator should take an oath to observe
it, under penalty of being expelled from the senate and heavily
fined. All the senators subsequently took the oath except
Metellus, who went into exile. Saturninus also brought in a
bill, the object of which was to gain the support of the rabble
by supplying corn at a nominal price. The quaestor Q. Servilius
Caepio l declared that the treasury could not stand the strain,
and Saturninus's own colleagues interposed their veto.
Saturninus ordered the voting to continue, and Caepio dispersed
the meeting by violence. The senate declared the proceedings
null and void, because thunder had been heard; Saturninus
replied that the senate had better remain quiet, otherwise the
thunder might be followed by hail. The bills (leges Appuleiae)
were finally passed by the aid of the Marian veterans.
Marius, finding himself overshadowed by his colleagues and
compromised by their excesses, thought seriously of breaking
with them, and Saturninus and Glaucia saw that their only hope
1 According to some, the son of the Caepio mentioned above.
But chronological reasons make the relationship doubtful.
of safety lay in their retention of office. Saturninus was elected
tribune for the third time for the year beginning the loth of
December 100, and Glaucia, although at the time praetor and
therefore not eligible until after the lapse of two years, was a
candidate for the consulship. M. Antonius the orator was
elected without opposition; the other government candidate,
Gaius Memmius, who seemed to have the better chance of
success, was beaten to death by the hired agents of Saturninus
and Glaucia, while the voting was actually going on. This
produced a complete revulsion of public feeling. The senate met
on the following day, declared Saturninus and Glaucia public
enemies, and called upon Marius to defend the State. Marius
had no alternative but to obey. Saturninus, defeated in a
pitched battle in the Forum (Dec. 10), took refuge with his
followers in the Capitol, where, the water supply having been
cut off, they were forced to capitulate. Marius, having assured
them that their lives would be spared, removed them to the
Curia Hostilia, intending to proceed against them according to
law. But the more impetuous members of the aristocratic party
climbed on to the roof, stripped off the tiles, and stoned Saturninus
and many others to death. Glaucia, who had escaped into a
house, was dragged out and killed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Appian, Bell. civ. i. 28-33; Diod. Sic. xxxvi.
12; Plutarch, Marius, 28-30; Livy, Epit. 69; Florus iii. 16;
Veil. Pat. ii. 12; Auctor ad Herennium i. 21; Aurelius Victor,
De viris illustribus, 73; Orosius v. 17; Cicero, Pro Balbo, 21, 48,
Brutus, 62, De oratore, ii. 49, De haruspicum responses, 19, Pro
Sestio, 47, Pro Rabirio, passim ; Mommsen, Hist, of Rome(Eng. trans.),
bk. iv. ch. 6; G. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic, ii. ch. 10;
E. Klebs in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopddie, ii. i (1896) ; see
further ROME: History, II., " The Republic," Period C.
SATYRS (SATYRi),in Greek mythology, spirits, half-man half-
beast, that haunted the woods and mountains, companions of
Pan and Dionysus. They are not mentioned in Homer; in
a fragment of Hesiod they are called brothers of the mountain
nymphs and Curetes, an idle and worthless race. Fancy
represented them as strongly built, with flat noses, pointed ears,
small horns growing out of the forehead, and the tails of horses
or goats. They were a roguish but faint-hearted folk, lovers of
wine and women, roaming to the music of pipes and cymbals,
castanets and bagpipes, dancing with the nymphs or pursuing
them and striking terror into men. They had a special form of
dance calles Sikinnis. In earlier Greek art they appear as old
and ugly, but in later art, especially in works of the Attic school,
this savage character is softened into a more youthful and graceful
aspect. There is a famous statue supposed to be a copy of a
work of Praxiteles, representing a graceful satyr leaning against
a tree with a flute in his hand. In Attica there was a species of
drama known as the Satyric; it parodied the legends of gods and
heroes, and the chorus was composed of satyrs. Euripides's
play of the Cyclops is the only extant example of this kind of
drama. The older satyrs were called Sileni, the younger Satyrisci.
By the Roman poets they were often confounded with the Fauns.
The symbol of the shy and timid satyr was the hare. In some
districts of modern Greece the spirits known as Calicantsars offer
points of resemblance to the ancient satyrs; they have goats'
ears and the feet of asses or goats, are covered with hair, and
love women and the dance. The herdsmen of Parnassus believe
in a demon of the mountain who is lord of hares and goats.
In the Authorized Version of Isa. xiii. 21, xxxiv. 14 the word
" satyr " is used to render the Hebrew se'irlm, " hairy ones." A
kind of demon or supernatural being known to Hebrew _ .
folk-lore as inhabiting waste places is meant; a practice . .
of sacrificing to the se'irlm is alluded to in Lev. xvii. 7, ,
where E. V. has " devils." They correspond to the '""""
" shaggy demon of the mountain-pass " (azabb al-'akaba) of old
Arab superstition.
SAUCE, flavouring or seasoning for food, usually in a liquid
or semi-liquid state, either served separately or mixed with the
dish. The preparation of suitable sauces is one of the essentials
of good cookery. The word comes through the Fr. from the
Lat. salsa, salted or pickled food (satire, to season or sprinkle
with sal, salt). The same Latin word has also given " saucer,"
properly a dish for sauce, now a small flat plate with a depressed
centre to hold a cup and so prevent the spilling of liquid, and
SAUERLAND SAUL
235
"sausage" (O. Fr. saulcisse, Late Lat. salsicium), minced
seasoned meat, chiefly pork, stuffed into coverings of skin. The
colloquial use of " saucy," impertinent, " cheeky" is an obvious
transference from the tartness or pungency of a sauce, and has
a respectable literary ancestry; thus Latimer (Misc. Set.)
" when we see a fellow sturdy, lofty and proud, men say this
is a saucy fellow."
SAUERLAND, a mountainous district of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Westphalia, between the Sieg and the
Ruhr, separated by the former from the Westerwald on the S.,
and by the latter from the coal formation of Ardey on the N.
It is a well- wooded plateau of the Devonian formation, diversified
by deep valleys and tracts of heather land. The district is a
favourite tourist resort.
See F. W. Grimme, Das Sauerland und seine Bewohner (2nd ed.,
Paderborn, 1886); Fricke, Der Tourist im Sauerland (Bielefeld,
1892), and Kneebusch, Reisefuhrer durch das Sauerland (Dortmund,
1899).
SAUGOR, or SAGAR, a town and district of British India,
in the Jubbulpore division of the Central Provinces. The
town, in a picturesque situation on a spur of the Vindhyan
hills, 1758 ft. above sea-level, has a station on the Indian Mid-
land railway. Pop. (1901) 42,33- It has long ceased to be
a growing place, though it is still third in importance in the
province. It was founded in 1660, but owes its importance to
having been made the capital of the Mahratta governor who
established himself here in 1735. The cantonments contain a
battery of artillery, a detachment of a European regiment, a
native cavalry and a native infantry regiment. The town is
handsomely built, and is an emporium of trade.
The DISTRICT OF SAUGOR has an area of 3962 sq. m. It is an
extensive, elevated and in parts tolerably level plain, broken
in places by low hills of the Vindhyan sandstone. It is traversed
by numerous streams, chief of which are the Sunar, Beas, Dhasan
and Bina, all flowing in a northerly direction towards the valley
of the Ganges. In the southern and central parts the soil is
black, formed by decaying trap; to the north and east it is a
reddish-brown alluvium. Iron ore of excellent quality is found
and worked at Hirapur, a small village in the extreme north-east.
The district contains several densely wooded tracts, the largest
of which is the Ramna teak forest preserve in the north.
The population in 1901 was 469,479, showing a decrease of 20%
in the decade, due to the results of famine. The principal crops are
wheat, millet, pulse, oil-seeds and a little cotton. The main line of
the Indian Midland railway crosses the district, with a branch from
Bina to Katni on the East Indian system.
By a treaty concluded with the Mahratta Peshwa in 1818, the
greater part of the present district was made over to the British;
and the town became the capital of the Saugor and Nerbudda
Territories, then attached to the North-western Provinces. During
the Mutiny of 1857 the whole district was in the possession of the
rebels, excepting the town and fort, in which the Europeans were
shut up for eight months, till relieved by Sir Hugh Rose. The rebels
were totally defeated and order was again restored by March 1858.
See the Saugor District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1907).
SAUJBULAGH, or SUJBULAK, the principal town of the Mukri
district, in the province of Azerbaijan in Persia, in a fertile
valley, between 30 and 40 m. S. of Lake Urmia, at an elevation
of 4270 ft. It has post and telegraph offices, and a population
of about 7000, mostly Kurds of the Mukri tribe, and exports
dried fruit, grain and tobacco. There are many more localities
with this name (Turkish, meaning " cold stream," or " cold
spring ") in Persia, the most notable, after the above-mentioned
Kurdish city, being a district of the province of Teheran, with
many villages. The place was temporarily occupied by Turkish
troops in January 1908.
SAUL (Heb. sha'til, " asked "), in the Old Testament, son of
Kish, and king of Israel. 1 His history is closely interwoven with
that of the prophet Samuel and the Judaean king David. Two
distinct accounts are given of his rise. In one Samuel, after de-
feating the Philistines, rules as the last " judge" of Israel; the
people demand a king, and Saul, a young giant of Benjamin,
is chosen by lot; the choice is confirmed when he delivers
1 On the name Saul, also that of an Edomite king (Gen. xxxvi.
37 seq.), see SAMUEL note I. Kish seems to be identical with the
Arabic personal and god-name Kais.
Jabesh-Gilead from the Ammonites (i Sam. i.-viii., x. 17-27,
xi., xii.). In the other, Saul is raised up by Yahweh to deliver
Israel from a sore Philistine oppression. Samuel, a seer of local
fame, previously unknown to Saul, gives him the divine com-
mission, and ultimately a complete victory is gained which is
celebrated by the erection of an altar (ix. i-x. 16, xiii. seq.).
See further SAMUEL. Once king, Saul achieves conquests over
the surrounding states, and the brief summary in i Sam. xiv.
47-51 may be supplemented by 2 Sam. i. 19 sqq., where the
brave deeds of the loving pair Saul and his son Jonathan, and
their untimely death, 'form the subject of an old poem which
vividly describes the feelings of a prostrate nation. Saul and bis
sons fell in the battle on Mt. Gilboa in the north and the land was
thrown into confusion (i Sam. xxxi.). Jabesh-Gilead, mindful
of its debt, secretly carried away the dead bodies (cf. 2 Sam. xxi.
1 2 seq.) , and Abner the commander hurriedly removed the surviv-
ing son, Ishbosheth, 2 to Mahanaim and at length succeeded in
establishing his power over all Israel north of Jerusalem (2 Sam.
ii. 8 seq.). But the sequel is lost in the more popular accounts of
the rise of David.
Little old tradition is preserved of the house of Saul. The
interest now lies in the prominence of Samuel, and more particu-
larly in the coming supremacy of the Judaean king David (see
the introductory verse i Sam. xiv. 52); as a result of this Saul is
depicted in less sympathetic colours, his pettiness and animosity
stand in strong contrast to David's chivalry and resignation, and
in the melancholy Benjamite court with its rivalry and jealousy,
the romantic attachment between David and Jonathan forms
the one redeeming feature. The great Israelite disaster is fore-
shadowed in a thrilling narrative of Saul's visit to the since
famous Witch of Endor (i Sam. xxviii.). Israel had lost its
mainstay through the death of Samuel (cf. xii. 23), and the king,
uneasy at the approach of the enemy, invoked the shade of the
prophet only to learn that his cause was lost through his own
sin. The incident is now connected with David's nearing
supremacy, and refers to a previous act of disobedience in his
Amalekite campaign. In a detailed account of Saul's expedition-
we learn that his failure to carry out Yahweh's commands to
the letter had brought the prophet's denunciation (cf. Ahab,
i Kings xx. 42), and that he had lost the divine favour (xv.).
This in turn ignores an earlier occasion when Saul is condemned
and the loss of his kingdom foretold ere he had accomplished
the task to which he had been called (xiii. 8-14).'
This later tendency to subordinate the history of Saul to that
of David appears especially in a number of detailed and popular
narratives encircling Judah and Benjamin, superseding other
traditions which give an entirely different representation of
David's move from the south to Jerusalem. Consequently it
proves impossible to present a consistent outline'of the history.
Instead of the sequel to IshbaaPs recovery of power, and instead
of David's incessant conflicts north of Hebron, ending with the
capture of 'Jerusalem and its district from a strange people
(2 Sam. v. xxi. 15-22, xxiii. 8 sqq.), we meet with the stories of
the war with Benjamin and Israel, of the intrigue of Abner (q.v.)
and the vengeance of Joab (q.v.). While Saul's death had left
Israel in the hands of the Philistines, it is David who accomplishes
the deliverance of the people (2 Sam. iii. 18, xix. 9). So, also,
in accordance with his generous nature, David takes vengeance
upon the Amalekite who had slain Saul (2 Sam. i. 6-10, contrast
the details in i Sam. xxxi.), and upon the treacherous aliens
who had murdered Ishbaal (iv.). When king at Jerusalem
(seven years after Saul's death) he seeks out the survivors of
Saul in order to fulfil his covenant with Jonathan. Jonathan's
son Mephibosheth 4 is found in safe-keeping east of the Jordan
* Ishbosheth, i.e. Ishbaal, " man of Baal," cf. i Chron. viii. 33.
' For other explanations see i Chron. x. 13 seq. (which refers to
I Sam. xxviii.), and Josephus, Ant. vi. 14, 9 (a reference to _Saul's
massacre of the priests at Nob, I Sam. xxii., a crime which is not
brought to his charge in biblical history and probably belongs to
one of the latest traditions).
4 Perhaps Meribaal, " man of Baal," or Meribbaal, " Baal con-
tends "; for the intentional alteration of the name cf. note 2 above,
and see BAAL.
236
SAULT SAINTE MARIE SAUMAREZ
and is installed at court (ix.). Another impression is given by
the relations between David and Saul's daughter, Michal (vi. 16
sqq., cf. also the " wives " in xii. 8), and we learn from yet
another source that he handed over Saul's sons to the Gibeonites
who had previously suffered from the king's bloodthirsty zeal
(xxi. 1-14). On this occasion (the date is quite uncertain) the
remains of Saul and Jonathan were removed from Jabesh-Gilead
and solemnly interred in Benjamin. During Absalom's revolt,
Mephibosheth entertained some hopes of reviving the fortunes
of his house (xvi. 1-4, xix. 24-30), and two Benjamites, Shimei
and Sheba, appear (xvi. 5 sqq., xix. 16-23, xx )- But there
is no concerted action; the three are independent figures whose
presence indicates that Judaean supremacy over Israel was not
accepted without a protest, and that the spilt blood of the house
of Saul was laid upon the shoulders of David. Henceforth
Saul's family disappears from the pages of history. But a
genealogy of his descendants (i Chron. viii. 33-40, ix. 39-44)
tells of " mighty men of valour, archers," who with their sons
number 150 strong, and this interesting post -exilic list is sug-
gestive for the vitality of the traditions of their ancestors.
In surveying the earlier traditions of Saul's rise, it is clear that the
desperate state of Israel leaves little room for the quiet picture of the
inexperienced youth wandering around in search of his father's
asses, or for the otherwise valuable representation of popular cult at
the local sanctuaries (l Sam. ix.). Since it is Saul who is commis-
sioned to deliver Israel, it is disconcerting to meet his grown-up son
who slays the Philistine " garrison " (rather " officer ") in Geba
(Gibeah, xiii. 3 seq.), and takes the initiative in overthrowing
the Philistines (xiv. 1-16); yet the account wnich follows of
Jonathan's violation of Saul's nasty vow and its consequences pre-
pares us for the subsequent stories of the unfriendly relations
between the two. Finally the absence of any prelude to the Philistine
oppression is perplexing. On the other hand, Judg. x. 6 sqq. (now
the introduction to the Gileadite Jephthah and the Ammonites)
contain references (now obscure) to the distress caused by the
Philistines, the straitened circumstances of the people, and their
penitent appeal to Yahweh. When at length Yahwen " could bear
the misery of Israel no longer," it is evident that in the original con-
nexion some deliverer was raised. But the sequel cannot be found
in the Danite Samson, the priest Eli, or the seer Samuel, and it is
only in the history of Saul that Yahweh 's answer to the people's cry
leads to the appointment of the saviour. The traces of the older
accounts of Saul's rise and the fragments in the highly composite
introduction in Judg. x. (w. ^a, 86, 10-16) agree so materially that
unless both the prelude to the former and the sequel to the latter
have been lost it is probable that the two were once closely con-
nected, but have been severed in the course of the literary growth of
the traditions. See further SAMUEL, Books, 6.
The development of views regarding the pre-monarchical " judges,"
the rise of the monarchy and its place in the religion of Yahweh have
been factors quite as powerful as the growth of national tradition of
the first king of Israel and the subordination of the narratives in
order to give greater prominence to the first king of the Judaean
dynasty. Although a considerable body of native tradition encircled
the great Israelite heroes (cf. Ahab, Jehu, the wars of Aramaeans and
Ammonites), Saul is pre-eminently a Benpamite figure. From the
biblical evidence alone it is far from certain that this is the earliest
phase. Saul's deliverance of Jabesh-Gilead from Ammon and his
burial may suggest (on the analogy of Jephthah) that Gilead re-
garded him as its own. Some connexion between Gilead and
Benjamin may be inferred from Judg. xxi., and, indeed, the decima-
tion of the latter (see ibid. xx. 4, 7, xxi. 13 seq.) seems to link the
appearance of the tribe in the earlier history with its new rise under
Saul. But the history of the tribe as such in this period is shrouded
in obscurity, and the Benjamite cycle appears to represent quite
secondary and purely local forms of the great founder of the
Israelite monarchy, whose traditions contain features which link him
now with another founder of Israel the warrior Joshua, and now
with the still more famous invader and conqueror Jacob.
See S. A. Cook, Critical Notes on O. T. History (Index, s.v.), and
art. JEWS, 6-8, SAMUEI (Books). (S. A. C.)
SAULT SAINTE MARIE, a city and the county-seat of Chippewa
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on Saint Mary's river, at the outlet
of Lake Superior and at the E. end of the upper peninsula.
Pop. (1890) 5760; (1900) 10,538, of whom 5329 were foreign-
born; (1910 census), 12,615. It is served by the Canadian
Pacific, the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, and the Minneapolis,
Saint Paul & Sault Sainte Marie railways. A railway bridge
(3607 ft. long, completed in 1887) and steam ferries connect
it with the Canadian town of Sault Sainte Marie (pop. 1901,
7169) on the opposite side of the river. The principal buildings
are the Court House, City Hall, Post Office, Custom House and
Carnegie Library (1905). Fort Brady, in the south-western
part of the city, is an infantry garrison; the old Ft. Brady
(built about 1822) in another part of the city is still standing.
The river is here nearly I m. wide and falls 20 ft. in three-fourths
of a mile; it has been made navigable by lock canals for vessels
drawing 20 ft. of water. The North West Fur Company built a lock
here in 1797-1798. A canal 5700 ft. long, navigable for vessels of
1 1 -5 ft. draught, was completed by the state in 1855. Between 1870
and 1881 the Federal government widened the canal to 100 ft.,
made the draught 16 ft., and built the Weitzel lock, 515 ft. long,
80 ft. wide, 60 ft. at gate openings, with a lift of 18-20 ft.; in 1896
the Poe lock (on the site of the old state locks), having a lift of 18-20
ft., and measuring 800 ft.X 100 ft., was opened, and the canal and
its approaches were deepened. In 1908 the government began the
widening of the canal above the locks and the construction of a new
lock, 1350 ft. long between gates and having a draft of 24-5 ft. at
extreme low-water. The estimated cost of this lock and approaches
is $6,200,000. In 10x57 the commerce passing here during the
navigation season of eight months and twenty-three days amounted
to 58,217,214 tons of freight, valued at more than $600,000,000; the
commerce passing through the canals at this point is larger than that
of any other canal in the world. There is a ship canal (i J m. long)
on the Canadian side of the river, which was completed in 1895 at a
cost of $3,750,000. From the rapids opposite the city two water-
power plants (of 50,000 and 10,000 h.p. respectively) derive their
power; the larger, a hydraulic water-power canal (costing, with
power equipment, $6,500,000) is i- m. long, and extends from the
lake above to a power-house below the rapids; in this power-house
are 320 turbines. The total value of the factory product in 1904
was $2,412,481, an increase of 231-3 % over that of 1900. Much hay
and fish are packed and shipped here.
The place was long a favourite fishing-ground of the Chippewa
Indians. It was visited by the French missionaries Rambault
and Jogues in 1641 and by Pere Rene Menard in 1660. In
1668 Jacques Marquette founded a mission here. In 1671 the
governor-general of New France called a great council of the
Indians here and in the name of the king of France took formal
possession of all the country S. to the Gulf of Mexico and W. to the
Pacific. The mission was abandoned in 1689; but as a trading
post of minor importance for a time protected by a palisade
fort the settlement was continued. In 1879 Sault Sainte
Marie was incorporated as a village; in 1887 it was chartered
as a city.
For an account of the mission see Antoine I. Rezek, History of the
Diocese of Sault Ste Marie and Marquette (2 vols., Houghton, Mich.,
1906-1907); see also A. B. Gilbert's " A Tale of Two Cities " in
Historical Collections, vol. 29 (Lansing, 1901) of the Michigan Pioneer
and Historical Society.
SAUMAREZ, JAMES SAUMAREZ [or SAUSMAREZ], BARON DE
(1757-1836), English admiral, was descended from an old
family, and was born at St Peter Port, Guernsey, nth of March
1757. Many of his ancestors had distinguished themselves in
the naval service, and he entered it as midshipman at the
age of thirteen. For his bravery at the attack of Charleston
in 1776 on board the " Bristol" he was raised to the rank of
lieutenant, and he was promoted commander for his gallant
services off the Dogger Bank, 5th of August 1781, when he was
wounded. In command of the " Russell," 70, he contributed
to Rodney's victory over De Grasse (izth of April 1782). For
the capture of " La Reunion," a French frigate, in 1793, he was
knighted. While in command of a small squadron he was on
the sth of June 1794 attacked by a superior French force on the
way from Plymouth to Guernsey, but succeeded in gaining a
safe anchorage in Guernsey harbour. After being promoted
to the " Orion," 74, in 1795, he took part in the defeat of the
French fleet off Lorient, on the 22nd of June, distinguished himself
in the battle of Cape St Vincent in February 1797, and was present
at the blockade of Cadiz from February 1797 to April 1798, and
at the battle of the Nile, where he was wounded. On his return
from Egypt he received the command of the " Caesar," 84,
with orders to watch the French fleet off Brest during the winters
of 1799 and 1800. In 1801 he was raised to the rank of rear-
admiral of the blue, was created a baronet, and received the
command of a small squadron which was destined to watch
the movements of the Spanish fleet at Cadiz. Between the 6th
and 1 2th of July he performed a brilliant piece of service, in
which after a first repulse at Algeciras he routed a much superior
combined force of French and Spanish ships. For his services
SAUMUR SAUROPSIDA
237
Saumarez received the order of the Bath and the freedom of
the city of London, In 1803 he received a pension of 1200 a
year. On the outbreak of the war with Russia in 1809 he was
given command of the Baltic fleet. He held it during the
wars preceding the fall of Napoleon, and his tact was conspicu-
ously shown towards the government of Sweden at the crisis
of the invasion of Russia. Charles XIII. (Bernadotte) bestowed
on him the grand cross of the military order of the Sword. At
the peace of 1814 he attained the rank of admiral; and in 1819
he was made rear-admiral, in 1821 vice-admiral of Great Britain.
He was raised to the peerage as Baron de Saumarez in 1831, and
died at Guernsey on the 9th of October 1836.
See Memoirs of Admiral Lord de Saumarez, by Sir John Ross
(2 vols., 1838).
SAUMUR, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Maine-et-Loire, 28 m. S.E. of Angers
on the railway to Tours. Pop. (1906) 14,747. Saumur is well
situated on the left bank of the Loire, which here receives the
Thouet, and on an island in the river. A large metal bridge
connects the Tours-Angers railway with that of Montreuil-
Bellay, by which Saumur communicates with Poitiers and Niort.
Two stone bridges (764 and 905 ft. long) unite the town on the
island with the two banks of the river. Several of the Saumur
churches are interesting. St Pierre, of the 1 2th century, has a
17th-century facade and a Renaissance nave; and Notre-Dame
of Nantilly, often visited by Louis XL, who rebuilt portions of it,
has a remarkable though greatly damaged facade, a doorway and
choir of the I2th century, and a nave of the nth. Both these
churches contain curious tapestries, and in the latter, fixed in the
wall, is the copper cross of Gilles de Tyr, keeper of the seals to
St Louis. St Jean is a small building in the purest Gothic style
of Anjou. St Nicolas-du-Chardonnet, in the Gothic style of the
1 2th century, has a fine modern spire. Notre-Dame of Ardilliers,
of the 1 6th century, was enlarged in the following century by
Richelieu and Madame de Montespan. The hotel de ville,
containing a museum and library, is an elegant i6th century
edifice; and the whole town is rich in examples of the domestic
architecture of the isth, i6th and I7th centuries. The house
known as the Maison de la Reine Cecile (isth century) was built
by Ren6, duke of Anjou. The castle, built between the nth
century and the i3th, and remodelled in the i6th, is used as an
arsenal and powder magazine. There is also an interesting alms-
house, with its chambers in part dug out in the rock. The famous
cavalry school of Saumur was founded in 1 768 and is used for the
special training of young officers appointed to cavalry regiments
on leaving the cadet school of St Cyr. Other public institutions
are the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, colleges
for both sexes and a horticultural garden, with a school of vines.
Saumur prepares and carries on a large trade in the sparkling
white wines grown in the neighbourhood, as well as in brandy,
grain, flax and hemp; and it manufactures enamels and rosaries
and carries on liqueur-distilling.
The Saumur caves along the Loire and on both sides of the valley of
the Thouet must have been occupied at a very remote period. The
Tour du Tronc (9th century), the old stronghold of Saumur, served
as a place of refuge for the inhabitants of the surrounding district
during foreign invasions (whence perhaps the name Saumur, from
Salons Murus) and became the nucleus of a monastery built by
monks from St Florent le Vieil. On the same site rose the castle of
Saumur two hundred years later. The town fell into the hands of
Foulques Nerra, duke of Anjou, in 1025, and passed in the I3th
century into the possession of the kings of France. The English
failed to capture it during the Hundred Years' War. After the
Reformation the town became the metropolis of Protestantism in
France and the seat of a theological seminary. The school of
Saumur, as opposed to that of Sedan, represented the more liberal side
of French Protestantism (Cameron, Amyraut, &c.). In 1623 the
fortifications were dismantled ; and the revocation of the edict of
Nantes reduced the population by more than one half. In June
1793, the town was occupied by the Vendeans, against whom it soon
afterwards became a base of operations for the republican army.
" SAUNDERSON, EDWARD JAMES (1837-1906), Irish politician,
was born at Castle Saunderson, Co. Cavan, . on the ist of
October 1837. He was the son of Alexander Saunderson, M.P.
for Cavan (d. 1857), his mother being a daughter of the 6th Baron
Farnham. The Irish Saundersons were a 1 7th century branch
of an old family, originally of Durham; a Lincolnshire branch,
the Saundersons of Saxby, held the titles of Viscount Castleton
(Irish: cr. 1628) and Baron Saunderson (British: cr. 1714) up
to 1723. Edward Saunderson was educated abroad, and, having
succeeded to the Cavan estates, married in 1865 a daughter of
the 3rd Baron Ventry, and in the same year was elected M.P.
for the county as a Palmerstonian Liberal. He lost his seat
in 1874, and by 1885, when he again entered parliament for
North Armagh, he had become a prominent Orangeman and a
Conservative; the question of Irish home rule had now come
to the front, and Saunderson's political career as a representative
Irish Unionist had begun. He had entered the Cavan militia
(4th battalion Royal Irish Fusiliers) in 1862, and was now major
(1875), becoming colonel in 1886 and in command of the battalion
from 1891 to 1893. Almost from the first he became leader of the
Irish Unionist party in the House of Commons, his uncom-
promising speeches being full of force and humour. In 1898
his services were recognized by his being made a privy councillor.
He died on the 2ist of October 1906. In private life Colonel
Saunderson was well known as a keen yachtsman; his character
was deeply marked by stern religious feeling, and his fine sincerity,
while endearing him to his friends, never lost him the respect of
his opponents.
See the Memoir by Reginald Lucas (1908).
SAUNDERSON, or SANDERSON, NICHOLAS (1682-1739),
English mathematician, was born at Thurlstone, Yorkshire, in
January 1682. When about a year old he lost his sight through
smallpox; but this did not prevent him from acquiring a know-
ledge of Latin and Greek, and studying mathematics. In 1707
he began lecturing at Cambridge on the principles of the New-
tonian philosophy, and in November 1711 he succeeded William
Whiston, the Lucasian professor of mathematics in Cambridge.
He was created doctor of laws in 1728 by command of George II.,
and in 1736 was admitted a member of the Royal Society. He
died of scurvy, on the igth of April 1739.
Saunderson possessed the friendship of many of the eminent
mathematicians of the time, such as Sir Isaac Newton, Edmund
Halley, Abraham De Moivre and Roger Cotes. His senses of hearing
and touch were extraordinarily acute, and he could carry on mentally
long and intricate mathematical calculations. He devised a calcu-
lating machine or abacus, by which he could perform arithmetical
and algebraical operations by the sense of touch; this method is
sometimes termed his palpable arithmetic, an account of which is
S'ven in his elaborate Elements of Algebra (2 vols., Cambridge, 1740).
f his other writings, prepared for the use of his pupils, the only one
which has been published is The Method of Fluxions (i vol., Lon-
don, 1756). At the end of this treatise there is given, in Latin,
an explanation of the principal propositions of Sir Isaac Newton's
philosophy.
SAUNTER, to loiter, lounge, walk idly or lazily. The deriva-
tion of the word has given rise to some curiously far-fetched
guesses; thus it has been referred to the Holy Land, La Sainte
Terre, where pilgrims lingered and loitered, or to the supposed
tendency to idle propensities of those who possess no landed
property, sans terre. The most probable suggestions are (i)
that of Wedgwood, who connects it with a word in exactly the
English sense which appears in various forms in Scandinavian
languages, Icel. slenlr, Dan. slentre, Swed. slentra, cf. slen, sloth,
slunt, lout; this derivation assumes the disappearance of the /.
(2) That supported by Skeat, and first propounded by Blackley
(Word Gossip, 1869), which connects it with the Middle Eng.
aunter, adventure; it may represent the Fr. s'avenlurer, to go out
on an adventure, and the sense-development would be from
the idle and apparently objectless expeditions of knights-errant
in search of adventure.
SAUROPSIDA. This name was introduced by T. H. Huxley
in his Introduction to the Classification of Animals (1869), to
designate a province of the Vertebrata formed by the union of the
Aves with the Reptilia. In his Elements of Comparative Anatomy
(1864) he had used the term " Sauroids" for the same province.
The five divisions of the Vertebrata Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia,
Aves, and Mammalia are all distinctly definable, but their
relations to one another differ considerably in degree. Whilst it
SAUSSURE, H. B. DE SAUSSURE, N. T. DE
was Huxley's great merit to emphasize by the term Sauropsida
the close and direct relationship between the classes of reptiles and
birds, it was an unfortunate innovation to brigade the Amphibia
and fishes as Ichthyopsida, thereby separating the Amphibia
much more from the reptiles than is justifiable, more than perhaps
he himself Intended. The great gulf within the recent Vertebrata
lies between fishes, absolutely aquatic creatures with internal
gills and " fins " on the one side, and on the other side all the
other, tetrapodous creatures with lungs and fingers and toes, for
which H. Credner has found the excellent term of Tetrapoda.
Another drawback of Huxley's divisions resulted in the tendency
of alienating the Mammalia, the third division, from the reptiles
whilst trying to connect their ancestry with the Amphibia, a view
which even now has some vigorous advocates.
The characters which distinguish the Sauropsida, that is, which
are common to birds and reptiles, and not found combined in the
other classes, have been thus summarized by Huxley : no branchiae
at any period of existence; a well-developed amnion and allantois
present in the embryo; a mandible composed of many bones and
articulated to the skull by a quadrate bone; nucleated blood-
corpuscles; no separate parasphenoid bone in the skull; and a
single occipital condyle. In addition to these principal characters
others exist which are found in all birds and reptiles, but are not
exclusively confined to them. The oviduct is always a Mullerian
duct separate from the ovary and opening from the body cavity.
The adult kidney is a metanephros with separate ureter; the
mesonephros and mesonephric duct become in the adult male the
efferent duct of the testis. The intestine and the reproductive and
urinary ducts open into a common cloaca. There is usually an
exoskeleton in the form of scales; in the birds the scales take the
form of feathers. There are two aortic arches in reptiles, in birds
only one the right. The heart is usually trilocular, becoming
quadrilocular in crocodiles and birds. In all the eggs are mero-
blastic and large, possessing a large quantity of yolk; in all the egg
is provided in the oviduct with a layer of albumen and outside this
with a horny or calcareous shell. In a few cases the egg is hatched in
the oviduct, but in these cases there is no intimate connexion between
the embryo and the walls of the duct. Fertilization takes place
internally, occurring at the upper end of the oviduct previously to
the deposition of the albuminous layer and egg shell.
Comparative anatomy clearly shows that birds are closely allied
to reptiles; enthusiasts even spoke of them as " glorified reptiles,"
and this view seemed to receive its proof by the discoveries of
Archaeopteryx (q.v.), and the numerous bipedal Dinosaurs. But
Arcnaeopteryx was after all a bird, although still somewhat
primitive, and the question, what group of reptiles has given rise
to the birds? is still unanswered. By irony of fate, mere lack of the
fossil material, it has come to pass that the bridges between Amphibia
and reptiles and from them to Mammals are in a fairer way of re-
construction than is that between reptiles and birds, the very two
classes of which we know that they " belong together." (H. F. G.)
SADSSURE, HORACE BENEDICT DE (1740-1709), Swiss
physicist and Alpine traveller, was born at Geneva on the I7th
of February 1740.' Under the influence of his father and his
maternal uncle, Charles Bonnet, he devoted himself to botany.
In 1758 he made the acquaintance of Albrecht von Haller, and
in 1762 he published his first work, Observations sur I'lcorce des
feuilles el des pitales. The same year he was chosen professor
of philosophy at the academy of Geneva, and retained this chair
till 1786. His health began to fail in 1791, when too he suffered
great pecuniary losses. But he was able to complete his great
work in 1796, before his death on the 22nd of January 1799.
He became a F.R.S. after his visit to England (autumn of 1768),
and in 1772 founded the Soci6t6 pour 1'Avancement des Arts at
Geneva. His early devotion to botanical studies naturally led
him to undertake journeys among the Alps, and from 1773 on-
wards he directed his attention to the geology and physics of
that great chain. Incidentally, he did much to clear up the
topography of the snowy portions of the Alps, and to attract the
attention of pleasure travellers towards spots like Chamonix
and Zermatt. In 1760 he first visited Chamonix, and offered
a reward to the man who should first succeed in reaching the
summit of Mont Blanc (then unsealed). He made an unsuccessful
1 His father, Nicolas de Saussure (1709-1790), an agriculturist of
unusually liberal opinions, resided all his life at his farm of Conches,
on the Arve, near Geneva. As a member of the council of Two
Hundred he took part in public affairs. Most of his writings bear on
the growth and diseases of grain and other farm produce. His last
work Le Feu, principe de [a fecondite des plantes et de la fertilite de la
terre (1782), was more speculative in its nature.
attempt himself in 1785, by the Aiguille du Gouter route. Two
Chamonix men attained the summit in 1786, by way of the
Grands Mulcts, and in 1787 Saussure himself had the delight of
gaining the summit (the third ascent). In 1788 he spent 17 days
in making observations on the crest of the Col du GSant (11,060
ft.). In 1774 he mounted the Crammont, and again in 1778, in
which year he also explored the Valsorey glacier, near the Great
St Bernard. In 1776 he had ascended the Buet (10,201 ft.). In
1789 he visited the Pizzo Bianco (near Macugnaga) and made
the first traveller's passage of the St Theodule Pass (10,899 ft.)
to Zermatt, which he was the first traveller to visit. On that
occasion he climbed from the pass up the Klein Matterhorn
(12,750 ft.), while in 1792 he spent three days on the same pass
(not descending to Zermatt), making observations, and then
visited the Theodulhorn (11,392 ft.). In 1780 he climbed the
Roche Michel, above the Mont Cenis Pass. The descriptions of
seven of his Alpine journeys (by no means all), with his scientific
observations gathered en route, were published by him in four
quarto volumes, under the general title of Voyages dans les Alpes
(1779-1796; there was an octavo issue in eight volumes, issued
1780-1796, while the non-scientific portions of the work were first
published in 1834, and often since, under the title of Partie
pittoresque des outrages de M. de Saussure).
The Alps formed the centre of Saussure's investigations. They
forced themselves on his attention as the grand key to the true theory
of the earth, and among them he found opportunity for studying
geology in a manner never previously attempted. The inclination
of the strata, the nature of the rocks, the fossils and the minerals
received his closest attention. He acquired a thorough knowledge
of the chemistry of the day; and he applied it to the study of
minerals, water and air. Saussure's geological observations made
him a firm believer in the Neptunian theory : he regarded all rocks
and minerals as deposited from aqueous solution or suspension, and
in view of this he attached much importance to the study of meteoro-
logical conditions. He carried barometers and boiling-point ther-
mometers to the summits of the highest mountains, and estimated
the relative humidity of the atmosphere at different heights, its
temperature, the strength of solar radiation, the composition of air
and its transparency. Then, following the precipitated moisture, he
investigated the temperature of the earth at all depths to which
he could drive his thermometer staves, the course, conditions and
temperature of streams, rivers, glaciers and lakes, even of the sea.
The most beautiful and complete of his subsidiary researches is
described in the Essai sur I'hygrometrie, published in 1783. In it he
records experiments made with various forms of hygrometer in all
climates and at all temperatures, and supports the claims of his hair-
hygrometer against all others. He invented and improved many
kinds of apparatus, including the magneto-meter, the cyanometer
for estimating the blueness of the sky, the diaphanometer for
judging of the clearness of the atmosphere, the anemometer and the
mountain eudiometer. His modifications of the thermometer
adapted that instrument to many purposes: for ascertaining the
temperature of the air he used one with a fine bulb hung in the
shade or whirled by a string, the latter form being converted into an
evaporometer by inserting its bulb into a piece of wet sponge and
making it revolve in a circle of known radius at a known rate ; for
experiments on the earth and in deep water he employed large ther-
mometers wrapped in non-conducting coatings so as to render them
extremely sluggish, and capable of long retaining the temperature
once they had attained it. By the use of these instruments he showed
that the bottom water of deep lakes is uniformly cold at all seasons,
and that the annual heat wave takes six months to penetrate to a
depth of 30 ft. in the earth. He recognized the immense advantages
to meteorology of high-level observing stations, and whenever it
was practicable he arranged for simultaneous observations being
made at different altitudes for as long periods as possible. It is
perhaps as a geologist (it is said that he was the first to use the term
" geology " see the " Discours preliminaire " to vol. i. of his Voyages,
publ. in 1779) that Saussure worked most; and although his ideas
on matters of theory were in many cases very erroneous he was
instrumental in greatly advancing that science.
See Lives by J. Senebier (Geneva, 1801), by Cuyier in the Bio-
graphie universelle, and by Candolle in Decade philosophique. No.
xv. (trans, in the Philosophical Magazine, iv. p. 96); articles by
E. Naville in the Bibliotheque universelle (March, April, May 1883),
and chaps, v.-viii. of Ch. Durier's Le Mont-Blanc (Paris, various
editions between 1877 and 1897). (W. A. B. C.)
SAUSSURE, NICOLAS THEODORE DE (1767-1845), eldest
son of Horace B6n6dict de Saussure, was born on the I4th of
October 1767, at Geneva, and is known chiefly for his work on
the chemistry of vegetable physiology. He lived quietly and
avoided society; yet like his ancestors he was a member of the
SAUVAL SAVAH
239
Genevan representative council, and gave much attention to
public affairs. In the latter part of his life he became more of a
recluse than ever, and died at Geneva on the i8th of April 1845.
When a young man Nicolas Theodore accompanied his father in
his Alpine journeys and assisted him by the careful determination
of many physical constants. He was attracted to chemistry by
Lavoisier's brilliant conceptions, but he did not become great as an
originator. He took a leading share in improving the processes of
ultimate organic analysis; and he determined the composition of
ethyl alcohol, ether and some other commonly occurring substances.
He also studied fermentation, the conversion of starch into sugar,
and many other processes of minor importance. The greater number
of his 36 published papers dealt with the chemistry and physiology
of plants, the nature of soils, and the conditions of vegetable life,
and were republished under the title Recherches chimiques sur la
notation.
SAUVAL, HENRI (1623-1676), French historian, son of an
advocate in the Parlement, was born in Paris, and baptized on
the 5th of March 1623. He devoted most of his life to researches
among the archives of his native city, and in 1656 even obtained
a licence to print his Paris ancien el moderne; but on his death
(2 ist March 1676) the whole work was still in manuscript. A long
time afterwards it appeared, thanks to his collaborator, Claude
Bernard Rousseau, under the title of Histoire et recherches des
antiquites de la mile de Paris (1724), but remodelled, with the
addition of long and dull dissertations which were not by Sauval.
The work was not without merits, and it was re-issued in 1733
and 1750. The original manuscript first belonged to Montmerque,
and then passed into the possession of Le Roux de Lincy, who
prepared an annotated edition; unfortunately this material,
together with the original MS., was lost in the incendiary fires
which took place under the Commune (1871). There remain,
however, Le Roux de Lincy's researches, a series of articles on
Sauval which appeared in the Bulletin du bibliophile et du
bibliothecaire in 1862, 1866 and 1868. See also the Bibliographic
de Paris avant 1789, by the Abbe Valentin Dufour (1882).
SAVAGE, MINOT JUDSON (1841- ), American Unitarian
minister and author, was born in Norridgewock, Maine, on the
loth of June 1841. He graduated at the Bangor Theological
Seminary in 1864, and for nine years was in the Congregational
ministry, being a home missionary at San Mateo and Grass
Valley, California, until 1867, and holding pastorates at Framing-
ham, Mass. (1867-1869), and Hannibal, Missouri (1860-1873).
He then became a Unitarian, and was pastor of the Third
Unitarian Church of Chicago in 1873-1874, of the Church of the
Unity in Boston in 1874-1896, and of the Church of the Messiah
in New York City in 1896-1906.
He wrote many books, including Christianity, the Science of Man-
hood (1873), The Religion of Evolution (1876), The Morals of Evolution
(1880), The Religious Life (1885), My Creed (1887), The Evolution of
Christianity (1892), Our Unitarian Gospel (1898), The Passing and the
Permanent in Religion (1901), Life Beyond Death (1901), Can Tele-
pathy Explain? (1902), Life's Dark Problems (1905), and, besides
other volumes in verse, America to England (1905).
SAVAGE, RICHARD (d. 1743), English poet, was born about
1697, probably of humble parentage. A romantic account of his
origin and early life, for which he at any rate supplied the material,
appeared in Curll's Poetical Register in 1719. On this and other
information provided by Savage, Samuel Johnson founded his
Life of Savage, one of the most elaborate of the Lives. It was
printed anonymously in 1744, and has made the poet the object
of an interest which would be hardly justified by his writings.
In 1698 Charles Gerrard, 2nd earl of Macclesfield, obtained a
divorce from his wife, Anna, daughter of Sir Richard Mason, who
shortly afterwards married Colonel Henry Brett. Lady Maccles-
field had two children by Richard Savage, 4th earl Rivers, the
second of whom was born at Fox Court, Holborn, on the i6th of
January 1697, and christened two days later at St Andrews,
Holborn, as Richard Smith. Six months later the child was
placed with Anne Portlock in Covent Garden; nothing more is
positively known of him. In 1718 Richard Savage claimed to
be this child. He stated that he had been cared for by Lady
Mason, his grandmother, who had put him to school near St
Albans, and by his godmother, Mrs Lloyd. He said he had been
pursued by the relentless hostility of his mother, Mrs Brett, who
had prevented Lord Rivers from leaving 6000 to him and had
tried to have him kidnapped for the West Indies. His statements
are not corroborated by the depositions of the witnesses in the
Macclesfield divorce case, and Mrs Brett always maintained that
he was an impostor. He was wrong in the date of his birth;
moreover, the godmother of Lady Macclesfield's son was Dorothea
Ousley (afterwards Mrs Delgardno), not Mrs Lloyd. There is
nothing to show that Mrs Brett was the cruel and vindictive
woman he describes her to be, but abundant evidence that she
provided for her illegitimate children. Discrepancies in Savage's
story made Boswell suspicious, but the matter was thoroughly
investigated for the first time by W. Moy Thomas, who published
the results of his researches in Notes and Queries (second series,
vol. vi., 1858). Savage, impostor or not, blackmailed Mrs Brett
and her family with some success, for after the publication of
The Bastard (1728) her nephew, John Brownlow, Viscount
Tyrconnel, purchased his silence by taking him into his house and
allowing him a pension of 200 a year. Savage's first certain work
was a poem sathizing Bishop Hoadly, entitled The Convocation,
or The Battle of Pamphlets (1717), which he afterwards tried to
suppress. He adapted from the Spanish a comedy, Love in a
Veil (acted 1718, printed 1719), which gained him the friendship
of Sir Richard Steele and of Robert Wilks. With Steele, how-
ever, he soon quarrelled. In 1723 he played without success
in the title r&le of his tragedy, Sir Thomas Overbury (pr. 1724),
and his Miscellaneous Poems were published by subscription
in 1726. In 1727 he was arrested for the murder of James Sinclair
in a drunken quarrel, and only escaped the death penalty by
the intercession of Frances, countess of Hertford (d. 1754).
Savage was at his best as a satirist, and in The Author to be Let
he published a quantity of scandal about his fellow-scribblers.
Proud as he was, he was servile enough to supply Pope with
petty gossip about the authors attacked in the Dunciad. His
most considerable poem, The Wanderer (1729), shows the in-
fluence of Thomson's Seasons, part of which had already appeared.
Savage tried without success to obtain patronage from Walpole,
and hoped in vain to be made poet-laureate. Johnson states that
he received a small income from Mrs Oldfield, but this seems
to be fiction. In 1732 Queen Caroline settled on him a pension
of 50 a year. Meanwhile he had quarrelled with Lord Tyrconnel,
and at the queen's death was reduced to absolute poverty.
Pope had been the most faithful of his friends, and had made him
a small regular allowance. With others he now raised money to
send him out of reach of his creditors. Savage went to Swansea,
but he resented bitterly the conditions imposed by his patrons,
and removed to Bristol, where he was imprisoned for debt.
All his friends had ceased to help him except Pope, and in 1743
he, too, wrote to break off the connexion. Savage died in prison
on the ist of August 1743.
See Johnson's Life of Savage, and Notes and Queries as already
quoted. He is the subject of a novel, Richard Savage (1842), by
Charles Whitehead, illustrated by John Leech. Richard Savage, a
play in four acts by J. M. Barrie and H. B. Marriott-Watson, was
presented at an afternoon performance at the Criterion theatre,
London, in 1891. The dramatists took considerable liberties with
the facts of Savage's career. See also S. V. Makower, Richard
Savage, a Mystery in Biography (1909).
SAVAGE, a word by derivation meaning belonging to the
wilds or forests (O. Fr. salvage, mod. sauvage, Late Lat. silvaticvs,
sttva, wood, forest), hence wild, uncultivated, barbarian, and so
used of races in an uncivilized or barbarous condition, or of
animals or human beings generally, untamed, ferocious.
SAVAH, a small province of central Persia, north of Irak and
south-west of Teheran, comprising the districts of Savah,
Khalejistan (inhabited by the Turkish Khalej tribe), Zerend
and Karaghan. It pays a yearly revenue of about 5000.
The capital is the ancient city of Savah, which has a population
of about 7000, and is 72 m. S.W. of Teheran, at an elevation of
3380 ft., in 35 4' N., 50 30' E. The soil is very fertile, is well
watered, and produces much wheat, barley and rice. It is
occasionally joined to the province of Teheran to facilitate the
governor's arrangements for supplying the capital of Persia
with grain.
240
SAVANNA SAVANNAH
SAVANNA or SAVANNAH (Span, sdvana, a sheet; Late Lat
sabanum, Gr. ffaftavov, a linen cloth), a term applied either t
a plain covered with snow or ice, or, more generally, to a treeles
plain. Its use in English, more frequent formerly than now, i
most common in application to the great plains of central Nort
America, in which it is practically the equivalent of " prairie
(?..). In this application it was first used (accented thus
sav&na) by the Spanish historian Gonzalo de Oviedo y Valdes in
the 1 6th century.
SAVANNAH, a city, a port of entry, and the county-seat o
Chatham county, Georgia, U.S.A., on the right (south) bank
of the Savannah river, about 18 m. from the Atlantic Ocean
Pop. (1890) 43.189; (1900) 54,244, of whom 28,090 were
negroes and 3434 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 65,064
It is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Central of Georgia, the
Southern, and other railways; by river steamers to Augusta
by coastwise steamers to Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York
and Boston; and by transatlantic steamers to European ports
The city is situated on a plateau some 40 ft. above the Savannah
river and covers about 6-3 sq. m. Savannah owes its regular form
with streets intersecting each other at right angles, to James Edwarc
Oglethorpe, its founder, but the monotony is slightly relieved by
42 small parks and squares, whose total area is 166-79 acres. Th't
larger parks are the Damn, the Colonial, on Oglethorpe Avenue
(formerly South Broad Street), and Forsyth, on Gaston Street
with fine tropical and semi-tropical flora. The smaller parks or
squares are mostly in five series parallel to the Savannah river
On account of the large number of its shade trees Savannah has
been called the " Forest City." Bonaventure Cemetery, about
4 m. east of the city, has avenues of fine live-oaks, draped with
Spanish moss. In the principal commercial street, Bay Street, are
the new City Hall (1906), on the site of the old City Hall built in
>779. the Custom House, completed in 1850, the Cotton Exchange
and a granite seat marking the spot where Oglethorpe first pitchec
his tent; and in Bull Street, a fashionable promenade, named in
honour of William Bull (1683-1755), a military officer who aided
Oglethorpe in his survey of the city, are Chatham Academy, a
marble post-office building, the county court house, and the
Savannah theatre (established in 1818, remodelled in 1895, rebuilt
in 1906), one of the oldest playhouses in the United States. In
Johnson Square, a little south of the City Hall and Custom House,
stands a plain dignified monument, in the design of a Roman sword,
erected in 1829 in memory of General Nathanael Greene, to whom
a tract of land near Savannah was given by Congress in recognition
of his service in the War of American Independence, and who was
buried in a vault in the old cemetery in South Broad Street (now
Oglethorpe Avenue); his remains were transferred to the monu-
ment in 1900. In Monterey Square there is a monument and statue
by the German sculptor Robert Eberhard Launitz (1806-1870),
in honour of Count Casimir Pulaski, who was mortally wounded
during the siege of Savannah in 1779. The corner-stones of these
monuments were laid by General La Fayette in 1825. In Madison
Square, north of Monterey Square, there is a monument to Sergeant
William Jasper (I75-I779). a hero of the War of Independence,
who replaced the fallen colours on Fort Moultrie in the face of a
galling fire during the battle of Charleston Harbour (June 28th,
1776), rescued a band of American prisoners from British guards at
Jasper Spring, 2 m. from Savannah, and was fatally wounded
during the siege of the city in 1779. In Chippewa Square there is a
bust of Major-General Lafayette McLaws (1821-1897). The Ladies'
Memorial Association erected a Confederate Soldiers Monument in
the " Parade Ground," which forms an extension to Forsyth Park,
in the south central part of the city; and in honour of Tomochichi,
an Indian chief who was the staunch friend of the early settlers, a
large granite boulder has been placed in Wright Square, where he
was buried. At the corner of Anderson and Bull Streets there is a
memorial to Major-General Alexander Robert Lawton (1818-1896),
state senator in 1854-1861, who seized Fort Pulaski in 1861 upon the
governor's orders, served through the Civil War in the Confederate
Army, and was U.S. minister to Austria-Hungary in 1887-1889.
Since the founding of Georgia as a bulwark against the Spaniards
and French, Savannah has had an ardent martial spirit, and there
are five military organizations the Chatham Artillery, formed in
1786, one of the oldest military companies in the United States; the
Savannah Volunteer Guards, organized in 1802 as an infantry corps,
now a coast artillery corps of four companies; the Georgia Hussars,
formed after the War of 1812 by the consolidation of two other
companies; the First Volunteer Regiment of Georgia, composed of
five companies, organized respectivejy in 1808, 1843, 1846, 1860
and 1861, and a division of naval militia organized m 1895. The
most prominent clubs are the Oglethorpe, the Guards, the Hussars
and the Harmonic. Among the pleasure resorts in the vicinity are
Tybee Island, at the mouth of the Savannah river, a popular bathing
resort, and Thunderbolt, Isle of Hope, White Bluff and Montgomery,
distant 5 m., 6 m., 8 m. and 9 m. respectively.
Among the religious corporations in Savannah, the oldest is Christ
Church, whost first building was erected in 1740-1750 and whose
present edifice was built in 1838. Its third rector was John Wesley
who is said to have established a Sunday School (still in existence)
in Savannah almost half a century before Robert Raikes established
such a school in England. The first African Baptist Church, or-
ganized in 1788, is the oldest religious society of negroes in the
United States. The Convent of St Vincent de Paul was founded in
1842; the Cathedral of St John the Baptist was dedicated in 1876,
was destroyed by fire in 1898, but was subsequently rebuilt; and a
Jewish synagogue was erected in 1878. Savannah is the see of a
Roman Catholic and of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. There are
several hospitals and charitable institutions in or near Savannah,
including the Bethesda Orphan Asylum, about 8 m. from the city,
founded by George Whitefield in 1740 and now owned by the Union
Society, and the Savannah Female Asylum (1750). In 1885 the Tel-
fair Academy of Arts and Sciences (near Telfair Square or Telfair
Place), endowed by Miss Mary Telfair, was opened; in its
collections are Wilhelm von Kaulbach's "Peter Arbues of Epila"
and Joseph von Brandt's " Ein Gefecht." The Georgia Historical
Society, organized in 1839 and in 1847 united with the Savannah
Library Society, has a handsome building (Hodgson Hall) at the
intersection of Whitaker and Gaston Streets, and a library of about
35,000 volumes; it published six volumes of Collections between
1840 and 1904. The Georgia Industrial College (1890), for negroes,
is near the city. The Chatham Academy was chartered and en-
dowed with some of the confiscated property of Loyalists in 1788.
Savannah harbour has permanent seacoast defences, and is the
most important Atlantic seaport south of Baltimore. The port is
nearer the Panama Canal than either New Orleans or Galveston;
and after the completion of harbour improvements by the United
States government, begun in 1902, the depth of the river from its
mouth to the city was 28 ft. There are great wharves and piers on
the water front ; more than 4 m. of wharves are occupied by railway
terminals. In 1909 Savannah's exports were valued at $66,932,973;
its imports at $2,664,079. Of the exports naval stores rank first,
Savannah being first among the world markets of naval stores;
cotton comes second, but the relative position of the city as a cotton
centre has declined because of the greater increase in that of
Galveston and New Orleans. Other important exports are fertilizers,
rice and lumber. Savannah is the business and shipping centre of
the surrounding fruit and truck growing country. The principal
manufactures are fertilizers and cars, and, of less importance, lumber
and planing-mill products, and foundry and machine-shop products.
The city's rice-mills and cotton compresses are commonly visited by
tourists. The total value of the city's factory products in 1905 was
$6^40,004 (69-1 % more than in 1900).
The city government is vested in a council, consisting of a mayor
and twelve aldermen, elected for two years in January of odd-
numbered years; the council's committees act as heads of several
of the administrative departments; the mayor is head of the
police; and the council appoints other city officers. The board of
aldermen may pass a measure by a two-thirds vote over the mayor's
veto. The city board of education was incorporated in 1866 and
took over the powers of the board of education of Chatham county;
t is self-perpetuating and practically non-partisan. A free school
iad been established as early as 1816. In 1909 the assessed value
of real estate was $35,147,580 and of personal property $12,828,673,
and the bonded debt was $2,701,050 ($218,050 due in 1913 and
^2,483,000 due in 1959); the rate of taxation was $1-39 per $100.
The first European settlement in Georgia was made at Savannah
in February 1733 by James Edward Oglethorpe. Among the
early inhabitants were Charles and John Wesley, who arrived
in 1735, but returned to England in 1736 and 1737 respectively,
ind George Whitefield, who lived in Savannah in 1738 and 1740.
Savannah was the seat of government of Georgia until the
capture of the city by the British in 1778. Here, on the ist of
[anuary 1755, met the first legislature of Georgia. In the years
preceding the War of Independence the political issues excited
much partisanship. Riots almost completely prevented the
execution of the Stamp Act, and the stamps were reloaded on the
hip that brought them to Savannah. In 1769 the merchants
agreed not to import any articles mentioned in the Townshend
Acts of 1767.
On the 1 8th of January 1775 the first Provincial Congress
was convened here; on the night of the nth of May the powder
magazine was robbed of all its ammunition, part of which was
ent to Boston and, according to tradition, was used at Bunker
lill; and on the 22nd of June the people of the city elected a
Council of Safety. On the 4th of July the same Provincial
Congress again met, and soon the royal administration collapsed.
^robably the first naval capture of the War of Independence
'as made off Tybee Island on the loth of July, when a schooner,
SAVARY SAVE
241
the first vessel chartered by the Continental Congress, seized a
British ship and its cargo of 14,000 Ib of powder. Yet the
Loyalists were strong in Savannah, and many families were
divided among themselves.
In October 1776-February 1777 the convention which framed
the first constitution of Georgia was held in Savannah, and the
first state legislature assembled here in May 1778; but the
British captured the city on the 2gth of December in that year,
and the seat of the state government was then transferred to
Augusta. In 1779 Savannah was unsuccessfully besieged by
a French fleet under Comte d'Estaing and land forces under
General Benjamin Lincoln, but in May 1 782 it was evacuated after
a short siege by General Anthony Wayne. It once more became
the capital, but in 1783 the seat of the state government was
again transferred to Augusta. Savannah soon became the
commercial rival of Charleston, South Carolina. It was chartered
as a city in 1789. As early as 1817 the Savannah Steamboat
Company, which ran a steamer to Charleston, was organized,
and in 1819 the " Savannah," the first vessel fitted with steam-
engines to cross the Atlantic, 1 owned by Savannah capitalists
but built in the North, sailed from Savannah to Liverpool in
25 days. In 1861 the state convention which adopted the ordin-
ance of secession met in Savannah. A blockade of the port was
instituted by the Federal government in 1861, and on the i2th of
December 1862 Fort Pulaski (on Cockspur Island, at the mouth
of the Savannah river), which commanded the channel, and had
been seized by the state at the outbreak of ;the war, was forced
to surrender. Savannah was the objective of General W. T.
Sherman's " march to the sea," and on the 2ist of December
1864 surrendered to him after futile opposition by General
William J. Hardee (1818-1873) with a force very inferior in
numbers. The city limits were extended in 1879, 1883 and
1901.
SAVARY, ANNE JEAN MARIE RENfi, DUKE OF Rovico
(1774-1833), French general and diplomatist, was born at Marcq
in the Ardennes on the 26th of April 1774. He was educated at
the college of St Louis at Metz and entered the royal army in 1 790.
His first campaign was that waged by General Custine against
the retreating forces of the duke of Brunswick in 1792. He next
served in succession under Pichegru and Moreau, and dis-
tinguished himself during the skilful retreat of the latter from an
untenable position in the heart of Swabia. He became ckej
d'escadron in 1797, and in 1798 served under General Desaix,
in the Egyptian campaign, of which he left an interesting and
valuable account. He also distinguished himself under Desaix
at Marengo (i4th of June 1800). His fidelity and address while
serving under Desaix, who was killed at Marengo, secured him the
confidence of Bonaparte, who appointed him to command the
special body of gendarmes charged with the duty of guarding the
First Consul. In the discovery of the various ramifications of
the Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy Savary showed great skill
and activity. He proceeded to the cliff of Biville in Normandy,
where the plotters were in the habit of landing, and sought, by
imitating the signals of the royalist plotters, to tempt the comte
d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.) to land. In this he was un-
successful. He was in command of the troops at Vincennes
when the due d'Enghien (q.v.) was summarily executed. Hullin,
who presided at the court-martial, afterwards accused Savary,
though not by name, of having intervened to prevent the despatch
to Bonaparte of an appeal for mercy which he (Hullin) was in the
act of drawing up. Savary afterwards denied this, but his denial
has not generally been accepted. In February 1 805 he was raised
to the rank of general of division. Shortly before the battle of
Austerlitz (2nd of December 1805) he was sent by Napoleon with
a message to the emperor Alexander I. with a request for an
armistice, a device which caused that monarch all the more
eagerly to strike the blow which brought disaster to the Russians.
After the battle Savary again took a message to Alexander, which
induced him to treat for an armistice. In the campaign of 1806
1 The " Savannah " did not make the entire voyage under steam;
she was fitted with sails and used them in rough weather, unshipping
her paddle-boxes.
Savary showed signal daring in the pursuit of the Prussians after
the battle of Jena. Early in the next year he received command
of a corps, and with it gained an important success at Ostrolenka
(i6th of February 1807).
After the treaty of Tilsit (7th of July 1807) Savary proceeded
to St Petersburg as the French ambassador, but was soon re-
placed by General Caulaincourt (?..), another accessory to the
execution of the due d'Enghien. The repugnance of the empress
dowager to Savary is said to have been one of the reasons of his
recall, but it is more probable that Napoleon felt the need of his
gifts for intrigue in the Spanish affairs which he undertook
at the close of 1807. With the title of duke of Rovigo (a small
town in Venetia), Savary set out for Madrid when Napoleon's
plans for gaining the mastery of Spain were nearing completion.
With Murat Savary made skilful use of the schisms in the Spanish
royal family (March- April 1 808), and persuaded Charles IV., who
had recently abdicated under duresse, and his son Ferdinand
VII., the de facto king of Spain, to refer their claims to Napoleon.
Savary induced Ferdinand to cross the Pyrenees and proceed
to Bayonne a step which cost him his crown and his liberty until
1814. In September 1808 Savary accompanied the emperor to
the famous interview at Erfurt with the emperor Alexander.
In 1809 he took part, but without distinction, in the campaign
against Austria. On the disgrace of Fouche (q.v.) in the spring
of 1810, Savary received his appointment, the ministry of police.
There he showed his wonted skill and devotion to Napoleon;
and this office, which the Jacobinical Fouche had shorn of its
terrors, now became a veritable inquisition. Among the incidents
of jthis time may be cited the cynical brutality with which Savary
carried out the order of Napoleon for the exile of Mme de Stael
and the destruction of her work De I'Attemagfte. Savary 's
wariness was, however, at fault at the time of the strange con-
spiracy of General Malet, two of whose confederates seized him
in his bed and imprisoned him for a few hours (23rd of October
1812). Savary's reputation never quite recovered from the
ridicule caused by this event. He was among the last to desert
the emperor at the time of his abdication (nth of April 1814)
and among the first to welcome his return in 181 5, when he became
inspector-general of gendarmerie and a peer of France. After
Waterloo he accompanied the emperor to Rochefort and sailed
with him to Plymouth on H.M.S. " Bellerophon." He was not
allowed to accompany him to St Helena, but underwent several
months' " internment " at Malta. Escaping thence, he proceeded
to Smyrna, where he settled for a time. Afterwards he travelled
about in more or less distress, but finally was allowed to return
to France and regained civic rights; later he settled at Rome.
The July revolution (1830) brought him into favour and in 1831
he received the command of the French] army in Algeria. Ill-
health compelled him to return to France, and he died at Paris
in June 1833.
See Memoires du due de Rovigo (4 vols., London, 1828; English
edition also in 4 vols., London, 1828); a new French edition anno-
tated by D. Lacrqix (5 vols., Paris, 1900); Extrait des memoires
de M. le due de Rovigo concernant le catastrophe de M. le due d'Enghien
(London, 1823) ; Le Due de Rovigo juge par lui-mime et par ses con-
temporains, by L. F E. . . (Pans, 1823); and A. F. N. Macquart,
Refutation de Vecrit de M. le due de Rovigo (1823). (J. HL. R.)
SAVE, or SAVA (Ger. Sau; Hungarian Szdva; Lat. Sams),
one of the principal right-bank affluents of the Danube. It runs
almost parallel with the other great tributary of the Danube,
the Drave, both having about the same length. The Save rises
in the Triglav group in Carniola from two sources, the Wurzener
Save and the Wocheiner Save, which join at Radmannsdorf.
It then takes a south-easterly course, and flows through Carniola
and Croatia-Slavonia forming from Jasenovac the frontier-line
between it and Bosnia and Servia and joins the Danube at
Belgrade. The Save has a length of 442 m., the area of its basin
being 34,000 sq. m. It is navigable'for steamers from Sissek to
its mouth, a distance of 360 m., but navigation is greatly hindered
by shifting sandbanks and other obstructions. Its principal
affluents are, on the right, the Sora, Laibach, Gurk, Kulpa, Una,
Vrbas, Bosna and Drina; and on the left, the Ranker, Feistritz,
Sann, Sotla, Krapina, Lon ja and Orljava.
242
SAVI SAVIGNY
SAVI, PAOLO (1798-1871), Italian geologist, was born at Pisa.
Assistant-lecturer on zoology at the university of his native city
when twenty-two years of age, he was appointed professor in
1823, and lectured also on geology. He devoted great attention
to the museum of the university, and formed one of the finest
natural history collections in Europe. He was regarded as the
father of Italian geology. His first paper related to the Bone-
caves of Cassano (1825). He studied the geology of Monte
Pisano and the Apuan Alps, explaining the metamorphic origin
of the Carrara marble; he also contributed essays on the Miocene
strata and fossils of Monte Bambolo, the iron-ores of Elba and
other subjects. With Giuseppe Meneghini (1811-1889) ne
published memoirs on the stratigraphy and geology of Tuscany
(1850-1851). He became eminent also as an ornithologist,
and was author of a great work on the birds of Italy. He died
in May 1871.
SAVIGLIANO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province
of Cuneo, 32 m. S. of Turin by rail, 1053 ft. above sea-level.
Pop. (1901) 9895 (town), 17,340 (commune). It has important
ironworks, foundries, locomotive works and silk manufactures,
as well as sugar factories, printing works and cocoon-raising
establishments. It retains some traces of its ancient walls,
demolished in 1707, and has a fine collegiate church (S. Andrea, in
its present form comparatively modern), and a triumphal arch
erected in honour of the marriage of Charles Emmanuel I. with
Catherine of Austria,
SAVIGNY, FRIEDRICH KARL VON (1770-1861), German
jurist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 2ist of February
1779. He was descended from an ancient family, which figures in
the history of Lorraine, and which derived its name from the
castle of Savigny near Charmes in the valley of the Moselle. Left
an orphan at the age of 13, he was brought up by his guardian
until, in I'/QS, he entered the university of Marburg, where,
though suffering at times severely from ill-health, he studied
under Professors Anton Bauer (1772-1843) and Philipp Friedrich
Weiss (1766-1808), the former one of the most conspicuous
pioneers in the reform of the German criminal law, the latter
distinguished for his knowledge of medieval jurisprudence.
After the fashion of German students, Savigny visited several
universities, notably Jena, Leipzig and Halle; and returning to
Marburg, took his doctor's degree in 1800. At Marburg he
lectured as Privatdozent on criminal law and the Pandects.
In 1803 he published his famous treatise, Das Recht des Besilzes
(the rights of possession). It was at once hailed by the great jurist
Thibaut as a masterpiece; and the old uncritical study of Roman
law was at an end. It quickly obtained a European reputation,
and still remains a prominent landmark in the history of juris-
prudence. In 1804 Savigny married Kunigunde Brentano, the
sister of Bettina von Arnim and Clemens Brentano the poet, and
the same year started on an extensive tour through France and
south Germany in search of fresh sources of Roman law. In this
quest, particularly in Paris, he was successful.
In 1808 he was appointed by the Bavarian government
ordinary professor of Roman law at Landshut, where he remained
a year and a half. In 1810 he was called, chiefly at the instance
of Wilhelm von Humboldt, to fill the chair of Roman law at the
new university of Berlin. Here one of his services was to create,
in connexion with the faculty of law, a " Spruch-Collegium,"
an extraordinary tribunal competent to deliver opinions on cases
remitted to it by the ordinary courts; and he took an active part
in its labours. This was the busiest time of his life. He was
engaged in lecturing, in the government of the university (of
which he was the third rector), and as tutor to the crown prince
in Roman, criminal and Prussian law. Not the least important
consequence of his residence in Berlin was his friendship with
Niebuhr and Eichhorn. In 1814 appeared his pamphlet Vom
Beruf unserer Zeit fur Gesettgebung und Rechtswissenschaft (new
edition, 1892). It was a protest against the demand for codifica-
tion, and was intended as a reply to Thibaut's pamphlet urging
the necessity of forming a code for Germany which should be
independent of the influence of foreign legal systems. In this
famous pamphlet Savigny did not oppose the introduction of
new laws, or even a new system of laws, but only objected to the
proposed codification on two grounds: (i) that the damage
which had been caused by the neglect of former generations
of jurists could not be quickly repaired, and that time was re-
quired to set the house in order; and (2) that there was great
risk of the so-called natural law, with its " infinite arrogance "
and its " shallow philosophy " ruining such a scheme. Indeed,
the enduring value of this pamphlet is that it saved jurisprudence
for all time from the hollow abstractions of such a work as the
Instiluti ones juris naturae et gentium of Christian Wolff (1679-
1754), and conclusively proved that a historical study of the
positive law was a condition precedent to the right understanding
of the science of all law.
In 1815 he founded, with Karl Friedrich Eichhorn, and
Johann Friedrich Ludwig Goschen (1778-1837), the Zeitschrift
fur geschichttiche Rechtswissenschaft, the organ of the new histori-
cal school, of which he was the representative. In this periodical
(vol. iii. p. 129 seq.) Savigny made known to the world the
discovery at Verona, by Niebuhr, of the lost text of Gaius,
pronouncing it, on the evidence of that portion of the MS. sub-
mitted to him, to be the work of Gaius himself and not, as Niebuhr
suggested, of Ulpian. The record of the remainder of Savigny's
life consists of little else than a list of the merited honours which
he received at the hands of his sovereign, and of the works which
he published with indefatigable activity. In 1815 appeared the
first volume of his Geschichte des romischen Rechts im Mittelalter,
the last of which was not published until 1831. This work, to
which his early instructor Weiss had first prompted him, was
originally intended to be a literary history of Roman law from
Irnerius to the present time. His design was in some respect
narrowed; in others it was widened. He saw fit not to continue
the narrative beyond the i6th century, when the separation of
nationalities disturbed the foundations of the science of law.
His treatment of the subject was not merely that of a biblio-
grapher; it was philosophical. It raised the veil which had
hung over the history of Roman law, from the breaking up of the
empire until the beginning of the 1 2th century, and showed how,
though considered dead, the Roman law yet lived on through these
dark centuries, in local customs, in towns, in ecclesiastical
doctrines and school teachings, until it blossomed out once more
in full splendour in Bologna and other Italian cities. This
history was the parent of many valuable works in which Savigny
published the result of his investigations. 1 In 1817 he was
appointed a member of the commission for organizing the
Prussian provincial estates, and also a member of the department
of justice in the Staatsrath, and in 1819 he became a member of
the supreme court of appeal for the Rhine Provinces. In 1820
he was made a member of the commission for revising the
Prussian code. In 1822 a serious nervous illness attacked him,
and compelled him to seek relief in travel. In 1835 he began his
elaborate work on contemporary Roman law, System des heutigen
romischen Rechls (8 vols., 1840-1849). His activity as professor
ceased in March 1842, when he was appointed " Grosskanzler "
(High Chancellor), the title given by Frederick II. in 1746 to
the official at the head of the juridical system in Prussia, as in this
position he carried out several important law reforms in regard to
bills of exchange and divorce. He held the office until 1848,
when he resigned, not altogether to the regret of his friends,
who had seen his energies withdrawn from jurisprudence without
being able to flatter themselves that he was a great statesman.
In 1850, on the occasion of the jubilee of his obtaining his doctor's
degree, appeared in five volumes his Vermischte Schriften, con-
sisting of a collection of his minor works published between
1 800 and 1 844. This event gave rise to much enthusiasm through-
out Germany in honour of " the great master " and founder of
modern jurisprudence. In 1853 he published his treatise on
Contracts (Das ObligationtnrecM) , a supplement to his work on
modern Roman law, in which he clearly demonstrates the
necessity for the historical treatment of law. Savigny died at
Berlin on the 25th of October 1861. His son, Karl Friedrich
1 See von Mohl's Staatswissenschaft, vol. iii. p. 55. For
vhat less favourable view, see Cans s Vermischte Schriften.
For a some-
SAVILE, SIR G. SAVINGS BANKS
243
von Savigny (1814-1875), was Prussian minister of foreign
affairs in 1849. He represented Prussia in important diplomatic
transactions, especially in 1866.
Savigny belongs to the so-called historical school of jurists,
though he cannot claim to be regarded as its founder, an honour
which belongs to Gustav Hugo. In the history of jurisprudence
Savigny's great works are the Recht des Besitzes and the Beruf
unserer Zeit fur Gesetzgebung above referred to. The former
marks an epoch in jurisprudence. Professor Jhering says:
" With the Recht des Besitzes the juridical method of the Romans
was regained, and modern jurisprudence born." It marked a
great advance both in results and method, and rendered obsolete
a large literature. Savigny sought to prove that in Roman law
possession had always reference to " usucapion " or to " interdicts" ;
that there is not a right to continuance in possession but only
to immunity from interference; possession being based on the
consciousness of unlimited power. These and other propositions
were maintained with great acuteness and unequalled ingenuity
in interpreting and harmonizing the Roman jurists. The con-
troversy which has been carried on in Germany by Jhering,
Baron, Cans and Bruns shows that many of Savigny's con-
clusions have not been accepted. 1 The Beruf unserer Zeit, in
addition to the more specific object the treatise had in view,
which has been already treated, expresses the idea, unfamiliar in
1814, that law is part and parcel of national life, and combats
the notion, too much assumed by French jurists, especially in the
i8th century, and countenanced in practice by Bentham, that
law might be arbitrarily imposed on a country irrespective of its
state of civilization and past history. Of even greater value
than his services in consolidating " the historical school of
jurisprudence " is the emphatic recognition in his works of the
fact that the practice and theory of jurisprudence cannot be
divorced without injury to both.
See Biographies by Stinzing (1862); Rudorff (1867) ; Bethmann-
Holweg (1867) ; and Landsberg (1890).
SAVILE, SIR GEORGE (1726-1784), English politician, was
the only son of Sir George Savile, Bart. (d. 1743), of Rufford,
Nottinghamshire, and was born in London on the i8th of July
1726. He entered the House of Commons as member for York-
shire in 1759. In general he advocated views of a very liberal
character, including measures of relief to Roman Catholics and
to Protestant dissenters, and he defended the action of the
American colonists. He refused to take office and in 1783 he
resigned his seat in parliament. He died unmarried in London
on the loth of January 1784. Horace Walpole says Savile had
" a large fortune and a larger mind," and Burke had also a very
high opinion of him. He bequeathed Rufford and some of his
other estates to his nephew, Richard Lumley (1757-1832), a
younger son of Richard Lumley Saunderson, 4th earl of Scar-
borough (1725-1782). Richard took the additional name of
Savile, but when on his brother's death in 1807 he became 6th
earl of Scarborough the Savile estates passed to his brother John
(1760-1835), afterwards the 7th earl. John's son and heir was
John Lumley Savile, 8th earl of Scarborough (1788-1856).
The 8th earl was never married, but he left four natural sons,
the eldest of whom was John Savile (1818-1896), the diplomatist,
who was created Baron Savile of Rufford in 1888. He entered the
foreign office in 1841, was British envoy at Dresden and at Berne,
and from 1883 to 1888 represented his country in Rome.
Although the eldest son, he did not inherit Rufford and his
father's other estates until after the deaths of two of his younger
brothers. He made a fine collection of pictures and died at
Rufford on the 28th of November 1896, when his nephew John
Savile Lumley Savile (b. 1854) became the 2nd baron.
SAVILE, SIR HENRY (1549-1622), warden of Merton
College, Oxford, and provost of Eton, was the son of Henry
Savile of Bradley, near Halifax, in Yorkshire, a member of an
old county family, the Saviles of Methley, and of his wife
Elizabeth, daughter of Robert Ramsden. He was educated at
Brasenose College, Oxford, where he matriculated in 1561. He
became a fellow of Merton in 1565, proceeded B.A. in 1566, and
1 See Windscheid, Lehrbuch des Pandektenrechts, 5. 439.
M.A. in 1570. He established a reputation as a Greek scholar
and mathematician by voluntary lectures on the Almagest,
and in 1575 became junior proctor. In 1578 he travelled on the
continent of Europe, where he collected manuscripts and is
said to have been employed by Queen Elizabeth as her resident
in the Low Countries. On his return he was named Greek
tutor to the queen, and in 1535 was established as warden of
Merton by a vigorous exercise of the interest of Lord Burghley
and Secretary Walsingham. He proved a successful and auto-
cratic head under whom the college flourished. A translation
of four Books of the Histories of Tacitus, with a learned Com-
mentary on Roman Warfare in 1591, enhanced his reputation.
On the 26th of May 1 596 he obtained the provostship of Eton, the
reward of persistent begging. He was not qualified for the post
by the statutes of the college, for he was not in orders, and the
queen was reluctant to name him. Savile insisted with con-
siderable ingenuity that the queen had a right to dispense with
statutes, and at last he got his way. In February 1601 he was
put under arrest on suspicion of having been concerned in the
rebellion of the earl of Essex. He was soon released and his
friendship with the faction of Essex went far to gain him the
favour of James I. So no doubt did the views he had maintained
in regard to the statutes of Eton. It may have been to his
advantage that his elder brother, Sir John Savile (1545-1607),
was a high prerogative lawyer, and was one of the barons of
the exchequer who in 1606 affirmed the right of the king to
impose import and export duties on his own authority. On the
30th of September 1604 Savile was knighted, and in that year he-
was named one of the body of scholars appointed to prepare the
authorized version of the Bible. He was entrusted with parts
of the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles and the Book of Revela-
tion. In 1604 died the only son born of his marriage in 1592
with Margaret Dacre, and Sir Henry Savile is thought to have
been induced by this loss to devote the bulk of his fortune to the
promotion of learning, though he had a daughter who survived
him and who became the mother of the dramatist Sir Charles
Sedley. His edition of Chrysostom in eight folio volumes was
published in 1610-1613. It was printed by the king's printer,
William Norton, in a private press erected at the expense of
Sir Henry, who imported the type. The Chrysostom, which
cost him 8000 and did not sell well, was the most considerable
work of pure learning undertaken in England in his time. At
the same press he published an edition of the Cyropaedia in 1618.
In 1619 he founded and endowed his professorships of geometry
and astronomy at Oxford. He died at Eton on the igth of
February 1622. Sir Henry Savile has been sometimes confounded
with another Henry Savile, called "Long Harry" (1570-1617),
who gave currency to the forged addition to the Chronicle of
Asser which contains the story that King Alfred founded the
university of Oxford.
A brother, THOMAS SAVILE (d. 1593), was also a member of
Merton College, Oxford, and had some reputation as a scholar.
See W. D. Macray, Annals of the Bodleian Library (London, 1868) ;
Sir N. C. Maxwell-Lyte, History of Eton College (3rd ed., London,
1899) ; and John Aubrey, Lives of Eminent Men (London, 1898).
SAVINGS BANKS (Fr. caisses d'epargne; Ger. Sparkassen),
institutions for the purpose of receiving small deposits of money
and investing them for the benefit of the depositors at compound
interest. They originated in the latter part of the i8th century
a period marked by a great advance in the organization of pro-
vident habits in general (see FRIENDLY SOCIETIES). They seem,
however, to have been first suggested by Daniel Defoe in 1697.
The earliest institution of the kind in Europe was one established
at Brunswick in 1765; it was followed in 1778 by that of Ham-
burg, which still exists, in 1786 by one at Oldenburg, in 1790
by one at Loire, in 1792 by that of Basel, in 1794 by one at Geneva,
which had but a short existence, and in 1796 by one at Kiel in
Holstein. In Great Britain, in 1797, Jeremy Bentham revived
Defoe's suggestion under the name of " Frugality Banks,"
and in 1799 the Rev. Joseph Smith put it in action at Wendover.
This was followed in 1801 by the addition of a savings bank to
the friendly society which Mrs Priscilla Wakefield had established
244
SAVINGS BANKS
in 1798. Savings banks were shortly after established in London,
Bath, Ruthwell in Dumfriesshire by the Rev. H. Duncan (1774-
1846), Edinburgh, Kelso, Hawick, Southampton and many other
places. By 1817 they had become numerous enough to claim
the attention of the legislature, and many acts of parliament were
passed from time to time for the management of these institutions
in Great Britain, culminating in the establishment on a very
broad basis of the Post Office savings banks (see POST AND
POSTAL SERVICE). The promotion of thrift, at the end of the i8th
century an experiment by a few far-seeing individuals, was by
the 2oth century almost universally adopted, and was regarded
practically as an adjunct to the institutions of every civilized
community. Friendly societies, co-operative societies, trade
societies and other agencies are all based on this same principle.
The progress of savings banks and the large amount that the
deposits have now reached are evidence of the general fitness
of the organization for its purpose. So far as regards trustee
savings banks, the provisions of the acts of 1817 are still to a great
extent the same as those by which they are now regulated,
though the law has been frequently amended in matters of
detail. The acts relating to trustee savings banks are referred
to as the Trustee Savings Banks Acts 1863 to 1004, a title given
by s. 16 (2) of the act of 1904. They comprise the Trustee Savings
Banks Act 1863 (26 & 27 Viet. c. 87), the Trustee Savings Banks
Act 1887 (50 & 51 Viet. c. 47) and so much of the following acts
as applies to trustee savings banks: the Post Office Savings
Bank Act 1863, the Savings Banks Act 1880, the Savings Banks
Act 1887, the Savings Banks Act 1891, the Savings Banks Act
1893, and the Savings Banks Act 1904.
The main feature is the requirement that the whole of the
funds should be invested with the government through the
Commissioners for the Reduction of the National Debt. The
local management of the banks has been left entirely to the
trustees, who are precluded from receiving any remuneration
for their services or making any profit. They are, however,
required to furnish the commissioners with periodical returns
of their transactions. This blending of private management with
state control has had many advantages in knitting together class
and class. A new savings bank requires for its establishment the
consent of the National Debt Commissioners and the certificate
of the registrar of friendly societies to its rules.
The legislation of 1817, among other inducements to thrift,
offered that of a bounty to the savings bank depositor in the shape of
a rate of interest in excess of that given to the ordinary public
creditor, or which is the same thing in excess of that which could
be earned by the investment of the deposits in the purchase of
government stock. The interest offered in the first instance was 3d.
per day, or 4, I is. 3d. % per annum ; and that rate continued to be
granted until the passing of the Act of 1828 (9 Geo. IV. c. 92). That
act reduced the rate of interest allowed to the trustees of savings
banks to 2jd. per day, or 3, i6s. ojd. per annum, and prohibited
them from allowing more to their depositors than 2jd. per day, or
3, 8s. 5}d. per annum, requiring them to pay the surplus, if any, into
a separate fund held by the National Debt Commissioners, but bear-
ing no interest. In 1844 the interest to trustees was further reduced
to 2d. per day, or 3, 53. %, the maximum to be allowed to de-
positors being fixed at 3, os. lod. In 1880 the interest to trustees
was reduced to 3, andthat to depositors to 2, 153. and again in
1888 to 2, 153. and 2, IDS. respectively.
The result of the bonus on thrift offered by the earlier statutes was
a loss to the state, which ought to have been made good by an
annual vote. Between 1817 and 1828 the difference between the
interest credited and that earned amounted to 744,363; and this
led to the reduction in the rate of interest effected by the act of the
latter year. The deficiency, instead of being paid off, was allowed
still to accumulate, and as the price of stock rose and the deposits
increased fresh deficiencies arose, so that by 1844 the deficiency,
which would have been 1 4 millions by the mere accumulation of
interest on the previous 744,363, had become 3,179,930. The
reduction of interest in 1844 was about enough to make the fund
self-supporting, though savings banks are always liable to loss from
the fact that deposits are in excess when the funds are high and
withdrawals when they are low; but the past deficiency was still
allowed to accumulate, although in 1863 nearly 2 millions was voted
by parliament to make gooa part of the deficiency; from 1876
income deficiency was met annually as it arose, while in 1880 there
was created to meet the capital deficiency a terminable annuity to
expire in 1908, but which by the act of 1904 was extended to 1917.
The offer of a bonus on thrift was of necessity accompanied by
provisions to guard against its being used by others than the classes
it was intended to encourage. This was done by limiting the amount
that each depositor should be permitted to pay in. The limit has
been varied from time to time, but by the Savings Banks Act 1891,
s. 11(1), the maximum amount standing in the name of any depositor
must not exceed 200, nor must interest be allowed on any sum in
excess of that amount. By the act of 1893 the maximum deposit
in any one year must not exceed 50, but a depositor may, not more
than once, replace the amount of any withdrawal made in one entire
sum in the course of a year. The replacement may be effected in
one or more sums.
When a person comes with his first deposit to a savings bank
he is required to sign a declaration, setting forth his name, address
and occupation, that he desires to become a depositor on his own
account, and that he has no money in any other savings bank. 1
If this declaration be not true, the deposits are liable to be forfeited;
but it is to be feared that few depositors take the trouble to read
what they are signing, or think much about the meaning of it. If
the depositor cannot write, the actuary of the savings bank will
usually ask him a few questions, such as his age, mother's maiden
name, &c., which may tend to identify him, or defeat any attempt to
personate him for the purpose of withdrawal.
Among the benefits conferred by the legislature upon depositors
in savings banks has been that of exemption from the jurisdiction of
the ordinary courts of law in cases of dispute with the trustees.
By the Acts of 1817 disputes were to be settled by arbitration.
By that of 1828 the barrister appointed to certify the rules of the
savings banks was made umpire in case of difference of opinion
between the arbitrators. By that of 1844 the arbitrators were
abolished, and an original ana final jurisdiction was conferred upon
the barrister. By an Act of 1876 the functions of the barrister in this
respect were conferred upon the registrar of friendly societies.
This in effect made no change in the law, for the offices of barrister
and registrar had been always held by the same persons. As early
as 1832 it was determined in the case of Crisp v. Bunbury (8 Bing.
394) that the effect of these enactments is to oust the jurisdiction of
all the superior courts of law and equity (see also Cardiff S.B. v.
Aberdare District of Oddfellows, F. S. Kept., 1887, pt. A., p. 70).
This jurisdiction has been highly beneficial to depositors in savings
banks. The costs of the awaru are limited by treasury warrant to a few
shillings, never exceeding i. The procedure is simple and elastic,
and the results are satisfactory. The central office, acting as
registrar, determines law and fact, and adjusts all the equities of
each case. Reference to the index to the registrar's decisions ap-
pended to the chief registrar's annual reports will show that many
interesting questions of law have had to be determined with regard
to so small a matter as the ownership of a savings bank deposit.
Many of the old trustee savings banks which were put on a
systematic basis in 1817, have been absorbed by the Post Office,
but while the total amount of their deposits increases, the number
of their depositors remains about the same. In 1863 there were
622 of these banks carrying on operations with 1,558,000
depositors, and deposits amounting to 40, 563, coo. In 1889
the number of banks had decreased to 380, with 1,500,000
depositors, and 45,000,000 of deposits; while in 1905 they had
still further decreased in number to 224, but the depositors had
increased to 1,730,331, and their deposits to 52,723,435. The
reason for this is that the smaller trustee savings banks, open
often only once a week for a short time, cannot give such facilities
as the Post Office, which is open every day Further than this,
owing to the break-up of the Cardiff bank in 1886, and other
smaller irregularities, a select committee of the House of Commons
was appointed to inquire into these banks. By the recommenda-
tions of this committee, an independent and permanent inspec-
tion committee was appointed, which has carried on its work
of inspection ever since, and reports annually to parliament.
This action has rather tended to merge the smaller trustee
savings banks in the Post Office. At the same time the large
banks continue to do a great business, and have become in many
ways similar to ordinary joint stock banks, affording to persons
of smaller means daily facilities for saving.
Those who have studied the habits of thrift among the people
have usually come to the conclusion that its development depends
largely on the ready facilities which exist for its exercise. To this
fact may perhaps be attributed the efforts that have been made
in various directions for establishing some means of saving
I close to the places where wages are paid. To carry out this
1 By the Post Office Sayings Bank (Public Trustee) Act 1908, the
regulations as to declaration by a depositor and the prohibition of a
depositor having more than one account do not apply to the public
trustee.
SAVINGS BANKS
245
idea, some of the large railway corporations have obtained
powers in special acts of parliament to establish savings banks
for those in their employment. The success of these banks has
been great, though it has varied much, and it is difficult to trace
any general rule of progress. Thirteen such institutions return
their operations to the Registrar of Friendly Societies. The
total amount held was, by the return for 1905, 5,513,207 in
60,427 accounts. In these banks the interest paid, as well as
the deposits, are really guaranteed by the whole assets of the
companies. Further, in order to encourage thrift among their
employes, the companies have formally agreed and bound them-
selves, by the provisions of their special acts, that the rate of
interest paid shall be higher than can be obtained in the open
market on the same security.
Other efforts have been made to establish savings banks at
factories, to be open at the time wages are paid. One great diffi-
culty, however, has been the objection many of those employed
have to their employers knowing of their savings, and their fear
lest it may affect their rate of pay. To get over this objection the
plan has been tried of employing an outside agency to hold the
savings bank. This has not been much more successful, as the
suspicion that accounts may be looked at by employers is difficult
to overcome. It is found that the most successful savings banks
are those which are carried on as a business, where the trans-
actions are so numerous that the individual feels that his own
private account is not likely to become known.
Another class of savings bank which of late years has developed
considerably, is the penny bank. These banks have a twofold
object: one to provide facilities for putting by ex-
tremely small sums for those whose means are very
limited, and the other to attract children in their
earliest years so as to train them to habits of thrift and the
realization of the importance and use of even quite small savings.
Some form of penny bank now exists in nearly every district,
and indeed in nearly every parish. No returns have been
collected, but it may be safely said that there are tens of
thousands in operation. Many of these penny banks are feeders
to the Post Office, which gives them special advantages to invest
in that institution. Not only is the gross amount of money thus
taken large, but (what is more important) the habit of thrift
and of husbanding resources is being taught to the young in all
parts of the United Kingdom. This has been one cause of the
large extension of the Post Office savings bank itself, and has
no doubt led to considerable change in the habits of the people.
In a few cases successful efforts have been made to establish
permanently these penny banks on a commercial basis, as in the
case of the Yorkshire Penny Bank, which has 858 branches,
nearly 500,000 depositors and deposits of nearly 16,000,000;
and the National Penny Bank, which has 13 branches in London,
most of them open from 9 in the morning till 9 at night, with
I 55>768 depositors, and over 2,000,000 in deposits. The
establishment of penny banks in schools has been carried on for
many years, and it is difficult to exaggerate the useful work they
have done in inculcating habits of thrift in the children, and
in adding depositors to the Post Office savings banks when the
children start in life. In England and Wales there are over
7000 of these savings banks held in the various elementary schools
inspected by the Education Department. The London County
Council has done much to promote this movement by instituting
penny banks in its various schools. Although the financial
result is not large, the educational effect of these banks is con-
siderable. It has been found that many children open accounts at
outside penny banks in preference to going to those carried on
at their own schools, but it is probable that the idea of so doing
is often suggested by the school savings bank.
With a view of bringing the savings bank still nearer the door
of the people, efforts have been made to establish collecting
savings banks. In these the collector calls at fixed periods for
the deposits. This scheme has grown out of the investigations of
a committee of the Charity Organization Society, and is based
on the idea, which undoubtedly is the fact, that many people
will make contributions when the money is called for, who will
not take the trouble to walk a few yards themselves to make
the same deposit. That this is so is proved most conclusively
by the Post Office life insurance experience, a branch of the Post
Office which is scarcely used by the people, while at the same
time collecting life insurance companies (which of course must
charge a considerable extra premium for collecting) do business
to the extent of millions. In most of these banks no interest
is given, but facilities and encouragements are afforded for
the transfer of each individual account to the Post Office as
soon as it is large enough to earn interest.
Closely allied, though essentially different, are the very
numerous sharing-out clubs which may be called temporary
savings banks. These nearly all take a weekly subscription
from their members, and, should any member die, his representa-
tive receives a certain sum, the balance left being divided at
Christmas equally among the survivors, in proportion to the
weekly subscriptions. Some of these clubs are registered, and
at a rough estimate they number about 900, with some 120,000
members. The unregistered are, however, much more numerous,
though no official information is to be had of them, and it is
certain that hundreds of thousands of pounds are divided in this
way each Christmas.
The attempt to induce sailors and soldiers to exercise habits
of thrift by the establishments of naval savings banks under
the act of 1866, and military savings banks under the act of 1859,
should be mentioned. The amount in the naval savings bank
is generally about 300,000. As might be expected the amount
does not grow. This is accounted for by the fact that the
depositors leave the service and draw out their savings. About
200,000 a year, however, goes in and out of the naval banks, and
80,000 in the army banks. This sum represents a good deal
of self-denial, when the margin within which it is possible to save
among sailors and soldiers is considered.
Closely allied to savings banks are a number of societies which need
only be briefly referred to here. The largest of them are building
societies (q.v.) under the Act of 1874, which are a very popular form
of saving, especially in certain localities. The contributions to the
shares of these societies, which are paid by instalments, differ but
little from the periodical payments into savings banks; and although
the money is not so readily repaid, notice and other forms having to
be gone through, large numbers of persons pay in and draw out
money, and receive the interest on the shares in much the same way
as they do on deposits in savings banks without any idea of building
or buying houses. In 1906 the receipts were 43,219,548 in the
United Kingdom, and the accumulated capital more than 70,000,000,
with a membership of 612,424. The action of industrial and provi-
dent societies regulated under the act of parliament of 1893, must
also be mentioned with reference to that part of their business which
is closely allied to savings banks. These societies are divided into
three classes: (a) ordinary co-operative societies; (6) societies for
carrying on various businesses, including loan and banking; (c) land
and building societies. Most of these societies, indirectly or directly,
act as savings banks, and have had considerable influence in the
growth of thrift in the United Kingdom. (See FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.)
In the co-operative societies the sales in 1905 amounted to more than
71,000,000, and the profits to over 5,000,000. These profits are
divided in different ways among the members, and they form a
saving fund of large dimensions. The societies for carrying on various
businesses, such as working men's clubs, loan and banking organiza-
tions, registered under the 1893 act, numbered 286, with total
receipts 2,020,569. These are not rapidly increasing, but they
must be included as one exhibition of the savings of the people, and
they are practically used as savings banks. The land and building
societies under the act of 1893 are not the same as those above re-
ferred to, though their action as regards savings is similar. They are
not under the act of 1874, but carry on a trade or business, including
dealings of any kind in land. Their operations are slightly increasing.
They received 336,424 from subscriptions and other sources, ac-
cording to a return of 1905, and the value of the land and mortgages
was 982 ,900. Two other classes of institutions should be referred to,
the friendly and trade societies, which exist for special purposes,
namely, to make provision in sickness, for death, for a want of em-
Eloyment, and to a limited extent for old age. They differ essentially
om savings banks, as the subscriptions are parted with and cannot
be withdrawn. But as the subscriptions are for certain definite needs,
almost certain to be required by each member, which but for those
societies would have to be provided for by direct savings in
banks, they must be mentioned in treating of the subject as a
whole. The amount held by the friendly societies is estimated at
50,459,060, subscribed by 13,978,790 members.
It was once stated with truth that the national debt was held by a
246
SAVINGS BANKS
very small proportion of the population; but this is not so now.
The various agencies which may be described as savings banks in
different forms hold over 200,000,000, which is a considerable share
of the national debt of Great Britain.
British Colonies. In New South Wales there are both state and
trustee institutions for savings purposes The Government Savings
Bank was established in 1871 and the Sayings Bank of New South
Wales in 1832. In both, sums of one shilling and any multiple of
that amount may be deposited. The Government Savings Bank
does not allow interest on the excess of deposits exceeding 300
except in the case of charitable institutions, friendly societies and
trade unions, while the Savings Bank of New South Wales does not
allow interest on the excess of deposits over the sum of 200 made by
any one individual, but allows the interest on the full deposit in the
case of charitable institutions, or a legally established friendly or
other society. The rate of interest in the Government Savings Bank
is 3%, and in the Savings Bank of New South Wales 3^%. The
following table shows the growth of depositors and deposits :
must not be less than Si or exceed $1000 in any one year; nor must
the total amount in deposit exceed $3000. There are 961 branches
of the post office savings bank and 23 offices of the government
savings bank. The following table shows the number of depositors
and amount of deposits:
Year.
Post Office.
Government
(other than Post Office).
Depositors.
Amount
standing to
Credit of
Depositors.
Depositors.
Amount
standing to
Credit of
Depositors.
1895
1900
1905
No.
120,628
150,987
165,518
Dollars.
26,805,542
37,507,456
45.367,761
No.
54,93 2
45,773
48,165
Dollars.
17,644,956
15,642,267
16,649,136
Year.
Government
Savings Bank.
Savings Bank of
New South Wales.
Total.
Number of
Depositors.
Amount of
Deposits.
Number of
Depositors.
Amount of
Deposits.
Number of
Depositors.
Amount of
Deposits.
Average Amount
per Depositor.
1885
1895
1900
1905
57,538
131,703
198,014
270,982
1,471,894
4,121,700
6,045,622
8,883,651
49,977
71.099
84,629
101.383
2,016,656
3.951,875
4,855,760
5,545,367
107,515
202,802
282,643
372,365
i
3,488,550
8,073,575
10,901,382
14,429,018
s. d.
32 8 II
39 16 2
38 ii 5
38 15 o
The Savings Bank of New South Wales was originally administered
by nine trustees, one of whom was vice-president, but by an act of
1902 the number may be extended up to eighteen. The funds of
the institution, unlike those of the Government Savings Bank, can
be applied to investments of a general nature, such as mortgages,
government and municipal securities, &c. Victoria and South
Australia have not developed the postal system, but show the largest
amount per head of population of deposits. In trustee savings banks
in Victoria the number of depositors in 1900-1901 was 393,026, in
1905-1906 466,752; the amount of deposits in the same years
9,662,006 and 11,764,179, showing an average amount per de-
positor of 24, us. 8d. and 25, 43. id. In South Australia the total
number of depositors in savings banks in 1900-1901 was 126,032, of
this number 1 1 1,537 were depositors in trustee savings banks, having
an amount of deposits standing to their credit of 3,782,575 out
of a total of 3,795,631. The average amount per depositor was
30, 2s. 4d. In 1905-1906 there were 152,487 depositors with a total
amount of deposits of 4,766,907, giving an average amount per head
of 31, 5s. 30. On the other hand, Queensland and West Australia
rely almost exclusively on the post office system. In Queensland
there were 81,025 depositors in 1900-1901, and 88,026 in 1905-1906.
Deposits amounted to 3,896,170 in 1900-1901 and to 4,142,791 in
1905-1906, giving an average per depositor of 48, is. 90. and
47, is. 3d. respectively. In Western Australia in 1900-1901 there
were 39,318 depositors and in 1905-1906 63,573. The deposits
amounted to 1,618,359 in 1900-1901 and to 2,316,161 in 1905-
1906, giving an average per depositor of 41, 33. 3d. and 36, 8s. 8d.
In Tasmania the amount, of deposits (including those oftwo joint
stock companies) was in 1900-1901 1,009,097 and in 1905-1906
',332>546. The depositors numbered 42,509 and 5 o >73i> giving an
average per depositor of 23, 143. 9d. and 26, 53. 40. The following
table shows deposits per nead of population:
State.
1900-1901.
1905-1906.
N. S. Wales . . .
Victoria ....
Queensland
South Australia
West Australia
Tasmania ....
. d-'
803
806
7 15 2
IO IO O
8 II 3
5 16 9
s. d.
10 o 8
10 6 10
876
13 15
9 19 3
884
In New Zealand there were in 1900-1901 2 12, 436 post office depositors
with an amount standing to their credit of 6,350,013 and in 1905-
1906 276,066 depositors with deposits of 8,662,023. There are five
savings banks in New Zealand not connected with the post office; in
these the total amount standing to the credit of depositors in 1905-
1906 was 1,111,931.
Canada. In Canada post office savings banks were established in
1867, but government savings banks, under the management of the
Finance Department, had been established in the maritime provinces
some years previously. The Canadian government is pursuing the
policy of transferring the accounts from the savings banks under the
control of the Finance Department to the Post Office Department,
the transfer taking place as the position of superintendent of each
place becomes vacant. In both kinds of aavinga banks a deposit
In addition to the post office and
government savings banks there
are special savings banks, such
as the Caisse d'economie of
Quebec and Montreal City and
District Savings Banks. The
chartered banks also have sav-
ings branches, but they do not
make a separate return to the
government of the amounts on
deposit in these branches. In
India, the Straits Settlements,
Orange River Colony, Transvaal,
Gold Coast, Sierra Leone and the Bahamas the savings banks are
under the post office; in Mauritius, Seychelles, Basutoland, Falk-
land Islands, Natal, St Helena, Southern Nigeria, Newfoundland,
St Lucia, St Vincent, Turks and Caicos Islands, Jamaica, Barbados,
Grenada, St Christopher, Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat, Dominica,
Virgin Islands, Bermuda, British Honduras, Cyprus, Trinidad,
Tobago, Gibraltar and Malta there are government savings banks;
in Gambia, treasury savings banks; in Ceylon and British Guiana
there are both government and post office savings banks, while in the
Cape of Good Hope, in addition to the post office savings banks,
there are private savings banks, but their business is small.
France. In France the first savings bank was instituted in Paris
by royal ordinance in 1818. It was quickly imitated in all the
principal departments. Some of those so started were independent
undertakings, but several were founded on the initiative of municipal
councils, three (Nancy, Metz, Avignon) being attached to monts-de-
pi6t6. These communal savings banks are now the rule and private
banks the exception. They are regulated by a law of 1835, amended
in several particulars by later legislation. They are created by
decree of the president on the advice of the council of state, and at
the initiative of the municipal council. Their administration is in
the hands of a council consisting of the mayor of the commune and
its directors, none of whom receive remuneration for their services.
The funds of these institutions are, with the exception of a certain
amount allowed to be retained for independent investment, handed
over to the Caisse des de-p6ts et consignations (created in 1816 for the
administration of the investment of private funds). Interest of
3l % is allowed by the Caisse des depSts, but out of that the savings
banks retain from 1 to i % for administrative expenses and the
providing of a reserve fund. Both in the private and the post office
savings banks the maximum amount standing in the name of a
depositor must not exceed 1500 fr.
The following statement shows the progress of private savings
banks 1 since 1835:
Number of
Year.
Banks including
Branches.
Number of
Depositors.
Amount of
Deposits.
Per Head of
Population.
s. d.
1840
430
35>,308
7,695,337
4 7
1850
565
565,995
5,396,680
3 2
1860
649
1,218,122
15,090,839
8 S
1870
1165
2,079,141
25,289,617
13 10
1880
H05
3,841,104
51,208,107
28 10
1890
'599
5,761,408
116,468,894
63 5
1900
1845
7,116,462
130,559,773
70 7
1905
2042
7,557,133
135,061,740
72 2
Germany. In Germany the postal savings bank has not been
adopted to any extent, but there is an elaborate system of state
insurance, which includes life, accident and old-age policies, and to a
certain extent even protection against involuntary idleness (see
GERMANY).
See the official publications of the various countries, and J. H.
Hamilton, Savings and Savings Institutions (New York, 1902).
(G. C. T. B.;T. A. I.)
1 For statistics of the post office savings banks see POST OFFICE.
SAVINGS BANKS
247
UNITED STATES
There are in the United States four kinds of savings banks:
(i) Mutual or Trustee Savings Banks; (2) Stock Savings Banks;
(3) Postal Savings Banks; (4) School Savings Banks.
i. Mutual Savings Banks are organized under state laws,
and are under the supervision of an officer usually appointed
by the governor. They have no capital, and do a strictly
investment business. All their earnings go to the depositors,
either as dividends, or to a surplus fund, which, in the event
of liquidation, also belongs to the depositors. Their management
is vested in a board of trustees, a self-perpetuating body who
serve without pay, except for specific service such as appraising
property. Executive officers and clerks are paid moderate
salaries. The proportion of annual expense to each dollar of
assets is sometimes less than -0025. The rate of interest on
deposits usually ranges from 3 to 4%. Depositors have no
voice in the management, except as citizens of the state, through
their representatives in the state legislature. Nearly all the
states limit investments carefully, though a few permit con-
siderable latitude: in New York the deposits in saving banks
are considered next to government bonds as safe investments.
In that state the deposits in savings banks are exempt from
taxation, but a franchise tax of i % annually is imposed upon
the surplus. In most other states the deposits are taxed for
state purposes. The amount which each person may deposit
in any year or half year is sometimes limited by the by-laws,
and the total sum to be received from any one depositor is usually
limited by state law. Deposits are in practice generally payable
on demand, though the banks reserve the right to require notice,
generally from sixty to ninety days, and sometimes enforce this
right in times of panic. The first savings bank incorporated
in the United States was the Provident Institution for Savings,
incorporated in Boston in 1816. The oldest in New York is the
Bank for Savings, of New York City, incorporated in 1819. The
largest deposit of any bank of this kind in the United States,
$108,720,523-82, was in 1910 that of the Bowery Savings Bank
of New York. Mutual savings banks are confined chiefly to the
states in the eastern portion of the country. The only mutual
banks outside the north-eastern states were in 1910 three in Ohio,
five in Indiana, fourteen in Minnesota, one in West Virginia, one
in California and two in Wisconsin.
Though the laws governing mutual banks vary in the different
states, the following abstract of the New York Savings Bank Law of
1875, re-enacted in 1892, and subsequently amended, gives the main
principles on which they are organized.
Thirteen or more persons may incorporate a savings bank, two-
thirds of whom shall be residents of the county where the proposed
bank is to be situated. When the certificate of organization is filed
with the superintendent of banks, who exercises supervision over all
banks chartered by the state, he is required to ascertain whether the
bank is in fact needed in the community where it is to be organized,
and to investigate the character and general fitness of the trustees.
The present superintendent of banks requires that the incorpprators
of a savings bank shall defray personally the expenses of the institu-
tion until its earnings are sufficient to meet such expenses, and also
return dividends at the rate of not less than 3%. The board of
trustees have entire control of the management of the bank. They
elect the president and other officers. A trustee who borrows any of
the bank's funds, or who becomes a surety for any other borrower,
forfeits his office. Bankruptcy or an unsatisfied judgment of ninety
days' standing will also void his office. Trustees are not allowed to
have any interest in the profits, or to borrow the deposits or funds.
The trustees of any savings bank may invest the moneys deposited
therein and the income derived therefrom as follows: (i) In the
stocks or bonds or interest-bearing notes or obligations of the United
States, or those for which the faith of the United States is pledged,
including the bonds of the District of Columbia, fa) In the stock or
bonds or interest-bearing obligations of this state. (3) In the stocks
or bonds or interest-bearing obligations of any of the United States
which has not within ten years defaulted in the payment of any part
of any debt authorized by its legislature. (4) In the stocks or bonds
of any city, county, town or village, school district bonds and union
free school district bonds, issued for school purposes, or in the
interest-bearing obligations of any city or county of this state. (5) In
the stocks or bonds of a number of specified cities without the state,
subject to the condition that if at any time the indebtedness of any of
said cities, less its water debts and sinking fund, shall exceed 7% of
its valuation for purposes of taxation, its bonds and stocks shall cease
to be an authorized investment. (6) In bonds and mortgages on
unencumbered real property situated in this state, to the extent of
60% of the value of such property. Not more than 65% of the
whole amount of deposits shall be so lent or invested. If the loan is
on unimproved and unproductive real property, the amount lent
thereon shall not be more than 40 % of its actual value. No invest-
ment in any bond and mortgage shall be made by any savings bank,
except upon the report of a committee of its trustees. (7) Also, by
virtue of a law passed by the legislature of 1898: In the first mort-
gage bonds of any railway corporation of this state, or in the mortgage
bonds of any such railway corporation of an issue to retire all prior
mortgage debt of such railway corporation, provided the bonds
satisfy certain precautionary conditions. Not more than 25% of
the assets of any savings banks shall be loaned or invested in railroad
bonds. There are other limitations of the amounts to be loaned or
invested in the securities of any one railway. Street railway corpora-
tions shall not be considered railway corporations within the meaning
of this section. An act passed in 1900 permits the investment of
deposits in the bonds of certain railways situated in other states.
These investments must conform to conditions assuring safety.
Savings banks in New York are preferred creditors of insolvent
state banks and trust companies. In 1901 a law was passed providing
for a tax of I % on the surplus of savings banks, computed on the
par value of their securities. On July I, 1910, deposits in the savings
banks amounted to $1,526,935,581-84, distributed amongst 2,886,910
depositors; interest credited for the preceding year amounted to
$53,828,625-03; expenses for the year 1909 were $5,000,053-55 or
$2-90 for each $1000 of resources. Loans on real estate, secured by
bond and mortgage, amounted to $805,053,044-63, and investments
in stocks and bonds, market value, $658,872,348-85.
Other important items in the assets of these banks are: State
bonds, $43,719,111-66; city bonds, $305,695,035-71; railroad
bonds, $250,346,600. Deposits received for the year 1909 were
$390,709,469-44.
According to reports made to the Comptroller of the Currency
there were on April 28,1909, a total of 642 Mutual Savings Banks in
the United States, with $3,304,926,005 aggregate resources. The
loans and mortgages of these banks amounted to $1,590,181,366-19,
and their investments to $1,599,532,371, classified as follows:
United States bonds $33,353,576-12
State, county and municipal bonds . . 685,099,502-18
Railroad bonds 743,425,893-93
Other stocks and bonds, including rail-
road and bank stocks . . . 137,653,399-71
These banks had, on the date named, a surplus fund of
$202,065,316-85, and $3,144,584,874 individual deposits. The
Mutual Savings Banks hold more than 22 % of the aggregate indi-
vidual deposits of all the banks in the country.
2. Stock Savings Banks are found in the more purely agri-
cultural parts of the country, the southern, Mississippi Valley
and western states, where only a small proportion of people earn
wages in manufactures and commerce; suitable investments
are not numerous, the benefits of mutual savings banks are not
familiar, and the people are unwilling to accept a low rate of
interest. In some states having stock banks there are no laws
relating to banking, and in others the savings banks carry on
their business under the same laws as commercial banks. Several
of the states restrict the investments of the stock savings banks.
Prior to 1865, when the issue of circulating notes by state banks
was suppressed by a prohibitory tax, there was a distinction
between state banks and stock savings banks; the former
could issue notes, while the latter, as a rule, could not. Stock
savings banks are conducted frequently as adjuncts of state
and national banks, occupying the same rooms and being under
the same management. Many of the national banks chartered
by the Federal government maintain " savings departments,"
though the deposits received in these departments are on the
same legal footing as other deposits and are not specially invested.
Similar departments are also to be found in many trust companies
and state banks of discount.
The law of the state of Iowa is typical of those states where stock
banks are under public supervision. A savings bank may be organ-
ized by not less than five persons. In towns of ten thousand inhabi-
tants or less it must have a capital of $10,000, and in towns or cities
with more than ten thousand inhabitants $50,000. The usual
corporate powers are granted. The amount of deposits is limited to
twenty times the capital and surplus. The usual provisions for re-
payments of deposits are made, and in addition the savings banks are
given the privilege of requiring sixty days' notice for the withdrawal
of savings deposits.
The banks are allowed to invest their funds in the following
securities: (i) Stocks, bonds or interest-bearing notes of the United
States. (2) Stocks- bonds or evidences of debt-bearing interest of the
SAVOIE SAVONA
state of Iowa. (3) Stocks, bonds and warrants of any city, town,
village or school district, or drainage district, in the state regularly
issued, but the investments of any savings bank should not consist of
such bonds or warrants to a greater amount than 25% of the assets.
(4) Mortgages or debts on unencumbered real estate within the state
worth at least twice the amount lent. (5) It is lawful for such banks
to discount, purchase, sell and make loans upon personal or public
security, except shares of their own capital stock.
Property acquired by foreclosure of mortgages, &c., may not be
held more than ten years. The rate of interest to be paid is left to the
discretion of the trustees, and the profits, after the payment of such
interest and expenses, go to capital stock. Stockholders are liable
to the creditors for double their stock, and such liability continues
for six months after the transfer of any stock. Directors receive no
compensation. Officers and directors of the bank are required to
give the same security for loans that is required of others, and such
loans can only be made by the board in the absence of the party
applying. The savings banks are prohibited from lending to any
individual or firm more than 20 % of the capital stock. All savings
banks are required to make a quarterly statement to the auditor of
the state, giving in detail the statement of condition upon a given
day. This statement is made under oath of the officers, and is re-
quired to be published. The state auditor is given the power to
examine any savings bank at any time, and must make an examina-
tion at least once a year; and should the conditions warrant, he is
required to report to the attorney-general, who institutes proceedings
under the law relating to insolvent corporations. Provision is made
for increasing the capital stock by a two-thirds' vote of the existing
shares. The corporate existence of the banks is placed at fifty years.
Michigan affords a good example of banks doing a commercial and
savings bank business under a single organization, but with the
savings deposits entirely segregated from other deposits and separ-
ately invested. The system has worked successfully and satis-
factorily. There has been much discussion among bankers through-
out the country in recent years of the propriety of enacting laws
specifically providing (a) for the creation of savings departments in
national banks, with the segregation of savings deposits, and (6) for
the enactment of similar state laws to be applicable to state banks
and trust companies maintaining savings departments. Other
proposals have been made for a government (or state) guaranty of
deposits, and this plan has been adopted in a few of the states.
On April 28, 1909, there were 1061 stock savings banks reporting,
with aggregate resources of $677,784,099-95. Their capital was
$59,506,420, and_ surplus and undivided profits $38,112,716-60.
Individual deposits subject to check, $100,708,410-57; savings
deposits, or deposits in interest or savings departments,
$366,167,901-61; other deposits, including amount due banks and
bankers, $109,911,859-91.
Number of Savings Banks in the United States, Number of Depositors,
Amount of Savings Deposits, &c..
Average
Year.
Number
of Banks.
Number of
Depositors.
Deposits.
Average
due each
Depositor.
per
Capita
in the
United
States.
1900
1 002
6,107,083
2.449.547.885
$401-10
*3i-78
1901
1007
6,358,723
2,597.094,580
408-30
33-45
1902
1036
6,666,672
2,750,177.290
4'2-53
34-89
1903
1078-
7,035,228
2,935-204,845
417-21
36-52
1904
"57
7.305,443
3,060,178,611
418-89
37-52
'90S
1237
7,696,229
3,261,236,119
42374
39-17
1906
1319
8,027,192
3,482,137,198
433-79
4IT3
1907
1415
8,588,811
3,690,078,945
429-64
42-87
1908
1453
8,705,848
3.660,553,945
420-47
41-84
1909'
1703*
8,831,863
3.713,405.710
420-45
41-75
1 Population estimated at 88,926,000, June 30, 1909.
* Not including 339 state banks and trust companies of Illinois
with $204,908,505 savings deposits credited to 641,634 savings
depositors. Including Illinois savings deposits and depositors the
average due each depositor is $413-60 and average per capita
$44-06.
On May 3, 1909, a statement was issued by Wm. Hanhart, Secretary
of the Savings Bank Section of the American Bankers Association,
showing " actual savings deposits in the savings banks, national
banks, Trust Companies and private banks in United States,"
$5,560,837,016.
3. Postal Savings Banks. By an act of the Federal Congress,
approved June 25, 1910, Postal Savings Banks were first
authorized in the United States. The management of these banks
is vested in a board of trustees composed of the postmaster-
general, secretary of the treasury, and attorney-general.
The board of trustees shall designate such post-offices as it
deems proper to be postal savings depository offices. Any
person ten years or over may be a depositor; the minimum
deposit is one dollar, and not more than $100 may be deposited
by any one person in any one month; the maximum balance to
the credit of any depositor (exclusive of interest) shall not exceed
$500. Interest, 2% annually; deposits payable on demand
without notice. The deposits in the postal savings depositories
are to be deposited in banks subject to national or state super-
vision at not less than zj% interest; 65% of the deposits
may be so redeposited in these banks; 30% invested in United
States securities, and 5% held as a reserve in the United States
treasury. But the 65% fund on deposit with the banks may
be withdrawn for investment in bonds or other securities of the
United States, but only by direction of the president, and only
when, in his judgment, the general welfare and the interests
of the United States so require. At the option of the depositor,
deposits may be converted into United States government
bonds. In making deposits of the funds in national or state
banks, the Federal government requires of those banks security
in the form of public bonds or other securities as the board of
trustees may prescribe. The faith of the United States is solemnly
pledged to the payment of the deposits.
4. School Savings Banks were first established in the United
States in 1885 by J. H. Thiry, at Long Island City, New York.
On January i, 1910, the system was in use in 1168 schools,
distributed throughout 118 cities or villages. Out of 632,665
pupils' registered in these schools, 203,458 have saved
$5,051,644-60, of which $4,180,948-59 have been withdrawn,
leaving a balance of $870,696-01 due depositors. (B. R. *)
SAVOIE, a frontier department of France, formed in 1860
of the old provinces of Haute Savoie, Savoie, the Tarentaise and
the Maurienne, which constituted the southern portion of the
duchy of Savoy. It is bounded N. by the department of Haute
Savoie, E. and S.E. by Italy, S.W. by the department of the
Hautes Alpes, and W. by those of the Isere and the Ain. Pop.
(1901) 254,781; area 2224 sq. m. It is mainly made up of the
basin of the Isere. The upper course of that river flows through
the Tarentaise, receiving (right) the Arly and later (left) the
Arc, which flows through the Maurienne, which is to a large
extent traversed by the Mont Cenis railway. Probably the
Isere formerly communicated with the Rh&ne past Chamb6ry
and the Lac du Bourget. The sources of the Isere and of the Arc
are separated by the ridge of the Col du Mont Iseran (9085 ft.).
The loftiest points in the department are the Grande Casse
(12,668 ft.), the culminating summit of the Vanoise group, the
Mont Pourri (12,428 ft.), the Pointe de Charbonel (12,336 ft.),
the Aiguille de la Grande Sassiere (12,323 ft.), the Dent Parrachee
(12,179 ft.), the Levanna (11,943 ft.) and the Aiguilles d'Arves
(11,529 ft.). A small portion of the department (including both
shores of the Lac du Bourget) is in the part of the duchy of Savoy
neutralized in 1815. It is divided into 4 arrondissements
(Chamb6ry, the chief town, Albertville, Moutiers-Tarentaise,
and St Jean de Maurienne), 29 cantons and 329 communes. It
forms the dioceses of Chambery (an archbishopric), Moutiers
and St Jean de Maurienne. The best place known to foreigners
is Aix les Bains (<?..), while other sulphur springs rise at Marlioz
and at Challes, those of Salins being saline, and those of Brides
(the best known after Aix) alkaline.
See J. J. Vernier, Dictionnaire topographique du dp. de la Savoie
(Chamb&y, 1897). (W. A. B. C.)
SAVONA, a seaport and episcopal see of Liguria, Italy, in
the province of Genoa, 27m. W.S.W. of Genoa by rail, 33 ft. above
sea-level, and after Genoa and Nice the most important of the
cities of the Riviera. Pop. (1906) 43,836 (town); 46,778
(commune). The greater part of the town is now modern. It
is surrounded with green-clad hills and luxuriant orange groves.
On the Rock of St George stands the castle built by the Genoese
in 1542, on the area of the old cathedral and now used as a
military prison. The cathedral (1589-1604) is a late Renaissance
building with a modern dome and early Renaissance choir-stalls,
puplit, &c. In the Cappella Sistina, to the north, stands the
simple, finely carved tomb erected by Sixtus IV. to his parents.
Facing the cathedral is the Delia Rovere palace erected by
SAVONAROLA
249
Cardinal Giulio della Rovere (Julius II.) from the plans of
Giuliano da Sangallo as a kind of university, and now occupied
by the prefecture, the post-office and law-courts. S. Maria di
Sastello has a large altarpiece by Foppa and Brea (of 1490).
There is a municipal picture-gallery in the hospital of St Paul.
The Teatro Chiabrera was erected in 1853 in honour of the
lyric poet Chiabrera, who was born and buried in Savona.
Four and a half miles W. is a pilgrimage church of the Madonna
della Misericordia, founded in 1536. The modern harbour,
dating from 1815, has since 1880 been provided with a dock
excavated in the rock, 986 ft. long, 460 ft. wide and 23 ft. deep.
Savona is one of the chief seats of the Italian iron industry,
having iron-works and foundries, shipbuilding, railway work-
shops, engineering shops, brass foundry, tinplate works, sulphur
mills and glass-works. It imports commodities to the value of
nearly 2,000,000 yearly, half of which is coal, with petroleum,
iron, cereals, &c. In 1906, 777,000 tons of shipping, of which about
half was British, and most of the rest Italian, entered. There is
a small export trade, chiefly in iron sheets, chemicals, wood
and candied fruits. The potteries export their earthenware to
all parts of Italy. There is a railway through the mountains
from Savona to Turin (91 m. N.N.W.).
Savona is the ancient Savo, a town of the Ingauni (see ALBENGA),
where, according to Livy, Mago stored his booty in the Second Punic
War. A buried Roman bridge lies near the stream, which has now
changed its course. The place was never of importance in Roman
times, the traffic passing to Vada Sabatia (Vado), 4 m. to the W.,
which was a harbour, and the point to which the coast road from
Rome was reconstructed in 109 B.C., and from which a road diverged
across the Apennines to Placentia. In 1191 it bought up the terri-
torial claims of the marquesses Del Carretto. Its whole history is that
of a long struggle against the preponderance of Genoa. As early as
the 1 2th century the Savonese built themselves a sufficient harbour;
but in the i6th century the Genoese, fearing that Francis I. of France
intended to make it a great seat of Mediterranean trade, rendered it
useless by sinking at its mouth vessels filled with large stones. In
1746 it was captured by the king of Sardinia, but it was restored to
Genoa by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Columbus, whose ancestors
came from Savona, gave the name of the city to one of the first
islands he discovered in the Antilles.
SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO (1452-1498), Italian monk and
martyr, was born at Ferrara on the 2ist of September 1452,
the third child of Michele Savonarola and his wife Elena Bonac-
cossi of Mantua. His grandfather, Michele Savonarola, a Paduan
physician of much repute and learning, had settled in Ferrara,
and gained a large fortune there. The younger Michele was a
mere courtier and spendthrift, but Elena seems to have been a
woman of superior stamp. She was tenderly loved by her famous
son, and his letters prove that she retained his fullest confidence
through all the vicissitudes of his career.
Girolamo was a precocious child, with an early passion for
learning. His first tutor was his grandfather, the physician;
and, in the hope of restoring their fallen fortunes, his
vcara. parents intended him for the same profession. Even
as a boy he had intense pleasure in reading St Thomas
Aquinas and the Arab commentators of Aristotle, was skilled
in the subtleties of the schools, wrote verses, studied music and
design, and, avoiding society, loved solitary rambles on the banks
of the Po. Ferrara was then a gay and bustling town of 100,000
inhabitants, its prince Bo'rso d'Este a most magnificent potentate.
To the mystic young student all festivities were repulsive, and
although reared in a courtier-household he early asserted his
individuality by his contempt for court life. At the age of
nineteen, however, he had no thought of renouncing the world,
for he was then passionately in love with the daughter of a
neighbour, a Strozzi exiled from Florence. His suit was re-
pulsed with disdain; no Strozzi, he was told, might stoop to
wed a Savonarola. This blow probably decided his career;
but he endured two years of misery and mental conflict before
resolving to abandon his medical studies and become a monk.
He was full of doubt and self -distrust ; disgust for the world
did not seem to him a sufficient qualification for the religious life,
and his daily prayer was, " Lord! teach me the way my soul
should walk." But in 1474 his doubts were dispelled by a sermon
heard at Faenza. He secretly stole away to Bologna, entered
to
Florence.
the monastery of St Domenico and then acquainted his father
with his reasons for the step. The world's wickedness was
intolerable, he wrote; throughout Italy he beheld vice triumph-
ant, virtue despised. Among the papers he had left behind at
Ferrara was a treatise on " Contempt of the World," inveighing
against the prevalent corruption and predicting the speedy
vengeance of Heaven. His novitiate was marked by a fervour
of humility. He sought the most menial offices, and did penance
for his sins by the severest austerities. According to con-
temporary writers he was worn to a shadow. His gaunt features
were beautified by an expression of singular force and benevo-
lence. Luminous dark eyes sparkled and flamed beneath his
thick, black brows, and his large mouth and prominent nether
lips were as capable of gentle sweetness as of power and set resolve.
He was of middling stature and dark complexion. His manners
were simple, his speech unadorned and almost homely. His
splendid oratorical power was as yet unrevealed; but his
intellectual gifts being recognized his superiors charged him with
the instruction of the novices. He passed six quiet years in
the convent, but his poems written during that period are ex-
pressive of burning indignation against the corruptions of the
church and profoundest sorrow for the calamities of his country.
In 1482 he reluctantly accepted a mission to Ferrara, and,
regarding earthly affections as snares of the evil one, tried to
keep aloof from his family. His preachings attracted
slight attention there, no one as he later remarked
being a prophet in his own land. An outbreak of
hostilities between Ferrara and Venice, fomented by
Pope Sixtus IV., soon caused his recall to Bologna. Thence he
was despatched to St Mark's in Florence. Lorenzo the Magnifi-
cent was then (1482) at the height of his power and popularity.
At first Savonarola was enchanted with Florence. His cloister,
sanctified by memories of St Antonine and adorned with the
inspired paintings of Fra Angelico, seemed to him a fore-court of
heaven. But his content speedily changed to horror. The
Florence streets rang with Lorenzo's ribald songs (the " canti
carnascialeschi ") ; the smooth, cultured citizens were dead to
all sense of religion or morality; and the spirit of the fashionable
heathen philosophy had even infected the brotherhood of St
Mark. In 1483 Savonarola was Lenten preacher in the church of
St Lorenzo, but his plain, earnest exhortations attracted few
hearers, while all the world thronged to Santo Spirito to enjoy
the elegant rhetoric of Fra Mariano da Genazzano. Discouraged
by this failure in the pulpit, Savonarola now devoted himself to
teaching in the convent, but his zeal for the salvation of the
apathetic townsfolk was soon to stir him to fresh efforts. Con-
vinced of being divinely inspired, he had begun to see visions,
and discovered in the Apocalypse symbols of the heavenly
vengeance about to overtake this sin-laden people. In a hymn
to the Saviour composed at this time he gave vent to his prophetic
dismay. The papal chair was now filled by Innocent VIII.,
whose rule was even more infamous than that of his predecessor
Sixtus IV.
Savonarola's first success as a preacher was gained at St
Gemignano (1484-1485), but it was only at Brescia in the follow-
ing year that his power as an orator was fully revealed. In a
sermon on the Apocalypse he shook men's souls by his terrible
threats of the wrath to come, and drew tears from their eyes by
the tender pathos of his assurances of divine mercy. A Brescian
friar relates that a halo of light was seen to flash round his head,
and the citizens remembered his awful prophecies when in 1512
their town was put to the sack by Gaston de Foix. Soon, at a
Dominican council at Reggio^ Savonarola had occasion to
display his theological learning "and subtlety. The famous Pico
della Mirandola was particularly impressed by the friar's attain-
ments, and is said to have urged Lorenzo de' Medici to recall him
from Lombardy.
When Savonarola returned to Florence in 1490, his fame as
an orator had gone there before him. The cloister garden was too
small for the crowds attending his lectures, and on the ist
of August 1490 he gave his first sermon in the church of St Mark.
To quote his own words, it was " a terrible sermon," and legend
25
SAVONAROLA
Prior at St
Mark's.
adds that he foretold he should preach for eight years. And now,
for the better setting forth of his doctrines, to silence pedants, and
confute malignant misinterpretation, he published a collection
of his writings. These proved his knowledge of the ancient
philosophy he so fiercely condemned, and showed that no ignor-
ance of the fathers caused him to seek inspiration from the
Bible alone. The Triumph of the Cross is his principal work,
but everything he wrote was animated by the ardent spirit of
piety evidenced in his life. Savonarola's sole aim was to bring
mankind nearer to God.
In 1491 he was invited to preach in the cathedral, Sta Maria
del Fiore, and his rule over Florence may be said to begin from
that date. Lorenzo sent leading citizens to him to
urge him to show more respect to the head of the state.
Savonarola rejected their advice and foretold the
impending deaths of Lorenzo, of the pope and of the king
of Naples. In the July of the same year he was elected
prior of St Mark's. As the convent had been rebuilt by Cosimo,
and enriched by the bounty of the Medici, it was considered the
duty of the new superior to present his homage to Lorenzo.
Savonarola, however, refused to conform to the usage. His elec-
tion was due to God, not Lorenzo; to God alone would he
promise submission. Upon this the sovereign angrily exclaimed:
" This stranger comes to dwell in my house, yet will not stoop
to pay me a visit." Nevertheless, disdaining to recognize the
enmity of a mere monk, he tried, but in vain, conciliatory
measures. The Magnifico then sought to undermine his pop-
ularity, and Fra Mariano was employed to attack him from the
pulpit. But the preacher's scandalous accusations missed their
mark, and disgusted his hearers without hurting his rival.
Savonarola took up the challenge; his eloquence prevailed, and
Fra Mariano was silenced. But the latter, while feigning
indifference, was thenceforth his rancorous and determined foe.
In April 1492 Lorenzo de' Medici was on his death-bed at
Careggi. Oppressed by the weight of his crimes, he summoned
the unyielding prior to shrive his soul. Savonarola reluctantly
came, and offered absolution upon three conditions. Lorenzo
asked in what they consisted. First, " You must repent and
feel true faith in God's mercy." Lorenzo assented. Secondly,
" You must give up your ill-gotten wealth." This, too, Lorenzo
promised, after some hesitation; but upon hearing the third
clause, " You must restore the liberties of Florence," Lorenzo
turned his face to the wall and made no reply. Savonarola
waited a few moments and then went away. And shortly after
his penitent died unabsolved.
Savonarola's influence now rapidly increased. Many adherents
of the late prince came over to his side, disgusted by the violence
and incompetency of Piero de' Medici's rule. The
same y ear witnessed the fulfilment of Savonarola's
second prediction in the death of Innocent VIII.
(July 1492); men's minds were full of anxiety, an anxiety
increased by the scandalous election of Cardinal Borgia to the
papal chair. The friar's utterances became more and more
fervent and impassioned. It was during the delivery of one of
his Advent sermons that he beheld the celebrated vision, recorded
in contemporary medals and engravings, that is almost a symbol
of his doctrines. A hand appeared to him bearing a flaming
sword inscribed with the words: " Gladius Domini supra
terram cito et velociter." He heard supernatural voices pro-
claiming mercy to the faithful, vengeance on the guilty, and
mighty cries that the wrath of God was at hand. Then the
sword bent towards the earth, the sky darkened, thunder pealed,
lightning flashed, and the whole world was wasted by famine,
bloodshed and pestilence. It was probably the noise of these
sermons that caused the friar's temporary removal from Florence
at the instance of Piero de' Medici. He was presently addressing
enthusiastic congregations at Prato and Bologna. In the latter
city his courage in rebuking the wife of Bentivoglio, the reigning
lord, for interrupting divine service by her noisy entrance nearly
cost him his life. Assassins were sent to kill him in his cell;
but awed, it is said, by Savonarola's words and demeanour they
fled dismayed from his presence. At the close of his last sermon
the undaunted friar publicly announced the day and hour of his
departure from Bologna; and his lonely journey on foot over
the Apennines was safely accomplished. He was rapturously
welcomed by the community of St Mark's, and at once proceeded
to re-establish the discipline of the order and to sweep away
abuses. For this purpose he obtained, after much difficulty,
a papal brief emancipating the Dominicans of St Mark from the
rule of the Lombard vicars of that order. He thus became an
independent authority, no longer at the command of distant
superiors. He relegated many of the brethren to a quieter retreat
outside the city, only retaining in Florence those best fitted to aid
in intellectual labour. To render the convent self-supporting,
he opened schools for various branches of art, and promoted the
study of Oriental languages. His efforts were successful;
religion and learning made equal progress; St Mark's became
the most popular monastery in Florence, and many citizens of
noble birth flocked thither to take the vows.
Meanwhile Savonarola continued to denounce the abuses of
the church and the guilt and corruption of mankind, and
thundered forth predictions of heavenly wrath. In 1494 the
duke of Milan demanded the aid of France, and King Charles
VIII. brought an army across the Alps. Piero de' Medici,
made alliance with the Neapolitan sovereign whose kingdom was
claimed by Charles. Then, repenting this ill-judged step, he
hurried in person to the French camp at Pietra Santa and
humbled himself before the king. Not content with agreeing to
all the latter's demands, he further promised large sums of money
and the surrender of the strongholds of Pisa and Leghorn. This
news drove Florence to revolt. But even at this crisis Savon-
arola's influence was all-powerful, and a bloodless revolution was
effected. Piero Capponi's declaration that " it was time to put
an end to this baby government " was the sole weapon needed to
depose Piero de' Medici. The resuscitated republic instantly
sent a fresh embassy to the French king, to arrange the terms of
his reception in Florence. Savonarola was one of the envoys,
Charles being known to entertain the greatest veneration for the
friar who had so long predicted his coming and declared it to be
divinely ordained. He was most respectfully received at the
camp, but could obtain no definite pledges from the king, who
was bent on first coming to Florence.
Returning full of hope from Pietra Santa, Savonarola might
well have been dismayed by the distracted state of public affairs.
Nevertheless, with the aid of Capponi, he guided the bewildered
city safely through these critical days. Charles entered Florence
on the 1 7th of November 1494, and the citizens' fears evaporated
in jests on the puny exterior of the " threatened scourge. "
But the exorbitance of his demands soon showed that he came as
a foe. Disturbances arose, and serious collision with the French
troops seemed inevitable. The signory resolved to be rid of
their dangerous guests; and, when Charles threatened to sound
his trumpets unless the sums exacted were paid, Capponi tore
up the treaty in his face and made the memorable reply:
" Then we will ring our bells." The monarch was cowed, accepted
moderate terms, and, yielding to Savonarola's remonstrances,
left Florence on the 24th of November.
After seventy years' subjection to the Medici Florence had
forgotten the art of self-government, and felt the need of a strong
guiding hand. So the citizens turned to the patriot monk whose
words had freed them of King Charles, and Savonarola became
the lawgiver of Florence. The first thing done at his instance
was to relieve the starving populace within and without the walls;
shops were opened to give work to the unemployed; all taxes,
especially those weighing on the lower classes, were reduced;
the strictest administration of justice was enforced, and all men
were exhorted to place their trust in the Lord. And, after much
debate, as to the constitution of the new republic, Savonarola's
influence carried the day in favour of Soderini's proposal of a
universal or general government, with a great council on the
Venetian plan. The great council consisted of 3200 citizens of
blameless reputation and over twenty-five years of age, a third
of the number sitting for six months in turn in the hall of the
Cinquecento expressly built for the purpose. There was also an
SAVONAROLA
251
upper council of eighty, which in conjunction with the signory
decided all questions of too important and delicate a nature for
discussion in the larger assembly. These institutions were
approved by the people, and gave a fair promise of justice.
Savonarola's programme of the new government was comprised
in the following formula: (i) fear of God and purification of
manners; (2) promotion of the public welfare in preference to
private interests; (3) a general amnesty to political offenders;
(4) a council on the Venetian model, but with no doge. At first
the new machinery acted well; the public mind was tranquil,
and the war with Pisa not as yet of threatening proportions
was enough to occupy the Florentines and prevent internecine
feuds.
Without holding any official post in the commonwealth he
had created, the prior of St Mark's was the real head of the state,
the dictator of Florence, and guarded the public weal
"Dictator ^fa extraordinary political wisdom. At his instance
"pionttce." * ne ty rann i ca l system of arbitrary imposts and so-
called voluntary loans was abolished, and replaced by
a tax of 10% (la decima) on all real property. The laws and
edicts of this period read like paraphrases of Savonarola's
sermons, and indeed his counsels were always given as addenda
to the religious exhortations in which he denounced the sins of
his country and the pollution of the church, and urged Florence
to cast off iniquity and become a truly Christian city, a pattern
not only to Rome but to the world at large. His eloquence was
now at the flood. Day by day his impassioned words, filled with
the spirit of the Old Testament, wrought upon the minds of the
Florentines and strung them to a pitch of pious emotion never
before and never since attained by them. Their fervour was
too hot to be lasting, and Savonarola's uncompromising spirit
roused the hatred of political adversaries as well as of the degraded
court of Rome. Even now, when his authority was at its highest,
when his fame filled the land, and the vast cathedral and its
precincts lacked space for the crowds flocking to hear him, his
enemies were secretly preparing his downfall.
Pleasure-loving Florence was completely changed. Abjuring
pomps and vanities, its citizens observed the ascetic regime of
the cloister; half the year was devoted to abstinence and few
dared to eat meat on the fasts ordained by Savonarola. Hymns
and lauds rang in the streets that had so recently echoed with
Lorenzo's dissolute songs. Both sexes dressed with Puritan
plainness; husbands and wives quitted their homes for convents;
marriage became an awful and scarcely permitted rite; mothers
suckled their own babes; and persons of all ranks nobles,
scholars and artists renounced the world to assume the Domini-
can robe. Still more wonderful was Savonarola's influence over
children, and their response to his appeals is a proof of the
magnetic power of his goodness and purity. He organized the
boys of Florence in a species of sacred militia, an inner republic,
with its own magistrates and officials charged with the enforce-
ment of his rules for the holy life. It was with the "aid of these
youthful enthusiasts that Savonarola arranged the religious
carnival of 1496, when the citizens gave their costliest possessions
in alms to the poor, and tonsured monks, crowned with flowers,
sang lauds and performed wild dances for the glory of God. In
the same spirit, and to point the doctrine of renunciation of
worldly enjoyments, he celebrated the carnival of 1497 by the
famous " burning of the vanities " (i.e. masks and other objects
pertaining to the carnival festivities, indecent books and pictures,
&c.) in the Piazza della Signoria. A Venetian merchant is known
to have bid 22,000 gold florins for the doomed vanities, but the
scandalized authorities not only rejected his offer but added his
portrait to the pile. Nevertheless the artistic value of the objects
consumed has been greatly exaggerated by some writers. There
is no proof that any book or painting of real merit was sacrificed,
and Savonarola was neither foe to art nor to learning. On the
contrary, so great was his respect for both that, when there was a
question of selling the Medici library to pay that family's debts,
he saved the collection at the expense of the convent purse.
Meanwhile events were taking a turn hostile to the prior.
Alexander VI. had long regretted the enfranchisement of St
Mark's from the rule of the Lombard Dominicans, and now,
having seen a transcript of one of Savonarola's denunciations
of his crimes, resolved to silence this daring preacher.
Bribery was the first weapon employed, and a car-
dinal's hat was held out as a bait. But Savonarola
indignantly spurned the offer, replying to it from the
pulpit with the prophetic words: " No hat will I have but that
of a martyr, reddened with my own blood. " So long as
King Charles remained in Italy Alexander's concern for his own
safety prevented vigorous measures against the friar. But no
Borgia ever forgot an enemy. He bided his time, and the trans-
formation of sceptical Florence into an austerely Christian
republic claiming the Saviour as its head only increased his
resolve to crush the man who had wrought this marvel. The
potent duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, and other foes were
labouring for the same end, and already in July 1495 a papal
brief had courteously summoned Savonarola to Rome. In terms
of equal courtesy the prior declined the invitation, nor did he
obey a second, less softly worded, in September. Then came a
third, threatening Florence with an interdict in case of renewed
refusal. Savonarola disregarded the command, but went to
preach for a while in other Tuscan cities. But in Lent his cele-
brated sermons upon Amos were delivered in the duomo, and
again he urged the necessity of reforming the church, striving by
ingenious arguments to reconcile rebellion against Alexander
with unalterable fidelity to the Holy See. All Italy recognized
that Savonarola's voice was arousing a storm that might shake
even the power of Rome. Alive to the danger, the pope knew
that his foe must be crushed, and the religious carnival of 1496
afforded a good pretext for stronger proceedings against him.
The threatened anathema was deferred, but a brief uniting St
Mark's to a new Tuscan branch of the Dominicans now deprived
Savonarola of his independent power. However, in the beginning
of 1497 the Piagnoni were again in office, with the prior's staunch
friend, Francesco Valori, at their head. In March the aspect of
affairs changed. The Arrabbiati and the Medicean faction
merged political differences in their common hatred to Savona-
rola. Piero de' Medici's fresh attempt to re-enter Florence
failed; nevertheless his followers continued their intrigues,
and party spirit increased in virulence. The citizens were growing
weary of the monastic austerities imposed on them, and Alex-
ander foresaw that his revenge was at hand.
A signory openly hostile to Savonarola took office in May, and
on Ascension Day his enemies ventured on active insult. His
pulpit in the duomo was defiled, an ass's skin spread
over the cushion, and sharp nails fixed in the board
on which he would strike his hand. The outrage was
discovered and remedied before the service began; and, although
the Arrabbiati half filled the church and even sought to attempt
his life, Savonarola kept his composure and delivered an im-
pressive sermon. But the signory, in feigned anxiety for the
public peace, besought him to suspend his discourses. Shortly
afterwards the threatened bull of excommunication was launched
against him, and Fra Mariano was in Rome stimulating the
pope's wrath. Savonarola remained undaunted. The sentence
was null and void, he said. His mission was divinely inspired;
and Alexander, elected simoniacally and laden with crimes, was
no true pope. Nevertheless the reading of the bull in the duomo
with the appropriate, terrifying ceremonial made a deep im-
pression on the Florentines. And now, the Arrabbiati signory
putting no check on the Compagnacci, the city returned to the
wanton licence of Lorenzo's reign. But in July Savonarola's
friends were again in power and did their best to have his ex-
communication removed. Meanwhile party strife was stilled by
an outbreak of the plague. During this time Rome was horror-
struck by the mysterious murder of the young duke of Gandia,
and the bereaved pope mourned his son with the wildest grief.
Savonarola addressed to the pontiff a letter of condolence,
boldly urging him to bow to the will of Heaven and repent while
there was yet time.
The plague ended, Florence was plunged in fresh troubles
from Medicean intrigues, and a conspiracy for the restoration
252
SAVONAROLA
of Piero was discovered. Among the five leading citizens
concerned in the plot was Bernardo del Nero, a very aged man
of lofty talents and position. The gonfalonier, Francesco Valori,
used his strongest influence to obtain their condemnation, and
all five were put to death. It is said that at least Bernardo
del Nero would have been spared had Savonarola raised his
voice, but, although refraining from any active part against the
prisoners, the prior would not ask mercy for them. This silence
proved fatal to his popularity with moderate men, gave new
adherents to the Arrabbiati, and whetted the fury of the pope,
Sforza and all potentates well disposed to the Medici faction.
He was now interdicted from preaching even in his own convent
and again summoned to Rome. As before, the mandate was
disobeyed. He refrained from public preaching, but held con-
ferences in St Mark's with large gatherings of his disciples, and
defied the interdict on Christmas Day by publicly celebrating
mass and heading a procession through the cloisters.
The year 1498, in which Savonarola was to die a martyr's
death, opened amid seemingly favourable auspices. The Piag-
noni were again at the head of the state, and by their request
the prior resumed his sermons in the duomo, while his dearest
disciple, Fra Domenico Buonvicini, filled the pulpit of St Lorenzo.
For the last time the carnival was again kept with strange
religious festivities, and some valuable books and works of art
were sacrificed in a second bonfire of " vanities." But menacing
briefs poured in from Rome; the pope had read one of Savona-
rola's recent sermons on Exodus; the city itself was threatened
with interdict, and the Florentine ambassador could barely
obtain a short delay. Now too the Piagnoni quitted office;
the new signory was less friendly, and the prior was persuaded
by his adherents to retire to St Mark's. There he continued to
preach with unabated zeal; and, since the women of Florence
deplored the loss of his teachings, one day in the week was set
apart for them. The signory tried to conciliate the pope by
relating the wonderful spiritual effects of their preacher's words,
but Alexander was obdurate. The Florentines must either
silence the man themselves, or send him to be judged by a Roman
tribunal.
Undismayed by personal danger, Savonarola resolved to appeal
to all Christendom against the unrighteous pontiff, and
despatched letters to the rulers of Europe adjuring them to
assemble a council to condemn this antipope. The council of
Constance, and the deposition of John XXIII., were satisfactory
precedents still remembered by the world. One of these letters
being intercepted and sent to Rome by the duke of Milan (it is
said) proved fatal to the friar. The papal threats were now too
urgent to be disregarded, and the cowed signory entreated
Savonarola to put an end to his sermons. He reluctantly obeyed,
and concluded his last discourse with the tenderest and most
touching farewell.
The government now hoped that Alexander would be appeased
and Florence allowed to breathe freely. But although silenced
the prophet was doomed, and the folly of his disciples
The precipitated his fate. A creature of the Arrabbiati,
a Franciscan friar named Francesco di Puglia, chal-
lenged Savonarola to prove the truth of his doctrines
by the ordeal of fire. At first the prior treated the provocation
with merited contempt, but his too zealous disciple Fra Domenico
accepted the challenge. And, when the Franciscan declared that
he would enter the fire with Savonarola alone, Fra Domenico
protested his willingness to enter it with any one in defence of his
master's cause. As Savonarola resolutely declined the trial,
the Franciscan deputed a convert, one Giuliano dei Rondinelli,
to go through the ordeal with Fra Domenico. There were long
preliminary disputes. Savonarola, perceiving that a trap was
being laid for him, discountenanced the " experiment " until
his calmer judgment was at last overborne by the fanaticism of
his followers. Aided by the signory, which was playing into the
hands of Rome, the Arrabbiati and Compagnacci pressed the
matter on, and the way was now clear for Savonarola's destruc-
tion.
On the yth of April 1498 an immense throng gathered in the
ordeal of
On.
Piazza, della Signoria to enjoy the barbarous sight. Two thick
banks of combustibles 40 yds. long, with a narrow space between,
had been erected in front of the palace, and five hundred soldiers
kept a wide circle clear of the crowd. Some writers aver that the
piles were charged with gunpowder. The Dominicans from one
side, the Franciscans from the other, marched in solemn pro-
cession to the Loggia dei Lanzi, which had been divided by a
hoarding into two separate compartments. The Dominicans
were led by Savonarola carrying the host, which he reverently
deposited on an altar prepared in his portion of the loggia. The
magistrates signalled to the two champions to advance. Fra
Domenico stepped forward, but neither Rondinelli nor Fra
Francesco appeared. The Franciscans began to urge fantastic
objections, and, when Savonarola insisted that his champion
should bear the host, they cried out against the sacrilege of
exposing the Redeemer's body to the flames. All was turmoil
and confusion, the crowd frantic. And, although Rondinelli
had not come, the signory sent angry messages to ask why the
Dominicans delayed the trial. It was now late in the day, and
a storm shower gave the authorities a pretext for declaring that
heaven was against the ordeal. The Franciscans slipped away
unobserved, but Savonarola raising the host attempted to lead
his monks across the piazza in the same solemn order as before.
On this the popular fury burst forth. Defrauded of their bloody
diversion, the people were wild with rage. Fra Girolamo's
power was suddenly at an end. Neither he nor his brethren
would have lived to reach St Mark's but for the devoted help of
Salviati and his men. Against the real culprits, the Franciscans,
no anger was felt; the zealous prior, the prophet and lawgiver
of Florence, was made the popular scapegoat. Notwithstanding
the anguish that must have filled his heart, the fallen man
preserved his dignity and calm. Mounting his own pulpit in St
Mark's he quietly related the events of the day to the faithful
assembled in the church, and then withdrew to his cell, while the
mob on the square outside was clamouring for his blood.
The next morning, the signory having decreed the prior's
banishment, Francesco Valori and other leading Piagnoni
hurried to him to concert measures for his safety.
Meanwhile the government decided on his arrest, and
no sooner was this made public than the populace Trim/.
rushed to the attack of the convent. The doors of
St Mark's were hastily secured, and Savonarola discovered
that his adherents had secretly prepared arms and munitions
and were ready to stand a siege The signory sent to
order all laymen to quit the cloister, and a special summons
to Valori. After some hesitation the latter obeyed, hoping
by his influence to rally all the Piagnoni to the rescue. But
he was murdered in the street, and his palace sacked by the
mob. The monks and their few remaining friends made a most
desperate defence. In vain Savonarola besought them to lay
down their arms. When the church was finally stormed Savona-
rola was seen praying at the altar, and Fra Domenico, armed with
an enormous candlestick, guarding him from the blows of the
mob. A few disciples dragged their beloved master to the inner
library and urged him to escape by the window. He hesitated,
seemed about to consent, when a cowardly monk, one Malatesta
Sacramoro, cried out that the shepherd should lay down his life
for his flock. Thereupon Savonarola turned, bade farewell to
the brethren, and, accompanied by the faithful Domenico,
quietly surrendered to his enemies. Later, betrayed by the
same Malatesta, Fra Silvestro was also seized. The prisoners
were conveyed to the Palazzo Vecchio, and Savonarola was
lodged in the tower cell which had once harboured Cosimo de'
Medici.
Now came an exultant brief from the pope. His well-beloved
Florentines were true sons of the church, but must crown their
good deeds by despatching the criminals to Rome. Sforza was
equally rejoiced by the news, and the only potentate who could
have perhaps saved Savonarola's life, Charles of France, had died
on the day of the ordeal by fire. Thus another of the friar's
prophecies was verified, and its fulfilment cost him his sole
protector. The signory refused to send their prisoners to Rome,
SAVORY
253
but they did Rome's behests. Savonarola's judges were chosen
from his bitterest foes. Day after day he was tortured, and in
his agony, with a frame weakened by constant austerity and the
mental strain of the past months, he made every admission
demanded by his tormentors. But directly he was released
from the rack he always withdrew the confessions uttered
in the delirium of pain. These being too incoherent to serve for
a legal report, a false account of the friar's avowals was drawn
up and published.
Though physically unable to resist torture, Savonarola's
clearness of mind returned whenever he was at peace in tois cell.
So long as writing materials were allowed him he employed
himself in making a commentary on the Psalms, in which he
restated all his doctrines. Alexander was frantically eager to
see his enemy die in Rome. But the signory insisted that the
false prophet should suffer death before the Florentines whom
he had so long led astray. The matter was finally compromised.
A second mock trial was held by two apostolic commissioners
specially appointed by the pope. One of the new judges was a
Venetian general of the Dominicans, the other a Spaniard.
Meanwhile the trial of Brothers Domenico and Silvestro was still
in progress. The former remained faithful to his master and
himself. No extremity of torture could make him recant or
extract a syllable to Savonarola's hurt ; he steadfastly repeated
his belief in the divinity of the prior's mission. Fra Silvestro
on the contrary gave way at mere sight of the rack, and this seer
of heavenly visions owned himself and his master guilty of every
crime laid to their charge.
The two commissioners soon ended their task. They had the
pope's orders that Savonarola was to die " even were he a second
John the Baptist." On three successive days they " examined "
the prior with worse tortures than before. But he now resisted
pain better, and, although more than once a promise to recant
was extorted from him, he reasserted his innocence when un-
bound, crying out, " My God, I denied Thee for fear of pain."
On the evening of the 22nd of May sentence of death was pro-
nounced on him and his two disciples. Savonarola listened
unmoved to the awful words, and then quietly resumed his
interrupted devotions. Fra Domenico exulted in the thought
of dying by his master's side; Fra Silvestro, on the contrary,
raved with despair.
The only favour Savonarola craved before death was a short
interview with his fellow victims. This the signory unwillingly
granted. The memorable meeting took place in the hall of the
Cinquecento. During their forty days of confinement and torture
each one had been told that the others had recanted, and the false
report of Savonarola's confession had been shown to the two
monks. The three were now face to face for the first time. Fra
Domenico's loyalty had never wavered, and the weak Silvestro's
enthusiasm rekindled at sight of his chief. Savonarola prayed
with the two men, gave them his blessing, and exhorted them
by the memory of their Saviour's crucifixion to submit meekly
to their fate. Midnight was long past when Savonarola was led
back to his cell. Jacopo Niccolini, one of a religious fraternity
dedicated to consoling the last hours of condemned men, remained
with him. Spent with weakness and fatigue he asked leave to
rest his head on his companion's lap, and quickly fell into a quiet
sleep. As Niccolini tells us, the martyr's face became serene and
smiling as a child's. On awaking he addressed kind words to the
compassionate brother, and then prophesied that dire calamities
would befall Florence during the reign of a pope named Clement.
The carefully recorded prediction was verified by the siege of
1529-
The execution took place the next morning. A scaffold,
connected by a wooden bridge with the magistrates' rostrum,
had been erected on the spot where the piles of the
ordeal had stood. At one end of the platform was a
huge cross with faggots heaped at its base. As the
prisoners, clad in penitential haircloth, were led across the bridge,
wanton boys thrust sharp sticks between the planks to wound
their feet. First came the ceremonial of degradation. Sacer-
dotal robes were thrown over the victims, and then roughly
stripped off by two Dominicans, the bishop of Vasona and the
prior of Sta Maria Novella. To the bishop's formula, " I separate
thee from the church militant and the church triumphant,"
Savonarola replied in firm tones, " Not from the church triumph-
ant; that is beyond thy power." By a refinement of cruelty
Savonarola was the last to suffer. His disciples' bodies already
dangled from the arms of the cross before he was hung on the
centre beam. Then the pile was fired. For a moment the wind
blew the flames aside, leaving the corpses untouched. "A miracle,' '
cried the weeping Piagnoni; but then the fire leapt up and
ferocious yells of triumph rang from the mob. At dusk the
martyrs' remains were collected in a cart and thrown into the
Arno.
Savonarola's party was apparently annihilated by his death,
but, when in 1529-1530 Florence was exposed to the horrors
predicted by him, the most heroic defenders of his beloved if
ungrateful city were Piagnoni who ruled their h'ves by his precepts
and revered his memory as that of a saint.
Savonarola's writings may be classed in three categories: (i)
numerous sermons, collected mainly by Lorenzo Violi, one of his
most enthusiastic hearers; (2) an immense number of devotional
and moral essays and some theological works, of which // Trionfo
delta Croce is the chief ; (3) a few short poems and a political treatise
on the government of Florence. Although his faith in the dogmas
of the Roman Catholic Church never swerved, his strenuous protests
against papal corruptions, his reliance on the Bible as his surest
guide, and his intense moral earnestness undoubtedly connect
Savonarola with the movement that heralded the Reformation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. G. Rudelbach, Hieronymus Savonarola and
setne Zeit, aus den Quellen dargestellt (Hamburg, 1835) : Karl Meier,
Girolamo Savonarola, aus grossentheils handschnftlichen Quellen
dargestellt (Berlin, 1836); Padre Vincenzo Marchese, Storia di S.
Marco di Firenze (Florence, 1855); F. T. Perrens, Jerome Savo-
narola, sa vie, ses predications, ses Merits (Paris, 1853) ; R. R. Madden,
The Life and Martyrdom of Girolamo Savonarola, &c. (London, 1854) ;
Bartolommeo Aquarone, Vita di Fra Geronimo Savonarola (Ales-
sandria, 1857); L. von Ranke, " Savonarola und die Florentinische
Republik " in his Hisl.-biogr. Studien (Leipzig, 1877). The standard
modern work on Savonarola is Pasquale ViTlari's, La Storia di Fra
Girolamo Savonarola e de' suoi tempi (Florence, 1887) based on an
exhaustive study of the original authorities and containing a number
of new documents (English translation by Linda Villari, London,
1889). For the orthodox Catholic view see L. Pastor's Geschichte
der Piipste, vol. iii. (Freiburg i. B., 1886-1896) and Zur Beurteilung
Savonarolas (1898), which are very hostile to the friar, and H. Lucas,
S. J., Girolamo Savonarola (London, 1899). Among other recent
works P. Villari and E. Casanova have published a Scelta diprediche
e scritti di Fra Girolamo Savonarola con nuovi documenti (Florence,
1898) ; // Savonarola e la critica tedesca (Florence, 1900), a selection
of translations from the German. See also Schnitzer, Quellen und
Forschungen zur Geschichte Savonarolas (1902). (L. V.)
SAVORY, SIR WILLIAM SCOVELL, BART. (1826-1895),
British surgeon, was born on the 3Oth of November 1826, in
London. He entered St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1844,
becoming M.R.C.S. in 1847, and F.R.C.S. in 1852. From 1849
to 1859 he was demonstrator of anatomy and operative surgery
at St Bartholomew's, and for many years curator of the
museum, where he devoted himself to pathological and physio-
logical work. In 1859 he succeeded Sir James Paget as lecturer
on general anatomy and physiology. In 1861 he became assistant
surgeon, and in 1867 surgeon, holding the latter post till 1891;
and from 1869 to 1889 he was lecturer on surgery. In the College
of Surgeons he was a man of the greatest influence, and was
president for four successive years, 1885-1888. As Hunterian
professor of comparative anatomy and physiology (1850-1861),
he lectured on " General Physiology " and the " Physiology of
Food." In 1884 he delivered the Bradshaw Lecture on the
" Pathology of Cancer." In 1887 he delivered the Hunterian
Oration. In 1879, at Cork, he had declared against " Listerism "
at the meeting of the British Medical Association, " the last public
expression," it has been said, " by a prominent surgeon against
the now accepted method of modern surgery." In 1887 he
became surgeon-extraordinary to Queen Victoria, and in 1890
he was made a baronet. Savory, who was an able operator, but
averse from exhibitions of brilliancy, was a powerful and authori-
tative man in his profession, his lucidity of expression being
almost as valuable as his great knowledge of physiology and
anatomy. He died in London on the 4th of March 1895.
254
SAVOY, HOUSE OF
Oddone.
SAVOY, HOUSE OF, a dynasty which ruled over the territory
of Savoy and Piedmont for nine centuries, and now reigns over
the kingdom of Italy. The name of Savoy was known to the
Romans during the decline of the empire. In the 5th century
the territory was conquered by the Burgundians, and formed
part of their kingdom; nearly a hundred years later it was
occupied by the Franks. It was included in Charlemagne's
empire and was divided by him into counties, which evolved there
as elsewhere into hereditary fiefs; but after the break-up of
Charlemagne's empire, the Burgundian kingdom revived and
Savoy was again absorbed in it. After the collapse of that
monarchy its territories passed to the German kings, and Savoy
was divided between the counts of Provence, of Albon, of Gex,
of Bresse, of the Genevois, of Maurienne, the lords of Habsburg,
of Zahringen, &c., and several prelates.
The founder of the house of Savoy is Umberto Biancamano
(Humbert the White-handed), a feudal lord of uncertain but
probably Teutonic descent, who in 1003 was count of
Humbert Salmourenc in the Viennois, in 1017 of Nyon on the
'handed. "" Lake of Geneva, and in 1024 of the Val d'Aosta on the
eastern slope of the Western Alps. In 1034 he obtained
part of Maurienne as a reward for helping King Conrad the Salic
to make good his claims on Burgundy. He also obtained the
counties of Savoy, Belley , part of the Tarantaise, and the Chablais.
With these territories Umberto commanded three of the great
Alpine passes, viz. the Mont Cenis and the two St Bernards.
In the meanwhile his son Oddone married Adelaide, eldest
daughter and heiress of Odelrico Manfredi, marquess of Susa, a
descendant of Arduino of Ivrea, king of Italy, who ruled over the
counties of Turin, Auriate, Asti, Bredulo, Vercelli, &c., correspond-
ing roughly to modern Piedmont and part of Liguria (1045).
Umberto died some time after 1056 and was succeeded by his
son, Amadeus I., at whose death the country passed
to Oddone, the husband of the countess Adelaide.
Oddone thus came to rule over territories on both sides of the
Alps, a fact which was to dominate the policy of Savoy until
1860; its situation between powerful neighbours accounting for
its vacillating attitude, whence arose the charges of duplicity
levelled against many of its rulers, while its dominion over the
Alpine passes brought many advantages. Oddone died in 1060,
and was succeeded by his widow Adelaide; but before her death
in IOQI his son, Peter I., became count, and subsequently the
latter's brother, Amadeus II. Under Humbert II. (1080)
occurred the first clash with the Piedmontese communes, but he
and his successors, Amadeus III. (who died on his way home
from the crusades) and Thomas I. (1189), adopted a
policy of conciliation towards them. Thomas, who
reigned until 1222, was a Ghibelline in politics and greatly
increased the importance of Savoy, for he was created Imperial
Vicar and acquired important extensions of territory in the
Bugey, Vaud and Romont to the west of the Alps, and
Carignano, Pinerolo, Moncalieri and Vigone to the east; he
also exercised sway over Geneva, Albenga, Savona and Saluzzo.
At his death -these territories were divided among his sons,
Thomas II. obtaining Piedmont, Aimone the Chablais, Peter
and Philip other fiefs, and Amadeus IV., the eldest, Savoy and
a general overlordship over his brothers' estates. Peter visited
England several times, one of his nieces, Eleanor of Provence,
being the wife of the English king Henry III., and another,
Sancha, wife of Richard, earl of Cornwall. Henry conferred
great honours on Peter, creating him earl of Richmond, and gave
him a palace on the Thames, known as Savoy House. Count
Peter also acquired fresh territories in Vaud, and defeated
Rudolph of Habsburg at Chillon. Thomas's other sons received
fiefs and bishoprics abroad, and one of them, Boniface, was made
archbishop of Canterbury. Thomas II., after capturing several
cities and castles in Piedmont, lost them again and was made
prisoner by the citizens of Turin, but was afterwards liberated.
He alone of the sons of Thomas I. left male heirs, and his son
Amadeus V. (1285-1323) reunited the scattered dominions of
his house. When Amadeus succeeded to the throne these were
divided into the county of Savoy (his own territory), the princi-
Thomat I.
pality of Piedmont ruled by his nephew Philip, prince of Achaea
(a title acquired through his wife, Isabella of Villehardouin,
heiress of Achaea and the Morea), and Vaud ruled by his brother
Louis. But although this division was formally recognized in
1295, Amadeus succeeded in enforcing his own supremacy over
the whole country and making of it a more unified state than
before, and by war, purchase or treaty he regained other fiefs
which his predecessors had lost. He fought in many campaigns
against the dauphins of Viennois, the counts of Genevois, the
people of Sion and Geneva, the marquesses of Saluzzo and Mont-
ferrat, and the barons of Faucigny. He also acted as peacemaker
between France and England, accompanied the emperor Henry
VII. of Luxemburg on his expedition to Italy, reorganized the
finances of the realm and reinforced the Salic law of succession.
He was succeeded by his sons, Edward (1323-1329), known as
" the Liberal," on account of his extravagance, and Aimone, the
Peaceful (1329-1343), who strove to repair the harm done to
the state's exchequer by his predecessor and proved
one of the best princes of his line. Amadeus VI. (1343- a eus
1383), son of the latter (known as the Conte Verde or
Green Count because of the costume he habitually wore at
tourneys), succeeded at the age of nine. He won a reputation
as a bold knight in the fields of chivalry and in the crusades,
and he inaugurated a new policy for his house by devoting more
attention to his Italian possessions than to those on the French
side of the Alps and in Switzerland. In 1366 he led an expedition
to the East against the Turks; and he arbitrated between Milan
and the house of Montferrat (1379), between the Scaligeri and the
Visconti, and between Venice and Genoa after the " War of
Chioggia " (1381). Amadeus was the first sovereign to introduce
a system of gratuitous legal assistance for the poor. He un-
fortunately espoused the cause of Louis, duke of Anjou, and
while aiding that prince in his attempt to recover the kingdom
of Naples he died of the plague, leaving his realm to his son,
Amadeus VII., the Conte Rosso or " Red Count " (1383-1391);
the latter added Nice (1388) and other territories to his domains.
During the reign of Amadeus VIII. (1391-1440), Savoy
prospered in every way. The count extended his territories
both in Savoy itself and in Italy, and in 1416 was
created duke by the emperor Sigismund. He was A J?f} deus
distinguished for his wisdom and justice, and in 1430
he promulgated a general statute of laws for the whole duchy,
in spite of the opposition of the nobles and cities whose privileges
were thereby curtailed. In 1434 he retired to the hermitage of
Ripaille on the Lake of Geneva, but continued to conduct the
chief affairs of the state and to mediate between foreign Powers,
leaving matters of less importance to his son Louis. Five years
later the council of Basel by a strange decision elected Amadeus
pope, in spite of his not being a priest, and deposed Eugenius IV.
Amadeus accepted the dignity, assuming the style of Felix V.,
and abdicated the dukedom. For nine years he remained pope,
although he never went to Rome and one-half of Christendom
regarded him as an anti-pope. On the death of Eugenius (1447)
Thomas of Sarzana was elected as Nicholas V., and in 1449
Amadeus abdicated and returned to his hermitage at Ripaille,
where he died two years later (see FELIX V.).
Under Louis Savoy began to decline, for he was indolent,
incapable, and entirely ruled by his wife, Anne of Lusignan,
daughter of the king of Cyprus, an ambitious and intriguing
woman; she induced him to fit out an expensive expedition to
Cyprus, which brought him no advantage save the barren title
of king of Cyprus, Jerusalem and Armenia. He neglected to
make good the claims which he might have enforced to the duchy
of Milan on the death of Filippo Maria, the last Visconti (1447).
His latter years were troubled by conspiracies and dissensions on
the part of the nobles and even of his own son, Philip, count of
Bresse. He went to France to seek aid of King Louis XL, but
died there in 1465. In spite of his incapacity he acquired the
city of Freiburg and the homage of the lords of Monaco. He
was succeeded by his son, Amadeus IX. (1455-1472), who on
account of ill-health left the duchy in the hands of his wife,
Yolande, sister of Louis XI. This led to feuds and intrigues
SAVOY, HOUSE OF
255
on the part of the French king and of Philip of Bresse, and
Savoy would probably have been dismembered but for the
patriotic action of the States General. On Amadeus's death,
his son Philibertl. (1472-1482) succeeded, but as he was a minor
the States General appointed his mother Yolande regent. Wars
and civil commotions occupied the period of his minority and
Savoy lost Freiburg and many other territories. Yolande died in
1472, and the regency was disputed by various claimants; Philip
of Bresse having obtained it by force, he carried off Philibert,
who died in 1482 at Lyons. He was succeeded by his brother
Charles I. (1482- 1490), who, freed by Louis XI. from the danger-
ous protection of Philip of Bresse and by death from that of the
French king, crushed the rebellious nobles and seized Saluzzo
(1487). He did much to raise the falling fortunes of his house,
but died at the age of thirty-one. Under his successor Charles II.
(1490-1496), an infant in arms, the duchy was again distracted
by civil war and foreign invasions. Charles died at an early age,
and, having no male heirs, the aged Philip of Bresse succeeded,
but reigned only for one year. Philibert II. (1497-1 504) followed,
but he was devoted only to pleasure and left the helm of state
to his half-brother, Renato, and later to his wife, Margaret of
Austria. He died without heirs and was succeeded by his
brother, Charles III. During his reign Savoy abandoned its
attitude of subserviency to France, adopting a policy of greater
independence, and became more friendly to Austria.
Under Charles III. (1504-1553), the duchy suffered a series of
misfortunes. Although the duke strove after peace at almost
. any price, he was nearly always involved in war and
Emmanuel , ' . i j- /-, j *r j
Philibert. l st m &ny possessions, including Geneva and Vaud.
At his death the whole country was overrun by
the hostile armies of Francis I. of France and of the Emperor
Charles V., while his son and successor, Emmanuel Philibert
(1553-1580), was serving in the Spanish armies. Emmanuel
could not take possession of the duchy at once, but continued
to serve the emperor as governor-general of the Low Countries.
By his victory at St Quentin over the French in 1557 he proved
himself one of the first generals of the day, and by the terms of
the subsequent treaty of Cateau Cambresis he was reinstated in
most of his hereditary possessions (1559). Under Emmanuel
Philibert Savoy lost all traces of constitutional government and
became an absolute despotism of the type then predominating
throughout the greater part of Europe. At the -same time he
raised his country from ruin and degradation into a prosperous
and powerful monarchy. He induced both France and Spain
to evacuate the fortresses which they still held in Piedmont,
made a profitable exchange of territory with the Bernese, and
acquired an extension of seaboard by the purchase of Tenda
and Oneglia (see EMMANUEL PHILIBERT of Savoy).
*^ s son an< ^ successor i Charles Emmanuel I., surnamed
/. the Great, strengthened the tendency of Savoy to
become less of a French and more of an Italian Power.
In 1588 he wrested Saluzzo from the French, but his expeditions
to Provence and Switzerland were unsuccessful. In the war
between France and Spain after the accession of Henry IV.,
he took the Spanish side, and at the peace of Lyons (1601),
although he gave up all his territories beyond the Rhone, his
possession of Saluzzo was confirmed. His attempt to capture
Geneva by treachery (1602) failed, and although on the death of
Francesco Gonzaga, duke of Mantua and Montferrat, he seized
the latter city (1612) he was forced by Spain and her allies to
relinquish it. The Spaniards invaded the duchy, but after
several years of hard fighting the peace of 1618 left his territory
almost intact. In 1628 he sided with Spain against France;
the armies of the latter overran the duchy, and Charles
Emmanuel died in 1630 (see CHARLES EMMANUEL). His son,
Victor Amadeus I. (1630-1637), succeeded to little more than a
title, but by his alliance with France his wife Christina being
a daughter of Henry IV. he managed to regain most of his
territories. He proved a wise and popular ruler, and his early
death was much deplored. His eldest son, Francis Giacinto, a
minor, lived only a year, and his second son, Charles Emmanuel
II., also a minor, remained under the regency of his mother.
That princess, in spite of her French origin, resisted theattempts
of France, then dominated by Cardinal Richelieu, to govern
Savoy, but her quarrels with her brothers-in-law led to civil war,
in which the latter obtained the help of Spain, and Christina that
of France. In the end the duchess succeeded hi patching up
these feuds and saving the dynasty, and in 1648 Charles
Emmanuel II. assumed the government. The war between
France and Spain continued to rage, and Savoy, on whose
territory much of the fighting took place, suffered severely in
consequence. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1669) the war came
to an end and Savoy regained most of the towns occupied by
France. Charles died in 1675 and was succeeded by
his only son, Victor Amadeus II. (1675-1732). The
latter's minority was passed under the regency of his //.
able but imperious mother, Jeanne of Savoy-Nemours.
He married Anne of Orleans, daughter of Henrietta of England
and niece of Louis XIV. of France. The French king treated
Victor Amadeus almost as a vassal, and obliged him to persecute
his Protestant (Waldensian) subjects. But the young duke,
galled by Louis's overbearing arrogance, eventually asserted his
independence and joined the league of Austria, Spain and
Venice against him in 1690. The campaign was carried on with
varying success, but usually to the advantage of Louis, and the
French victory at Marsiglia and the selfish conduct of the allies
induced Victor to come to terms with France, and to turn against
the imperialists (1696). By the treaty of Ryswick a general
peace was concluded. In the war of the Spanish Succession ( 1 700)
we find Victor at first on the French side, until, dissatisfied with
the continued insolence of Louis XIV. and of Philip of Spain,
he went over to the Austrians in 1704. The French invaded
Piedmont, but were totally defeated at the siege of Turin by
Victor Amadeus and Prince Eugene of Savoy (1706), and eventu-
ally driven from the country. By the treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Victor received the long-coveted Montferrat and was made king
of Sicily; but in 1718 the powers obliged him to
exchange that kingdom for Sardinia, which conferred The king-
on the rulers of Savoy and Piedmont the title subse-
quently borne by them until they assumed that of
kings of Italy. In 1730 he abdicated in favour of his son, Charles
Emmanuel, retired to Chambery, and married the countess of
San Sebastiano (afterwards Marchioness of Spigno) . His wife's
ambitions induced him to try to regain the crown, but his son
had him arrested, and he died in prison in 1732 (see VICTOR
AMADEUS II.).
Charles Emmanuel III. (1730-1773) was a born soldier and
took part in the war of the Polish Succession on the side of France
against Austria, and for his victory at Guastalla (1734) was
awarded the duchy of Milan, which, however, he was forced to
relinquish at the peace of Vienna (1736), retaining only Novara
and Tortona. In the war of the Austrian Succession, which broke
out on the death of the Emperor Charles VI., he took the side
of Maria Theresa (1742). By the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in
1748, following on the defeat of the French, Savoy gained some
further accessions of territory in Piedmont. The reign of
Charles's son, Victor Amadeus III. (1773-1796), was a period of
decadence; the king was incapable and extravagant, and he
chose equally incapable ministers. On the outbreak of the French
Revolution he sided with the royalists and was eventually
brought into conflict with the French republic. The army being
demoralized and the treasury empty, the kingdom f ne
fell an easy prey to the republican forces. Savoy French
became a French province, and, although the Pied- occupa-
montese troops resisted bravely for four years in the tfon '
face of continual defeats, Victor at last gave up the struggle as
hopeless, signed the armistice of Cherasco, and died soon after-
wards (1796). He was succeeded in turn by his three sons,
Charles Emmanuel IV., Victor Emmanuel I., and Charles Felix.
Charles Emmanuel (1796-1802), believing in Bonaparte's
promises, was induced to enter into a confederation with France
and give up the citadel of Turin to the French, which meant
the end of his country's independence. Realizing his folly he
abdicated on the 6th of December 1796, and retired to Sardinia,
256
SAVOY, HOUSE OF
GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF SAVOY.
Humbert the Whitebanded (Umberto Biancamano)
(d. after 1056).
Amadeus I. (d. c. 1056).
Oddone or Otto -Adelaide, heiress of Turin (d. 1091).
Peter I. (d. 1078).
Amadeus II. (d. 1080).
Humbert II. the Fat (d. 1103).
Bertha Emperor Henry IV.
Amadeus III.
(d. 114801 1149).
Humbert III. the Saint
(d. 1189).
Alice or Adelaide Louis VI. of
France.
Thomas I. (d. 1222).
Amadeus IV (d. 1253).
Boniface (d. 1263).
Peter II.,
earl of Richmond
(d. 1268).
Philip I. (d. 1285).
Thomas II.,
count of Piedmont
(d. 1259).
Boniface,
archbishop of Canterbury
(d. 1270).
Louis I. of Vaud
(d. 1302).
Amadeus V. the Great
(d. 1323).
Thomas III.
id. 1282).
Philip,
prince of Achaea
(d, 1334).
James (d. 1367).
Edward the Liberal
(d. 1320).
Aimone the Peaceful
(d. 1343).
Amadeus VI. (d. 1383).
Amadeus VII. (d, 1391).
Amadeus VIII.,
Anne the eastern emperor
Andronicus III.
Amadeus
(d. 1402).
Louis
(d. 1418).
6rst duke of Savoy,
afterwards Pope Felii V.
(d. MS')-
Louis
(d. 1465).
Philip, count of Geneva
(d. 1444)-
Amadtui
IX. (d.
1472).
Philip II. (d. 1497).
Louis, king of Cyprus
(d. 1482).
Philibert I.
(d. 1482).
Charles I.
(d. 1400).
Charles II.
(d. 1496).
Philibert II.
(d. 1504).
Charles III.
(d. ISS3).
Emmanuel
Philibert
(d. 1580).
Charles Emmanuel I.
(d. 1630).
Philip, founder of the
house of Nemours
id. 1533).
Louise Charles,
count of Angoulime
Francis I. of France.
Victor Amadeus I. Christina,
daughter of Henry IV. of France
(d. 1637).
Thomas Francis,
prince of Carignano
(d. 1656).
Francis Hyacinth
(d. 1638).
Charles Emmanuel II.
(d. 1675).
Victor Amadeus II. (d. 1731).
KING or SARDINIA, 1720;
abdicated 1730
Anne of Orleans, granddaughter
of Charles I. of England.
Charles Emmanuel III.
(d. 1773).
Victor Amadeus III
(d. iro6).
1. 1056).
nuel Phili
Charles Emmanuel IV.
W. 1819); abdicated
1802.
Victor Emmanuel I.
(d. 1824); abdicated
1821.
Charles Felit
(d. 1831).
Emmanuel Philibert
(d. 1709).
Victor Amadeus
(d. 1741).
Louis Victor
(d. 1778).
Victor Amadeus
(d. 1780).
Charles Emmanuel
(d. 1800).
Charles Albert (d. 1840).
King of Sardinia; abdi-
cated 1849.
Eugene Maurice,
count of Soissons
(d. 1673).
Eugene,
the famous general
(d. 1736).
Victor Emmanuel II. (d. 1878).
KING op ITALY, 1861 .
I
Ferdinand, duke of Genoa
(d. 1855).
1
Humbert 'd. 1000).
king of Italy -
Margherita of
Savoy -Genoa.
Victor Emmanuel III.,
ling of Italy (b. 1869)-
Elena Montenegro
(b. 1873).
Amadeus (d. 1890), Clothilde- Maria Pia (b. 1847)-
duke of Aosta. Prince Napoleon Louis, king of Portugal.
King of Spain, 1870-73. (d. 1891).
Margherita Humbert, Thomas
king of Italy. Genoa (1
duke of
'. 1854).
Emmanuel Philibert, Victor Emmanuel, Louis Amadeus,
duke of Aosta count of Turin duke of Abruzzi
(b. 1869). (b. 1870). (b. 1873).
Humbert,
count of Salemi
(b. 1889).
Yolanda
Margherita
(b. 1001).
Mafalda Humbert,
(0.1902). prince of Piedmont,
heir to the throne
(b. 1004).
Giovanna Amadeu.s, Aimone, Ferdinand, Pbilibert,
(b. 1907). duke of Puglia duke of Spoleto prince of Udine duke of Pistoia
(b. 1808). (b. 1900). (b. 1884). (b. 1895).
Maria Bona Adalbert, Eugene
Margherita duke of Bergamo (b. 1906)
(b. 1896). (b. 1898).
SAW SAW-FLY
257
Humbert.
01 e
while the French occupied the whole of Piedmont. After the
defeat of the French by the Austro-Russian armies during
Bonaparte's absence in Egypt, Charles Emmanuel landed at
Leghorn, hoping to regain his kingdom; but Napoleon returned,
and by his brilliant victory at Marengo he reaffirmed his position
in Italy. The king retired to Naples, abdicated once
more (1802), and entered the Society of Jesus; he
died in Rome i 11 l8l 9- Victor Emmanuel I. (1802-
1820) remained in Sardinia until by the Final Act
of the Congress of Vienna (June 9, 1815) his dominions were
restored to him, with the addition of Genoa.
From this time the fortunes of the house of Savoy are bound
up with those of Italy (see ITALY, History). Victor Emmanuel I.
abdicated in 1821 in favour of his brother Charles Felix (1821-
1831). The latter being without a son, the succession devolved
upon Charles Albert, of the cadet line of the princes of Carignano,
who were descended from Thomas, youngest son of Charles
Emmanuel I. Charles Albert abdicated, on the evening of his
defeat at Novara (April 20, 1849), in favour of his son Victor
Emmanuel II. (1849-1878), who on the i8th of February 1861
was proclaimed king of Italy. Victor Emmanuel had married
in 1842 Maria Adelaide, daughter of the archduke Rainer, who
bore him several children, viz. Princess Clothilde (b. 1843), who
married Prince Napoleon; Humbert, prince of Piedmont (1844);
Amadeus, duke of Aosta (b. 1845); Oddone, duke of Montferrat
(b. 1846); and Princess Maria Pia (b. 1847). Humbert, who
in 1868 had married Princess Margherita of Savoy,
daughter of Victor Emmanuel's brother, the duke of
Genoa, became king of Italy on his father's death in 1878. In
July 1900 he was assassinated by an anarchist at Monza. He
was succeeded by his only son, Victor Emmanuel III.,
victor born in 1869, who during his father's lifetime had
borne the title of prince of Naples. The new king had
married Princess Elena of Montenegro in 1896, by
whom he has had four children, viz. Princess Yolanda Margherita
(b. 1901), Princess Mafalda (b. 1902), Humbert, prince of Pied-
mont (b. 1904), and Princess Giovanna (b. 1907).
The second son of Victor Emmanuel II., Amadeus, duke of
Aosta, was offered the crown of Spain by the Cortes in 1870,
which he accepted, but, finding that his rule was not popular,
he voluntarily abdicated in 1873 rather than cause civil war.
In 1867 he married Princess Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo della
Cisterna, who bore him three sons, viz. Emmanuel Philibert,
duke of Aosta (b. 1869), commanding an Italian army
corps; Victor Emmanuel, count of Turin; and Louis Amadeus,
duke of Abruzzi, an Italian naval officer and a distinguished
traveller, explorer and man of science. Amadeus's first
wife having died in 1876, he married Princess Maria Letizia
Bonaparte in 1888, who bore him a son, Humbert, count of
Salemi (b. in 1889).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Luigi Cibrario, Storia della monarchic, di Savoia
(Turin, 1840), for the early history; E. Ricotti, Storia della monar-
chia Piemontese, in 6 vols. (Florence, 1861, &c.), for the period from
1504 to 1675; D. Carutti, Storia della diplomazia della corte di
Savoia (7 vols., Rome, 1875, &c.), from 1494; Nicomede Bianchi,
Storia della monarchia Piemontese (Turin, 1877), for the period from
Victor Amadeus III. onward; id., Storia della diplomazia europea
in Italia (8 vols., Turin, 1865), very important for recent history;
A. Wiel, The Romance of the House of Savoy (London, 1898), a
popular and somewhat disjointed work. (L. V.*)
SAW, a tool for cutting wood or other material, consisting of a
blade with the edge dentated or toothed and worked either by
hand or by steam, water, electric or other power (see TOOLS).
The word in O. Eng. is saga and appears, in such forms as
Dutch zaag, Dan. sav, Ger. Sage, in Teutonic languages. The
root is sag-, to cut, which is seen in Lat. secure. It is also the base
of such English words as scythe, sickle, &c. It must be dis-
tinguished from " saw," a maxim, proverb, which is etymologic-
ally and in meaning a " saying," from the Teutonic base sag-,
to say; cf. " Saga," Ger. sagen.
SAWANTWARI, or SAVANTVADI, a native state of Bombay,
India. Area, 925 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 217,732, showing an
increase of 13% during the preceding decade. The surface is
xxiv. 9
broken and rugged, interspersed with densely- wooded hills;
in the valleys are gardens and groves of cocoa-nut and betel-nut
palms. Sawantwari has no considerable rivers; the chief
streams are the Karli on the north and the Terakhol on the
south, both navigable for small craft. The climate is humid and
relaxing, with an average annual rainfall of 150 in. The esti-
mated revenue is 28,000. The chief, whose title is sar desai,
is a Mahratta of the Bhonsla family, who traces back his descent
to the i6th century. There are special manufactures of orna-
ments carved out of bison-horn, painted and inlaid lacquer-work,
and gold and silver embroidery. The town of SAWANTWAKI,
or Vadi, is picturesquely situated on the bank of a large lake,
17 m. E. of the seaport of Vengurla. Pop. (1901) 10,213.
Before the establishment of Portuguese power Sawantwari
was the highway of a great traffic between the coast and the
interior; but during the i6th and I7th centuries trade suffered
much from the rivalry of the Portuguese, and in the disturbances
of the i8th century it almost entirely disappeared. In conse-
quence of piracy, the whole coast-line (including the port of
Vengurla) was ceded to the British in 1812.
SAW-FLY, the name given to the members of a well-known
subdivision (Symphyta) of the Hymenoptera characterized by
possessing a sessile abdomen which hides the base of the posterior
legs. The antennae vary in their structure and in the number
of their joints. Two of the processes of the ovipositor are
modified to form saws, which when at rest lie in a sheath formed
of two other processes which are modified into protective
structures or valves. The larvae are usually caterpillars, but
may be distinguished from the caterpillars of Lepidoptera (moths
and butterflies)
by the greater
number of their
abdominal pro-
legs; usually 6
to 8 pairs are
present. When
alarmed they roll^
themselves up in
a spiral fashion;
some also dis-
charge a thin flu id
from lateral pores
situated above the
Turnip Saw-Fly (Athalia spinarum). Saw-
spiracles. The ply (magnified, with lines to left showing natural
females place size) , caterpillars, pupa and pupa-case,
their eggs in small
incisions made by means of their saws in the soft parts of
leaves. Usually one egg is placed in each slit. Some species
merely attach their eggs in strings to the exterior of the leaves.
With each incision a drop of fluid is usually excreted, which
serves to excite a flow of sap to the wounded part. The egg is
said to absorb this sap, and so to increase in size. One genus
(Nematus) alone forms galls. These occur in the young leaves
of the willow, a tree which the true gall-flies do not attack.
Nematus ventricosus resembles the bees and wasps in the fact
that the parthenogenetic ova produce only males; as a rule in
the animal kingdom the absence of fertilization results in the
production of females.
The injury which the saw-flies inflict upon crops or young trees is
almost entirely brought about by the voracious habits of the larvae.
These possess well-developed mouth-appendages, by means of which
they gnaw their way out of the leaf in which they have been hatched,
and then eat it. In this way the turnip saw-fly (Athalia spinarum),
not to be confused with the turnip "fly," abeet\e(Phyllotretanemorum) ,
attacks the leaves of the turnip, often completely consuming the
leafage of acres at a time. The pine saw-fly (Lophyrus pini\ causes
great damage to plantations of young Scotch firs, devouring the
buds, the leaves and even the bark of the young shoots. Other
species infest currant and gooseberry bushes, consuming the soft
parts of the leaves, and leaving only the tough veins. The only
remedy in most cases is to collect and kill the larvae when they first
appear, or to spray the plants with some arsenical wash. The
best known family of saw-flies is that of the Tenthredinidae, most of
whose caterpillars feed on leaves. The larvae of other families the
Cephidae and Siricidae are internal feeders, burrowing in succulent
SAWTREY SAXE, COMTE DE
or woody stems, and their limbs are in an extremely reduced con-
dition.
SAWTREY, WILLIAM (d. 1401), English Lollard, was a
priest at Lynn who was summoned before the bishop of Norwich
for heresy in 1399. He does not appear at this time to have been
seriously punished, and at the beginning of 1401 he is found in
London, where his preaching again attracted the notice of the
ecclesiastical authorities. The statute De haeretico comburendo
had just been introduced for the purpose of stamping out heresy,
but it had not become law when Sawtrey was summoned to
St Paul's and was charged with denying transubstantiation,
with refusing to adore the cross except as a symbol, and with six
other heresies. He defended himself ably against Archbishop
Thomas Arundel, but in February he was condemned and was
degraded from the priesthood. Being the first Lollard to be put
to death he was burned at St Paul's Cross in March 1401.
SAWYER, SIR ROBERT (1633-1692), English lawyer, a
younger son of Sir Edmund Sawyer, auditor of the city of London,
was educated at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he dis-
tinguished himself in classical learning, being the first Craven
Scholar in 1648. He acquired a good practice at the bar, and in
1673 he was elected to the House of Commons, where for a short
time in 1678 he was speaker. He inclined to the side of the
court in politics, but was a strong opponent of concession to the
Roman Catholics, and was one of the draftsmen of the Exclusion
Bill. About the same time he began to appear as counsel in
important state trials; he prosecuted Sir George Wakeman
and others accused of complicity in the Popish plot in 1679;
in 1681, having been in that year appointed attorney-general,
he appeared for the crown in the prosecutions of Stephen
College and Lord Shaftesbury; in the following year in the
proceedings agtinst the charter of the city of London; and in
1683 against Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney for complicity
in the Rye House plot; and he conducted the case against Titus
Gates for perjury in 1685. Although James II. retained him as
attorney-general, he proved himself by no means a complacent
instrument of the royal prerogative; he advised the king against
the legality of the dispensing power, and objected to signing the
patents appointing Roman Catholics to office from which they
were excluded by law. He was dismissed from the attorney-
generalship in 1687, and in the following year he appeared
as leading counsel for the defence of the seven bishops, whose
acquittal he secured. On the flight of James II., Sawyer main-
tained that the throne had thereby been abdicated, and took a
prominent part in the debates on the constitutional questions
then brought to the front. Owing to an attack upon him in
1690 in relation to his conduct in the case of Sir Thomas Arm-
strong in 1684, Sawyer was expelled from the House of Commons,
but was returned again for Cambridge University shortly after-
wards. He died on the 3oth of July 1692. Sawyer's only
daughter married Thomas Herbert, 8th earl of Pembroke.
See Slate Trials, vols. vii.-xii. ; Laurence Eachard, History of
England (3 vols., London, 1707-1718), especially for Sawyer's
defence of the seven bishops; Narcissus Luttrell, Brief Relation of
State A/airs, 1678-1714 (Oxford, 1857); Gilbert Burnet, History of
His Own Times (6 vols., Oxford, 1833) ; and the Histories of England
by Hallam and Lord Macaulay.
SAX, ANTOINE JOSEPH, known as ADOWHE (1814-1894),
maker of musical instruments, was born at Dinant in Belgium
on the 6th of November 1814 and died in Paris in 1894. In
1835 he perfected a bass clarinet superior to any that had
preceded it. He came to Paris in 1842 and succeeded in interest-
ing many eminent men, including Berlioz and Halevy. He set
up a workshop in the Rue St Georges and studied acoustics,
discovering a new principle in the manufacture of wind instru-
ments, viz. that it is the proportions given to a column of air
vibrating in a sonorous tube, and these alone, that determine
the character of the timbre produced: the material of the walls
of the tube is not of the slightest importance so long as it offers
enough resistance. Together with his genius for mechanical
invention Sax seems to have combined a knowledge of self-
advertisement, and his name was often prefixed to successful
types of instrument for the invention of which he was not
primarily responsible. In 1845 he patented his saxhorn and a
family of cylinder instruments called saxotrombas. On the
22nd of June 1846 he registered the saxophone. He also effected
various improvements in piston instruments, of which the most
important was the substitution of a single ascending piston for
a number of descending ones.
See J. P. O. Cornettant, Histoire d'un inventeur (1860) ; C. Pilard,
Les Inventions Sax (1869).
SAXE, JOHN GODFREY (1816-1887), American poet, was
born at Highgate, Vermont, on the 2nd of June 1816. He
graduated at Middlebury College in 1839, and was admitted to
the bar at St Albans, Vermont, in 1843. From 1850 to 1856 he
edited the Burlington (Vermont) Sentinel, in 1859 and in 1860 was
the candidate of the Democratic party for governor of Vermont,
in 1860 removed to New York, and after 1872 edited the Evening
Journal at Albany, New York, where he died on the 3ist of
March 1887. He was best known as a writer of humorous verse
and a lecturer. His travesties and satires found many readers
or listeners, and some of his love lyrics and other poems combine
sparkle with real feeling. His " Rhyme of the Rail," " The
Proud Miss McBride," " I'm Growing Old " and " Treasures
in Heaven " were once very popular. Among his published
collections are Humorous and Satirical Poems (1850), The Times,
The Telegraph, and other Poems (1865), and Leisure Day Rhymes
(1875)-
SAXE, MAURICE, COMTE DE (1696-1750), marshal of France,
was the natural son of Augustus II. of Saxony and the countess
Aurora Konigsmark, and was born at Goslar on the 28th of
October 1696. In 1698 the countess sent him to Warsaw to his
father, who had been elected king of Poland in the previous year,
but on account of the unsettled condition of the country the
greater part of his youth was spent outside its limits. This
separation from his father made him independent of control and
had an important effect on his future career. At the age of
twelve he was present, with the army of Eugene, at the sieges
of Tournay and Mons and the battle of Malplaquet, but the
achievements ascribed to him in this campaign are chiefly
fabulous. A proposal to send him at the close of it to a Jesuit
college at Brussels was relinquished on account of the protests
of his mother; and, returning to the camp of the allies in the
beginning of 1710, he displayed a courage so impetuous as to
call forth from Eugene the friendly admonition not to confound
rashness with valour. He next served under Peter the Great
against the Swedes. After receiving in 1711 formal recognition
from his father, with the rank of count, he accompanied him to
Pomerania, and in 1712 he took part in the siege of Stralsund.
In manhood he bore a strong resemblance to his father, both in
person and character. His grasp was so powerful that he could
bend a horse-shoe with his hand, and to the last his energy and
endurance were scarcely subdued by the illnesses resulting from
his many excesses. In 1 7 14 a marriage was arranged between him
and one of the richest of his father's subjects, Johanna Victoria,
Countess von Loeben, but he dissipated her fortune so rapidly
that he was soon heavily in debt, and, having given her more
serious grounds of complaint against him, he consented to an
annulment of the marriage in 1721. Meantime, after serving
in a campaign against the Turks in 1717, he had in 1719 gone to
Paris to study mathematics, and in 1720 obtained a commission
as marechal de camp. In 1725 negotiations were entered into
for his election as duke of Courland, at the instance of the
duchess Anna Ivanovna, who offered him her hand. He was
chosen duke in 1726, but declining marriage with the duchess
found it impossible to resist her opposition to his claims, although,
with the assistance of 30,000 lent him by the French actress
Adrienne Lecouvreur, whose story forms the subject of Scribe
and Legouv6's tragedy, he raised a force by which he maintained
his authority till 1727, when he withdrew and took up his
residence in Paris. On the outbreak of the war in 1734 he
served under Marshal Berwick, and for a brilliant exploit at the
siege at Philippsburg he was in August named lieutenant-general.
On the opening of the Austrian Succession War in 1741, he took
command of a division of the army sent to invade Austria, and
SAXE-ALTENBURG SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA
259
on the igth November surprised Prague during the night, and
took it by assault before the garrison were aware of the presence
of an enemy, a coup de main which made him famous throughout
Europe. After capturing the strong fortress of Eger on the
igth April 1742, he received leave of absence, and went to
Russia to push his claims on the duchy of Courland, but obtaining
no success he returned to his command. His exploits had been
the sole redeeming feature in an unsuccessful campaign, and on
26th March 1743 his merits were recognized by his promotion
to be marshal of France. From this time he became one of the
first generals of the age. In 1 744 he was chosen to command the
expedition to England in behalf of the Pretender,which assembled
at Dunkirk but did not proceed farther. After its abortive issue
he received an independent command in the Netherlands, and by
dexterous manoeuvring succeeded in continually harassing the
superior forces of the enemy without risking a decisive battle.
In the following year he besieged Tournai and inflicted a severe
defeat on the relieving army of the duke of Cumberland at
Fontenoy (?..), a battle of which the issue was due entirely to
his constancy and cool leadership. During the battle he was
unable on account of dropsy to sit on horseback except for a few
minutes, and was carried about in a wicker chariot. In recogni-
tion of his brilliant achievement the king conferred on him the
castle of Chambord for life, and in April 1746 he was naturalized
as a French subject. Thenceforward to the end of the war he
continued to command in the Netherlands, always with success.
Besides Fontenoy he added Rocoux (1746) and Lawfeldt or Val
(1747) to the list of French victories, and it was under his orders
that Marshal Lowendahl captured Bergen-op-Zoom. He himself
won the last success of the war in capturing Maestricht in 1748.
In 1 747 the title formerly held by Turenne, " Marshal general
of the King's camps and armies," was revived for him. But
on the 3Oth of November 1750 he died at Chambord "of a
putrid fever." In 1748 there had been born to him a daughter,
one of several illegitimate children, whose great-granddaughter
was George Sand.
Saxe was the author of a remarkable work on the art of war, Mes
Reveries, which though described by Carlyle as "a strange military
farrago, dictated, as I should think, under opium," is in fact a classic.
It was published posthumously in 1757 (ed. Paris, 1877). His
Lettres et memoires choisis appeared in 1794. His letters to his
sister, the princess of Holstem, preserved at Strassburg, were de-
stroyed by the bombardment of that place in 1870; thirty copies
had, however, been printed from the original. Many previous errors
in former biographies were corrected and additional information
supplied in Carl von Weber's Moritz, Graf von Sachsen, Marschall
von Frankreich, nach archivalischen Quellen (Leipzig, 1863), in St Ren6
Taillandier's Maurice de Saxe, etude historique d'apres les documents
des archives de Dresde (1865) and in C. F. Vitzthum's Maurice de
Saxe (Leipzig, 1861). See also the military histories of the period,
especially Carlyle's Frederick the Great.
SAXE-ALTENBURG (Ger. Sachsen- Altenburg), a duchy in
Thuringia, forming an independent member of the German
Empire and consisting of two detached and almost equal parts,
separated from each other by a portion of Reuss, and bounded
on the S. and W. by the grand duchy of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach,
on the N. by Prussia, and on the E. by the kingdom of Saxony.
There are in addition twelve small exclaves. The total area is
511 sq. m., of which 254 are in the east, or Altenburg, division,
and 257 in the west, or Saal-Eisenberg, division. The eastern
district, traversed by the most westerly offshoots of the Erzge-
birge and watered by the Pleisse and its tributaries, forms an
undulating and fertile region, containing some of the richest
agricultural soil in Germany. The western district, through
which the Saale flows, is rendered hilly by the foothills of the
Thuringian Forest, and in some measure makes up by its fine
woods for its comparatively poor soil. The mineral wealth of
Saxe-Altenburg is scanty; lignite, the chief mineral, is worked
mainly in the eastern district. Nearly 60% of the entire duchy
is occupied by arable land, and about 26% by forests, mainly
consisting of conifers. Oats, rye, wheat and potatoes are the
chief crops. Cattle-raising and horse-breeding are of considerable
importance. About 35% of the population are directly sup-
ported by agriculture. The manufactures of the duchy are
varied, though none is of first-rate importance; woollen goods,
gloves, hats, porcelain and earthenware, bricks, sewing-machines,
paper, musical instruments, sausages and wooden articles are
the chief products. Trade in these, and in horses, cattle and
agricultural produce, is brisk. The chief seats of trade and
manufacture are Altenburg the capital, Ronneburg, Schmolln,
Gossnitz and Meuselwitz in the Altenburg division; and Eisen-
berg, Roda and Kahla in the Saal-Eisenberg division. Besides
these there are the towns of Lucka, Orlamiinde and Russdorf
in an exclave. The duchy includes one of the most densely
inhabited districts in the Thuringian states. The population in
1905 was 206,508, of whom 200,511 were Protestants and 5449
Roman Catholics. In the west division the population is wholly
Teutonic, but in the east there is a strong Wendish or Slavonic
element, still to be traced in the peculiar manners and costume
of the country-people, though these are gradually disappearing.
The Altenburg peasants are industrious and prosperous; they
are said to be avaricious, but to love pleasure, and to gamble
for high stakes, especially at the card game of Skat (q.v.), which
many believe to have been invented here. Their holdings are
rarely divided, and a common custom is the inheritance of landed
property by the youngest son. They are decreasing in numbers.
Saxe-Altenburg is a limited hereditary monarchy, its con-
stitution resting on a law of 1831, subsequently modified. The
diet consists of 32 members, elected for 3 years, of whom 9 are
returned by the highest taxpayers, 1 1 by the towns and 1 2 by the
country districts. The franchise is enjoyed by all males over
25 years of age who pay taxes. The duke has considerable
powers of initiative and veto. The executive is divided into
four departments, justice, finance, the interior, and foreign and
ecclesiastical affairs. The annual revenue and expenditure stand
at about 230,000 each. There was a public debt in 1909 of
44,370. Saxe-Altenburg has one vote in the Reichstag and one
in the Bundesrat (federal council).
History. The district now forming the duchy of Saxe-Alten-
burg came into the possession of the margrave of Meissen about
1329, and later with Meissen formed part of the electorate of
Saxony. On the division of the lands of the Wettins in 1485
it was assigned to the Albertine branch of the family, but in
1554 it passed by arrangement to the Ernestine branch. In
1603 Saxe-Altenburg was made into a separate duchy, but this
only lasted until 1672, when the ruling family became extinct and
the greater part of its lands was inherited by the duke of Saxe-
Gotha. In 1825 the family ruling the duchy of Saxe-Gotha-
Altenburg became extinct and another division of the Saxon
lands was made. Frederick (d. 1834) exchanged the duchy of
Saxe-Hildburghausen, which he had ruled since 1780, for Saxe-
Altenburg, and was the founder of the present reigning house.
In answer to popular demands a constitution was granted to
Saxe-Altenburg in 1831, and greater concessions were extorted
by the more threatening disturbances of 1848. In November
of this year Duke Joseph abdicated and was succeeded by his
brother George. Under George's son Ernest (1826-1908), who
became duke in 1853, a period of reaction began and the result
was that the constitution was made less liberal. In 1874 a long
dispute over the public domains was settled, two-thirds of these
being assigned to the duke in lieu of a civil list. In 1908 Ernest
was succeeded by his nephew Ernest (b. 1871).
See Frommelt, Sachsen-altenburghische Landeskunde (Leipzig,
1838-1841); L. von Braun, Erinnerungsblatter aus der Geschichte
Allenburgs 1525-1826 (Altenburg, 1876); Malzer, Die Landwirt-
schaft im Herzogtum Altenburg (Stuttgart, 1907); Albrecht, Das
Domanenwesen im Herzogtum Saxe-Altenburg (Jena, 1905) ; and E.
Lohe, Altenburgica (Altenburg, 1878).
SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA (Ger. Sachsen-Koburg-Gotha), a
sovereign duchy of Germany, in Thuringia, and a constituent
member of the German empire, consisting of the two formerly
separate duchies of Coburg and Gotha, which lie at a distance
of 14 m. from each other, and of eight small scattered exclaves,
the most northerly of which is 70 m. from the most southerly.
The total area is 764 sq. m., of which about 224 are in Coburg
and 540 in Gotha. The duchy of Coburg is bounded on the
S.E., S., and S.W. by Bavaria, and on the other sides by Saxe-
260
SAXE-MEININGEN
Meiningen, which, with part of Prussia, separates it from Gotha.
The considerable exclave of Konigsberg in Bavaria, 10 m. south,
belongs to Coburg. Lying on the south slope of the Thuringian
Forest, and in the Franconian plain, the duchy of Coburg is an
undulating and fertile district, reaching its highest point in the
Senichshohe (1716 ft.) near Mirsdorf. Its streams, the chief of
which are the Itz, Biberach, Steinach and Rodach, all find their
way into the Main. The duchy of Gotha, more than twice the
size of Coburg, stretches from the south borders of Prussia along
the northern slopes of the Thuringian Forest, the highest summits
of which (Der grosse Beerberg, 3225 ft.; Schneekopf, 3179 ft.;
and Inselsberg, 2957 ft.) rise within its borders. The more open
and level district on the north is spoken of as the " open country "
(das Land) in contrast to the wooded hills of the " forest " (der
Wold}. The Gera, Horsel, Unstrut and other streams of this
duchy flow to the Werra, or to the Saale. The climate is that
of the other central states of Germany, temperate in the valleys
and plains and somewhat inclement in the hilly regions.
Industries and Population. In both duchies the chief industry
is agriculture, which employs about 30% of the entire popula-
tion. According to the returns for 1905, about 50% of the area
was occupied by arable land, 10% by meadow-land and pasture
and 30% by forest. In the same year the chief crops were oats,
barley, rye, wheat, potatoes and hay. A small quantity of hemp
and flax is raised, but a considerable quantity of fruit and
vegetables is annually produced, and some wine, in the Coburg
district of Konigsberg. Cattle-breeding is important, especially
in Gotha and the Itz valley in Coburg. Beehives are numerous
and produce excellent honey, and poultry is reared in large
numbers for export. The mineral wealth of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
is insignificant, small quantities of coal, lignite, ironstone and
millstone being annually raised. There are also salt-works, and
some deposits of potter's day.
The manufactures of the duchies, especially in the mountainous
parts less favourable for agriculture, are tolerably brisk, but there
is no large industrial centre in the country. Iron goods and
machinery, glass, earthenware, chemicals and wooden articles,
including large quantities of toys, are produced; and various
branches of textile industry are carried on. Coburg (pop. 1905,
24,289) and Gotha (36,893) are the chief towns of the duchies,
to which they respectively give name; the latter is the capital
of the united duchy. There are nine other small towns, and 320
villages and hamlets. Friedrichroda and Ruhla, the Inselsberg
and the Schneekopf and other picturesque points, annually
attract an increasing number of summer visitors and tourists.
The population in 1905 was 242,432 (117,224 males and 123,208
females), or about 200 to the square mile. Of these 71,512 were
in Coburg and 170,920 in Gotha; the relative density in either
duchy being about equal. In Coburg the people belong to the
Franconian and in Gotha to the Thuringian branch of the
Teutonic family, and, according to religious confessions, almost
theentire population is Lutheran, Roman Catholics only number-
ing some 3000 and Jews about 700.
Constitution and Administration. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is a
limited hereditary monarchy, its constitution resting on a law
of 1852, modified in 1874. For its own immediate affairs each
duchy has a separate diet, but in more important and general
matters a common diet, formed of the members of the separate
diets and meeting at Coburg and Gotha alternately, exercises
authority. The members are elected for four years. The Coburg
diet consists of eleven members and the Gotha diet of nineteen.
The franchise is extended to all male taxpayers of twenty-five
years of age and upwards. The ministry has special departments
for each duchy, but is under a common president. There is a
sub-department for the control of ecclesiastical affairs, which
are locally managed by ephories, twelve in number. The united
duchy is represented in the imperial Bundesrat by one member
and in the Reichstag by two members, one for each duchy. By
treaty with Prussia in 1867 the troops of the duchy are incor-
porated with the Prussian army. The budget is voted in either
duchy for four years, a distinction being made between domain
revenue and state revenue. Taking both together the receipts
into the exchequer on behalf of Coburg were estimated for 1909-
1910 at about 100,000 and those for Gotha at about 200,000,
while the common state expenditure amounted to about the
same sum. The civil list of the reigning duke is fixed at 15,000
a year, in addition to half the proceeds of the Gotha domains,
after 5000 has been deducted and paid into the state exchequer,
and half the net revenue of the Coburg domains. Besides the
civil list the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha enjoys a very large
private fortune, amassed chiefly by Ernest I., who sold the
principality of Lichtenberg, which the congress of Vienna had
bestowed upon him in recognition of his services in 1813, to
Prussia for a large sum of money.
History. The district of Coburg came into the possession of
the family of Wettin in the i4th century, and after the Wettins
had become electors of Saxony this part of their lands fell at the
partition of 1485 to the Ernestine branch of the house. In 1572
Gotha was given to John Casimir, a son of the Saxon duke
John Frederick, but when he died childless in 1633 it passed to
another branch of the family. In 1680, as Saxe-Coburg, it was
formed into a separate duchy for Albert, one of the seven sons of
Ernest I., duke of Saxe-Gotha (d. 1675), but he died childless in
1699, when his possessions were the subject of vehement conten-
tions among the collateral branches of the Saxon house. Eventu-
ally it was assigned to Albert's youngest brother, John Ernest
(d. 1729), who called himself duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and
who left two sons, Christian Ernest and Francis Josiah, who
ruled the land together, the principle of primogeniture being
introduced by the survivor of the two, Francis Josiah. Under
this duke and his son and successor, Ernest Frederick, the land
was plunged into bankruptcy and a commission was appointed
to manage its finances. The measures adopted to redeem the
country's credit were successful, but they imposed much hardship
on the people and a rising took place which was only quelled by
the aid of troops from electoral Saxony. Duke Francis died
in December 1806 and was succeeded by his son Ernest, although
the country was occupied by the French from 1807 to 1816.
Also an early possession of the Wettins, Gotha fell at the
partition of 1485 to the Albertine branch of the family, but was
transferred to the Ernestine branch by the capitulation of
Wittenberg of 1547. In 1554 it became a separate duchy, its
line of rulers being founded by Duke John Frederick, a son of
the dispossessed elector of Saxony, John Frederick, and becoming
extinct in 1638. In 1640 Saxe-Gotha came into the possession
of Ernest the Pious, and after his death in 1675 its duke was his
eldest son Frederick (d. 1691), whose family, having inherited
Altenburg, became extinct in February 1825 with the death of
Duke Frederick IV. This event was followed in 1826 by a re-
distribution of the Saxon lands. Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg-.
Saalfeld, exchanged Saalfeld for Gotha, took the title of duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and became the founder of the present ruling
house.
Ernest II. (1818-1893) succeeded to the duchy in 1844, and
during his long reign various reforms were achieved and the
union of the two parts of the duchy was made closer. This duke
had no issue, and the succession passed to the children of his
brother Albert, the English prince consort. In 1855 his second
son, Prince Alfred, had been declared heir to the duchy, and he
succeeded his uncle in 1893. When he died without sons in
July 1900, the succession having been renounced by his brother,
the duke of Connaught and his issue, Saxe-Coburg passed to
Charles Edward, duke of Albany (b. 1884), a nephew of the late
duke. For many years there had been trouble between the ruler
and the people over the ownership of the extensive crown lands,
it being evidently feared at one time that an English prince might
renounce the throne and yet claim the lands. The matter was
settled by a law of 1905, on the lines mentioned in the earlier
section of this article.
See Fleischmann, Zur Geschichte des Herzogtums Sachsen- Coburg
(Hildburghausen, 1880); A. Lotz, Koburgische Landesgeschichte
(Coburg, 1892).
SAXE-MEININGEN (Ger. Sacksen-Meiningen), a duchy in
Thuringia, forming an independent member of the German
SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH
261
empire and consisting chiefly of an irregular crescent-shaped
territory, which, with an average breadth of 10 m., stretches
for over 80 m. along the south-west slope of the Thuringian
Forest. The convex side rests upon the duchy of Coburg and
is in part bounded by Bavaria, while the concave side, turned
towards the north, contains portions of four other Thuringian
states and Prussia between its horns, which are 46 m. apart.
The districts of Kranichfeld, 15 m. N.W., and Kamburg, 22 m.
N. of the eastern horn, together with a number of smaller
scattered exclaves, comprise 74 of the 953 sq. m. belonging to the
duchy. The surface on the whole is hilly and is partly occupied
by offshoots of the Thuringian Forest; the highest summits
are found in the eastern half, where the Kieferle reaches 2849 ft.
and the Blessberg 2835 ft. The chief streams are the Werra,
which traverses the south and east of the duchy, and various
tributaries of the Main and the Saale, so that Saxe-Meiningen
belongs to the basins of the three great rivers Weser, Rhine and
Elbe.
The soil is not very productive, although agriculture flourishes
in the valleys and on the level ground; grain has to be imported
to meet the demand. Only 41 % of the total area is devoted
to agriculture, while meadow-land and pasture occupy 11%.
The chief grain crops are oats, rye and wheat, and the cultivation
of potatoes is general. Tobacco, in the Werra district, hops and
flax are also raised. The Werra valley and the other fertile
valleys produce large quantities of fruit. The raising of cattle,
pigs and sheep is a fairly important branch of industry throughout
the duchy; horses are bred in Kamburg. The extensive and
valuable forests, of which 75% consist of coniferous trees,
occupy 42% of the entire area. About 42% of the forests
belong to the state and about 33 % to public bodies and institu-
tions, leaving only 25% for private owners. The mineral
wealth of the duchy is not inconsiderable. Iron, coal and slate
are the chief products, and copper and cobalt may be added.
There are salt-works at Salzungen and Neusulza, the former the
most important in Thuringia; and the mineral water of Fried-
richshall is well known. The manufacturing industry of Saxe-
Meiningen is active, especially in the districts of Sonneberg,
Grafenthal and Saalfeld. Iron goods of various kinds, glass and
pottery, school slates, pencils and marbles are produced; the
abundant timber fosters the manufacture of all kinds of wooden
articles, especially toys; and the textile industry and the
manufacture of leather goods, papier mache and sewing-machines
are also carried on.
The capital of the duchy is Meiningen; the other principal
towns are Salzungen, Hildburghausen, Eisfeld, Sonneberg,
Saalfeld, Possneck and Kamburg. In 1905 the population was
268,916, of whom 30% live in communities of more than 2000.
As in the other Saxon duchies the population is almost exclu-
sively Protestant; in 1905, 262,243 belonged to the Lutheran
confession, 4845 were Roman Catholics and 1256 Jews.
Saxe-Meiningen is a limited monarchy, its constitution
resting on a law of 1829, subsequently modified. The diet,
elected for six years, consists of 24 members, of whom 4 are
elected by the largest landowners, 4 by those who pay tax on
incomes of 150 or more, and 16 by the other electors. The
franchise is enjoyed by all domiciled males over twenty-five
years of age who pay taxes. The government is carried on by
a ministry of five, with departments for the ducal house and
foreign affairs, home affairs, justice, education and public
worship and finance. The revenue, 190,000 of which is drawn
from the state domains, stands at about 480,000 a year. The
expenditure, including a civil list of 20,000, stands at 445,000.
In 1909 the state had a debt of 302,270. Saxe-Meiningen has
one vote in the German federal council (Bundesrat) and sends
two members to the Reichstag.
History. The duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, or more correctly
Saxe-Meiningen-Hildburghausen, was founded in 1681 by
Bernard, the third son of Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxe-Gotha,
and consisted originally of the western part of the present duchy,
the district around Meiningen. Bernard was succeeded in 1706
by his three sons, Ernest Louis, Frederick William and Anton
Ulrich, but after 1746 the only survivor was the youngest,
Anton Ulrich, who reigned alone from this date until his death
in 1763. By this time the duchy had increased considerably
in extent, but petty wars with the other Saxon princes combined
with the extravagance of the court and the desolation caused
by the Seven Years' War to plunge it into distress and bankruptcy.
A happier time, however, was experienced under Charlotte
Amalie, Anton's widow, who ruled as regent for her sons, Charles
(d. 1782) and George (d. 1806). Under the latter prince the
country prospered greatly, and having introduced the principle
of primogeniture, he died and was succeeded by his infant son,
Bernard Ernest Freund (1800-1882), whose mother, Eleanora
of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, governed in his name until 1821.
The war with France at the beginning of this reign, with its
attendant evils, quartering of troops, conscription and levies
of money, joined with cattle disease and scanty harvests in
plunging the land again into distress, from which it recovered
very slowly.
In 1825 the extinction of the family ruling Saxe-Gotha made
a rearrangement of the Saxon duchies necessary, and Saxe-
Meiningen benefited greatly by the settlement of 1826, its area
being more than doubled by the receipt of 530 sq. m. of territory.
The additions consisted of the duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen,
founded in 1680 by Ernest, the sixth son of Ernest the Pious;
the duchy of Saxe-Saalfeld, founded by John Ernest, the seventh
son of Ernest the Pious, which had been united with Saxe-Coburg
in 1735; and the districts of Themar, Kranichfeld and Kamburg.
In 1823 Bernard had granted a liberal constitution to his duchy,
but these additions made further changes inevitable and a new
constitution was granted in 1829. Saxe-Meiningen had entered
the confederation of the Rhine in 1807, but had joined the
allies in 1813 and became a member of the German confederation
in 181 5. In 1866, unlike the other Saxon duchies, Saxe-Meiningen
declared for Austria in the war with Prussia; at once the land
was occupied by Prussian troops, and in September 1866 Duke
Bernard abdicated and was succeeded by his son George (b. 1826),
who immediately made peace with Prussia and joined the North
German Confederation, his land becoming a member of the new
German empire in 1871. In 1871 the dispute which had been
carried on since 1831 between the duke and the diet about the
rights of each to the state domains was settled by a compromise,
each party receiving a share of the revenues. The heir-apparent
Prince Bernard (b. 1851) has no sons, so by a law of 1896 the
succession is settled upon the sons of his half-brother Prince
Frederick (b. 1861).
See Statistik des fferzogtums Sachsen- Meiningen (Meiningen, 1892
fol.); Bruckner, Landeskunde des Herzogtums Sachsen-Meiningen
(Meiningen, 1853) ; Goeckel, Das Staatsrecht des Herzogtums Sachsen-
Meiningen (Jena, 1904); Anschiitz, Industrie, Handel und Verkehr
im Herzogtum Sachsen-Meiningen (Sonneberg, 1904) ; and the
publications of the Verein fiir sachsen-meiningische Geschichte und
Landeskunde (Hildburghausen, 1888 fol.).
SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH (Ger. Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach),
a grand duchy of Germany and a sovereign and constituent
state of the German empire. It is the largest of the Thuringian
states, and consists of the three chief detached districts of
Weimar, Eisenach and Neustadt, and twenty-four scattered
exclaves, of which Allstedt, Oldisleben and Ilmenau belonging
to Weimar, and Ostheim belonging to Eisenach, are the chief.
The first and last named of these exclaves are 70 m. apart;
and the most easterly of the other exclaves is 100 m. from the
most westerly. The total area of the grand-duchy is 1397 sq. m.,
of which 678 are in Weimar, 465 in Eisenach and 254 in Neustadt.
The population in 1905 was 388,095 (189,422 males and 198,673
females), on an average 271 to the square mile, of whom the
greatest bulk are Lutherans, the Roman Catholics only numbering
about 18,000, and Jews and those of other confessions about
1500 in all. Of the population about 47% live in towns or
communes exceeding 2000 inhabitants, and about 53% are
rural.
The district of Weimar, which is at once the largest division
and the geographical and historical kernel of the grand-duchy,
is a roughly circular territory, situated on the plateau to the
262
SAXE- WEIMAR-EISENACH
north-east of the Thuringian Forest. It is bounded on the
N. and E. by Prussia, and on the S. and W. by Schwarzburg
and detached portions of Saxe-Altenburg, and lies 23 m. east
of the nearest part of Eisenach, and 7 m. north-west of the
nearest part of Neustadt. The exclaves of AUstedt and Oldisleben
lie in Prussian territory 10 m. to the north and north-west
respectively; Urnenau as far to the south-west. The surface is
undulating and destitute of any striking natural features,
although the valleys of the Saale and Ilm are picturesque. The
Kickelhahn (2825 ft.) and the Hohe Tanne (2641 ft.) rise in
Ilmenau; but the Grosser Kalm (1814 ft.) near Remda, in the
extreme south, is the highest point in the main part of Weimar.
The Saale flows through the east of the district and is joined
by the Ilm, the Elster and the Unstrut. The chief towns are
Weimar, the capital, on the Ilm; Jena, with the common uni-
versity of the Thuringian states, on the Saale; Apolda, the
" Manchester of Weimar," to the east;and Ilmenau, lying among
the hills on the edge of the Thuringian Forest to the S.W. of
Weimar.
Eisenach, the second district in size, and the first in point
of natural beauty, stretches in a narrow strip from north to
south on the extreme western boundary of Thuringia, and
includes parts of the church lands of Fulda, of Hesse and of the
formercountshipof Henneberg. It is bounded on the N.and W.
by Prussia, on the S. by Bavaria (which also surrounds the
exclave of Ostheim) and on the E. by Saxe-Meiningen and
Saxe-Gotha. The north is occupied by the rounded hills of the
Thuringian Forest, while the Rhon mountains extend into the
southern part. The chief summits of the former group, which
is more remarkable for its fine forests and picturesque scenery
than for its height, are the Wartburgberg (1355 ft.), the north-
western termination of the system, Ottowald (2103 ft.), the
Wachstein (1900 ft.) and the Ringberg (2290 ft). The chief
river is the Werra, which flows across the centre of the district
from east to west, and then bending suddenly northwards,
re-enters from Prussia, and traverses the north-eastern parts
in an irregular course. Its chief tributaries in Eisenach are the
Horsel and the Ulster. Eisenach is the only town of importance
in this division of the grand-duchy.
Neustadt, the third of the larger divisions, is distinguished
neither by picturesque scenery nor historical interest. It
forms an oblong territory, about 24 m. long by 16 broad, and
belongs rather to the hilly district of the Vogtland than to
Thuringia. It is bounded on the N. by Reuss (junior line)
and Saxe-Altenburg, on the W. by Saxe-Meiningen and a Prussian
exclave, on the S. by the two Reuss principalities and on the
E. by the kingdom of Saxony. The Kesselberg (1310 ft.), near
the town of Neustadt, is the chief eminence. This district lies
in the basin of the Saale, its chief streams being the White
(Weisse) Elster, the Weida and the Orla. Neustadt, Auma
and Weida are the principal towns.
Agriculture forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants in all
parts of the duchy, though in Eisenach and around Ilmenau a large
proportion of the area is covered with forests. According to the
return for 1900 about 55% of the entire surface was occupied by
arable land, 26 % by forest and 9 % by pasture and meadow-land.
Only about 5% was unproductive soil or moorland. In 1900 the
chief crops were oats, barley, rye, wheat, potatoes, hay, beet (for
sugar), flax and oil-yielding plants. Fruit grows in abundance,
especially around Jena, and vines are cultivated with great success
on the banks of the Saale. Of the forests, about 38 % are deciduous
and 62 % coniferous trees, and the greater part ofthe former belong
to the government. Cattle-raising is carried on to a considerable
extent, especially in Eisenach and Neustadt, while the sheep-farming
centres in Weimar. Poultry is also reared in considerable quantities.
Although iron, copper, coal and lignite are worked, the mineral
wealth is trifling. There are salt springs at Berka and Stadtsulza.
The manufacturing industries in the grand-duchy are consider-
able; they employ 41 % of the population. The most important is
the textile industry, which centres in Apolda. The production of
woollen goods (stockings, cloth, underclothing) forms the leading
branch of this industry; but cotton and linen weaving and yarn-
spinning are also carried on. Large quantities of earthenware and
crockery are made, especially at Ilmenau. The optical instruments
of Jena and the scientific instruments of Ilmenau are well known.
Leather, paper, glass, cork and tobacco are among the less prominent
manufactures. There are numerous breweries in the duchy. The
volume of trade is not very great, although some of the productions
are exported all over Europe, and in some cases to other continents
as well.
Constitution. Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach is a limited hereditary
monarchy, and was the first state in Germany to receive a
liberal constitution. This was granted in 1816 by Charles
Augustus, the patron of Goethe, and was revised in 1850 and again
in 1906. The diet consists of one chamber with thirty-eight
members, of whom five are chosen by owners of land worth at
least 150 a year, five by those who derive a similar income
from other sources, five by the university of Jena and other
public bodies, and twenty-three by the rest of the inhabitants.
The deputies are elected for six years. The franchise is enjoyed
by all domiciled citizens over twenty-one years of age. The
government is carried on by a ministry of three, holding the
portfolios of finance; of home and foreign affairs; and of religion,
education and justice, with which is combined the ducal house-
hold. The duchy is represented by one vote in the Bundesrat
and by two members in the Reichstag.
The Saxe- Weimar family is the oldest branch of the Ernestine
line, and hence of the whole Saxon house. By a treaty with
Prussia in 1867, which afterwards became the model for similar
treaties between Prussia and other Thuringian states, the
troops of the grand-duchy were incorporated with the Prussian
army.
The budget is voted by the chamber for a period of three
years. That from 1908 to 1910 estimated an annual income
and an annual expenditure of about 620,000. A large income
is derived from the state forests. The public debt amounted
to 145,000 in 1908, but it is amply secured by real estate and
invested funds. Justice is administered by two high courts
(Landesgerichte) , at Weimar and Eisenach respectively; the
district of Neustadt falling under the jurisdiction of the Landes-
gericht at Gera; while the supreme court of appeal for the four
Saxon duchies, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt and Reuss, together
with portions of Prussia, is the Oberlandesgericht at Jena.
History. In early times Weimar with the surrounding district
belonged to the counts of Orlamiinde, and from the end of the
loth century until 1067 it was the seat of the counts of Weimar.
In the 1 4th century it passed to the elector of Saxony, falling
at the partition of 1485 to the Ernestine branch of the Wettin
family. Although John Frederick the Magnanimous was de-
prived of the electorate in 1547 his sons retained Weimar; and
one of them, John William (d. 1573), may be regarded as the
founder of the present ruling house, but it was not until 1641
that Saxe-Weimar emerged into an independent historical
position. In this year, having just inherited Coburg and
Eisenach, the three brothers William, Albert and Ernest founded
the three principalities of Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Eisenach and
Saxe-Gotha. Eisenach fell to Saxe-Weimar in 1644, and
although the enlarged principality of Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach was
temporarily split up into the lines Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Eisenach
and Saxe-Jena, it was again united under Ernest Augustus,
who began to reign in 1728, and the adoption of the principle
of primogeniture about this time secured it against further
divisions. Ernest Augustus II., who succeeded in 1748, died
in 1758, and his young widow, Anna Amelia, vas appointed
regent of the country and guardian of her infant son Charles
Augustus. The reign of this prince, who assumed the govern-
ment in 1775, is the most brilliant epoch in the history of Saxe-
Weimar. An intelligent patron of literature and art, he attracted
to his court the leading scholars in Germany; Goethe, Schiller
and Herder were members of this illustrious band, and the
little state, hitherto obscure, attracted the eyes of all Europe. 1
The war between France and Prussia in 1806 was fraught
with danger to the existence of the principality, and after the
battle of Jena it was mainly the skilful conduct of the duchess
Louise, the wife of Charles Augustus, that dissuaded Napoleon
1 See Goethe's famous lines, Epigramme (35) :
" Klein ist unter den Fursten Germaniens freilich der meine;
Kurz und schmal ist sein Land, masoig nur, was er vermag.
Aber so wende nach innen, so wende nach aussen die Krafte
Jeder; da war' es ein Fest, Deutscher mit Deutschen zu sein."
SAXHORN SAXIFRAGACEAE
263
from removing her husband from his place as a reigning prince.
In 1807 Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach entered the Confederation of
the Rhine and in the subsequent campaigns it suffered greatly.
The Congress of Vienna in 1815 added about 660 sq. m. to its
area and gave its ruler the title of grand-duke. Just after the
conclusion of peace Charles Augustus gave a liberal constitution
to his land; freedom of the press was also granted, but after
the festival of the Wartburg on the i8th of October 1817 this
was seriously curtailed. The next grand-duke, Charles Frederick,
who succeeded in 1828, continued his father's work, but his
reforms were not thorough enough nor rapid enough to avert
disturbances in 1848, when power was given to a popular
ministry and numerous reforms were carried through. Reaction
set in under Charles Alexander, who became grand-duke in
1853, and the union of the crown lands and the state lands was
undone, although both remained under the same public manage-
ment. In 1866 the grand-duchy joined Prussia against Austria,
although its troops were then garrisoning towns in the interests
of the latter power; afterwards it entered the North German
Confederation and the new German empire. Charles Alexander
died in January 1901 and was succeeded by his grandson William
Ernest (b. 1876).
See C. Kronfeld, Landeskunde des Grossherzogtums Sachsen-
Weimar-Eisenach (Weimar, 1878-1879); and the official Staats-
handbuchfur das Grossherzogtum Sachsen (Weimar, 1904).
SAXHORN, the generic name of a family of brass wind instru-
ments (not horns but valve-bugles) with cup-shaped mouthpieces,
invented by Adolphe Sax and in use chiefly in French and
Belgian military bands and in small wind-bands. The saxhorns
came into being in 1843, when Sax applied a modification of the
valve system invented in Germany in 1815 to the keyed bugle.
The saxhorn consists of a conical tube of a calibre greater than
that of French horn and trumpet, but smaller than that of the
tubas or bombardons, and capable therefore of producing by
overblowing the members of the harmonic series from the 2nd
to the 8th, in common with the cornets, bugles, valve-trombones
and the Wagner tubas. The
saxhorns are furnished
with
three valves, by means of which 33 T s 6 7 8
the compass is rendered chromatic, and which act as in other
valve instruments, lowering the pitch of the instrument when
depressed, respectively i tone, a semitone and i^ tones;
and further, when used in combination, 2 tones, 2^ tones
and 3 tones. The Fliigelhorns, the euphonium, the bom-
bardon and the tubas are sometimes erroneously classed as
saxhorns. The difference between saxhorns and bombardons
or tubas consists in the calibre of the bore, which in the latter is
sufficiently wide in proportion to the length to produce the
fundamental note of the harmonic series an octave below the
lowest note of the saxhorns. The consequence of this structural
difference is important, for whereas the tube of the tubas is
theoretically of the same length as an open organ pipe of the same
pitch, the saxhorns require a tube twice that length to produce
the same scale. For instance, a euphonium sounding 8 ft. C
only needs a tube 8 ft. long, whereas the corresponding bass
saxhorn requires one 16 ft. long. In Germany these structural
differences have given rise to a classification of brass wind instru-
ments as whole or half instruments (Game or Halbe) , l according
to whether the whole or only the half of the length of tubing is of
practical use. The members of the saxhorn family are the small
saxhorn in Eb, the soprano in Bb, the alto in Eb, the tenor in Bb,
the bass in Bb (an octave lower), the low bass in Eb, the contra-
bass in Bb, three octaves below the soprano. All the saxhorns
are treated as transposing instruments. 2 A similar family, con-
structed with rotary valves and conical tubes of larger calibre
than the saxhorns, but having the same harmonic scale, is known
in Germany as Flugelhorn. (K. S.)
l See Dr Emil Schafhautl's article on musical instruments in sect,
iv. of Benefit der Beurteilungscommission bei der allg. deutschen
Industrieausstellung, 1854 (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170.
! Georges Kastner, in Manuel general de musique militaire (Paris,
1848), gives full information on the saxhorns, pp. 230 et seq., 246-247,
and Pis. xxii. and xxiii.
SAXIFRAGACEAE, in botany, a small natural order of
Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Polypetalae and con-
taining 27 genera with about 350 species distributed through
the Arctic and north temperate zone, often alpine. It is repre-
FIG. i. Saxifraga wnbrosa, London Pride, about half natural
size, i, Flower enlarged. 2, Vertical section of ovary with sepals,
more enlarged.
sented in Britain by its largest genus Saxifrage (q.v.), Chryso-
splenium (golden saxifrage) and Parnassia (grass of Parnassus).
The plants are herbs, generally with scattered exstipulate leaves
with a broad leaf-base. The small flowers are generally arranged
in cymose inflorescences and are
bisexual, regular and hypogynous,
perigynous or more frequently more
or less epigynous, this variation in
the relative position of the ovary
occurring in one and the same genus
Saxifraga (fig. i). The flowers are
5-merous, more rarely 4-merous,
having 5 (or 4) sepals, 5 (or 4) free
petals, two 5- or 4-merous whorls of
free stamens which are obdiploste-
monous, i.e. those of the outer whorl
are opposite to the petals, and two
carpels (see fig. 2). The carpels are sometimes free, more
generally united at the base, or sometimes completely joined
to form a one- or two-chambered ovary with two free styles.
The fruit is a many-seeded capsule.
More than half the species (200) are contained in the genus Saxi-
frage (q.v.). Chrysosplenium, with 39 species, two of which are British,
FIG. 2. Diagram of a
saxifrage (Saxifraga tridac-
tylites). The calyx and
corolla each consist of five
parts, there are ten stamens
in two series, and a pistil
of two carpels.
264
SAXIFRAGE SAXONS
has a very similar distribution. The North American genus Heuchera
has sometimes apetalous flowers. Astilbe has 6 species in temperate
Asia and north-eastern North America; A. japonica is commonly
grown in the spring as a pot-plant, and often misnamed Spiraea..
The order is frequently much extended to include other groups of
genera differing in habit and more or less in general conformation
from those to which the order is here confined, and which are then
regarded as forming one of several tribes. Among these is the order
Ribcsiaceae, comprising one single genus Ribes, to which belong the
gooseberry (R. Grossularia) and currants of gardens. These are
shrubs with racemes of flowers which have only one whorl of stamens
(isostemonous), an inferior unilocular ovary with two parietal
placentas, and fruit a berry. Another is the Hydrangeaceae, to
which belong Hydrangea (q.v.), Deutzia and Philadelphus, all well-
known garden plants; P. coronarius is the so-called Syringa or
mock-orange. They are shrubs or trees with simple generally
opposite leaves, s-merous flowers with epigynous stamens and a
3- to 5-locular ovary.
Escallonia, which represents a small group of genera with leathery
gland-dotted leaves, is also often included.
SAXIFRAGE (Saxifraga), a genus of plants which gives its
name to the order of which it is a member. There are nearly
200 species distributed in the temperate and arctic parts of the
northern hemisphere, frequently at considerable heights on the
mountains, and also found on the Andes. They are mostly
herbs with perennial rootstocks and leaves in tufts or scattered
on the flower-stalks. The arrangement of the flowers is very
various, as also are the size and colour of the flowers themselves.
They have a flat or more or less cup-shaped receptacle, from the
margin of which spring five sepals, five petals and ten (or rarely
five) stamens. The pistil is often partly adherent to the recep-
tacle, and is divided above into two styles; the ovules are
numerous, attached to axile placentas; and the seed-vessel is
capsular. Fifteen species are natives of Britain, some alpine
plants of great beauty (S. oppositifolia,S. nivalis, S. aizoides, &c.),
and others, like S. granidata, frequenting meadows and low
ground, while 5. tridactylites may be found on almost any dry
wall 5. umbrosa is London Pride or St Patrick's Cabbage, a
common garden plant, a native of the Spanish Peninsula and also
of the mountains of W. and S.W. Ireland. Many species are in
cultivation, including the Bergenias or Megaseas with their
large fleshy leaves and copious panicles of rosy or pink flowers,
the numerous alpine species, such as S. pyramidolis, S. cotyledon,
&c., with tall panicles studded with white flowers, and many
others, most of them adapted for rockwork.
SAXO GRAMMATICUS (<: 1 1 .so-c. 1206), Danish historian
and poet, belonged to a family of warriors, his father and grand-
father having served under Valdemar I., king of Denmark
(d. 1182). Brought up for the clerical profession, Saxo entered
the service of Archbishop Absalon about 1180, and remained in
that capacity until the death of Absalon in 1201. It was at the
archbishop's instigation that he began, about 1185, to write the
history of the Danish Christian kings from the time of Sweyn
Astridson (d. 1076), but later Absalon prevailed on him to write
also the history of the earlier heathen times, and to combine both
into a great work, Gesta Danorum, or Historic. Danica. The
archbishop died before the work was finished, and therefore the
preface, written about 1208, dedicates the work to his successor
Archbishop Andreas, and to King Valdemar II. Nothing else
is known about Saxo's life and person; a chronicle of 1265 calls
him " mirae et urbanae eloquentiae clericus "; and an epitome
of his work from about 1340 describes him as " egregius gram-
maticus, engine Sialandicus." That he was a native of Zealand
is probably correct, inasmuch as, whereas he often criticizes the
Jutlanders and the Scanians, he frequently praises the Zealanders.
The surname of " Grammaticus " is probably of later origin,
scarcely earlier than 1500, apparently owing to a mistake. The
title of " provost of Roskilde," given him in the i6th century, is
also probably incorrect, the historian being confounded with an
older contemporary, the provost of the same name. Saxo, from
his apprenticeship as the archbishop's secretary, had acquired a
brilliant but somewhat euphuistic Latin style, and wrote fine
Latin verses, but otherwise he does not seem to have had any
very great learning or extensive reading. His models of style
were Valerius Maximus, Justin and Martianus Capella, especially
the last. Occasionally he mentions Bede, Dudo of St Quentin
and Paulus Diaconus, but he does not seem to have studied them
or any other historical works thoroughly. His sources are
partly Danish traditions and songs, partly the statements of
Archbishop Absalon, partly the accounts of Icelanders and,
lastly, some few earlier sources, lists of Danish kings and short
chronicles, which furnished him with some reliable chronological
facts. He considered traditions as history, and therefore made it
his chief business to recount and arrange these, and his work
is a loosely connected series of biographies of Danish kings and
heroes.
The first nine books of the Gesta Danorum comprise traditions
of kings and heroes of the half-mythical time up to about 950.
Here we have traditions about Fredf rode, about Amleth (Hamlet)
and Fenge, about Hrolfr Kraki, Hadding, the giant Starkather,
Harald Hildetann and Ragnarr Lodbrok. In this earlier history
Saxo has also embodied myths of national gods who in tradition
had become Danish kings, for instance, Balder and Hother, and
of foreign heroes, likewise incorporated in Danish history, as
the Gothic Jarmunrik (A.S. Eormenric), the Anglian Vermund
(A.S. Garmund) and Uffe (A.S. Offa), the German Hedin and
Hild, and others. Frequently the narrative is interrupted by
translations of poems, which Saxo has used as authentic sources,
although they are often only a few generations older than
himself. In the later books (x.-xvi.) of his work he follows to a
greater extent historical accounts, and the more he approaches
his own time the fuller and the more trustworthy his relation
becomes; especially brilliant is his treatment of the history of
King Valdemar and of Absalon. But his patriotism often makes
him partial to his countrymen, and his want of critical sense often
blinds him to the historical truth.
Saxo's work was widely read during the middle ages, and several
extracts of it were made for smaller chronicles. It was published
for the first time, from a MS. afterwards lost, in Paris, 1514, by
the Danish humanist Christiern Pedersen; this edition was
reprinted at Basel, 1 534, and at Frankfort, 1576. Of later editions
may be mentioned that of Stephen Stephanius (Soro, 1644),
the second volume of which contains the little-known, but
valuable, Stephanii notae uberiores in historian, Danicam Saxonis
Grammatici, and which was reproduced, though without the
notes, by, C. A. Klotz (Leipzig, 1771); and that of P. E. Miiller
completed by J. M. Velschow (Copenhagen, 1839-1858). The
last complete edition is that of Alfred Holder (Strassburg, 1886),
while a large part was edited by G. Waitz in the Man. Germ,
historica, xxix. pp. 43-161 (1892). No complete MS. any longer
exists; yet of late small fragments have been found of three
MSS. The most remarkable of these is the fragment found at
Angers, in France, written in the later part of the i3th century.
It is now in the library of Copenhagen.
There are Danish translations by A. G. Vedel (Copenhagen,
1575, and again 1851), and by F. Winkel-Horn (1896-1898).
There is an English translation by O. Elton and F. Y. Powell
(London, 1894).
See A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica medii om'(Berlin, 1896), where
full references will be found.
SAXONS, a Teutonic people mentioned for the first time by
Ptolemy about the middle of the 2nd century. At that time they
are said to have inhabited the neck of the Cimbric peninsula,
by which we have probably to understand the modern province
of Schleswig, together with three islands lying off its western
coast. We next hear of them in connexion with piratical
expeditions in the North Sea about the year 286. These
raids became more frequent during the 4th century, and at the
beginning of the 5th century the northern coast of Gaul and the
south-east coast of Britain were known as lilora Saxonica, owing
either to their liability to the attacks of the Saxons or, as some
think, to the establishment of Saxon colonies there. During
the same period the Saxons appear to have conquered a consider-
able portion of north-west Germany. According to their own
traditions they landed at Hadeln in the neighbourhood of Cux-
haven and seized the surrounding districts from the Thuringians.
It is clear that by the middle of the 4th century they had advanced
SAXONY
265
westwards into the basin of the Yssel, from whence they drove
the Prankish Salii into Batavia. In the following centuries
we find them in possession of the whole of the basin of the Ems,
except the coast district, while that of the Weser with all its
tributaries belonged to them as far south as the Diemel, where
they bordered on the Hessian Franks, the ancient Chatti. The
conquest of the Boructuari who dwelt between the Lippe and the
Ruhr marks the extent of their progress towards the south-west.
This took place shortly before the end of the 7th century. They
frequently came into conflict with the Franks and on several
occasions had to submit to their supremacy, notably after their
defeat by Clothaire I. in 553. No thorough conquest was,
however, carried out until the time of Charlemagne, who,
between the years 772 and 785, annexed the whole region as far as
the Elbe, destroying in 772 the Irminsul, their great sanctuary,
near Marsberg on the Diemel. Up to this time they had remained
entirely heathen. In the 8th century and later we find the Saxons
divided into three geographical districts known as Westfalahi
(a name preserved in Westphalia), Angrarii and Ostfalahi, each
of which had in several respects special customs of its own.
They were ruled by a number of independent princes, but it is
said that they had a national council which met annually at a
place called Marklo on the Weser. At the beginning of the
following century Charles also conquered the Saxons known as
Nordalbingi in western Holstein, a district which had perhaps
been occupied by a southward movement from the original home
of the tribe.
It is doubtful how far the Saxons who invaded Britain were
really distinct from the Angli, for all their affinities both in
language and custom are with the latter and not with the Saxons
(Old Saxons) of the continent. During the 5th century we hear
also of Saxon settlements on the coasts of Gaul. The most
important were those at the mouth of the Loire founded in the
time of Childeric, Clovis's father, and at Bayeux, in a district
which remained in their possession until towards the close of
the 6th century. From the 6th century onwards, however, we
hear practically nothing of the Saxons as a seafaring people.
Almost all the southern coast of the North Sea had now come
into the possession of the Frisians, and one can hardly help
concluding that most of the maritime Saxons had either volun-
tarily or by conquest become incorporated in that kingdom.
See Ptolemy ii. n; Eutropius ix. 21; Zosimus iii. 6; Ammianus
Marcellinus xxvi. 4. 5, xxvii. 8. 5, xxviii. 2. 12, 7. 8, xxx. 5. I and 4;
Notitia dignitatum; Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, ii. 19,
iv. 10. 14, v. 27, x. 9; Bede, Hist. Eccl. v, 10 ff.; Annales Einhardi;
Translatio S. Alexandri; Hucbald, Vita S. Lebuini; Widukind, Res
Gestae Saxonicae, i. I ff. (F. G. M. B.)
SAXONY, a kingdom of Germany, ranking among the con-
stituent states of the empire, fifth in area, third in population
and first in density of population, bounded on the S. by Bohemia,
on the W. by Bavaria and the Thuringian states and on the W. , N.
and E. by Prussia. Its frontiers have a circuit of 760 m. and,
with the exception of the two small exclaves of Ziegelheim in
Saxe-Altenburg and Liebschwitz on the border of the princi-
pality of Reuss, it forms a compact whole of a triangular shape,
its base extending from N.E. to S.W., and its apex pointing N.W.
Its greatest length is 130 m.; its greatest breadth 93 m., and
the total area is 5787 sq. m. Except in the south, towards
Bohemia, where the Erzgebirge forms at once the limit of the
kingdom and of the empire, the boundaries are entirely political.
Physical Features. Saxony belongs almost entirely to the central
mountain region of Germany, only the districts along the north
border and around Leipzig descending into the great north-European
plain. The average elevation of the country, however, is not great,
and it is more properly described as hilly than as mountainous.
The chief mountain range is the Erzgebirge, stretching for 90 m.
along the south border, and reaching in the Fichtelbergs (3979 ft.
and 3953 ft.) the highest elevation in the kingdom. The west and
south-west half of Saxony is more or less occupied by the ramifications
and subsidiary groups of this range, one of which is known from its
position as the Central Saxon chain, and another lower group still
farther north as the Oschatz group. The south-east angle of Saxony
is occupied by the mountains of Upper Lusatia (highest summit
2600 ft.), which form the link between the Erzgebirge and Riesenge-
birge in the great Sudetic chain. North-west from this group, and
along both banks of the Elbe, which divides it from the Erzgebirge,
extends the picturesque mountain region known as the Saxon
Switzerland. The action of water and ice upon the soft sandstone of
which the hills here are chiefly composed has produced deep gorges
and isolated fantastic peaks, which, however, though both beautiful
and interesting, by no means recall the characteristics of Swiss
scenery. The highest summit attains a height of 1830 ft. ; but the
more interesting peaks, as the Liliensteirij Konigstein and the
Bastei, are lower. With the trifling exception of the south-east of
Bautzen, which sends its waters by the Neisse to the Oder, Saxony
lies wholly in the basin of the Elbe, which has a navigable course of
72 m. from south-east to north-west through the kingdom. Com-
paratively few of the numerous smaller streams of Saxony flow
directly to the Elbe, and the larger tributaries only join it beyond the
Saxon borders. The Mulde, formed of two branches, is the second
river of Saxony ; others are the Black Elster, the White Elster, the
Pleisse and the Spree. There are no lakes of any size, but mineral
springs are very abundant. The best known is at Bad Elster in the
Vogtland. _ '
Climate. The climate of Saxony is generally healthy. It is
mildest in the valleys of the Elbe, Mulde and Pleisse and severest in
the Erzgebirge, where the district near Johanngeorgenstadt is known
as Saxon Siberia. The average temperature, like that of central
Germany as a whole, varies from 48 to 50 Fahr. ; in the Elbe valley
the mean in summer is from 62 to 64 and in the winter about 30 ;
in the Erzgebirge the mean temperature in summer is from 55 to
57, and in winter 23 to 24. The Erzgebirge is also the rainiest
district, 27 J to 33 in. falling yearly; the amount decreases as one
proceeds northward, and Leipzig, with an average annual rainfall of
17 in., enjoys the driest climate.
Population. In 1905 the population of Saxony was 4,508,601, or
7-4% of the total population of the German empire, on 2-7% of its
area. Except the free towns, Saxony is the most densely peopled
member of the empire, and its population is increasing at a more
rapid rate than is the case in any of the larger German states. The
growth of the population since 1815, when the kingdom received its
present limits, has been as follows: (1815) 1,178,802; (1830)
1,402,066; (1840) 1,706,275; (1864) 2,344,094; (1875) 2,760,586;
(1895) 3,787,688; (1900) 4,202,216. The preponderating industrial
activity of the kingdom fosters the tendency of the population to
concentrate in towns, and no German state, with the exceptio_n of the
Hanseatic towns, has so large a proportion of urban population, this
forming 52-97% of the whole. The people of Saxony are chiefly of
pure Teutonic stock; a proportion are Germanized Slavs, and to the
south of Bautzen there is a large settlement of above 50,000 Wends,
who retain their peculiar customs and language.
The following table shows the area ana population of the whole
kingdom and of each of the five chief governmental districts, or
Kreishauptmannschaften, into which it is divided:
Governmental
District.
Area in Eng.
sq. m.
Pop. 1900.
Pop. 1905.
Density per
sq. m.,1905.
Dresden .
Leipzig .
Bautzen .
Chemnitz
Zwickau .
Total
1674
1378
953
799
983
1,216,489
i ,060,632
405,173
792,393
727.529
1,284,397
1,146,423
426,420
851,130
800,231
767-2
832
447-4
1065-2
814-1
5787
4,202,216
4,508,601
779-1
The chief towns are Dresden (pop. 1905, 514,283), Leipzig (502,570),
Chemnitz (244,405), Plauen (105,182), Zwickau (68,225), Zittau
(34,679), Meissen (32,175), Freiberg (30,869), Bautzen (29,372),
Meerane (24,994), Glauchau (24,556), Reichenbach (24,911), Crim-
mitzschau (23,340), Werdau (19,476), Pirna (19,200).
Communications. The roads in Saxony are numerous and good.
The first railway between Leipzig and Dresden, due entirely to
private enterprise, was opened in part in April 1837, and finished
in 1840, with a length of 71 m. In 1850 there were 250; in 1870,
685; in 1880, 1184; and in 1905, 1920 m., together with 25 m. of
private line, all worked by the state. There are no canals in the
kingdom, and the only navigable river is the Elbe.
Agriculture. Saxony is one of the most fertile parts of Germany,
and is agriculturally among the most advanced nations of the world.
The lowest lands are the most productive, and fertility diminishes
as we ascend towards the south, until on the bleak crest of the
Erzgebirge cultivation ceases altogether. Saxon agriculture, though
dating its origin from the Wends, was long impeded by antiquated
customs, while the land was subdivided into small parcels and sub-
jected to vexatious rights. But in 1834 a law was passed providing
for the union of the scattered lands belonging to each proprietor,
and that may be considered the dawn of modern Saxon agriculture.
The richest grain districts are near Meissen, Grimma, Bautzen,
Dobeln and Pirna. The chief crop is rye, but oats are hardly second
to it. Wheat and barley are grown in considerably less quantity.
Very large quantities of potatoes are grown, especially in the Vogt-
land. Beet is chiefly grown as feeding stuff for cattle, and not for
sugar. Flax is grown in the Erzgebirge and Lusatian mountains,
266
SAXONY
where the manufacture of linen was at one time a flourishing domestic
industry. Saxony owes its unusual wealth in fruit partly to the care
of the elector Augustus I., who is said never to have stirred abroad
without fruit seeds for distribution among the peasants and farmers.
Enormous quantities of cherries, plums and apples are annually
borne by the trees round Leipzig, Dresden and Colditz. The cultiva-
tion of the vine in Saxony is respectable for its antiquity, though the
yield is insignificant. Wine is said to have been grown here in the
nth century; the Saxon vineyards, chiefly on the banks of the Elbe
near Meissen and Dresden, have of late years, owing to the ravages of
the phylloxera, become almost extinct.
Live Stock.-~ The breeding of horses is carried on to a very limited
extent in Saxony. Cattle rearing, which has been an industry since
the advent of the Wends in the 6th century, is important on the ex-
tensive pastures of the Erzgebirge and in the Vogtland. In 1765 the
regent Prince Xaver imported 300 merino sheep from Spain, and
so improved the native breed by this new strain that Saxon sheep
were eagerly imported by foreign nations to improve their flocks,
and " Saxon electoral wool " became one of the best brands in the
market. Sheep fanning, however, has considerably declined within
the last few decades. Swine furnish a very large proportion of the
flesh diet of the people. Geese abound particularly round Leipzig
and in Upper Lusatia, poultry about Bautzen. Bee-keeping flourishes
on the heaths on the right bank of the Elbe.
Game and Fish. Game is fairly abundant; hares and partridges
are found in the plains to the north-west, capercailzie in the neigh-
bourhood of Tharandt and Schwarzenberg, and deer in the forests
near Dresden. The Elbe produces excellent pike, salmon and eels, its
tributaries trout in considerable quantities, while the marshy ponds
lying on thejeft bank furnish a good supply of carp, a fish held in
great esteem by the inhabitants.
Forests. The forests of Saxony are extensive and have long been
well cared for both by government and by private proprietors. The
famous school of forestry at Tharandt was founded in 1811. The
Vogtland is the most densely wooded portion of the kingdom, and
next comes the Erzgebirge. About 857,000 acres, or 85% of the
whole forest land, are planted with conifers; and about 143,000 acres,
or 15%. with deciduous trees, among which beeches and birches are
the commonest. About 35 % of the total belongs to state.
Mining. Silver was raised in the I2th century, and argentiferous
lead is still the most valuable ore mined ; tin, iron and cobalt rank
next, and coal is one of the chief exports. Copper, zinc and bismuth
are also worked. The country is divided into four mining districts:
Freiberg, where silver and lead are the chief products; Altenberg,
where tin is mainly raised ; Schneeberg, yielding cobalt, nickel and
ironstone; and Johanngeorgenstadt, with ironstone and silver
mines. There were, in 1907, 143 mines, including coal, in operation,
employing 31,455 hands. The total value of metal raised in Saxony
in 1907 was 7,036,000; in 1870 it was 314,916. The coal is found
principally in two fields one near Zwickau, and the other in the
governmental district of Dresden. Brown coal or lignite is found
chiefly in the north and north-west, but not in sufficiently large
quantities to be exported ; the total value of the output in 1907 was
nearly 3,500,000. Peat is especially abundant on the Erzgebirge.
Immense quantities of bricks are made all over the country. Ex-
cellent sandstone for building is found on the hills of the Elbe.
Fine porcelain clay occurs near Meissen, and coarser varieties else-
where. A few precious stones are found among the southern
mountains.
Industries. The central-European position of the kingdom has
fostered its commerce; and its manufactures have been encouraged
by the abundant water-power throughout the kingdom. Nearly
one-half of the motive power used in Saxon factories is supplied by
the streams, of which the Mulde, in this respect, is the chief. The
early foundation of the Leipzig fairs, and the enlightened policy of
the rulers of the country, have also done much to develop its com-
mercial and industrial resources. Next to agriculture which supports
about 20% of the population, by far the most important jndustry
is the textile. Saxony carries on 26 % of the whole textile industry
in Germany, a share far in excess of its proportionate population.
Prussia, which has more than nine times as many inhabitants, carries
on 45%, and no other state more than 8%. The chief seats of the
manufacture are Zwickau, Chemnitz, Glauchau, Meerane, Hohen-
stein, Kamenz, Pulsnitz and Bischofswerda. The centre of the
cotton manufacture (especially of cotton hosiery) is Chemnitz;
cotton-muslins are made throughout the Vogtland, ribbons at
Pulsnitz and its neighbourhood. Woollen cloth and buckskin are
woven at Kamenz, Bischofswerda and Grossenhain, all in the north-
east, woollen and half-woollen underclothing at Chemnitz, Glauchau,
Meerane and Reichenbach; while Bautzen and Limbach produce
woollen stockings. Linen is manufactured chiefly in the mountains
of Lusatia, where the looms are still to some extent found in the
homes of the weavers. The coarser kinds only are now made, owing
to the keen English competition in the finer varieties. Damask is
produced at Gross-Schonau and Neu-Schonau. Lace-making, dis-
covered or introduced by Barbara Uttmann in the latter half'of the
1 6th century, and now fostered by government schools, was long an
important domestic industry among the villages of the Erzgebirge,
and has attained to a great industry in Plauen. Straw-plaiting
occupies 6000 hands on the mountain slopes between Gottleuba and
Lockwitz. Waxcloth is manufactured at Leipzig, and artificial
flowers at Leipzig and Dresden. Stoneware and earthenware are
made at Chemnitz, Zwickau, Bautzen and Meissen, porcelain
(" Dresden china ") at Meissen, chemicals in and near Leipzig.
Dobeln, Werdau and Lossnitz are the chief seats of the Saxon
leather trade; cigars are very extensively made in the town and
district of Leipzig, and hats and pianofortes at Leipzig, Dresden and
Chemnitz. Paper is made chiefly in the west of the kingdom, but
does not keep pace with the demand. Machinery of all kinds is pro-
duced, from the sewing-machines of Dresden to the steam-locomotives
and marine-engines of Chemnitz. The last-named place, though the
centre of the iron-manufacture of Saxony, has to import every pound
of iron by railway. The leading branch is the machinery used in the
industries of the country mining, paper-making and weaving.
The very large printing trade of Leipzig encourages the manufacture
of printing-presses in that city. In 1902-1903 Saxony contained
601 active breweries and 572 distilleries. The smelting and refining
of the metal ores is also an important industry.
The principal exports are wool, woollen, cotton, linen goods,
machinery, china, pianofortes, cigarettes, flannels, stockings, curtains
and lace, cloth from Reichenbach and Zittau, watches of superlative
value from Glashiitte and toys from the Vogtland.
Constitution. Saxony is a constitutional monarchy and a
member of the German empire, with four votes in the Bundesrath
(federal council) and twenty-three in the Reichstag (imperial diet).
The constitution rests on a law promulgated on the 4th of
September 1831, and subsequently amended. The crown is
hereditary in the Albertine line of the house of Wettin, with
reversion to the Ernestine line, of which the duke of Saxe- Weimar
is now the head. The king enjoys a civil list of 3,674,927 marks
or about 185,000, while the appanages of the crown, including
the payments to the other members of the royal house, amount to
29,544 more.
The legislature (Standeversammlung) is bicameral the constitu-
tion of the co-ordinate chambers being finally settled by a law of
1868 amending the enactment of 1831. The first chamber consists
of the adult princes of the blood, two representatives of the Lutheran
and one of the Roman Catholic Church, a representative of Leipzig
university, the proprietor (or a deputy) of the Herrschaft of Wildenfels,
a proprietor of the mediatized domains, two of Standesherrschaften, one
of those of four estates in fee, the superintendent at Leipzig, a deputy
of the collegiate institution at Wurzen, 12 deputies elected by owners
of nobiliar estates, ten landed proprietors and five other members
nominated by the king and the burgomasters of eight towns. The
second chamber consists of 43 members from the towns and 48 from
the country, elected for six years. All male citizens twenty-five
years old and upwards who pay 3 marks per annum in taxes have the
suffrage; and all above thirty years of age who pay 30 marks in
annual taxes are eligible as members of the lower house. With the
exception of the hereditary and some of the ex-officio members of
the first chamber, the members of the diet are entitled to an allow-
ance for their daily expenses, as well as their travelling expenses.
The executive consists of a responsible ministry (Gesammt Minis-
terium), with the six departments of justice, finance, home affairs,
war, public worship and education, and foreign affairs. The minister
of the royal household does not belong to the cabinet. The constitu-
tion also provides for the formation of a kind of privy council (Staats-
rat), consisting of the cabinet ministers and other members appointed
by the king.
For administrative purposes Saxony is divided into five Kreishaupt-
mannschaften, or governmental departments, subdivided into
twenty-seven Amtshauptmannschaften. The cities of Dresden,
Leipzig, Chemnitz, Plauen and Zwickau, form departments by
themselves. The supreme court of law for both civil and criminal
cases is the Oberlandesgericht at Dresden, subordinate to which are
seven other courts in the other principal towns. The German
imperial code was adopted by Saxony in 1879. Leipzig is the seat
of the supreme court of the German empire.
The Saxon army is modelled on that of Prussia. It forms the
XII. and XIX. army corps in the imperial German army, with head-
quarters at Dresden and Leipzig respectively.
Church. About 94 % of the inhabitants of Saxony are Protestants;
about 1 2,500 are Jews, and about 4-7 % , including the royal family, are
Roman Catholics. The Evangelical-Lutheran, or State, church has
as its head the minister de evangelicis so long as the king is Roman
Catholic; and its management is vested in the Evangelical Con-
sistory at Dresden. Its representative assembly consisting of 35
:lergymen and 42 laymen is called a synod (Synode). The Reformed
Church has consistories in Dresden and Leipzig. The Roman
Catholic Church has enjoyed the patronage of the reigning family
since 1697, though it was only the peace of Posen in 1806 which
placed it on a level with the Lutherans. By the peace of Prague,
which transferred Upper Lusatia to Saxony in 1635, stipulations were
made in _favour of the Roman Catholics of that region, who are
ecclesiastically in the jurisdiction of the cathedral chapter of St Peter
at Bautzen, the dean of which has ex-officio a seat in the first chamber
SAXONY
267
of the diet. The other districts are managed by an apostolic vicar
at Dresden, under the direction of the minister of public worship.
Two nunneries in Lusatia are the only conventual establishments in
Saxony, and no others may be founded. Among the smaller religious
sects the Moravian Brethren, whose chief seat is at Herrnhut, are
perhaps the most interesting. In 1868 civil rights were declared to
be independent of religious confession.
Education. Saxony claims to be one of the most highly educated
countries in Europe, and its foundations of schools and universities
were among the earliest in Germany. Of the four universities
founded by the Saxon electors at Leipzig, Jena, Wittenberg, later
transferred to Halle, and Erfurt, now extinct, only the first is in-
cluded in the present kingdom of Saxony. The endowed schools
(Fiirstenschulen) at Meissen and Grimma have long enjoyed a high
reputation. There are over 4000 schools; and education is com-
pulsory. Saxony is particularly well-equipped with technical schools,
the textile industries being especially fostered by numerous schools of
weaving, embroidery and lace- making; but the mining academy
at Freiberg and the school of forestry at Tharandt are probably
the most widely known. The conservatory of music at Leipzig
enjoys a world-wide reputation; not less the art collections at
Dresden.
Finance. The Saxon financial period embraces a space of two
years. For 1908-1909 the " ordinary " budget showed an income
of 17,352.833, balanced by the expenditure. The chief sources of
income are taxes, state-railways and public forests and domains.
The chief expenditure was on the interest and sinking fund of the
national debt. The national debt, incurred almost wholly in making
and buying railways and telegraphs, and carrying out other public
works, amounted at the end of 1909 to 44,841,880.
See the annual Jahrbuch fur Statistik des Konigreichs Sachsen
(Dresden); P. E. Richter, Literatur des Landes und Volkskunde des
Konigreichs Sachsen (Dresden, 1903); Zemmrich, Landeskunde des
Konigreichs Sachsen (Leipzig, 1906); and Pelz, Geologic des
Konigreichs Sachsen (Leipzig, 1904).
History. The name of Saxony has been borne by two distinct
blocks of territory. The first was the district in the north-west
of Germany, inhabited originally by the Saxons, which became
a duchy and attained its greatest size and prosperity under
Henry the Lion in the I2th century. In 1180 it was broken up,
and the name of Saxony disappeared from the greater part of it,
remaining only with the districts around Lauenburg and Witten-
berg. Five centuries later Lauenburg was incorporated with
Hanover, and Wittenberg is the nucleus of modern Saxony, the
name being thus transferred from the west to the east of Germany.
In 1423 Meissen and Thuringia were united with Saxe- Wittenberg
under Frederick of Meissen, and gradually the name of Saxony
spread over all the lands ruled by this prince and his descendants.
The earlier Saxony was the district lying between the Elbe
and the Saale on the east, the Eider on the north and the Rhine
on the west, with a fluctuating boundary on the south. During
the 8th century it was inhabited by the Saxons (?..), and about
this time was first called Saxonia, and afterwards Saxony.
For many years the Saxons had been troublesome to the Franks,
their neighbours to the east and south, and the intermittent
campaigns undertaken against them by Charles Martel and
Pippin the Short had scarcely impaired their independence.
This struggle was renewed by Charlemagne in 772, and a warfare
of thirty-two years' duration was marked by the readiness of
the Saxons to take advantage of the difficulties of Charles in
other parts of Europe, and by the missionary character which
the Prankish king imparted to the war. The subjugation of the
Saxons, who were divided into four main branches, was rendered
more difficult by the absence of any common ruler, and of a
central power answerable for the allegiance of the separate
tribes. Einhard, the friend and biographer of Charles, sums up
this struggle as follows: " It is hard to say how often the
Saxons, conquered and humbled, submitted to the king, promised
to fulfil his commands, delivered over the required hostages
without delay, received the officials sent to them, and were often
rendered so tame and pliable that they gave up the service
of their heathen gods and agreed to accept Christianity. But
just as quickly as they showed themselves ready to do this, did
they also always break their promises, so that one could not
really say which of these two courses may truly have been
easier to them, and from the beginning of the war scarcely a
year passed without bringing such change of mind."
In 772 the war was decided upon, and Charles marched from
Worms into the land of the Engrians or Angrians. The frontier
fortress of Eresburg which stood on the site of the modern
Marburg was taken, the Irminsul was destroyed, and the treasures
of gold and silver were seized. The Irminsul was a wooden
pillar erected to represent the world-sustaining ash Yggdrasil,
and was the centre of the worship of the whole Saxon people.
Having received hostages Charles left the country; but in 774
while he was in Italy the Saxons retook Eresburg, and crossing
the frontier attacked the church of St Boniface at Fritzlar and
ravaged the land of the Franks. The king retaliated by sending
troops of cavalry to devastate Saxony, and declared at Quierzy
he would exterminate his foes unless they accepted Christianity.
In pursuance of this resolve he marched against them early in
775, captured the fortress of Sigiburg on the Ruhr, regained and
rebuilt Eresburg and left Prankish garrisons in the land. The
Engrians, together with the Eastphalians and the Westphalians
who dwelt on either side of them, made a formal submission and
many of them were baptized; but about the same time some
Prankish troops met with a serious reverse at Lubbecke near
Minden. Charles thereupon again took the field, and after
ravaging Saxony returned home under the impression that the
war was over. In 776, however, the Saxons were again in arms
and retook Eresburg; but they failed to capture Sigiburg, and
showed themselves penitent when the king appeared among them.
Eresburg was regarrisoned, a new fortress named Carlsburg
was erected on the banks of the Lippe, and terms of peace were
arranged. In 777 Charles held an assembly at Paderborn,
henceforth his headquarters during this war, which was attended
by most of the Saxon chiefs. Hostages were given, oaths of
fealty renewed, while many accepted Christianity, and the
rudiments of an ecclesiastical system were established. The
peace did not last long. A certain Widukind, or Wittekind, who
had doubtless taken part in the earlier struggle, returned from
exile in Denmark, and under his leadership the Saxon revolt
broke out afresh in 778. The valley of the Rhine from Coblenz
to Deutz was ravaged, and the advance of winter prevented
Charles from sending more than a flying column to drive back
the Saxons. But in 779 he renewed the attack, and after an
important Prankish victory at Bocholt the Westphalians again
did homage. The civil and ecclesiastical organization of the
country was improved, and in 782 the king held an assembly
at the source of the Lippe and took further measures to extend
his influence. The land was divided into counties, which,
however, were given to Saxon chiefs to administer, and it was
probably on this occasion that the capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae
was issued. This capitulary ordered the celebration of baptism
and other Christian rites and ceremonies in addition to the
payment of tithes, and forbade the observance of pagan customs
on pain of death.
This attack on the religion and property of the Saxons aroused
intense indignation, and provoked the rising of 782 which
marks the beginning of the second period of the war. The
work of devastation was renewed, the priests were driven out,
and on the Siintel mountains near Minden, the Prankish forces
were almost annihilated. Charles collected a large army, and by
his orders 4500 men who had surrendered were beheaded at
Verden. This act made the Saxons more furious than ever,
but in 783 Charles inflicted two defeats upon them at Detmold
and on the river Hase, and ravaged their territory from the
Weser to the Elbe. This work was continued during the following
year by the king and his eldest son Charles, and the Christmas
of 784 was spent by the royal family at Eresburg, whence Charles
directed various plundering expeditions. The work of conversion
was renewed, and an important event took place in 785 when
Widukind, assured of his personal safety, surrendered and was
baptized at Attigny together with many of his companions.
Saxony at last seemed to be subdued, and Saxon warriors took
service in the Prankish armies. But in 792 some Prankish
troops were killed at the mouth of the Elbe, and a similar disaster
in the following year was the signal for a renewal of the ravages
with great violence, when churches were destroyed, priests
killed, or driven away, and many of the people returned to
268
SAXONY
heathenism. These events compelled Charles to leave the
Avar war and return to Saxony in 794; and until 799 each year
had its Saxon campaign. At the same time in 794, as a fresh
experiment in policy, every third man was transported; while
the king was assisted in his work of conquest by the Abotrites
who inhabited a district east of the Elbe. The resistance Charles
met with was not serious, and these expeditions took the form
of plundering raids. Oaths and hostages were exacted; and
many Saxon youths were educated in the land of the Franks
as Christians, and sent back into Saxony to spread Christianity
and Prankish influence. The southern part of the country was
now fairly tranquil, and the later campaigns were directed
mainly against the Nordalbingians, the branch of the Saxons
living north of the Elbe, who suffered a severe reverse near
Bornhoved in 798. Further transportations were carried out,
and in 797 Charles issued another capitulary which mitigated
the severe provisions of the capitulary of 782; and about 802
the Saxon law was committed to writing. The Nordalbingians
were still restless, and it is recorded that their land was devast-
ated in 802. Two years later a final campaign was undertaken,
when a large number of these people were transported into the
country of the Franks and their land was given to the Abotrites.
The conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, which during
this time had been steadily progressing, was continued hi the
reign of the emperor Louis I., the Pious, who, however, took
very little interest in this part of his empire. Bishoprics were
founded at Bremen, Miinster, Verden, Minden, Paderborn,
Osnabriick, Hildesheim and Hamburg, and one founded at Seligen-
stadt was removed to Halberstadt. Some of these bishoprics
were under the authority of the archiepiscopal see of Cologne,
others under that of Mainz, and this arrangement was unaltered
when in 834 Hamburg was raised to an archbishopric. In 847
the bishopric of Bremen was united with Hamburg, but the
authority of this archbishopric extended mainly over the districts
north and east of the Elbe. The abbey of Corvey, where rested
the bones of St Vitus, the patron saint of Saxony, soon became
a centre of learning for the country, and the Saxons undertook
with the eagerness of converts the conversion of their heathen
neighbours. After a period of tranquillity a reaction set in against
Prankish influences, and in 840 the freemen and liti separated
themselves from the nobles, formed a league, or stellinga, and
obtained a promise from the emperor Lothair I. that he would
restore their ancient constitution. This rising, which was
probably caused by the exaction of tithes and the oppression of
Prankish officials, aimed also at restoring the heathen religion,
and was put down in 842 by king Louis the German, who claimed
authority over this part of the Carolingian empire.
The influences of civilization and the settlement of Prankish
colonists in various parts of Saxony facilitated its incorporation
with the Carolingian empire, with which its history is for some
time identified. By the treaty of Verdun in 843 Saxony fell to
Louis the German, but he paid little attention to the northern
part of his kingdom which was harassed by the Normans and
the Slavs. About 850, however, he appointed a margrave to
defend the Limes Saxoniae, a narrow strip of land on the eastern
frontier, and this office was given to one Liudolf who had large
estates in Saxony, and who was probably descended from an
Engrian noble named Bruno. Liudolf, who is sometimes called
" duke of the East Saxons," carried on a vigorous warfare against
the Slavs and extended his influence over other parts of Saxony.
He died in 866, and was succeeded by his son Bruno, who was
killed fighting the Normans in 880. Liudolf's second son, Otto
the Illustrious, was recognized as duke of Saxony by King
Conrad I., and on the death of Burkhard, margrave of Thuringia
in 908, obtained authority over that country also. He made
himself practically independent in Saxony, played an important
part in the affairs of the Empire, and is said to have refused the
German throne in 911. He died in 912 and was succeeded by
his son Henry I., the Fowler. Between this prince and Conrad I.,
who wished to curb the increasing power of the Saxon duke,
a quarrel took place; but Henry not only retained his hold over
Saxony and Thuringia, but on Conrad's death in 919 was elected
German king. He extended the Saxon frontier almost to the
Oder, improved the Saxon forces by training and equipment,
established new marks, and erected forts on the frontiers for
which he provided regular garrisons. Towns were walled, where
it was decreed markets and assemblies should be held, churches,
and monasteries were founded, civilization was extended and
learning encouraged. Henry's son, Otto the Great, was crowned
emperor in 962, and his descendants held this dignity until the
death of the emperor Otto III. in 1002. Otto retained Saxony
in his own hands for a time, though in 938 he had some difficulty
in suppressing a revolt led by his half-brother Thankmar. The
Slavs were driven back, the domestic policy of Henry the
Fowler was continued, the Saxon court became a centre of
learning visited by Italian scholars, and in 968 an archbishopric
was founded at Magdeburg for the lands east of the Elbe. In
960 Otto gave to a trusted relative Hermann, afterwards called
Billung, certain duties and privileges on the eastern frontier,
and from time to time appointed him as his representative in
Saxony. Hermann gradually extended his authority, and when
he died in 973 was followed by his son Bernard I., who was
undoubtedly duke of Saxony in 986. When Henry II. was
chosen German king in 1002 he met the Saxons at Merseburg,
and on promising to observe their laws Bernard gave him the
sacred lance, thus entrusting Saxony to his care. Bernard was
succeeded by his son Bernard II., who took up a hostile attitude
towards the German kings, Conrad II. and Henry III. His
son and successor Ordulf, who became duke in 1059, carried on
a long and obstinate struggle with Adalbert, archbishop of
Bremen, who was compelled to cede one-third of his possessions
to Ordulf's son Magnus in 1066. The emperor Henry III. sought
to win the allegiance of the Saxons by residing among them, and
built a castle at Goslar and the Harzburg; and the emperor
Henry IV. also spent much time in Saxony.
In 1070 Otto of Nordheim, duke of Bavaria, who held large
estates in this country, being accused of a plot to murder Henry,
was placed under the ban, his possessions were declared forfeited
and his estates plundered. Otto, in alliance with Magnus, won
considerable support in Saxony, but after some fighting both
submitted and were imprisoned; and Magnus was still in
confinement when on his father's death in 1072 he became
titular duke of Saxony. As he refused to give up his duchy he
was kept in prison, while Henry confiscated the estates of
powerful nobles, demanded the restoration of ducal lands by
the bishops, and garrisoned newly-erected forts with Swabians,
who provisioned themselves from the surrounding country.
These proceedings aroused suspicion and discontent, which were
increased when the emperor assembled an army, ostensibly to
attack the Slavs. The Saxon nobles refused to join the host
until their grievances were redressed, and in 1073 a league
was formed at Wormesleben. When the insurgents under Duke
Otto were joined by the Thuringians, Henry was compelled in
1074 to release Magnus and to make a number of concessions
as the price of the peace of Gerstungen; which, however, was
short-lived, as the peasants employed in pursuance of its terms
in demolishing the forts, desecrated the churches and violated
the ducal tombs. Henry, having obtained help from the princes
of the Rhineland, attacked and defeated the Saxons at Hohen-
burg near Langensalza, rebuilt the forts, and pardoned Otto,
whom he appointed administrator of the country. The Saxons,
however, were not quite subdued; risings took place from
time to time, and the opponents of Henry IV. found considerable
support in Saxony. During the century which followed the
death of Hermann Billung, there had been constant warfare
with the Slavs, but although the emperors had often taken the
field, the Saxons had been driven back to the Elbe, which was
at this time their eastern boundary. In 1106 Magnus died, and
the German king Henry V. bestowed the duchy upon Lothair,
count of Supplinburg, whose wife Richenza inherited the Saxon
estates of her grandfather Otto of Nordheim, on the death of her
brother Otto in 1 1 16. Lothair quickly made himself independent,
defeated Henry at Welfesholz in 1115, and prosecuted the war
against the Slavs with vigour. In 1125 he became German
SAXONY
269
king, and in 1137 gave Saxony to Henry the Proud, duke of
Bavaria, who had married his daughter Gertrude, and whose
mother Wulfhild was a daughter of Magnus Billung. The
succeeding German king Conrad III. refused to allow Henry to
hold two duchies, and gave Saxony to Albert the Bear, margrave
of Brandenburg, who like his rival was a grandson of Magnus
Billung. Albert's attempts to obtain possession failed, and
after Henry's death in 1139 he formally renounced Saxony in
favour of Henry's son, Henry the Lion (?..). The new duke
improved its internal condition, increased its political importance,
and pushed its eastern frontier towards the Oder. In 1180,
however, he was placed under the imperial ban and Saxony was
broken up. Henry retained Brunswick and Luneburg; West-
phalia, as the western portion of the duchy was called, was given
to Philip, archbishop of Cologne, and a large part of the land
was divided among nine bishops and a number of counts who
thus became immediate vassals of the emperor. The title duke
of Saxony was given to Bernard, the sixth son of Albert the
Bear, together with the small territories of Lauenburg and
Wittenberg, which were thus the only portions of the former
duchy which now bore the name of Saxony. Bernard, whose
paternal grandmother, Eilicke, was a daughter of Magnus
Billung, took a prominent part in German affairs, but lost
Lauenburg which was seized by Waldemar II., king of Denmark.
Dying in 1212, Bernard was succeeded in Wittenberg by his
younger son Albert I., who recovered Lauenburg after the
defeat of Waldemar at Bornhoved in 1227. Albert died in 1260,
and soon after his death his two sons divided his territories,
when the elder son John took Lauenburg which was sometimes
called lower Saxony, and the younger, Albert II., took Witten-
berg or upper Saxony. Both retained the ducal title and claimed
the electoral privilege, a claim which the Lauenburg line refused
to abandon when it was awarded to the Wittenberg line by the
Golden Bull of 1356.
Saxe-Lauenburg was governed by John until his death in
1285, when it passed to his three sons John II., Albert III. and
Eric I. As Albert had no sons the duchy was soon divided into
two parts, until on the death of duke Eric III., a grandson of
John II., in 1401, it was reunited by Eric IV., a grandson of
Eric I. When Eric IV. died in 1412 he was succeeded by his
son Eric V., who made strenuous but vain efforts to obtain the
electoral duchy of Saxe- Wittenberg, which fell vacant on the
death of the elector Albert III. in 1422. Eric died in 1436 and
was followed by his brother Bernard IV., whose claim to exercise
the electoral vote was quashed by the electors in 1438; and who
was succeeded by his son John IV. in 1463. The next duke,
John's son Magnus I., spent much time in struggles with the
archbishop of Bremen and the bishop of Ratzeburg; he also
assisted the progress of the Reformation in Lauenburg. Magnus,
who was formally invested with the duchy by the emperor
Charles V. in 1530, was the first duke to abandon the claim to
the electoral privilege. After his death in 1543 his son Francis I.
reigned for the succeeding twenty-eight years, and his grandsons,
Magnus II. and Francis II., until 1619. Francis, who did
something to improve the administration of his duchy, was
succeeded in turn by his two sons and his two grandsons; but
on the death of Julius Francis, the younger of his grandsons,
in 1689 the family became extinct.
Several claimants to Saxe-Lauenburg thereupon appeared,
the most prominent of whom were George William, duke of
Luneburg-Celle, and John George III., elector of Saxony. George
William based his claim upon a treaty of mutual succession
made in 1369 between his ancestor Magnus II., duke of Brunswick,
and the reigning dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg. John George had
a double claim. Duke Magnus I. had promised that in case
of the extinction of his family Lauenburg should pass to the
family of Wettin, an arrangement which had been confirmed
by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1507. Secondly, John George
himself had concluded a similar treaty with Julius Francis in
1671. In 1689 the elector received the homage of the people
of Lauenburg. George William, however, took Ratzeburg, and
held it against the troops of a third claimant, Christian V.,
king of Denmark; and in 1702 he bought off the claim of John
George, his successor being invested with the duchy in 1728.
Since that date its history has been identified with that of
Hanover (<?..).
In Saxe- Wittenberg Albert II. was succeeded in 1298 by
his son Rudolph I., who in 1314 gave his vote to Frederick,
duke of Austria, in the disputed election for the German throne
between that prince and Louis of Bavaria, afterwards the
emperor Louis IV.; and when the latter ignored his claims on
the margraviate of Brandenburg Rudolph shared in the attempt
to depose him, and to elect Charles of Luxemburg, afterwards
the emperor Charles IV., as German king. Rudolph was followed
in 1356 by his son Rudolph II., who had fought at the battle of
Crecy; and who in turn was succeeded in 1370 by his half-
brother Wenceslaus. This prince succeeded after some fighting
in temporarily obtaining the duchy of Luneburg for his house;
he took part in the election of Wenceslaus as German king in
1376; and was followed in 1388 by his eldest son Rudolph III.
Lavish expenditure during the progress of the council of Constance
reduced Rudolph to poverty, and on the death in 1422 of his
brother Albert III., who succeeded him in 1419, this branch of
the Ascanian family became extinct.
A new era in the history of Saxony dates from 1423, the year
when the emperor Sigismund bestowed the vacant electoral
duchy of Saxe- Wittenberg upon Frederick, margrave of Meissen.
Frederick was a member of the family of Wettin, which since
his day has played a prominent part in the history of Europe,
and he owed his new dignity to the money and other assistance
which he had given to the emperor during the Hussite war.
The new and more honourable title of elector of Saxony now
superseded his other titles, and the name Saxony gradually
spread over his other possessions, which included Meissen and
Thuringia as well as Saxe-Wittenberg, and thus the earlier
history of the electorate and kingdom of Saxony is the early
history of the mark of Meissen, the name of which now lingers
only in a solitary town on the Elbe.
Frederick's new position as elector, combined with his personal
qualities to make him one of the most powerful princes in
Germany, and had the principle of primogeniture been estab-
lished in his country, Saxony and not Prussia might have been
the leading power to-day in the German empire. He died in
1428, just before his lands were ravaged by the Hussites in 1429
and 1430. The division of his territory between his two sons,
the elector Frederick II. and William, occasioned a destructive
internecine war, a kind of strife which had many precedents in
the earlier history of Meissen and Thuringia. It was in 1455
during this war that the knight Kunz von Kaufungen carried
into execution his daring plan of stealing the two sons of the
elector Frederick, Ernest and Albert, but he was only moment-
arily successful, the princes soon escaping from his hands.
These two sons succeeded to their father's possessions in 1464,
and for twenty years ruled together peaceably. The land
prospered rapidly during this respite from the horrors of war.
Encouraged by an improved coinage, trade made great advances,
and other benefits also accrued from the discovery of silver on
the Schneeberg. Several of the important ecclesiastical princi-
palities of North Germany were about this time held by members
of the Saxon ruling house, and the external influence of the
electorate corresponded to its internal prosperity. But matters
were not allowed to continue thus. The childless death of their
uncle William in 1482 brought Thuringia to the two princes,
and Albert insisted on a division of their common possessions.
The important partition of Leipzig accordingly took place in
1485, and resulted in the foundation of the two main lines of the
Saxon house. The lands were never again united. Ernest,
the elder brother, obtained Saxe-Wittenberg with the electoral
dignity, Thuringia and the Saxon Vogtland; while Albert
received Meissen, Osterland being divided between them.
Something was still held in common, and the division was
probably made intricate to render war difficult and dangerous.
The elector Ernest was succeeded in 1486 by his son, Frederick
the Wise, one of the most illustrious princes _in German history.
270
SAXONY
Under him Saxony was perhaps the most influential state in
the Empire, and became the cradle of the Reformation. He
died in 1525 while the Peasants' War was desolating his land,
and was succeeded by his brother John, who was an enthusiastic
supporter of the reformed faith and who shared with Philip,
landgrave of Hesse, the leadership of the league of Schmalkalden.
John's son and successor, John Frederick the Magnanimous,
who became elector in 1532, might with equal propriety have
been surnamed the Unfortunate. He took part in the war of
the league of Schmalkalden, but in 1547 he was captured at
Miihlberg by the emperor Charles V. and was forced to sign the
capitulation of Wittenberg. This deed transferred the electoral
title and a large part of the electoral lands from the Ernestine
to the Albertine branch of the house, whose astute representa-
tive, Maurice, had taken the imperial side during the war. Only
a few scattered territories were reserved for John Frederick's
sons, although these were increased by the treaty of Naumburg
in 1554, and on them were founded the Ernestine duchies of
Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen and
Saxe-Altenburg. For the second time in the history of the
Saxon electorate the younger line' secured the higher dignity,
for the Wittenberg line was junior to the Lauenburg line. The
Albertine line is now the royal line of Saxony.
Maurice, who became elector of Saxony in consequence of the
capitulation of Wittenberg, was a grandson of Albert, the
founder of his line. His predecessors in ruling Albertine Saxony
had been his father, Henry, who only reigned for two years,
and his uncle George. The latter, a zealous Roman Catholic,
had vainly tried to stem the tide of the Reformation in his
dominions; Henry, on the other hand, was an equally devoted
Protestant. Maurice, who succeeded his father in 1541, was also
a Protestant, but he did not allow his religious faith to blind him
to his political interests. His ruling motive was ambition to
increase both his own power and the importance of his country.
He refused to join the other Protestant princes in the league
of Schmalkalden, but made a secret treaty with Charles V.
Then suddenly invading the Ernestine lands while the elector
John Frederick was campaigning against the imperialists on
the Danube, he forced that prince to return hastily to Saxony,
and thus weakened the forces opposed to the emperor. Although
compelled to retreat, his fidelity to Charles V. was rewarded,
as we have already seen, by the capitulation of Wittenberg.
All the lands torn from John Frederick were not, however,
assigned to Maurice; he was forced to acknowledge the superi-
ority of Bohemia over the Vogtland and the Silesian duchy of
Sagan. Moreover, Roman Catholic prelates were reinstated
in the bishoprics of Meissen, Merseburg and Naumburg-Zeitz.
Recognizing now as a Protestant prince that the best alliance
for securing his new possessions was not with the emperor, but
with the other Protestant princes, Maurice began to withdraw
from the former and to conciliate the latter. In 1552, suddenly
marching against Charles at Innsbruck, he drove him to flight
and then extorted from him the religious peace of Passau.
Thus at the close of his life he came to be regarded as the
champion of German national and religious freedom.
Amid the distractions of outward affairs, Maurice had not
neglected the internal interests of Saxony. To its educational
advantages, already conspicuous, he added the three Filrsten-
schulen at Pforta, Grimma and Meissen, and for administrative
purposes, especially for the collection of taxes, he divided the
country into the four circles of the Electorate, Thuringia, Meissen
and Leipzig. During his reign coal-mining began in Saxony.
In another direction over two hundred religious houses were
suppressed, the funds being partly applied to educational
purposes. The country had four universities, those of Leipzig,
Wittenberg, Jena and Erfurt; books began to increase rapidly,
and, by virtue of Luther's translation of the Bible, the Saxon
dialect became the ruling dialect of Germany.
Augustus I., brother and successor of Maurice, was one of the
best domestic rulers that Saxony ever had. He increased the
area of the country by the " circles " of Neustadt and the
Vogtland, and by parts of Henneberg and the silver-yielding
Mansfeld, and he devoted his long reign to the development
of its resources. He visited all parts of the country himself,
and personally encouraged agriculture; he introduced a more
economical mode of mining and smelting silver; he favoured
the importation of finer breeds of sheep and cattle; and he
brought foreign weavers from abroad to teach the Saxons.
Under him lace-making began on the Erzgebirge, and cloth-
making flourished at Zwickau. With all his virtues, however,
Augustus was an intolerant Lutheran, and used very severe
means to exterminate the Calvinists; in his electorate he is
said to have expelled in Calvinist preachers in a single
month. Under his son Christian I., who succeeded in 1586, the
chief power was wielded by the chancellor Nikolas Crell (q.v.),
who strongly favoured Calvinism; but, when Christian II.
came to the throne in 1591, Crell was sacrificed to the Lutheran
nobles. The duke of Saxe-Weimar was made regent, and
continued the persecution of crypto-Calvinism. Christian II.
was succeeded in 1611 by his brother John George I., under
whom the country was devastated by the Thirty Years' War.
John George was an amiable but weak prince, totally unfitted
to direct the fortunes of a nation in time of danger. He refused
the proffered crown of Bohemia, and, when the Bohemian
Protestants elected a Calvinist prince, he assisted the emperor
against them with men and money. The edict of restitution,
however, in 1629, opened his eyes to the emperor's projects,
and he joined Gustavus Adolphus. Saxony now became the
theatre of war. The first battle on Saxon soil was. fought in
1631 at Breitenfeld, where the bravery of the Swedes made up
for the flight of the Saxons. Wallenstein entered Saxony in
1632, and his lieutenants plundered, burned and murdered
through the length and breadth of the land. After the death of
Gustavus Adolphus at the battle of Lutzen, not far from Leipzig,
in 1632, the elector, who was at heart an imperialist, detached
himself from the Swedish alliance, and in 1635 concluded the
peace of Prague with the emperor. By this peace he was con-
firmed in the possession of Upper and Lower Lusatia, a district
of 1 80 sq. m. and half a million inhabitants, which had already
been pledged to him as a reward for his services against the
Bohemians.
Saxony had now to suffer from the Swedes a repetition of
the devastations of Wallenstein. No other country in Germany
was so scourged by this terrible war. Immense tracts were
rendered desolate, and whole villages vanished from the map;
in eight years the population sank from three to one and a half
millions. When the war was ended by the peace of Westphalia
in 1648, Saxony found that its influence had begun to decline
in Germany. Its alliance with the Catholic party deprived it
of its place at the head of the Protestant German states, which
was now taken by Brandenburg. John George's will made the
decline of the electorate even more inevitable by detaching from
it the three duchies of Saxe-Weissenfels, Saxe-Merseburg and
Saxe- Zeitz as appanages for his younger sons. By 1 746, however,
these lines were all extinct, and their possessions had returned
to the main line. Saxe-Neustadt was a short-lived branch from
Saxe-Zeitz, extinct in 1714. The next three electors, who each
bore the name of John George, had uneventful reigns. The first
made some efforts to heal the wounds of his country; the second
wasted the lives of his people in foreign wars against the Turks;
and the third was the last Protestant elector of Saxony. John
George IV. was succeeded in 1694 by his brother Frederick
Augustus I., or Augustus the Strong. This prince was elected
king of Poland as Augustus II. in 1697, but any weight which
the royal title might have given him in the Empire was more than
counterbalanced by the fact that he became a Roman Catholic
in order to qualify for the new dignity. The connexion with
Poland was disastrous for Saxony. In order to defray the
expenses of his wars with Charles XII. Augustus pawned and
sold large districts of Saxon territory, while he drained the
electorate of both men and money. For a year before the peace
of Altranstadt in 1706, when Augustus gave up the crown of
Poland, Saxony was occupied by a Swedish army, which had
to be supported at an immense expense.
SAXONY
271
The wars and extravagance of the elector-king, who regained
the Polish crown in 1709, are said to have cost Saxony a hundred
million thalers. From this reign dates the privy council (Geheimes
Kabinet), which lasted till 1830. The caste privileges of the
estates (Slande) were increased by Augustus, a fact which tended
to alienate them more from the people, and so to decrease their
power. Johann Friedrich Bottger made his famous discovery
in 1710, and the manufacture of porcelain was begun at Meissen,
and in this reign the Moravian Brethren made their settlement
at Herrnhut. Frederick Augustus II., who succeeded his father
in the electorate in 1733, and was afterwards elected to the
throne of Poland as Augustus III., was an indolent prince, wholly
under the influence of Count Heinrich von Bruhl (<?..). Under
his ill-omened auspices Saxony sided with Prussia in the First
Silesian War, and with Austria in the other two. It gained
nothing in the first, lost much in the second, and in the third,
the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), suffered renewed miseries.
The country was deserted by its king and his minister, who
retired to Poland. By the end of the war it had lost 90,000 men
and a hundred million thalers; its coinage was debased and its
trade ruined; and the whole country was in a state of frantic
disorder. The elector died seven months after his return from
Poland; Bruhl died twenty-three days later. The connexion
with Poland was now at an end. The elector's son and successor,
Frederick Christian, survived his father only two months,
dying also in 1763, leaving a son, Frederick Augustus III., a boy
of thirteen. Prince Xaver, the elector's uncle, was appointed
guardian, and he set himself to the work of healing the wounds
of the country. The foundation of the famous school of mining
at Freiberg, and the improvement of the Saxon breed of sheep by
the importation of merino sheep from Spain, were due to his care.
Frederick assumed the government in 1768, and in his long
and eventful reign, which saw the electorate elevated to the
dignity of a kingdom, though deprived of more than half its
area, he won the surname of the Just. As he was the first king
of Saxony, he is usually styled Frederick Augustus I. The first
ten years of his active reign passed in peace and quiet; agri-
culture, manufactures and industries were fostered, economical
reforms instituted, and the heavy public debt of forty million
thalers was steadily reduced. In 1770 torture was abolished.
When the Bavarian succession fell open in 1777, Frederick
Augustus joined Prussia in protesting against the absorption of
Bavaria by Austria, and Saxon troops took part in the bloodless
" potato-war." The elector commuted his claims in right of
his mother, the Bavarian princess Maria Antonia, for six million
florins, which he spent chiefly in redeeming Saxon territory
that had been pawned to other German states. When Saxony
joined the Furstenbund in 1785, it had an area of 15,185 sq. m.
and a population of nearly 2,000,000, but its various parts
had not yet been combined into a homogeneous whole, for
the two Lusatias, Querfurt, Henneberg and the ecclesiastical
foundations of Naumburg and Merseburg had each a separate
diet and government, independent of the diet of the electorate
proper. In 1791 Frederick declined the crown of Poland,
although it was now offered as hereditary even in the female
line. He remembered how unfortunate for Saxony the former
Polish connexion had been, and he mistrusted the attitude
of Russia towards the proffered kingdom. Next year saw the
beginning of the great struggle between France and Germany.
Frederick's first policy was one of selfish abstention, and from
1793 until 1796, when he concluded a -definite treaty of neutrality
with France, he limited his contribution to the war to the bare
contingent due from him as a prince of the Empire. When war
broke out in 1806 against Napoleon, 22,000 Saxon troops shared
the defeat of the Prussians at Jena, but the elector immediately
afterwards snatched at Napoleon's offer of neutrality, and
abandoned his former ally. At the peace of Posen (nth
December 1806) Frederick assumed the title of king of Saxony,
and entered the Confederation of the Rhine as an independent
sovereign, promising a contingent of 20,000 men to Napoleon.
No change followed in the internal affairs of the new kingdom,
except that Roman Catholics were admitted to equal privileges
with Protestants. Its foreign policy was dictated by the will
of Napoleon, of whose irresistibility the king was too easily
convinced. In 1807 his submission was rewarded with the
duchy of Warsaw (to which Cracow and part of Galicia were
added in 1809) and the district of Cottbus, though he had to
surrender some of his former territory to the new kingdom of
Westphalia. The king of Saxony's faith in Napoleon was shaken
by the disasters of the Russian campaign, in which 21,000
Saxon troops had shared; when, however, the allies invaded
Saxony in the spring of 1813, he refused to declare against
Napoleon and fled to Prague, though he withdrew his contingent
from the French army. Whatever misgivings he may have
had were, however, removed by Napoleon's victory at Liitzen
(May 2, 1813), and the Saxon king and the Saxon army were
once more at the disposal of the French. After the battle of
Bautzen, Napoleon's headquarters were successively at Dresden
and Leipzig. During the battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the
popular Saxon feeling was displayed by the desertion of the
Saxon troops to the side of the allies. Frederick was taken
prisoner in Leipzig, and the government of his kingdom was
assumed for a year by the Russians. Saxony was now regarded
as a conquered country. Nothing but Austria's vehement
desire to keep a powerful neighbour at a distance from her
boundaries preserved it from being completely annexed by the
Prussians, who had succeeded the Russians in the government.
At the congress of Vienna the claim of Prussia to annex the whole
kingdom was supported by Russia, and opposed by Austria,
France and Great Britain, the question all but leading to a
complete break-up of the alliance (see VIENNA, CONGRESS or).
As it was, the congress assigned the northern portion, consisting
of 7800 sq. m., with 864,404 inhabitants, to Prussia, leaving
5790 sq. m., with a population of 1,182,744, to Frederick, who
was permitted to retain his royal title. On the 8th of June
1815 King Frederick joined the new German Confederation.
From the partition in 1815 to the war of 1866 the history of
Saxony is mainly a narrative of the slow growth of constitutional-
ism and popular liberty within its limits. Its influence on the
general history of Europe ceased when the old Empire was
dissolved. In the new German Empire it is too completely
overshadowed by Prussia to have any objective importance
by itself. Frederick lived twelve years after the division of
his kingdom. The commercial and industrial interests of the
country continued to be fostered, but only a few of the most
unavoidable political reforms were granted. Religious equality
was extended to the Reformed Church in 1818, and the separate
diet of Upper Lusatia was abolished. Frederick Augustus
was succeeded in i82j by his brother Antony, to the great
disappointment of the people, who had expected a more liberal
era under Prince Frederick Augustus, the king's nephew. Antony
announced his intention of following the lines laid down by his
predecessor. He accorded at first only a few trifling reforms,
which were far from removing the popular discontent, while
he retained the unpopular minister, Count Detlew von Einsiedel
(1773-1861), and continued the encouragement of the Roman
Catholics. The old feudal arrangement of the diet, with its
inconvenient divisions, was retained, and the privy council
continued to be the depository of power. An active opposition
began to make itself evident in the diet and in the press, and
in 1830, under the influence of the July revolution in Paris,
riots broke out in Leipzig and Dresden. Einsiedel was now
dismissed, Prince Frederick Augustus, son of Maximilian, who
resigned the succession, became co-regent, and a constitution
was promised. After consultation with the diet the king promul-
gated, on the 4th of September 1831, a new constitution which
is the basis of the present government. An offer from Metternich
of Austrian arms to repress the discontent by force had been
refused. The feudal estates were replaced by two chambers,
largely elective, and the privy council by a responsible ministry
of six departments. Bernhard von Lindenau was the head of the
first responsible cabinet, and the first constitutional assembly
sat from the 27th of January 1833 till the 3oth of October
1834.
272
SAXONY
While Saxony's political liberty was thus enlarged, its com-
merce and credit were stimulated by its adhesion to the Prussian
Zollverein and by the construction of railways. Antony had
died in 1836, and Frederick Augustus II. became sole king.
Growing interest in politics produced dissatisfaction with the
compromise of 1831, and the Liberal opposition grew in numbers
and influence. The burning questions were the publicity of
legal proceedings and the freedom of the press; and on these
the government sustained its first crushing defeat in the lower
chamber in 1842. In 1843 Lindenau was forced by the action
of the aristocratic party to resign, and was replaced by Julius
Traugotte von Konneritz (1792-1866), a statesman of reactionary
views. This increased the opposition of the Liberal middle
classes to the government. Religious considerations arising
out of the attitude of the government towards the " German
Catholics," and a new constitution for the Protestant Church,
began to mingle with purely political questions, and Prince
John, as the supposed head of the Jesuit party, was insulted
at a review of the communal guards at Leipzig in 1845. The
military rashly interfered, and several innocent spectators
were shot. The bitterness which this occurrence provoked was
intensified by a political reaction which was initiated about the
same time under Konneritz. Warned by the sympathy excited
in Saxony by the revolutionary events at Paris in 1848, the king
dismissed his reactionary ministry, and a Liberal cabinet took
its place in March 1848. The disputed points were now conceded
to the country. The privileges of the nobles were curtailed;
the administration of justice was put on a better footing;
the press was unshackled; publicity in legal proceedings was
granted; trial by jury was introduced for some special cases;
and the German Catholics were recognized. The feudal character
of the first chamber was abolished, and its members made mainly
elective from among the highest tax-payers, while an almost
universal suffrage was introduced for the second chamber.
The first demand of the overwhelmingly democratic diet returned
under this reform bill was that the king should accept the
German constitution elaborated by the Frankfort parliament.
Frederick, alleging the danger of acting without the concurrence
of Prussia, refused, and dissolved the diet. A public demonstra-
tion at Dresden in favour of the Frankfort constitution was
prohibited as illegal on the 2nd of May 1849. This at once awoke
the popular fury. The mob seized the town and barricaded
the streets; Dresden was almost destitute of troops; and the
king fled to the Konigstein. The rebels then proceeded to
appoint a provisional government, consisting of Tzschirner,
Heubner and Todt, though the true leader of the insurrection
was the Russian Bakunin. Meanwhile Prussian troops had
arrived to aid the government, and after two days' fierce street
fighting the rising was quelled. The bond with Prussia now
became closer, and Frederick entered with Prussia and Hanover
into the temporary " alliance of the three kings." He was not
sincere, however, in desiring to exclude Austria, and in 1850
accepted the invitation of that power to send deputies to the
restored federal diet at Frankfort. The first chamber imme-
diately protested against this step, and refused to consider the
question of a pressing loan. The king retorted by dissolving
the diet and summoning the old estates abolished in 1848.
When a quorum, with some difficulty, was obtained, another
period of retrograde legislation set in. The king himself was
carried away with the reactionary current, and the people
remained for the time indifferent. Beust became minister for
both home and foreign affairs in 1852, and under his guidance
the policy of Saxony became more and more hostile to Prussia
and friendly to Austria.
The sudden death of the king, by a fall from his carriage in
Tirol in 1854, left the throne to his brother John, a learned and
accomplished prince, whose name is known in German literature
as a translator and annotator of Dante. His brother's ministers
kept their portfolios, but their views gradually became somewhat
liberalized with the spirit of the times. Beust, however, still
retained his federalistic and philo-Austrian views. When war
was declared between Prussia and Austria in 1866, Saxony
declined the former's offer of neutrality, and, when a Prussian
force crossed the border, the Saxon army under the king and
the crown prince joined the Austrians in Bohemia. The entire
kingdom, with the solitary exception of the Konigstein, was
occupied by the Prussians. On the conclusion of peace Saxony
lost no territory, but had to pay a war indemnity of ten million
thalers, and was compelled to enter the North German
Confederation.
During the peace negotiations Beust had resigned and entered
the Austrian service, and on the isth of November the king
in his speech from the throne announced his intention of being
faithful to the new Confederation as he had been to the old.
On the 7th of February 1867 a military convention was signed
with Prussia which, while leaving to Saxony a certain control
in matters of administration, placed the army under the king
of Prussia; from the ist of July it formed the XII. army corps
of the North German Confederation under the command of
Crown-Prince Albert. The postal and telegraph systems were
also placed under the control of Prussia, and the representation
of the Saxon crown at foreign courts was merged in that of the
Confederation. A new electoral law of the same year reformed
the Saxon diet by abolishing the old distinction between the
various " estates " and lowering the qualification for the
franchise; the result was a Liberal majority in the Lower House
and a period of civil and ecclesiastical reform. John was
succeeded in 1873 by his elder son Albert (1832-1902) who
had added to his military reputation during the war of 1870.
Under this prince the course of politics in Saxony presented
little of general interest, except perhaps the spread of the
doctrines of Social Democracy, which was especially remarkable
in Saxony. The number of Social Democratic delegates in a
diet of 80 members rose from 5 in 1885 to 14 in 1895. So alarming
did the growth appear, that the other parties combined, and on
the 28th of March 1896 a new electoral law was passed, introdu-
cing indirect election and a franchise based on a triple division
of classes determined by the amount paid in direct taxation.
This resulted in 1901 in the complete elimination of the Socialists
from the diet. On the 7th of June 1902 King Albert died, and
was succeeded by his brother as King George. The most con-
spicuous event of his reign was the flight in December 1902
of the crown-princess Louise with a M. Giron, who had been
French tutor to her children, which resulted in a grave scandal
and a divorce. More important, however, was the extraordinary
situation created by the electoral law of 1896. This law had in
effect secured the misrepresentation of the mass of the people
in the diet, the representation of the country population at the
expense of that of the towns, of the interests of agriculture as
opposed to those of industry. A widespread agitation was the
outcome, and the temper of the people, of what became known
as the " Red Kingdom," was displayed in the elections of 1903
to the German imperial parliament, when, under the system
of universal suffrage, of 23 members returned 22 were Social
Democrats. This led to proposals for a slight modification in
the franchise for the Saxon diet (1904), which were not accepted.
In the elections of 1906, however, only 8 of the Social Democrats
succeeded in retaining their seats. In 1907 the government
announced their intention of modifying the electoral system
in Saxony by the adding of representation for certain professions
to that of the three classes of the electorate. This was, however,
far from satisfying the parties of the extreme Left, and the
strength of Social Democracy in Saxony was even more strikingly
displayed in 1909 when, in spite of plural voting, under a com-
plicated franchise, 25 Socialist members were returned to the
Saxon diet.
King George died on the isth of October 1904 and was suc-
ceeded by his son as King Frederick Augustus III.
The Saxon Duchies. The political history of the parts of Saxony
left by the capitulation of Wittenberg to the Ernestine line, which
occupy the region now generally styled Thuringia (Thiiringen), is
mainly a recital of partitions, reunions, redivisions and fresh com-
binations of territory among the various sons of the successive dukes.
The principle of primogeniture was not introduced until the end of
the 1 7th century, so that the Protestant Saxon dynasty, instead of
SAXONY SAXOPHONE
273
building up a single compact kingdom for itself, has split into four
petty duchies, of no political influence whatever. In 1547 the ex-
elector John Frederick the Magnanimous was allowed to retain
Weimar, Jena, Eisenach, Gotha, Henneberg and Saalfeld. Altenburg
and a few other districts were added to the Ernestine possessions by
the treaty of Naumburg in 1554, and other additions were made from
other sources. John Frederick, who had retained and transmitted
to his descendants the title of duke of Saxony, forbade his sons to
divide their inheritance; but his wishes were respected only until
after the death of his eldest son in 1565. The two survivors then
f ounded separate jurisdictions at Weimar and Coburg, though arrange-
ments were made to exchange territories every three years. In 1596
Saxe-Coburg gave off the branch Saxe-Eisenach; and in 1603 Saxe-
Weimar gave off Saxe-Altenburg, the elder Weimar line ending and
the younger beginning with the latter date. By 1638 Weimar had
absorbed both Coburg and Eisenach; Altenburg remained till 1672.
John, duke of Saxe- Weimar, who died in 1605, is regarded as the
common ancestor of the present Ernestine lines. In 1640 his three
surviving sons ruled the duchies of Weimar, Eisenach and Gotha.
Eisenach fell in in 1644 and Altenburg in 1672, thus leaving the dukes
of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Gotha to become the ancestors of the
modern ruling houses. Saxe-Weimar was still repeatedly divided;
in 1668 a Saxe-Marksuhl appears, and about 1672 a Saxe- Jena and
a new Saxe-Eisenach. All these, however, were extinct by 1741,
and their possessions returned to the main line, which had adopted
the principle of primogeniture in 1719.
Saxe-Gotha was even more subdivided; and the climax was
reached about 1680, when Gotha, Coburg, Meiningen, Romhild,
Eisenberg, Hildburghausen and Saalfeld were each the capital of
a duchy. By the beginning of 1825 only the first three of these and
Hildburghausen remained, the lands of the others having been
divided after much quarrelling. In that year the Gotha line expired,
and a general redistribution of the lands of the " Nexus Gothanus,"
as this group of duchies was called, was arranged on the I2th of
November 1826. The duke of Hildburghausen gave up his lands
entirely for Altenburg and became duke of Saxe-Altenburg; the
duke of Coburg exchanged Saalfeld for Gotha and became duke of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; and the duke of Saxe-Meiningen received
Hildburghausen, Saalfeld and some other territories, and added
Hildburghausen to his title. The existing duchies are separately
noticed.
The chief authority for the early history of Saxony is Widukind,
whose Res gestae Saxonicae is printed, together with the works of
other chroniclers, in the Monumenta Germanica historica, Scriptores.
Modern authorities are C. W. Bottiger, Geschichte des Kurstaates und
Konigreichs Sachsen, new ed. by T. Flathe (1867-1873) ; Sturmhofel,
Geschichte der sdchsischen Lande und ihrer Herrscher (Chemnitz,
1897-1898); and Tutzschmann, Atlas zur Geschichte der sdchsischen
Lander (Grimma, 1852). Collections which may be consulted are:
Codex diplomaticus Saxoniae regiae (Leipzig, 1 862-1 879) ; the A rchiv
fur die sdchsische Geschichte, edited by K. von Weber (Leipzig, 1862-
1879); and the Bibliothek der sachsische Geschichte und Landeskunde,
edited by G. Buchholz (Leipzig, 1903). See also GERMANY: Biblio-
graphy, and the articles on the various dukes, electors and kings of
Saxony.
SAXONY (Ger. Provinz Sachsen) , one of the central provinces
of the kingdom of Prussia, consists mainly of what was formerly
the northern part of the kingdom of Saxony, which was ceded to
Prussia in 1815, but also comprises part of the duchy of Magde-
burg and other districts, the connexion of which with Prussia
is of earlier date. The area of the province is 9751 sq. m. It is
bounded W. by Hesse-Nassau, Hanover and Brunswick, N. by
Hanover and Brandenburg, E. by Brandenburg and Silesia, and
S. by the kingdom of Saxony and the small Thuringian states.
It is, however, very irregular in form, entirely surrounding parts
of Brunswick and the Thuringian states, and itself possessing
several exclaves, while the northern portion is almost severed
from the southern by the duchy of Anhalt.
The major part belongs to the great North-German plain, but the
western and south-western districts include parts of the Harz, with
the Brocken, its highest summit, and the Thuringian Forest. About
nine-tenths of Prussian Saxony belongs to the basin of the Elbe, the
chief feeders of which within the province are the Saale, with its
tributary the Unstrut, and the Mulde, but a small district on the
west drains into the Weser.
Saxony is on the whole the most fertile province of Prussia and
excels all the others in its produce of wheat and beetroot for sugar,
but the nature of its soil is very unequal. The best crop-produ-
cing districts lie near the base of the Harz Mountains, such as the
" Magdeburger Borde " (between Magdeburg and the Saale) and the
" Goldene Aue," and rich pasture lands occur in the river valleys,
but the sandy plains of the Altmark, in thefnorth part of the province,
yield but a scanty return.
Of the total area 61 % is occupied by arable land, 8 % by meadows
and pastures and 21 % by forests. Wheat and rye are exported in
considerable quantities. The beetroot for sugar is grown chiefly in
the district to the north of the Harz, as far as the Ohre, and on the
banks of the Saale; and the amount of sugar produced is nearly as
much as that of all the rest of Prussia together. Flax, hops and oil-
seeds are also cultivated, and large quantities of excellent fruit are
grown at the foot of the Harz and in the valleys of the Unstrut and
the Saale. The market-gardening of Erfurt and Quedlinburg is well
known throughout Germany. The province is comparatively poor in
timber, though there are some fine forests in the Harz and other hilly
districts. Cattle-rearing is carried on with success in the river valleys,
and more goats are met with here than in any other part of Prussia.
The principal underground wealth of Prussian Saxony consists of
its salt and its brown coal, of both of which it possesses larger stores
than any other part of the German empire. The chief rock-salt
mines and brine springs are at Stassfurt, Schonebeck and Halle.
The brown coal region extends from Oschersleben by Kalbe to
Weissenfels; it is also found in the neighbourhood of Aschersleben,
Bitterfeld and Wittenberg. Prussian Saxony also possesses three-
fourths of the wealth of Germany in copper. The copper mines are
found chiefly in the Harz district. The other mineral resources in-
clude silver (one-third of the total German yield), pit-coal, pyrites,
alum, plaster of Paris, sulphur, alabaster and several varieties of
good building-stone. Numerous mineral springs occur in the Harz.
In addition to the production of sugar the most important
industries are the manufactures of cloth, leather, iron and steel wares,
chiefly at Erfurt, Suhl and Sommerda; spirits at Nordhausen,
chemicals at Stassfurt and Schonebeck, and starch. Beer is also
brewed extensively. Trade is facilitated by the great waterway of
the Elbe as well as by a complete system of railways. The chief
articles are wool, grain, sugar, salt, lignite and the principal manu-
factured products named above.
The population of the province of Saxony in 1905 was 2,979,221,
an average of 305 persons to the square mile; they were almost
equally divided between urban population and rural. There
were 2,730,098 Protestants, 230,860 Roman Catholics and
8050 Jews. The bulk of the inhabitants are of unmixed German
stock, but many of those in the east part have Wendish blood
in their veins.
Prussian Saxony is divided into the three government
districts of Magdeburg, Merseburg and Erfurt. The principal
towns are Magdeburg, Halle, Erfurt, Halberstadt, Nordhausen,
Mtihlhausen, Aschersleben, Weissenfels and Zeitz. Magdeburg
is the headquarters of an army corps. The provincial chambers
meet at Merseburg. The province sends twenty members to
the Reichstag and thirty-eight to the Prussian Abgeordnetenhaus
(house of representatives) . Magdeburg is the seat of an Evangeli-
cal consistory; the Roman Catholics belong to the diocese of
Paderborn. The university of Halle holds high rank among
German seats of learning.
See the Handbuch der Provinz Sachsen (Magdeburg, 1900); and
Jacobs, Geschichte der in der preussischen Provinz Sachsen vereinigten
Gebiete (Gotha, 1884).
SAXOPHONE (Ger. Saxophon, Ital. sassofone), a modern
hybrid musical instrument invented by Adolphe Sax, having the
clarinet mouthpiece with single reed applied to a conical brass
tube. In general appearance the saxophone resembles the bass
clarinet, but the tube of the latter is cylindrical and of wood;
both instruments are doubled up near the bell, which is shaped
somewhat like the flower of the gloxinia. The mouthpiece in
both is fixed to a serpentine tube at right angles to the main
bore. On the saxophone, owing to its conical bore, the produc-
tion of sound materially differs from that of the clarinet, and
resembles that of the oboe. The reed mouthpiece in combination
with a conical tube allows the performer to give the ordinary
harmonic series unbroken, which means in practice that the
octave or second member of the harmonic series is first overblown
when the pressure of the breath and the tension of the lips on
the reed are proportionally increased. The saxophone is there-
fore one of the class known as octave instruments. The funda-
mental note given out by the tube when the lateral holes are
closed is that of an open organ pipe of thesame length, whereas
when, as in the clarinet family, the reed mouthpiece is combined
with a cylindrical bore, the tube behaves as though it were
closed at one end, and its notes are an octave lower in pitch.
Hence the bass clarinet to give the same note as a bass saxophone
would need to be only half as long. The closed pipe, moreover,
can only overblow the uneven numbers of the harmonic series,
and therefore first gives the I2th instead of the octave, which
The sopranino in 1
The soprano in C
The alto in F .
The tenor in C .
The barytoo in F
The bus in C .
274
necessitates an entirely different arrangement of holes and keys
and a different scheme of fingering.
The bore of the saxophone is large, and there are from 18
to 20 keys covering holes of large diameter to produce the
fundamental scale. The first 15 semitones are obtained by
opening successive keys, the rest of the compass by means of
octave keys enabling the performer to
=^E; sound the harmonic octave of the funda-
mental scale. The compass of the various
=g saxophones extends over 2 octaves and
~g- a fifth with chromatic intervals, being
one octave less than the clarinet. The
complete family consists of the accompanying members.
The treble clef is used in notation, and all saxophones are
transposing instruments, the music being written in a higher
key, according to the difference in pitch between the funda-
mental note of the instrument and the standard C of the
notation. The keys given above
are of the orchestral saxophones;
the instruments used in military
bands are a tone lower. The
quality of tone of this family of
instruments is inferior to that of
the clarinets and has affinities
with that of the harmonium.
According to Bgrlioz it has vague
analogies with the timbre of 'cello,
clarinet and cor anglais, with, how-
ever, a brazen tinge. To a clock-
maker of Lisieux named Desfon-
tenelles, who made a clarinet with
a conical bore and an upturned
bell in 1807, is due the combina-
tion of single reed mouthpiece
with a conical tube. In 1840
Adolphe Sax, in trying to produce
a clarinet that would overblow an
octave like the flute and oboe, in-
vented the saxophone, which at
once leapt into popularity in
France and Belgium, where the
alto, tenor and baryton have super-
_ seded the bassoon in almost all
the military bands. Many modern
French composers, Meyerbeer, Massenet, Ambroise Thomas
and others, have scored for it in their operas. Kastner introduced
it into the orchestra in Paris in 1844 in Le Dernier Roi de Juda.
The saxophone has been adopted in England at the Royal
Military School of Music at Kneller Hall. (K. S.)
SAY, JEAN BAPTISTE (1767-1832), French economist, was
born at Lyons on the sth of January 1767. His father, Jean
Etienne Say, was of a Protestant family which had originally
belonged to Nimes, but had removed to Geneva for some time
in consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Young
Say was intended to follow a commercial career, and was sent,
with his brother Horace, to England, and lived first at Croydon,
in the house of a merchant, to whom he acted as clerk, and
afterwards in London, where he was in the service of another
employer. When, on the death of the latter, he returned to
France, he was employed in the office of a life assurance company
directed by E. Claviere, afterwards known in politics. Claviere
called his attention to the Wealth of Nations, and the study of
that work revealed to him his vocation. His first literary
attempt was a pamphlet on the liberty of the press, published
in 1 789. He worked under Mirabeau on the Courrier de Provence.
In 1792 he took part as a volunteer in the campaign of Cham-
pagne; in 1793 he assumed, in conformity with the Revolu-
tionary fashion, the pre-name of Atticus, and became secretary
to Claviere, then finance minister. He married in 1793 Mile
Deloche, daughter of a former avocat au conseil; the young pair
were greatly straitened in means in consequence of the deprecia-
tion of the assignats. From 1794 to 1800 Say edited a periodical
SAY, J. B.
entitled La Decade philosophique, litteraire, et politique, in which
he expounded the doctrines of Adam Smith. He had by this
time established his reputation as a publicist, and, when the
consular government was established in the year VIII (1799), he
was selected as one of the hundred members of the tribunate,
and resigned, in consequence, the direction of the Decade. He
published in 1800 Olbie, on, essai sur les may ens de reformer les
masurs d'une nation.
In 1803 appeared his principal work, the Traite d' economic
politique. In 1804, having shown his unwillingness to sacrifice
his convictions for the purpose of furthering the designs of
Napoleon, he was removed from the office of tribune, being at
the same time nominated to a lucrative post, which, however,
he thought it his duty to resign. He then turned to industrial
pursuits, and, having made himself acquainted with the processes
of the cotton manufacture, founded at Auchy, in the Pas de
Calais, a spinning-mill which employed four or five hundred
persons, principally women and children. He devoted his
leisure to the improvement of his economic treatise, which had
for some time been out of print, but which the censorship did
not permit him to republish; and in 1814 he availed himself
(to use his own words) of the sort of liberty arising from the
entrance of the allied powers into France to bring out a second
edition of the work, dedicated to the emperor Alexander, who
had professed himself his pupil. In the same year the French
government sent him to study the economic condition of Great
Britain. The results of his observations during his journey
through England and Scotland appeared in a tract De I'Angleterre
et des Anglais; and his conversations with distinguished men
in those countries contributed to greater correctness in the
exposition of principles in the third edition of the Traite, which
appeared in 1817. A chair of industrial economy was founded
for him in 1819 at the Conservatoire des Arts et M6tiers. In
1831 he was made professor of political economy at the College
de France. He published in 1828-1830 his Cours cotnplet
d'economie politique pratique, which is in the main an expansion
of the Traite, with practical applications. In his later years
he became subject to attacks of nervous apoplexy. He lost
his wife in January 1830; and from that time his health con-
stantly declined. When the revolution of that year broke out,
he was named a member of the council-general of the department
of the Seine, but found it necessary to resign. He died at Paris
on the 1 5th of November 1832.
Say was essentially a propagandist, not an originator. His great
service to mankind lay in the fact that he disseminated throughout
Europe by means of the French language, and popularized by his
clear and easy style, the economic doctrines of Adam Smith. It
is true that his French panegyrists (and he is not himself free from
censure on this score) are unjust in their estimate of Smith as an
expositor and extol too highly the merits of Say. On the side of the
philosophy of science his observations are usually commonplace or
superficial. Thus he accepts the shallow dictum of Condillac that
toute science se reduit a une langue bien faite. He recognizes political
economy and statistics as alike sciences, and represents the distinc-
tion between them as having never been made before him, though he
quotes what Smith had said of political arithmetic. While deserving
the praise of honesty, sincerity and independence, he is inferior to
his predecessor in breadth of view on moral and political questions.
In his general conception of human affairs there is a tendency to
regard too exclusively the material side of things, which made him
pre-eminently the economist of the French liberal bourgeoisie. He
is inspired with the dislike and jealousy of governments so often felt
and expressed by thinkers formed in the social atmosphere of the i8th
century. Soldiers are for him not merely unproductive labourers,
as Smith called them; they are rather "destructive labourers.
Taxes are uncompensated payments; they may be described as of
the nature of robbery.
Say is considered to have brought out the importance of capital
as a factor in production more distinctly than the English econo-
mists, who unduly emphasized labour. The special doctrines most
commonly mentioned as due to him are (i) that of " immaterial
products, and (2) what is called his " thdorie des dfibouchds."
Objecting, as Germain Garnier had, to Smith's distinction between
productive and unproductive labour, he maintains that, production
consisting in the creation or addition of a utility, all useful labour
is productive. He is thus led to recognize immaterial products,
whose characteristic quality is that they are consumed immediately
and are incapable of accumulation; under this head are to be ranged
the services rendered either by a person, a capital or a portion of
SAY, LEON
275
land, as, e.g., the advantages derived from medical attendance, or
from a hired house or from a beautiful view. But in working out
the consequences of this view Say is not free from obscurities and
inconsistencies; and by his comprehension of these immaterial pro-
ducts within the domain of economics he is confirmed in the error
of regarding that science as filling the whole sphere which really
belongs to sociology. His " theorie des debouches " amounts to
this, that, products being, in last analysis, purchased only with
products, the extent of the markets (or outlets) for home products
is proportional to the quantity of foreign productions; when the
sale of any commodity is dull, it is because there is not a sufficient
number, or rather value, of other commodities produced with which
it could be purchased. Another proposition on which Say insists
is that every value is consumed and is created only to be consumed.
Values can therefore be accumulated only by being reproduced in
the course or, as often happens, by the very act of consumption;
hence his distinction between reproductive and unproductive con-
sumption. We find in him other corrections or new presentations of
views previously accepted, and some useful suggestions for the
improvement of nomenclature.
Say's writings occupy vols. ix.-xii. of Guillaumin's Collection des
principaux economistes. Among them are, in addition to those
already mentioned, Catechisme d'economie politique (1815); Petit
Volume contenant quelques aperc,us des hommes et de la society lettres
a Malthus sur differens sujets d'economie politique (1820); Epitome
des principes de I'economie polilique (1831). A volume of Melanges
et correspondance was published posthumously by Charles Comte,
author of the Traite de legislation, who was his son-in-law. To
the above must be added an edition of Storch's Cours d'economie
politique, which Say published in 1823 without Storch's authoriza-
tion, with notes embodying a " critique amere et virulente," a pro-
ceeding which Storch justly resented.
The last edition of the Traite d'economie politique which appeared
during the life of the author was the 5th (1826); the 6th, with the
author's final corrections, was edited by the eldest son, Horace Emile
Say, himself known as an economist, in 1846. The work was trans-
lated into English " from the 4th edition of the French " by C. R.
Prinsep (1821), into German by Ludwig Heinrich von Jakob (1807)
and by C. Ed. Morstadt (1818 and 1830), and, as Say himself informs
us, into Spanish by Jos6 Queypo. The Cours d'economie politique
pratique, from which Morstadt had given extracts, was translated
into German by Max Stirner (1845). The Catechisme and the Petit
Volume have also been translated into several European languages.
An English version of the Lettres a Malthus appears in vol. xvii. of the
Pamphleteer (1821). See also Jean Baptiste Say, by A. Liesse (Paris,
1901). (J- K. I.)
SAY, [JEAN BAPTISTE] L^ON (1826-1896), French statesman
and economist, was born in Paris on the 6th of June 1826.
The family was a most remarkable one. His grandfather
JEAN BAPTISTE SAY (q.v.) was a well-known economist. His
brother Louis AUGUSTE SAY (1774-1840), director of a sugar
refinery at Nantes, wrote several books against his theories.
His son HORACE SMILE SAY (1794-1860), the father of Leon
Say, was educated at Geneva, and had travelled in America
before establishing himself in business in Paris, where he became
president of the Chamber of Commerce in 1848. His careful
investigations into the condition of industry at Paris gained
for him a seat in the Academy of political and moral sciences,
1857-
Leon Say thus inherited zeal for economic studies, of which
he gave proof by publishing at the age of twenty-two a brief
Histoire de la caisse d'escompte. He was at first destined for
the law, next entered a bank, and finally obtained a post in
the administration of the Chemin de fer du Nord. Meanwhile
he became a regular contributor to the Journal des debats,
where he established his reputation by a series of brilh'ant
attacks on the financial administration of the prefect of the
Seine, Haussmann. He displayed talent for interesting popular
audiences in economic questions. His sympathies, like those
of his grandfather, were with the British school of economists ;
he was, indeed, the hereditary defender of free-trade principles
in France. He had, moreover, an intimate acquaintance with
the English language and institutions, and translated into French
Goschen's Theory of Foreign Exchanges. He was one of the
pioneers of the co-operative movement in France. Elected to
the Assembly of 1871 by the departments of Seine and Seine-
et-Oise, he adopted the former, and took his seat among the
Moderate Liberals, to whose principles he adhered throughout
his life. He was immediately chosen as reporter of the com-
mission on the state of the national finances, and in this capacity
prepared two elaborate statements. Thiers, though opposing
their publication on grounds of public expediency, was much
struck by the ability displayed in them, and on the sth of June
appointed Say prefect of the Seine. The fall of the empire,
the siege of Paris, and the Commune had reduced the administra-
tion of the capital to chaos, and the task of reconstruction
severely tried the new prefect's power of organization. This
was, however, a gift with which he was pre-eminently endowed;
and he only quitted his post to assume, in December 1872, the
ministry of finance a remarkable tribute to his abilities from
Thiers, who himself held strongly protectionist views. In all
other respects Say regarded himself as the disciple of Thiers,
who, in his last public utterance, designated Say as one of the
younger men who would carry on his work. He fell from office
with Thiers on the 24th of May 1873, and was elected president
of the Left Centre group, as whose candidate he unsuccessfully
contested the presidency of the Chamber with Buffet. In
spite of their divergence of views, he consented, at the urgent
request of President MacMahon, to take office in March 1875
in the Buffet Cabinet; but the reactionary policy of the premier
led to a dispute between him and Say both in the press and in
the constituencies, and brought about Buffet's resignation.
Say continued to hold the ministry of finance under Dufaure
and Jules Simon, and again in the Dufaure ministry of December
1877, and its successor, the Waddington ministry, till December
1879. During this long period, in which he was practically
the autocratic ruler of the French finances, he had first to com-
plete the payment of the war indemnity an operation which,
thanks largely to his consummate knowledge of foreign exchanges,
was effected long before the prescribed time. It was at a con-
ference held between Say, Gambetta and M. de Freycinet in
1878 that the great scheme of public works introduced by the
latter was adopted. Say's general; financial policy was to
ameliorate the incidence of taxation. As a pendant to his
free-trade principles,' he believed that the surest way of enriching
the country, and therefore the Treasury, was to remove all
restrictions on internal commerce. He accordingly reduced the
rate of postage, repealed the duties on many articles of prime
utility, such as paper, and fought strongly, though unsuccess-
fully, against the system of octrois. On the 3oth of April 1880
he accepted the post of ambassador in London for the purpose
of negotiating a commercial treaty between France and England,
but the presidency of the Senate falling vacant, he was elected
to it on the 2 sth of May, having meanwhile secured a pre-
liminary understanding, the most important feature of which
was a reduction of the duty on the cheaper class of French wines.
In January 1882 he became minister of finance in the Freycinet
Cabinet, which was defeated in the following July on the Egyptian
question. Say's influence over the rising generation grew less ;
his " academic Liberalism " was regarded as old-fashioned ;
Socialism, which he never ceased to attack, obtained even greater
power, and free-trade was discarded in favour of M. Meline's
policy of protection, against which Say vainly organized the
Ligue centre le rencherissement du pain. He had, however, a
large share in the successful opposition to the income-tax, which
he considered likely to discourage individual effort and thrift.
In 1889 he quitted the Senate to enter the Chamber as member
for Pau, in the belief that his efforts for Liberalism were more
urgently needed in the popular Assembly. Throughout his
career he was indefatigable both as a writer and as a lecturer
on economics, and in both capacities exerted a far wider influence
than in parliament. Special mention must be made of his work,
as editor and contributor, on the Dictionnaire des finances and
Nowieau Dictionnaire d'economie politique. His style was easy
and lucid, and he was often employed in drawing up important
official documents, such as the famous presidential message of
December 1877. He was for many years the most prominent
member of the Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques,
and in 1886 succeeded to Edmond About 's seat in the
Academic Francaise. He died in Paris on the 2ist of April
1896. A selection of his most important writings and speeches
has since been published in four volumes under the title of
276
SAY SAYCE
Les Finances de la France sous la troisieme ripublique (1898-
1901).
See Georges Michel, Leon Say (Paris, 1899); Georges Picot, Leon
Say, notice historique (Paris, 1901), with a bibliography.
SAY, a town on the right bank of the river Niger in 13 4'
N. and 2 30' E., in the French colony of Upper Senegal and
Niger. In the agreement of 1890 between Great Britain and
France for the delimitation of their respective spheres of in-
fluence in West Africa, Say was taken as the western end of an
imaginary line which ran eastward to Banna on Lake Chad.
To the north the " light soil " of the Sahara a phrase used
by Lord Salisbury in explaining the nature of the agreement
in the House of Lords was recognized as French; to the south
the Sokoto empire (northern Nigeria) fell to Great Britain.
By the convention of 1898 Say, however, and a considerable
tract of territory south and east of the town were ceded to France.
(See AFRICA, 5.)
SAYAD, a descendant of Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet,
by Fatima, Mahomet's daughter. Many of the Pathan tribes
in the North-West Frontier Province of India, such as the Bangash
of Kohat and the Mishwanis of the Hazara border, claim Sayad
origin. The apostles who completed the conversion of the
Pathans to Islam were called Sayads if they came from the
west, and Sheikhs if they came from the east; hence doubtless
many false claims to Sayad origin. In Afghanistan the Sayads
have much of the commerce in their hands, as their holy character
allows them to pass unharmed where other Pathans would be
murdered.
The Sayads gave a short-lived dynasty to India, which reigned
at Delhi during the first half of the i5th century. Their name
again figures in Indian history at the break up of the Mogul
empire, when two Sayad brothers created and dethroned
emperors at their will (1714-1720). In 1901 the total number
of Sayads in all India was returned at 1,339,734. They include
many well-known and influential families. The first Mahom-
medan appointed to the Council of India and the first appointed
to the Privy Council were both Sayads.
SAYAN MOUNTAINS, a range of Asia, forming the eastern
continuation of the Sailughem or Altai range, stretching from
89 E. to 106 E. Orographically they are the N. border-ridge
of the plateau of N.W. Mongolia, and separate that region from
Siberia. The geology is imperfectly known. While the general
elevation is 7000 to 9000 ft., the individual peaks, consisting
largely of granites and metamorphic slates, reach altitudes of
10,000 ft. and 1 1, 450 ft., e.g. in Munko Sardyk ; while the principal
passes lie 6000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, e.g. Muztagh 7480 ft.,
Mongol 6500 ft., Tenghyz 7480 ft. and Obo-sarym 6100 ft. In 92
E. the system is pierced by the Bel-kem or upper Yenisei, and
in 106, at its eastern extremity, it terminates above the depression
of the Selenga-Orkhon valley. From the Mongolian plateau
the ascent is on the whole gentle, but from the plains of Siberia
it is much steeper, despite the fact that the range is masked
by a broad belt of subsidiary ranges of an Alpine character,
e.g. the Usinsk, Oya, Tunka, Kitoi and Byelaya ranges. Between
the breach of the Yenisei and the Kosso-gol (lake) in 100 30'
E. the system bears also the name of Yerghik-taiga. The flora
is on the whole poor, although the higher regions carry good
forests of larch, pitch pine, cedar, birch and alder, with rhodo-
dendrons and species of Berberis and Ribes. Lichens and mosses
clothe many of the boulders that are scattered over the upper
slopes.
SAYBROOK, a township of Middlesex county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., at the mouth and on the W. bank of the Connecticut
river, about 100 m. E.N.E. of New York City and about 40 m.
S. of Hartford. Pop. (1900) 1634; (1910) 1907. The post office
of the township is named Deep River. Mainly confined to
Saybrook Point, jutting out into the river, is the township of Old
Saybrook (pop. in 1910, 1516), separated from the township of
Saybrook in 1852, but actually the mother colony; its post
village is called Saybrook. It is served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railway, the Valley branch of which here
separates from the Shore Line branch. It is a beautiful place,
with several old buildings, notably the Hart mansion built about
1783 by Captain Elisha Hart, whose seven daughters here enter-
tained Washington Irving, J. R. Drake and Fitz-Greene Halleck.
Com. Isaac Hull and his nephew Joseph Bartine Hull married
two of the daughters, and the younger of these in 1874 left
the house to the township of Old Saybrook, which refused the
gift. Fenwick (pop. in 1910, 34), the smallest borough in the
state, is a part of Old Saybrook township, in which there are
summer residences. The first settlement was made on Saybrook
Point late in 1635 by John Winthrop, commissioned governor
for one year by the company of which the principal shareholders
were Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke, Sir Richard Salt.onstall,
John Pym and John Hampden, and which had a grant from the
earl of Warwick. The English settlers forestalled the Dutch,
who attempted to land here in November. A palisade was built
across the narrowest part of the neck of the point by Lion
Gardiner, who built a fort (burned in 1647) and planned a
settlement, to which for a time it was thought Lord Saye and
Sele, Lord Brooke, John Hampden, Oliver Cromwell, and other
independents would immigrate. Gardiner called the place
Saybrook from the names of its principal proprietors. He had
practical control until 1639, when he was displaced by George
Fenwick (d. 1657), whose wife, called Lady Fenwick (she was
the widow of Sir John Botelier), died here in 1646, and who in
1644 sold * to Connecticut the proprietors' rights.
In 1646 the First Church of Christ was organized; a church build-
ing was erected in 1647, and in 1680-1681 another, in which in
September 1708, at the call of the General Assembly, met a Congre-
gational Synod of 16 members which reaffirmed the Savoy Con-
fession of Faith and the Heads of Agreement adopted in England in
1691 by Congregationalists and Presbyterians, and drew up the
Saybrook Platform of discipline, providing for the promotion of
harmony and order, the regular introduction of candidates into the
ministry and the establishment of associations and consociations, the
latter being tribunals with final and appellate jurisdiction. This
platform was approved by the General Assembly, and churches
organized under it were declared to be established by law. This
establishment continued in full force until 1784. A granite boulder
(1901) marks the site of the first home of Yale University, established
here in 1701 as the Collegiate School of Connecticut; until 1716,
when it was removed to New Haven, most of the school's commence-
ments were held here and all its exercises after 1707-1708, before
which time most of the actual teaching was done in Killingworth,
now Clinton, Connecticut. Saybrook was the home of David
Bushnell (1742-1824), who devised in 1776 a submarine torpedo and
a tortoise-shaped diving boat, the " American Turtle," which were
tried without success against the British in the War of American
Independence.
The original township of Saybrook contained the present town-
ships of Old Saybrook, Westbrook (1840), Essex (1854, taken from
Old Saybrook), Saybrook and Chester (1836), and, on the east side
of the river, parts of the present Lyme (1665), Old Lyme (1855, from
Lyme), and East Lyme (1839, from Lyme and Waterford).
SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- ) , British Orientalist,
was born at Shirehampton on the 2Sth of September 1846, son
of the Rev. H. S. Sayce, vicar of Caldicot. He was educated
at Bath, and at Queen's College, Oxford, of which he became
fellow in 1869. In 1891 he was elected professor of Assyriology
at Oxford. He threw his whole energies into the study of biblical
and other Oriental subjects, and though his conclusions have
in a number of cases been considerably modified (e.g. in chron-
ology and transliteration) by the work of other scholars (see,
e.g. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA) it is impossible to overestimate
his services to Oriental scholarship. He travelled widely in the
East and continued in later life annual trips up the Nile. An
interesting example of the importance of his pioneer work is the
fact that there has been a strong tendency to revert to the views
which he advanced on the question of the Hittites in his early
Oxford lectures. He was a member of the Old Testament
Revision Company in 1874-1884; deputy professor of com-
parative philology in Oxford 1876-1890; Hibbert Lecturer
1887; Gifford Lecturer 1900-1902.
1 The sale was probably illegal as it was never confirmed ; and it
does not appear that the earl of Warwick had ever had title to the land
to convey to the company of which Fenwick was agent. For a
conjectural explanation of the history of the Warwick patent see
Forrest Morgan, " The Solution of an Old Historic Mystery, "-in the
Magazine of History for July, August, September and October 1909.
SAYE AND SELE SAYYID
277
Of his numerous publications the following are of special im-
portance: Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes (1872);
Principles of Comparative Philology (1874); Babylonian Literature
(1877); Introduction to the Science of Language (1879); Monuments
of the Hittites (1881); Herodotus i.-iii. (1883); Ancient Empires of
the East (1884); Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1885);
Assyria (1885); Hibbert Lectures on Babylonian Religion (1887);
The Hittites (1889); Races of the Old Testament (1891); Higher
Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1894); Patriarchal
Palestine (1895); The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotus (1895);
Early History of the Hebrews (1897); Israel and the Surrounding
Nations (1898); Babylonians and Assyrians (1900); Egyptian and
Babylonian Religion (1903); Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscr.
(1907). He also contributed important articles to the 9th, loth and
nth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and edited a number
of Oriental works.
SAYE AND SELE, WILLIAM FIENNES, IST VISCOUNT (1582-
1662), was the only son of Richard Fiennes, 7th Baron Sayeand
Sele, and was descended from James Fiennes, Lord Saye and Sele,
who was lord chamberlain and lord treasurer under Henry VI.
and was beheaded by the rebels under Jack Cade on the 4th of
July 1450. Born on the 28th of May 1582 Fiennes, like many of
his family, was educated at New College, Oxford; he succeeded
to his father's barony in 1613, and in parliament opposed the
policy of James I., undergoing a brief imprisonment for objecting
to a benevolence in 1662; and he showed great animus towards
Lord Bacon. In 1624, owing probably to his temporary friend-
ship with the duke of Buckingham, he was advanced to the rank
of a viscount, but notwithstanding this he remained during the
early parliaments of Charles I. champion of the popular cause,
and was in Clarendon's words " the oracle of those who were
called Puritans in the worst sense, and steered all their counsels
and designs." Afterwards his energies found a new outlet in
helping to colonize Providence Island, and in interesting himself
in other and similar enterprises in America. Although Saye
resisted the levy of ship-money, he accompanied Charles on his
march against the Scots in 1639; but, with only one other peer,
he refused to take the oath binding him to fight for the king to
" the utmost of my power and hazard of my life." Then Charles I.
sought to win his favour by making him a privy councillor and
master of the court of wards. When the Civil War broke out,
however, Saye was on the committee of safety, was made lord-
lieutenant of Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Cheshire, and
raising a regiment occupied Oxford. He was a member of the
committee of both kingdoms; was mainly responsible for passing
the self-denying ordinance through the House of Lords; and in
1647 stood up for the army in its struggle with the parliament.
In 1648, both at the treaty of Newport and elsewhere, Saye was
anxious that Charles should come to terms, and he retired into
private life after the execution of the king, becoming a privy
councillor again upon the restoration of Charles II. He died at
his residence, Broughton Castle near Banbury, on the I4th of
April 1662. On several occasions Saye outwitted the advisers
of Charles I. by his strict compliance with legal forms. He was
a thorough aristocrat, and his ideas for the government of colonies
in America included the establishment of an hereditary aristo-
cracy. His eldest son James (c. 1603-1674) succeeded him as
2nd viscount; other sons were the parliamentarians Nathaniel
Fiennes (q.v.) and John Fiennes. The viscounty of Saye and
Sele became extinct in 1781, and the barony is now held by the
descendants of John Twisleton (d. 1682) and his wife Elizabeth
(d. 1674), a daughter of the 2nd viscount. Saybrook (q.v.) in
Connecticut is named after Viscount Saye and Lord Brooke.
SAYER (or SAYERS), JAMES (1748-1823), English cari-
caturist, was a native of Yarmouth, and son of a merchant
captain. He began as clerk in an attorney's office, and was for
a time a member of the borough council. In 1780 the death of
his father put him in possession of a small fortune, and he came
to London. As a political caricaturist he was a supporter of
William Pitt. His plate of " Carlo Khan's triumphal entry into
Leadenhall Street " was allowed by C. J. Fox, against whom it
was directed, to have damaged him severely in public opinion.
Indeed Sayer was always at his best when attacking Fox, whose
strongly marked features he rendered with remarkable power,
and always so as to make them convey expressions of defiant
impudence or of anger. Pitt, who showed no wish to help
literature or art in any other case, provided Sayer with a place
as marshal of the Exchequer court. He died in Curzon Street,
Mayfair, on the 2oth of April 1823.
Sayer's " Carlo Khan " has been frequently reproduced. But he
can only be judged with confidence after examining the collection in
the British Museum, or other public libraries. His drawings, made
originally with pencil on oil paper, were etched for him by the
Brethertons. They were then sold in collections of the size of a large
octavo copybook, under such titles as Illustrious Heads (1794) or
Outlines of the Opposition (1795). Sayer left a complete gallery of
small full-length pictures of the public men of his time, slightly
caricatured. In his great plates he is inferior to Gillray, and he never
has the grace of Rowlandson, but he is less exaggerated than either,
and nearer the truth.
SAYERS, TOM (1826-1865), English pugilist, was born at
Brighton on the 25th of May 1826. By trade a bricklayer, he
began his career as a prize fighter in 1849 and won battle after
battle, his single defeat being at the hands of Nat Langham in
October 1853. In 1857 he gained the championship. His fight
with the American, John C. Heenan, the Benicia Boy, a much
heavier man than himself, is perhaps the most famous in the
history of the English prize ring. It took place at Farnborough
on the 1 7th of April 1860 and lasted two hours and six minutes,
thirty-seven rounds being fought. After Sayers's right arm had
been injured the crowd pressed into the ring and the fight was
declared a draw. 3000 was raised by public subscription for
Sayers, who withdrew from the ring and died on the 8th of
November 1865. The champion was 5 ft. 85 in. in height and
his fighting weight was under 1 1 stone. An account of the fight
between Sayers and Heenan is given by Frederick Locker-
Lampson in My Confidences (1896).
SAYRE, a borough of Bradford county, Pennsylvania, U. S. A.,
on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, about 95 m.
(by rail) N.N.W. of Wilkes-Barre, and just S. of the New York
state boundary. Pop. (1900) 5243 (337 foreign-born); (1910)
6426. Sayre is served by the main line and by a branch of the
Lehigh Valley railway, and is connected by electric railway
with Waverly, New York, and with the adjacent borough of
Athens, Pennsylvania (pop. in 1910, 3796), which manufactures
furniture, carriages and wagons. Sayre, Athens, South Waverly
and Waverly form virtually one industrial community. The
borough of Sayre is the seat of the Robert Packer Hospital
(1885) and has two parks. It is the trade centre of an agricultural
and dairying region, and has metal works and other factories;
but its industrial importance is due primarily to the locomotive
and car shops of the Lehigh Valley railway. It was named in
honour of Robert Heysham Sayre (1824-1907), long chief-
engineer of this railway. Sayre was settled in 1880 and was
incorporated as a borough in 1891.
SAYYID AHMAD KHAN, SIR (1817-1898), Mahommedan
educationist and reformer, was born at Delhi, India, in 1817.
He belonged to a family which had come to India with the
Mahommedan conquest, and had held important offices under
the Mogul emperors. Although his imperfect acquaintance
with English prevented his attainment of higher office than that
of a judge of a small cause court, he earned the title of the
recognized leader of the Mahommedan community. To the
British he rendered loyal service, and when the mutiny reached
Bijnor in Rohilkand in May 1857 the British residents owed
their lives to his courage and tact. His faithfulness to his religion
was pronounced, and in 1876 he defended the cause of Islam
in A Series of Essays on Mahommed, written in London. He
used these advantages to act as interpreter between the Mahom-
medans and their rulers, and to rouse his co-religionists to a
sense of the benefits of modern education. The task was no
light one; for during the first half of the igth century the
Mahommedans had kept themselves aloof from English educa-
tion, and therefore from taking their proper part in the British
administration, being content to study Persian and Arabic
in their own mosques. Sayyid Ahmad set himself to alter their
resolution. He established a translation society, which became
the Scientific Society of Aligarh. He wrote letters from England
to draw the hearts of the East to the West. In 1873 hefounded
278
SBEITLA SCAEVOLA
the Mahommedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, and raised
funds for the buildings of which Lord Lytton laid the foundation-
stone. He stimulated a similar movement elsewhere, and among
other cities Karachi, Bombay and Hyderabad caught the
infection of his spirit. Thus he effected a revolution in the
attitude of Mahommedans towards modern education. He was
made K.C.S.I., and became a member of the legislative councils
of India and Allahabad, and of the education commission.
He died at Aligarh on the 2nd of March 1898.
See Lieut.-Colonel G. F. I. Graham, The Life and Work of Sir
Saiyad Ahmed Khan (1885). (W. L.-W.)
SBEITLA (anc. Sufetula), a ruined city of Tunisia, 66 m.
S.W. of Kairawan. Long buried beneath the sand, this is the
most beautiful and extensive of the Roman cities in the regency.
It stands at the foot of a hill by a river, here perennial, but at
a short distance beyond lost in the sands. The chief ruin is
a rectangular walled enclosure, 238 ft. by 198 ft., known as the
Hieron, having three small and one large entrance. The great
gateway is a fine monumental arch in fair preservation, with
an inscription to Antoninus Pius. Facing the arch, within the
Hieron, their rear walls forming one side of the enclosure, are
three temples, connected with one another by arches, and forming
one design. The length of the entire facade is 1 18 ft. The principal
chamber of the central temple, which is of the Composite order,
is 44 ft. long; those of the side temples, in the Corinthian style,
are smaller. The walls of the middle temple are ornamented
with engaged columns; those of the other buildings with pilasters.
The porticos have fallen, and their broken monolithic columns,
with fragments of cornices and other masonry, lie piled within
the enclosure, which is still partly paved. (In 1001 a violent
storm further damaged the temples and forced the gateway out of
the perpendicular.) The other ruins include a triumphal arch of
Constantine, a still serviceable bridge and a square keep or
tower of late date.
The early history of Sufetula is preserved only in certain inscrip-
tions. Under Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius it appears to have been
a flourishing city, the district, now desolate, being then very fertile
and covered with forests of olives. It was partly rebuilt during the
Byzantine occupation and became a centre of Christianity. At the
time of the Arab invasion it was the capital of the exarch Gregorius,
and outside its walls the battle was fought in which he was slain;
his daughter, who is said by the Arab historians to have fought by
the side of her father, became the wife of one of the Arab leaders.
The invaders besieged, captured and sacked Sufetula, and it is not
afterwards mentioned in history. It was not until the close of the igth
century that the ruins were thoroughly examined by French savants.
See A. Graham, Roman Africa (London, 1902); Sir R. L. Playfair,
Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce (London, 1877).
SCABBARD, the sheath of a sword. The early forms of the
word given in the Promptorium parvulorum are scauberk,
scaubert or scauberd. The termination is certainly from the
Teutonic bergen, to protect, as seen in " hauberk," " hawberk "
(i.e. haliberg), literally a protection for the neck and shoulders,
hence the " long tunic of mail " of the nth century (see ARMS
AND ARMOUR). The first part is doubtful; Skeat takes it as
representing the O. Fr. escale, mod. ecaille, shell. Ger. Schale;
the word would therefore mean an outer sheath or shell that
covers or protects.
SCABBLING, or SCAPPIJNG, in building, the process of reducing
a stone to a rough square by the axe or hammer; in Kent
the rag-stone masons call this knobbling (see MASONRY).
SCABIES, or ITCH, a skin disease due to an animal parasite,
the Sarcoptes scabei (see MITE), which burrows under the
epidermis at any part of the body, but hardly ever in the face
or scalp of adults; it usually begins at the clefts of the fingers,
where its presence may be inferred from several scattered pimples,
which will probably have been torn at their summits by the
scratching of the patient, or have been otherwise converted into
vesicles or pustules. The remedy is soap and water, and sulphur
ointment.
SCAEVOLA, the name of a famous family of ancient Rome,
the most important members of which were:
i. GAic'sMucius SCAEVOLA, a legendary hero, who volunteered
to assassinate Lars Porsena when he was besieging Rome.
Making his way through the enemy's lines to the royal tent,
but not knowing Porsena by sight, he slew his secretary by
mistake. Before the royal tribunal Mucius declared that he
was one of 300 noble youths who had sworn to take the king's
life, and that he had been chosen by lot to make the attempt
first. Threatened with death or torture, Mucius thrust his
right hand into the fire blazing upon an altar, and held it there
until it was consumed. The king, deeply impressed and dreading
a further attempt upon his life, ordered Mucius to be liberated,
made peace with the Romans and withdrew his forces. Mucius
was rewarded with a grant of land beyond the Tiber, known as
the " Mucia Prata " in the time of Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
and received the name of Scaevola (" left-handed "). Dionysius
says nothing of the incident of the fire, and attributes Porsena's
alarm partly to the loss of a band of marauders in an ambuscade.
The story is presumably an attempt to explain the name Scaevola,
coloured by national and family vanity (Livy ii. 12; Dion.
Halic. v. 27-30). The Mucius of the legend is described as
a patrician; the following were undoubtedly plebeians.
2. PUBLIUS Mucius SCAEVOLA, Roman orator and jurist,
consul 133 B.C. during the time of the Gracchan disturbances.
He was not opposed to moderate reforms, and refused to use
violence against Tiberius Gracchus, although called upon in
the senate " to protect the state and put down the tyrant."
After the murder of Gracchus, however, he expressed his approval
of the act. He was an opponent of the younger Scipio Africanus,
for which he was attacked by the satirist Lucilius (Persius
i. 115; Juvenal i. 154). In 130 he succeeded his brother
Mucianus as pontifex maximus. During his tenure of office
he published a digest in 80 books of the official annals kept by
himself and his predecessors, which were afterwards discontinued
as unnecessary, their place being taken by the works of private
annalists. He was chiefly distinguished for his knowledge of
law, which he held to be indispensable to a successful pontifex.
Cicero frequently mentions him as a lawyer of repute, and he
is cited several times by the jurists whose works were used in
the compilation of the Digest. He was also a famous player at
ball and the game called Duodecim Scripta; after he had lost
a game, he was able to recall the moves and throws in their
order. 1
See A. H. J. Greenidge, History of Rome.
3. QUINTTJS Mucius SCAEVOLA, son of (2), usually called
" Pontifex Maximus," to distinguish him from (4), consul in
95 B.C. with his friend L. Licinius Crassus the orator. He and
his colleague brought forward the lex Licinia Mucia de civibus
regundis, whereby any non-burgess who was convicted of having
usurped the rights of citizenship was to be expelled from Rome,
and any non-burgess was forbidden under pain of a heavy
penalty to apply for the citizenship. Its object was undoubtedly
to purify the elections and to prevent the undue influence of the
Italians in the comitia. The indignation aroused by it was one
of the chief causes of the Social War (see Mommsen's Hist, of
Rome). After his consulship Scaevola was governor of the
province of Asia, in which capacity he distinguished himself
by his just dealing and his severe measures against the un-
scrupulous farmers of taxes (pitblicani) . The latter, finding
themselves unable to touch Mucius, attacked him in the person
of his legate, Publius Rutilius Rufus (?..). In honour of his
memory the Greeks of Asia set aside a day for the celebration
of festivities and games called Mucia. He was subsequently
appointed Pontifex Maximus, and, in accordance with a custom
that had prevailed since the first plebeian appointment to that
office (about 150 years before), was always ready to give gratuit-
ous legal advice. His ahtechamber was thronged, and even the
chief men of the state and such distinguished orators as Servius
Sulpicius consulted him. He kept a firm hand over the priestly
colleges and insisted upon the strict observance of definite
regulations, although he was by no means bigoted in his views.
He held that there were two kinds of religion, philosophical and
traditional. The second was to be preferred for the sake of the
unreasoning multitude, who ought to be taught to set a higher
1 Some authorities hold that Quintilian(7ns/. Oral. xi. 2, 38) refers
to Scaevola (3).
SCAFELL SCAFFOLD
279
value upon the gods, while people of intellect had no need of
religion at all. He was proscribed by the Marian party, and in
82, when the younger Marius, after his defeat by Sulla at Sacri-
portus, gave orders for the evacuation of Rome and the massacre
of the chief men of the opposite party, Scaevola, while attempting
to reconcile the opposing factions, was slain at the altar of Vesta
and his body thrown into the Tiber. He had already escaped an
attempt made upon his life by Gaius Fimbria at the funeral of
the elder Marius in 86.
Scaevola was the founder of the scientific study of Roman law
and the author of a systematic treatise on the subject, in eighteen
books, frequently quoted and followed by subsequent writers. It
was a compilation of legislative enactments, judicial precedents and
authorities, from older collections, partly also from oral tradition.
A small handbook called "Opoi (Definitions) is the oldest work from
which any excerpts are made in the Digest, and the first example of a
special kind of judicial literature (libri definitionum or regularuni).
It consisted of short rules of law and explanations of legal terms and
phrases. A number of speeches by him, praised by Cicero for their
elegance of diction, were in existence in ancient times.
4. QUINTUS Mucius SCAEVOLA (c. 159-88 B.C.), uncle of (3),
from whom he is distinguished by the appellation of " Augur."
He was instructed in law by his father, and in philosophy by the
famous Stoic Panaetius of Rhodes. In 121 he was governor of
Asia. Accused of extortion on his return, he defended himself
and, though no orator, secured his acquittal by his legal know-
ledge and common sense. In 117 he was consul. He did not
take a prominent part in the Senate, but his brief, unpolished
remarks sometimes made a great impression. He was a great
authority on law, and at an advanced age he gave instruction
to Cicero and Atticus. He had a high appreciation of Marius,
and when Sulla assembled the senate, to obtain from it a declara-
tion that Marius was the enemy of his country, Scaevola refused
his assent. He married Laelia (the daughter of Gaius Laelius,
the friend of the younger Scipio), by whom he had a son and two
daughters, one of whom became the wife of Licinius Crassus the
orator. Scaevola is one of the interlocutors in Cicero's De
oratore, De amicitia and De republica.
For the legal importance of the Scaeyolas, see A. Schneider, Die
drei Scaevola Ciceros (Munich, 1879), with full references to ancient
and modern authorities.
SCAFELL (pronounced and sometimes written Scaw Fell), a
mountain of Cumberland, England, in the Lake District. The
name is specially applied to the southern point (3162 ft. in height)
of a certain range or mass, but Scafell Pike, separated from
Scafell by the steep narrow ridge of Mickledore, is the highest
point in England (3210 ft.). The ridge continues N.E. to
Great End (2984 ft.), which falls abruptly to a flat terrace, on
which lies Sprinkling Tarn. The terrace is traversed by the path
between Sty Head Pass (1600 ft.) and Esk Hause (2490 ft.).
The range thus defined may be termed the Scafell mass. North-
west from the Pike the lesser height of Lingmell (2649 ft.) is
thrown out like a bastion, and the steep flank of the range,
scored with the deep gully of Piers Gill, sweeps down to the
head of Wasdale. On the east an even steeper wall, with splendid
crags, falls to Eskdale. Above Mickledore ridge Scafell rises
nearly sheer, the rock scored with bold clefts; here are some
of the ascents most in favour with the mountaineers. Some of
these tax climbers to the utmost; and the mountain has been
the scene of several accidents.
SCAFFOLD, SCAFFOLDING (from the O. Fr. escafaut, originally
escafalt, modern Ichafaud, a corruption of the Italian or Spanish
caiafalco, a platform, especially a canopy over a bier, a cata-
falque; this word is composed of O. Span, catar, O. Ital. catare,
to view, Lat. capture, to watch, observe, and balco, balcony),
properly a platform or stage, particularly one of a temporary
character erected for viewing or displaying some spectacle, and
hence applied to the raised structure on which the execution of
a criminal or condemned person is carried out. (See CAPITAL
PUNISHMENT, &c.). The word " scaffold " or " scaffolding " is
used in a technical sense of an obstruction formed in a blast
furnace by the fitting together of lumps which form a com-
paratively solid skeleton mass inside the furnace, preventing the
charge from descending properly. The most general modern
application of the word, however, is, in building, to the tem-
porary structure of platforms erected or suspended at convenient
heights to afford workmen easy access to their work. Such
scaffolds may be divided into four principal classes bricklayers'
scaffolds, masons' scaffolds, gantries and derrick towers or
stages. The first two are constructed with upright and horizontal
poles lashed together. Gantries and derricks are built up of
squared timber, and the different members are connected by
iron bolts and dogs.
The bricklayers' scaffold is constructed of standards, ledgers
and putlogs, and the connexions are made with lashings of rope,
though wire ropes or chains are sometimes used. The Brick-
standards are a series of upright fir poles 30 to 50 ft. layers'
in length, either (i) sunk about 2 ft. into the ground, scaffold.
(2) fixed in barrels filled with earth lightly rammed,
or (3) placed upon a " sole plate " of timber with a square formed
of small fillets of wood round the base to prevent movement.
The standards are placed 6 to 9 ft. apart, and about 5 ft. away
from the building. At every 5 ft. ledgers are tied to the standards
to support the putlogs, which in turn support the platform
of planks. The ledgers are poles lashed horizontally to the
standards; upon these, putlogs, usually of birch wood 3 in.
square in section, are laid about 3 or 4 ft. apart, with one end
resting on the ledger and the other in a recess in the wall. The
outer end should be lashed to the ledger. Boards are then laid
upon these putlogs parallel with the face of the wall. Two
thicknesses of boards are laid when the work is heavy. If the
scaffold is erected in an exposed position or is more than 30 ft.
high, it should be stiffened by cross braces of poles running
diagonally across the face of the structure and firmly lashed to
all the main timbers touched. Ties should also be taken back
from the face of the scaffold through apertures in the walls of
the building and firmly secured. These ties should be connected
with every fourth standard and start at a height between 20
and 30 ft. from the ground. Instead of, or in addition to, these
ties light shores may be taken from the face of the scaffold out-
wards from the building. As the work is carried up the boarding
and many of the putlogs are removed to the stage above, some
putlogs, however, being left tied to the lower ledgers to stiffen
the scaffold. In the case of thick walls a scaffold is required
inside as well as outside the building, and when this is the case
the two structures are tied together and stiffened by short
connecting poles through the window and door openings.
The mason requires an independent scaffold. He cannot rest
the inner ends of his putlogs in the wall as the bricklayer does,
for this would disfigure the stonework, so he erects
another and parallel framework of standards and
ledgers within a few inches of the wall-face upon which
to support them. The two portions are tied together with cross
braces, and the whole of the timbering is made capable of taking
heavier weights than are required in the case of the bricklayer.
Scaffolding poles are of Northern pine obtained chiefly from the
Baltic ports. They consist of small trees up to 30 to 40 ft. long and
of not more than 9 in. in diameter. They are sold with
the bark on, but this should be removed before use. Materials.
Such material forms the standards and ledgers. The putlogs are
usually pieces of birch from 3 to 4 in. square in section, and 5 to 6 ft.
long. In order to have the fibres uncut they should be split, not
sawn. Scaffold boards are made in 8-to 12-ft. lengths, 7 or 9 in. wide,
and i in. or 2 in. thick. They should be of yellow deal, but they are
more often cut from spruce. The corners are cut off and the ends
bound with stout hoop-iron to prevent splitting. The cords used for
lashing are made of jute and hemp fibre. The best and strongest
cords are those of white Manilla hemp. The fibres for scaffold cords
are often dipped in hot tar before being made up into rope. The
ropes generally used by the scaffolder are either " shroud laid,"
having three strands of fibres wound tightly around a core, or " three
strand," which are similar but without a core.
The erection of scaffolding demands nerve and physical strength,
as well as skill and discretion. The timbers near the ground are
fixed by hand labour alone; the higher poles are raised Erection
by pulley and rope. The wedges used for tightening
cordage are driven in between the pole and the rope. They should
be of oak or other hard wood, about 12 in. long and semicircular in
cross section, and should taper off from one end to the other. Practic-
ally the only tool used by the scaffolder is his hatchet, made with a
280
SCAFFOLD
Gantries.
hammer-head for driving spikes and wedges; the wooden handle he
often uses as a lever to tighten knots and cords. Scaffolds should
not be too heavily loaded, and the weight of materials should be
distributed as much as possible. This applies especially to brick-
layers' scaffolds, for heavy concentrated loads, even if not sufficient to
cause the scaffold to fail, tend to injure the brickwork.
In Scotland and the north of England much work is done from
inside by means of platforms of boards placed upon the floor joists.
When the work gets so advanced that it cannot be reached from the
floor, trestles and platforms are used. For executing special external
features, such as stone carving or plaster moulding, a scaffold will
be thrown out on cantilevers projecting through openings in the wall
and tied down inside the building. The materials are usually hoisted
by derrick cranes.
" Gantry " is the term applied to a staging of squared timber
used for the easy transmission of heavy material. The name has,
however, come to be used generally for strong stagings
of squared timber whether used for moving loads or not.
Taking the general meaning of the term, gantries may be divided
into three classes: (i) Gantries supporting a traveller; (2)
Travelling gantries, in which the whole stage moves along rails
placed on the ground; (3) Elevated platforms which serve as a
base upon which to erect pole scaffolding.
A gantry to support a traveller (fig. i) consists of two sets of
framing placed at a convenient distance apart, say 8 ft. or more,
and standing independently of each other. These frames consist
of standards or uprights standing upon a sleeper or sill resting in
a continuous line upon the ground. The tops of the standards
are levelled to receive the head or runner. Struts are taken
from cleats fixed at a convenient point in the sides of the
standards, and meet in pairs under the middle of the head;
sometimes a straining-piece is introduced between them. Struts
are also taken outwards from the uprights and bedded on
foot-blocks or bolted to small piles driven into the ground. The
space between the two frames must be kept free from struts and
ties of any description so as to leave a free passage for the
material while being lifted and moved. The different members
are connected by iron dogs and bolts; dogs are used wherever
possible, as they form a strong connexion and do not spoil the
6 to 12 in. squared in section, and the heads and sills are of
similar size; the struts and braces are usually somewhat smaller.
The traveller consists usually of two wood girders trussed with
iron rods and mounted on flanged wheels so as to run along the
FIG. i.
wood for other purposes as bolt-holes do. They should be placed
on both sides of the timbers to be connected. The size of the
timbers varies according to the height of the structure and the
weight intended to be carried. The standards may be from
FIG. 2.
rails fixed to the head-piece. Along each girder also, a rail is
provided upon which moves the hoisting gear; this is worked
either by hand or steam power. The ends of
the rails are turned up to form a stop for the
traveller or crab.
A travelling gantry (fig. 2) runs along rails
placed on the ground, and consists of two strong
trusses braced and bolted together and support-
ing the two trussed girders which take the crab-
winch. The latter is mounted on wheels, and
by simple gearing is caused to run along the
rails fixed on the upper side of the girders. This
is a most useful form of gantry, and requires a
very small amount of timber for its construc-
tion. The travelling frame is, however, very
heavy, and such an apparatus is usually fitted
with a steam winch, the power from which,
besides lifting the materials, can also be applied
to move the traveller. Gantries built on this
principle have been used successfully in building
or repairing lofty and wide-spanned steel or other
roofs. After the collapse of the steel " bow-
string " roof of Charing Cross station (London)
in December 1905, huge travelling gantries run-
ning along rails laid upon the station platforms
were employed, and these provided an efficient
and economical means of access to the damaged
portions; as section by section the work was
removed the gantries were shifted along to the
next bay. These gantries were 60 ft. in height.
One, used to strip and remove the coverings of
the roof, was 32 ft. deep, weighed 200 tons and
moved upon 24 steel flanged wheels; the other,
40 ft. deep and with 32 wheels, weighed 250 tons
and was used to take down the structural steel
work of the roof. Four cranes were erected upon
the staging to lower the material as it was
removed. The amount of timber used in these
gantries was 22,400 cubic ft.
In the erection of the Williamsburg Bridgeover
the East river, New York, for which 19,000 tons of steel were used,
" framed timber falsework "was built up of squared timber to a height
of loo ft. and 90 ft. wide at the top. The span was 355 ft. The timber-
ing was in three storeys or stages, and each " bent had 8 vertical and
4 battering posts. The bents were 20 ft. apart and were connected
SCAFFOLD
281
at the top by 10 lines of iz-in. by 14-in. stringers, and the lower
sills were 12 in. square. The cross braces were 8 by 10 in. and 6 by
12 in. The vertical standards or posts rested on sills, and under each
one also at its base was a timber foundation 4 ft. square. Two
travelling gantry towers, 22 ft. by 25 ft. and 40 ft. high, mounted on
double-flanged wheels, ran on rails at the top of the falsework and
carried long derrick booms fitted with pulleys for raising the materials
necessary for the bridge. Beside the cranes they carried cars with
the power plant, gasoline tank, water tanks and air compressor and
apparatus for the pneumatic riveting hammers.
Elevated platforms " are generally used in conducting building
operations in towns where the importance of the traffic renders it
necessary to keep the footway clear. They consist of two sets of
standards, sill and head, one set being erected close to the building
and the other about 8 or 10 ft. away. These stages are formed of
square timber, framed and braced in a similar manner to gantries
designed to support a traveller, but, instead of external shores or
braces the uprights are braced across to each other, care being taken
to fix the braces at such a height as to allow free passage beneath
them. Joists are placed across from head to head, and a double
layer of scaffold boards is laid to form the floor, the double thickness
being necessary to prevent materials dropping through the joints
upon the heads of passers-by. When the gantry abuts on the road, a
heavy timber fender splayed at each end should be placed so as to
ward off the traffic. Sometimes the scaffold is carried up several
stages in this way and is then called " staging," but more often the
gantry consists of only one stage and forms the foundation upon
which light pole or other scaffolding is erected. At the level of the
platform a fanguard is often thrown out for a distance of about
6 ft. or more and closely boarded to protect the public from falling
materials and the workmen from accident.
Derrick " gantries " or " towers " (fig. 3) are skeleton towers
of timber erected in a central position on a site to support
a platform at such a height as to enable an electric
towers. or steam power derrick crane placed upon it to clear
the highest portions of the building. The crane
revolves upon a base through nearly three parts of the circum-
ference of a circle, and in addition to this the jib of the crane is
capable of an " up and down " motion which enables it to
command any spot within a radius of three-quarters of the length
of the jib. For a single crane, a derrick tower with three legs is
built, and the crane is placed over one of these, stayed back to
the other two and then counterbalanced by heavy weights.
Each leg is usually from 6 ft. to 10 ft. square on plan, the " king "
leg (that is, the leg supporting the crane) being larger than the
" queen " legs. The three legs are placed from 20 to 30 ft. apart
in the form of an equilateral or isosceles triangle. When two
cranes are used, as is the case when important operations are to
be conducted over the entire area of a circle, a four-legged square
derrick tower is constructed, and a crane set upon a platform
over each of two opposite legs. The ground upon which it is
proposed to erect the towers must be well chosen for its solidity,
and often requires to be well rammed. The foundation usually
consists of a platform of 9-in. by 3-in. deals under each leg. The
corner posts may be of three g-in. by 3-in. deals bolted together,
but those for the king leg may advantageously be larger.
They are connected at every 8 or 10 ft. of their height by means
of cross pieces or transoms from 9 by 3 in. to 9 by 6 in. in size,
and each bay thus formed is filled in on all four sides with diagonal
bracing of the same or slightly smaller timber. Up the centre
of the king leg, from the bottom to the top, is carried an extra
standard of timber to take the weight of the crane. It may be a
balk of whole timber, 12 or 14 in. square, or may consist of deals
bolted together up to 16 in. square. This central standard must
be well braced and strutted from the four corners to prevent any
tendency to bending.
When the towers have reached the desired height the king leg is
connected to each of the queen legs by a trussed girder, the two
queen legs may be connected with each other either by a similar
trussed girder or by a single balk of timber which can be supported
by struts if the span is considerable. For the connecting girders
a balk of timber reaching from king to queen legs is placed on each of
the two topmost transoms, which may be from 4 to 8 ft. apart, the
depth of the top bays often being modified to the required depth of
the connecting beams. Upright struts are fixed at intervals of about
5 ft. between the two balks, which are also connected by long iron
bolts and cross braces filled into each bay. The top balks project
6 or 10 ft. beyond the king leg and form the support for a working
platform of deals. Struts are thrown out from the sides of the leg
to support the ends of the balks. Upon the platform are laid two
" sleepers " of balk timber extending from beneath the bed of the
crane and passing over the centre of each queen leg. The " mast,"
a vertical member composed either of a single timber or two pieces
strutted and braced, is erected upon the revolving crane bed, and the
" jib," which is similar in construction to the mast, is attached to
the base of the latter by a pivoted hinge. The jib is raised and
lowered by a rope fixed near the end of the jib and running to the
engine by way of a pulley wheel at the top of the mast. The rope or
chain used for lifting the materials passes over a pulley at the end
of the jib and thence to the winch over a pulley at the top of the
mast. In the operation of lifting it is obvious that a great strain is
put upon the mast and a considerable overturning force is exerted
by the leverage of the weight lifted at the end of the jib. To counter-
balance this, two timber " stays " or " guys " are taken from the
mast head, one to the centre of each queen leg, and there secured.
From these points two heavy chains are taken down the centre of
FIG. 3.
each queen leg and anchored to the platform at their bases, which
are each loaded with a quantity of bricks, stone or other heavy
material equal in weight to at least twice any load to be lifted by the
crane. A coupling screw link should be provided in the length of
each anchor chain so that it may be kept at a proper tension, for if
allowed to get slack a sudden jerk might cause it to snap. The
coupling screws should be placed in an accessible place near the
ground, where they may easily be seen and tightened when necessary.
The legs of the structure should be cross braced with each other,
either by ties of steel bars with tightening screws, or, as is more usual,
with scaffold-pole or squared timber-braces crossing each other at
right angles and lashed or bolted to the framework.
In the case of a three-towered gantry it is necessary to ballast only
the two queen legs. The weighting of the king leg, as is sometimes
done, is quite unnecessary, and even injurious, for in soft or moder-
ately hard ground the added weight combined with that of the crane
engine and load may cause a serious settlement. With a square
gantry having four legs, all four should be weighted, and in calculating
282
SCALA NUOVA SCALE
Cradles
and
swinging
scaffolds.
the ballast necessary for the crane towers the weight of the engine
should be considered. Access to the platform is obtained by ladders
fixed either inside or outside one of the queen legs. With the ex-
ception of the boards forming the working platform, which are
usually spiked down, the timbers of a tower gantry should all be
connected by screw bolts and nuts.
Swinging scaffolds are useful for executing light repairs to a
building. Perhaps the simplest form of swinging scaffold is the
" boatswain's boat," so called from its being chiefly
used for the painting or examination of the sides of
ships, but it is dangerous to woik from and a light wind
will cause it to swing to and fro, and owing to the
extremely awkward position occupied by the workman there is
difficulty in doing good work from it. A better, safer and more
comfortable arrangement, the " painter's boat " (fig. 4), is
suspended by blocks and falls from two cantilever " jibs " fixed
in the upper part
of the building.
The positions of
the jibs are
altered as re-
quired. The ends
of the suspen-
sion ropes are
fastened securely
to the cradle,
and by altering
their length the
workmen can ad-
FIG. 4.
just it to the proper height for working. These boats are usually
constructed with a framework of iron and fitted with edge boards
and guard rails all round. Like the " boatswain's boat " they
sway considerably in the wind.
An improved form of cradle has been patented which is swung
on block runners working along a tight wire cable stretched
between two jibs. Block tackle is used to raise or lower the
cradle, and horizontal movement also is obtained by light guy
lines working over pulleys at the jibs and secured to the tops
of the suspension ropes. All adjustments can be made from
the cradle with perfect safety. The guy lines steady the boat
to some extent and prevent it from swinging in the wind.
Tall chimney shafts may be erected by internal scaffolding only,
or by a combination of external and internal staging. The latter
method is often adopted when the lower part of the shaft
is designed with ornamental brickwork, string courses,
"" panels, &c., and it is important that this work should be
meys. ^gf^y finished. An external scaffold is therefore carried
up until plain work not more than 2 or -'} bricks thick is reached,
when the remainder can be completed by " overhand " work from
an internal scaffold. The offsets made in the brickwork on the inside
are used to support the timbering. For the repair of tall chimneys,
light ladders are erected one above the other by a steeplejack and
his assistants, each being lashed to the one below it and secured to
the brickwork by dog-hooks driven in the joints. When the top
of the chimney is reached balk timbers are raised by pulleys and
laid across the top. From these are swung cradles from which the
defective work is made good. If the work or weather demand a more
stable scaffold, a light but strong framework of putlogs held together
with iron bolts is fixed on each side of the shaft with iron holdfasts,
and a platform of boards is laid upon them. For circular chimneys
pieces of timber cut to a curve to fit the brickwork are clamped with
iron to the putlogs to prevent them from bending when the bolts
connecting the two frames are screwed up.
In England, the Factory and Workshop Act of 1901 empowers
the secretary of state to make regulations respecting any
dangerous " machinery, plant, process, or descrip-
tion of manual labour." No regulations affecting the
building trade have been made, however, but a memorandum
was issued in 1902 by the Home Office with the following
suggestions for the prevention of scaffold accidents:
i. All working platforms above the height of 10 ft., taken from the
adjacent ground level, should, before employment takes place
thereon, be provided throughout their entire length, on the outside
and at the ends,
(a) with a guard rail fixed at a height of 3 ft. 6 in. above the
scaffold boards. Openings may be left for workmen to
land from the ladders and for the landing of materials ;
(6) with boards fixed so that their bottom edges are resting on
or abutting to the scaffold boards. The boards so fixed
should rise above the working platform not less than 7 ins.
Openings may be left for the landing of the workmen from
the ladders.
2. All " runs " or similar means of communication between
different portions of a scaffold or building should be not less than
1 8 in. wide. If composed of two or more boards they should be
fastened together in such a manner as to prevent unequal sagging.
3. Scaffold boards forming part of a working platform should be
supported at each end by a putlog, and should not project more than
6 in. beyond it unless lapped by another board, which should rest
partly on or over the same putlog and partly upon putlogs other than
those upon which the supported board rests.
In such cases where the scaffold boards rest upon brackets, the
foregoing suggestion should read as if the word bracket replaced the
word putlog.
N.B. Experiments have shown that a board with not more than
a 6 in. projection over a putlog can be considered safe from trapping
or tilting.
4. All supports to centring should be carried from a solid founda-
tion.
5. In places where the scaffolding has been sublet to a contractor,
the employer should satisfy himself, before allowing work to proceed
thereon, that the foregoing suggestions have been complied with,
and that the material used in the construction of the scaffold is
sound.
See J. F. Hurst, Tredgold's Carpentry; A. G. H. Thatcher,
Scaffolding. (J. BT.)
SCALA NUOVA (Turk. Kush-Adasi), also known as New
Ephesus, a well-protected harbour on the west coast of Asia
Minor in the vilayet of Aidin, opposite Samos. The site of the
ancient Marathesium is close by on the S. It is connected with
the railway station of Ayassoluk by a diligence service. Before
the opening of the Smyrna-Aidin railway its roadstead was
frequented by vessels trading with the Anatolian coast, and
it has often been proposed to connect it with the railway system
by a branch line, and thus enable it to compete with Smyrna.
In the absence of this the town is rapidly on the decline.
The population is not over 7000. The trade is of merely local
interest. (D. G. H.)
SCALD, an ancient Scandinavian bard who recited or sang at
feasts compositions in honour of chiefs and famous men and their
deeds. This word represents the Icel. skald, Dan. skald, Swed.
skjald, the regular term for a poet. Authorities differ as to its
derivation. It seems certain that the word was originally
derogatory in sense; some connect it with skalda, a pole, on
which libels were cut. Others, e.g. Skeat, refer it to Swed. skalla,
Icel. skjalla, to make a loud noise or clatter, and take the original
sense to have been a " loud talker." This would link the word
with " scold," to rail at, find fault with, which is formed from
Dutch schold, past tense of scheldan, cf. Ger. schelten, in the same
sense.
Of different origin is the verb " scald," to burn or injure the skin
or flesh by hot liquid or steam (see BURNS AND SCALDS); also to
cleanse an object, or to remove hair, bristles, feathers &c., from an
animal, by exposure to moist heat, such as boiling water, steam, &c.
This word is derived from the O. Fr. escalder, eschauder, mod.
echauder, Lat. excaldare, to wash with hot water (caldus, calidus, hot).
SCALE (i) A small thin flake, plate or shell. The word in
O. Eng. is sceale, so bean-sceale, the husk or pod of a bean;
cognate forms are found in Ger. Schale, O.H.G. Scale, from
which the O. Fr. escale, modern ecale, is borrowed. The ultimate
root is seen in the closely allied " shell," and also in skull, scalp,
shale and skill, and means to peel off, separate, divide. The
word is used specifically (i) in botany, of the rudimentary flake-
like leaf forming the covering of the leaf-buds of deciduous trees
and of the bracts of the cone in conifers; (2) in zoology, of the
flat, hard structures of the epidermis or exoskeleton in fishes,
reptiles. Thus in ichthyology the various types of scales are
classed as cycloid (Gr. xuxXos, circle), where the growth is in
layers, equally from the anterior and posterior edges; ctenoid
(Gr. KTr/v, comb), where the posterior edge is toothed; ganoid
(Gr. y&vos, shining), with a hard enamelled surface and usually
rhomboidal in shape, and placoid (Gr. irXd, tablet), as in the
ossified papillae of the cutis of the shark. In reptiles the term
is applied to the structures which form the covering of the true
reptiles, snakes and lizards. In entomology the downy covering
SCALE INSECT SCALIGER
283
of the wings of lepidoptera consists of minute scales, really modi-
fications of hairs, covered with fine lines, giving the bright colours.
Another form in O. Eng. scale is found glossing the Lat. lanx,
flat bowl or dish, and is thus used of the dishes or cups of a balance
(bilanx), the instrument itself being also called " scales."
2. Properly a ladder, flight of steps, now only used in the
derived " scaling ladder." The word is derived from the Lat.
scala (originally scandla, from scandere to climb). There are
many transferred senses of the word, e.g. the distinguishing marks
for purposes of measurement on a rule or other measuring
instrument; hence a graduated measure or a system of pro-
portional measurement or numeration, and particularly, in
music, a series of tones at definite standard intervals (see HAR-
MONY, MUSICAL NOTATION).
SCALE INSECT, a name given to insects belonging to the
family Coccidae of the homopterous division of the Hemiptera
and deriving their name from the formation by the females of a
waxy secretion which often hardens into a protective scale
beneath which the insects live. Honey-dew, a sweet sticky
substance is also secreted by some members of the family. The
females are always wingless, but are provided with antennae,
legs and well-developed mouth-parts. In some cases these
organs are retained, in some they are lost in the encysted con-
dition. The males, on the contrary, although sometimes wingless,
are, as a rule, provided with a pair of large forewings and greatly
reduced hind wings; their antennae and legs are longer than in
the other sex, but the mouth-parts are reduced and functionless
(see ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY).
SCALIGER, the Latinized name of the great Delia Scala
family (see VERONA). It has also been borne by two scholars
of extraordinary eminence.
i. JULIUS CAESAR SCALIGER (1484-1558), so distinguished by
his learning and talents that, according to A. de Thou, no one
of the ancients could be placed above him and the age in which he
lived could not show his equal, was, according to his own account,
a scion of the house of La Scala, for a hundred and fifty years
princes of Verona, and was born in 1484 at the castle of La
Rocca on the Lago de Garda. At the age of twelve his kinsman
the emperor Maximilian placed him among his pages. He
remained for seventeen years in the service of the emperor,
distinguishing himself as a soldier and as a captain. But he was
unmindful neither of letters, in which he had the most eminent
scholars of the day as his instructors, nor of art, which he studied
with considerable success under Albrecht Diirer. In 1512 at
the battle of Ravenna, where his father and elder brother were
killed, he displayed prodigies of valour, and received the highest
honours of chivalry from his imperial cousin, who conferred
upon him with his own hands the spurs, the collar and the eagle
of gold. But this was the only reward he obtained. He left
the service of Maximilian, and after a brief employment by
another kinsman, the duke of Ferrara, he decided to quit the
military life, and in 1514 entered as a student at the university of
Bologna. He determined to take holy orders, in the expectation
that he would become cardinal, and then pope, when he would
wrest from the Venetians his principality of Verona, of which the
republic had despoiled his ancestors. But, though he soon gave
up this design, he remained at the university until 1519. The
next six years he passed at the castle of Vico Nuovo, in Piedmont,
as a guest of the family of La Rovere, at first dividing his time
between military expeditions in the summer, and study, chiefly
of medicine and natural history, in the winter, until a severe
attack of rheumatic gout brought his military career to a close.
Henceforth his life was wholly devoted to study. In 1525 he
accompanied M. A. de la Rovere, bishop of Agen, to that city as
his physician. Such is the outline of his own account of his early
life. It was not until some time after his death that the enemies
of his son first alleged that he was not of the family of La Scala,
but was the son of Benedetto Bordone, an illuminator or school-
master of Verona; that he was educated at Padua, where he
took the degree of M.D.; and that his story of his life and
adventures before arriving at Agen was a tissue of fables. It
certainly is supported by no other evidence than his own state-
ments, some of which are inconsistent with well-ascertained facts
(see below ad fin.).
The remaining thirty-two years of his life were passed almost
wholly at Agen, in the full light of contemporary history. They
were without adventure, almost without incident, but it was in
them that he achieved so much distinction that at his death in
1558 he had the highest scientific and literary reputation of any
man in Europe. A few days after his arrival at Agen he fell in
love with a charming orphan of thirteen, Andiette de Roques
Lobejac. Her friends objected to her marriage with an unknown
adventurer, but in 1528 he had obtained so much success as a
physician that the objections of her family were overcome, and
at forty-five he married Andiette, who was then sixteen. The
marriage proved a complete success; it was followed by twenty-
nine years of almost uninterrupted happiness, and by the birth
of fifteen children.
A charge of heresy in 1538, of which he was acquitted by his
friendly judges, one of whom was his friend Arnoul Le Perron,
was almost the only event of interest during these years,
except the publication of his books, and the quarrels and
criticisms to which they gave rise. In 1531 he printed his first
oration against Erasmus, in defence of Cicero and the Ciceronians.
It is a piece of vigorous invective, displaying, like all his sub-
sequent writings, an astonishing command of Latin, and much
brilliant rhetoric, but full of vulgar abuse, and completely
missing the point of the Ciceronianus of Erasmus. The writer's
indignation at finding it treated with silent contempt by the
great scholar, who thought it was the work of a personal enemy
Aleander caused him to write a second oration, more violent,
more abusive, with more self-glorification, but with less real merit
than the first. The orations were followed by a prodigious
quantity of Latin verse, which appeared in successive volumes
m J S337 *534> 1539, 1546 and 1547; of these, a friendly critic,
Mark Pattison, is obliged to approve the judgment of Huet,
who says, " par ses poesies brutes et informes Scaliger a des-
honore le Parnasse "; yet their numerous editions show that they
commended themselves not only to his contemporaries, but to
succeeding scholars. A brief tract on comic metres (De comicis
dimensionibus) and a work De causis linguae Latinaethe earliest
Latin grammar on scientific principles and following a scientific
method were his only other purely literary works published in
his lifetime. His Poetice appeared in 1561 after his death.
With many paradoxes, with many criticisms which are below
contempt, and many indecent displays of personal animosity
especially in his reference to Etienne Dolet, over whose death he
gloated with brutal malignity it yet contains acute criticism,
and showed for the first time wkat such a treatise ought to be,
and how it ought to be written.
But it is as a philosopher and a man of science that J. C.
Scaliger ought to be judged. Classical studies he regarded as an
agreeable relaxation from severer pursuits. Whatever the truth
or fable of the first forty years of his life, he had certainly been
a close and accurate observer, and had made himself acquainted
with many curious and little-known phenomena, which he had
stored up in a most tenacious memory. His scientific writings
are all in the form of commentaries, and it was not until his
seventieth year that (with the exception of a brief tract on the
De insomniis of Hippocrates) he felt that any of them were
sufficiently complete to be given to the world. In 1556 he
printed his Dialogue on the De plantis attributed to Aristotle,
and in 1557 his Exercitationes on the work of Jerome Cardan,
De subtilitate. His other scientific works, Commentaries on
Theophrastus' De causis plantarum and Aristotle's History of
Animals, he left in a more or less unfinished state, and they were
not printed until af ter[his death. They are all marked by arrogant
dogmatism, violence of language, a constant tendency to self-
glorification, strangely combined with extensive real knowledge,
with acute reasoning, with an observation of facts and details
almost unparalleled. But he is only the naturalist of his own
time. That he anticipated in any manner the inductive philo-
sophy cannot be contended; his botanical studies did not lead
him, like his contemporary Konrad von Gesner, to any idea of a
284
SCALIGER
natural system of classification, and he rejected with the utmost
arrogance and violence of language the discoveries of Copernicus.
In metaphysics and in natural history Aristotle was a law to
him, and in medicine Galen, but he was not a slave to the text
or the details of either. He has thoroughly mastered their
principles, and is able to see when his masters are not true to
themselves. He corrects Aristotle by himself. He is in that stage
of learning when the attempt is made to harmonize the written
word with the actual facts of nature, and the result is that his
works have no real scientific value. Their interest is only
historical. His Exercitationes upon the De stibtilitate of Cardan
(1557) is the book by which Scaliger is best known as a philosopher.
Its numerous editions bear witness to its popularity, and until
the final fall of Aristotle's physics it continued a popular text-
book. We are astonished at the encyclopaedic wealth of know-
ledge which the Exercitationes display, at the vigour of the
author's style, at the accuracy of his observations, but are obliged
to agree with G. Naude that he has committed more faults than he
has discovered in Cardan, and with Charles Nisard that his object
seems to be to deny all that Cardan affirms and to affirm all that
Cardan denies. Yet Leibnitz and Sir William Hamilton recognize
him as the best modern exponent of the physics and metaphysics
of Aristotle. He died at Agen on the 2ist of October 1558.
a. JOSEPH JUSTUS SCALIGER (1540-1609), the greatest scholar
of modern times, was the tenth child and third son of Julius
Caesar Scaliger and Andiette de Roques Lobejac. Born at Agen
in 1540, he was sent when twelve years of age, with two younger
brothers, to the college of Guienne at Bordeaux, then under the
direction of Jean Gelida. An outbreak of the plague in 1555
caused the boys to return home, and for the next few years
Joseph was his father's constant companion and amanuensis.
The composition of Latin verse was the chief amusement of
Julius in his later years, and he daily dictated to his spn from
eighty to a hundred lines, and sometimes more. Joseph was also
required each day to write a Latin theme or declamation, though
in other respects he seems to have been left to his own devices.
But the companionship of his father was worth more to Joseph
than any mere instruction. He learned from him to be not a
mere scholar, but something more an acute observer, never
losing sight of the actual world, and aiming not so much at
correcting texts as at laying the foundation of a science of
historical criticism.
After his father's death, he spent four years at the university
of Paris, where he began the study of Greek under Turnebus.
But after two months he found he was not in a position to profit
by the lectures of the greatest Greek scholar of the time. He
determined to teach himself. He read Homer in twenty-one
days, and then went through all the other Greek poets, orators
and historians, forming a grammar for himself as he went along.
From Greek, at the suggestion of G. Postel, he proceeded to
attack Hebrew, and then Arabic; of both he acquired a respect-
able knowledge, though not the critical mastery which he
possessed in Latin and Greek. The name of Jean Dorat
then stood as high as that of Turnebus as a Greek scholar, and
far higher as a professor. As a teacher he was able not only to
impart knowledge, but to kindle enthusiasm. It was to Dorat
that Scaliger owed the home which he found for the next thirty
years of his life. In 1563 the professor recommended him to
Louis de Chastaigner, the young lord of La Roche Pozay, as a
companion in his travels. A close friendship sprang up between
the two young men, which remained unbroken till the death of
Louis in 1595. The travellers first went to Rome. Here they
found Marc Antoine Muretus, who, when at Bordeaux and
Toulouse, had been a great favourite and occasional visitor of
Julius Caesar at Agen. Muretus soon recognized Scaliger's
merits, and introduced him to all the men that were worth
knowing. After visiting a large part f Italy, the travellers
passed to England and Scotland, taking as it would seem La
Roche Pozay on their way, for Scaliger's preface to his first book,
the Conjectanea in Varronem, is dated there in December 1564.
Scaliger formed an unfavourable opinion of the English. Their
inhuman disposition, and inhospitable treatment of foreigners,
especially impressed him. He was also disappointed in finding
few Greek manuscripts and few learned men. It was not until
a much later period that he became intimate with Richard
Thompson and other Englishmen. In the course of his travels
he had become a Protestant. On his return to France he spent
three years with the Chastaigners, accompanying them to their
different chateaux in Poitou, as the calls of the civil war required.
In 1570 he accepted the invitation of Cujas, and proceeded to
Valence to study jurisprudence under the greatest living jurist.
Here he remained three years, profiting not only by the lectures
but even more by the library of Cujas, which filled no fewer than
seven or eight rooms and included five hundred manuscripts.
The massacre of St Bartholomew occurring as he was about
to accompany the bishop of Valence on an embassy to Poland
induced him with other Huguenots to retire to Geneva, where
he was received with open arms, and was appointed a professor
in the academy. He lectured on the Organon of Aristotle and
the De finibus of Cicero with much satisfaction to the students
but with little to himself. He hated lecturing, and was bored
with the importunities of the fanatical preachers; and in 1574
he returned to France, and made his home for the next twenty
years with Chastaigner. Of his life during this period we have
interesting details and notices in the Lettres fran$aises inedites
de Joseph Scaliger, edited by M Tamizey de Larroque (Agen,
1881). Constantly moving through Poitou and the Limousin,
as the exigencies of the civil war required, occasionally taking
his turn as a guard, at least on one occasion trailing a pike on an
expedition against the Leaguers, with no access to libraries,
and frequently separated even from his own books, his life
during this period seems most unsuited to study. He had, how-
ever, what so few contemporary scholars possessed leisure,
and freedom from pecuniary cares. It was during this period of
his life that he composed and published the books which showed
that with him a new school of historical criticism had arisen.
His editions of the Catalecta (1575), of Festus (1575), of Catullus,
Tibullus and Propertius (1577), are the work of a man who not
only writes books of instruction for learners, but is determined
himself to discover the real meaning and force of his author.
He was the first to lay down and apply sound rules of criticism
and emendation, and to change textual criticism from a series
of haphazard guesses into a " rational procedure subject to fixed
laws " (Pattison). But these works, while proving Scaliger's
right to the foremost place among his contemporaries as Latin
scholar and critic, did not go beyond mere scholarship. It was
reserved for his edition of Manilius (1579), and his De emendatione
temporum (1583), to revolutionize all the received ideas of
ancient chronology to show that ancient history is not confined
to that of the Greeks and Romans, but also comprises that of
the Persians, the Babylonians and the Egyptians, hitherto
neglected as absolutely worthless, and that of the Jews, hitherto
treated as a thing apart, and that the historical narratives and
fragments of each of these, and their several systems of chronology,
must be critically compared, if any true and general conclusions
are to be reached. It is this which places Scaliger on so im-
measurably higher an eminence than any of his contemporaries.
Yet, while the scholars of his time admitted his pre-eminence,
neither they nor those who immediately followed seem to have
appreciated his real merit, but to have considered his emendatory
criticism, and his skill in Greek, as constituting his claim to
special greatness. His commentary on Manilius is really a
treatise on the astronomy of the ancients, and it forms an
introduction to the De emendatione temporum, in which he
examines by the light of modern and Copernican science the
ancient system as applied to epochs, calendars and computations
of time, showing upon what principles they were based.
In the remaining twenty-four years of his life he at once
corrected and enlarged the basis which he had laid in the De
emendatione. With incredible patience, sometimes with a
happy audacity of conjecture which itself is almost genius,
he succeeded in reconstructing the lost Chronicle of Eusebius
one of the most precious remains of antiquity, and of the highest f
value for ancient chronology. This he printed in 1606 in his
SCALIGER
285
Thesaurus temporum, in which he collected, restored anc
arranged every chronological relic extant in Greek or Latin
When in 1590 Lipsius retired from Leiden, the university anc
its protectors, the states-general of Holland and the prince o:
Orange, resolved to obtain Scaliger as his successor. He declined
their offer. He hated lecturing, and there were those among
his friends who erroneously believed that with the success o;
Henry IV. learning would flourish, and Protestantism be no bar
to advancement. The invitation was renewed in the mosl
flattering manner a year later. Scaliger would not be required
to lecture. The university only wished for his presence. He
would be in all respects the master of his time. This offer
Scaliger provisionally accepted. About the middle of 1593 he
started for Holland, where he passed the remaining thirteen years
of his life, never returning to France. His reception at Leiden
was all that he could wish. A handsome income was assured
to him. He was treated with the highest consideration. His
rank as a prince of Verona was recognized. Placed midway
between The Hague and Amsterdam, he was able to obtain,
besides the learned circle of Leiden, the advantages of the best
society of both these capitals. For Scaliger was no hermit
buried among his books; he was fond of social intercourse
and was himself a good talker.
For the first seven years of his residence at Leiden his reputa-
tion was at its highest point. His literary dictatorship was
unquestioned. From his throne at Leiden he ruled the learned
world; a word from him could make or mar a rising reputation;
and he was surrounded by young men eager to listen to and profit
by his conversation. He encouraged Grotius when only a youth
of sixteen to edit Capella; the early death of the younger Douza
he wept as that of a beloved son; Daniel Heinsius, from being
his favourite pupil, became his most intimate friend. But
Scaliger had made numerous enemies. He hated ignorance,
but he hated still more half-learning, and most of all dishonesty
in argument or in quotation. Himself the soul of honour and
truthfulness, he had no toleration for the disingenuous arguments
and the mis-statements of facts of those who wrote to support
a theory or to defend an unsound cause. His pungent sarcasms
were soon carried to the persons of whom they were uttered, and
his pen was not less bitter than his tongue. He resembles his
father in his arrogant tone towards those whom he despises and
those whom he hates, and he despises and hates all who differ
from him. He is conscious of his power, and not always sufficiently
cautious or sufficiently gentle in its exercise. Nor was he always
right. He trusted much to his memory, which was occasionally
treacherous. His emendations, if frequently happy, were some-
times absurd. In laying the foundations of a science of ancient
chronology he relied sometimes upon groundless, sometimes
even upon absurd hypotheses, frequently upon an imperfect
induction of facts. Sometimes he misunderstood the astronomical
science of the ancients, sometimes that of Copernicus and Tycho
Brahe. And he was no mathematician. But his enemies were
not merely those whose errors he had exposed and whose
hostility he had excited by the violence of his language. The
results of his system of historical criticism had been adverse to
the Catholic controversialists and to the authenticity of many
of the documents upon which they had been accustomed to
rely. The Jesuits, who aspired to be the source of all scholarship
and criticism, perceived that the writings and authority of Scaliger
were the most formidable barrier to their claims. It was the day
of conversions. Muretus in the latter part of his life professed
the strictest orthodoxy; J. Lipsius had been reconciled to the
Church of Rome; Casaubon was supposed to be wavering;
but Scaliger was known to be hopeless, and as long as his
supremacy was unquestioned the Protestants had the victory
in learning and scholarship. A determined attempt must be
made, if not to answer his criticisms, or to disprove his statements,
yet to attack him as a man, and to destroy his reputation.
This was no easy task, for his moral character was absolutely
spotless.
After several scurrilous attacks by the Jesuit party, in which
coarseness and violence were more conspicuous than ability, in
1607 a new and more successful attempt was made. Scaliger's
weak point was his pride. In 1594, in an evil hour for his happi-
ness and his reputation, he published his Epistola de vetustate
et splendore gentis Scaligerae et J. C. Scaligeri vita. In 1607
Caspar Scioppius, then in the service of the Jesuits, whom he
afterwards so bitterly libelled, published his Scaliger hypo-
bolimaeus (" The Supposititious Scaliger "), a quarto volume of
more than four hundred pages, written with consummate ability,
in an admirable and incisive style, with the entire disregard for
truth which Scioppius always displayed, and with all the power
of his accomplished sarcasm. Every piece of scandal which
could be raked together respecting Scaliger or his family is to
be found there. The author professes to point out five hundred
lies in the Epistola de vetustate of Scaliger, but the main argu-
ment of the book is to show the falsity of his pretensions to be
of the family of La Scala, and of the narrative of his father's
early life. " No stronger proof," says Mark Pattison, " can
be given of the inpressions produced by this powerful philippic,
dedicated to the defamation of an individual, than that it has
been the source from which the biography of Scaliger, as it now
stands in our biographical collections, has mainly flowed."
To Scaliger the blow was crushing. Whatever the case as to
Julius, Joseph had undoubtedly believed himself a prince of
Verona, and in his Epistola had put forth with the most perfect
good faith, and without inquiry, all that he had heard from his
father. He immediately wrote a reply to Scioppius, entitled
Confutatio fabulae Burdonum. It is written, for Scaliger, with
unusual moderation and good taste, but perhaps for that very
reason had not the success which its author wished and even
expected. In the opinion of the highest authority, Mark Pattison,
" as a refutation of Scioppius it is most complete "; but there
are certainly grounds for dissenting, though with diffidence,
from this judgment. Scaliger undoubtedly shows that Scioppius
committed more blunders than he corrected, that his book
literally bristles with pure lies and baseless calumnies; but he
does not succeed in adducing a single proof either of his father's
descent from the La Scala family, or of any single event narrated
by Julius as happening to himself or any member of this family
prior to his arrival at Agen. Nor does he even attempt a refuta-
tion of the crucial point, which Scioppius had proved, as far as a
negative can be proved namely, that William, the last prince
of Verona, had no son Nicholas, the alleged grandfather of Julius,
nor indeed any son who could have been such grandfather.
But whether complete or not, the Confutatio had no success;
the attack of the Jesuits was successful, far more so than they
could possibly have hoped. Scioppius was wont to boast that
his book had killed Scaliger. It certainly embittered the few
remaining months of his life, and it is not improbable that the
mortification which he suffered may have shortened his days.
The Confutatio was his last work. Five months after it appeared,
" on the 2ist of January 1609, at four in the morning, he fell
asleep in Heinsius's arms. The aspiring spirit ascended before
the Infinite. The most richly stored intellect which had ever
spent itself in acquiring knowledge was in the presence of the
Omniscient " (Pattison).
Of Joseph Scaliger the only biography in any way adequate is
;hat of Jacob Bernays (Berlin, 1855). It was reviewed by Mark
Pattison in the Quarterly Review, vol. cviii. (1860), since reprinted in
the Essays, i. (1889), 132-195. Pattison had made many manuscript
collections for a life of Joseph Scaliger on a much more extensive
scale, which he left unfinished. In writing the above article, Pro-
essor Christie had access to and made much use of these MSS.,
yhich include a life of Julius Caesar Scaliger. The fragments of the
ife of Joseph Scaliger have been printed in the Essays, i. 196-243.
"or the life of Joseph, besides the letters published by M. Tamizey
le Larroque (Agen, 1881), the two old collections of Latin and
"rench letters and the two Scaligerana are the most important
sources of information. For the life of Julius Caesar the letters
idited by his son, those subsequently published in 1620 by the
'resident de Maussac, the Scaligerana, and his own writings, which
are full of autobiographical matter, are the chief authorities. M. de
Jourousse de Laffore's Etude sur Jules Cesar de Lescale (Agen,
860) and M. Magen's Documents sur Julius Caesar Scaliger et sa
'amille (Agen, 1873) add important details for the lives of both
ather and son. The lives by Charles Nisard that of Julius in
' Gladiateurs de la republique des lettres, and that of Joseph in
286
SCALP SCALPING
Le Triumvirat litteraire au seiz&me sikcle are equally unworthy of
their author and their subjects. Julius is simply held up to ridicule,
while the life of Joseph is almost wholly based on the book of Sciop-
pius and the Scaligerana. A complete list of the works of Joseph will
be found in his life by Bernays. See also J. E. Sandys, History of
Classical Scholarship, ii. (1908), 199-204. (R. C. C.; J. E. S.*)
SCALP (O. Dutch schelpe, a shell), in anatomy, the whole
covering of the top of the head from the skin to the bone. Five
layers are recognized in the scalp, and these, from without
inward, are: (i) skin, (2) superficial fascia, (3) aponeurosis or
epicranium, (4) lymph space, (5) periosteum or pericranium.
The skin of the scalp is thick and remarkable for the large
number of hair follicles contained in it. The superficial fascia
consists of dense bundles of fibrous tissue which pass from the
skin to the third layer or aponeurosis and bind the two structures
together so closely that when one of them is moved the other
must needs be moved too. The fibrous bundles are separated
by pellets of fat, and it is in this second layer that the vessels
and nerves of the scalp are found. Here, as elsewhere, the
vessels are arteries, veins and lymphatics, and the arteries are
specially remarkable, firstly, for their tortuosity, which is an
adaptation to so movable a part; secondly, for their anastomos-
ing across the middle line with their fellows of the opposite side,
an arrangement which is not usual in the body; and, thirdly, for
the fact that, when cut, their ends are held open by the dense
fibrous tissue already spoken of, so that bleeding is more free in
the scalp than it is from arteries of the same size elsewhere in the
body.
The veins do not follow the twists of the arteries but run a
straight course; for this reason there is often a considerable
distance between an artery and its companion vein. Accom-
panying the veins are the larger lymphatic vessels, though there
are no lymphatic glands actually in the scalp. From the forehead
region the lymphatics accompany the facial vein down the side
of the face and usually reach their first gland in the submaxillary
region, so that in the case of a poisoned wound of the forehead
sympathetic swelling or suppuration would take place below the
jaw. From the region of the temple the lymphatics drain into a
small gland lying just in front of the ear, while those from the
region behind the ear drain into some glands lying close to the
mastoid process. In the occipital region a small gland (or glands)
is found at the edge of the scalp close to the point at which the
occipital artery reaches it, that is to say about a third of the
distance from the external occipital protuberance to the tip of
the mastoid process (see SKULL).
The nerve supply of the scalp in its anterior part is from the
fifth cranial or trigeminal nerve (see NERVES, CRANIAL) ; in the
forehead region the supratrochlear and supraorbital branches
come out of the orbit from the first or ophthalmic division of the
fifth, while farther back, in the anterior part of the temporal
region, the temporal branch of the second or maxillary division
of the same nerve is found. Farther back still, in front of the
ear, is the area of the auriculo-temporal nerve, a branch of the
third or mandibular division of the fifth cranial.
Behind the ear the scalp is supplied with sensation by two
branches of the cervical plexus of nerves, the great auricular
and the small occipital (see NERVES, SPINAL), while behind these,
and reaching as far as the mid line posteriorly, the great occipital,
derived from the posterior primary division of the second cervical
nerve, is distributed. Sometimes the posterior primary division
of the third cervical nerve reaches the scalp still nearer the
middle line behind.
The third layer of the scalp or epicranium is formed by the
two fleshy bellies of the occipito-frontalis muscle and the flattened
tendon or aponeurosis between them. Of these two bellies the
anterior (frontalis) is the larger, and, when it acts, throws the
skin of the forehead into those transverse puckers which are
characteristic of a puzzled frame of mind. The much smaller
(occipitalis or posterior) belly usually merely fixes the aponeurosis
for the frontalis to act, though some people have the power of
alternately contracting the two muscles and so wagging their
scalps backward and forward as monkeys do. Both fleshy
bellies of the occipito-frontalis are innervated by the seventh or
facial nerve which supplies all the muscles of expression.
Deep to the occipito-frontalis and its aponeurosis or epicranium
is the fourth layer, which consists of very lax areolar tissue
constituting what is now known in anatomy as a lymph space.
The length and laxity of this tissue allow great freedom of move-
ment to the more superficial layers, and it is this layer which is
torn through when a Red Indian scalps his foe. So lax is the
tissue here that any collection of blood or pus is quickly dis-
tributed throughout its whole area, and, owing to the absence
of tension as well as of nerves, very little pain accompanies any
such effusion.
The fifth and deepest layer of the scalp is the pericranium or
the external periosteum of the skull bones. This, until the
sutures of the skull close in middle life, is continuous with the
dura mater which forms the internal periosteum, and for this
reason any subpericranial effusion is localized to the area of the
skull bone over which it happens to lie. Moreover, any sup-
purative process may extend through the sutures to the meninges
of the brain. (F. G. P.)
Surgery of the Scalp. In connexion with the treatment of surgical
and other wounds of the scalp, it used to be thought that it was
dangerous to treat them by suturing, because of the risk of the
intervention of abscess or erysipelas. Now that one knows, how-
ever, that these two conditions are dependent upon the presence
of septic micro-organisms, the surgeon deals with the scalp as with
other parts of the body, cleansing the surface before performing an
operation upon it, and doing his best to free the region of all germs
when he is called upon to treat a wound already inflicted on it.
Unless the surgeon could render the scalp aseptic, it would be almost
impossible for him to undertake any operation upon the interior of
the skull. Before opening the skull, therefore, the scalp is cleanly
shaved and dealt with by turpentine, soap and water and other
antiseptics. A large horse-shoe shaped flap is then turned down
by an incision right to the bone, and on the conclusion of the opera-
tion the flap is replaced in position and secured by stitches.
As the result of septic infection by an accidental wound, abscess
is likely to form beneath the scalp, and if it is left to increase in size
unchecked it may detach a large area of the scalp. As soon, there-
fore, as it is thought that matter is forming beneath the scalp, an
incision should be made down to the bone, and provision taken for
insuring free drainage.
Naevi of the scalp are best treated by electrolysis or by removal
by dissection. If they are supplied by large blood-vessels, each
artery should be under-pinned or tied before the removal by dis-
section is undertaken.
Sebaceous cysts of the scalp should be removed by incision under
the ether-spray whilst they are still small, the whole of the cyst-
wall being torn out, for unless the cyst is entirely removed, the
tumour is likely to reform. If the sebaceous cyst is left it may
cause a thinning of the overlying skin and, effecting its own dis-
charge, may become the source of chronic suppuration. In some
cases the chronic abscess of a sebaceous cyst becomes the starting-
point of malignant disease. (E. O.*)
SCALPING, the custom of removing the skin of the skull,
with hair attached. Though generally associated with the North
American Indians, the practice has been common in Europe,
Asia and Africa. The underlying idea, as of similar mutilations
of those slain in battle, is the warrior's wish to preserve a portable
proof or trophy of his prowess. Scalping was the usual form of
mutilation from the earliest times. Herodotus (iv. 64) describes
the practice among the Scythians. TheAbbd Emmanuel H. D.
Domenech (Seven Years' Residence in the Great Desert of North
America, ch. 39) quotes the decalvare of the ancient Germans,
the capillos et cutem detrahere of the code of the Visigoths, and
the Annals of Flodoard, to prove that the Anglo-Saxons and
the Franks still scalped about A.D. 879. In Africa it was, and
doubtless is, as prevalent as are all barbarous mutilations.
Among the North American Indians scalping was always in
the nature of a rite. It was common to those tribes east of the
Rocky Mountains, in the south-west and upper Columbia;
but unknown apparently among the Eskimo, along the north-
west coast, and on the Pacific coast west of the Cascade range
and the Sierras, except among some few Californian tribes, or
here and there in Mexico and southward. Properly the scalp
could only be taken after a fair fight; in more recent times there
seems to have been no such restriction. To facilitate the opera-
tion the braves wore long war-locks or scalping-tufts, as an
SCAMILLI IMPARES SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION 287
implied challenge. These locks were braided with bright ribbons
or ornamented with a feather. After the successful warrior's
return the scalp or scalps captured were dried, mounted and
consecrated by a solemn dance. Some tribes hung the scalps
to their bridles, others to their shields, while some ornamented
with them the outer seams of their leggings. Scalping was some-
times adopted by the whites in their wars with the Redskins,
and bounties have been offered for scalps several times in
American history.
SCAMILLI IMPARES ("unequal steps," Fr. escabeaux
inegales; Ger. Schutzslege), in architecture, a term quoted by
Vitruvius when referring to the rise given to the stylobate in
the centre of the front and sides of a Greek temple. His explana-
tion is not clear; he states (iii. 4) that, if set out level, the
stylobate would have the appearance of being sunk in the centre,
so that it is necessary that there should be an addition by means
of small steps (scamilli impares). In book v. chap. 9, he again
refers to the addition on the stylobate. The interpretation of
his meaning by Penrose and other authorities is generally
assumed to be the addition which it was necessary to leave on
the lower frusta of the Doric column, or on the lower portion of
the base of the Ionic column, so as to give them a proper bearing
on the curved surface of the stylobate; when levelling ground,
however, it is sometimes the custom to fix at intervals small
bricks or tiles which are piled up until the upper surfaces of
all of them are absolutely level. If, as an alternative, these
piles were so arranged as to rise towards the centre, instead of
a level a slightly curved surface might be obtained, and the
term "unequal steps" would apply to them. This was the
opinion of M. Bernouf, a French author, who points out that
scamillus is a diminutive of scamnum, a small step (Fr. petit
bane), which in some parts of France is employed when levelling
the surface of areas or courts. According to Penrose the rise
of the curved stylobate of the Parthenon had already been
obtained in the stereobate carrying it, long before the problem
of bedding the columns on the curve had arisen.
SCAMMONY, a plant, Convolvulus scammonia (Gr. GKafUiivia.),
native to the countries of the eastern part of the Mediterranean
basin; it grows in bushy waste places, from Syria in the south
to the Crimea in the north, its range extending westward to the
Greek islands, but not to northern Africa or Italy. It is a twining
perennial, bearing flowers like those of Convolvulus arvensis,
and having irregularly arrow-shaped leaves and a thick fleshy
root. The dried juice, " virgin scammony," obtained by incision
of the living root, has been used in medicine as scammonium, 1
but the variable quality of the drug has led to the employment
of scammoniae resina, which is obtained from the dried root by
digestion with alcohol.
The active principle is the glucoside scammonin or jalapin,
C 3 4H M Oi 6 . The dose of scammonium is 5 to 10 grains, of scammony
resin 3 to 8 grains. Like certain other resins, scammony is inert
until it has passed from the stomach into the duodenum, where it
meets the bile, a chemical reaction occurring between it and the
taurocholate and glycocholate of sodium, whereby it is converted
into a powerful purgative. Its action is essentially that of a hydra-
gogue, and is exercised upon practically the entire length of the
alimentary canal. The drug is not a cholagogue, nor does it
markedly affect the muscular coat of the bowel, but it causes a
great increase of secretion from the intestinal glands. It acts in
about four hours. In large doses it is, of course, a violent gastro-
intestinal irritant. In consonance with the statement that scam-
mony acts only after admixture with the bile, is the fact that hypo-
dermic or intravenous injection of the drug produces no purgation,
or indeed any other result. The drug frequently kills both the
round-worm and the tape-worm, especially the former, and is
therefore an anthelmintic. It is not largely used, but is very effective
in the treatment of severe constipation, especially in children.
SCAMP, an idle, worthless rascal; in earlier (i8th cent.)
usage especially applied as a cant term for a highway robber,
a foot-pad, later of one who incurs debts and decamps without
paying them. The word appears to be derived from a shortened
form of " scamper," to run away, decamp, to move quickly
or nimbly; which is generally taken to be a military slang word
1 It was formerly called diagrydion, probably from S&Kpv, a tear,
in allusion to the manner in which the juice exudes from the incised
root.
adapted from Dutch schampen, to escape; O.Fr. escamper; Ital.
scampare; Lat. ex, out of, campus, field of battle, hence a vaga-
bond deserter. This word must be distinguished from " scamp,"
to do work in a hasty, careless manner, which is apparently
a variant of " skimp," " skimpy," and is to be referred to the
root seen in O. Nor. skammr, short; Eng. " scant."
SCANDAL, disgrace, discredit, shame, caused by the report or
knowledge of wrongdoing, hence defamation or gossip, especially
malicious or idle; or such action as causes public offence or dis-
repute. (For the law relating to scandal, more generally termed
" defamation" see LIBEL AND SLANDER.) The Greek word
ffKavSa\ov, stumbling-block, cause of offence or temptation,
is used in the Septuagint and the New Testament. Classical
Greek had the word (TKavSa\rj9pov only, properly the spring of
a baited trap; the origin probably being the root seen in Latin
scandere, to climb, get up. While the Latin scandalum has given
such direct derivatives as Spanish and Portuguese escandalo,
Dutch schandaal, Eng. " scandal," &c., it is also the source of the
synonymous " slander," Middle Eng. sclaundre, O. Fr. esdandre,
escandle.
A particular form of defamation was scandalum magnattim,
" slander of great men," words, that is, spoken defaming a peer
spiritual or temporal, judge or dignitary of the realm. Action lay
for such defamation under the statutes of 3 Edw. I. c. 34, 2 Rich.'
II. C.J5, and 12 Rich. II. c. II whereby damages could be recovered,
even in cases where no action would lie, if the defamation were of an
ordinary subject, and that without proof of special damage. These
statutes, though long obsolete, were only abolished in 1887 (Statute
Law Revision Act).
SCANDERBEG, or ISKENDER BEY (1403-1467), known also
as " the Dragon of Albania," the national hero of the Albanians,
was the son of John (Giovanni) Castriota, lord of Kroia and of
the Mirdite country in northern Albania, and of a Servian princess
named Vaisava. His actual name was George (Giorgio) Castriota,
and the name of Iskender Bey (Prince Alexander) was given
to him by the Turks in complimentary reference to Alexander
the Great. In 1423, when Murad II. invaded Epirus, George
Castriota, with his three brothers, was handed over as a hostage
to the Turks and sent to be trained in the service of the seraglio.
His brilliant qualities of mind and body at once gained him the
favour of the sultan; he became a Mussulman, was promoted
to high military command and, though barely nineteen years
of age, to the government of a sanjak. He remained in the
Ottoman service for twenty years, dissembling his resentment
when, on the death of his father, his principality was annexed
and his brothers poisoned. In 1443, however, his opportunity
came with Janos Hunyadi's victory at Nish. He seized Kroia
by stratagem, proclaimed himself a Christian, and gathered the
wild Albanian clansmen about him. In the inaccessible fastnesses
of Albania he maintained a guerilla warfare against the Turks
during nearly twenty-five years, easily routing the armies sent
against him, and is said to have slain three thousand Turks
with his own hand. In 1461 Murad's successor Mahommed II.
acknowledged him by a temporary truce as lord of Albania and
Epirus. He died in 1467 at Alessio, and his tomb was long the
object of a superstitious veneration on the part of the Turks.
Scanderbeg's resistance to the Turkish advance was invaluable
to the cause of Christianity, but the union which he had main-
tained in Albania did not survive him. He was succeeded in
Kroia by his son, Giovanni Castriota, who in 1474 sold the princi-
pality to the Venetians, by whom four years later it was
re-sold to the Turks.
See Georges T. Petrovitch, Scander-beg (Georges Castriota); Essai
de bibliographie raisonnee; Ouvrages sur Scander-beg ecrits en langues
franQaise, anglaise, allemande, latine, italienne, &c. (Paris, 1881);
Pisko, Skanderbeg, historische Studie (Vienna, 1895).
SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION. The date of man's first
appearance in Scandinavia is still an open question. But for
all practical purposes Scandinavian archaeology only begins with
the Neolithic or Later Stone Age, since the country must have
been covered with ice during the preceding period, the Palaeo-
lithic or Early Stone Age, when parts of Europe were already
inhabited. Thus the expressions Earlier and Later Stone
Age in Scandinavian archaeology merely refer to subdivisions
288
SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION
of the Neolithic Period. Men have left traces of their occupation
of Denmark from the time when firs were still the prevail-
ing trees in that country, and a few tools of elk and reindeer
horn appear to belong to an even earlier period. Sweden and
Norway were probably not inhabited until later, though it
seems that men were present in Sweden while the Baltic was still
a fresh-water lake. The dates assigned to this period vary very
greatly: S. Miiller suggests before 3000 B.C., while O. Montelius
places it at 8000 years before our era. Besides the elk- and
reindeer-horn tools mentioned above, a few rough flint imple-
ments seem to be the earliest traces of man in Scandinavia. In
Norway and Sweden these are only found in the extreme south.
The kjjkkenmjddinger or skaldynger, variously called in English
kitchen-middens, refuse-heaps, or shell-mounds, are char-
acteristic of Denmark in the next period. In these we find
remains of primitive meals, consisting chiefly of oyster, mussel
and other shells, and the bones of various fish, birds and animals,
including deer, wild boar, seals, wolves and aurochs. It appears
that the race which left these relics must have lived by hunting
and fishing, and that they were probably semi-nomadic. They
were evidently unacquainted with agriculture and had no
domestic animals other than the dog. These refuse heaps are
.almost always found by the sea-shore or close to a lake. Some
of them extend over an area of as much as 700 yds. by 20 yds.
width, but their depth is usually not more than 3 to 10 ft. There
are frequent traces of fire and hearth places, so that we may
conclude that the food was both prepared and eaten on the spot.
The flint implements consist of flakes or knives, awls and axes
of various kinds, all made by a process of rough chipping. These
are supplemented by articles of bone, horn and clay, including
arrow or spear points, axes of horn, and bone combs. Earthen-
ware vessels must have been much used, but only fragments have
been found, made, of course, without the use of the wheel. Rare
attempts at decoration consist of a few cuts or impressions round
the top. The only ornaments found are the pierced teeth of
animals and shells. In Norway and Sweden implements similar
to those of the Danish shell-mounds have been found, but usually
without the organic remains, except at Viste, near Stavanger,
excavated in 1007. The first Swedish shell-mound was discovered
in the north of Bohuslan in 1905, but is of a later type than the
Danish. The remains at Nostvet in the Christiania fjord show
traces of a considerable population. Ground slate implements
are found scattered along the coasts of Norway and Sweden, and
are attributed to a nomadic people, whose arctic culture
persisted much longer in these countries than in the much
earlier flint civilization of the Kitchen-middens in Denmark.
To this race are attributed a few rock-carvings and other sculp-
tured representations of animals in a highly naturalistic style,
almost equal to that of the palaeolithic cave-carvings of France,
and showing close affinity with the artistic productions of the
regions on the eastern side of the Baltic.
Later Stone Age. The remains of the Later Stone Age show
a very much more advanced civilization of a pastoral and later
of an agricultural type, with domestic animals, such as cattle,
horses, pigs, sheep and goats. As the number of " transition "
finds, snowing a gradual development from the older forms, is
very small, and as, moreover, settlements of the kitchen-midden
type are known to have existed right through the later Stone
Age, or even longer, there is some ground for assuming that the
earlier flint implements of Denmark were the product of an
aboriginal race, gradually ousted and driven north by Aryans,
immigrating with a superior culture.
By far the greatest proportion of the remains of the Stone Age
are found in Denmark. While there are not more than five to
six hundred Stone-Age graves known in Sweden, and only two
or three in Norway, there are between three and four thousand
on the island of Seeland alone. Besides Seeland, Lolland, Falster
and the north-eastern part of Jutland appear to have been thickly
inhabited during the Later Stone Age. In Sweden the southern-
most part, Skine and Bohuslan, were probably the first to be
inhabited: and then Vestergotland and Dal. Skane has yielded
more than three-fourths of all the Later Stone Age objects found
in Sweden. Norway is not, as might be supposed from the
absence of graves, entirely deficient in the objects of this period,
but they are comparatively few in number, though quite on a par
in technique with those of Sweden. As already indicated, the
great difference between the culture of the shell-mounds and that
of the Later Stone Age is the method of disposing of the dead.
The dead of the former period, it is assumed, were placed in simple
graves in the earth, while characteristic of the latter period
are the megalithic graves found in profusion in Denmark and
Sweden.
The earliest form, and that most common in Denmark, is the
four-sided dolmen, formed by four or six large upright stones on
which rests a huge rock, the whole being partly covered by a mound.
These graves usually contain a number of skeletons. The next is
the passage grave, a chamber approached by a passage, both built
of great blocks of rough-hewn rock. The roof of the largest of these,
near Falkoping in Sweden, is formed of nine blocks of granite, and
the whole attains a length of nearly 60 ft. Later again are stone
cists, consisting of a comparatively small space walled in and roofed
by thin blocks of stone, surrounded by a low mound. These graves
seldom contain more than one skeleton, and mark the end of the
Stone Age. Inhumation was practised throughout the period,
though the bones found in the great graves are often marked by fire
owing to the practice, apparently prevalent, of lighting fires in the
grave chambers. The chambers are often full of remains up to
within a foot of the roof, and in some cases parts of as many as a
hundred skeletons have been found.
In the mounds surrounding the tombs animal bones and shells
are frequently found, indicating feasts and sacrifices. It seems
as if many of the graves, especially in Sweden, had at some time
been considered as places for sacrifice, to judge by the saucerlike
hollows constantly found on the upper side of the covering stones.
The finds of tools, weapons, ornaments and pottery contribute
greatly to our knowledge of the period, but probably the best
specimens were not placed in graves, as we find the finest work
elsewhere. The pottery is of good material and form, though still
made without the aid of the potter's wheel. The indentations
of the pattern are frequently filled in with a white chalklike
substance. Many of the vessels are rounded at the bottom, and
perforations or handles show that they are meant to hang. Wood
was no doubt much used, but it is only by a fortunate chance
that wooden vessels and a wooden spoon have been preserved to
us in Denmark. It is probable that wool was used as well as
skins for clothing, but if so it must be supposed that the spinning
and weaving implements were of too perishable a material to
have come down to us. Awls are constantly found, but not
needles. Bone pins were used for fastening the clothes. The
ornaments were chiefly pierced teeth of various wild animals,
and objects of amber and bone, many of them in the form of
minute axes. Amber was much used during the earlier part of
this age, but it is seldom found later on, probably because its
value as an article of export had by then been realized. The
Swedish archaeologist, O. Montelius, distinguishes four sub-
divisions in this period, towards the end of which the implements
show a mastery over material unequalled in the rest of Europe,
but it must not be supposed that this was attained at once.
The tools include chisels, borers, knives, saws and axes, but the
finest workmanship seems to have been reserved for weapons.
Arrow-heads and spear-points of flint have chipped blades of
marvellous fineness and symmetry. Daggers with handle and
blade all made of one piece of flint are characteristic of the
Northern Stone Age, and show how much weight was laid on
ornamental appearance, since wooden handles would have been
equally effective and far less troublesome to make. The battle-
axes are of man}' orms, perfectly symmetrical and beautifully
ground and polished. Those of other stone than flint have holes
bored through them for the shaft. Wooden shafts were usually
attached at right angles to the flint axes. Of these latter the
thin-necked axe is the most characteristic. The distribution
of flint implements reveals a considerable trading activity, as
flint-bearing strata only occur in certain parts of Denmark and
in Skane, whence it must have been distributed over the whole
of Southern Sweden through the channels of commerce. Con-
siderable commercial activity must also have prevailed between
the Scandinavians and their southern neighbours.
SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION
PLATE I.
2. WOMEN'S ORNAMENTS. Early Bronze Age.
4. SUN CHARIOT. Older Bronze Age, Denmark.
cT-rMi7 AX-T^ T i fi A c j 3- BELT ORNAMENT. Latter part of earlier nti^n^ < . j c i- n A
I. STONE AXE. Later Stone Age, Sweden. Bronze Age. 5- SWORD. Second period of earlier Bronze Age.
'A-^'-^f-
T. FIBULAE. Earlier and later forms, Bronze Age, Norway.
8. BRONZE KNIVES OR RAZORS.
Later Bronze Age, earlier and later forms.
6. TOP OF A SMALL BRONZE
CASKET.
Latter part of earlier Bronze Age.
io. PART OF A ROCK CARVING, showing man ploughing.
lv
Photo, B. S. PkiUpolls.
9. PART OF A ROCK CARVING (the grooves are
filled in with chalk). Bronze Age.
12. BRONZE CLASP. Later Bronze
Age, Norway.
n. ROCK CARVINGS. Sweden, Later Bronze Age.
Fig. i from O. Montclius, Civilization of Sweden; Figs. 2-6, io, ir from S. Muller, Vor OHM and Urseschickle Europas; Figs. 1, 8, 12 from G. Gustafson, Norges Oldtid.
XXIV. 288
PLATE II.
SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION
I. BRONZE TRUMPET. Denmark,
Later Bronze Age.
4. FIBULA Roman Period.
8. BROOCH. Post-Roman Period.
Denmark.
g. BROOCH SET WITH GARNETS.
Post-Roman Period, Denmark.
2. BRONZE HANGING VESSEL. Later Bronze Age.
5. FIBUL.E. Period of National Migrations, Denmark.
1. GOLD COLLAR. First period of Later Iron Age.
3. TORQUE. Denmark,
Later Bronze Age.
6. IRON PINS. Pre-Roman
Period, Denmark.
ii. BRONZE PLATE FOR A BELT, showing Animal
Figures. Post-Roman Period.
12. GOLD BR ACTEATE, "barbarian" imitation of a
Roman Coin. First period of Later Iron Age, Sweden.
lo. SILVER GILT BROOCH (length over 9 inches).
Period of National Migrations, Norway.
Figs, i, 3-6, 8. 9, ii from S. MUIIer, Vor Oldlid; Figs. 2, 7, 12 from O. Montelius, Ch. Sweden; Fig. 10 from G. Gustation, Norges Otdliil.
SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION
289
Traces of dwelling-houses with hearth-places show that the
usual form was a round or slightly oval hut, constructed of
wattles, plastered inside and out with clay. The floor was usually
partly or entirely paved.
The Bronze Age. Towards the close of the Later Stone Age a.
few objects of copper are found in the North. Copper is, however,
soon superseded by bronze, which was probably imported ready
alloyed into Scandinavia, though the special Scandinavian forms,
as well as the presence of a number of moulds, conclusively
prove that the casting of the metal was done in the North.
It is supposed that the Bronze Age, which can be divided into two
main periods, began in Scandinavia about 2000-1750 B.C. The
earb'est implements are clearly copies of the Stone Age work,
betraying the ignorance of the makers as to the adaptability
of the new material. Some bronze axes are exactly the shape of
stone axes, but gradually we see the blade grow wider, the neck
narrower, the outer sides of the haft turn back over the wooden
shaft, which is still cloven, and finally before the end of the
earlier period we have the " socketed celt," in which the tongue
has disappeared and the wooden shaft is fixed in a cylinder of
bronze, with a metal loop at the side through which the fastening
passed. The unsocketed celt has also undergone modifications.
By the end of the earlier period swords have been evolved from
daggers, and brooches and clasps, besides beautiful vases and
hanging vessels, are made of the metal. Gold is also known
and used. Fine linear decoration, usually in spirals or zig-zags,
is applied. The forms are extremely artistic, and the technique
higher than in almost any other European country. Perhaps
the most magnificent relic of this earlier period is the bronze
"sun-chariot" and horse from Trundholm in Seeland. The
disk supposed to represent the sun is overlaid with gold and
beautifully decorated with spiral designs. The later period
is clearly marked off from the earlier by the method of disposing
of the dead, since in the earlier period the dead were still buried
unburned, often in stone cists or oak coffins, while in the latter
period cremation was practised, and the remains placed in small
stone or wooden boxes, or in plain earthenware urns. Some
of these urns are clearly imitations of the house of the period,
and show that it was still round in form. The graves are covered
by a cairn or mound. Miniature weapons are often found in the
urns, but the objects placed in or beside the urn reveal little
care in their selection : it is obvious that a few gifts were deposited
with the dead, rather than the complete outfit of necessaries
which are found in earlier periods. During this period decoration
becomes more complicated: the spirals are often fringed with
tangential lines, and the ends of knives, rings, &c., are frequently
rolled up into spiral volutes. Bands of wavy lines are a common
form of ornament. Amber and a dark-brown resinous matter
are often inlaid. Ornaments show a tendency to exaggeration
of size, as is seen in the massive neck and arm-rings, the brooches,
pins and clasps.
We are fortunate in knowing more .about the Scandinavian
Bronze Age than the mere remains, plentiful though they are, could
tell us. In some parts of Sweden and Norway rude carvings on
bare granite rocks, executed in a stiff and conventional style, have
been identified as belonging to this period, and from these, in com-
bination with the finds, we can deduce a considerable fund of in-
formation. Horses were used for riding, driving and ploughing.
From the impress left on earthenware vessels we find that wheat,
barley and oats were cultivated. Large boats, almost invariably
without mast or sail, are very frequently depicted. The human
figures on the carvings are unfortunately represented in such a
primitive manner that little could be known of the details of their
clothing but for some unique finds in Denmark, where the oak
coffins of the earlier period have preserved hair and clothing for
over 3000 years. Thus we know that the garb of the Bronze Age
man consisted of a thick glossy cap, replaced by a helmet in time of
war, a woollen tunic which left the shoulders bare, a cloak and
leather shoes fastened on by strips of cloth crossed up the ankle.
A buckle for the belt, pins for the cloak, and one bracelet were his
only ornaments. From the small bronze knife and the tweezers
found in men's graves it has been deduced that shaving was usual,
and a small pointed instrument also found in the graves is regarded
as evidence for tattooing. The women wore a fine hair net and comb,
a curiously clumsily-cut bodice with sleeves to the elbow, and a
Jong skirt gathered round the waist by a belt with a large ornament
in front. A heavy necklace, two bracelets and a dagger appear to
XXIV. 10
have been usual. The people were tall and had light hair. With
regard to the distribution of Bronze Age finds, it may be said that
Gotaland, Sk&ne and the district round Stockholm yield the richest
harvest in Sweden, while in Norway the mass of finds are in the
Christiania and the Stavanger districts. A notable feature of the
period is the number of finds made in bogs. Many were clearly
buried there for safe keeping, but others are usually explained as
votive offerings.
Iron Age. The approximate date for the first beginnings
of this period in the North is still a matter of controversy;
Montelius placing it at about 500 B.C., while Sophus Miiller, of
Denmark, would put it at least a century and a half later. It
has been divided into four main subdivisions, of which the first,
lasting till about the beginning of our era, is usually called the
Pre- Roman Period. The beginnings of this age are most clearly
traced on the island of Bornholm, where cemeteries are found
containing from 10 to 1000 graves. These graves, called Brand-
pletter, are closely similar to the contemporary graves on the
Continent, and consist of burnt bones embedded in charcoal
and black mould. In this are found iron brooches (of the safety-
pin type), buckles and a few fragments of pottery. More typi-
cally Northern cemeteries show small mounds covering each grave,
in which an urn contains the burnt bones. These graves also
yield but few remains, and the wealth of objects from this period
come from bog and field finds, as for instance some magnificent
chariots, overlaid with decorated bronze plates, from a bog near
Ringkjobing, Denmark. Ornaments were usually of massive
bronze or occasionally of iron, and gold seems to have been com-
paratively scarce, perhaps owing to the disturbed state of central
Europe. All but the very beginning of the period shows the
influence of the La-Tene (q.v.) civilization. The succeeding
Roman period begins in the ist century A.D. and extends,
according to Swedish and Norwegian archaeologists, to about
400. In Denmark the latter half of the period is termed that of
" National Migrations." A number of Roman objects are found
coins, glass and bronze vessels, &c. From the fact that Skane,
Bornholm, Oland and Gotland are the chief finding-places,
it appears that most of the objects must have been brought,
through war or trade, from the south-east, by way of the great
trade-route along the Vistula. Gotland alone has yielded nearly
four thousand Roman coins, while Bornholm equals the whole
of the rest of Denmark with 500, and Norway has only yielded
three. A certain number of Roman objects seem, however, to
have reached Denmark from the Rhine Provinces. The graves
show a variety new to Scandinavia: in some parts cremation
continues to be practised, in other localities, notably in Jutland
and Seeland, inhumation reappears. Characteristic of both
forms of burial is the practice of placing a number of vessels
containing food and drink in the grave. Weapons are seldom
found in graves, but a complete knowledge of them is afforded
by such finds as that at Thorsbjerg in Schleswig and Vimose
in Fiinen, the latter yielding no less than 3500 objects to the
National Museum. These are the debris of great battlefields
from about the 4th century, and it is usually supposed that the
victors dedicated the spoil to some god, as everything was left
almost untouched.
From this ample evidence we learn that the spear or lance was the
most common weapon, and after that the sword, used now for
striking as well as thrusting, and with a short cross-piece. The hilt
is often superbly decorated, frequently with silver, which is now
much used. Coats of ring-mail are found. Helmets and shields are
extraordinarily thin, almost flimsy, possibly in imitation of the
inferior Roman goods of the period, possibly in the case of the
shields, at any rate, because they were only intended to protect from
arrows or spears flung from a distance, or because dependence was
mainly placed on the strength of the boss. Numbers of bits and
other fragments of harness prove the use of horses in war. A
similar find at Nydam in Schleswig yielded two of the oldest boats
that have come down to us: one of oak, 75 ft. long, built for 28
rowers, and another of firwood. The timbers were fastened with
iron nails, but some early boats from Norway and Sweden show a
more primitive method of attaching the timbers with fastenings
of baste.
Besides the deserted battlegrounds, the more usual type of votive
offering is found, such as the silver cauldron from Gundestrup, or
the two magnificent gold horns, one more than 2 ft. in length, dis-
covered at Gallehus in Schleswig. Further indications of religious
290
SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION
customs are afforded by a curious find in Jutland, where between
20 and 30 earthenware vessels each contained a slaughtered lamb.
With these were found remains of rude altars.
Of domestic arts, weaving and dyeing seem to have been carried
to a high degree of perfection. The art of pottery has also advanced,
especially in Jutland, where we find a multiplicity of forms, with
decoration in bands of slanting lines. It was during this period that
the Scandinavians acquired the Runic alphabet from the southern
Germanic tribes. The specifically Northern variant of this alphabet
does not appear till later. Inscriptions from this period, cut into
stone monuments, are found in Norway and Sweden.
The next period (the first of the Later Stone Age), called
in Denmark the Post-Roman, and in Sweden and Norway the
"Period of National Migrations," brings us from A.D. 400
to about 700. In Denmark these centuries are very obscure,
owing to the fact that the graves there are usually difficult
to find, being without mounds and unfurnished with goods.
Bornholm, where inhumation is greatly on the increase, is again
the chief centre for grave-finds. Some few graves contain the
personal equipment of the dead: sword, spear, axe, shield, knife
and whetstone, and occasionally the skeletons of horse and dog.
The vessels for food and drink are no longer found. At Old
Upsala, Vendel and Ultuna, all in Upland, great interest attaches
to the first ship-graves. These become common in Norway,
fairly frequent in Sweden, and even in Finland, but only one
grave containing remains of a boat has so far been found in Den-
mark. The details of the earlier Swedish ship-burials are some-
what obscured for us because the ship and all its contents have
been burnt, but we can see that in these the dead man sits at
the stern, as if about to set forth on a journey, while in later
graves of the Viking Period, both burnt and unburnt, the corpse
seems to have been laid on a bed in a chamber built amidships
for the purpose. All the larger ship-burials are remarkable for
the large number of animal bones found, including those of
horses, oxen, pigs, sheep and fowls.
The gold ornaments of the period are its chief glory: indeed the
wealth of gold, especially in Sweden, has suggested the title " Gold
Age " for these centuries. The favourite ornaments of the period
were the so-called bracteates, worn as pendants, and imitated from
Roman coins, but often stamped on one side only and decorated
in the Northern style. Magnificent brooches of engraved or
filigree work, some with a plate at the hinge end at right angles to
the pin, others oval, often representing an animal seen from above,
are among the finest productions of the time. The decoration of
conventionalized animal forms is a marked feature, and, though
characteristic of all the Germanic races at this time, is best executed
in the north. When worked in filigree the animals' limbs become
more and more attenuated and snake-like, or, on the other hand,
when engraved, show less and less connexion with each other, but
the artist's aim, a good decorative effect, is attained, even though
there is a certain barbaric absence of restraint in design.
In the Viking Age, from about 800 to the introduction of
Christianity in the loth and nth centuries, Norway, hitherto
the poorest in antiquities, springs into prominence. A wealth
of objects is found in the graves, and especially in some of the
larger ship-graves, such as those of Gokstad, Tune, Mykle-
bostad and Oseberg (also in the Norwegian ship-grave at Groix,
Brittany). Fortunately a number of these ships are unburnt,
and in view of the importance of seafaring in the Viking Age, it
is worth noting that a mast with square sail of woollen material
is common. One ten-oared vessel from this period is of exactly
the same build as those used to this day in the district where
it was excavated. A number of shield bosses are often found in
the vessels, and it is clear that shields were hung round the bul-
warks exactly as Icelandic sources describe. The prow and
stern-post are often beautifully carved. Sometimes the remains
of as many as 1 2 horses are found in one of these graves, besides
those of a number of dogs. The presence of anvils, pincers and
other tools, as well as weapons and ornaments, is noteworthy,
indicating that the art of metal-work was held in esteem even
among chiefs, as indeed is known from literary sources. During
this period, moreover, iron ore was extracted, smelted and worked
in Scandinavia. The weapons found are swords, knives, sickles,
battle-axes, spears and arrows. The sword is two-edged, with
a wooden hilt often beautifully decorated with silver. The axe
is very broad-bladed, and evidently of great importance, being
often the only weapon found in graves. Helmets and coats
of mail are not found in Norway, but are comparatively common
in Sweden.
We owe much of our knowledge of this period to the unburnt
burials which were fortunately usual. In Denmark grave-chambers
of wood, such as those at Jellinge, stand nearest to the ship-graves.
In Sweden the great number of graves surrounding the ancient town
of Birka (mod. Bjorko), should be noticed. Most graves have a
round, oblong or triangular howe raised over them. A feature of
the period are the tall, rudely-hewn bauta- stones, set up over graves
containing burnt bones, or sometimes merely to the memory of the
dead. Large upright stones are sometimes set round a grave in a
circle, or in the shape of a ship, with pointed bow and stern. It is
noticeable that the graves are often in close proximity to the modern
cemeteries. In this period women are also occasionally buried in a
boat or ship, as in the case of one of the finest ship-graves, that at
Oseberg. Women's graves often contain splendid ornaments,
though gold and silver are rare in grave-finds, and the large oval-
headed pins and the oblong or trefoil-shaped clasps found in them
are usually of bronze, while in other finds silver ornaments are
common. Silver is as characteristic of this period as gold of the
preceding one, Denmark alone yielding no less than 25 important
silver finds, some of them consisting of necklaces of very fine filigree
work, or of dexterously woven silver wires. The style of decoration
is the same as the preceding period, but bolder, less refined and often
heavy. Ornaments are often set with garnets. The influence of
Irish art is discernible, as in the spirals which terminate the limbs of
the animal forms, and in the frequent interlacing designs ; and we
are not surprised to find a number of objects of Irish manufacture in
Norway. On the other hand, English leaf decoration is imitated, and
Carolingian models appear to have served for certain grotesque
forms, such as dragons, winged lions, &c. Sweden shows the same
influences at work, though the Swedes still had most dealings with
the eastern Baltic countries, and with the Scandinavian kingdom
of Novgorod. " Cufic " coins, struck in Persia and Turkestan, are
found together with those of Germany and England. It is clear
proof of Gorland's commercial importance that it is still the richest
treasure-ground in this respect, even for English coins. Evidence
for the eastern communications of Sweden is afforded by Runic
inscriptions, some of which state that the chief whom the stone com-
memorates fell in Finland or Esthonia. Runic inscriptions with the
later, entirely Northern alphabet are now common all over Scandin-
avia. The stones, especially the later Swedish ones, are often carved
with spiral and animal designs, and some represent mythical scenes
such as the adventures of Sigurd Fafnisbane, depicted on a stone
from Sodermannland. The houses of this period were usually built
of wood, and consisted, as we know from literary evidence, of a large
hall with various outbuildings. The descriptions in Icelandic sagas
of tapestry hangings are borne out by tlje discovery of traces of
hangings in grave-chambers, especially those at Jellinge in Denmark.
Some fragments of cloth, showing designs in various colours, testify
to a considerable degree of skill in weaving, and figured silk material
is found in some of the ship-graves. Traces of feather mattresses
and wooden beds are found in some of these graves, and dice and
playing-pieces resembling draughtsmen frequently occur. The
remains of humbler dwellings have been found, some of them re-
sembling a type of cottage still to be seen in southern Sweden,
built of wattles, plastered inside and out.
Another feature of the Viking Age consists in the great earthworks,
many of them standing to this day. Such are the famous Dancvirke,
stretching right across Schleswig, the work of Queen Thyra, who lies
in one of the great howes at Jellinge, and the so-called bygdeborge in
Norway, some of which are assigned to Viking times.
AUTHORITIES. O. Montelius, Kulturgeschichte Schwedens von den
dltesten Zeiten (Leipzig, 1906). An earlier Swedish edition of this
book has been translated into English by F. H. Woods: Civiliza-
tion of Sweden in Heathen Times (London, 1888) ; S. M tiller,
Nordische Alterthumskunde; Deutsche Ausgabe, von O. L. Jiriczek
(Strassburg, 1897), and Ordnung o/ Danmarks Oldsager, Systeme
Prehistorique au Danemark (Copenhagen and Paris) ; I. I.
Worsaae, The Industrial Arts of Denmark (London, 1882); G.
Gustafson, Norses Oldtid (Christiania, 1906); O. Rygh, Nor-
wegian Antiquities (French and Norwegian text) (London and
Christiania, 1880) ; A. Hansen, Landndm i Norge (Christiania, 1904) ;
E. Vedel, Bornholms Oldtidsminder (Copenhagen, 1886); J. Undset,
Das Erste Auftreten des Eisens in Nord-Europa; J. Mestorf, Urnen-
friedhofein Schleswig-Holstein (Hamburg, 1886) and Vorgeschichtliche
Alterthumer aus Schleswig-Holstein (Hamburg, 1885); B. Salin, Die
altgermanische Thierornamentik, Mersetzt von J. Mestorf (Stockholm,
1904). Also articles by the above, and by H. Schetelig, H. Hilde-
brand, H. Stolpe and others, in various periodicals, especially
Bergens Museums Aarbog (Bergen), Aarsberetninger fra Foreningen
tilnorske Fortidsmindesmaerkers Bevaring (Christiania), Aarboger for
nordisk Oldkyndighed (Copenhagen), Antiqyarisk Tidskrift for
Sverige (Stockholm), the Manadsblad of the Kgl. Vitterhets Historie
och Antiqvitets Akademie (Stockholm), Fornvdnnen, published since
1906 by the same society, Svenska Fornminnesforemngens Tidskrift
(Stockholm),~ Ymer (Stockholm). The guides to the various
Scandinavian museums are of great value. Some of them can be
obtained in English. The importance of the Kiel Museum, with its
SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION
PLATE III.
f i?^*
I. AXE INLAID WITH SILVER.
Viking Age, Denmark.
2.TYPICAL MOTIF, ANIMAL FORM
AND SNAKE, from bronze clasp.
Viking Age, Denmark.
4. OAK CARVING FROM THE GOKSTAD SHIP.
Viking Age, Nonvay.
3. PART Ot THE OSEBERG VIKING Mill'. Norway.
Photo tent by Prof. G. H. Gustafson.
5. GOLD SPUR. Viking Age, Norway.
6. BONE GILT BRONZE KNOB FOR
PLAYING HARNESS. Viking Age, Norway.
PIECE.
7. SCENES FROM THE LIFE OF SIGURD AND RUNIC INSCRIPTION
Viking Age, Sweden-
-RUNIC STONE, from Jellinge,
Jutland, showing Christian
influence.
9- SILVER "THOR'S HAMMER." Viking Age, Sweden. 10. BROOCH. Viking Age, Norway.
Figs, i, 2. 8, from S. Miiller, Vor Jldtid; Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 10 from G. Gustafson, Norges Oldtid; Figs. 7, 9 from O. Montelius, Civ. Swed.
XXIV. 290.
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
guide by I. Mestorf, Vorgeschichtliche Allerthumer aus Schlesivig
Holslein, should not be overlooked. The Saga Book of the Vikin
Club (London) contains excellent articles, chiefly by H. Schetelie am
H. Kjsr. (B. S. P.)
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES. 1 By this expression w,
understand the closely allied languages which are and have been
Territory s P oken bv the Teutonic population in Scandinavia
and by the inhabitants of the countries that have been
wholly or partially peopled from it. The territory of thesi
languages embraces: Sweden, except the most northerly par
(chiefly Lapland and inland parts of Vesterbotten, where Finnish
and Lappish exclusively or chiefly prevail) ; certain islands and
districts on the coast of western and southern Finland, as wel
as Aland; a small tract on the coast of Esthonia, where Swedish
is spoken, as it is also to some extent in the Esthonian islands o:
Dago, Nargo, Nukko, Odensholm, Ormso and Rago; Gammal
svenskby (" Galsvenskbi " )] in southern Russia (government o:
Kherson), a village colonized from Dago; the Livonian island
of Runo, where Swedish is spoken, as it formerly was on the
islands of Kyno, Manno, Moon and Osel; Norway, except
certain regions, especially in the northern part of the country
peopled by Finns and Lapps (mainly in the diocese of Tromso)
Denmark, with the Faeroes, Iceland and Greenland, where,
however, Danish is only spoken by a very small part of the
population; the northern half of Schleswig; and, finally, severa!
Scandinavian colonies in the United States of North America
(especially in Minnesota and Illinois). Scandinavian dialects
have besides been spoken for varying periods in the following
places: Norwegian in certain parts of Ireland (A.D. 800-1250)
and northern Scotland, in the Isle of Man (800-1450), the Hebrides
(800-1400), the Shetland Islands (800-1800) and the Orkneys
(800-1800); Danish in the whole of Schleswig, in the north-
eastern part of England (the Danelagh, q.v., 875-1175), and in
Normandy (900-1100, or a little longer); Swedish in Russia
(862-1300, or a little longer); 2 Icelandic in Greenland (985-
about 1450).
At what epoch the Teutonic population settled in Scandinavia
we cannot as yet even approximately decide. It is quite certain,
however, that it already existed there before the
Christian era most probably as early as the beginning
of the so-called Later Stone Age (5000 B.C., but see SCANDINAVIAN
CIVILIZATION), if not still earlier. If this view be correct, the
Scandinavian languages have had an existence of seven thousand
years at least. But it is only from the beginning of the Christian
era that we can get any information concerning the language of
the old Scandinavians, which seems by that time not only to
The Primi- nave spread over Denmark and great parts of southern
tive Scan- and middle Sweden and of Norway, but also to have
reached Finland (at least Nyland) and Esthonia. In
spite of its extension over this considerable geo-
graphical area, the language appears to have been fairly homo-
geneous throughout the whole territory. Consequently, it may
be regarded as a uniform language, the mother of the younger
Scandinavian tongues, and accordingly has been named the
primitive Scandinavian (urnordisk) language. The oldest sources
of our knowledge of this tongue are the words which were
borrowed during the first centuries of the Christian era by the
Lapps from the inhabitants of central Sweden and Norway, and
by the Finns from their neighbours in Finland and Esthonia
(partly, it is true, also from their Gothic neighbours in Russia
and the Baltic provinces), and which have been preserved in
Finnish and Lappish down to our own days. 3 These borrowed
words, denoting chiefly utensils belonging to a fairly advanced
stage of culture, amount to several hundreds, with a phonetic
form of a very primitive stamp; as Finn, tenia (O. Swed. ticera,
Ger. leer), tar; airo (O. Swed. ar.), oar; kansa (O.H.G. hansa),
1 For details see A. Noreen, " Geschichte der nordischen
P 2 r w en ( Gr undriss der germanischen Philologie, 2nd ed., 1897).
V. Thomsen, The Relations between Ancient Russia and Scandin-
avia (1877).
1 W. Thomsen, ttber den Einfluss der Germ. Sprachen auf die
finmsch-Lappischen (1870); E. N. Setala, " Zur Herkunft und
^nronologie der iilteren germanischen Lehnworter " in Journal de la
Zociete Finno-ougrienne, xviii. (1906).
Age.
society; napakaira (O.H.G. nabagtr, O, Swed. navar), auger;
ansas (Got. cms, O. Swed. as), beam; Lapp sajet (Got. saian, 0.
Swed. so), sow; garves (O.H.G. garawer, O. Sw. gifr),
finished; dimes (O. Sax. diuri, O. Swed. dyr), dear; * s "' e ''
saipo^ (O.H.G. seifa), soap. These words, with those
mentioned by contemporary Roman and Greek authors, as well as
the most ancient runic inscriptions mentioned below, are the oldest
existing traces of any Teutonic language. Wrested from their
context, however, they throw but little light on the nature of
the original northern tongue. But an equally old series of
linguistic monuments has come down to us dating from
a little before the end of the so-called Early Iron Age
(about A.D. 4op) the knowledge and the use of the oldest
runic alphabet (with twenty-four characters) having at that
period been propagated among the Scandinavians by the southern
Teutonic tribes. In fact we still possess, preserved
down to our own times, primitive northern runic
inscriptions, the oldest upon the utensils found at Vi
in Schleswig and Thorsbjerg in Denmark, dating back to
about A.D. 250-300, which, together with the MS. fragments
of Ulfilas' Gothic translation of the Bible, about two hundred
years later in date, constitute the oldest genuine monuments of
any Teutonic tongue.
These runic inscriptions are for the most part found on stone monu-
ments (sometimes on rocks) and bracteates (gold coins stamped on
one side and used for ornaments), as well as on metallic and wooden
utensils, weapons and ornaments. 4 Up to 1908 there had been dis-
covered more than one hundred, but of these only about one-half
give us any information concerning the language, and most of them
are only too short. The longest of those satisfactorily interpreted,
the stone-monument of Tune, in south-eastern Norway, contains
only sixteen words. Their language is perhaps somewhat later in
character than that of the oldest words borrowed by the Lapps and
Finns, voiced s, for example, is changed into a kind of r (cf . dagaR =
Goth dags, day; but Finn, armas = Goth. arms, poor). On the other
hand, in all essential matters it is much earlier in character than the
language of contemporary Gothic manuscripts, and no doubt ap-
proaches more nearly than any Teutonic idiom the primitive form
of the Teutonic tongue. For the sake of comparison, we give a
Gothic translation of one of the oldest of the primitive Scandinavian
inscriptions, that on the golden horn of Gallehus, found on the
Danish-German frontier, and dating from about A.D. 300:
Scand.: EK HLEWAGASTI. HOLTINGA#. HORNA. TAWIDO;
Goth. : ik Hliugasts Hultiggs haurn tawida;
Engl.: I, HlewagastiR, from Holta, made the horn;
as well as the inscription on the stone monument of Jarsberg in
western Sweden, which is about 250 years later:
Scand. : VBA.R KITE. HARABANAJ? WIT IAH EK ERILA.R RUNO.R
WARITU;
Goth. : Ubs Hita, Hrabns wit jah ik Airils runos writu;
Engl.: UbaR (erected the monument in memory of) Hitan.
We both, HarabanaR and I ErilaR, wrote the runes.
Although very brief, and not yet thoroughly interpreted,'
:hese^ piimitive Scandinavian inscriptions are nevertheless
sufficient to enable us to determine with some certainty
the relation which the language in which they are
written bears to other languages. Thus it is proved
.hat it belongs to the Teutonic family of the Indo-
iuropean stock of languages, of which it constitutes an inde-
pendent and individual branch. Its nearest relation being the
Gothic,these two branches were formerly sometimes taken together
under the general denomination Eastern Teutonic, as opposed to
he other Teutonic idioms (German, English, Dutch, &c.), which
were then called Western Teutonic.
The most essential point of correspondence between the Gothic and
Scandinavian branches is the insertion in certain cases of gg before w
and J (ggj in Gothic was changed into ddj), as in gen. plur. O.H.G.
weiio, O. Eng. twela (two), compared with O. Icel.. O. Norw. tueggia,
). Swed., O. Dan. twaggiae, Goth, tuiaddit; and, still, in German treu,
!.ng. true, compared with Swed., Norw.. Dan. trygg, Icel. tryggr, Goth.
4 See the plates in G. Stephens's Handbook of Old Northern Runic
Monuments (1884), and S. Bugge's Norges Indskrifter med de oeldrt
\uner I. (1891-1903).
6 For the interpretations we are principally indebted to Prof. S.
Jugge's ingenious investigations, who in 1865 satisfactorily succeeded
n deciphering the inscription of the golden horn, and by this means
ained a fixed starting-point for further researches. A short review
f their most important results is given by A. Noreen, Altisldndische
Gra.mma.tik (3rd ed., 1903), appendix.
292
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
triggws. However, even in the primitive Scandinavian age the
difference between Gothic and Scandinavian is more clearly marked
than the resemblance; thus, for example just to hint only at some
of the oldest and most essential differences Goth. nom. sing, ending
in -s corresponds to primitive Scandinavian -OR, -tR (as Goth, dags,
day, easts, guest = Scand. dagaR, gastiR); Goth. gen. sing, in -is to
Scand. -as (as Goth, dagis, day's = Scand. dagas); Goth. dat. sing, in
-a to Scand. -t (as Goth, kaurna, corn = Scand. kurne); Goth. 1st
pers. sing. pret. in -da to Scand. -do (as Goth, tawida, did = Scand.
tawido).
Already before the beginning of the so-called Viking period
_. (since about A.D. 800) the primitive Scandinavian
formation, language had undergone a considerable transformation,
as is proved, for example, by the remarkable runic stone
at Istaby in the south of Sweden, with the inscription (about
A.D. 650) :
AF.ATR HARIWUL.AFA HAf>uwui.AF.R HAERUWULAFI./? wARAit
1 RUNA.R f>AIA.K;
Engl.: In memory of HariwulfR, HafmwulfR, son of HeruwulfR,
wrote these runes.
Here, e.g. we find nom. sing, in -OR changed into -r (cf . hafyuwula/R
with holtingaR on the golden horn), and the plural ending -OR into
-OR (cf. runaR with runoR on the Jiirsberg-stone). At the beginning
of.the Viking period the Scandinavian language seems to have under-
gone an extraordinarily rapid development, which almost com-
pletely transformed its character. This change is especially notice-
able in the dropping of unaccented vowels, and in the introduction
of a certain vowel harmony of different kinds ( Umlaut, vowel changes,
caused by a following i (j) or u (w), as kuxetii for kwSSi, poem, and
" Brechung," as healpa instead of helpa to help), different assimila-
tions of consonants (as U, nn for Jf>, nb; U, nn, rr and ss for /R, nR,
rR and SR), dropping of w before o and u (as orS, ulfr for worti, word,
wulfv., wolf)( simplified inflection of the verbs, a new passive formed
by means of affixing the reflexive pronoun sik or SCR to the active form
(as kalla-sk, kalla-ss, to call one s self, to be called), &c.
At this epoch, therefore, the primitive Scandinavian language
must be considered as no longer existing. The centuries
A.D. 700-1000 form a period of transition as regards
trtasiUoa. tne language as well as the alphabet which it employed.
We possess some inscriptions belonging to this period
in which the old runic alphabet of twenty-four characters
is still used, and the language of which closely resembles that
of the primitive Scandinavian monuments, as, for example,
those on the stones of Stentoften (about 700) and Bjorketorp
(about 750), both from southern Sweden, being the longest
inscriptions yet found with the old runic alphabet. On the
other hand, inscriptions have come down to us dating from
about A.D. 800, in which the later and exclusively Scandinavian
alphabet of sixteen characters has almost completely superseded
the earlier alphabet from which it was developed, while the
language not only differs widely from the original Scandinavian,
but also exhibits dialectical peculiarities suggesting the existence
of a Danish-Swedish language as opposed to Norwegian ,
as the form ruulfon the stone at Flemlose in Denmark,
which in a Norwegian inscription would have been written
hruulf corresponding to Hrolf in Old Norwegian literature.
These differences, however, are still unimportant, and the
Scandinavians still considered their language as one and the
same throughout Scandinavia, and named it Donsk lunga,
Danish tongue. But when Iceland was colonized (c. goo),
chiefly from western Norway, a separate (western) Norwegian
dialect gradually sprang up, at first of course only differing
slightly from the mother-tongue. It was not until the definitive
introduction of Christianity (about A.D. 1000) that the language
was so far differentiated as to enable us to distinguish, in runic
inscriptions and in the literature which was then arising, four
different dialects, which have ever since existed as the four
literary languages Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish and Danish.
Of these the latter two, often comprehended within the name
of Eastern Scandinavian, as well as the former two, Western
Scandinavian, or, to use the Old Scandinavians' own name,
Norrfant mat, Northern tongue, are very nearly related to each
other. The most important differences between the two
branches, as seen in the oldest preserved documents, are the
following: (i) In. E. Scand. far fewer cases of " Umlaut," as
v&rc, W. Scand. v&re, were; land, W. Scand. land (from landu),
lands; (2) E. Scand. " Brechung " of y into iu (or to) before
DlMlCCtM.
ng(w), nk(w), as siunga, W. Scand. syngua (from singwa), to
sing; (3) in E. Scand. mp, nk, nt are in many cases not
assimilated into pp, kk, it, as krumpin, W. Scand.
kroppenn, shrunken; eenkia, W. Scand. ekkia, widow; Oiftenace*
bant, W. Scand. batt, he bound; (4) in E. Scand. the ^'"
dative of the definite plural ends in -umin instead of and
W. Scand. -onom, as in handumin, hqndonom, (to) the
hands; (5) in. E. Scand. the simplification of the
verbal inflectional endings is far further advanced, and
the passive ends in -s(s) for -sk, as in kallas(s), W. Scand.
kallask, to be called. In several of these points, and indeed
generally speaking, the Western Scandinavian languages have
preserved the more primitive forms, which also are found in
the oldest Eastern Scandinavian runic inscriptions, dating from
a period before the beginning of the literature, as well as in
many modern Eastern Scandinavian dialects. For, having
regard to the Scandinavian dialects generally, we must adopt
quite a different classification from that indicated by the
dialects which are represented in the literature. We now
pass on to review the latter and their history.
I. ICELANDIC. In ancient times Icelandic was by far the most
important of the Scandinavian languages, in form as well as in
literature. To avoid ambiguity, the language before the Reforma-
tion (about 1 530) is often called Old Icelandic.
I. Old Icelandic was spoken not only in Iceland, but also in
Greenland, where, as already mentioned, Icelandic colonists lived
for a lengthened period. Our knowledge of its character o/rf
is almost exclusively derived from the remarkably Icelandic.
voluminous literature, 1 dating from the first half of the
1 2th century, and written in the Latin alphabet, adapted to the
special requirements of this language. No traces are found of any
older runic literature. Indeed, Old Icelandic possesses only very
few runic monuments (about forty-five), all of them almost worthless
from a philological point of view. The oldest, the inscriptions on
the church door of ValbjofstaSur, and that of a tombstone at
HjarSarholt, date from the beginning of the I3th century, and they
are consequently later than the oldest preserved manuscripts' in
the Latin alphabet, some of which are as old as the last half of the
I2th century. A small fragment (Cod. AM. 237, fol.) of a Boob o]
Homilies (of which a short specimen is given below) is considered the
oldest of all. About contemporary with this is the oldest part of
an inventory entitled Reykjaholts mdldagi. From the end of the 12th
century we possess a fragment (Cod. Reg. old sign. 1812) of the only
existing Old Icelandic glossary, and from the first years of the i^th
century the Stockholm Book of Homilies (Cod. Holm. I5,_4to), which
from a philological point of view is of the greatest importance,
chiefly on account of its very accurate orthography, which is especi-
ally noticeable in the indication of quantity; from the early part of
the same century comes the fragment (Cod. AM. 325, 2, 4to) entitled
Agrip (" abridgment " of the history of Norway), probably a copy
of a Norwegian original, also orthographically important. Among
later manuscripts we may mention, as philologically interesting, the
Annales Regii (Cod. Reg. 2087) from the beginning of the i^th
century, orthographically of great value; the rich manuscript
of miscellanies, Hauksbok (Codd. AM. 371 , 544, 675, 410), a great part
of which is written with Haukr Erlendsson's (d. 1334) own hand ; and,
above all, three short essays, in which some Icelanders have tried
to write a grammatical and orthographical treatise on their own
mother-tongue, all three appearing as an appendix to the manuscripts
of the Prose Edda. The oldest and most important of these essays
(preserved in the Cod. Worm, from the last half of the 14th century)
is by an unknown author of about 1 140, the second (the oldest known
manuscript of which is preserved in the Cod. Ups., c. 1300) is by an
unknown author of about 1250; the third (the oldest manuscript
in Cod. AM. 748, 4to, of the beginning of the I4th century) is by
Snorri's nephew Olafr Hvitaskald (d. 1259), and is no doubt based
partly upon a lost work of the first grammarian of Iceland, P6roddr
Runameistari (who flourished at the beginning of the I2th century),
partly and chiefly upon Priscian and Donatus. 8
1 A complete catalogue of the literature edited hitherto is given by
Th. Mobius, Catalogus Librorum Islandicorum et Norvegicorum
Aetatis Mediae (1856), and Verzeichniss der . . . altisldndischen und
altnorwegischen . . . von 1855 bis 1879 erschienenen Schriften (1880).
Cf. ICELAND.
1 An account of the oldest Icelandic manuscripts (to about 1230)
is given by J. Hoffory in the G6U. Gel. Anz. (1884), p. 478 sq.
1 A short review of the most important Old Icelandic manuscripts
(and their editions), classed according to subjects, is given by
O. Brenner, Altnordisches Handbuch, pp. 13 sq. The principal
collections of manuscripts are (i) the Arnamagnaean (AM.) in
Copenhagen, founded by Ami Magnusson (d. 1730) ; (2) the collection
of the Royal Library (Reg.) in Copenhagen, founded by T. Torfaeus
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
293
The oldest form of the Icelandic language is, however, not pre-
served in the above-mentioned earliest manuscripts of the later
half of the I2th century, which are written in the language
of their own age, but in far later ones of the I3th century,
which contain poems by the oldest Icelandic poets, such
language. ag ^ renowne d ggill Skallagrimsson (about 950) and the
unknown authors of the so-called Edda-songs. In spite of the
late date of the manuscripts, the metrical form has been the means
of preserving a good deal of the ancient language. But, as already
remarked, during the loth and nth centuries this dialect differs
but little from Norwegian, though in the I2th this is no longer the
case.
We may here contrast a specimen of the above-mentioned oldest
Icelandic manuscript with an almost contemporary Norwegian one
(Cod. AM. 619; see below):
Icel. En bat es
vitanda, at allt ma
andlega merkiasc oc
fyllasc i oss, }iat es
til kirkio bunings
eba {>ionosto barf at
haua, ef ver liuom
sva hreinlega at ver
sem verier at callasc
gobs mustere.
Norw. En bat er
vitanda, at allt ma
andlega merkiasc oc
fyllasc i os, bat er
til kirkiu bunings
eSa til pionasto barf
at hafa, ef ver lifum
sva raeinlega, at ver
sem verSir at kallasc
guSs mysteri.
Engl. And that is
to be known that all
that is needed for the
decoration of the
church or the service
may, spiritually, be
found and imitated
within us, if we live
so cleanly that we are
worthy to be called
God's temple.
Apart from the fact that the language is, generally speaking, archaic,
we find in the Icelandic text two of the oldest and most essential
characteristics of Icelandic as opposed to Norwegian, viz. the more
complete vowel assimilation (\>ionosto, hionasto; cf. also, e.g.
Icel. kqllcfyom, Norw. kallaSum, we called) and the retention of
initial n before r (hreinlega, rteinlega), I and n. Other differences,
some of which occur at this period, others a little later, are in
Icel. lengthening of a, o, u before //, Ig, Ik, Im and Ip (as Icel. hdlfr,
Norw. and oldest Icel. halfr, half) ; later still, also of a, i, u and y
before ng and nk; Icel. a! and ey for older (/> and <j>y (as in Icel.
d<ma, heyra, Norw. and oldest Icel. d$ma, to deem, h<j>yra, to
hear); Icel. termination of 2nd plur. of verbs in -S (b) or -t, but
Norw. often in -r (as Icel. takiti, -t, Norw. takir, you take). These
points may be sufficient to characterize the language of the earlier
" classical " period of Icelandic (about 1150-1350). At the middle of
the 1 3th century the written language undergoes material changes,
owing in a great measure, perhaps, to the powerful influence of
Snorri Sturloson. Thus in unaccented syllables i now appears for
older e, and u (at first only when followed by one or more con-
sonants belonging to the same syllable) for 0; the passive ends in
-z for -sk. The other differences from Norwegian, mentioned above
as occurring later, are now completely established. With the be-
ginning of the I4th century there appear several new linguistic
phenomena: a u is inserted between final r and a preceding con-
sonant (as in rikur, mighty) ; o (pronounced as an open o) passes
into o (the character o was not introduced till the l6th century), or
before fig, nk into au (as long fiqll, pronounced laung fioll) ; e before
ng, nk passes into ei; a little later e passes into ie, and the passive
changes its termination from -z, oldest -sk, into -zt (or -zst) (as in
kallazt, to be called). The post-classical period of Old Icelandic
(1350-1530), which is, from a literary point of view, of but little
importance, already shows marked differences that are characteristic
of Modern Icelandic; kn has, except in the northern dialects, passed
into hn, as in knutr, knot; as early as the 1 5th century we find
ddl for U and rl (as j 'alia, pronounced faddla, to fall), ddn for nn and
rn (as horn, pron. hoddn, horn), and a little later the passive ends
in -st, e.g. kallast, to be called.
Although dialectical differences are not altogether wanting, they
do not occur to any great extent in the Old Icelandic literary
Dialects language. Thus, in some manuscripts we find ft replaced
by J st (oft, ofst, often) ; in manuscripts from the western
part of the island there appears in the I3th and I4th centuries a
tendency to change //, rf into Ib, rb (tolf, Mb, twelve; barf, bprfr,
want), &c. To what extent the language of Greenland differed
from that of Iceland we cannot judge from the few runic monuments
which have come down to us from that colony.
Apart from the comparatively inconsiderable attempts at a gram-
matical treatment of Old Icelandic in the middle ages which we have
dram. mentioned above, grammar as a science can only be said
mttlcml to have beg" 11 m the 1 7th century. The first grammar,
treatment. wr ' tten by the Icelander Runolphus Jonas (d. 1654), dates
from 1651. His contemporary and compatriot Gudmund
Andreae (d. 1654) compiled the first dictionary, which was not,
however, edited till 1683 (by the Dane Petrus Resenius, d. 1688).
The first scholars who studied Old Icelandic systematically were
R. K. Rask (1787-1832), whose works' laid the foundation to our
(d. 1719) and Brynjolfr Sveinsson (d. 1674) ; (3) the Delagardian col-
lection (Delag. or Ups.) at Upsala, founded in 1651 by Magnus
Gabriel de la Gardie; (4) the Stockholm collection (Holm.), founded
by Jon Rugman (in 1662) and Jon Eggertson (in 1682).
' E.g. Veiledning til det Islandske sprog (1811); in a new, much-
improved Swedish edition, Amrisning til Isldndskan (1818).
knowledge of the language, and his great contemporary Jac. Grimm,
in whose Deutsche Grammatik (1819 seq.) particular attention is paid
to Icelandic. Those who since the time of Rask and Grimm have
principally deserved well of Icelandic grammar are among the
Norwegians, the ingenious and learned P. A. Munch (d. 1863), to
whom we really owe the normalized orthography that has hitherto
been most in use in editing Old Icelandic texts, and the solid worker
at the syntax, M. Nygaard; the learned Icelander K. Gislason (d.
1891), whose works are chiefly devoted to phonetic researches; 1 the
Danish scholars, K. J. Lyngby (d. 1871), the author of an essay which
is of fundamental importance in Icelandic orthography and phonetics,
and L. F. A. Wimmer, who has rendered great services to the study of
the etymology. The latest and greatest Icelandic grammar is by the
Swede A. Noreen. 3 As lexicographers the first rank is held by the
Icelanders S. Egilsson (d. 1852),* G. Vigfiisson (d. 1889),* and
J. Porkelsson (d. lox>4), 6 the Norwegian J. Fritzner (d. 1893),' the
Swede L. Larsson, 8 and the German H. Gering. 9
2. Modern Icelandic is generally dated from the introduction of
the Reformation into Iceland; the book first printed, the New
Testament of 1540, may be considered as the earliest ..
Modern Icelandic document. Although, on account of the iiandic.
exceedingly conservative tendency of Icelandic ortho- '
graphy, the language of Modern Icelandic literature still seems to be
almost identical with the language of the 1 7th century, it has in
reality undergone a constant and active development, and, phonetic-
ally regarded, has changed considerably. Indeed, energetic efforts
to bring about an orthography more in accordance with phonetics
were made during the years 1835-1847 by the magazine entitled
Fjolnir, where we find such authors as Jonas Hallgrimsson and Konr.
Gislason ; but these attempts proved abortive. Of more remarkable
etymological changes in Modern Icelandic we may note
the following : y, 4 and ey at the beginning of the 1 7th
century coincided with j, i and ei; the long vowels d,
d and o have passed into the diphthongs au (at least
about 1650), at (about 1700), ou, e.g. mdl, language, mctta, to speak,
stfill, chair; g before i, j is changed into dj (after a consonant) or j
(after a vowel), e.g. liggia, to lie, eigi, not; in certain other cases g
has passed into ew or w, e.g. Idgur, low, ljuga, to lie; initial g before
n is silent, e.g. (g)naga, to gnaw; ps, pt have passed into/i, //; bb,
dd, gg are pronounced as bp, dt, gk, and //, rl, nn, rn now in most
positions (not, however, before d, t and s, and in pet names) as dtl,
dtn, asfjall, mountain, bjorn, bear; / before is now pronounced as
bp, as hrafn, raven, &c. Both in vocabulary and syntax we find
early, e.g. in the lawbook Jonsbok, printed in !578(-i58o), Danish
exercising an important influence, as might be expected from
political circumstances. In the l8th century, however, we meet with
purist tendencies. As one of the leading men of this century may be
mentioned the poet Eggert Olafsson (d. 1768), whose poems were not
printed till 1832. Worthy of mention in the history of Modern
Icelandic language are the learned societies which appeared in the
same century, of which the first, under the name of " His osynilega,"
was established in 1760. At this time archaic tendencies, going back
to the Old Icelandic of the I3th and I4th centuries, were continually
gaining ground. In the igth century the following won especial
renown in Icelandic literature: Bjarne porarensen (d. 1841),
Iceland's greatest lyric poet, and Jonas Hallgrimsson (d. 1845),
perhaps its most prominent prose-author in modern times.
The dialectical differences in Modern Icelandic are comparatively
trifling and chiefly phonetic. The Westland dialect has, for example,
preserved the Old Icelandic long a, while the other _. . .
dialects have changed it to the diphthong au ; in the
Northland dialect initial kn is preserved, in the others changed into
hn in the northern and western parts of the island Old Icelandic hv
appears, as kv, in a part of south-eastern Iceland as x, in the other
dialects as xiv, e.g. hvolpur, whelp. As a matter of curiosity it
may be noted that on the western and eastern coasts traces are found
of a French-Icelandic language, which arose from the long sojourn of
French fishermen there.
Owing to the exclusive interest taken in the ancient language,
but little attention is given even now to the grammatical treatment
of Modern Icelandic. Some notices of the language of the
1 7th century may be obtained from the above-mentioned
grammar of Runolphus Jonas (1651), and for the language t
of the 1 8th from Rask's grammatical works. For the
language of our own time there is hardly anything to refer to but
F. Jonsson's very short lsland.sk Sproglcere (1905); cf. also B.
Magnusson 6lsen's valuable paper " Zur neuislandischen Gram-
matik " (Germania, xxvii., 1882). A dictionary of merit was that of
2 Especially Um frumpar to islenzkrar tungu ifornold (1846).
3 Altisldndische und altnorwegische Grammatik unter Berucksichti-
gung des Urnordischen (1884), 3 Aufl. (1903).
4 Lexicon poeticum (1854-1860).
6 An Icelandic-English Dictionary, based on the MS. collections of
the late R. Cleasby (1869-1874).
e Supplement til Islandske ordb<l>ger (1876, 1879-1885 and 1899).
7 Ordbog over det Gamle Norske sprog (1862-1867, new cd-
1883, sea.).
8 Ordforrddeti de dlsla tsldndska handskrifterna (1891).
' Vollstdndiges Worterbuch zu den Liedern der Edda (1903).
firam-
matlcal
294
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
Biorn Haldorsen (d. 1794), edited in 1814 by Rask. Cleasby-
Vigfiisson's dictionary mentioned above also pays some attention
to the modern language. A really convenient Modern Icelandic
dictionary is still wanting, the desideratum being only partly supplied
by J. Thorkelsson's excellent Supplement til islandske ordbpger, iii.
(1890-1894).
II. NORWEGIAN OR NORSE. The Old Norwegian language
(till the Reformation) was not, like the modern language, con-
fined to Norway and the Faeroes, but was, as already
stated, for some time spoken in parts of Ireland and
the north of Scotland, the Isle of Man, the Hebrides,
Shetland and Orkney (in the last two groups of islands it con-
tinued to survive down to the end of the i8th century), and
also in certain parts of western Sweden as at present denned
(Bohuslan, Sarna in Dalarna, Jamtland and Harjedalen).
Our knowledge of it is due only in a small measure to runic in-
scriptions, for these are comparatively few in number (about 150),
and of trifling importance from a philological point of view, especially
as they almost wholly belong to the period between 1050 and 1350,'
and consequently are contemporary with or at least not much earlier
than the earliest literature. The most important are the detailed one
of Karlevi on Oland, wherein a Norwegian poet (towards 1000) in
so-called " drottkuaett " metre celebrates a Danish chief buried there,
and that of Froso in Jamtland, which (about 1050) mentions the
christianizing of the province. The whole literature preserved is
written in the Latin alphabet. The earliest manuscripts are not much
later than the oldest Old Icelandic ones, and of the greatest interest.
On the whole, however, the earliest Norwegian literature is in quality
as well as in quantity incomparably inferior to the Icelandic. It
amounts merely to about a score of different works, and of these but
few are of any literary value. A small fragment (Cod. AM. 655. 410,
Fragm. ix., A, B, c), a collection of legends, no doubt written a little
before 1200, is regarded as the earliest extant manuscript. From the
very beginning of the I3th century we have the Norwegian Book of
Homilies (Cod. AM. 619, 410) and several fragments of law-books
(e.g. the older Gulafringslaw and the older EiSsivabingslaw). Of
later manuscripts the so-called legendary Olafssaga (Cod. Delag. 8,
foL). from about 1250, deserves mention. The chief manuscript
(Cod. AM. 243 B., fol.) of the principal work in Old Norwegian
literature, the Speculum regale or Konungsskuggsid (" Mirror for
Kings,") is again a little later. The masses of charters which
occurring throughout the whole middle age of Norway from the
beginning of the I3th century afford much information, especiajly
concerning the dialectical differences of the language, are likewise
of great philological importance.
As in Old Icelandic so in Old Norwegian we do not find the most
primitive forms in the oldest MSS. that have come down to us; for
that purpose we must recur to somewhat later ones, con-
taining old poems from times as remote as the days of
porbiorn Hornklofi (end of the gth century). It has
' already been stated that the language at this epoch differed
so little from other Scandinavian dialects that it could scarcely yet
be called by a distinctive name, and also that, as Icelandic separated
itself from the Norwegian mother-tongue (about 900), the difference
between the two languages was at first infinitely small as far, of
course, as the literary language is concerned. From the I3th
century, however, they exhibit more marked differences; for, while
Icelandic develops to a great extent independently, Norwegian, owing
to geographical and political circumstances, is considerably influ-
enced by the Eastern Scandinavian languages. The most important
differences between Icelandic and Norwegian at the epoch of the
oldest MSS. (about 1200) have already been noted. The tendency in
Norwegian to reduce the use of the so-called u-Umlaut has already
been mentioned. On the other hand, there appears in Norwegian in
the IJth century another kind of vowel-assimilation, almost un-
known to Icelandic, the vowel in terminations being in some degree
influenced by the vowel of the preceding syllable. Thus, for instance,
we find in some manuscripts (as the above-mentioned legendary
Olafisaga) that the vowels e, o, $ and long a, tt are followed in
terminations by e, o; i, u, y, and short a, ce, on the other hand, by
i, u as in btfner, prayers, honor, women; but tiCir, times, tungur,
tongues. The same fact occurs in certain Old Swedish manuscripts.
When Norway had been united later with Sweden under one crown
'1319) we meet pure Suecisms in the Norwegian literary language.
_n addition to this, the I4th century exhibits several differences
from the old language: rl, rn are sometimes assimilated into //,
nn as kail (elder karl), man, konn (korn), corn, prestanner (prest-
arnir), the priests; i passes into y before r, I as hyrftir (hirSir),
shepherd, lykyl (lykill), key; final -r after a consonant is changed
into -or, -er, -ir, -or, -ur or -<zr, sometimes only -a, -e, -a, as hester
(hestr), horse, btfker (btfkr), books, the names \wlleifcer (\>orleifr),
GuKl(eifai (GuSleifr). About the beginning of the Ijjth century initial
kv occurs for old hv (not, however, in pronouns, which take kv only in
\
1 The latest rune-stones are from the end of the I4th century.
Owing to influence of the learned, such stones appear again in the
1 7th century, e.g. in Telemarken.
western Norway), as the local name QviteseiS (hvitr, white). During
the I5th century, Norway being united with Denmark, and at
intervals also with Sweden, a great many Danisms and a few Suecisms
are imported into the language. As Suecisms we may mention the
termination -in of the 2nd pers. plur. instead of -ir, -tS (as vilin, you
will). The most important Danisms are the following: b, d and g
are substituted for p, t and k as in the local names Nabfi (earlier
Napa), Tvedce sogn (fyveita sokn); -a in terminations passes into
-e as h&re (hfiyra) to hear, sfighe (sfikia), to seek; single Danish
words are introduced as iek (ek), I, se (sid), to see; spfirge (spyria),
to ask,-&c. Towards the end of the middle ages the Danish influence
shows an immense increase, which marks the gradual decline of
Norwegian literature, until at last Norwegian as a literary language is
completely supplanted by Danish. During the I5th century Norway
has hardly any literature except charters, and as early as the end of
that century by far the greatest number of these are written in almost
pure Danish. In the l6th century, again, charters written in
Norwegian occur only as rare exceptions, and from the Reformation
onward, when the Bible and the old laws were translated into Danish,
not into Norwegian, Danish was not only the undisputed literary
language of Norway, but also the colloquial language of dwellers in
towns and of those who had learned to read.
Dialectical differences, as above hinted, occur in great number
in the Norwegian charters of the I3th, I4th and 15th centuries.
Especially marked is the difference between the language Difjfdt
of western Norway, which, in many respects, shows a
development parallel to that of Icelandic, and the language of
eastern Norway, which exhibits still more striking correspondences
with contemporary Old Swedish. The most remarkable charac-
teristics of the eastern dialects of this epoch are the following:
a is changed into o: in the pronouns bcenn, this, $cet, that, and the
particle beer, there (the latter as early as the I3th century), and
later on (in the I4th century) also in terminations after a long root
syllable as sendee, to send, h<t>yrce, to hear (but gera, to do, vita,
to know) ; ia passes (as in Old Swedish and Old Danish) into ice
as hicerta (Icel. hiarta), heart; y sometimes passes into iu before r,
I as Murder, shepherd, lykiul, key, instead of hyrfiir, lykyl (older
still, hirCir, lykill; see above); final -r after a consonant often
passes into -or, -oar, sometimes only into -a, -< as prestar (prestr),
priest; bpkar (btfkr), books; dat. sing. brfiSa (brtfttr), (to a) brother;
tl passes into tsl, si as lisla (litla), (the) little, the name Atsle, Asle
(A tie); rs gives a "thick" s-sound (written Is) as Bcerdols,
genitive of the name Bergborr; nd, Id are assimilated into nn, U
as bann (band), band, the local name Vest/oil (Vestfold); and (as
far back as the I3th century) traces occur of the vowel assimilation,
" tiljaevning," that is so highly characteristic of the modern Nor-
wegian dialects as vuko, vuku, for vaku (Icel. vqko, -u), accusative
singular of vaka, wake, mykyll for mykill, much. On the other
hand, as characteristics of the western dialects may be noted the
following: final -r after a consonant passes into -ur, -or, or -ir,
-er as velur (velr), winter, rettur (rettr), right, aftor (aftr), again;
si passes into U as sytla (sysla), charge; hw is changed into kw
also in pronouns as kuer (huerr), who. kuassu (huersu), how.
This splitting of the language into dialects seems to have continued
to gain ground, probably with greater rapidity as a Norwegian
literary language no longer existed. Thus it is very likely that the
present dialectical division was in all essentials accomplished about
the year 1600; for, judging from the first work on Norwegian
dialectology, 2 the S0ndfjord (Western Norway) dialect at least
possessed at that time most of its present features. A little clog-
calendar of the year 1644 seems to prove the same regarding the
Valders (Southern Norway) dialect. How far the Old Norwegian
dialects on the Faeroes, in Ireland and Scotland, on the Scottish
islands, and on the Isle of Man differed from the mother-tongue it
is impossible to decide, on account of the few remnants of these
dialects which exist apart from local names, viz. some charters
(from the beginning of the 1 5th century onward) from the Faeroes,
Shetland and the Orkneys, and a few runic inscriptions from the
Orkneys (thirty in number), and the Isle of Man (about thirty in
number). 1 These runic inscriptions, however, on account of their
imperfect orthography, throw but little light on the subject. Of the
Orkney dialect we know at least that initial hi, hn, hr still preserved
h in the I3th century that is, at least two hundred years longer
than in Norway.
Old Norwegian grammar has hitherto always been taken up in
connexion with Old Icelandic, and confined to notes and appendices
inserted- in works on Icelandic grammar. A systematic fl
treatise on Old Norwegian grammar is still wanting, with matlcat
the exception of a short work by the Danish scholar . ' .
N. M. Petersen (d. 1862), which, although brief and
decidedly antiquated, deserves all praise. Among those who in
recent days have above all deserved well for the investigation of the
Old Norwegian may be mentioned, as to the grammar, the Swede E ;
Wadstein and the Norwegian M. Haegstad; as to the lexicography,
the Norwegian E. Hertzberg, for the law terms, and O. Rygh (d.
1899), for the local names, while the personal names are collected
by the Swede E. H. Lind. A most valuable collection of materials
2 C. Jensen's Norsk dictionarium eller glosebog (1646).
' See P. M. C. Kermode, Manx Crosses (1907)-
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
295
III. SWEDISH. The Pre-Reformation language is called
Old Swedish.
I . Old Swedish. The territory of the Old Swedish comprehended
(i) Sweden, except the most northerly part, where Lappish (and
Finnish?) was spoken, the most southerly (Skane, Halland
dbh. a Bjekinge) and certain parts of western Sweden ; (2)
Swedish, extensive maritime tracts of Finland, Esthonia and
Livonia, with their surrounding islands; and (3) certain places in
Russia, where Swedish was spoken for a considerable time. The
oldest but also the most meagre sources of our knowledge of Old
Swedish are those words, almost exclusively personal names (nearly
one hundred), which were introduced into the Russian language
at the foundation of the Russian realm by Swedes (in 862), and
which are for the most part somewhat influenced by Russian phonetic
laws, preserved in two Russian documents of the years 911 and 944
as Igor. (O. Sw. Ingvar), Rurik (Hrtfrikr), Oleg (Hialge, secondary
form of Helge), Olga (Hialga, Helga). Of about the same date, but
of an infinitely greater importance, are the runic inscriptions,
amounting in number to about two thousand, which have been
found cut on stones (rarely wood, metal or other materials) almost
all over Sweden, though they occur most frequently (about half
of the total number) in the province of Uppland, next to which
come Sodermanland, with nearly three hundred inscriptions, then
Ostergotland, and Gotland, with more than two hundred each.
For the most part they occur on tombstones or monuments in
memory of deceased relatives; rarely they are public notices.
Their form is often metrical, in part at least. Most of them are
anonymous, in so far that we do not know the name of the engraver,
though, as a rule, the name of the man who ordered them is recorded.
Of the engravers named, about seventy in number, the three most
productive are Ubir, Bali and Asmundr Karasun, all three principally
working in Upland ; the first-mentioned name is signed on nearly
eighty, the others on about thirty and forty stones respectively.
These inscriptions vary very much in age, belonging to all centuries
of Old Swedish, but by far the greatest number of them date from
the nth and I2th centuries. From heathen times as well as from
the last two centuries of the middle ages we have comparatively
few. The oldest are perhaps the Ingelstad inscription in Ostergot-
land, the Sparlosa inscription in Vastergotland, and the Gursten one
found in the north of Smaland, all probably from the end of the
9th century. The rune-stone from Rok in Ostergotland probably
dates from about A.D. 900. Its inscription surpasses all the others
both in length (more than 750 runes) and in the importance of its
contents, which are equally interesting as regards philology and
the history of culture; it is a fragment (partly in metrical form)
of an Old Swedish heroic tale. From about the year 1040 we
possess the inscriptions of Asmundr Karasun, and the so-called
Ingvar monuments (more than twenty in number), erected most of
them in Sodermanland, in honour of the men who fell in a great
war in eastern Europe under the command of a certain Ingvar;
the stones cut by Bali belong to the time c. 1060. Somewhat later
are the inscriptions cut by Ubir, and from the beginning of the I2th
century is the remarkable inscription on the door-ring of the church
of Forsa in Helsingland, containing the oldest Scandinavian statute
now preserved, as well as other inscriptions from the same province,
written in a particular variety of the common runic alphabet, the
so-called " staflosa " (staffless, without the perpendicular staff)
runes, as the long genealogical inscription on the Malstad-stone.
The inscriptions of the following centuries are of far less philological
interest, because after the I3th century there exists another and
more fruitful source for Old Swedish, viz. a literature in the proper
sense of the word. Of runic literature nothing has been preserved
to our days. The literature in the Latin letters is both in quality
and extent incomparably inferior to Old Icelandic, though it, at
least in quantity, considerably surpasses Old Norwegian. In age,
however, it is inferior to both of them, beginning only in the I3th
century. The oldest of the extant manuscripts is a fragment of the
Older Vastgotalaw, written about the year 1250. A complete codex
(Cod. Holm. B 59) of the same law dates from about 1285, and is
philologically of the greatest importance. Of other works of value
from a philological point of view we only mention a codex of the
Sodermannalaw (Cod. Holm. B 53) of about 1325, a codex of the
Upplandslaw (Cod. Ups. 12), the two manuscripts containing a
collection of legends generally named Cod. Bureanus (written a
little after 1350) and Cod. Bildstenianus (between 1420 and 1450),
and the great Oxenstiernian manuscript, which consists chiefly of
a collection of legends written for the most part in 1385. The
very numerous Old Swedish charters, from 1343 downwards, are
also of great importance. 2
1 Diplomatarium Norvegicum (1847, sqq.), 16 vols. have appeared.
1 The Old Swedish monuments are foi the most part published
in the following collections: Svenska fornskriftsallskapets sam-
lingar, 132 parts (1844-1907); C. J. Schlyter, Samling af Sveriges
gamla lagar, vols. i.-vii. and x.-xii. (1827-1869); Svenskt Diplo-
matarium (6 vols., 1829-1878, new series, 4 vols., 1875-1904).
Old Swedish, during its earliest pre-literary period (800-1225),
retains quite as original a character as contemporary Form
Old Icelandic and Old Norwegian. The first part of the of the
inscription of the Rokstone running thus language.
AFT UAMU{> STANTA RUNA& {>A.R . IN UARIN FAjl
FAfil.R AFT FAIKIAN SUNU, 8
and probably pronounced
aft Wamod standa runaR jmR; en Warinn fa8i faoiR aft
faeighian sunu,
would, no doubt, have had the same form in contemporary Icelandic,
except the last word, which would probably have had the less
original form sun. The formal changes of the Swedish language
during this period are, generally speaking, such as appear about the
same time in all the members of the group as the change of soft
R into common r (the Rok-stone runaR, later runar, runes; this
appeared earliest after dental consonants, later after an accented
vowel), and the change of $f> into st (in the loth century raisty,
later raisti, raised) ; or they are, at least, common to it with Nor-
wegian as the dropping of h before /, n and r (in the loth century
hrauv., younger, r0r, cairn), and the changing of nasal vowels (the
long ones latest) into non-nasalized. But the case is altogether
different during what we may call the cjassical period of Old Swedish
(12251375), the time of the later runic inscriptions and the oldest
literature. During this period the language is already distinctly
separate from the (literary) Icelandic-Norwegian (though not yet
very much from Danish). The words of the Older Vastgotalaw
FALDER KLOCK^E NIDER I HOVOf) MANNI, B0TI SOPCN HARCHUM J)RIM,
EN HAN FAR BAN^E AF *
would in contemporary Icelandic be;
fellr klukka nior i hofu3 manni, b6ti s6kn morkum {trim,
ef Tiann far bana af.
These few words exhibit instances of the following innovations in
Swedish: d is inserted between tt (nn) and a following r (as b
between m and /, r, and p between m and /, n^as hambrar, Icel.
hamrar, hammers, sampt, Icel. samt, together with); an auxiliary
vowel is inserted between final r and a preceding consonant; a in
terminations is often changed into re; a M in the final syllable
causes no change of a preceding a ; the present tense takes the vowel
of the infinitive (ana the preterite subjunctive that of preterite
indicative plural). Other important changes, appearing at the same
time, but probably, partly at least, of a somewhat_older date, are
the following: all diphthongs are contracted (as tfgha, Icel. auga,
eye; drtfma, Icel. dreyma, to dream; sten, Icel. steinn, stone traces
of which we find as early as the izth century); e has passed into a:
(as knee, Icel. kne, knee); ia into ice, as in Eastern Norwegian (as
hicerta, Icel. hiarta, heart) ; iu into y after r, and a consonant -H
(asflygha, lce\.fliuga, to fly) ; the forms of the three persons singular
of verbs have assimilated (except in the so-called strong preterite) ;
the 2nd person plural ends in -in for -18, -w5. The transition to the
I4th century is marked by important changes: short y, e.g., passed
into & in many positions (as dtfr for dyr, door, &c.) ; there appeared
a so-called law of vowel balance, according to which the vowels *
and are always found in terminations after a short root syllable,
and at least when no consonant follows e and o after a long one
(as Gubi, to God, til salu, for sale, but * garfye, in the court, for visso,
assuredly), and the forms of the dative and the accusative of pro--
nouns gradually became the same. The number of borrowed words
is as yet very limited, and is chiefly confined to ecclesiastical words
of Latin and Greek origin, introduced along with Christianity (as
kors, cross, bref, epistle, skole, school, prosster, priest, almosa, alms).
At the middle of the I4th century the literary language undergoes
a remarkable reform, developing at the same time to a " rikssprak,"
a uniform language, common to a certain degree to the whole
country. The chief characteristics of this later Old Swedish (1375-
1526) are the following: the long a has passed into d (that is, an
open o), and io (except before g, k, rdh, rt) into i$ (as si$, sea, lake),
fand k (sk) before palatal vowels are softened into dj and tj (stj) ;
and / in unaccented syllables often pass into gh, dh (as Swerighe
for Swerike, Sweden, lltedh for Ktit, a little); the articles (ham (or
hin), the, and (a little later) en, a, come into use; the dual pronouns
vanish; the relative c?r, that, is changed with sum; the present
participle takes a secondary form in -s (as gangandis, beside gangande,
going). A little later the following changes appear: a short vowel
is lengthened before a single consonant, first when the consonant
belongs to the same syllable (as hat, hate), afterwards also when it
belongs to the following one (as hata, to hate) ; an auxiliary vowel
is inserted between / or and a preceding consonant (as gavel, gable,
0ken, desert); short * often passes into e (as leva, to live); th
passes into /; a new conjugation is formed which has no infinitive
termination, but doubles the sign of the preterite (as 60, bodde, bott,
to dwell, dwelt, dwelt). Owing to the political and commercial
state of the country the language at this period is deluged with
borrowed words of Low German origin, mostly social and industrial
terms, such as the great number of verbs in -era (e.g. hantera, to
* In memory of Warned these runes stand ; and Warinn, his
father, wrote them in memory of his son (by destiny) condemned
to death.
4 If the bell fall down on anybody's head, the parish pays a fine
of three marks should he die from it.
296
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
handle) , the substantives in -erl (r&ieri, robbery) . -inna (ffirstinna,
princess) , -hit (Jromhet, piety), be- (betala, to pay), and a great many
others (klen, weak, smaka, to taste, graver, big, pung, purse, tukt,
discipline, bruka, to use, twist, quarrel, stfoiel, boot, arbeta, to work,
Jrokoster, lunch, &c.). Owing to the political circumstances, we
find towards the end of the period a very powerful Danish influence,
which extends also to phonetics and etymology, so that, for example,
nearly all the terminal vowels are supplanted by the uniform Danish
e, the hard consonants p, t, k by 6, d, g as in Danish, the second
person plural of the imperative ends in -er, besides -en (as tagher,
for taghen, older takin).
Dialectical differences incontestably "occur in the runic inscriptions
as well as in the literature; in the former, however, most of them
Dialects are hidden f rom our e V es . by the character of the writing,
which is, from a phonetic point of view, highly unsatis-
factory, indicating the most different sounds by the same sign (for
example, o, u, y and d are denoted by one and the same rune) ; in
the literature again they are reduced to a minimum by the awakening
desire to form a uniform literary language for the whole country,
and by the literary productivity and consequent predominant
influence of certain provinces (as Ostergotland). Only one distinct
. dialect has been handed down to us, that of the island of
Gotland, which differs so essentially from the Old Swedish
of the mainland that it has with good reason been charac-
terized, under the name Forngutniska, as in a certain sense a
separate language. Materials for its study are very abundant:
on one hand we possess more than two hundred runic inscriptions,
among them a very remarkable one from the beginning of the I3th
century, counting upwards of four hundred runes, cut on a font
(now in Aakirkeby on the island of Bornholm), and representing the
life of Christ in a series of pictures and words; on the other hand
a literature has been preserved consisting of a runic calendar from
1328, the law of the island (the oldest manuscript is from about
1350), a piece of traditional history and a gild statue. The language
is distinguished from the Old Swedish of the mainland especially by
the following characteristics: the old diphthongs are preserved
(e.g. auga, eye, droyma, to dream, stain, stone), and a triphthong has
arisen by the change of iu into iau (as fliauga, to fly) ; the long
vowels ee and have passed into e and y (as mela, to speak, dyma,
to deem) ; short o rarely occurs except before r, being in other
positions changed into u; w is dropped before r (as raipi, wrath);
the genitive singular of feminines in -a ends in -ur for -u (as kirkiur,
of the church). Owing to the entire absence of documentary evidence
it is impossible to determine how far the dialects east of the Baltic,
which no doubt had a separate individuality, differed from the
mother-tongue.
The first to pay attention to the study of Old Swedish 1 was the
Swedish savant J. Buraeus (d. 1652), who by several works (from
Th ft dv ?599 onwards) called attention to and excited a lively
.,. interest in the runic monuments, and, by his edition
" (1634) of the excellent Old Swedish work Urn Styrilse
Kununga ok Htffpinga, in Old Swedish literature also.
His no longer extant Specimen Primariae Linguae Scantzianae
(1636) gave but a very short review of Old Swedish inflections, but
is remarkable as the first essay of its kind, and is perhaps the oldest
attempt in modern times at a grammatical treatment of any old
Germanic language. The study of runes was very popular in the
I7th century; M. Celsius (d. 1679) deciphered the " stamess " runes
and I. Hadorph (d. 1693), who also did good work in editing Old
Swedish texts, copied more than a thousand runic inscriptions,
published by J. Goransspn as Bautil (1750). During the i8th
century, again, Old Swedish was almost completely neglected; but
in the I9th century the study of runes was well represented by the
collection (Runurkundrr, 1833) of the Swede Liljegren (d. 1837) and
by the Norwegian S. Bugge's ingenious interpretation and grammati-
cal treatment of some of the most remarkable inscriptions, especially
that of R&k. Old Swedish literature has also been made the object
of grammatical researches. A first outline of a history of the Swedish
language is to be found in the work of N. M. Petersen (1830), and
a scheme of an Old Swedish grammar in P. A. Munch's essay, Forn-
swenskans och Fornnorskans sprikbyffgnad (1849); but Old Swedish
grammar was never treated as an independent branch of science
until the appearance of I. E. Ry.dqvist's (d. 1877) monumental work
Svenska sprakets lagar (in 6 vols., 1850-1883), which was followed
in Sweden by a whole literature on the same subject. Thus phonetics,
which were comparatively neglected by Rydqvist, have been in-
vestigated with great success, especially by L. F. baffler and A.
Kock; while the other parts of grammar have been treated of
above all by K. F Soderwall. His principal work, Ordbok ofver
Svenska medeltidsspraket (1884 sq.), gives the list of words in the
later Old Swedish language, and taken along with the Ordbok till
samlingen af Sveriges gamla lagar (1877), by C. J. Schlyter, the well-
known editor of Old Swedish texts, which contains the vocabulary
of the oldest literature it worthily meets the demand for_an Old
Swedish dictionary. An Old Swedish grammar, answering the
requirements of modern philology, is edited by A. Noreen. 2
1 See A. Noreen, " Apercu de 1'histoire de la science tinguistique
suedoise " (Le Museon, ii., 1883).
' Altschwdische Grammatik (1897-1904).
2. Modern Swedish. The first complete translation of the Bible,
edited in 1541 by the brothers Olaus and Laurentius Petri, and
generally called the Bible of Gustavus I., may be regarded
as the earliest important monument of this. Owing to ...
religious and political circumstances, and to the learned Swedish
influence of humanism, theological and historico-political
works preponderate in the Swedish literature of the following period,
which therefore affords but scanty material for philological research.
It is not until the middle of the I7th century that Swedish literature
adequately exemplifies the language, for at that period literature
first began to be cultivated as a fine art, and its principal representa-
tives, such as Stiernhielm, Columbus and Spegel, were in reality
the first to study it as a means of expression and to develop its
resources. Amongst the authors of the l8th century we have to
mention in the first place Dalin, who was to some extent the creator
of the prose style of that epoch; while of the end of the century
Kellgren and Bellman are the most noteworthy examples, repre-
senting the higher and the more familiar style of poetry respectively.
The language of the loth century, or at any rate of the middle of
it, is best represented in the works of Wallin and Tegner, which, on
account of their enormous circulation, have had a greater influence
than those of any other authors.
As to the language itself the earliest Modern Swedish texts, as
Gustavus I.'s Bible, differ considerably from the latest Old Swedish
ones. 8 We find a decided tendency to exterminate ,,
Danisms and reintroduce native and partially antiquated ///,.
forms. At the same time there appear several traces of a i aoxu aee
later state of the language: all genitives (singular and
plural), e.g., end in -s, which in earlier times was the proper ending of
certain declensions only. In spite of the archaistic efforts of many
writers, both in forms and in vocabulary, the language nevertheless
underwent rapid changes during the i6th and I7th centuries. Thus
sj and stj (original as well as derived from sk before a palatal vowel)
assimilate into a simple sh- sound; dj (original as well as derived
from g before a palatal vowel) , at least at the end of the 1 7th century,
dropped its d-sound (compare such spellings as diufwer, gidttar,
envoge, for jufver, udder, jdttar, giants, envoye, envoy); hj passes into
j (such spellings are found asjort for hjort, hart, and hjdrpe iorjdrpe,
hazel grouse) ; 6 and p inserted in such words as himblar, heavens,
hambrar, hammers, jtimpn, even, sampt, together with, are dropped;
the first person plural of the verb takes the form of the third person
(as vi fara, foro, for vi farom, forom, we go, went) ; by the side of the
pronoun /, you, there arises a secondary form Ni, in full use in
the spoken language about 1650; the adjective gradually loses all
the case-inflections; in substantives the nominative, dative and
accusative take the same form as early as the middle of the 1 7th
century; in the declension with suffixed article the old method of
expressing number and case both in the substantive and the article
is changed, so that the substantive alone takes the number-inflection
and the article alone the case-ending; neuter substantives ending in
a vowel, which previously had no plural ending, take the plural
ending -n, some -er as bi-n, bees, oageri-er, bakeries. About the
year 1700 the Old Swedish inflection may, in general, be considered
as almost completely given up, although a work of such importance
in the history of the language as Charles XII. 's Bible (so-called) of
1703, by a kind of conscious archaism has preserved a good many of
the old forms. To these archaistic tendencies of certain authors at
the end of the i?th century we owe the great number of Old Swedish
and Icelandic borrowed words then introduced into the language
as fager, fair, hdrja, to ravage, later, manners, snille, genius, tarna,
eirl, limn, to happen, &c. In addition to this, owing to humanistic
influence, learned expressions were borrowed from Latin during the
whole 1 6th and I7tn centuries; and from German, chiefly at the
Reformation and during the Thirty Years' War, numberless words
were introduced as tapper, brave, prakt, magnificence, hurlig,
brisk, &c.; among these may be noted especially a great number of
words beginning in an-, er-, for- and ge-. Owing to the constantly
increasing political and literary predominance of France, French
words were largely borrowed in the I7th century, and to an equally
great extent in the i8th; such are afar, business, respekt, respect,
lalang, talent, charmant, charming, &c. In the igth century, espe-
cially about the middle of it, we again meet with conscious and ener-
getic efforts after purism both in the formation of new words and
in the adoption of words from the old language (id, diligence, mala,
to speak, jylking, battle-array, &c.), and from the dialects (bliga,
to gaze, flis, flake, skrabbig, bad, &c.). Consequently the present
vocabulary differs to a very great extent from that of the literature
of the 1 7th century. As for the sounds and grammatical forms, on the
other hand, comparatively few important changes have taken place
during the last two centuries. In the i8th century, however, the
aspirates dh and gh passed into d and g (after / and r into j) as lag
for lagh, law, brod for brodh, bread; hw passed into v (in dialects
already about the year 1400) as valp for hwalper, whelp; Ij like-
wise into./ thus ljuster, leister, occurs written juster. In our time
rd, rl, rn, rs and rt are passing into simple sounds (" supradental "
1 The printed characters are also considerably changed by the
introduction of the new letters d (with the translation of the New
Testament of 1526), and d, o (both already in the first print in
Swedish of 1495) for aa, a, <f>.
SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES
297
d, I, n, s and t), while the singular of the verbs is gradually supplant-
ing the plural. A vigorous reform, slowly but firmly carried on
almost uniformly during all periods of the Swedish language, is the
throwing back of the principal accent to the beginning of the word
in cases where previously it stood nearer the end, a tendency that is
characteristic of all the Scandinavian languages, but no doubt
especially of Swedish. In the primitive Scandinavian age the accent
was removed in most simple words; the originally accented syllable,
however, preserved a musically high pitch and stress. Thus there
arose two essentially different accentuations the one, with un-
accentuated final syllable, as in Icel. stigr (Gr. artl-xtis), thou goest,
the comparative betre (cf. Gr. B/ujauv from rax&s), better, the other,
with secondary stress and high pitch on the final, as in Icel. pret.
plur. budo (Sans, bubudhus), we bade, part. pret. bitenn (Sans.
bhinnds), bitten. The same change afterwards took place in those
compound words that had the principal accent on the second member,
so that such contrasts as German urteil and erteilen were gradually
brought into conformity with the former accentuation. At the
present day it is quite exceptionally (and chiefly in borrowed words
of later date) that the principal accent in Swedish is on any other
syllable than the first, as in lekdmen, body, vdlsigna, to bless.
The scientific study of Modern Swedish 1 dates from Sweden's
glorious epoch, the last half of the I7th century. The first regular
. Swedish grammar was written in 1684 (not edited till
' 1884) in Latin by E. Aurivillius; the first in Swedish is
dih" by N - Tiallman (1696). But little, however, of value was
produced before the great work of Rydqvist mentioned
above, which, although chiefly dealing with the old language, throws
a flood of light on the modern also. Among the works of late years
we must call special attention to the researches into the history of
the language by K. F. Soderwall, F. A. Tamm, A. Kock and E.
Hellquist. The grammar of the modern language is, as regards
certain parts, treated in a praiseworthy manner by, among others,
J. A. Aur6n, J. A. Lyttkens and F. A. Wulff (in several common
works), E. Tegner, G. Cederschiold and F. A. Tamm (d. 1905). A
good though short account of phonology and inflections is given in
H. Sweet's essay on " Sounds and Forms of Spoken Swedish " (Trans.
Phil. Soc., 1877-1879). A comprehensive and detailed grammar
( Vart sprak) has been edited (since 1903) by A. Noreen. Attempts to
construct a dictionary were made in the l6th century, the earliest
being the anonymous Variarum rerum vocabula cum Sueca interpre-
tatione, in 1538, and the Synonymorum libellus by Elaus Petri
Helsingius, in 1587, both of which, however, followed German
originals. The first regular dictionary is by H. Spegel, 1712; and in
1769 J. Ihre (d. 1780), probably the greatest philological genius of
Sweden, published his Glossarium Suiogoticum, which still remains
one of the most copious Swedish dictionaries in existence. In the
igth century the diligent lexicographer A. F. Dalin published a
useful work. The Swedish Academy has been editing (since 1893) a
gigantic dictionary on about the same plan as Dr Murray's New
English Dictionary. Another such large work is Sverges Ortnamn
(the local names of Sweden) edited since 1906 by the Royal Com-
mittee for investigation of the Swedish place-names.
IV. DANISH, like Swedish, is divided into the two great Pre-
and Post-Reformation epochs of Old and Modern Danish.
i. Old Danish. The territory of Old Danish included not only
the present Denmark, but also the southern Swedish provinces of
.j,. Halland, Skane and Blekinge, the whole of Schleswig,
Danish anc ^ as state( ^ above, for a short period also a great part of
England, and parts of Normandy. The oldest monu-
ments of the language are runic inscriptions, altogether about 225 in
number. 2 The oldest of them go as far back as to the beginning of
the 9th century, the Snoldelev-stone, for instance, on Sealand, and the
Fleml#se-?tone on Fiinen. From about the year 900 date the very
long inscriptions of Tryggevaelde (Zealand) and Glayendrup (Fiinen) ;
from the loth century we have the stones of Jaellinge (Jutland), in
memory of two of the oldest historical kings of Denmark (Gorm and
Harald); while from about 1000 we have a stone at Dannevirke
(Schleswig), raised by the conqueror of England, Sven Tiuguskaegg.
Relics of about the same age are the words that were introduced by
the Danes into English, the oldest of which date from the end of the
9th century, the time of the first Danish settlement in England;
most of these are to be found in the early English work Ormulum.*
No Danish literature arose before the I3th century. The oldest
manuscript that has come down to us dates from the end of that
century, written in runes and containing the law of Skane. From
about the year 1300 we possess a manuscript written in Latin
characters and containing the so-called Valdemar's and Erik's laws
of Zealand, the Flensbprg manuscript of the law of Jutland, and a
manuscript of the municipal laws of Flensborg. These three manu-
scripts represent three different dialects that, namely, of Skane,
'See A. Noreen, " Apergu," &c.; V&rt sprak, i. 181 sqq.
2 See L. F. A. Wimmer, De Danske runemindesmcerker (4 vols.,
1895-1905).
1 See E. Brate, " Nordische Lehnworter im Ormulum " (Paul
Braune's Beitrdge, x., 1884); E. Bjorkman, Scandinavian Loan-
word: in Middle English (2 vols., 1900, 1902) in " Studien zur engli-
schen Philologie," vii. and xi. Also ORM.
Halland and Blekinge, that of Zealand and the other islands, and
that of Jutland and Schleswig. There existed no uniform literary
language in the Old Danish period, although some of the nialects
most important works of the I5th century, such as the
clerk Michael's Poems (since 1496) and the Rhymed Chronicle (the
first book printed in Danish, in 1495), on account of their excellent
diction, contributed materially to the final preponderance of their
dialect, that of Zealand, towards the Reformation.
As to the form of the language, it hardly differs at all during the
period between A.D. 800 and 1200 from Old Swedish. It is only in
the oldest literature that we can trace any marked differ-
ences; these are not very important, and are generally ofthe
attributable to the fact that Danish underwent a little language.
earlier the same changes that afterwards took place in
Swedish (e.g. h in hw and hj in Danish was mute as early as the end
of the 1 4th century. The laws referred to above only agree in differ-
ing from the Swedish laws in the following points: the nominative
already takes the form of the accusative (as half, calf, but Old Sw.
nom. kalver, ace. half) ; the second person plural ends in -ce (as
kfipce, but Old Sw. ktfpin, you buy); in the subjunctive no differ-
ences are expressed between persons and numbers. Among them-
selves, on the contrary, they show considerable differences; the
law of Skane most nearly corresponds with the Swedish laws, those
of Zealand keep the middle place, while the law of Jutland exhibits
the most distinctive individuality. The Skane law, e.g., retains the
vowels a, i, u in terminations, which otherwise in Danish have become
uniformly CE; the same law inserts 6 and d between certain conson-
ants (like Old Sw.), has preserved the dative, and in the present
tense takes the vowel of the infinitive; the law of Jutland, again,
does not insert 6 and d, and has dropped the dative, while the present
tense (undergoing an Umlaut) has by no means always accepted the
vowel of the infinitive; in all three characteristics the laws of
Zealand fluctuate. After 1350 we meet an essentially altered
language, in which we must first note the change of k, p, t after a
vowel into g, b, d (as tag, roof, l$be, to run, cede, to eat); th passes
into / (as ting, thing) , gh into w (as law for lagh, gild) or into i (as vei for
wtzgh, way) ; Id, nd are pronounced like U, nn ; s is the general
genitive ending in singular and plural, &c. The vocabulary, which
in earlier times only borrowed a few, and those mostly ecclesiastical,
words, is now-^-chiefly owing to the predominant influence of the
Hanse towns inundated by German words, such as those beginning
with be-, hi-, ge-,for- and und-, and ending in -hed, and a great number
of others, as blwe, to become, she, to nappen, jri, free, kng, war,
buxer, pantaloons, ganske, quite, &c.
An Old Danish grammar is still wanting, and the preparatory
studies which exist are, although excellent, but few in number,
being chiefly essays by the Danes K. J. Lyngby and _
L. F. A. Wimmer. N. M. Petersen's treatise Del Danske, v
Modern
Danish
sources.
Norske, og Svenske sprogs historic, vol. i. (1829), one of the trealment
first works that paid any attention to Old Danish, which
till then had been completely neglected, is now surpassed by V.
Dahlerup's Gesr.hichte der ddnischen Sprache (1904). A dictionary
on a large scale covering the whole of Old Danish literature, except
the very oldest, by O. Kalkar, has been in course of publication since
1881 ; older and smaller is C. Molbech's Dansk Glossarium (1857-
1866).
2. Modern Danish. The first important monument of this is the
translation of the Bible, by C. Pedersen, Peder Palladius and others,
the so-called Christian III.'s Bible (1550), famous for the
unique purity and excellence of its language, the dialect
of Zealand, then incontestably promoted to be the lan-
guage of the kingdom. The first secular work deserving
of the same praise is Vedel's translation of Saxo (1575). The succeed-
ing period until 1750 offers but few works in really good Danish; as
perfectly classical, however, we have to mention the so-called
Christian V.'s Law of Denmark (1683). For the rest, humanism
has stamped a highly Latin-French character on the literature,
striking even in the works of the principal writer of this period,
Holberg. But about the year 1750 there begins a new movement,
characterized by a reaction against the language of the preceding
period and by purist tendencies, or, at least, efforts to enrich the
language with new-formed words (not seldom after the German
pattern), as omkreds, periphery, sehsttzndighed, independence,
valgsprog, devise, digter, poet. The leading representatives of these
tendencies were Eilschow and Sneedorf. From their time Danish
may be said to have acquired its present essential features, though it
cannot be denied that several later authors, as J. Ewald and Ohlen-
schlager, have exercised a considerable influence on the poetical style.
As the most important differences between the gram-
matical forms of the i8th and igth centuries on one hand
and those of the i6th and I7th centuries on the other, may t
be noted the following: most neuter substantives take
a plural ending; those ending in a vowel form their plural by
adding -r (as riger, for older rige, plural of rige, kingdom), and many
of thost ending in a consonant by adding -e (as huse for hus, of hus,
house) ; substantives ending in -ere drop their final -e (as dommer for
dommere, judge); the declension with suffixed article becomes
simplified in the same way as in Swedish ; the plural of verbs takes
the singular form (as drak for drukke, we drank) ; and the preterite
subjunctive is supplanted by the infinitive (as var for vaare, were).
298
SCANDIUM SCANTLING
The first Modern Danish grammar is by E. Pontoppidan, 1668, but
in Latin ; the first in Danish is by the famous Peder Sy v,
*" 1685. The works of the self-taught J. H0jsgaard (e.g.
matical Accentueret og raisonneret grammatica, 1747) possess great
treatment. mer jt, a nd are of especial importance as regards accent and
syntax. The earlier part of the igth century gave us Rask's grammar
(1830). A thoroughly satisfactory Modern Danish grammar does not
exist ; the most detailed is that by K. Mikkelsen (1894). The vocabu-
lary of the i6th and I7th centuries is collected in Kalkar's Ordbog,
mentioned above; that of the i8th and igth centuries in the volumi-
nous dictionary of Videnskabernes Selskab (1793-1905), and in C.
Molbech's Dansk Ordbog (and ed., 1859); that of our days in B. T.
Dahl's and H. Hammers Dansk Ordbog for folket (1903 seq.).
As already mentioned, Danish at the Reformation became the
language of the literary and educated classes of Norway and re-
mained so for three hundred years, although it cannot be
Daao-Nor- Denied that many Norwegian authors even during this
wegiaa. period wrote a language with a distinct Norwegian colour,
as for instance the prominent prose-stylist Pcder Clauss0n Friis
(d. 1614), the popular poet Fetter Dass (d. 1708), and, in a certain
degree, also the two literary masters of the l8th century, Holberg
and Wessel. But it is only since 1814, when Norway gained her
independence, that we can clearly perceive the so-called Dano-
Norwegian gradually developing as a distinct offshoot of the general
Danish language. The first representatives of this new language are
the writer of popular life M. Hansen (d. 1842), the poets H. Wergeland
(d. 1845) and J. S. C. Welhaven (d. 1873), but above all the tale-
writers P. C. Asbj^rnsen (d. 1885) and J. Moe (d. 1882). More
recently it has been further developed, especially by the great poets
Ibsen (d. 1906) and Bj^rnson and the novelist Lie; and it has been
said, not without reason, to have attained its classical perfection in
the works of the first-named author. This language differs from
>Danish particularly in its vocabulary, having adopted very many
Norwegian provincial words (more than 7000), less in its inflections,
but to a very great extent in its pronunciation. The most striking
differences in this respect are the following: Norwegian p, t, k
answer to Danish b, d, g in cases where they are of later
Form at date (g^ above) as l&pe, Danish Itfbe, to run, liten, D.
""* liden. little, bak, D. bag, back; to Danish k, g before
palatal vowels answer Norwegian tj, j ; r (point-trill, not
back-trill as in Danish) is assimilated in some way with following
t (d), I, n, and s into so-called supradental sounds; both the primitive
Scandinavian systems of accentuation are still kept separate from a
musical point of view, in opposition to the monotonous Danish.
There are several other characteristics, nearly all of which are points
of correspondence with Swedish. 1 Dano-Norwegian is in our days
grammatically and lexically treated, especially by H. Falk and A.
Torp (e.g. Etymologisk Ordbog, 1903, 1906).
At the middle of the igth century, however, far more advanced
pretensions were urged to an independent Norwegian language. By the
study of the Modern Norwegian dialects and their mother
language, Old Norwegian, the eminent philologist J. Aasen
ivexttn- ^ jg^g) was j e( j to undertake the bold project of con-
structing.by the study of these two sources, and on the basis
wegiaa. o j ^ nat ; V e dialect (S0ndm0re), a Norwegian-Norwegian
("Norsk-Norsk ") language, the so-called " Landsmal. In 1853 he ex-
hibited a specimen of it, and, thanks to such excellent writers as Aasen
himself, the poets O. Vinje and K. Janson, the novelists A. Garborg
and J. TVedt, as well as a zealous propagandist!! of the society Del
Norske Samlag (founded in 1868) there has since arisen a valuable
though not very Large literature in the " Landsmal." Since 1892 it is
also legally authorized to be, alternatively, used in the church and
by teachers of the public schools. But still it is nowhere colloquially
used. Its grammatical structure and vocabulary are exhibited in
Aasen's Norsk grammatik (1864) and Norsk Ordbog (1873), supple-
mented by H. Ross's Norsk Ordbog (1895; with supplement, 1902).
The local names of Norway are treated in the large work Norske
Caardnavne, by O. Rygh (1897 seq.).
SCANDINAVIAN DIALECTS. As above remarked, the Scandinavian
dialects are not grouped, so far as their relationship is concerned,
as mignt be expected judging from the literary languages.
Dialects. Leaving out of account the Icelandic dialects and those of
the Faeroes, each of which constitutes a separate group, the remainder
may be thus classified :
1. West Norwegian Dialects spoken on the western coast of
Norway between Langesund and Molde.
2. North Scandinavian the remaining Norwegian and the Swedish
dialects of Uppland, Vastmanland, Dalarna, Norrland, Finland and
Russia.
3. The dialects on the island of Gotland.
4. Middle Swedish spoken in the rest of Sweden, except the
southernmost parts (No. 5).
5. South Scandinavian spoken in the greater part of Smaland
and Halland, the whole of Skane, Blekinge and Denmark, and the
Danish-speaking part of Schleswig. This group is distinctly divided
into three smaller groups the dialects of southern Sweden (with the
1 See A. Western, " Kurze Darstellung des norwegischen Laut-
systems " in Phonetische Studien II.; I. C. Poestion, Lehrbuch der
norwegischen Sprache (2. Aufl., 1900).
island of Bornholm), of the Danish islands and of Jutland (and
Schleswig).
The study of the Modern Scandinavian dialects 2 has been very
unequally prosecuted. Hardly anything has been done towards the
investigation of the Icelandic dialects, while those of the Faeroes
have been studied chiefly by V. U. Hammershaimb, J. Jakobsen,
and A. C. Evensen. The Norwegian dialects have been thoroughly
examined, first by Aasen, whose works give a general account of
them ; then by J. Storm, who has displayed an unwearying activity,
especially in the minute investigation of their phonetic constitution,
to which Aasen had paid but scant attention ; in our own days by
H. Ross and A. B. Larsen. 3 For the study of Danish dialects less
has been done. Molbech's Dialect-Lexicon of 1841 is very deficient.
The Schleswig dialect has been admirably treated of by E. Hagerup
(1854), K. J. Lyngby (1858) and others. H. F. Feilberg's great
dictionary (1886 seq.) of the. dialect of Jutland is in every respect an
excellent work. A dialect map on a large scale, and containing the
whole territory, is (since 1898) being edited by V. Bennike and M.
Kristensen. Finally, several dialect monographs by P. K. Thorsen
may be mentioned as being especially valuable. A phonetic alphabet
for the purpose of dialectal investigations is worked out by O.
Jespersen and published in the journal Dania, vol. i. (1890). There
is, however, no country in which the dialects have been and are
studied with greater zeal and more fruitful results than in Sweden
during the last hundred and fifty years. Archbishop E. Benzelius
the younger (d. 1743) made collections of dialect words, and on
his work is based the dialectical dictionary of Ihre of 1766. An
excellent work considering its age is S. Hof 's Dialectus Vestrogothica
(1772). The energy and zeal of C. Save (d. 1876; essays on the
dialects of Gotland and Dalarna) inspired these studies with extra-
ordinary animation at the middle of the igth century; in 1867
J. E. Rietz (d. 1868) published a voluminous dialect dictionary;
the number of special essays, too, increased yearly. From 1872
so-called " landsmalsforeningar " (dialect societies) were founded
among the students at the universities of Upsala, Lund and Helsing-
fors (thirteen at Upsala alone) for a systematic and thorough in-
vestigation of dialects. We find remarkable progress in scientific
method especially with regard to phonetics in the constantly
increasing literature; special mention may be made of the detailed
descriptions of the dialects of Varmland, Gotland and Dalarna by
A. Noreen (1877 sec}.), A. F. Freudenthal's and H. Vendell's mono-
graphs of the Finnish and Esthonian-Swedish dialects, as well as
O. F. Hultman's (1894) and B. Hesselman's (1902 seq.) excellent
comparative treatment of certain dialect groups. Since 1879 the
Swedish dialect societies have published a magazine on a com-
prehensive plan, De Svenska Landsmdlen, edited by J. A. Lundell,
who has invented for this purpose an excellent phonetic alphabet
(partially based on C. J. Sundevall's work, Om phonetiska bokstdfver,
1855). (A. No.)
SCANDIUM [symbol Sc, atomic weight 44-1 (O=i6)], one of
the rare earth metals. It was isolated in 1879 by L. F. Nilson
and was shown by Cleve to be identical with the ekaboron
predicted by D. Mendeleeff. The separation of scandium from
wolframite (which contains o- 14-0-16% of rare earths) is
given by R. J. Meyer (Zeit* anorg. Chem. 1908, 60, p. 134),
but it seems impossible to obtain a perfectly pure specimen
of the oxide. The salts of scandium are all colourless,
the chloride and bromide corresponding in composition to
Sc2Xcl2H 2 O; the fluoride is anhydrous. The sulphate com-
bines with the alkaline sulphates to form double salts of the
type Sc 2 (SO4)3-3K 2 SO4. A large number of salts, both of in-
organic and organic acids, have been described by Sir W.
Crookes (Phil. Trans. 1908, 209, A. p. 15); those of the fatty
acids are in most cases more soluble in cold than in hot water.
SCANTLING, measurement or prescribed size, dimensions,
particularly used of timber and stone and also of vessels. In
regard to timber the scantling is the thickness and breadth, the
sectional dimensions; in the case of stone the dimensions of
thickness, breadth and length; in shipbuilding the collective
dimensions of the various parts. The word is a variation of
" scantillon," a carpenter's or mason's measuring tool, also
used of the measurements taken by it, and of a piece of timber
of small size cut as a sample. The O. Fr. escantUlon, mod.
(chantillon, is usually taken to be related to Ital. scandaglio,
sounding-line (Lat. scandere, to climb; cf. scansio, the metrical
scansion). It was probably influenced by canlel, can tie, a small
piece, a corner piece. The English form " scantling " was no
1 Cf J. A. Lundell, " Skandinavische Mundarten " (Grundriss
der germanischen Philologie; 2. Aufl. 1901).
' The substance of these researches was presented in a magazine,
called Norvegia (1887), which employed an alphabet invented by
Storm.
SCAPHOPODA
299
doubt partly due to a confusion with " scant," stinted, of short
measure; this is for scamt, cf. " skimpy," " scamp " (q.v.),
and is related to O.N. skammr, short, brief.
SCAPHOPODA, the third of the five classes into which the
Phylum Mollusca is divided. 1 The Scaphopoda are marine
Molluscs with the body, especially the foot, adapted to a burrow-
ing life in sand. The structure is bilaterally symmetrical,
the body and shell elongated along the antero-posterior axis
and nearly cylindrical. The right and left margins of the
mantle are united ventrally, leaving an anterior and posterior
aperture to the mantle cavity. The shell has therefore the form
of a tube open at both ends. The head is somewhat rudimentary
and without eyes, but bears two dorsal appendages produced
into numerous long filaments. Buccal mass and radular
apparatus are present, but ctenidia are entirely wanting. The
foot is cylindrical. At first supposed to be tubicolous Annelids,
Dentalium and its allies were afterwards placed among the
Gastropoda, to which recent authorities consider them to be
closely related. In 1857 Lacaze-Duthiers raised them to the
rank of a division equal to Lamellibranchia. This view is now
generally adopted. The shell is narrower at the posterior end
and is slightly curved to the dorsal side. Both the vernacular
name, " tooth shell," and the Latin name, Dentalium, refer to
the resemblance of the shell to a long tooth.
The animal grows at the anterior end, and therefore the shell
at the posterior end is older and thicker. The edge of the mantle
at the anterior aperture is very thick and muscular; at the
posterior aperture also there is a circular muscle, and here the
edge is interrupted by a ventral sinus and is provided internally
with a dorsal and ventral valve which can be applied to each other
so as to close the aperture. The living animal buries itself in
the sand with only the posterior extremity projecting into the
Siphonopodiidae. At the base of the head dorsally are a pair
of flat tentacular lobes from the edges of which the cephalic
filaments or captacula arise. These captacula are of unequal
length, highly contractile and extensile, easily thrown off and
regenerated. They are ciliated, and their extremities are enlarged
and have a small lateral depression in each. The captacula
are tactile and prehensile and can be protruded from the anterior
aperture of the mantle. The foot is elongated and cylindrical,
and can be protruded from the anterior aperture to serve as a
burrowing organ. In Dentaliidae it is pointed at the end and has
an oblique projecting fold on either side behind the extremity.
In Siphonopodiidae it ends in a disk with papillated margins,
and in PulseUum there is a filament in the centre of the disk.
Two retractor muscles pass back from the base of the foot to
the dorsal side of the shell.
Internal Anatomy. The cavity within the head leads into a true
buccal cavity situated within the body at the base of the foot. This
buccal sac is provided with a dorsal mandible and a ventral radula.
The latter is short and carries five teeth in each transverse row.
The intestine is short and forms several loops all situated close
behind the foot. The stomach is small ; into it open a small pyloric
caecum and the ducts of the liver, paired in Dentaliidae, one on the
left only in Siphonodentalium. The anus opens just behind the
base of the foot. The liver is placed entirely behind the intestine
in the middle of the body, and behind it the rest of the body is
occupied by the unpaired gonad. The vascular system is very
rudimentary. Heart and blood-vessels are entirely absent ; the blood
is contained in sinuses which have no distinct walls or endothelial
lining, and the principal of which are the perianal, the pedal, the
visceral and the pallial. It is remarkable that in Scaphopoda only
among Mollusca the blood-spaces are in communication with the
external medium: a pair of apertures near the renal openings lead
from the perianal sinus to the exterior and allow the blood to escape
during violent contractions of the body. There are no special
respiratory organs, their function is carried on by the internal
surface of the mantle.
From Lankestcr's Treatise on Zoology,
FIG. 2. Diagram of the Organization of Dentalium, Left-side View.
a,
ca,
in,
k,
Anus. la.c, Labial commissure.
Captacula. li. Liver.
Cerebral ganglion, m, Mouth.
o,
Foot.
Gonad.
Intestine.
Left kidney.
oe,
pa,
Orifice leading into
the perianal sinus.
Oesophagus.
Mantle.
FIG. i. Dentalium vulgare, Da C. (after Lacaze Duthiers).
A, Ventral view of the animal
removed from its shell.
B, Dorsal view of the same.
C, Lateral view of the same.
D, The shell in section.
E, Surface view of the shell with
gill-tentacles exserted as in
o, Mantle. [life.
a', Longitudinal muscle.
a*. Fringe surrounding the an-
terior opening of the
mantle-chamber.
a'", The posterior appendix of the
mantle.
b, Anterior circular muscle of
the mantle.
b' Posterior do.
c, c', Longitudinal muscle of
mantle.
e, Liver.
/, Gonad.
k, Buccal mass (showing through
the mantle).
q, Left nephridium.
s', Club-shaped extremity of the
foot.
w, w', Longitudinal blood-sinus
of the mantle.
water, so that the posterior aperture of the mantle cavity is
both inhalant and exhalant.
The head is situated on the dorsal side of the body anteriorly
within the anterior aperture of the mantle, from which it cannot
be protruded. It is a small somewhat cylindrical projection
with the mouth at its anterior end. In the Dentaliidae the mouth
is surrounded by eight small lobes, but these are absent in the
1 For a discussion of its relationship to the other classes of the
Phylum see MOLLUSCA.
p.g, Pedal ganglion, with
otocyst.
pl.g, Pleura! ganglion.
po, Posterior orifice of
the mantle.
ra, Radular sac.
st.g, Stom'ato-gastric
ganglion.
The renal organs are a pair of short wide sacs with folded walls
lying on either side of the anterior end of the liver. They open to
the exterior on either side of the anus. The pericardium being
absent, there are no reno-pericardial apertures.
The nervous system resembles that of Gastropoda and Lamelli-
branchia. A pair of cerebral ganglia lie on the dorsal side of the
oesophagus : they innervate the proboscis or head and its tentacular
lobes and captacula. Close to each cerebral ganglion is a pleural
ganglion, and each is connected by a long nerve with the pedal
ganglion of the same side, the two connectives of either side being
united in the distal part of their course. The pedal ganglia are
situated in the middle of the foot. The pleural ganglia are also
united by a long visceral commissure as in Lamellibranchs, and this
commissure bears two ganglia lying close beneath the epidermis in
front of the anus. There is also a stomatogastric system arising
from the cerebral ganglia.
Eyes are absent; attached to the pedal ganglia are a pair of
otocysts. They are innervated from the cerebral ganglia. The
buccal cavity contains a sense-organ on the ventral side called the
sub-radular organ. It consists of ciliated epithelium, beneath which
are two ganglia connected with the labial commissure by nerves.
The only other sense-organs are the captacula, which are tactile
and olfactory. Each contains a terminal ganglion connected with
sensory cells in the lateral pit.
The sexes are separate. The gonad, whose position has already
been mentioned, is divided into transverse lobes; its duct is anterior
and single, and diverges to the right to open into the right kidney
as in primitive Gastropods and Lamellibranchs.
Development. The ova are laid separately and develop in the sea-
300
SCAPOLITE
a
aspect.
I, Foot.
II, mantle.
III, Velum forming a
sort of test.
water. One large cell, or megamere, remains for some time unseg-
mented but is finally segmented and forms the endoderm cells which
are invaginated. The gastrula thus formed has a large blastopore,
which is at first posterior but afterwards gradually moves towards
the anterior end of the ventral surface. The velum is peculiar, being
reflected backwards over the body and bearing, besides an apical
tuft, three or four rings of cilia. The
shell-gland is formed on the dorsal surface,
and the mantle arises as two lateral lobes
which afterwards unite by their ventral
edges to form the tubular mantle of the
adult. The anus is not formed till a very
late period of the development. The foot
arises as a prominence on the ventral sur-
face and grows forward, and at the end
of five or six days the velum atrophies
and the foot becomes the organ of locomo-
tion ; the animal then ceases to swim and
sinks to the bottom.
Habits and Distribution. Scaphopoda
feed on the lowest marine organisms such
as Diatoms, Protozoa, &c. There are 150
,ta'B Treatise on zoology ' living and about 275 known fossil species.
P larva O f The former occur in all seas from the shore
, j to a depth of 2500 fathoms. Fossil remains
,toJ.m aged one and fi f the Silurian , but become
haU days; ventral most abundant from the Cretaceous
onwards.
Classification. Fam. I. Dentaliidae.
Foot conical with a laterally expanded and
dorsally interrupted circular fold. Shell
curved with greatest diameter at anterior
aperture and diminishing gradually to
posterior. Dentalium: posterior aperture of shell entire, without
incision. Antalis: posterior aperture with short incision. Fissi-
dentalium: posterior aperture with long fissure on ventral side;
abyssal. Fustiaria. Schizodentalium: ventral border of posterior
aperture with a series of small holes in a straight line. Heterochisma.
Fam. 2. Siphonopodiidae. Foot expanded distally into a sym-
metrical disk with a crenate edge or simple and vermiform without
well-developed lateral processes ; shell often contracted towards the
anterior aperture. Siphonodentalium: foot ending in a median disk
without a median appendage. Cadulus. Dischides. Pulsellum:
terminal disk of foot with a median appendage. Entalina. _
See F. J. H. Lacaze-Duthiers, " Histoire^ de I'organisation^ et du
V d"u
Boissevain, " Beitrage zur Anatomic und Histologie von Dentalium,"
Jenaische Zeitschr. xxxviii. (1904); Paul Pelseneer, Mollusca;
Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, pt. v. (1906). (J. T. C.)
SCAPOLITE (Gr. oxairoj, rod, Xtflos, stone), a group of
rock-forming minerals composed of aluminium, calcium and
sodium silicate with chlorine. The variations in composition
of the different members of the group may be expressed by
the isomorphous mixture of the molecules CaAlSiO2s and
NaiAliSiO M CI, which are referred to as the meionite (Me) and
marialite (Ma) molecules respectively, since they predominate
in these two end-members of the series. Wernerite, or common
scapolite (MejMai to Me,Mai)and mizzonite (MdMaj to MdMaj)
are intermediate members. The tetragonal crystals are hemi-
hedral with parallel faces (like scheelite), and
usually have the form of square columns, some-
times of considerable size. There are distinct
cleavages parallel to the prism-faces. Crystals
are usually white or greyish-white and opaque,
though meionite is found as colourless glassy
crystals in the ejected limestone blocks of Monte
Somma, Vesuvius. The hardness is 5-6, and the
specific gravity varies with the chemical com-
position between 2-74 (meionite) and 2-56
(marialite). The scapolites are especially liable to alteration
by weathering processes, with the development of mica, kaolin,
&c., and this is the cause of the usual opacity of the crystals.
Owing to this alteration, and to the variations in composition
numerous varieties have been distinguished by special names.
Scapolite is commonly a mineral of metamorphic origin, occur-
ring usually in crystalline limestones, but also with pyroxene in
schists and gneisses. The long slender prisms abundant in the
crystalline limestones and schists in the Pyrenees are known as
" dipyre " or " couzeranite." Large crystals of common scapolite
[wernerite) are found in the apatite deposits in the neighbourhood
of Bamle near Brevik in Norway, and have resulted from the
alteration of the plagioclase felspar of a gabbro. (L. J. S.)
Scapolite Rocks.
According to their genesis the scapolite rocks fall naturally
into four groups.
1. The scapolite limestones and contact rocks. As silicates rich
n lime, it is to be expected that these minerals will be found where
mpure limestones have been crystallized by contact with an igneous
magma. Even meionite (the variety richest in soda) occurs in this
association, being principally obtained in small crystals lining cavities
in ejected blocks of crystalline limestone at Vesuvius and the craters
of the Eifel in Germany. Scapolite and wernerite are far more
common at the contacts of limestone with intrusive masses. The
minerals which accompany them are calcite, epidote, vesuvianite,
jarnet, wollastonite, diopside and amphibole. The scapolites are
:olourless, flesh-coloured, grey or greenish; occasionally they are
nearly black from the presence of very small enclosures of graphitic
material. They are not in very perfect crystals, though sometimes
incomplete octagonal sections are visible; the tetragonal cleavage,
strong double refraction and uniaxial interference figure distinguish
them readily from other minerals. Commonly they weather to
micaceous aggregates, but sometimes an isotropic substance of
unknown nature is seen replacing them. In crystalline limestones
and calc-silicate rocks they occur in small and usually inconspicuous
jrains mingled with the other components of the rock. Large,
nearly idiomorphic crystals are sometimes found in argillaceous
rocks (altered calcareous shales) which have suffered thermal meta-
morphism. In the Pyrenees there are extensive outcrops of lime-
stone which are penetrated by igneous rocks described as ophites
(varieties of diabase) and Iherzolites (peridotites). At the contacts
scapolite occurs in a great number of places, both in the limestones
and in the calcareous shales which accompany them. In some of
these rocks large crystals of one of the scapolite minerals (an inch or
two in length) occur, usually as octagonal prisms with imperfect
terminations. In others the mineral is found in small irregular
grains. It is sometimes clear, but often crowded with minute en-
closures of augite, tourmaline, biotite and other minerals, such as
constitute the surrounding matrix. From these districts also a
black variety is well known, filled with minute graphitic enclosures,
often exceedingly small and rendering the mineral nearly ooague.
The names couzeranite and dipyre are often given to this kind of
scapolite. Apparently the presence of chlorine in small quantities,
which may often be detected in limestones, to some extent deter-
mines the formation of the mineral.
2. In many basic igneous rocks, such as gabbro and diabase,
scapolite replaces felspar by a secondary or metasomatic process.
Some Norwegian scapolite-gabbros (or diorites) examined micro-
scopically furnish examples of every stage of the process. The
chemical changes involved are really small, one of the most important
being the assumption of a small amount of chlorine in the new mole-
cule. Often the scapolite is seen spreading through the felspar,
portions being completely replaced, while others are still fresh and
unaltered. The felspar does not weather, but remains fresh, and the
transformation resembles metamorphism rather than weathering.
It is not a superficial process, but apparently takes place at some
depth under pressure, and probably through the operation of
solutions or vapours containing chlorides. The basic soda-lime
felspars (labradorite to anorthite) are those which undergo this type
of alteration. Many instances of scapolitization have been de-
scribed from the ophites (diabases) of the Pyrenees. In the un-
altered state these are op'hitic and consist of pyroxene enclosing
lath-shaped plagioclase felspars; the pyroxene is often changed to
uralite. When the felspar is replaced by scapolite the new mineral
is fresh and clear, enclosing often small grains of hornblende. Ex-
tensive recrystallization often goes on, and the ultimate product is
a spotted rock with white rounded patches of scapolite surrounded
by granular aggregates of clear green hornblende: in fact the original
structure disappears.
3. In Norway scapolite-hornblende rocks have long been known
at Oedegarden and other localities. They have been called spotted
gabbros, but usually do not contain felspar, the white spots being
entirely scapolite while the dark matrix enveloping them is an
aggregate of green or brownish hornblende. In many features they
bear a close resemblance to the scapolitized ophites of the Pyrenees.
It has been suggested that the conversion of their original felspar
(for there can be no doubt that they were once gabbros, consisting
of plagioclase and pyroxene) into scapolite is due to the percolation
of chloride solutions along lines of weakness, or planes of solubility,
filling cavities etched in the substance of the mineral. Subsequently
the chlorides were absorbed, and pari passu the felspar was trans-
formed into scapolite. But it is found that in these gabbros there
are veins of a chlorine-bearing apatite, which must have been d
posited by gases or fluids ascending from below. This suggests that
a pneumatolytic process has been at work, similar to that by which,
around intrusions of granite, veins rich in tourmaline have been
SCARAB SCARBOROUGH
301
laid down, and the surrounding rocks at the same time permeated
by that mineral. In the composition of the active gases a striking
difference is shown, for those which emanate from the granites are
mainly fluorine and boron, while those which come from the gabbro
are principally chlorine and phosphorus. In one case the felspar is
replaced by quartz and white mica (in greisen) or quartz and tourma-
line (in schorl rocks) ; in the other case scapolite is the principal new
product. The analogy is a very close one, and this theory receives
much support from the fact that in Canada (at various places in
Ottawa and Ontario) there are numerous valuable apatite vein-
deposits. They lie in basic rocks such as gabbro and pyroxenite, and
these in the neighbourhood of the veins have been extensively
scapolitized, like the spotted gabbros of Norway.
4. In many parts of the world metamorphic rocks of gneissose
character occur containing scapolite as an essential constituent.
Their origin is often obscure, but it is probable that they are of two
kinds. One series is essentially igneous (orthogneisses) ; usually
they contain pale green pyroxene, a variable amount of felspar,
sphene, iron oxides. Quartz, rutile, green hornblende and biotite are
often present, while garnet occurs sometimes; hypersthene is rare.
They occur along with other types of pyroxene gneiss, hornblende
gneiss, amphibohtes, &c. In many of them there is no reason to
doubt that the scapolite is a primary mineral. Other scapolite
gneisses equally metamorphic in aspect and structure appear to be
sedimentary rocks. Many of them contain calcite or are very rich in
calc-silicates (wollastonite, diopside, &c.), which suggests that they
were originally impure limestones. The frequent association of
this type with graphitic-schists and andalusite-schists makes this
correlation in every way probable. Biotite is a common mineral
in these rocks, which often contain also much quartz and alkali
felspar. (J. S. F.)
SCARAB (Lat. scarabaeus, connected with Gr. /capa/Sos) ,
literally a beetle, and derivatively an Egyptian symbol in the
form of a beetle. The Egyptian hieroglyph O pictures a
dung beetle (scarabaeus sacer), which lays its egg in a ball of dung,
and may be seen on sandy slopes in hot sunshine compacting
the pellet by pushing it backward uphill with its hind legs and
allowing it to roll down again, eventually reaching a place of
deposit. Whatever the Egyptians may have understood by its
actions, they compared its pellet to the globe of the sun. The
beetle is common on both shores of the Mediterranean; the
Egyptian name was kheperer, kheperi, and the sign spelt the verb
khopi(r) meaning " become " and perhaps " create," also the
substantive " phenomenon " or " marvel." The insect was
sacred to the sun-god in his form kheperi at Heliopolis, and has
been found mummified. A colossal scarabaeus of granite in
the British Museum probably came from the temple of Heliopolis.
The scarabaeus was much used in Egyptian religions, appearing
sometimes with outstretched wings or with a ram's head and
horns as the vivifying soul. It is often seen in this guise on
coffins of the New Kingdom and later, when it also became the
custom to place in the bandages of the mummy a large stone
scarab engraved with a chapter of the Book of the Dead. This
chapter, the 64th, identified the object with the heart of the
deceased and conjured it not to betray him in the judgment before
Osiris. A winged scarab might also be laid on the breast; and
later a number of scarabs were placed about the body. These
are often of hard stone and of fine workmanship. Another and
even more important class of Egyptian antiquities is in the form
of scarabs, pierced longitudinally for a swivel or for threading, and
having the bases flat and engraved with designs. These were
intended principally for seals, but might also be used as beads
or ornaments. They are thus found, engraved or plain, strung
on necklaces, and amethyst scarabs with plain bases are common
articles of Middle Kingdom jewelry. But the employment of
scarabs as seals is proved by the impressions found on sealed
documents of the Middle and New Kingdom; on several occasions
the impressed clay seals alone have been found hardened and
preserved by the fire which had destroyed the archives themselves.
The seal type of scarabaei is extremely abundant, and the
designs engraved beneath them show endless variety. Some
have inscriptions carefully executed, but frequently corrupted
by illiterate copying until they became meaningless. The
inscriptions are sometimes " mottoes " having reference to places,
deities, &c., or containing words of good omen or friendly wishes,
e.g. " Memphis is mighty for ever," " Ammon protecteth,"
" Mut give thee long life," " Bubastis grant a good New Year,"
" May thy name endure and a son be born thee." Such are of
the New Kingdom or later. Names and titles of officials appear,
most commonly in the Middle Kingdom.
Historically the most valuable class is of those which bear royal
arms, ranging from Cheops of the IVth dynasty to the end of the
XXVIth dynasty. Certain great kings are commemorated on
scarabs of periods long subsequent to them. Thus Cheops
(Khufu) may appear on an example of the latest Pharaonic age,
and Tethmosis III. is found at all times after the XVIIIth
dynasty. But as a rule the royal names are of contemporary
workmanship, and the differences of style and pattern make it
possible to group unknown kings with those who are known
historically; the names of the Hyksos kings have been princi-
pally recovered from collections of scarab-seals. Scarab-shaped
seals are traceable as far back as about the Vlth dynasty. They
became abundant under the XHth and continued until almost
the end of the native rule. As seals they took the place of the
earlier cylinders. Considering the life-history of the scarabaeus
and its meaning as a hieroglyph, it may well be that the scarab
impressing the clay had a symbolic significance; however that
may be, the oval form was well adapted for seal-stones and for
the bezels of finger rings. In this situation the scarabs were
often mounted with a rim of gold or silver round the edge.
Rings of stone, glass or metal, with engraved bezels of the same
material, and eventually Greek gem rings, gradually displaced
them.
A series of exceptionally large scarabs was engraved in the reign of
Amenophis III.,c. 1450 B.C., all being inscribed with his name together
with that of Queen Taia and her parentage. At present five varieties
are known. The simplest commemorates his queen and the north
and south limits of his empire; another dated in the first year, a
great battue of wild cattle; the third, the arrival of the princess
Gilukhipaof Mitanni in the tenth year; the fourth (many specimens),
the number of lions slain by the king down to his tenth year; the last,
the cutting of the lake of Zarukhe in the eleventh year.
Egyptian scarabs were carried by trade to most of the islands
and shores of the eastern Mediterranean and to Mesopotamia. The
Greeks, especially in their Egyptian colony of Naucratis (q.v.),
imitated them in soft paste. The finest Etruscan gems of the 6th
and 5th centuries B.C. are in the form of scarabs, perhaps suggested
by the Egyptian. The forgers of antiquities have carried on a brisk
trade in scarabs for more than a century.
See P. E. Newberry, Scarabs (London, 1906); also art. GEM,
especially for later scarabaeoid gems. (F. LL. G.)
SCARAMOUCH, properly a buffoon, used later colloquially
for a ne'er-do-well. The name was that of a stock character
in lyth-century Italian farce, Scaramuccia (i.e. literally "skir-
mish "), who, attired usually in a black Spanish dress, burlesquing
a " don," was beaten by Harlequin for his boasting and cowardice.
The part was played in London in 1673 by a well-known Italian
actor, Tiberic Fiurelli, and became popular. There are many
instances of the use of the word in the New English Dictionary.
SCARBOROUGH, a municipal and parliamentary borough
and fashionable seaside resort in the North Riding of Yorkshire,
England, 231 m. N. of London, on the North-Eastern railway.
Pop. (1891) 33,776; (1901) 38,161. From the bold and picturesque
coast a hammer-like peninsula (285 ft.) projects, separating
North Bay from South Bay, and the modern extension of the
town fringes both of these. The peninsula is crowned by a 12th-
century castle, though this naturally strong position was probably
occupied earlier. There is a moat (Castle Dyke) on the landward
side, and a wall with towers also protects the castle in this
direction. The keep, a lofty ruined tower, is of Norman date.
The peninsula is much exposed to encroachment by the sea.
In 1 190 the plateau forming the castle yard was stated by William
of Newburgh to be 60 acres in extent; it is now about 17. The
list of the governors of the castle covers the period from 1136
to 1832. Near the landward side of the dike is the church of
St Mary, finely situated, occupying the site of a Cistercian
monastery of 1 198. It is transitional Norman and Early English,
with later additions. The choir was occupied by the Roundheads
during the Commonwealth, and was wrecked by the castle guns.
The tower fell later, and was in part rebuilt in the I7th century.
The development of Scarborough as a watering-place dates
from the discovery in 1620 by Mrs Farren, a resident, of mineral
302
SCARF SCARLATTI
springs. These springs, of which there are two, occur near
the shore of the South Bay, and a handsome Spa House in
pleasant gardens contains them. The south spring is aperient,
but contains some iron; while the north or chalybeate spring
is more tonic in its properties. They are still in use, though of
less importance than formerly in comparison with the other
attractions of the .town. The sea-bathing is very good, both
bays having a sandy foreshore. Well-planted grounds fringe
the steep slope down to the North Bay, in which there is a
promenade pier; the South Cliff is similarly adorned. It is
approached from the north by a lofty bridge over a ravine,
to the west of which lies a pleasant park. The southern part
of the town is the more fashionable portion. The principal
buildings of entertainment are the aquarium (also used as a
concert hall) ; the museum, a rotunda in Doric style, containing
excellent antiquarian and natural history collections; two
theatres, and the assembly rooms attaching to the Spa House.
The promenades and drives are extensive, and there is an in-
clined tramway leading from summit to foot of the South Cliff.
A great marine drive, 4200 ft. long, was opened in 1908. The
neighbouring country is exceedingly picturesque, with high-
lying moors intersected by narrow, well-wooded valleys. The
hydrography of the district is remarkable, the Derwent, which
flows S.W. to the Ouse and so to the Humber, having one of
its sources near Scarborough within 2 m. of the sea. The climate
is healthy and temperate; average temperature, 59-2 F. in
July, and in January, 37-7.
The chief buildings of Scarborough apart from those already
considered are the town hall, market hall and public hall,
several modern churches and chapels, and charitable and
benevolent institutions. The harbour, enclosed by piers and
divided into two basins, lies on the south side of the castle
peninsula. It is dry at low tide, but is accessible at spring
tides to vessels of 13 ft. draught. It is largely used by fishing
boats. The parliamentary borough, falling within the Whit by
division of the county, returned two members until 1885, one
since that date. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 alder-
men and 1 8 councillors. Area, 2373 acres.
Although there is no mention of Scarborough (Scardeburc, Escarde-
buc, Scardeburg, Scardeburk, Scarthebure, Schardeburg) in the Domes-
day Survey the remains of Roman roads leading to the town indicate
that it was in early times a place of importance. The castle was
built during the I2th century by William le Gros, earl of Albemarle,
who chose the site on the top of a steep cliff now called the " Scaur."
Henry II. added greatly to its strength. From this time it was in
the hands of a line of distinguished nobles appointed by the king.
Scarborough is a borough by prescription. Its first charter of 1181
granted that the burgesses should possess all liberties in the same
way as the citizens of York. They were also to render to the kine
yearly 4d. for every house whose gable was turned to the way, and
6d. for those whose sides were turned to the way. This charter was
confirmed with various alterations and extensions by most of the
succeeding monarchs. Henry III. in 1253 granted that a court of
pleas should be held at Scarborough by the justice's who went to
hold common pleas at York; he also gave the corporation a gild
merchant. Edward II. caused the town to be taken away from
the burgesses " for certain causes," but it was restored to them by
Edwardlll. in 1327. The charter of Edward III. in 1356 sets
forth and confirms the privileges of the borough. Richard III. by
his charter of 1485 appointed that the town should be governed by a
mayor, sheriff and twelve aldermen, and also granted amongst other
extensive privileges that this town with the manor of Whallesgrave
should be a county of itself. However, on the death of Richard III.
the charter took no effect, and the corporation returned to its
ancient mode of government. In 1684 a mayor, 12 aldermen and
31 common councilman were nominated as governors. Scarborough
returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1885. It is said
that Henry II. held a market here which he granted to the burgesses,
but of this there is no mention in subsequent charters. In 1253
Henry III. granted a yearly fair lasting from the Assumption of
St Mary to the following Michaelmas. This fair was originally held
on the sands. Jet was formerly an important manufacture.
See Thomas Hinderwell, History of Scarborough (Scarborough,
1832); J. B. Baker, History of Scarborough (London, 1882).
SCARF, a narrow wrap for the neck or shoulders; the term
is a wide one, ranging from a light band of silk, muslin or other
material worn by women as a decorative part of their costume
to a warm knitted muffler of wool to protect the throat from
cold. The O. Eng. scearfe meant a piece or fragment of any-
thing, and is to be referred ultimately to the root skar-, to cut,
seen in Dutch scherf, shred, Ger. Scherbe, potsherd, " scrap," a
piece or fragment; " scrip," a piece of leather, hence a pouch
or wallet. The particular meanings in English are to be referred
to Fr. escharpe, pilgrim's wallet, also scarf. The ecclesiastical
" scarf " was originally a loose wrap or muffler (band) to be
worn round the neck out of doors. In the English Church, in
post-Reformation times, the minister wore over the surplice
the " scarf," which was a broad band of black silk with fringed
ends arranged like the stole round the neck, but falling nearly
to the feet. Its use has been almost entirely replaced by that
of the stole (?..), with which it has sometimes been wrongly
confused.
Ultimately from the same root, but directly adapted from
the Scandinavian, cf. Swed. skar}, joint, is the use of the word
" scarf," in carpentry and joinery, for a joint by which two
timbers are fastened together longitudinally so as to form a
continuous piece (see JOINERY).
SCARLATTI, ALESSANDRO (1659-1725), Italian musical
composer, was born in Sicily, either at Trapani or Palermo, in
1659. He is generally said to have been a pupil of Carissimi in
Rome, and there is reason to suppose that he had some con-
nexion with northern Italy, since his early works show the
influence of Stradella and Legrenzi. The production at Rome
of his opera Gli Equivoci nell' amore (1679) gained him the
protection of Queen Christina of Sweden, and he became her
Maestro di Cappella. In February 1684 he became Maestro
di Cappella to the viceroy of Naples, through the intrigues of
his sister, an opera singer, who was the mistress of an influential
noble in that city. Here he produced a long series of operas,
remarkable chiefly for their fluency, as well as other music for
state occasions. In 1 702 he left Naples and did not return until
the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the
Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of
Ferdinand III. of Tuscany, for whose private theatre near
Florence he composed operas, and of Cardinal Ottoboni, who
made him his Maestro di Cappella, and procured him a similar
post at the church of S Maria Maggiore in Rome (1703). After
visiting Venice and Urbino in 1707, he took up his duties at
Naples again in 1708, and remained there until 1717. By this
time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the
Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the Teatro
Capranica in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas
(Tdemaco, 1718; Marco Attilio Regolo, 1719; Griselda, 1721),
as well as some noble specimens of church music, including
a mass for chorus and orchestra, composed in honour of St
Cecilia for Cardinal Acquaviva in 1721. His last work on a
large scale appears to have been the unfinished serenata for the
marriage of the prince of Stigliano (1723); he died at Naples
on the 24th of October 1725.
Scarlatti's music forms the most important link between the
tentative " new music " of the i^th century and the classical school
of the i8th, which culminated in Mozart. His early operas (Gli
Equivoci nel sembiante (1679); L' Honesta negli amori (1680);
Pompeo (1683), containing the well-known airs " O cessate di
piagarmi " and " Toglietemi la vita ancor," and others down to
about 1685) retain the older cadences in their recitatives, and a
considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming
little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated
with careful elaboration, sometimes by the harpsichord alone.
By 1686 he had definitely established the " Italian overture " form
(second edition of Dal male il bene), and had abandoned the ground
bass and the binary air in two stanzas in favour of the ternary or
da capo type of air. His best operas of this period are La Rosaura
(1690, printed by the Gesellschaft fur Musikforschune), and Pirro e
Demelrio (1694), in which occur the songs " Rugiadose, odorose,"
" Ben ti sta, traditor." From about 1697 onwards (La Caduta dei
decemviri), influenced partly perhaps by the style of Bononcini
and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera
songs become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm,
while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliancy
(Eracle.a, 1700), the oboes and trumpets being frequently used, and
the violins often playing in unison. The operas composed for
Ferdinand de Medici are lost; they would probably have given us
a more favourable idea of his style, his correspondence with the
prince showing that they were composed with a very sincere sense
of inspiration. Mitridate Eupatore, composed for Venice in 1707,
SCARLET SCARLET FEVER
303
contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written
for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later
Neapolitan operas (V 'Amor volubile e tiranno (1700); La Princi-
pessa fedele (1712); Tigrane, 1715, &c.) are showy and effective
rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a
great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompany-
ing the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord
being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental ritornelli.
His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper
poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong
dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which
he himself had been the first to use as early as 1686 (Olimpia vendi-
cata) and a much more modern style of orchestration.^ the horns
appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.
Besides the operas, oratorios (Agar et Ismaele esiliati, 1684;
Christmas Oratorio, c. 1705; S. Filippo Neri, 1714; and others)
and serenatas, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed
upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for a solo voice. These
represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period,
and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in
MS., since a careful study of them is indispensable to any one who
wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development. His
few remaining masses (the story of his having composed two hundred
is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively
unimportant, except the great St Cecilia Mass (1721), which is one
of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the
great masses of Bach and Beethoven. His instrumental music,
though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared
with his vocal works.
Scarlatti's greatest claim to remembrance lies in the fact that he
practically created the language of classical music. He extended
the old forms, and filled them with melody unrivalled for purity and
serenity, based on a far-reaching foundation of modern harmony
and tonality, combined with a remarkable power of thematic de-
velopment. That his great qualities have been little recognized is
due partly to the wonderful mastery with which he avoided all
appearance of difficulty, and partly to the fact that he carried out
in his operas and cantatas the structural methods which the present
age considers to be suitable to instruments alone, but which were
indeed admirably suited to vocal music in an age when the
singer was technically and intellectually far in advance of all other
musicians.
His eldest son, DOMENICO SCARLATTI (1685-1757), also a
composer, was born at Naples on the 26th of October 1685.
Presumably he studied first under his father, but he was in all
probability also a pupil of Gaetano Greco. In 1704 he remodelled
Pollaroli's Irene for performance at Naples. Soon after this
his father sent him to Venice, where he studied under Gasparini,
and became intimate with Thomas Roseingrave. Domenico
was already a harpsichord-player of eminence, and at a trial
of skill with Handel at the palace of Cardinal Ottoboni in Rome
he was adjudged his equal on that instrument, although inferior
on the organ. In 1709 Domenico entered the service of Marie
Casimire, queen of Poland, then living in Rome, and composed
several operas for her private theatre. He was Maestro di
Cappella at St Peter's from 1715 to 1719, and in the 'latter year
came to London to direct his opera Narciso at the King's Theatre.
In 1720 or 1721 he went to Lisbon, where he taught music to
the princess Magdalena Theresia. He was at Naples again
in 1725, but in 1729 went to Madrid as music master to the
princess, who had married into the Spanish royal house. He
remained in Spain for some twenty-five years, holding various
honourable appointments, and devoting himself entirely to the
harpsichord, for which he composed over four hundred pieces.
He is supposed to have died in 1757, either at Naples or in
Spain.
Like his father, Domenico Scarlatti was a composer of great
fertility, intellectual rather than emotional, presenting us with an
example of steady development of style up to the end of a long life.
His operas and cantatas are of no importance, but his harpsichord
pieces are the most original productions of their time. Little known
until the beginning of the igth century, their technical difficulties
have caused them to be regarded as mere studies in virtuosity, and
modern pianoforte technique owes much to their influence; but
considered from a purely musical point of view they display an
audacity of harmony and modulation, a freshness and variety of
invention, a perfection of workmanship and a vigorous intellectuality
in thematic development that places them almost on a level with the
sonatas of Beethoven.
Modern Printed Editions. dementi's Practical Harmony ; Czerny's
edition; Farrenc, Le Tresor des pianistes. Of recent editions the
most accurate and complete is by Alessandro Longo (Ricordi, Milan;
6 vols., published 1906). (E. J. D.)
SCARLET, a vivid, bright red colour, somewhat inclined to
orange. The word appears in most European languages; cf.
Ger. Scharlach, Swed. skarlakan, Ital. scarlatto, &c.; the English
form is an adaptation of the O. Fr. escarlate, mod. ecarlate. The
origin of these is to be found in the Persian saglan, meaning
" broad-cloth." There are various forms, sagalat, sigalat, suglat;
this cloth was chiefly used for dresses, flags, large tents and
trappings, and was frequently scarlet in colour, and hence its
name became applied to the colour.
SCARLET FEVER, or SCARLATINA, names applied indifferently
to an acute infectious disease, characterized by high fever,
accompanied with sore throat and a diffuse red rash upon the
skin (see PARASITIC DISEASES). This fever appears to have
been first accurately described by Sydenham in 1676, before
which period it had evidently been confounded with smallpox
and measles. Klein in 1885 isolated a streptococcus which he
termed the streptococcus scarlatinae. The scarlatinal throat
is the chief habitat of the organism, though it has been found
both by Klein and other observers in the discharges from the
ears of scarlet fever patients. Mervyn Gordon also isolated
from cases the streptococcus conglomerulatus. It is possible that
septic cases of scarlet fever are the result of a mixed infection.
The serum of patients has been found to contain agglutins to
streptococci from cases of erysipelas, septicaemia and puerperal
fever, as well as to the streptococci scarlatinae. F. B. Mallory
in 1904 published his discovery of " protozoonlike " bodies in
the cells of the epidermis. Other observers have found them in
the skin of fatal cases, but failed to find them in the living. The
contagion of scarlet fever takes place from a previous case either
by the skin during the early stages of the disease or by the nasal
or aural discharges of a patient. It may be conveyed by any
article of clothing or furniture or by any person that has been in
contact with a scarlet fever patient. Infectivity may also take
place through a contaminated milk supply, as in the Marylebone
epidemic, 1885. Klein her-; found disorder in cows which he
considers analogous to scarlatina and communicable to man.
The period of incubation in scarlet fever may be as short as one
or two days, but in most instances it is probably less than a week.
The invasion of this fever is generally sudden and sharp, consisting
in rigors, vomiting and sore throat, together with a rapid rise of
temperature and increase in the pulse. Occasionally, especially in
young children, the attack is ushered in by convulsions. These
premonitory symptoms usually continue for about twenty-four
hours, when the characteristic eruption makes its appearance. It
is first seen on the neck, chest, arms and hands, but quickly spreads
all over the body, although it is not distinctly marked on the face.
This rash consists of minute thickly-set red spots, which coalesce to
form a general diffuse redness, in appearance not unlike that pro-
duced by the application of mustard to the skin. In some instances
the redness is accompanied with small vesicles containing fluid. In
ordinary cases the rash comes out completely in about two days,
when it begins to fade, and by the end of a week from its first appear-
ance it is usually gone. The severity of a case is in some degree
measured by the copiousness and brilliancy of the rash, except in
the malignant varieties, where there may be little or no eruption.
The tongue, which at first was furred, becomes about the fourth or
fifth day denuded of its epithelium and acquires the peculiar " straw-
berry " appearance characteristic of this fever. The interior of the
throat is red and somewhat swollen, especially the uvula, soft palate
and tonsils, and a considerable amount of secretion exudes from the
inflamed surface. There is also tenderness and slight swelling of the
glands under the jaw. In favourable cases the fever departs with
the disappearance of the eruption and convalescence sets in with the
commencement of the process of " desquamation " or peeling of the
cuticle, which first shows itself about the neck, and proceeds slowly
over the whole surface of the body. Where the skin is thin the
desquamation is in the form of fine branny scales; but where it is
thicker, as about the hands and feet, it comes off in large pieces,
which sometimes assume the form of casts of the fingers or toes.
The duration of this process is variable, but it is rarely complete
before the end of six or eight weeks, and not unfrequently goes on
for several weeks beyond that period. It is during this stage that
complications are apt to appear.
Scarlet fever shows itself in certain well-marked varieties, of
which the following are the chief:
I. Scarlatina Simplex is the most common form; in this the
symptoms, both local and general, are moderate, and the case usually
runs a favourable course. In some rare instances it would seem that
the evidences of the disease are so slight, as regards both fever and
rash, that they escape observation and only become known by the
304
SCARLETT SCARRON
patient subsequently suffering from some of the complications
associated with it. In such cases the name latent scarlet fever (scar-
latina latens) is applied.
2. Septic Scarlatina or Scarlatina Anginosa is a more severe form
of the fever, particularly as regards the throat symptoms. The rash
may be well marked or not, but it is often slow in developing and in
subsiding. There is intense inflammation of the throat, the tonsils,
uvula and soft palate being swollen and ulcerated, or having upon
them membranous patches not unlike those of diphtheria, while
externally the gland tissues in the neck are enlarged and indurated
and not unfrequently become the seat of abscesses. There is diffi-
culty in opening the mouth; an acrid discharge exudes from the
nostrils and excoriates the lips; and the countenance is pale and
waxy-looking. This form of the disease is marked by great exhaustion
and the gradual development of the symptoms of acute septicaemia,
with sweating, albuminuria, delirium and septic rash, i
3. Toxic or atoxic scarlatina (scarlatina maligna). In this form the
gravity of the condition is due to intense poisoning, and the patient
may even die therefrom before the typical symptoms of the disease
have had time to manifest themselves.
The typically malignant forms are those in which the attack sets
in with great violence and the patient sinks from the very first. In
such instances the rash either does not come out at all or is of the
slightest amount and of livid rather than scarlet appearance, while
the throat symptoms are often not prominent. A further example
of a malignant form is occasionally observed in cases where the rash,
which had previously been well developed, suddenly recedes, and
convulsions or other nervous phenomena and rapid death supervene.
The complications and effects of scarlet fever are among the most
important features in this disease, although their occurrence is
exceptional. The most common and serious of these is inflammation
of the kidneys, which may arise during any period in the course of
the fever, but is specially apt to appear in the convalescence, while
desquamation is in progress. Its onset is sometimes announced by a
return of feverish symptoms, accompanied with vomiting and pain in
the loins; but in a large number of instances it occurs without these
and comes on insidiously. One of the most prominent symptoms is
slight swelling of the face, particularly of the eyelids, which is rarely
absent in this complication. If the urine is examined it will probably
be observed to be diminished in quantity and of dark smoky or red
appearance, due to the presence of blood; while it will also be found
to contain a large quantity of albumen. This, together with the
microscopic examination which reveals the presence of tube casts
containing blood, epithelium, &c., testifies to a condition of acute
inflammation of the kidney (glomerular and tubal nephritis). Oc-
casionally this condition does not wholly pass off, and consequently
lays the foundation for Blight's disease. Muco-purulent rninorrhoea
and also rheumatism are others of the more common complications or
results of scarlet fever, while suppuration of the ears is due to the
extension of the inflammatory process from the throat along the
Eustachian tube into the middle ear. This not unfrequently leads
to permanent ear-discharge, with deafness from the disease affecting
the inner ear and temporal bone, a condition implying a degree of
risk from its proximity to the brain. Other maladies affecting the
heart, lungs, pleura, &c., occasionally arise in connexion with scarlet
fever, but they are of less common occurrence than those previously
mentioned. < -- .
In the treatment of scarlet fever, one of the first requirements
is the isolation of the case, with the view of preventing the spread
of the disease. In convalescence, with the view of preventing the
transmission of the desquamated cuticle, the inunction of the body
with carbolized oil (i in 40) and the frequent use of a bath containing
soda, are to be recommended. With respect to the duration of the
infective period, it may be stated generally that it is seldom that a
patient who has suffered from scarlet fever can safely go about before
the expiry of eight weeks, while on the other hand the period may
be considerably prolonged beyond this, should any nasal or aural
discharge continue. As to general management during the progress
of the fever, in favourable cases little is required beyond careful
nursing and feeding. The diet all through the fever and convalescence
should be of light character, consisting mainly of milk food. Soups
and solid animal food should as far as possible be avoided owing to
the frequency of nephritis. During the febrile stage a useful drink
may be made by a weak solution of chlorate of potash in water (i
drachm to the pint), and of this the patient may partake freely.
The fauces should be irrigated every few hours with a mild antiseptic
solution, and sucking ice often relieves local discomfort. Should the
lymphatic glands be enlarged and tender, they should be fomented.
If suppuration threatens they must be opened. In septic cases the
nasofaucial passages must be cleansed with a more powerful anti-
septic. Insomnia, restlessness and high temperature may be re-
lieved by tepid sponging, and acute hyperpyrexia by cold baths.
The treatment of kidney complications is similar to that of acute
Bright's disease. A hot-air bath or wet pack is often useful.
Otitis may be troublesome, and when otorrhoea is established the
canal must be kept as aseptic as possible. The ears should be care-
fully syringed every four hours with an antiseptic solution and dried,
and a little iodoform inserted into the meatus. Complications such
as mastoid disease require special treatment. Recently a method
of treatment introduced by Dr Robert Milne, and consisting of the
inunction of the entire body with eucalyptus oil from the first day
of the disease, together with swabbing the tonsils with a solution of
I in 10 of carbolic oil, has been advocated as rendering the patient
absolutely non-infectious as well as limiting the severity of the
disease. The method is still on its trial, but it is possible it may
revolutionize our mode of treatment.
Serumtherapy. Marmorek's original antistreptococci serum has
been on the whole disappointing in its results, but polyvalent serums
have been much more successful. Dr Besredka prepared a serum
from the blood of fatal cases, and in the serum prepared at the
Pasteur Institute no less than twenty separate strains of streptococci
are used. In using serums, early and large dosage is necessary.
Palmirski and Zebrowski have also prepared a serum from the
streptococcus conglomerulatus, which has been used with consider-
able success in the children's hospital at Warsaw.
SCARLETT, SIR JAMES YORKE (1799-1871), British general,
was the second son of the ist Baron Abinger. Educated at
Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. He entered the army as
a cornet in 1818, and in 1830 became major in the sth Dragoon
Guards. From 1836 until 1841 he was Conservative member
of Parliament for Guildford. In 1840 he obtained the command
of his regiment, which he held for nearly fourteen years. In
the Crimean War the sth Dragoon Guards formed part of the
Heavy Cavalry Brigade (of which Scarlett was appointed
brigadier); it was sent to the Black Sea in 1854, and suffered
very heavily from cholera in the camps of Varna. Scarlett
underwent his baptism of fire before Sebastopol. On the zsth
of October 1854 occurred the battle of Balaklava, at which the
Heavy Brigade achieved a magnificent success against the
Russian cavalry, and had the brigadier (who in the previous
charge had been in the thickest of the melee) been allowed to
advance as he wished, might have converted the disastrous
charge of the Light Brigade into a substantial success (see
BALAKLAVA and CRIMEAN WAR). For his services on this day
Scarlett was promoted major-general, and in 1855 was made
K.C.B. After a short absence in England he returned to the
Crimea with the local rank of lieutenant-general to command
the British cavalry. After the Peace of Paris Sir James Scarlett
commanded the cavalry at Aldershot until 1860, and was
adjutant-general of the army from 1860 to 1865. In the latter
year he became commander of the Aldershot Camp, a post which
he held until his retirement in 1870. He died in 1871. In 1869
he had been made G.C.B.
SCARRON, PAUL (1610-1660), French poet, dramatist,
novelist and husband of Madame de Maintenon, was baptized
on the 4th of July 1610. His father, of the same name, was a
member of the parlement of Paris. Paul the younger became an
abbl when he was nineteen, and in 1633 entered the service of
Charles de Beaumanoir, bishop of Le Mans, with whom he
travelled to Rome in 1635. Finding a patron in Marie de
Hautefort, he became a well-known figure in literary and fashion-
able society. An improbable story is told on the authority of
La Beaumelle (Memoires . . . de Mme de Maintenon) that
when in residence at his canonry of Le Mans he once tarred
and feathered himself as a carnival freak and, being obliged to
take refuge from popular wrath in a swamp, was crippled from
rheumatism. What is certain is that Scarron, after having been
in perfect health for nearly thirty years, passed twenty more
in a state of miserable deformity and pain. His head and body
were twisted, and his legs became useless. He bore up against
his sufferings with invincible courage, though his circumstances
were further complicated by a series of lawsuits with his step-
mother over his father's property, and by the poverty and
misconduct of his sisters, whom he supported. Scarron returned
to Paris in 1640, and in 1643 appeared a Recueil de quelques vers
burlesques, and in the next year Typhon ou la gigantomachie.
At Le Mans he had conceived the idea of the Roman comique,
the first part of which was printed in 1651 . In 1645 was performed
the comedy of Jodelet, ou le mattre valet, the name of which was
derived from the actor who took the principal 'part. Jodelet
was the first of many French plays in which the humour depends
on the valet who takes the part of master, an idea that Scarron
borrowed from the Spanish. After a short visit to Le Mans in
1646, he returned to Paris, and worked hard for the bookseller
Quinet, calling his works his " marquisat de Quinet." He had
SCAUP SCAVENGER
305
also a pension from Fouquet, and one from the queen, which was
withdrawn because he was suspected of Frondeur sentiments.
When Mazarin received the dedication of Typhon coldly, Scarron
changed it to a burlesque on the minister. In 1651 he definitely
took the side of the Fronde in a Mazarinade, a violent pamphlet.
He now had no resources but his " marquisat."
In his early years he had been something of a libertine. In
1649 a penniless lady of good family, Celeste Palaiseau, kept his
house in the Rue d'Enfer, and tried to reform the gay company
which assembled there. But in 1652, sixteen years after he had
become almost entirely paralysed, he married a girl of much
beauty and no fortune, Francoise d'Aubigne, afterwards famous
as Madame de Maintenon (?..). Scarron had long been able
to endure life only by the aid of constant doses of opium, and
he died on the 6th of October 1660.
Scarron's work is very abundant and very unequal. The piece
most famous in his own day, his Virgile travesti (1648-1653), is now
thought a somewhat ignoble waste of singular powers for burlesque.
But the Roman comique (16511657) is a work the merit of which is
denied by no competent judge. Unfinished, and a little desultory,
this history of a troop of strolling actors is almost the first French
novel, in point of date, which shows real power of painting manners
and character, and is singularly vivid. It is in the style of the
Spanish picaresque romance, and furnished Theophile Gautier with
the idea and with some of the details of his Capitaine Fracasse.
Scarron also wrote some shorter novels: La Precaution inutile,
which inspired Sedaine's Gageure imprevue; Les Hypocrites, to which
Tartuffe owes something, and others. Of his plays Jodelet (1645) and
Don Japhet d'Armenie (1653) are the best.
The most complete edition of his works is by La Martiniere,
1737 (10 vols., Amsterdam). The Roman comique and the neide
travestie were edited by Victor Fournel in 1857 and 1858. Among
the contemporary notices of Scarron, that contained in the
Historiettes of Tallemant des Reaux is the most accurate. The most
important modern works on the subject are Scarron et le genre
burlesque (1888) by Paul Mprillot; a biography by J. J. Jusserand in
English, prefixed to his edition of The Comical Romance and other
tales by Paul Scarron, done into English by Tom Brown of Shifnal,
John Savage and others (2 vols., 1892) ; and Paul Scarron et Framboise
d'Aubigne d'apres des documents nouveaux (1894) by A. de Boislisle.
SCAUP, the wild-fowler's ordinary abridgment of SCAUP-DUCK,
meaning a duck so called " because she feeds upon Scaup, i.e.
broken shell-fish," as may be seen in F. Willughby's Ornithology
(P- 365); but it would be more proper to say that the name
comes from the " mussel-scaups," or " mussel-scalps," the beds of
rock or sand on which mussels are aggregated. It is the Anas
marila of Linnaeus and Fuligula marila of modern systematic
writers, a very abundant bird around the coasts of most parts
of the northern hemisphere, repairing inland in spring for the
purpose of reproduction, though so far as is positively known
hardly but in northern districts, as Iceland, Lapland, Siberia
and the fur-countries of America. The scaup-duck has consider-
able likeness to the pochard (q.v.), both in habits and appearance;
but it much more generally affects salt-water, and the head of
the male is black, glossed with green; hence the name of " Black-
head," by which it is commonly known in North America,
where, however, a second species or race, smaller than the
ordinary one, is also found, the Fuligula affinis. The female
scaup-duck can be readily distinguished from the dunbird or
female pochard by her broad white face. (A. N.)
SCAURUS, MARCUS AEMILIUS (c. 163-88 B.C.), Roman
statesman, was a member of a great patrician family which
had sunk into obscurity. His father had been a coal-dealer,
and he himself had thought of becoming a money-changer,
but finally decided in favour of a political career. Having
served in the army in Spain and Sardinia, he became curule
aedile, praetor and (after an unsuccessful attempt in 117) consul
in 115. During his consulship he celebrated a triumph for
his victory over certain Alpine tribes. In 112 he was one
of the commissioners sent to Africa to arrange the dispute
between Jugurtha and Adherbal. When a special committee
was appointed to examine the charges of venality in their
dealings with Jugurtha brought against the Roman repre-
sentatives, Scaurus, who was equally guilty with the rest,
was especially active in promoting the establishment of the
committee, and even managed to get himself put at the head of
it. He thus saved himself, but his intercession on behalf of the
other offenders was of no avail. In 109 Scaurus was censor,
and constructed the Via Aemilia and restored the Mulvian
bridge. 1 In 104 he superseded Saturninus (q.v.) in the manage-
ment of the corn supply at Ostia.
During all his life Scaurus was a firm adherent of the moderate
aristocratical party, which frequently involved him in quarrels with
the representatives of the people and the extremists on his own side.
Though not a great orator, his speeches were weighty and im-
pressive. His wife was Caecilia Metella, who after his death married
the dictator Sulla. His daughter Aemilia was the wife of Manius
Acilius Glabrio, and subsequently of Pompey, the triumvir.
See Sallust, Jugurtha; Orelli's Onomasticon Tullianum; Asconius,
In Scaurum; Aurelius Victor, De viris illustribus, 72; A. H. J.
Greenidge, Hist, of Rome, i. 296; and M. G. Bloch, Melanges
d'histoire ancienne, i. (1909).
MARCUS AEMILIUS SCAURUS, his son, served during the third
Mithradatic War (74-61 B.C.) as quaestor to Pompey, by whom
he was sent to Judaea to settle the quarrel between Hyrcanus
and Aristobulus. Scaurus decided in favour of the latter, who
was able to offer more money. On his arrival in Syria, Pompey
reversed the decision, but, ignoring the charge of bribery brought
against Scaurus, left him in command of the district. An
incidental campaign against Aretas, king of the Nabataeans,
was ended by the payment of 300 talents by Aretas to secure
his possessions. This agreement is represented on coins of
Scaurus Aretas kneeling by the side of a camel, and holding
out an olive branch in an attitude of supplication. As curule
aedile in 58, Scaurus celebrated the public games on a scale of
magnificence never seen before. Animals, hitherto unknown
to the Romans, were exhibited in the circus, and an artificial
lake (euripus) was made for the reception of crocodiles and
hippopotamuses. One of the greatest curiosities was a huge
skeleton brought from Joppa, said to be that of the monster
to which Andromeda had been exposed. A wooden theatre was
erected for the occasion, capable of holding 80,000 spectators.
In 56 Scaurus was praetor, and in the following year governor
of Sardinia. On his return to Rome (54) he was accused of
extortion in his province. Cicero and five others (amongst
them the famous Q. Hortensius) undertook his defence, and,
although there was no doubt of his guilt, he was acquitted.
During the same year, however (according to some, two years
later, under Pompey'snew law), Scaurus was condemned on a
charge of illegal practices when a candidate for the consulship.
He went into exile, and nothing further is heard of him.
See Josephus, Anliq. xiv. 3-5, Bell. Jud. i. 7; Appian, Syr. 51,
Bell. civ. ii. 24; Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 24; Cicero, Pro Sestio,
54, fragments of Pro Scauro, numerous references in the Letters;
Asconius, Argumentum in Scaurum. See also, for both the above,
AEMILIUS (Nos. 140, 141) in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyctopadie
der classischen Altertumswissensckaft, i. pt. I. (1894), and Smith's
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, s.v. SCAURUS.
SCAURUS, QUINTUS TERENTIUS, Latin grammarian,
flourished during the reign of Hadrian (Aulus Gellius xi. 15).
He was the author of an ars grammatica and commentaries on
Plautus, Virgil's Aeneid and probably Horace. Under his
name two fragments are extant the longer from his work on
orthography (De orthographia) , the shorter (chiefly on the use
of prepositions) from another grammatical work.
SCAVENGER, now one who cleans the streets, removes
refuse, generally a workman employed by the local public health
authority (see PUBLIC HEALTH). The name is properly " scava-
ger " or " scaveger " (the n being intrusive as in " passenger "
and " messenger "), an official who was concerned with the
receipt of custom duties and the inspection (scavage) of im-
ported goods. The " scavagers " are found with such officials
of the City of London as aleconners, beadles, &c., in the Liber
Albus (Munimenta Gildhallae Londoniensis, ed. Riley). These
officials seem to have been charged also with the cleaning of
the streets, and the name superseded the older rakyer for those
who performed this duty. Skeat takes " scavage " to be a Low
French corruption of " showage," spelled variously as schewage,
seepage, &c., and, therefore, to be derived from " show," to
exhibit for inspection.
1 The view that he was consul again in 108 is disproved by Bloch
(see bibliog.).
306
SCAVENGER'S DAUGHTER SCEPTICISM
SCAVENGER'S DAUGHTER (corruption of Skevington's or
Skeffington's Daughter), an instrument of torture in use during
the 1 6th century in England. It was invented by Sir W. Skeving-
ton, lieutenant of the Tower in the reign of Henry VIII. It
consisted of a wide iron hoop which by means of screws was
tightened round the victim's body until the blood was forced
from the nose and ears, and sometimes even from the hands
and feet.
SCENE (Fr. seine, Lat. scaena, Gr. <rw;vij, a tent or booth, a
stage or scene), a word of which the various applications, figur-
ative or otherwise, are derived from its original meaning of the
stage or platform in the Greek or Roman theatre together with
the structure that formed the background. Thus " scene " was
formerly used, as " stage " is to-day, of the actor's profession or
of dramatic art; and of the actual performance or representation
on the stage, still surviving in such phrases as " the scene opens "
or " closes." It is also applied, actually and figuratively, to the
place where the action of a play or any series of events take place,
and so of any episode or situation in a novel or other narrative
or description of events; from this the transition to an excited
or violent exhibition of feeling between two or more persons is
easy.
Of the specific applications of the word to the drama the main
examples are (i) to a division of the play, marked by the fall of the
curtain, the " scene " being a subdivision of an " act," where the
play is thus divided, or where there are no acts, of the divisions
themselves; (2) to the material which forms the view of the place
where the action is supposed to occur, that is, the painted cloths,
slides and other apparatus, known as the " scenery, a word which
has thus been transferred to a view generally, the appearance of the
feature of a natural landscape. Allied words are " scena," used only
in music, of a composition consisting mainly of recitative with
accompaniment, forming part of an opera or as an individual com-
position; and " scenario,' a full outline of a play or opera, giving
details of the acts, scenes, actors, situations, stage-business, &c.
SCENT, an odour or smell, particularly a fragrant liquid
distilled from flowers, &c., used as a perfume (see PERFUMERY).
The word should be properly spelled " sent," and is derived
from the Mid. Eng. verb senlen, to scent, to perceive by the sense
of smell, Fr. sentir, Lat. sentire, perceive by the senses. The
intrusive c appears in the i?th century, and is paralleled by the
same in " scythe " for sythe. For the physical causes of the
sensation caused by a scent see SMELL, and for the anatomy of
the organs concerned see OLFACTORY SYSTEM.
SCEPTICISM (<rcrTOM<u, I consider, reflect, hesitate, doubt),
a term signifying etymologically a state of doubt or indecision
in the face of mutually conflicting statements. It is implied,
moreover, that this doubt is not merely a stage in the road to
true knowledge, but rather the last result of investigation, the
conclusion that truth or real knowledge is unattainable by man.
Therefore, in general terms, scepticism may be summarily defined
as a thorough-going impeachment of man's power to know a
denial of the possibility of objective knowledge.
Trust, not distrust, is the primitive attitude of the mind,
i. What is put before us, whether by the senses or by the
statements of others, is instinctively accepted as a
veracious report, till experience has proved the possi-
bility of deception. In the history of philosophy
affirmation precedes negation; dogmatism goes before
scepticism. And this must be so, because the dogmatic systems
are, as it were, the food of scepticism. Accordingly, we find that
sceptical thought did not make its appearance till a succession
of mutually inconsistent theories as to the nature of the real
had suggested the possibility that they might all alike be false.
_. The Sophistic epoch of Greek philosophy was, in great
Sophist*. P art > suc h a negative reaction against the self-confident
assertion of the nature-philosophies of the preceding
age. Though scepticism as a definite school may be said to date
only from the time of Pyrrho (q.v.) of Elis, the main currents of
Sophistic thought were sceptical in the wider sense of that term.
The Sophists (q.v.) were the first in Greece to dissolve knowledge
into individual and momentary opinion (Protagoras), or dia-
lectically to deny tne possibility of knowledge (Gorgias). In
these two examples we see how the weapons forged by the
Historical
appear-
dogmatic philosophers to assist in the establishment of their
own theses are sceptically turned against philosophy in general.
As every attempt to rationalize nature implies a certain process
of criticism and interpretation to which the data of sense are
subjected, and in which they are, as it were, transcended, the
antithesis of reason and sense is formulated early in the history
of speculation. The opposition, being taken as absolute, implies
the impeachment of the veracity of the senses in the interest of
the rational truth proclaimed by the philosophers in question.
Among the pre-Socratic nature-philosophers of Greece, Hera-
clitus and the Eleatics are the chief representatives of this
polemic. The diametrical opposition of the grounds on which
the veracity of the senses is impugned by the two philosophies
(see HERACLITUS, PARMENIDES, ELEATIC SCHOOL) was in itself
suggestive of sceptical reflection. Moreover, the arguments by
which Heraclitus supported this theory of the universal flux are
employed by Protagoras to undermine the possibility of objective
truth, by dissolving all knowledge into the momentary sensation
or persuasion of the individual. The idea of an objective flux,
or law of change constituting the reality of things, is abandoned,
and subjective points of sense alone remain which is tanta-
mount to eliminating the real from human knowledge.
Still more unequivocal was the sceptical nihilism expressed by
Gorgias (q.v.): (i) nothing exists; (2) if anything existed, it would
be unknowable; (3) if anything existed and were knowable, the
knowledge of it could not be communicated. His arguments were
drawn from the dialectic which the Eleatics had directed against the
existence of the phenomenal world. But they are no longer used as
indirect proofs of a universe of pure and unitary Being. The pro-
minence given by most of the Sophists to rhetoric, their cultivation
of a subjective readiness as the essential equipment for life, their
substitution of persuasion for conviction, all mark the sceptical
undertone of their teaching. This attitude of indifference to real
knowledge passed in the younger and less reputable generation into
a corroding moral scepticism which recognized no good but pleasure
and no right but might.
The scientific impulse communicated by Socrates was sufficient
to drive scepticism into the background during the great age of
Greek philosophy (i.e. the hundred years preceding socrmte*
Aristotle's death, 323 B.C.). The captious logic of the
Megarian school (q.v.) was indeed in some cases closely related
to sceptical results. The school has been considered with some
truth to form a connecting link with the later scepticism, just
as the contemporary Cynicism and Cyrenaicism may be held to
be imperfect preludes to Stoicism and Epicureanism. The
extreme nominalism of some of the Cynics also, who denied the
possibility of any but identical judgments, must be similarly
regarded as a solvent of knowledge. But with these insignificant
exceptions it holds true that, after the sceptical wave marked by
the Sophists, scepticism does not reappear till after the exhaus-
tion of the Socratic impulse in Aristotle.
Scepticism, as a distinct school, begins with Pyrrho of Elis,
who maintained that knowledge of things is impossible and that
we must assume an attitude of reserve (etroxh)- The /v/rAo
Pyrrhonists were consistent enough to extend their
doubt even to their own principle of doubt. They thus attempted
to make their scepticism universal, and to escape the reproach
of basing it upon a fresh dogmatism. Mental imperturbability
(4Tapaa) was the result to be attained by cultivating such a
frame of mind. The happiness or satisfaction of the individual
was the end which dominated this scepticism as well as the con-
temporary systems of Stoicism and Epicureanism, and all three
philosophies place it in tranquillity or self-centred indifference.
It is men's opinions or unwarranted judgments about things, say
the sceptics, which betray them into desire, and painful effort
and disappointment. From all this a man is delivered who
abstains from judging one state to be preferable to another.
But, as complete inactivity would have been synonymous with
death, it appears to have been admitted that the sceptic, while
retaining his consciousness of the complete uncertainty envelop-
ing every step, might follow custom in the ordinary affairs of life.
The scepticism of the New Academy (more strictly of the
Middle Academy, under Arcesilaus and Carneades) differed
very little from that of the Pyrrhonists. The differences
SCEPTICISM
30?
Ancient
asserted by later writers are not borne out on investigation.
But the attitude maintained by the Academics was chiefly that
of a negative criticism of the views of others, in par-
Acfdeay ticular of the somewhat crude and imperious dogmatism
of the Stoics. They also, in the absence of certainty,
allowed a large scope to probability as a motive to action, and
defended their doctrine on this point with greater care and skill.
The whole position was stated with more urbanity and culture,
and was supported, by Carneades in particular, by argumentation
at once more copious and more acute. It seems also true that
the Academics were less overborne than the Pyrrhonists by the
practical issue of their doubts (imperturbability); their interest
was more purely intellectual, and they had something of the old
delight in mental exercitation for its own sake (see ARCESILAUS,
CARNEADES, AENESIDEMUS, AGRIPPA and SEXTUS EMPIRICUS).
Both Zeller and Hegel remark upon the difference between
the calm of ancient scepticism and the perturbed state of mind
evinced by many modern sceptics. Universal doubt
was the instrument which the sceptics of antiquity
modem recommended for the attainment of complete peace
scepti- o f mind. By the moderns, on the other hand, doubt
is portrayed, for the most part, as a state of unrest
and painful yearning. Even Hume, in various passages of his
Treatise, speaks of himself as recovering cheerfulness and
mental tone only by forgetfulness of his own arguments. His
state of universal doubt he describes as a " malady " or as
" philosophical melancholy and delirium." The difference
might easily be interpreted either as a sign of sentimental weak-
ness on the part of the moderns or as a proof of the limitation
of the ancient sceptics which rendered them more easily satisfied
in the absence of truth. It seems to prove, at all events, that the
ancient sceptics were more thoroughly convinced than their
modem successors of the reasonableness of their own attitude.
It may be doubted whether the thoroughgoing philosophical
scepticism of antiquity has any exact parallel in modern times,
with the single exception possibly of Hume's Treatise on Human
Nature. It is true we find many thinkers who deny the com-
petency of reason when it ventures hi any way beyond the sphere
of experience, and such men are not unfrequently called sceptics.
This is the sense in which Kant often uses the term, and the
usage is adopted by others for example, in the following
definition from Ueberweg's History of Philosophy: " The
principle of scepticism is universal doubt, or at least doubt
with regard to the validity of all judgments respecting that
which lies beyond the range of experience." The last character-
istic, however, is not enough to constitute scepticism, in the
ancient sense. Scepticism, to be complete, must hold that even
within experience we do not rationally conclude but are irration-
ally induced to believe. " In all the incidents of life," as Hume
puts it, " we ought still to preserve our scepticism. If we believe
that fire warms, or water refreshes, 'tis only because it costs us
too much pains to think otherwise" (Treatise, bk. i. iv. 7).
This tone, which fairly represents the attitude of ancient sceptics,
is rare among the moderns, at least among those v:ho are professed
philosophers. It is more easily matched hi the unsystematic
utterances of a man of the world like Montaigne.
2. One form of scepticism, however, may be claimed as an
exclusively modern growth, namely, philosophical scepticism
Scepti- in the interests of theological faith. These sceptics
ctem to the are primarily Apologists. Their scepticism is simply
interest of a me ans to the attainment of a further end. They
find that the dogmas of their church have often been
attacked in the name of reason, and it may be that some of
the objections urged have proved hard to rebut. Accordingly,
in an access of pious rage, as it were, they turn upon reason
to rend her. They endeavour to show that she is in contra-
diction with herself, even on matters non-theological. Thus
the " imbecility " of reason becomes their warrant for the recep-
tion by another organ i.e. faith of that to which reason had
raised objections. The Greeks had no temptation to divide
man in two in this fashion. Their scepticism was an end in
itself. But this line of argument was latent in Christian thought
Pascal.
from the time when St Paul spoke of the " foolishness " of preach-
ing. So Tertullian: " Crucifixus est Dei filius; non pudet, quia
pudendum est. Et mortuus est Dei filius; prorsus credibile
est, quia ineptum est. Et sepultus resurrexit; certum est,
quia impossibile est." But, as Christianity became firmly
established, Christian writers 'became more tolerant of specula-
tion, and laboured to reduce the doctrines of the church to a
rational system. This was the long task essayed by Scholasticism ;
and, though the great Schoolmen of the I3th century refrained
from attempting to rationalize such doctrines as the Trinity
and the Incarnation, they were far from considering Theory of
them as essentially opposed to reason. It was not till the two-
towards the close of the middle ages that a sense told "atun
of conflict between reason and revelation became oftruta -
widely prevalent and took shape in the essentially sceptical
theory of the twofold nature of truth. Philosophical truth,
as deduced from the teaching of Aristotle, it was said, directly
contradicts the teaching of the church, which determines truth
in theology; but the contradiction leaves the authority of the
latter unimpaired in its own sphere. It is difficult to believe
that this doctrine was ever put forward sincerely; in the most
of those who professed it, it was certainly no more than a veil
by which they sought to cover their heterodoxy and evade its
consequences. Rightly divining as much, the church condemned
the doctrine as early as 1276. Nevertheless, it was openly
professed during the period of the break up of Scholastic Aris-
totelianism (see POMPONAZZI).
The typical and by far the greatest example of the Christian
sceptic is Pascal (1623-1662). The form of the Pensees forbids
the attempt to evolve from their detached utterances
a completely coherent system. For, though he declares
at times " Le pyrrhonisme est le vrai," " Se moquer de la
philosophic c'est vraiment philosopher," or, again, " Humiliez-
vous, raison impuissante, taisez-vous, nature imbecile," other
passages might be quoted in which he assumes the validity of
reason within its own sphere. But what he everywhere emphatic-
ally denies is the possibility of reaching by the unassisted reason
a satisfactory theory of things. Man is a hopeless enigma to
himself, till he sees himself in the light of revelation as a fallen
creature. The fall alone explains at once the nobleness and the
meanness of humanity; Jesus Christ is the only solution in
which the baffled reason can rest. These are the two points
on which Pascal's thought turns. Far from being able to sit
in judgment upon the mysteries of the faith, reason is unable
to solve its own contradictions without aid from a higher source.
In a somewhat similar fashion, Lamennais (in the first stage of
his speculations, represented by the Essai sur I' indifference en
matiere religieuse, 1817-1821) endeavoured to destroy all rational
certitude in order to establish the principle of authority; and
the same profound distrust of the power of the natural reason
to arrive at truth is exemplified (though the allegation has been
denied by the author) in Cardinal Newman. In a different
direction and on a larger scale, Hamilton's philosophy of the
conditioned may be quoted as an example of the same religious
scepticism (see HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM). The theological
application and development of Hamilton's arguments in Mansel's
Bampton Lectures On the Limits of Religious Thought marked
a still more determined attack, in the interests of theology,
upon the competency of reason.
Passing from this particular vein of sceptical or semi-sceptical
thought, we find, as we should expect, that the downfall of Scholasti-
cism, and the conflict of philosophical theories and re- ~^ ..^
ligious confessions which ensued, gave a decided impetus . /L.
to sceptical reflection. One of the earliest instances of ga(J inh
this spirit is afforded by the book of Agrippa of Nettesheim _/ H ..: es
(1487-1535), De incertitudine et vanitate scientiarum.
This turn of thought is not confined, however, to Christian
thinkers; it appears also in the Arabian philosophy of the East.
Ghazali (g.f.) in his Tahafot al-Filasifa (" The Collapse of the
Philosophers ") is the advocate of complete philosophical scepticism
in the interests of orthodox Mahommedanism an orthodoxy which
passed, however, in his own case into a species of mysticism. He
did his work of destruction so thoroughly that Arabian philosophy
died out after his time in the land of its birth.
3 o8
SCEPTICISM
Sceptical reflection rather than systematic scepticism is what meets
us in Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), though the elaborate pre-
sentation of sceptical and relativistic arguments in his " Apologie de
Raimond-Sebond " (Essais, ii. 12), and the emblem he recommends
a balance with the legend, " Que scay-je ? " might allowably be
adduced as evidence of a more thoroughgoing Pyrrhonism. In his
" tesmoynages de nostre imbecillite " he follows in the main t!ie lines
of the ancients, and he sums up with a lucid statement of the two
great arguments in which the sceptical thought of every age resumes
itself the impossibility of verifying our faculties, and the relativity
of all impressions. In the concluding lines of this essay, Montaigne
seems to turn to " nostre foy chrestienne " as man's only succour
from his native state of helplessness and uncertainty. But un-
doubtedly his own habitual frame of mind is better represented in
his celebrated saying " How soft and healthful a pillow are ignorance
and incuriousness. . . for a well-ordered head." More inclined
than Montaigne to give a religious turn to his reflections was his
friend Pierre Charron (1541-1603), who in his book DC la sagesse
systematized in somewhat scholastic fashion the train of thought
which we find in the Essais. Frangois Sanchez (1562-1632), pro-
fessor of medicine and philosophy in Toulouse, combated the Aris-
totelianism of the schools with much bitterness, and was the author
of a book with the title Quod nihil scitur. Of more or less isolated
thinkers may be mentioned Francois de la Mothe le Vayer (1588-
1672), whose Cinq Dialogues appeared after his death under the
pseudonym of Orosius Tubero; Samuel Sorbiere (1615-1670), who
translated the Hypotyposes Pyrrhoneae of Sextus Empiricus; Simon
Foucher (1644-1696), canon of Dijon, who wrote a History of the
Academic*, and combated Descartes and Malebranche from a
sceptical standpoint. The work of Hieronymus Hirnhaim of Prague
(1637-1679), De typho generis humani sire scientiarum humanarum
inani ac ventoso tumore, was written in the interests of revelation.
This is still more the case with the bitter polemic of Daniel Huet
(1630-1721), Censura philosophiae Cartesianae, and his later work,
Traite philosophique de la faiblesse de I'esprit humain. The scepticism
of Joseph Glanvill (q.v.), which is set forth in his two works The
Vanity of Dogmatizing (1661) and Scepsis scientifica (1665), has more
interest for Englishmen. More celebrated than any of the above
was Pierre Bayle (1647-1706), whose scepticism lay more in his keen
negative criticism of all systems and doctrines which came before
him as literary historian than in any theoretic views of his own as
to the possibility of knowledge. Bayle also paraded the opposition
between reason and revelation; but the argument in his hands is
a double-edged weapon, and when he extols the merits of submissive
faith his sincerity is at least questionable.
3. Hume is the most illustrious and indeed the typical sceptic
of modern times. His scepticism is sometimes placed, as we
have seen *' * s b v Kant, in his distrust of our ability
and right to pass beyond the empirical sphere. But
it is essential to the sceptical position that reason be dethroned
within experience as well as beyond it, and this is undoubtedly
the result at which Hume finally arrives. The Treatise is a
rtductio ad absurdum of the principles of Lockianism, inasmuch
as these principles, when consistently applied, leave the structure
of experience entirely " loosened " (to use Hume's own expression) ,
or cemented together only by the irrational force of custom.
Hume's scepticism thus really arises from his thoroughgoing
empiricism. Starting with " particular perceptions " or isolated
ideas let in by the senses, he never advances beyond these
" distinct existences." Each of them exists on its own account ;
it is what it is, but it contains no reference to anything beyond
itself. The very notion of objectivity and truth therefore dis-
appears. Hume's analysis of the conceptions of a permanent
world and a permanent self reduces us to the sensationalistic
relativism of Protagoras. He expressly puts this forward in
various passages as the conclusion to which reason conducts
us. The fact that the conclusion is in " direct and total opposi-
tion " to the apparent testimony of the senses is a fresh justification
of philosophical scepticism. For, indeed, scepticism with regard
to the senses is considered in the Inquiry to be sufficiently
justified by the fact that they lead us to suppose " an external
universe which depends not on our perception," whereas " this
universal and primary opinion of all men is soon destroyed by
the slightest philosophy." Scepticism with regard to reason,
on the other hand, depends on an insight into the irrational
character of the relation which we chiefly employ, viz. that of
cause and effect. It is not a real relation in objects, but rather
a mental habit of belief engendered by frequent repetititon or
custom. This point of view is applied in the Treatise universally.
All real connexion or relation, therefore, and with it all possibility
of an objective system, disappears; it is, in fact, excluded by
Hume
Hume db initio, for " the mind never perceives any real connexion
among distinct existences." Belief, however, just because
it rests, as has been said, on custom and the influence of the
imagination, survives such demonstrations. " Nature," as
Hume delights to reiterate, " is always too strong for principle."
" Nature, by an absolute and uncontrollable necessity, has
determined us to judge as well as to breathe and feel." The
true philosopher, therefore, is not the Pyrrhonist, trying to
maintain an impossible equilibrium or suspense of judgment,
but the Academic, yielding gracefully to the impressions or
maxims which he finds, as matter of fact, to have most sway
over himself. 1
The system of Kant, or rather, that part'of his system expounded
in the Critique of Pure Reason, though expressly distinguished
by its author from scepticism, has been included by sceptical
many writers in their survey of sceptical theories, side or
The difference between Kant, with his system of pure Kantiaa-
reason, and any of the thinkers we have passed in review '*"*
is obvious; and his limitation of reason to the sphere of experience
suggests in itself the title of agnostic or positivist rather than
that of sceptic. Yet, if we go a little deeper, there is substantial
justification for the view which treats agnosticism of the Kantian
type as essentially sceptical in its foundations and in its results.
For criticism not only limits our knowledge to a certain sphere,
but denies that our knowledge within that sphere is real; we
never know things as they actually are, but only as they appear
to us. But this doctrine of relativity really involves a condemna-
tion of our knowledge (and of all knowledge), because it fails
to realize an impossible and self-contradictory ideal. The
man who impeaches the knowing faculties because of the fact
of relation which they involve is pursuing the phantom of an
apprehension which, as Lotze expresses it, does not apprehend
things, but is itself things; he is desiring not to know but to be
the things themselves. If this dream or prejudice be exploded,
then the scepticism originating in it and a large proportion
of recent sceptical thought does so originate loses its raison
d'ltre* The prejudice, however, which meets us in Kant is, in
a somewhat different form, the same prejudice which
is found in the tropes of antiquity what Lotze calls
the " inadmissible relation of the world of ideas to
a foreign world of objects." For, as he rightly points
out, whether we suppose idealism or realism to be true,
in neither case do the things themselves pass into our
knowledge. No standpoint is possible from which we could
compare the world of knowledge with such an independent world
of things, in order to judge of the conformity of the one to the
other. But the abstract doubt " whether after all things may
not be quite other in themselves than that which by the laws
of our thought they necessarily appear " is a scepticism which,
though admittedly irrefutable, is as certainly groundless. No
arguments can be brought against it, simply because the scepticism
rests on nothing more than the empty possibility of doubting.
This holds true, even if we admit the " independent " existence
of such a world of things. But the independence of things may
with much greater reason be regarded as itself a fiction or pre-
judice. The real " objective " to which our thoughts must show
conformity is not a world of things in themselves, but the system
of things as it exists lor a perfect intelligence. Scepticism is
deprived of its persistent argument if it is seen that, while our
ndividual experiences are to be judged by their coherence with the
context of experience in general, experience as a whole does not
admit of being judged by reference to anything beyond itself.
To the attack upon the possibility of demonstration, inas-
much as every proof requires itself a fresh proof, it may quite
"airly be retorted that the contradiction really lies in the demand
1 Much the same conclusion is reached in what is perhaps the
ablest English exposition of pure philosophic scepticism since Hume
A. J. Balfour's Defence of Philosophic Doubt (1879).
1 It may be as well to add that the sceptical side of Kantianism is
nainly confined to the Critique of Pure Reason, but this side of
<antian thought has been most widely influential. The remarks made
above would not apply to the coherent system of idealism which
may be evolved from Kant's writings, and which many would con-
iider alone to deserve the name of Kantianism or Criticism.
Prejudices
oa whkh
scepticism
rest*.
SCEPTRE SCHACK
309
for proof of the self-evident, on whicn all proof must ultimately
depend. It is of course always possible that in any particular
case we may be deceived; we may be assuming as self-evidently
true what is in reality not so. But such incidental lapses are
found to correct themselves by the consequences in which they
involve us, and they have no power to shake our trust in the
general validity of reason. It may, however, be granted that
the possibility of lapse throws us open to the objections, in-
genuous or disingenuous, of the sceptic; and we must remain
exposed to them so long as we deal with our first principles as
so many isolated axioms or intuitions. But the process of self-
correction referred to points to another proof the only ultimately
satisfactory proof of which first principles admit. Their evidence
lies in their mutual interdependence and in the coherence of the
system which they jointly constitute.
Of a scepticism which professes to doubt the validity of every
reasoning process and every operation of all our faculties it is,
of course, as impossible as it would be absurd to offer
Function an y refutation. This absolute scepticism, indeed,
can hardly be regarded as more than empty words;
the position which they would indicate is not one which
has ever existed. In any case, such scepticism is at all times
sufficiently refuted by the imperishable and justifiable trust of
reason in itself. The real function of scepticism in the history
of philosophy is relative to the dogmatism which it criticizes.
And, as a matter of fact, it has been seen that many so-called
sceptics were rather critics of the effete systems which they found
cumbering the ground than actual doubters of the possibility
of knowledge in general. And even when a thinker puts forward
his doubt as absolute it does not follow that his successors are
bound to regard it in the same light. The progress of thought
may show it to be, in truth, relative, as when the nerve of Hume's
scepticism is shown to be his thoroughgoing empiricism, or when
the scepticism of the Critique of Pure Reason is traced to the
unwarrantable assumption of things-in-themselves. When the
assumptions on which it rests are proved to be baseless, the parti-
cular scepticism is also overcome. In like manner, the apparent
antinomies on which such a scepticism builds will be found to
resolve themselves for a system based on a deeper insight into the
nature of things. The serious thinker will always repeat the
words of Kant that, in itself, scepticism is " not a permanent
resting-place for human reason." Its justification is relative, and
its function transitional.
AUTHORITIES. Ancient scepticism is fully treated in the relative
parts of Zeller's Philosophic der Griechen. See also works quoted in
the biographical articles; Brochard, Les Sceptiques grecs (1887);
Ed. Caird, Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers (1904);
Norman MacColl, Greek Sceptics from Pyrrhp to Sextus (1869);
Haas, De philosophorum scepticorum successionibus (1875). Among
other works may be mentioned Staudlin, Geschichte und Geist a.
Scepticismus, vorziiglich in Riicksicht auf Moral u. Religion (1794);
Tafel, Geschichte d. Scepticismus (1834); E. Saisset, Le Scepticisme:
/Enesideme, Pascal, Kant (1875). For a modern view see A. J.
Balfour, Defence of Philosophic Doubt (1879). All histories of philo-
sophy deal with scepticism, and general accounts will be found in
T. M. Robertson's Short History of Free Thought and A. W Benn's
History of Modern Rationalism. See also AGNOSTICISM, RATIONALISM.
(A. S. P.-P.;X.)
SCEPTRE. A rod or staff has always been regarded as a token
of authority. Among the early Greeks the sceptre (aKrjvTpov) was
a long staff used by aged men (II. xviii. 416, Herod. I. 196), and
came to be used by judges, military leaders, priests and others.
It is represented on painted vases as a long staff tipped with a
metal ornament, and is borne by some of the gods. Among the
Etruscans sceptres of great magnificence were used by kings and
upper orders of the priesthood, and many representations of
such sceptres occur on the walls of the painted tombs of Etruria.
The British Museum, the Vatican and the Louvre possess
Etruscan sceptres of gold, most elaborately and minutely
ornamented. The Roman sceptre was probably derived from
the Etruscan. Under the Republic an ivory sceptre (sceplrum
eburneum) was a mark of consular rank It was also used by
victorious generals who received the title of imperator, and it
may be said to survive in the marshal's baton. Under the empire
the sceptrum Augusti was specially used by the emperors, and
was often of ivory tipped with a golden eagle. It is frequently
shown on medallions of the later empire, which have on the
obverse a half-length figure of the emperor, holding in one hand
the sceplrum Augusti, and in the other the orb surmounted
by a small figure of Victory.
With the advent of Christianity the sceptre was often tipped with
a cross instead of the eagle, but during the middle ages the finials
on the top of the sceptre varied considerably. In England from a
very early period two sceptres have been concurrently used, and
from the time of Richard I. they have been distinguished as being
tipped with a cross and a dove respectively. In France the royal
sceptre was tipped with a fleur de lys, and the other, known as the
main de justice, had an open hand of benediction on the top.
Sceptres with small shrines on the top are sometimes represented
on royal seals, as on the great seal of Edward III., where the king,
enthroned, bears such a sceptre, but it was an unusual form ; and it
is of interest to note that one of the sceptres of Scotland, preserved
at Edinburgh, has such a shrine at the top, with little images of Our
Lady, St Andrew and St James in it. This sceptre was, it is believed,
made in France about 1536, for James V. Great seals usually
represent the sovereign enthroned, holding a sceptre (often the
second in dignity) in the right hand, and the orb and cross in the
left. Harold is so depicted on the Bayeux tapestry.
The earliest coronation form of the gth century mentions a sceptre
(sceptrum), and a staff (baculum). In the so-called coronation form
of Ethelred II. a sceptre (sceptrum), and a rod (virga) are named,
and this is also the case with a coronation order of the I2th century.
In a contemporary account of Richard I.'s coronation the royal
sceptre of gold with a gold cross, and the gold rod (virga) with a
gold dove on the top, are mentioned for the first time. About 1450
Sporley, a monk of Westminster, compiled a list of the relics there.
These included the articles used at the coronation of St Edward
the Confessor, and left by him for the coronations of his successors.
A golden sceptre, a wooden rod gilt and an iron rod are named.
These survived till the Commonwealth, and are minutely described
in an inventory of the whole of the regalia drawn up in 1649, when
everything was destroyed.
For the coronation of Charles II. new sceptres were made, and
though slightlv altered, are still in use. They are a sceptre with a
cross called St Edward's sceptre, a sceptre with a dove, and a long
sceptre or staff with a cross of gold on the top called St Edward's
staff. To these, two sceptres for the queen, one with a cross, and
the other with a dove, have been subsequently added.
See Cyril Davenport, The English Regalia; Leopold Wickham-
Legg, English Coronation Records; The Ancestor, Nos. I and 2
(1902); Menin, The Form, &c., of Coronations (English translation,
1727).
SCEVE, MAURICE (c. 1500-1564), French poet, was born at
Lyons, where his father practised law. Besides following his
father's profession he was a painter, architect, musician and
poet. He was the centre of the Lyonnese coterie that elaborated
the theory of spiritual love, derived partly from Plato and partly
from Petrarch, which was enunciated in Antoine Heroet's
Parfaicte Amye.
Sceve's chief works are Dklie, objet de plus haulte vertu (1544);
two eclogues, Arion (1536) and La Saulsaye (1547); and Le Micro-
cosme (1562), an encyclopaedic poem beginning with the fall of man.
Delie consists of 450 dizaines and about 50 other poems in praise of
his mistress. These poems, now little read, were even in Sceve's
own day so obscure that his enthusiastic admirer Etienne Dolet
confesses he could not understand them. Scfeve was a musician as
well as a poet, and cared very much for the musical value of the
words he used. In this and in his erudition he forms 'a link between
the school of Marot and the P16iade Dttie (an anagram for I'idee)
set the fashion of a series of poems addressed to a mistress real or
imaginary, followed by Ronsard in Cassandre and by Du Bellay in
Olive. The Lyonnese school of which Scfrve was the leader included
his friend Claude de Taillemont and many women writers of verse,
Jeanne Gaillarde placed by Marot on an equality with Christine
de Pisan Pernette du Guillet, Cle'mence de Bourges and the poet's
sisters, Claudine and Sibylle Scfrve. Scfeve died in 1564. See also
LABE, LOUISE).
See E. Bourciez, La Literature polie et les nueurs de cour sous
Henri II (.Paris, 1886); Pernetti, Recherches pour servir a I'histoire
de Lyon (2 vols., Lyons, 1757), an d F. Brunettere, " Un Pre'curseur
de la Plei'ade. Maurice Scfeve, ' in his Etudes critiques, vol. vi. (1899).
SCHACK, ADOLF FRIEDRICH, GRAF VON (1815-1894),
German poet and historian of literature, was born at Briisewitz
near Schwerin on the and of August 1815. Having studied
jurisprudence (1834-1838) at the universities of Bonn, Heidel-
berg and Berlin, he entered the Mecklenburg State service and
was subsequently attached to the " Kammergericht " in Berlin.
Tiring of official work, he resigned his appointment, and after
travelling in Italy, Egypt and Spain, was attached to the court
SCHADOW SCHAFARIK
of the grand duke of Oldenburg, whom he accompanied on a
journey to the East. On his return he entered the Oldenburg
government service, and in 1849 was sent as envoy to Berlin.
In 1852 he retired from his diplomatic post, resided for a while
on his estates in Mecklenburg and then travelled in Spain, where
he studied Moorish history. In 1855, he settled at Munich,
where he was made member of the academy of sciences, and here
collected a splendid gallery of pictures, containing masterpieces
of Genelli, Feuerbach, Schwind, Bocklin, Lenbach, &c., and
which, though bequeathed by him to the Emperor William II.,
still remains at Munich and is one of the noted galleries in that
city. He died at Rome on the I4th of Apiil 1894.
Schack was a most productive author; he wrote lyric poems
(Gedichte, 1867, 6th ed. 1888); novels in verse, Durch alle Wetter
(1870, 3rd ed. 1875) and Ebenburtig (1876); the dramatic poem
Helidor (1878); the tragedies Die Pisaner (1872) and Walpurga and
Der Johanniter (1887); and the political comedies, Der Kaiserbote
and Cancan (1873). As an historian of literature and art, he
published Geschichte der dramatischen Literatur und Kunstin Spanien
(3 vols. 1845-1846, 2nd ed. 1854), Poesie und Kunst der Araber in
Spanien und Sicuien (1865, 2nd ed. 1877), which are valuable con-
tributions to literary history. He also produced some excellent
translations, e.g. Spanisches Theater (1845); Heldensagen des Firdusi
(1851) and Stimmen vom Ganges (1857, 2nd ed. 1877). He also com-
piled the catalogue and history of his own picture gallery, Meine
Gemdldesammlung (7th ed., 1894). His collected works, Gesammelte
Werke, were published in six volumes (1883, 3rd ed. in 10 vols.
1897-1899). Nachgelassene Dichlungen were edited by G. Winkler
(1896). See his autobiography, Ein halbes Jahrhundert, Erinnerungen
und Aufzeichnungen (3 vols. 1887, 3rd ed. 1894). Cf. further the
accounts of Schack by F. W. Rogge (1883), E. Zabel (1885), E.
Brenning (1885), W. ). Mannsen (from the Dutch, 1889), and also
L. Berg, Zwischen zwei Jahrhunderten (1896).
SCHADOW, a distinguished name in the annals of German
art.
I. JOHANN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW (1764-1850), sculptor,
was born and died in Berlin, where his father was a poor tailor.
His first teacher was an inferior sculptor, Tassaert, patronized
by Frederick the Great; the master offered his daughter in
marriage, but the pupil preferred to elope with a girl to Vienna,
and the father-in-law not only condoned the offence but furnished
money wherewith to visit Italy. Three years' study in Rome
formed his style, and in 1788 he returned to Berlin to succeed
Tassaert as sculptor to the court and secretary to the Academy.
Over half a century he produced upwards of two hundred
works, varied in style as in subjects.
Among his ambitious efforts are Frederick the Great in Stettin,
Blticher in Rostock and Luther in Wittenberg. His portrait statues
include Frederick the Great playing the flute, and the crown-princess
Louise and her sister. His busts, which reach a total of more than
one hundred, comprise seventeen colossal heads in the Walhalla,
Ratisbon; from the life were modelled Goethe, Wieland and Fichte.
Of church monuments and memorial works thirty are enumerated ;
yet Schadow hardly ranks among Christian sculptors. He is claimed
by classicists and idealists: the quadriga on the Brandenburger
Thor and the allegorical frieze on the facade of the Royal Mint,
both in Berlin, are judged among the happiest studies from the
antique. Schadow, as director of the Berlin Academy, had great
influence. He wrote on the proportions of the human figure, on
national physiognomy, &c. ; and many volumes by himself and
others describe and illustrate his method and his work.
n. His eldest son, RUDOLPH SCHADOW (1786-1822), sculptor,
was born in Rome, and had his father at Berlin for his first
master. In 1810 he went to Rome and received kindly help
from Canova and Thorvaldsen. His talents were versatile; his
first independent work was a figure of Paris, and it had for its
companion a spinning girl.
Embracing the Roman Catholic faith, he produced statues of John
the Baptist and of the Virgin and Child. In England he became
known by bas-reliefs executed for the duke of Devonshire and for
the marquis of Lansdowne. His last composition, commissioned by
the king of Prussia, was a colossal group, Achilles with the Body of
Penthesilea ; the model, universally admired for its antique character
and the largeness of its style, had not been carried out in marble
when in 1822 the artist died in Rome.
III. FRIEDRICH WILHELM SCHADOW (1780-1862), painter,
was the second son of Johann Gottfried Schadow. In 1806-
1807 he served as a soldier; in 1810 he went with his elder brother
Rudolph to Rome. He became one of the leaders among the
German pre-Raphaelites. Following the example of Overbeck
and others, he joined the Roman Catholic Church, and held that
an artist must believe and live out the truths he essays to paint.
The sequel showed that Schadow was qualified to shine less as
a painter than as a teacher and director.
The Prussian consul, General Bartholdi, befriended his young
compatriots by giving them a commission to decorate with frescoes
a room in his house on the Pincian Hill. The artists engaged were
Schadow, Cornelius, Overbeck and Veit; the subject selected was
the story of Joseph and his brethren, and two scenes, the Bloody
Coat and Joseph in Prison, fell to the lot of Schadow. Schadow was
in 1819 appointed professor in the Berlin Academy, and his ability
and thorough training gained devoted disciples. To this period
belong his pictures for churches. In 1826 the professor was made
director of the Dusseldorf Academy. The high and sacred art
matured in Rome Schadow transplanted to Dusseldorf; he re-
organized the Academy, which in a few years grew famous as a
centre of Christian art to which pupils flocked from all sides. In
1837 the director selected, at request, those of his scholars best
qualified to decorate the chapel of St Apollinaris on the Rhine
with frescoes, which when finished were accepted as the fullest and
purest manifestation of the Dusseldorf school on its spiritual
side. To 1842 belong the " Wise and Foolish Virgins," in the Stadel
Institute, Frankfort; this large and important picture is carefully
considered and wrought, but lacks power. Schadow's fame indeed
rests less on his own creations than on the school he formed. In
Dusseldorf a reaction set in against the spiritual and sacerdotal
style he had established; and in 1859 the party of naturalism,
after a severe struggle, drove the director from his chair. Schadow
died at Dusseldorf in 1862, and a monument in the platz which
bears his name was raised at the jubilee held to commemorate his
directorate. (J. B. A.)
SCHAFARIK (Czech, SafaHK), PAVEL JOSEF (1795-1861),
Slavonic philologist, was born of Slovak parents at Kobeljarova,
a village of northern Hungary, where his father was a Protestant
clergyman. His first production was a volume of poems in
Czech entitled The Muse of Tatra with a Slavonic Lyre (Levocza,
1814). In 1815 he began a course of study at the university of
Jena, and while there translated into Czech the Clouds of Aristo-
phanes and the Maria Stuart of Schiller. In 1817 he removed to
Prague and joined the literary circle of which Dobrovsky,
Jungmann and Hanka were members. From 1819 to 1833
he was head master of the high school at Neusatz in the south
of Hungary. There he studied Servian literature and antiquities,
acquired many rare books and manuscripts, and published
a collection of Slovak folk-songs in collaboration with Kollar
and others (1823-1827). In 1826 his Geschichte der slawischen
Sprache und Literatur nach alien Mundarten appeared at Budapest
(and ed., 1869). This book was the first attempt to give any-
thing like a systematic account of the Slavonic languages as
a whole. In 1833 he returned to Prague, where he spent the
remainder of his life. There he published his Serbische Lesekorner
oder historisch-kritische Beleuchtung der Serbischen Mundart,
and in 1837 his great work Slovanske StaroZitnosti (" Slavonic
Antiquities "). The " Antiquities " have been translated into
Polish, Russian and German; a second edition (1863) was
edited by J. Jirecek. In 1840 he published in conjunction with
Palacky Die altesten Denkmaler der bohmischen Sprache. In
1837 poverty compelled him to accept the uncongenial office
of censor of Czech publications, which he abandoned in 1847
on becoming custodian of the Prague public library. In 1842
he published his Slovansky N&rodopis, in which he sought to
give a complete account of Slavonic ethnology. He was also
for some time conductor of the " Journal " of the Bohemian
Museum, and edited the first volume of the Vybor, or selections
from old Czech writers, which appeared under the auspices of
the Prague literary society in 1845. To this he prefixed a
grammar of the Old Czech language, Polatkmi staroleskt
mluimice. In 1848 he was made professor of Slavonic philology
in the university of Prague, but resigned in 1849. He was then
made keeper of the university library. In 1857 he published
Glagolitische Fragmente in collaboration with Hofler; but in
the same year, as a result of overwork, ill health and family
anxieties, he became insane. He was nevertheless continued
in his appointment until his death in 1861.
Schafarik's collected works, Sebrant Spisy, were published at
Prague. 1862-1865; his Geschichte der siidslaivischen Literatur
was edited by Jirecek in 3 vols. (1864-1865).
SCHAFF SCHAFFHAUSEN
SCHAFF, PHILIP (1819-1893), American theologian and
church historian, was born in Chur, Switzerland, on the ist of
January 1819. He was educated at the gymnasium of Stuttgart,
and at the universities of Tubingen, Halle and Berlin, where
he was successively influenced by Baur and Schmid, by Tholuck
and Julius Muller, by Strauss and, above all, Neander. In 1842
he was Privatdozent in the university of Berlin, and in 1843
he was called to become professor of church history and Biblical
literature in the German Reformed Theological Seminary of
Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, then the only seminary of that
church in America. On his journey he stayed six months in
England and met Pusey and other Tractarians. His inaugural
address on The Principle of Protestantism, delivered in German
at Reading, Pennsylvania, in 1844, and published in German
with an English version by J. W. Nevin (q.v.), by its Neander-like
view that Romanism and Protestantism were only stages in
the divinely appointed development of the Christian Church,
aroused fierce opposition in the Reformed Church and Schaff
was characterized as " Puseyistic " and "semi-papistical";
in 1845 he was tried for heresy and found not guilty by the
Synod. Opposition to him soon died out within his own
denomination: it was more particularly directed against his
polemic champion, Nevin, and it had its source more in the
Dutch (than in the German) Reformed Church, and even there
was confined more to the New Brunswick school (i.e. the church-
men of the Dutch Reformed Theological Seminary in New
Brunswick, New Jersey) and its English and Scottish members,
as late as 1856 J. J. Janeway of New Brunswick published his
Antidote to the Poison of Popery in the Writings and Conduct
of Professors Nevin and Schaff. Schaff's broad views strongly
influenced the German Reformed Church, through his teaching
at Mercersburg, through his championship of English in German
Reformed churches and schools in America, through his hymnal
(1859), through his labours as chairman of the committee which
prepared a new liturgy, and by his edition ( 1 863) of the Heidelberg
Catechism. His History of the Apostolic Church (in German,
1851; in English, 1853) and his History of the Christian Church
(7 vols., 1858-1890), opened a new period in American study of
ecclesiastical history. After 1864 his home was in New York
City, where he was until 1869 secretary of the New York Sabbath
Committee (which fought the " continental Sunday "), and was
corresponding secretary of the American Evangelical Alliance,
of which he was in 1866 a founder. In 1865 he founded the
first German Sunday School in Stuttgart. In 1862-1867 he
lectured on church history at Andover, and after 1869 taught
at the Union Theological Seminary as instructor in church
history in 1869-1870, and professor of theological cyclopaedia
and Christian symbolism in 1870-1873, of Hebrew and cognate
languages in 1873-1874, of sacred literature in 1874-1887, and
of church history in 1887-1893. The English Bible Revision
Committee in 1870 requested him to form a co-operating
American Committee, of which he became president in 1871.
He died in New York City on the 2oth of October 1893. Working
with the Evangelical Alliance and the Chicago (1893) World's
Parliament of Religions, and in Germany, through the monthly
Kirchenfreund, he strove earnestly to promote Christian unity
and union; and it was his hope that the pope would abandon
the doctrine of infallibility and undertake the reunion of
Christianity. He recognized that he was a " mediator between
German and Anglo-American theology and Christianity ";
his theology was broad rather than definite, though he sharply
dissented from Nevin's mystical doctrine of the union in the
eucharist of the believer with Christ's glorified body as well as
His glorified soul. He edited (1864-1880) the American transla-
tion and revision of Lange's Bibelwerk, the great Schaff-Herzog
Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge (1884, 3rd ed. 1891);
the first seven volumes of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Church
Fathers in English (1886-1894); and the International Illustrated
Commentary on the New Testament (4 vols., 1879-1883) and the
International Revision Commentary (5 vols. 1881-1884), as far
as the Epistle to Romans. His Bibliotheca symbolica ecclesiae
tmiversalis: the Creeds of Christendom (3 vols. 1877, 6th ed. 1893)
was a pioneer work in English in the field of symbolics. His
History of the Christian Church, already mentioned, resembled
Neander's work, though less biographical, and was pictorial
rather than philosophical. He wrote, besides, biographies,
catechisms and hymnals for children, manuals of religious verse,
lectures and essays on Dante, &c.
His son, DAVID SCHLEY SCHAFF (1852- ), was professor
of church history in Lane Theological Seminary in 1897-1903,
and after 1903 in Western Theological Seminary at Allegheny, Pa.
He wrote a Commentary on the Book of Acts (1882) and a Life
of Philip Schaff (New York, 1897).
SCHAFFHAUSEN (Fr. Schajj 'house) , the most northerly of
the Swiss cantons, and the only one wholly (excepting the small
hamlet of Burg, a suburb of Stein) north of the Rhine. It is
divided into three detached portions by the grand-duchy of
Baden, which surrounds it on all sides save that of the Rhine,
which separates it from the cantons of Thurgau and of Zurich:
by far the largest part is the region near the chief town, Schaff-
hausen, while to the south is the small isolated district of
Riidlingen and Buchberg (purchased in 1520), and to the east
the more extensive tract around the old town of Stein on the
Rhine (ceded by Zurich in 1798). Within the territory of
Schaffhausen are two " enclaves," belonging politically to
Baden the village of Busingen (just east of the chief town)
and the farm of Verenahof, near Buttenhardt. The total area
of the canton is 113-5 sq. m., of which 108-4 s q- m - are classed
as " productive " (forests covering 46 sq. m., and vineyards
4 sq. m.). The main portion of the canton consists of the gently
inclined plateau of the Randen (its highest point, c. 3000 ft.,
is at its north edge) that slopes towards the Rhine, and is inter-
sected by several short glens, separated by rounded ridges. The
most important of these glens is that of the Klettgau, to the
west of the chief town. There are only intermittent torrents
in the canton, apart from the broad stream of the Rhine, which,
about ij m. below the town, forms the celebrated Falls of the
Rhine (first mentioned about 1122), which are rather rapids
(only 60 ft. in height) than a cascade proper, though the mass
of water is very great.
The direct railway line from Constance to Basel, along the right
and (generally) non-Swiss bank of the Rhine, passes through the
canton for some 16 m., while there is a branch line (entirely within
the canton) from Schaffhausen to Schleitheim (ioj m.), and two
lines join the chief town with the Swiss territory to the south,
Zurich being thus 29 m. or 35$ m. distant. In 1900 the population
was 41,454, of whom 40,290 were German-speaking, while 34,046
were Protestants, 7403 Romanists and 22 Jews. The inhabitants
are devoted chiefly to agriculture (particularly fodder stuffs and
fruits) and to wine-growing (Hallauer is the best-known red wine).
There are tile factories in the Reiath region (N.E. of the capital).
The canton is divided into six administrative districts, which com-
prise thirty-six communes. The cantonal constitution dates in its
main features from 1876. The legislature or Grossrat is composed of
members elected for four years in the proportion of one to every 500
(or fraction over 250) of the population, but only communes with
more than 250 inhabitants form separate electoral circles, the smaller
being united for electoral purposes with their greater neighbours.
The executive or Regierungsrat of five members is also elected' for
four years by a popular vote, as are the two members of the
Federal Standerat and of the Federal Nationalrat. One thousand
citizens have the right of " initiative " as to legislative projects and
important financial matters as well as to the revision of the cantonal
constitution. Since 1895 the " obligatory referendum " for all
legislative projects has prevailed, as well as a curious institution
(formerly existing in several cantons) by which the legislature can
consult the people on certain questions involving principles and not
merely on fully drafted legislative projects. The taxes are very
small, while the property of the canton is the most considerable in
Switzerland, so that from a financial point of view Schaffhausen is
the most favoured in the country, and till recently it had no public
debt at all. The numerous forests are well managed and bring in
much money.
The canton arose from acquisitions made at various dates
from 1461 to 1798 by the town, which at the time of the Reforma-
tion obtained possession of the outlying estates of the ecclesi-
astical foundations then suppressed. The most interesting spot
in the canton is the little town of Stein, with its Benedictine
monastery (1005-1526), now a sort of medieval museum, and
the castle of Hohenklingen towering above it. (W. A. B. C.)
312
SCHAFFHAUSEN SCHANDAU
SCHAFFHAUSEN, the capital of the Swiss canton of that
name, situated entirely (for its suburb, Feuerthalen, is in the
canton of Zurich) on rising ground above the right bank of the
Rhine. Its streets are narrow (save in the modern quarters),
while it is dominated by the fortress of Unnoth (wrongly called
Munoth). It is by rail 31 m. W. of Constance and 59 m. W. of
Basel. It is a city of contrasts, medieval architecture of the true
Swabian type and modern manufactures mingling curiously
together. Three of the sixteen town gates survive, and many
old houses, though few have preserved traces of the frescoes
which formerly adorned their external walls. The chief ancient
building in the town is the Munster (now Protestant) of All
Saints, formerly a Benedictine monastery. It was consecrated
in 1052, and is a good specimen of the " sternest and plainest
Romanesque, finished with a single side tower near the east
end, that is architecturally connected both' with Italian cam-
paniles and the so-called Anglo-Saxon towers of England "
(E. A. Freeman). Close to it is deposited the famous 15th-
century bell that suggested Schiller's Song of the Bell and
the opening of Longfellow's Golden Legend. The castle of
Unnoth, above the town, dates in its present form from the
second half of the i6th century. It has enormously thick
casemates and a tower, the platform of which (now used as a
restaurant) is reached by a spiral ascent. The museum contains
antiquarian and natural history collections, as well as the town
library, which possesses the MSS. and books of the Swiss historian
J. von Miiller (?..). A monument to his memory is on the
promenade of the Fasenstaub, west of the town. Opposite is
a building constructed in 1864 by a citizen (G. C. im Thurn) who
had made his fortune in London. It is named after him the
Imthurneum, and houses a theatre, a picture gallery, concert
rooms and the school of music. There are a number of factories
in the town, while at Neuhausen, its suburb, are aluminium
works, railway rolling stock works and a manufactory of playing
cards and railway tickets. Industrial development has been
furthered by the hydraulic works for the utilization of the forces
in the Rhine; founded 1863-1866 by H. Moser (1805-1874),
a wealthy citizen, these are now the property of the town and
since 1000 are worked by electricity. In 1900 the town had
15,275 inhabitants (14,684 German-speaking), while there were
11,144 Protestants, 4085 Roman Catholics and 21 Jews.
The spot is first mentioned in 1045, " Villa Scafhusun," while
in 1050 we hear of the " ford " there across the Rhine. Hence
it is probable that the name is really derived from scapha, a
skiff, as here goods coming from Constance were disembarked
in consequence of the falls of the Rhine a little below. Some
writers, however, prefer the derivation from Schaf (a sheep),
as a ram (now a sheep) formed the ancient arms of the town,
derived from those of its founders, the counts of Nellenburg.
About 1050 those counts founded here the Benedictine monastery
of All Saints, which henceforth became the centre of the town.
Perhaps as early as 1190, certainly in 1208, it was an imperial
free city, while the first seal dates from 1 253. The powers of the
abbot were gradually limited and in 1277 the emperor Rudolf
gave the town a charter of liberties. It ran considerable risk
of becoming a part of the private estates of the Habsburgs,
as the emperor Louis of Bavaria pledged it in 1330 to that
family, which held it till Duke Frederick with Empty Pockets
was placed under the ban of the empire in 1415, its freedom
being finally purchased in 1418, while from 1411 the trade gilds
ruled the town. But it was much harassed by the neighbouring
Austrian nobles, so that in 1454 it made an alliance with six
of the Swiss confederates (Uri and Unterwalden coming in in
1479), by whom it was received as an " ally," being finally
admitted a full member in 1501. The Reformation was adopted
in 1524, finally in 1529. The town suffered much in the Thirty
Years' War from the passage of Swedish and Bavarian troops.
It was not till the early 1 9th century that the arrested industrial
development of the town took a fresh start.
AUTHORITIES. F. L. Baumann, Das Kloster Allerheiliren in
Schaffhausen (vol.iii.of the " Quellen z. Schweizer Geschichte") (Basel,
1881); Beitrdge z. vaterldndisch. Geschichte (5 parts, 1863-1884);
E. Im-Thurn, Der Kanton Schaffhausen (St Gall and Bern,
1840); A. Pfaff, Das Staatsrecht d. alien Eidgenossenschaft (Schaff-
hausen, 1870) (pp. 89-97 contain a history of Schaffhausen). In
1901 there appeared at Schaffhausen two elaborate historical
" Festschriften, ' one for the canton and one for the town, while in
1906-1907 there were published at Schaffhausen two parts (from
987 to 1530) of an official Urkundenregister fur den Kanton Schaff-
hausen. (W. A. B. C.)
SCHAFFLE. ALBERT EBERHARO FRIEDRICH (1831-1003),
German statesman and political economist, was born at Niirtingen
in Wiirttemberg on the 24th of February 1831, and in 1848
became a student at the university of Tubingen. From 1850
to 1860 he was attached to the editorial staff of the Sckwiibische
Merkur in Stuttgart, and in the latter year accepted a call to
the chair of political economy at Tubingen. From 1862 to
1864 Schaffle was a member of the Wiirttemberg diet, and in
1868 he received a mandate to the German Zollparlament. This
year he was appointed professor of political science at the
university of Vienna, and in 1871 he entered the cabinet of
Karl Siegmund Graf von Hohenwart as minister of commerce for
Austria. But the government fell in the same year, and Schaffle
withdrew to Stuttgart, where he took up his residence, devoting
himself entirely to literary work. He died at Stuttgart on the
25th of December 1903. Among his numerous writings must
be mentioned Das Gesellschaftliche System der menschlichen
Wirthschaft (new ed., 1873); Die National okonomische Theorie
der ausschliessenden Absatzverhdltnisse (1867); Ban und Leben
des socialen Korpers (2nd ed. 1896); Ein Votum gegen den
neuesten Zolllarif (Tubingen, 1901); Die agrarische Gefahr (Berlin,
1902); Gesammelte Aufsatzc (1885-1887). From 1892 to 1001
Schaffle was the sole editor of the Zeitschrift fiir die gesamle
Staatswissenschaft.
See Biermann, Schaffle und der Agrarismus (Bonn, 1902) and his
autobiography, Aus meinem Leben (Berlin, 1905).
SCHALCKEN, GODFRIED (1643-1706), Dutch genre and
portrait painter, was born at Dort in 1643, and studied under
Hoogstraten, and afterwards under Gerhard Douw, whose
works his earlier genre-pictures very closely resemble. He
visited England and painted several portraits, of which the
half-length of William III., now in the Museum, Amsterdam,
is a good example. In this work he shows an effect of candle-
light, which he also introduced frequently with fine effect
in many of his subject-pictures. These may be studied in the
collections at Buckingham Palace, the Louvre, Vienna and
Dresden. His Scriptural subjects are of very indifferent merit.
He died at The Hague in 1 706.
SCHALL, JOHANN ADAM VON (1591-1666), Jesuit missionary
in China, born of noble parents in Cologne. At the age of twenty
he joined the Society of Jesus, and in 1628 went out to China.
Apart from successful missionary work, he became the trusted
counsellor of the emperor, was created a mandarin, and held an
important post in connexion with the mathematical school.
His position enabled him to procure from the emperor permission
for the Jesuits to build churches and to preach throughout the
country. Proselytes to the number of 100,000 are said to have
been obtained within fourteen years. The emperor, however,
died in 1661, and Schall's circumstances at once changed. He
was imprisoned and condemned to death. The sentence was not
carried out, but he died after his release owing to the privations
he had endured. A collection of his MS. remains was deposited
in the Vatican Library.
SCHANDAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated on the right bank of the Elbe, at the mouth of the
little valley of the Kirnitsch. It is 4 m. from the Bohemian
frontier, 20 m. S.E. of Dresden on the railway to Bodenbach,
and has a branch to Niederneukirch, which is carried from the
railway station lying on the right bank across the Elbe by an
iron bridge. Pop. (1905) 3373. Schandau has an Evangelical
parish church, a hydropathic establishment and a school of
river navigation. The position of Schandau in the heart of the
romantic " Saxon Switzerland " has made it a place of importance,
and thousands of tourists make it their headquarters in summer.
For their accommodation numerous hotels and villas have been
SCHANDORPH SCHARNHORST
erected. The chief manufactures of the town are artificial
flowers and furniture.
See Schafer, Filhrer durch Schandau und seine Umgebung (Dresden,
1907)-
SCHANDORPH [or SKAMDRUP], SOPHUS CHRISTIAN
FREDERICK (1836-1901), Danish poet and novelist, was born
at Ringsted in Zealand on the 8th of May 1836. In 1855 he
entered the university of Copenhagen. In 1862 he published
his first volume of poetry, written in the romantic style and
giving little indication of the ultimate direction that his talent
was to take. Other books followed, but his gifts first found
full expression in a volume of rustic tales entitled Fra Provinsen
(1876), in which he described provincial character and life with
much frankness of detail and a great deal of wit. In 1878
his novel, Uden Midtpunkt (" Without a Centre "), recast later in
dramatic form, attracted great attention by its exposure of
contemporary failings. Among the more famous of his later
novels are: Thomas Friis' Historic (2 vols., 1881), Del gamle
Apolhek (" The Old Apothecary ") (1855) and Helga (1900); but
his most characteristic work is to be found in his various volumes
of short sketches. He published his own Recollections (Oplevelser)
in 1889. He died after a long illness at Frederiksberg on New
Year's Day 1901.
See an article by V. Moller in C. F. Bricka's Dansk Biografisk
Lexikon (vol. xv., 1901).
SCHARF, SIR GEORGE (1820-1895), British art critic, was
born in London on the i6th of December 1820, the son of George
Scharf, a Bavarian miniature painter who settled in England in
1816 and died in 1860. He studied in the schools of the Royal
Academy. In 1840 he accompanied Sir Charles Fellows to Asia
Minor, and in 1843 acted as draughtsman to a government
expedition to the same country. After his return he devoted
himself with great industry and success to the illustration of
books relating to art and antiquity, of which the best known
are Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome (1847); Milman's Horace,
(1849); Kugler's Handbook of Italian Painting (1851); and Dr
Smith's classical dictionaries. He also engaged largely in lecturing
and teaching, and took part in the formation of the Greek, Roman
and Pompeian courts at the Crystal Palace. He acted as art
secretary to the great Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition of
1857, and in that year was appointed secretary and director
to the newly founded National Portrait Gallery. The remainder
of his life was given to the care of that institution. Scharf
acquired an unrivalled knowledge of all matters relating to
historic portraiture, and was the author of many learned essays
on the subject. In 1885, in recognition of his services to the
Portrait Gallery, he was made C.B., and on his resignation,
early in 1895, K.C.B. and a trustee of the Gallery. He died on
the igth of April of the same year.
SCHARNHORST, GERHARD JOHANN DAVID VON (1755-
1813), Prussian general, was born at Bordenau near Hanover,
of a farmer stock, on the 1 2th of November 1755. He succeeded
in educating himself and in securing admission to the military
academy of Wilhelmstein, and in 1778 received a commission
in the Hanoverian service. He employed the intervals of
regimental duty in further self-education and literary work. In
1783 he was transferred to the artillery and appointed to the
new artillery school in Hanover. He had already founded a
military journal which under various names endured till 1805,
and in 1788 he designed, and in part published, a Handbuch
fur Offiziers in den anwendbaren Theilen der Kriegswissenschaften.
He also published in 1792 his MUilHrische Taschenbuch fur den
Gebrauch im Pelde. The income he derived from his writings
was his chief means of support, for he was still a lieutenant, and
though the farm of Bordenau produced a small sum annually
he had a wife (Clara Schmalz, sister of Theodor Schmalz, first
director of Berlin University) and family to maintain. His
first campaign was that of 1 793 in the Netherlands, in which he
served under the duke of York with distinction. In 1794 he
took part in the defence of Menin and commemorated the
escape of the garrison in his Verlheidigung der Stadt Menin
(Hanover, i8o3),which, next to his paper Die Ursachen des Gliicks
der Franzosen im Revolutionskrieg, is his best-known work.
Shortly after this he was promoted major and employed on
the staff of the Hanoverian contingent.
In 1795, after the peace of Basel, he returned to Hanover.
He was by now so well known to the armies of the various allied
states that from several of them he received invitations to
transfer his services. This in the end led to his engaging himself
to the king of Prussia, who gave him a patent of nobility, the
rank of lieutenant-colonel and a pay more than twice as large
as that he had received in Hanover (1801). He was employed,
almost as a matter of course, in important instructional work at
the War Academy of Berlin, he had Clausewitz (q.v.) as one of
his pupils, and he was the founder of the Berlin Military Society.
In the mobilizations and precautionary measures that marked
the years 1804 and 1805. and in the war of 1806 that was the
natural consequence, Scharnhorst was chief of the general staff
(lieutenant-quartermaster) of the duke of Brunswick, received
a slight wound at Auerstadt and distinguished himself by his
stern resolution during the retreat of the Prussian army. He
attached himself to Blucher in the last stages of the disastrous
campaign, was taken prisoner with him at the capitulation of
Ratkau, and, being shortly exchanged, bore a prominent and
almost decisive part in the leading of L'Estocq's Prussian corps
which served with the Russians. For his services at Eylau,
he received the order pour le merite.
It was now evident that Scharnhorst was more than a brilliant
staff officer. Educated in the traditions of the Seven Years'
War, he had by degrees, as his experience widened, divested his
mind of antiquated forms of war, and it had been borne in upon
him that a " national " army and a policy of fighting decisive
battles alone responded to the political and strategical situation
created by the French Revolution. The steps by which he con-
verted the professional long-service army of Prussia, wrecked at
Jena, into the national army as we know it to-day, based on
universal service, were slow and laboured. He was promoted
major-general a few days after the peace of Tilsit, and placed as
the head of a reform commission, to which were appointed the
best of the younger officers such as Gneisenau, Grolman and
Boyen. Stein himself became a member of the commission and
secured Scharnhorst free access to the king by causing him to
be appointed aide-de-camp-general. But Napoleon's suspicions
were quickly aroused, and the king had repeatedly to suspend
or to cancel the reforms recommended. In 1809 the war between
France and Austria roused premature hopes in the patriots' party,
which the conqueror did not fail to note. By direct application
to Napoleon, Scharnhorst evaded the decree of the 26th of
September 1810, whereby all foreigners were to leave the Prussian
service forthwith, but when in 1811-1812 Prussia was forced into
an alliance with France against Russia and despatched an
auxiliary army to serve under Napoleon's orders, Scharnhorst
left Berlin on unlimited leave of absence. In retirement he
wrote and published a work on firearms, If her die Wirkung des
Feuergewehrs (1813). But the retreat from Moscow at last
sounded the call to arms for the new national army of Prussia.
Scharnhorst was recalled to the king's headquarters, and after
refusing a higher post was made chief of staff to Blucher, in
whose vigour, energy and influence with the young soldiers he
had complete confidence. The first battle Liitzen or Gross-
Gorschen was a defeat, but a very different defeat from those
which Napoleon had hitherto been accustomed to inflict. In
it Scharnhorst received a wound in the foot, not in itself grave,
but soon made mortal by the fatigues of the retreat to Dresden,
and he succumbed to it on the 8th of June at Prague, whither he
had been sent to negotiate with Schwarzenberg and Radetzky
for the armed intervention of Austria. Shortly before his death
he had been promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general.
Frederick William III. erected a statue in memory of him, by
Rauch, in Berlin.
See C. von Clausewitz, Ober das Leben und den Charakter des
General v. Scharnhorst; H. v. Boyen, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis des
General v. Scharnhorst; lives by Schweder (Berlin, 1865), Klippel
(Leipzig, 1869); M. Lehmann (Leipzig, 1886-1888, an important
SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE SCHEELE
work in two volumes); also Max Jahns, Gesch. der Kriegswissen-
schaften, iii. 2154; Weise, Scharnhorst und die Durchfiihrung
der aligemeinen Wehrpflicht (1892); A. von Holleben, Der Fruh-
jahrsfeldzug, 1813 (1905); and F. N. Maude, The Leipzig Campaign
(1908).
SCHAUMBDRG-LIPPE, a principality forming part of the
German Empire, consisting of the western half of the old countship
of Schaumburg, and surrounded by Westphalia, Harover and the
Prussian part of Schaumburg. Area, 131 sq. m. Its northern
extremity is occupied by a lake named the Steinhuder Meer. The
southern part is hilly (Wesergebirge), but the remainder consists
of a fertile plain. Besides husbandry, the inhabitants practise
yarn-spinning and linen-weaving, and the coal-mines of the
Buckeberg, on the south-eastern border, are very productive.
The great bulk of the population (in 1905, 44,992), are Lutherans.
The capital is Biickeburg, and Stadthagen is the only other town.
Under the constitution of 1868 there is a legislative diet of 15
members, 10 elected by the towns and rural districts and i each
by the nobility, clergy and educated classes, the remaining 2
nominated by the prince. Schaumburg-Lippe sends one member to
the Bundesrat (federal council) and one deputy to the reichstag.
The annual revenue and expenditure amount each to about
41,000. The public debt is about 23,000.
SCHEDULE, originally a written strip or leaf of paper or
parchment, a label or ticket, especially when attached to another
document, as explaining or adding to its contents, hence any
additional detailed statement such as cannot conveniently
be embodied in the main statement. The word occurs first
(i4th century) as cedule, or sedule, representing the Fr. cedule
(mod. cedule, cf. Ital. cedola, Ger. Zeltel, &c.), which is derived
from Late Lat. scedula or schedula, dim. of sceda, a written strip
of parchment (late Gr. ffx&?)> probably from scindere, to cleave,
cf . scindda, a shingle. The original pronunciation in English was
sedule, the modern pronunciation is shedule; American usage
has gone back to the original Latin or Greek, and adopts
skedule.
SCHEELE, KARL WILHELM (1742-1786), Swedish chemist,
was born at Stralsund, the capital of Pomerania, which then
belonged to Sweden, on the igth of December 1742. He was
apprenticed at the age of fourteen to an apothecary in Gothen-
burg, with whom he stayed for eight years. His spare time and
great part of his nights were devoted to the experimental ex-
amination of the different bodies which he dealt with, and the
study of the standard works on chemistry. He thus acquired
a large.store of knowledge and great practical skill and manipula-
tive dexterity. In 1765 he removed to Malmo, and in 1768 to
Stockholm. While there he wrote an account of his experiments
with cream of tartar, from which he had isolated tartaric acid, and
sent it to T. O. Bergman, the leading chemist in Sweden. Berg-
man somehow neglected it, and this caused for a time a reluctance
on Scheele's part to become acquainted with that savant, but
the paper, through the instrumentality of Anders Johann
Retzius (1742-1821), was ultimately communicated to the
Academy of Sciences at Stockholm. He left Stockholm in 1770
and took up his residence at Upsala, where through the agency
of Johann Gottlieb Gahn ( 1 745-1 8 1 8) , assessor of mines at Fahlun,
he made the personal acquaintance of Bergman. A friendship,
of mutual advantage, soon sprang up between the two men, and
it has been said that Scheele was Bergman's greatest discovery.
In 1775, the year in which he was elected into the Stockholm
Academy of Sciences, he left Stockholm for Koping, a small
place on Lake Malar, where he became provisor and subsequently
proprietor of a pharmacy. The business, however, was not what
he had been led to expect, and it took him several years to put it
on a sound footing. Yet in spite of his business cares he found
time for an extraordinary amount of original research, and every
year he published two or three papers, most of which contained
some discovery or observation of importance. His unremitting
work, it is said, especially at night, exposing him to cold and
draughts, induced a rheumatic attack which brought about his
death. He had intended, as soon as his circumstances permitted
him, to marry the widow of his predecessor, but his illness
increased so rapidly that it was only on his death-bed, on the igth
of May 1786, that he carried out his design. Two days later he
died, leaving his wife what property he had acquired.
Scheele's power as an experimental investigator has seldom if
ever been surpassed, and his accuracy is most remarkable when
his primitive apparatus, his want of assistance, his place of
residence, and the undeveloped state of chemical and physical
science in his time, are all taken into account. Research was
at once his occupation and his relaxation, and his natural endow-
ments were cultivated by unceasing practice and unwearied
attention. Study of his original papers shows that his dis-
coveries were not made at haphazard, but were the outcome
of experiments carefully planned to verify inferences already
drawn, and successfully designed to settle the point at issue in the
simplest and most direct manner. He left nothing in doubt if
experiment would decide it, and he evidently did not consider
that he had fully investigated any compound until he could both
unmake and remake it. His record as a discoverer of new sub-
stances is probably unequalled. The analysis of manganese
dioxide in 1774 led him to the discovery of chlorine and baryta;
to the description of various salts of manganese itself, including the
manganates and permanganates, and to the explanation of its
action in colouring and decolourizing glass. In 1 7 7 5 he investigated
arsenic acid and its reactions, discovering arseniuretted hydrogen
and " Scheele's green " (copper arsenite), a process for preparing
which on a large scale he published in 1778. Papers published
in 1776 were concerned with quartz, alum and clay and with the
analysis of calculus vesicae from which for the first time he obtained
uric acid. In 1778 he proposed a new method of making calomel
and powder of algaroth, and he got molybdic acid from mineral
molybdaena nitens which he carefully distinguished from ordinary
molybdena (plumbago or black lead of commerce) . In the follow-
ing year he showed that plumbago consists essentially of carbon,
and he published a record of estimations of the proportions of
oxygen in the atmosphere, which he had carried on daily during
the whole of 1778 three years before Cavendish. In 1780 he
proved that the acidity of sour milk is due to what was after-
wards called lactic acid; and by boiling milk sugar with nitric
acid he obtained mucic acid. His next discovery, in 1781, was
the composition of the mineral tungsten, since called scheelite
(calcium tungstate), from which he obtained tungstic acid.
In 1782 he published some experiments on the formation of ether,
and in 1 783 examined the properties of glycerine, which he had
discovered seven years before. About the same time he showed
by a wonderful series of experiments that the colouring matter
of Prussian blue could not be produced without the presence
of a substance of the nature of an acid, to which the name of
prussic acid was ultimately given; and he described the com-
position, properties and compounds of this body, and even
ascertained its smell and taste, quite unaware of its poisonous
character. In the last years of his life he returned to the vegetable
acids, and investigated citric, malic, oxalic and gallic acids. His
only book, on Air and Fire, was published in 1777, but was
written some years before. The manuscript was in the hands
of the printers in 1775, and most of the experimental work for
it was done before 1773. Although it starts from the erroneous
basis of the phlogistic theory, it contains much matter of per-
manent value. One of the chief observations recorded in it is that
the atmosphere is composed of two gases one which supports
combustion and the other which prevents it. The former,
" fire-air," or oxygen, he prepared from " acid of nitre," from
saltpetre, from black oxide of manganese, from oxide of mercury
and other substances, and there is little doubt but that he
obtained it independently a considerable time before Priestley.
Incidentally in 1777 Scheele prepared sulphuretted hydrogen,
and noted the chemical action of light on silver compounds and
other substances.
A list of Scheele's papers is given in Poggendorff s Biographisch-
literarisches Handworterbuch (Leipzig, 1863). They were collected
and published in French as Memoires de chymie (Paris, 1785-1788);
in English as Chemical Essays, by Thomas Beddpes (London, 1786);
in Latin as Opuscula, translated by Schiifer, edited by Hebenstreit
(Leipzig, 1788-1789); and in German as Sammtliche Werke, edited
SCHEELITE SCHEFFEL
by Hermbstadt (Berlin, 1793). The treatise on Air and Fire appeared
in German, Leipzig and Upsala in 1777, and again in 1782; in
English, by I. R. Forster (London, 1780); and in French, by
Dietrich (Pans, 1781).
SCHEELITE, a mineral consisting of calcium tungstate,
CaWXX. It was early known as " tungsten " (meaning in
Swedish, " heavy stone "), and is the mineral in which K. W.
Scheele discovered tungstic acid, hence the name scheelite.
Well-developed crystals are not infrequent; they usually have
the form of acute tetragonal bipyramids (P in fig.); sometimes
other pyramid-faces are present, and these (g and ) being
developed on only one side of P indicate
the parallel-faced hemihedrism of the
crystals. Compact and granular masses
also occur. The colour is usually yellowish
white or brownish, the crystals sometimes
transparent to translucent; the lustre
vitreous to adamantine. The hardness is
45, the specific gravity 6-0. Molybdenum
is usually present, replacing an equivalent
amount of tungsten; and in a green
variety known as " cupro-scheelite " part
of the calcium is replaced by copper.
Scheelite usually occurs with topaz,
fluor, apatite, wolframite, &c., in tin-
bearing veins; and is sometimes found in
association with gold. Fine crystals have been obtained from
Caldbeck Fells in Cumberland, Zinnwald and Elbogen in Bohemia ,
Guttannen in Switzerland, the Riesengebirge in Silesia, Dragoon
Mountains inArizona and elsewhere. At Trumbull in Connecticut
and Kimpu-san in Japan large crystals of scheelite completely
altered to wolframite have been found: those from Japan have
been called " reinite."
SCHEEMAKERS, PETER (1691-1770), Flemish sculptor, was
born in Antwerp, and learnt his art from his father and from
Delvaux. After visiting Denmark and walking thence to Rome
for purposes of study, he returned on foot to the port of embarca-
tion for England, but stayed in London but a short while.
From 1 7 28 to 1 73 5 he again sojourned in Rome and then settled in
England, where he remained from 1735 to 1770, returning in
the latter year to his native city where he died a few months
afterwards. He worked for a time with Francis Bird, the pupil
of Grinling Gibbons. Fifteen of his works monuments, figures
and busts are in Westminster Abbey, two executed in collabo-
ration with his master Delvaux: the " Hugh Chamberlen "
(d. 1728, and therefore perhaps produced during his first visit to
London) and " Catherine, duchess of Buckinghamshire." He is
best, though not most creditably, known to fame by his monu-
ment to Shakespeare (1740), but as this work was designed by
Kent the blame for the errors of taste therein displayed must
not be laid to Scheemakers' account. In addition to these
may be mentioned the monuments to Admiral Sir Charles
Wager, Vice-Admiral Watson, Lieut.-General Percy Kirk,
George Lord Viscount Howe, General Monck, and Sir Henry
Belasye. His busts of John Dryden (1720) and Dr Richard
Mead (1754), also in the Abbey, are among the best of
his smaller works. The most important of his monuments
elsewhere, as mentioned by Walpole, are those to the ist and
2nd dukes of Ancaster at Edenham, Lincolnshire; Lord
Chancellor Hardwicke at Wimpole, Cambridgeshire; the duke
of Kent, his wives and daughters, at Fletton, Bedfordshire;
the earl of Shelburne, at Wycombe, Bucks; and the figure on
the sarcophagus to Montague Sherrard Drake, at Amersham.
Although less esteemed as an artist than Rysbrack and Roubiliac,
Scheemakers was a very popular and widely-employed sculptor
in his day, whose influence was considerable; he was the master
of Nollekens, and left a son, Thomas Scheemakers, who produced
a considerable amount of work, and exhibited in the Royal
Academy from 1782-1804.
See Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, vol. 3 (ed. 1876), and
Dictionary of National Biography.
SCHEFER, LEOPOLD (1784-1862), German poet and novelist,
was born at Muskau in Lower Lusatia on the 3Oth of July 1784,
and educated at the gymnasium of Bautzen. In 1813, he was
appointed manager of the estates of Prince Piickler-Muskau (q.v.).
The prince, recognizing the literary abilities of the young man,
encouraged his early poetical efforts and gave him the means
to travel. After visiting England, Italy, Greece and Turkey,
Schefer returned in 1820 to Muskau, where he lived in easy
circumstances and with abundant leisure for his literary pursuits,
until his death on the i6th of February 1862. Schefer wrote a
large number of short stories which appeared in several series,
Novellen (5 vols., 1825-1829); Neue Novellen (4 vols., 1831-
1835); Lavabecher (2 vols., 1833); Kleine Romane (6 vols., 1836-
1837). The historical novel Die Grafin Ulfeld (2 vols., 1834),
and the piquant satire, Die Sibylle von Mantua (1852), were
published separately. But Schefer is less known for his novels
which are lacking in plastic power and creative imagination,
than for a volume of charming poems, Laienbrewer (1834-1835).
These, owing to their warmth of feeling and fascinating descrip-
tions of the beauties of nature, at once established his fame as
a poet. This vein, in close imitation of his friend the poet
Richard Georg Spiller von Hauenschild, known under the
pseudonym Max Waldau (1822-1855), he followed hi later years
with the poems Vigilien (1843), Der Weltpriester (1846), and
Hausreden (1869). His Hafis in Hellas (Hamburg, 1853) and
Koran der Lie.be (Hamburg, 1855) contain with their glowing
descriptions of the East, original poetry of a high order.
A selection of Schefer's works, Ausgewahlte Werke, in 12 vols.,
was published in 1845 (2nd ed., 1857). See J. Schmidt, Geschichte
der aeutschen Literatur im 19. Jahrhundert, vol. ii.; E. Brenning
Leopold Schefer (1884); and L. Geiger in Dichter und Frauen (1896).
SCHEFFEL, JOSEPH VIKTOR VON (1826-1886), German
poet and novelist, was born at Karlsruhe on the 1 6th of February
1826. His father, a retired major in the Baden army, was a
civil engineer and member of the commission for regulating the
course of the Rhine; his mother, nee Josephine Krederer, the
daughter of a prosperous tradesman at Oberndorf on the Neckar,
was a woman of great intellectual powers and of a romantic
disposition. Young Scheffel was educated at the lyceum at
Karlsruhe and afterwards (1843-1847) at the universities of
Munich, Heidelberg and Berlin. After passing the state examina-
tion for admission to the judicial service, he graduated doctor
juris and for four years (1848-1852) held an official position at
Sackingen. Here he wrote his poem Der Trompeter von Sackingen
(1853), a romantic and humorous tale which immediately
gained extraordinary popularity. It has reached more than
250 editions. Scheffel next undertook a journey to Italy.
Returning home in 1853 he found his parents more than ever
anxious that he should continue his legal career. But in' 1854,
defective eyesight incapacitated him; he quitted the government
service and took up his residence at Heidelberg, with the intention
of preparing himself for a post on the teaching staff of the
university. His studies were, however, interrupted by eye-
disease, and in search of health he proceeded to Switzerland and
took up his abode on the Lake of Constance, and elaborated the
plan of his famous historical romance Ekkehard (1857);
(Eng. trans, by S. Delffs, Leipzig, 1872). The first ideas for
this work he got from the Monumenta Germaniae. It gained
popularity hardly inferior to that of the Trompeter von Sackingen.
In 1901 it had reached the i79th edition. Scheffel next returned
to Heidelberg, and published Gaudeamus, Lieder aus dem Engeren
und Weiteren (1868), a collection of joyous and humorous songs,
the matter for which is taken partly from German legends,
partly from historical subjects. In these songs the author
shows himself the light-hearted student, a friend of wine and
song; and their success is unexampled in German literature
and encouraged numerous imitators. For two years (1857-1859)
Scheffel was custodian of the library of Prince Egon von Fursten-
berg at Donaueschingen, but giving up his appointment in 1859,
visited Joseph Freiherr von Lassberg, at Meersburg on the
Lake of Constance, stayed for a while with the grand duke
Charles Alexander of Saxe- Weimar at the Wartburg in Thuringia,
then, settling at Karlsruhe, he married in 1864 Caroline von
Malzen, and, in 1872, retired to his Villa Seehalde near Radolfzell
316
SCHEFFER SCHELLING
on the lower lake of Constance. On the occasion of his jubilee
(1876), which was celebrated all over Germany, he was granted
a patent of hereditary nobility by the grand duke of Baden.
He died at Karlsruhe on the gth of April 1886.
His works, other than those already mentioned, are Pratt Aventiure.
Lieder aus Heinrich von Ofterdingens Zeit (1863); Juniperus, Ge-
schichte eines Kreuzfahrers (1866); Bergpsalmen (1870); Waldeinsam-
keit (1880); Der Heini von Steier (1883); and Hugideo, eine alte Ge-
schichte (1884). Volumes of Reisebilder (1887); Episteln (1892);
and Brief e (1898) were published posthumously. Scheffel's Gesam-
melte Wcrke have been published in six volumes (1907). Cf. also
A. Ruhemann, Joseph Victor von Scheffel (1887); G. Zernin, Erin-
nerungen an Joseph Victor von Scheffel (1887); J. Prolss, Scheffels
Leben und Dichten (1887); L. von Kobell, Scheffel und seine Frau
(1901); E. Boerschel, /. V. von Scheffel und Emma Heim (1906).
SCHEFFER, ARY (1795-1858), French painter of Dutch
extraction, was born at Dort on the loth of February 1795. After
the early death of his father, a poor painter, Ary was taken to
Paris and placed in the studio of Guerin by his mother, a woman
of great energy and character. The moment at which Scheffer
left Guerin coincided with the commencement of the Romantic
movement. He had little sympathy with the directions given
to it by either of its most conspicuous representatives, Sigalon,
Delacroix or Gericault, and made various tentative efforts
" Gaston de Foix " (1824), " Suliot Women " (1827) before he
found his own path. Immediately after the exhibition of the
last-named work he turned to Byron and Goethe, selecting from
Faust a long series of subjects which had an extraordinary
vogue. Of these, we may mention " Margaret at her Wheel ";
" Faust Doubting "; " Margaret at the Sabbat "; " Margaret
Leaving Church "; the " Garden Walk "; and lastly, perhaps the
most popular of all, " Margaret at the Well." The two " Mignons "
appeared in 1836; and " Francesca da Rimini," which is on the.
whole Scheffer's best work, belongs to the same period. He now
turned to religious subjects: " Christus Consolator " (1836) was
followedby " Christ us Remunerator," " The Shepherds Led by the
Star " (1837), " The Magi Laying Down their Crowns," " Christ
in the Garden of Olives," " Christ bearing his Cross," " Christ
Interred" (1845), " St Augustine and'Monica " (1846), after which
he ceased to exhibit, but, shut up in his studio, continued to
produce much which was first seen by the outer world after his
death, which took, place at Argenteuil on the isth of June 1858.
At the posthumous exhibition of his works there figured the
" Sorrows of the Earth," and the " Angel Announcing the Re-
surrection," which he had left unfinished. Amongst his numerous
portraits those of La Fayette, B6ranger, Lamartine and Marie
Amelie were the most noteworthy. His reputation, much shaken
by this posthumous exhibition, was further undermined by the
sale of the Paturle Gallery, which contained many of his most
celebrated achievements; the charm and facility of their com-
position could not save them from the condemnation provoked
by their poor and earthy colour and vapid sentiment. Scheffer,
who married the widow of General Baudrand, was only made
commander of the Legion of Honour in 1848 that is, after
he had wholly withdrawn from the Salon. His brother Henri,
born at the Hague on the 27th of September 1798, was also a
fertile painter.
See Vitet's notice (1861) prefixed to Bingham's publication of
works of A. Scheffer; Etex, Ary Scheffer; Mrs Grote, Life of A.
Scheffer (1860).
SCHELANDRE, JEAN DE (c. 1585-1635), Seigneur de
Saumazenes, French poet, was born about 1585 near Verdun
of a Calvinist family. He studied at the university of Paris
and then joined Turenne's army in Holland, where he gained
rapid advancement. He was the author of a tragedy, Tyr el
Sidon, ou les Junestes amours de Belcar et Meliane, published in
1608 under the anagram-name Daniel d'Ancheres, and reprinted
with numerous changes in 1628 under the author's own name.
In defiance of all rules the action proceeds alternately at Tyre,
where Belcar, prince of Sidon, is a prisoner, and at Sidon where
L6onte, prince of Tyre, is a prisoner and pursues his gallant
adventures. The play, which was divided into two days and
ten acts, had a complicated plot and contained 5000 lines. It
required an immense stage on which the two towns should
be represented, "with a field between, where the contests should
take place. It is noteworthy as an attempt to introduce the
liberty of the Spanish and English drama into France, thus
anticipating the romantic revolt of the igth century. It has
been suggested that Schelandre was directly acquainted with
Shakespearian drama, but of this there is no direct proof, although
he appears to have spent some time in England and to have seen
James I. Tyr et Sidon is reprinted in the 8th volume of the
Ancien Thedtre franfais. Schelandre was also the author of a
Stuartide (161 1) , and of Les Sept Excellent! Traiiaux de la penitence
de Saint Pierre (1636). He pursued his military career to the
end of his lile, dying at Saumazenes in 1635 fr m wounds received
in the German campaign of Louis d'Epernon, Cardinal de la
Valette.
See Ch. Asselineau, Jean de Schelandre (Paris, 1854).
SCHELDT (Fr. Escaut, Flem. Schelde), a river rising near
Catelet in France, entering Belgium near Bleharies in Hainaut,
and flowing past Tournai, Oudenarde, Ghent and Termonde
till it reaches Antwerp. Some distance below Antwerp, in front
of the island Beveland, where the river divides into two channels,
respectively north and south of the island, both banks belong
to Holland. Of the two channels named, the southern, which
reaches the sea at Flushing, is the more important and is used
for ocean commerce. The Scheldt has a length of 250 m., of
which, by a skilful arrangement of locks, not less than 207 m. are
navigable. The principal tributaries are the Lys and the Dender.
By the treaty of Munster in 1648 the Dutch obtained the right
to close the Scheldt to navigation, and they clung tenaciously
to it for over two centuries. In 1839 on the final dissolution of
the kingdom of the Netherlands, Holland gave definite form
to this right by fixing the toll, and by obtaining the assent of the
powers to the arrangement which fettered the trade of Antwerp.
In 1863 after long negotiations Belgium bought up this right
each of the powers interested in the trade contributing its quota
a*id the navigation of the Scheldt was then declared free.
SCHELER, JEAN AUGUSTE ULRIC (1810-1890), Belgian
philologist, was born at Ebnat, Switzerland, in 1819. His
father, a German, was chaplain to King Leopold I. of Belgium,
and Jean Scheler, after studying at Bonn and Munich, became
King's librarian and professor at the Brussels Free University.
His investigations in Romance philology earned him a wide
reputation. He died at Ixelles, Belgium, in 1890.
The most important of his numerous philological works are:
Memoire sur la conjugaifon franfaise ccnsideree sous le rapport
itymologique (Brussels, 1847), Dictionnaire d'etymologie franc,aise
d'apres les resultats de la science moderne (Brussels, 1862), Etude sur
la transformation fran^aise des mots latins (Ghent, 1869). He also
edited the fourth edition of Diez's Etymologisches Worterbuch der
romanischen Sprachen (Bonn, 1878), and completed Grandgagnage's
Dictionnaire etymologique de la langue ivallonne (Louvain, 1880).
He also published several critical editions of middle ages texts,
including one of Les Patsies de Froissart (Brussels, 1870-1872), and
a monograph Sur le sejour de I'apdtre saint Pierre d Rome (Brussels,
1845), which was translated into German and English.
SCHELLING, FRIEDRICH WILHELM JOSEPH VON (1775-
1854), German philosopher, was born on the 27th of January
1 775. at Leonberg, a small town of Wurttemberg. He was
educated at the cloister school of Bebenhausen, near Tubingen,
where his father, an able Orientalist, was chaplain and professor,
and at the theological seminary at Tubingen, which he was
specially allowed to enter when he was threo years under the
prescribed age. Among his (elder) contemporaries were Hegel
and Holderlin. In 1 792 he graduated in the philosophical faculty.
In 1793 he contributed to Paulus's Memorabilien a paper " Uber
Mythus, historische Sagen, und Philosopheme der altestcn
Welt "; and in 1795 his thesis for his theological degree was
De Marcione Paullinarum epistolarum emendatore. Meanwhile
a much more important influence had begun to operate on him,
arising out of his study of Kant and Fichte. The Review
of Aenesidemus and the tractate On the Notion of Wissen-
schaftslehre found in his mind most fruitful soil. With character-
istic zeal and impetuosity Schelling had no sooner grasped the
leading ideas of Fichte's amended form of the critical philosophy
than he put together his impressions of it in his Uber die MogMchkait
SCHELLING
einer Form der Philosophic ilberhaupt ( 1 794) . There was nothing
original in the treatment, but it showed such power of appreciat-
ing the new ideas of the Fichtean method that it was hailed
with cordiaf recognition by Fichte himself, and gave the author
immediately a place in popular estimation as in the foremost
rank of existing philosophical writers. The more elaborate work,
Vom Ich als Princip der Philosophie, oder uber das Unbedingte
im menschlichen Wissen (1795), which, still remaining within
the limits of the Fichtean idealism, however, exhibits unmistak-
able traces of a tendency to give the Fichtean method a more
objective application, and to amalgamate with it Spinoza's
more realistic view of things.
After two years as tutor to two youths of noble family, Schelling
was called as extraordinary professor of philosophy to Jena
in midsummer 1798. He had already contributed articles and
reviews to the Journal of Fichte and Niethammer, and had
thrown himself with all his native impetuosity into the study
of physical and medical science. From 1796 date the Brief e
uber Dogmalismus und Kriticismus, an admirably written
critique of the ultimate issues of the Kantian system; from
1797 the essay entitled Neue Deduction des Nalurrechts, which
to some extent anticipated Fichte's treatment in the Grundlage
des Naturrechts, published in 1796, but not before Schelling's
essay had been received by the editors of the Journal. 1 His
studies of physical science bore rapid fruit in the Ideen zu einer
Philosophie der Natur (1797), and the treatise Von der Weltseele
(1798).
The philosophical renown of Jena reached its culminating
point during the years (1798-1803) of Schelling's residence
there. His intellectual sympathies united him closely with
some of the most active literary tendencies of the time. With
Goethe, who viewed with interest and appreciation the poetical
fashion of treating fact characteristic of the Naturphilosophie,
he continued on excellent terms, while on the other hand he was
repelled by Schiller's less expansive disposition, and failed alto-
gether to understand the lofty ethical idealism that animated his
work. He quickly became the acknowledged leader of the
Romantic school whose impetuous litterateurs had begun to
tire of the cold abstractions of Fichte. In Schelling, essentially
a self-conscious genius, eager and rash, yet with undeniable
power, they hailed a personality of the true Romantic type.
With August Wilhelm Schlegel and his gifted wife Caroline,
herself the embodiment of the Romantic spirit, Schelling's
relations were of the most intimate kind, and a marriage between
Schelling and Caroline's young daughter, Auguste Bohmer,
was vaguely contemplated by both. Auguste's death in 1800
(due partly to Schelling's rash confidence in his medical know-
ledge) drew Schelling and Caroline together, and Schlegel having
removed to Berlin, a divorce was, apparently with his consent,
arranged. On the 2nd of June 1803 Schelling and Caroline
were married, and with the marriage Schelling's life at Jena
came to an end. It was full time, for Schelling's undoubtedly
overweening self-confidence had involved him in a series of
disputes and quarrels at Jena, the details of which are important
only as illustrations of the evil qualities in Schelling's nature
which deface much of his philosophic work.
From September 1803 until April 1806 Schelling was professor
at the new university of Wurzburg. This period was marked
by considerable changes in his views and by the final breach on
the one hand with Fichte and on the other hand with Hegel. In
Wurzburg Schelling had had many enemies. He embroiled himself
with his colleagues and also with the government. In Munich,
to which he removed in 1806, he found a quiet residence. A
position as state official, at first as associate of the academy
of sciences and secretary of the academy of arts, afterwards
as secretary of the philosophical section of the academy of
sciences, gave him ease and leisure. Without resigning his
official position he lectured for a short time at Stuttgart, and
1 The reviews of current philosophical literature were afterwards
collected, and edited under the title " Abhandjungen zur Erlauterung
des Idealismus der Wissenschaftslehre " in Schelling's Philos.
Schriften, vol. i. (1809).
during seven years at Erlangen (1820-1827). In r 8o9 Caroline
died, and three years later Schelling married one of her closest
friends, Pauline Cotter, in whom he found a faithful companion.
During the long stay at Munich (1806-1841) Schelling's
literary activity seemed gradually to come to a standstill.
The " Aphorisms on Naturphilosophie " contained in the
Jahrbucher der Medicin als Wissenschaft (1806-1808) are for the
most part extracts from the Wurzburg lectures; and the Denkmal
der Schrift von den gottlichen Dingen des Herrn Jacobi was
drawn forth by the special incident of Jacobi's work. The only
writing of significance is the " Philosophische Untersuchungen
iiber das Wesen der menschlichen Freiheit," which appeared
in the Philosophische Schriften. vol. i. (1809), and which carries
out, with increasing tendency to mysticism, the thoughts of
the previous work, Philosophie und Religion. In 1815 appeared
the tract Uber die Gottheiten zu Samothrake, ostensibly a portion
of a great work, Die Weltalter, frequently announced as ready for
publication, of which no great part was ever written. Probably
it was the overpowering strength and influence of the Hegelian
system that constrained Schelling to so long a silence, for it
was only in 1834, after the death of Hegel, that, in a preface to
a translation by H. Beckers of a work by Cousin, he gave public
utterance to the antagonism in which he stood to the Hegelian
and to his own earlier conceptions of philosophy. The.antagon-
ism certainly was not then a new fact; the Erlangen lectures on
the history of philosophy (Sdmmt. Werke, x. 124-125) of 1822
express the same in a pointed fashion, and Schelling had already
begun the treatment of mythology and religion which in his view
constituted the true positive complement to the negative of
logical or speculative philosophy. Public attention was power-
fully attracted by these vague hints of a new system which
promised something more positive, as regards religion in parti-
cular, than the apparent results of Hegel's teaching. For the
appearance of the critical writings of Strauss, Feuerbach and
Bauer, and the evident disunion in the Hegelian school itself
had alienated the sympathies of many from the then dominant
philosophy. In Berlin particularly, the headquarters of the
Hegelians, the desire found expression to obtain officially from
Schelling a treatment of the new system which he was understood
to have in reserve. The realization of the desire did not come
about till 1841, when the appointment of Schelling as Prussian
privy councillor and member of the Berlin Academy, gave him
the right, a right he was requested to exercise, to deliver lectures
in the university. The opening lecture of his course was listened
to by a large and appreciative audience. The enmity of his old
foe, H. E. G. Paulus, sharpened by Schelling's apparent success,
led to the surreptitious publication of a verbatim report of the
lectures on the philosophy of revelation, and, as Schelling did
not succeed in obtaining legal condemnation and suppression of
this piracy, he in 1845 ceased the delivery of any public courses.
No authentic information as to the nature of the new positive
philosophy was obtained till after his death (at Bad Rogaz, on the
2oth of August 1854), when his sons began the issue of his
collected writings with the four volumes of Berlin lectures:
vol. i. Introduction to the Philosophy of Mythology (1856); ii.
Philosophy of Mythology (1857); iii. and iv. Philosophy of
Revelation (1858).
Philosophy. Whatever judgment one may form of the total worth
of Schelling as a philosopher, his place in the history of that important
movement called generally German philosophy is unmistakable and
assured. It happened to him, as he himself claimed, to turn a page
in the history of thought, and one cannot ignore the actual advance
upon his predecessor achieved by him or the brilliant fertility of
the genius by which that achievement was accomplished. On the
other hand he nowhere succeeds in attaining to a complete scientific
system. His philosophical writings are the successive manifestations
of a restless highly endowed spirit, striving unsuccessfully after a
solution of its own problems. Such unity as they possess is a unity
of tendency and endeavour; in some respects the final form they
assumed is the least satisfactory. Hence it has come about that
Schelling remains for the philosophic student but a moment of
historical value in the development of thought, and that his works
have for the most part ceased now to have more than historic
interest.
It is not unfair to connect the apparent failings of Schelling's
3 i8
SCHELLING
philosophizing with the very nature of the thinker and with the
historical accidents of his career. In his early writings, for example,
more particularly those making up Naturphilosophie, one finds in
painful abundance the evidences of hastily acquired knowledge,
impatience of the hard labour of minute thought, over-confidence
in the force of individual genius, and desire instantaneously to
present even in crudest fashion the newest idea that has dawned
upon the thinker. Schelling was prematurely thrust into the
position of a foremost productive thinker ; and when the lengthened
period of quiet meditation was at last forced upon him there un-
fortunately lay before him a system which achieved what had dimly
been involved in his ardent and impetuous desires. It is not possible
to acquit Schelling of a certain disingenuousness in regard to the
Hegelian philosophy; and if we claim for him perfect disinterested-
ness of view we must accuse him of deficient insight.
At all stages of his thought he called to his aid the forms of some
other system. Thus Fichte, Spinoza, Jakob Boehme and the
Mystics, and finally, the great Greek thinkers with their Neop'.atonic,
Gnostic, and Scholastic commentators, give respectively colouring
to particular works. But Schelling did not merely borrow, he had
genuine philosophic spirit and no small measure of philosophic
insight, and under all the differences of exposition which seem to
constitute so many differing systems, there is one and the same
philosophic effort and spirit. But what Schelling did want was
power to work out his ideas methodically. Hence he could only find
expression for himself in forms of this or that earlier philosophy,
and hence too the frequent formlessness of his own thought, the
tendency to relapse into mere impatient despair of ever finding an
adequate vehicle for transmitting thought. It is fair in dealing
with Schilling's development to take into account the indications
of his own opinion regarding its more significant momenta. In his
own view the turning points seem to have been (l) the transition
from Fichte's method to the more objective conception of nature-
the advance, in other words, to Naturphilosophie; (2) the definite
formulation of that which implicitly, as Schelling claims, was in-
volved in the idea of Naturphilosophie, viz. the thought of the
identical, indifferent, absolute substratum of both nature and spirit,
the advance to Identitdtsphilosophie; (3) the opposition of negative
and positive philosophy, an opposition which is the theme of the
Berlin lectures, though its germs may be traced back to 1804.
Only what falls under the first and second of the divisions so indicated
can be said to have discharged a function in developing philosophy ;
only so much constitutes Schelling's philosophy proper.
I. Naturphilosophie. The Fichtean method had striven to exhibit
the whole structure of reality as the necessary implication of self-
consciousness. The fundamental features of knowledge, whether
as activity or as sum of apprehended fact, and of conduct had been
deduced as elements necessary in the attainment of self-conscious-
ness. Fichtean idealism therefore at once stood out negatively, as
abolishing the dogmatic conception of the two real worlds, subject
and object, by whose interaction cognition and practice arise, and as
amending the critical idea which retained with dangerous caution
too many fragments of dogmatism; positively, as insisting on the
unity of philosophical interpretation and as supplying a key to the
form or method by which a completed philosophic system might be
constructed. But the Fichtean teaching appeared on the one hand
to identify top closely the ultimate ground of the universe of rational
conception with the finite, individual spirit, and on the other hand
to endanger the reality of the world of nature by regarding it too
much after the fashion of subjective' idealism, as mere moment,
though necessitated, in the existence of the finite thinking mind.
It was almost a natural consequence that Fichte never succeeded
in amalgamating with his own system the aesthetic view of nature
to which the Kritik of Judgment had pointed as an essential com-
ponent in any complete philosophy.
From Fichte's position Schelling started. From Fichte he derived
the ideal of a completed whole of philosophic conception and also
the formal method to which for the most part he continued true.
The earliest writings tended gradually towards the first important
advance. Nature must not be conceived as merely abstract limit
to the infinite striving of spirit, as a mere series of necessary thoughts
for mind. It must be that and more than that. It must have reality
for itself, a reality which stands in no conflict with its ideal character,
a reality the inner structure of which is ideal, a reality the root and
spring of which is spirit. Nature as the sum of that which is ob-
jective, intelligence as the complex of all the activities making up
self-consciousness, appear thus as equally real, as alike exhibiting
ideal structure, as parallel with one another. The philosophy of
nature and transcendental philosophy are the two complementary
portions of philosophy as a whole.
Animated with this new conception Schelling made his hurried
rush to Naturphilosophie, and with the aid of Kant and of frag-
mentary knowledge of contemporary scientific movements, threw
off in quick succession the Ideen, the Weltseele, and the Erster
Entwurf. Naturphilosophie has had scant mercy at the hands of
modern science. Schelling had neither the strength of thinking nor
the acquired knowledge necessary to hold the balance between the
abstract treatment of cosmological notions and the concrete re-
searches of special science. His efforts after a construction of natural
reality are bad in themselves, and gave rise to wearisome and useless
Chysical speculation. Yet it would be unjust to ignore the many
rilliant and sometimes valuable thoughts that are scattered through-
out the writings on Naturphilosophie thoughts to which Schelling
himself is but too frequently untrue. Regarded merely; as a criticism
of the notions with which scientific interpretation proceeds, these
writings have still importance and might have achieved more had
they been untainted by the tendency to hasty, ill-considered, a priori
anticipations of nature.
Nature, as having reality for itself, forms one completed whole.
Its manifoldness is not then to be taken as excluding its funda-
mental unity; the divisions which our ordinary perception and
thought introduce into it have not absolute validity, but are to be
interpreted as the outcome of the single formative energy or complex
of forces which is the inner aspect, the soul of nature This we are in
a position to apprehend and constructively to exhibit to ourselves
in the successive forms which its development assumes, for it is the
same spirit, though unconscious, of which we become aware in self-
consciousness. It is the realization of spirit. Nor is the variety of
its forms imposed upon it from without; there is neither external
teleology in nature, nor mechanism in the narrower sense. Nature
is a whole and forms itself; within its range we are to look for no
other than natural explanations. The function of Naturphilosophie
is to exhibit the ideal as springing from the real, not to deduce the
real from the ideal. The incessant change which experience brings
before us, taken in conjunction with the thought of unity in pro-
ductive force of nature, leads to the all-important conception of the
duality, the polar opposition through which nature expresses itself
in its varied products. The dynamical series of stages in nature,
the forms in which the ideal structure of nature is realized, are
matter, as the equilibrium of the fundamental expansive and con-
tractive forces; light, with its subordinate processes magnetism,
electricity, and chemical action; organism, with its component
phases of reproduction, irritability and sensibility. 1
Just as nature exhibits to us the series of dynamical stages of
processes by which spirit struggles towards consciousness of itself,
so the world of intelligence and practice, the world of mind, exhibits
the series of stages through which self-consciousness with its inevit-
able oppositions and reconciliations develops in its ideal form.
The theoretical side of inner nature in its successive grades from
sensation to the highest form of spirit, the abstracting reason which
emphasizes the difference of subjective and objective, leaves an
unsolved problem which receives satisfaction only in the practical,
the individualizing activity. The practical, again, taken in con-
junction with the theoretical, forces on the question of the recon-
ciliation between the free conscious organization of thought and the
apparently necessitated and unconscious mechanism of the objective
world. In the notion of a teleological connexion and in that which
for spirit is its subjective expression, viz. art and genius, the sub-
jective and objective find their point of union.
2. Nature and spirit, Naturphilosophie and Transcendentalphilo-
sophie, thus stand as two relatively complete, but complementary
parts of the whole. It was impossible for Schelling, the animating
principle of whose thought was ever the reconciliation of differences,
not to take and to take speedily the step towards the conception of
the uniting basis of which nature and spirit are manifestations,
forms, or consequences. For this common basis, however, he did
not succeed at first in finding any other than the merely negative
expression of indifference. The identity, the absolute, which underlay
all difference, all the relative, is to be characterized simply as neutrum,
as absolute undifferentiated self-equivalence. It lay in the very
nature of this thought that Spinoza should now offer himself to
Schelling as the thinker whose form of presentation came nearest to
his new problem. The Darstellung meines Systems, and the more
expanded and more careful treatment contained in the lectures on
System der gesammten Philosophic und der Naturphilosophie insbeson-
dere given in Wiirzburg, 1804 (published in the Sdmmtliche Werke,
vol. vi. pp. 131-576), are thoroughly Spinozistic in form, and to a
large extent in substance. They are not without value, indeed, as
extended commentary on Spinoza. With all his efforts, Schelling
does not succeed in bringing his conceptions of nature and spirit
into any vital connexion with the primal identity, the absolute
indifference of reason. No true solution could be achieved by resort
to the mere absence of distinguishing, differencing feature. The
absolute was left with no other function than that of removing all
the differences on which thought turns. The criticisms of Fichte,
and more particularly of Hegel (in the " Vorrede " to the Phdno-
menologie aes Geistes), point to the fatal defect in the conception of
the absolute as mere featureless identity.
3. Along two distinct lines Schelling is to be found in all his
later writings striving to amend the conception, to which he re-
mained true, of absolute reason as the ultimate ground of reality.
It was necessary, in the first place, to give to this absolute a char-
acter, to make of it something more than empty sameness; it was
necessary, in the second place, to clear up in some way the relation
in which the actuality or apparent actuality of nature and spirit
1 The briefest and best account in Schelling himself of Natur-
philosophie is that contained in the Einleitung zu dem Ersten Entwurf
(S.W. iii.). A full and lucid statement of Naturphilosophie is that
given by K. Fischer in his Gesch. d. n. Phil., vi. 433-692.
SCHELLING, K. SCHENECTADY
3*9
stood to the ultimate real. Schelling had already (in the System
der ges, Phil.) begun to endeavour after an amalgamation of the
Spinozistic conception of substance with the Platonic view of an
ideal realm, and to find therein the means of enriching the bareness
of absolute reason. In Bruno, and in Philos. u. Religion, the same
thought finds expression. In the realm of ideas the absolute finds
itself, has its own nature over against itself as objective over against
subjective, and thus is in the way of overcoming its abstractness,
of becoming concrete. This conception of a difference, of an internal
structure in the absolute, finds other and not lees obscure expressions
in the mystical contributions of the Menschliche Freiheit and in the
scholastic speculations of the Berlin lectures on mythology. At
the same time it connects itself with the second problem, how to
attain in conjunction with the abstractly rational character of the
absolute an explanation of actuality. Things nature and spirit
have an actual being. They exist not merely as logical consequence
or development of the absolute, but have a stubbornness of being in
them, an antagonistic feature which in all times philosophers have
been driven to recognize, and which they have described in varied
fashion. The actuality of things is a defection from the absolute,
and their existence compels a reconsideration of our conception of
God. There must be recognized in God as a completed actuality, a
dim, obscure ground or basis, which can only be described as not
yet being, but as containing in itself the impulse to externalization,
to existence. It is through this ground of Being in God Himself that
we must find explanation of that independence which things assert
over against God. And it is easy to see how from this position
Schelling was led on to the further statements that not in the rational
conception of God is an explanation of existence to be found, nay,
that all rational conception extends but to the form, and touches
not the real that God is to be conceived as act, as will, as something
over and above the rational conception of the divine. Hence the
stress laid on will as the realizing factor, in opposition to thought, a
view through which Schelling connects himself with Schopenhauer
and Von Hartmann, and on the ground of which he has been
recognized by the latter as the reconciler of idealism and realism.
Finally, then, there emerges the opposition of negative, i.e. merely
rational philosophy, and positive, ot which the content is the real
evolution of the divine as it has taken place in fact and in history,
and as it is recorded in the varied mythologies and religions of man-
kind. Not much satisfaction can be felt with the exposition of
either as it appears in the volumes of Berlin lectures.
Schelling's works were collected and published by his sons, in
14 vo!s. (1856^-1861). The individual works appeared as follows:
Ober die Moglichkeit einer Form der Philosophic uberhaupt (Tubingen,
1794); Ideen zu einer Philosophic der Natur (Leipzig, 1797, ed.
1803); Von der Weltseele (Hamburg, 1798, 3rd ed. 1809); Erster
Entwurf eines Systems der Naturphilosophie (Jena, 1799); Einleitung
zu seinem Entwurf der Naturphilosophie (ib. 1799); System des
transcendentalen Idealismus (Tubingen, 1800); Bruno, oder tiber das
eottliche und naturliche Prinzip der Dinge (Berlin, 1802, ed. 1843) ;
Vorlesungen tiber die Mcthode des akademischen Studiums (Tubingen,
1803, ed. Braun, 1907); Vber das Verhaltniss der bildenden Kunste
zu der Natur (Munich, 1807); Vber die Gottheiten von Samothrake
(Stuttgart, 1815). His Munich lectures were published by A. Drews
(Leipzig, 1902). For the life good materials are to be found in the
3 vols., Aus Schelling's Leben in Briefen (3 vols., 1869-^1870), in which
a biographic sketch of the philosopher's early life is given by his
son, and in J. Waitz, Karoline (2 vols., 1871). An interesting little
work is Klaiber, Holderlin, Hegel, u. Schelling in ihren schwdbischen
Jugendjahren (1877). The biography in Kuno Fischer's Gesch. der
neueren Philosophie, vo\.\i\. (srded., 1902) is complete and admirable.
See further Schelling als Personlichkeit. Brief e, Reden, Aufsdtze,
ed. Otto Braun (1908), who also wrote Schellings geistige Wandlungen
in den Jahren 1800-1810 (1906); Rosenkranz, Schelling (1843);
L. Noack, Schelling und die Philosophie der Romantik (2 vols., 1859) ;
G. A. C. Frantz, Schelling's Positive Philosophie (3 vols., 1879-1880) ;
Watson, Schelling's Transcendental Idealism (1882); Groos, Die
reine Vernunftwissenschaft. Systematische Darstellung von Schellings
...Philosophie (1889); E. von Hartmann, Schelling's philos.
System (1897); Delbos, De posteriore Schellingii philosophia quatenus
Hegelianae doctrinae adversatur (1902) ; Koeber, Die Grundprinzipien
der Schellingschen Naturphilosophie (1882); G. Mehlis, Schellings
Geschichtsphilosophie in den Jahren 1709-1804 (1907) ; H. Sueskind,
Der Einfluss Schellings auf die Entwicklung von Schleiermachers
System (1909). (R. AD.; J. M. M.)
SCHELLING, KAROLINE (1763-1809), one of the most
intellectual German women of her age, was born at Gottingen
on the 2nd of September 1763, the daughter of the orientalist
Michaelis. She married, in 1784, a district medical officer, one
Bohmer, in Clausthal in the Harz, and after his death, in 1788,
returned to Gottingen. Here she entered into close relations
to the poet Gottfried August Burger and the critic of the
Romantic school, August Wilhelm Schlegel. In 1791 she took
up her residence in Mainz, joined the famous society of the
Clubbists (Klubbisten) , and suffered a short period of imprison-
ment on account of her political opinions. In 1796 she married
Schlegel, was divorced in 1803, and then became the wife of the
philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling. She died
at Maulbronn on the 7th of September 1809. Karoline-Schelling
played a considerable r61e in the intellectual movement of her
time, and is especially remarkable for the assistance she afforded
Schlegel in his translation of Shakespeare's works. She published
nothing, however, in her own name.
See G. Waitz, Caroline: Briefe an ihre Geschwister, &c. (2 vols.,
1871), and, by the same author, Caroline und ihre Freunde (1882);
further, J. Janssen, Eine Kulturdame und ihre Freunde, Zeit- und
Lebensbilder (1885), and Mrs. A. Sidgwick, Caroline Schlegel and her
Friends (London, 1899).
SCHEME (Lat. schema, Gr. axr/pa., figure, form, from the root trx,
seen in ^x.ta>, to have, hold, to be of such shape, form, &c.), in
the most general and common sense, a plan or design, especially
of action with some definite purpose, often and more particularly
in the derivatives " to scheme," " schemer," " scheming,"
with a hostile or unfavourable notion of a plot or surreptitious
plan, or of a selfish project or enterprise. The original meaning,
derived from the Med. Lat. translation figura, of ffXW" 1 . is that
of a diagram or figure to illustrate a mathematical proposition
and the like, a map or plan, &c., thus used of an analysis, a tabular
statement ; an epitome or synopsis, a table or system of classifica-
tion. In Kantian philosophy, " Schema " is used of " the product
of the exercise of the transcendental imagination in giving
generality to sense and particularity to thought," and " schemat-
ism of the theory, in the Kantian analysis of knowledge, of the
use of the transcendental imagination as mediating between
sense and understanding " (Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy
and Psychology, 1902, vol. ii.).
SCHENECTADY, a city and the county-seat of Schenectady
county, New York, U.S.A., about 16 m. N.W. of Albany, on the
Mohawk river and the Erie Canal. Pop. (1890) 19,902; (1900)
31,682, of whom 7169 were foreign-born; (1910, census)
72,826. Schenectady is served by the New York Central &
Hudson River, and the Delaware & Hudson railways, and by
interurban electric lines connecting with Albany, Troy, Saratoga,
Amsterdam, Johnstown and Gloversville. The city has a fine
situation about 230 ft. above the sea. It is a place of much
historic interest, and has many examples of quaint Dutch colonial
and early American architecture. There is an Indian monument
on the site of the " old fort." Schenectady is the seat of Union
College (undenominational), which grew out of the Schenectady
Academy (1784), was chartered in 1795, and comprises the
academic and engineering departments of Union University,
the medical (1838), law (1851) and pharmacy (1881) departments
of which are at Albany, where also is the Dudley Observatory
(1852), which is under the control of the university. Schenectady
is a manufacturing centre of growing importance; here are the
main works of the General Electric Company, manufacturers of
electrical implements, apparatus, motors and supplies, and of the
American Locomotive Company. Together they give employ-
ment to about 80% of the wage-earners of the city. Among
other manufactures are hosiery and knit goods, overalls and
suspenders, hardware, lumber, oils and varnishes, gasoline fire
engines, mica insulators, agricultural implements, and wagons
and carriages. The capital invested in manufacturing industries
in 1905 was $22,050,746, and the value of the factory product was
$33,084,431, an increase of 87-9% since 1900.
According to tradition Schenectady stands on the site of the
chief village of the Mohawk Indians, and its name, of which
there are many different spellings in early records, is probably of
Indian origin; on an early map (1665) it appears as Scanacthade.
Arendt Van Corlaer, or Curler (d. 1667),' while manager of the
estates of his cousin, the patroon, Killian Van Rensselaer, visited
the site in 1642, and in 1662, being dissatisfied with conditions
on the Manor, he led a band of settlers here. Their allegiance
was directly to the Dutch West India Company, and they enjoyed
Wan Corlaer had emigrated to America about 1630; while
manager of Rensselaerwyck he had earned the confidence of the
Indians, among whom " Corlaer " became a generic term for the
English governors, and especially the governors of New York.
320
SCHENKEL SCHERER, W.
a greater degree of freedom, especially commercial freedom,
than had been possible on the Manor. The land was purchased
from the Mohawks. To each of the fifteen original proprietors,
except Van Corlaer, who received a double portion, was assigned a
village lot 200 ft. sq., a tract of bottom-land for farming purposes,
a strip of woodland, and common pasture rights. Many of the
early settlers were well-to-do and brought their slaves with them,
and for many years the settlement was reputed the richest in
the colony. It received a serious set-back in 1600, when on the
9th of February a force of French and Indians surprised and
burned the village, massacred sixty of the inhabitants and carried
thirty into captivity. The village was rebuilt in the following
year, and a military post was established. About 1 700 there was
a considerable influx of English settlers. In 1748 the French and
Indians again descended on the region and killed many of the
inhabitants of the outlying settlement at Beukendaal, 3 m. N.W.
of Schenectady. Schenectady became a chartered borough in
1765 and a city in 1798. The first newspaper, the Gazette, was
established in 1799. For some years after the completion of the
Erie Canal, Schenectady, which had formerly been an important
depot of the Mohawk river boat trade to the westward, suffered
a decline. The first two railways in the state made Schenectady
their terminus, the Mohawk & Hudson opening to Albany in
September 1831 and the Saratoga & Schenectady in July 1832;
the original station of the Mohawk & Hudson is still standing. It
was not, however, until its new manufacturing era began, about
1880, that Schenectady's modem growth and prosperity began.
See Jonathan Pearson, A History of Schenectady Patent in the
Dutch and English Times (Albany, 1883); G. S. Roberts, Old
Schenectady (Schenectady, 1904) ; and G. R. Howell and J. H.
Munsell, History of the County of Schenectady (Albany, 1887).
SCHENKEL, DANIEL (1813-1885), Swiss Protestant theo-
logian, was born at Dagerlen in the canton of Zurich on the
2ist of December 1813. After studying at Basel and Gottingen
he was successively pastor at Schaffhausen (1841), professor
of theology at Basel (1849); and at Heidelberg professor of
theology (1851), director of the seminary and university preacher.
At first inclined to conservatism, he afterwards became an
exponent of the mediating theology ( Vermittelungs-theologie) ,
and ultimately a liberal theologian and advanced critic. Asso-
ciating himself with the " German Protestant Union " (Deutsche
Protestanten-verein) , he defended the community's claim to
autonomy, the cause of universal suffrage in the church and the
rights of the laity. From 1852 to 1859 he edited the Allgemeine
Kirchenzeitung, and from 1861 to 1872 the Allgemeine Kirchliche
Zeitschrift, which he had founded in 1859. In 1867, with a view
to popularizing the researches and results of the Liberal school,
he undertook the editorship of a Bibel-Lexicon (5 vols., 1869-
1875), a work which was so much in advance of its time that
it is still useful. In his Das Wesen des Prolestantismus aus den
Quetten da Reformationszeitalters beleuchtet (3 vols. 1846-1851,
and ed. 1862), he declares that Protestantism is a principle
which is always living and active, and not something which was
realized once and for all in the past. He contends that the task
of his age was to struggle against the Catholic principle which had
infected Protestant theology and the church. In his Christliche
Dogmatik (2 vols., 1858-1859) he argues that the record of
revelation is human and was historically conditioned: it can
never be absolutely perfect; and that inspiration, though
originating directly with God, is continued through human
instrumentality. His Charakterbild Jesu (1864, 4th ed. 1873;
Engl. trans, from 3rd ed., 1869), which appeared almost simul-
taneously with D. Strauss's Leben Jesu, met with fierce opposition.
The work is considered too subjective and fanciful, the great
fault of the author being that he lacks the impartiality of objec-
tive historical insight. Yet, as Pfleiderer says, the work " is
full of a passionate enthusiasm for the character of Jesus."
The author rejects all the miracles except those of healing,
and these he explains psychologically. His main purpose was
to modernize and reinterpret Christianity; he says in the
preface to the third edition of the book: " I have written it
solely in the service of evangelical truth, to win to the truth
those especially who have been most unhappily alienated from
the church and its interests, in a great measure through the fault
of a reactionary party, blinded by hierarchical aims." Schenkel
died on the i8th of May 1885.
Other works: Friedrich Schleiermacher. Ein Lebens- und Cha-
rakterbild (1868); Christentum und Kirche (2 vols., 1867-1872);
Die Grundiehren des Christentums aus dem Bewusstsein des Glaubens
dargestellt (1877); and Das Chrislusbild der A pastel und der nach-
apostolischen Zeit (1879). See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie, Otto
Pfleiderer, Development of Theology (1890); and F. Lichtenberger,
History of German Theology (1889). (M. A. CO
SCHERER, EDMOND HENRI ADOLPHE (1815-1889), French
theologian, critic and politician, was born in Paris on the 8th
of April 1815. After a course of legal studies he spent several
years in theological study at Strassburg, where he graduated
doctor in theology in 1843, and was ordained. In 1843 he was
appointed to a professorship in the ficole Evangelique at Geneva,
but the development of his opinions in favour of the Liberal move-
ment in Protestant theology led to his resigning the post six
years later. He founded the Anti-Jesuite, afterwards the
Reformation au XIX' siecle, in which he advocated the separa-
tion of the Church from the State; but he gradually abandoned
Protestant doctrine. In thought he became a pronounced
Hegelian. Eventually he settled in Paris, where he at once
attracted attention by brilliant literary criticisms, at first
chiefly on great foreign writers, contributed to the Revue des
deux mondcs. He was elected municipal councillor at Versailles
in 1870, deputy to the National Assembly for the department
of Seine-et-Oise in 1871 and senator in 1875. He supported
the Republican party. Towards the end of his life he devoted
himself mainly to literary and general criticism, and was for many
years one of the ablest contributors to Le Temps. He was a
frequent visitor to England, and took a lively interest in English
politics and literature. He died at Versailles on the i6th of
March 1889.
Vital
theorie _ x rw/F _ _.
Alexandre Vinet (1853), Lettres d"mon cure (1853), EtuJes critique's
sur la litterature contemporaine (1863-1889), Eludes critiques de
litterature (1876), Diderot (1880), La Democratie et la France (1883),
Etudes sur la litterature au XVIII' siecle (1891).
A memoir of him, by V. C. O. Greard, appeared in 1890. See also
an article by Professor E. Dowden in the Fortnightly Review (April
1889).
SCHERER, WILHELM (1841-1886), German philologist and
historian of literature, was born at Schonborn in Lower Austria
on the 26th of April 1841. He was educated at the academic
gymnasium at Vienna and afterwards at the university, where he
was the favourite pupil of the distinguished Germanist, Karl
Viktor Mullenhoff (1818-1884). Having taken the degree of
doctor philosophiae, he became Privatdozent for German language
and literature in 1864. In 1868 he was appointed ordinary
professor, and in 1872 received a call in a like capacity to Strass-
burg, and in 1877 to Berlin, where in 1884 he was made member
of the Academy of Sciences. He died at Berlin on the 6th of
August 1886.
Scherer's literary activity falls into three categories: in Vienna
he was the philologist, at Strassburg the professor of literature and
in Berlin the author. His earliest work was a biography of the great
philologist Jakob Grimm (1865, 2nd ed. 1885); he next, in con-
junction with his former teacher Mullenhoff, published Denkmdler
deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus dem 8. bis 12. Jahrhundert (1864,
3rd ed. 1892). His first great work was, however, Zur Geschichte
der deutschen Sprache (Berlin, 1868; 3rd ed., 1890), being a history
of the German language with especial reference to phonetic laws.
He contributed the section on Alsatian literature to O. Lorenz's
Geschichte des Elsasses (1871, 3rd ed. 1886). Other important
works are Geistliche Poeten der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Strassburg,
1874-1875); Geschichte der -deutschen Dichtung im n. und 12.
Jahrhundert (1875); and Vortra'ge und Aufsatze zur Geschichte des
teistigen Lebens in Deutschland und Osterreich (1874). Scherer's
best-known work is his history of German literature, Geschichte der
deutschen Literatur (Berlin, 1883; loth ed., 1905; English translation
by Mrs F. C. Conybeare, 1883; new ed., 1906). This work is dis-
tinguished by the clearness with which details are co-ordinated with
a general and comprehensive survey of German literature from the
beginning to the death of Goethe. Besides many other philological
treatises, Scherer wrote largely on Goethe (Aus Goethes Fnihzeit.
SCHERR SCHERZO
321
1879; Aufsatze uber Goethe, 1886), and took an active part in the
i *-J rin r)f tH rt ^~- "***" k** ^ w*liwa at \A7timar A cm a \\ trpn fmP OH
Poetik, a. biogra]
foundation of the Goethe archives at Weimar. A small treatise on
Poetik, a biography of Karl Mullenhoff, and two volumes of Kleine
Schriften were published after his death.
*-""' " . , T-. I T17-II--7 C"-l . _* /.-.
(tllflllLr* m_i~ jj. ..... .. . /T -. .
See V. Basch, Wilhelm Scherer et la philologie allemande (Pans,
1889), and the article by Eduard Schroder in AUgemeine deutsche
Biographic.
SCHERR, JOHANNES (1817-1886), German man of letters and
novelist, was born at Hohenrechberg in the kingdom of Wurttem-
berg on the 3rd of October 1817. After studying philosophy and
history at the university of Tubingen (1837-1840), he became
master in a school conducted by his brother Thomas in Winter-
thur. In 1843 he removed to Stuttgart, and, entering the political
arena with a pamphlet Wilrttembcrg im Jahr 1843, was elected in
1848 a member of the Wiirttemberg House of Deputies; became
leader of the democratic party in south Germany and, in con-
sequence of his agitation for parliamentary reform in 1849, was
obliged to take refuge in Switzerland to avoid arrest. Con-
demned in contumaciam to fifteen years' hard labour, he estab-
lished himself in Zurich as Privatdozent in 1850, but removed in
1852 to Winterthur. In 1860 he was appointed professor of
history and Helvetian literature at the Polytechnicum in Zurich,
in which city he died on the 2ist of November 1886.
Scherr was a voluminous writer in the field of historical investiga-
tion into the civilization, literature, and manners and customs of
his country. His works have largely a political bias, but are
characterized by clearness of exposition and careful research.
Noteworthy among his books are the following: Geschichte der
deutschen Kultur und Sitte (1852-1853, new ed. 1897); Schiller
und seine Zeit (1859, new ed. 1876); Gesfhichte der deutschen
Frauenwelt (1860, 4th ed. 1879); AUgemeine Geschichte der Literaiur
(1851, 9th ed. 1895-1896); Geschichte der englischen Literatur
(1854, 2nd ed. 1883); Blucher, seine Zeit und sein Leben (1862,
4th ed. 1887). Scherr also wrote the humorous Sommertagebuch
des wetland Dr Gastrosophiae, Jeremia Sauerampfer (1873); as a
novelist he published the historical novels, Schiller (1856), and
Michel, Geschichte eines Deutschen unserer Zeit (1858) which have
passed through several editions.
With the exception of some of his stories (Novellenbuch, 10 yols.
1873-1877) Scherr's works have not appeared in a collected edition.
SCHERZO (Italian for " a joke "), in music, the name given
to a quick movement evolved from the minuet and used in the
position thereof in the sonata forms. The term is occasionally
applied otherwise, as a mere character name. Haydn first used
it for a middle movement quicker than a minuet, in the compara-
tively early set of six quartets known sometimes (for that reason)
as Gli Scherzi, and sometimes as the Russian quartets (Op. 33).
He never used the term again, though his later minuets, especially
those in the Salomon symphonies, and the last completed
quartets (Op. 77), are in a very rapid tempo and on a larger
scale than any of the earlier scherzos of Beethoven. Haydn
wished to see the minuet made more worthy of its position in
large sonata works; but he did not live to appreciate (though
he might possibly have heard) the great scherzos of his pupil
Beethoven, which brought the element of the sublime into what
may be generically termed the dance movement of the sonata
style.
With rare exceptions Beethoven not only retained the dance
character in lively middle movements, but accentuated it to
the utmost in terms of what we have elsewhere called " dramatic "
as distinguished from " decorative " music. He took those
features of minuet form and style which most contrast the
minuet with the larger and more highly organized movements,
and he devised a form that emphasized them as they have never
been emphasized before or since. The distinctive external
feature in the minuet and trio is the combination of melodic
binary forms with an exact da capo of the minuet after the
trio; no other movement in the sonata admitting of so purely
decorative a symmetry. The form of Beethoven's typical
scherzo purposely exaggerates this feature. Mozart had
frequently enriched minuets by giving them two or even three
trios, with the minuet da capo after each. Beethoven does not
do this; for, the general structure and texture of his scherzos
being more continuous and highly organized, the variety of
themes thereby produced would tend to give the form an elaborate
rondo character which would not have differentiated it sufficiently
XXIV. II
rom finales. But after Beethoven's mature scherzo has run
through the stages of scherzo, trio and scherzo da capo, it goes
through the same trio and da capo again; and perhaps even
ries to do so a third time, as if it could not find a way out, and
is then playfully and abruptly stopped.
This form lends itself to high-spirited humour, and differentiates
the scherzo from the more highly organized movements by drama-
tically emphasizing its formal and dancelike character. The earliest
example is the seventh of the pianoforte Bagatelles (Op. 33) where
its " round-and-round " effect is realized with a mastery which
alone suffices to dispose of Thayer's belief that these bagatelles
jelong, in their finished form, to Beethoven's boyhood. 1 As a
rule Beethoven did not find the pianoforte a favourable instrument
"or his characteristic scherzo style; and his only other typical
examples for pianoforte are the second movements of the sonatas
3p. 27, No. I, and Op. 106 (in neither of which is the trio repeated)
and the fifth of the Six Bagatelles Op. 126.
The scherzo of the Eroica symphony is too long for Beethoven
to allow it to go twice round; and that of the o.th symphony is so
enormous that the main body of the scherzo is like a complete first
movement of a sonata, from which it differs only in its comparative
uniformity of texture and its incessant onrush, which not even the
startling measured pauses and the changes from 4-bar to 3-bar
rhythm can really interrupt. Beethoven directs as many repetitions
of its sub-sections as possible, and his coda consists of a most im-
pressive attempt to begin the trio again, dramatically cut short.
In the 4th, 6th and 7th symphonies, the great pianoforte trio in
B flat (Op. 97) and the string quartets in E flat (Op. 74), F minor
(Op. 95) and C sharp minor (Op. 131), the round-and-round form is
developed to the utmost, though in performance the necessary
repetitions are too often omitted where Beethoven has only indicated
them by a direction instead of writing them in full. The scherzo of
the C minor symphony was originally meant to go twice round;
and a certain pair of superfluous bars, which caused controversy for
thirty years after Beethoven's death, were due simply to traces of the
difference between the prima volta and seconda volta being left in
the score.
Beethoven also used other types of quick middle movement in the
place of the scherzo. In one case, that of the second allegretto of
the E Hat trio (Op. 70, No. 2), the round-and-round form is developed
to the utmost in an exceedingly luscious and placid movement,
very remote from the fiery humours of his typical scherzo style.
Modern custom uses the name of scherzo as a mere technical
term for quick middle movements, and in this sense we may
speak of the second movement of Beethoven's F major string
quartet (Op. 59, No. i) as a unique example; it being a very
highly developed application of binary form with the utmost
humour and unexpectedness of detail and style. It is possible
that this gigantic movement, occurring in a work which was an
especial favourite of Mendelssohn's, may have been the inspiring
source of the Mendelssohnian scherzo which is one of the most
distinctive new types of sonata movement since Beethoven,
and is independent of the notion of an alternating trio, whether
in the single or the round-and-round form. The scherzos in
Mendelssohn's Midsummer Night's Dream music, in the Scotch
Symphony and in the string quartets in E minor and E flat
major (Op. 44, Nos. 2 and 3) are splendid examples. Even
Berlioz shows their influence at the height of his power, in the
" Queen Mab " scherzo of his Romeo et Juliette. The round-and-
round form has remained peculiar to Beethoven; perhaps
because with the modern scherzo it would be too long, and
because it is easier nowadays to manage a scherzo with two trios.
Of Brahms's scherzos there are many distinct types. His
largest, such as that of the trio Op. 8, are greatly influenced by
Beethoven; but there are several great quick movements in
the usual form which are not called scherzos, and are as far
from being jokes as is the third movement of Beethoven's F
minor quartet. The third movement of Brahms's fourth
symphony is perhaps the most gigantic scherzo since Beethoven's
time. It lasts hardly seven minutes, but is a fully developed
blend of rondo and first-movement forms, with a coda containing
one of the greatest climaxes in symphonic art.
Chopin produced a new type of scherzo; independent of the
sonata, but still in the quick triple time (one beat in a bar) which
is Beethoven's typical scherzo rhythm. Chopin's form is traceable
1 The autograph date, 1783, tallies neither with the handwriting
nor with the style, but it may well refer to the raw material.
Beethoven sometimes kept back his ideas for thirty years before
executing them.
322
SCHETKY SCHIAPARELLI
to the classical of scherzo and trio, and the style is dramatic-
ally capricious and romantic, but far too impressive to suggest
humour. The same may be said of many classical scherzos,
though Beethoven uses the title only where the humorous
character of the movement lies on the surface. Even then
Beethoven's only mature instances of the title (except in the
form of scherzando as a mark of expression) are those of the
Eroica symphony, the B flat trio Op. 97 and the B flat sonata
Op. 106. It is, however, correct to call any energetic move-
ment a scherzo when it occupies the position thereof in a sonata
scheme. (D. F. T.)
SCHETKY, JOHN CHRISTIAN (1778-1874), Scottish marine
painter, descended from an old Transylvanian family, was born
in Edinburgh on the i ith of August 1778. He studied art under
Alexander Nasmyth, and after having travelled on the continent
he settled in Oxford, and taught for six years as a drawing-
master. In 1808 he obtained a post in the military college,
Great Marlow, and three years later he was appointed professor
of drawing in the naval college, Portsmouth, where he had ample
opportunities for the study of his favourite marine subjects.
From 1836 to 1855 he held a similar professorship in the military
college, Addiscombe. To the Royal Academy exhibitions he
contributed at intervals from 1805 to 1872, and hewas represented
at the Westminster Hall competition of 1847 by a large oil-
painting of the Battle of La Hogue. He was marine painter to
George IV., William IV. and Queen Victoria. Among his
published works are the illustrations to Lord John Manners's
Cruise in Scotch Waters, and a volume of photographs from
his pictures and drawings issued in 1867 under the title of
Veterans of the Sea. One of his best works, the " Loss of the Royal
George," painted in 1840, is in the National Gallery, London, and
the United Service Club possesses another important marine
subject from his brush. He died in London on the 28th of
January 1874. A memoir by his daughter was published in 1877.
His younger brother, JOHN ALEXANDER SCHETKY (1785-1824),
studied medicine in Edinburgh university and drawing in the
Trustees' Academy. As a military surgeon he served with
distinction under Lord Beresford in Portugal. He contributed
excellent works to the exhibitions of the Royal Academy and
of the Water-Colour Society, and executed some of the illustra-
tions in Sir W. Scott's Provincial Antiquities. He died at Cape
Coast Castle on the sth of September 1824, when preparing
to follow Mungo Park's route of exploration.
SCHEUCHZER. JOHANN JAKOB (1672-1733), Swiss savant,
was born at Zurich on the 2nd of August 1672. The son of the
senior town physician (or Archiater) of Zurich, he received his
education in that place, and in 1692 went to the university of
Altdorf nearNuremberg, being intended for the medical profession.
Early in 1694 he took his degree of doctor in medicine at the
university of Utrecht, and then returned to Altdorf to complete
his mathematical studies. He went back to Zurich in 1696,
and was made junior town physician (or Poliater), with the
promise of the professorship of mathematics; this he obtained
in 1710, being promoted to the chair of physics, with the office
of senior town physician, in January 1733, a few months before
his death on the 23rd of June.
His published works (apart from numerous articles) were estimated
at thirty-four in number. His historical writings are mostly still
in MS. The more important of his published writings relate either
to his scientific observations (all branches) or to his journeys, in the
course of which he collected materials for these scientific works.
In the former category are his Beschreibung der Naturgeschichte
des Schweitzerlandes (3 vols., Zurich, 1706-1708, the 3rd volume
containing an account in German of his journey of 1705; a new
edition of this book and, with important omissions, of his 1723
work, was issued, in 2 vols., in 1746, by J. G. Sulzer, under the title
of Naturgeschichte des Schweitzerlandes sammt seinen Reisen iiber
die schweitzerischen Geburge), and his Helvetiae historia naturalis
oder Naturhistorie des Schweitzerlandes (published in 3 vols., at
Zurich, 1716-1718, and reissued in the same form in 1752, under the
German title rust given). The first of the three parts of the last-
named work deals with the Swiss mountains (summing up all that
was then known about them, and serving as a link between Simler's
work of 1574 and Gruner's of 1760), the second with the Swiss rivers,
lakes and mineral baths, and the third with Swiss meteorology and
geology. Scheuchzer's works, as issued in 1746 and in 1752, formed
(with Tschudi's Ghronicum Helvelicum) one of the chief sources tor
Schiller's play of Wilhelm Tell (1804). In 1704 Scheuchzer was
elected a F.R.S. ; he published many scientific notes and papers in
the Philosophical Transactions for 1706-1707, 1709 and 1727-1728.
In the second category are his Itinera alpina tria (made in 1702-
1704), which was published in London in 1708, and dedicated to the
Royal Society, while the plates illustrating it were executed at the
expense of various fellows of the society, including the president,
Sir Isaac Newton (whose imprimatur appears on the title-page), Hans
Sloane, Dean Aldrich, Humfrey Wanley, &c. The text is written in
Latin, as is that of the definitive work describing his travels (with
which is incorporated the 1708 volume) that appeared in 1723 at
Leiden, in four quarto volumes, under the title of Itinera per
Helvetiae alpinas regiones facta annis 1702-1711. These journeys led
Scheuchzer to almost every part of Switzerland, particularly its
central and eastern districts. Apropos of his visit (1705) to the
Rhone glacier, he inserts a full account of the other Swiss glaciers,
as far as they were then known, while in 1706, after mentioning
certain wonders to be seen in the museum at Lucerne, he adds reports
by men of good faith who had seen dragons in Switzerland. He
doubts their existence, but illustrates the reports by fanciful repre-
sentations of dragons, which have led some modern writers to
depreciate his merits as a traveller and naturalist, for the belief in
dragons was then widely spread. In 1712 he published a map of
Switzerland in four sheets (scale 1/290,000), of which the east portion
(based on his personal observations) is far the most accurate, though
the map as a whole was the best map of Switzerland till the end of
the 1 8th century. At the end of his 1723 book he gives a full list
(covering 27 Ato pages) of his writings from 1694 to 1721.
See F. X. Hoeherl, J. J. Scheuchzer, der Begrunder d. phys. Geo-
graphie d. Hochgebirges (Munich, 1901), a useful little pamphlet,
conveniently summarizing Scheuchzer's scientific views.
(W. A. B. C.)
SCHEVENINGEN, a fishing port and watering-place of Holland,
on the North Sea, in the province of South Holland, about 2 m.
N. of the Hague, with which it is connected by tramways. It is
situated in the dunes at the extremity of the woods which
separate it from the Hague. The development of Scheveningen
as a fashionable seaside resort dates from modern times, but the
fishing village is of ancient origin and once stood farther seaward.
To prevent coast erosion a stone wall was built along the sea
front in 1896-1900, and below this lies the fine sandy beach
stretching for miles on either side. The first bathing establish-
ment here dates from 1818, and was also the first in Holland.
Overlooking the sea from the top of the dunes on either side
are villas, hotels, and the pavilion (1826) belonging to the family
of Prince von Wied. The costumes of the fishing community
are picturesque, the men having silver buttons and wide trousers,
the women wide skirts and brass helmets. There is a large
harbour for the fishing fleet at the mouth of the Hague-
Scheveningen canal. Among the historical memories associated
with Scheveningen are the defeat of the combined French and
English fleets by Admiral de Ruyter in 1673, and the flight and
subsequent return of William I., king of the Netherlands, in 1813,
at the beginning and end of the French occupation. This is
commemorated by an obelisk (1865). The town has a rapidly
growing population of about 23,000.
SCHIAPARELLI, GIOVANNI VIRGINIO (1835-1910), Italian
astronomer and senator of the kingdom of Italy, was born on
the I4th of March 1835 at Savigliano in Piedmont. He entered
Turin university in 1850, and graduated in 1854. Two years
later he went to Berlin to study astronomy under Encke, and'
in 1859 was appointed assistant observer at Pulkova, a post
which he resigned in 1860 for a similar one at Brera, Milan.
On the death of Francesco Carlini (b. 1783) in 1862, Schiaparelli
succeeded to the directorship, a position which he held until
1900. He died at Milan on the 4th of July 1910.
Schiaparelli was primarily an observer his first discovery was of
the asteroid Hesperia in 1861 but he had also considerable mathe-
matical gifts, as is shown in his treatment of orbital motions,
published^ in 1864, and in other papers. His great contribution to
astronomy dates from 1866, when he showed that meteors or shooting
stars traverse space in cometary orbits, and, in particular, that the
orbits of the Perseids and Comet III., 1862, and of the Leonids and
Comet I., 1866, were practically the same. These discoveries, sub-
sequently amplified in his Le Stelle cadenti (1873) and in his Norme
per le osservazioni dettestelle cadenti dei bolidi (1896) gained for him the
Lalande prize of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, in 1868, and the
gold medal and foreign associateship of the Royal Astronomical
Society in 1872. He next worked on the double stars, but his results
have only been partially published. This labour was followed in
SCHIAVONE SCHILL
323
1877 by observations of the surface of Mars, whereon he detected,
among other peculiar characters, certain streaky markings or
canali, the nature and origin of which is still controversial (see MARS).
Mercury and Venus were also studied, and he concluded that these
planets rotated on their axes in the same time as they revolved about
the sun; but these views are questioned. He also discussed many
other problems, such as stellar distribution, the extent of the uni-
verse, &c., whilst at Brera. On his retirement he turned to the
astronomy of the Hebrews and Babylonians; his earlier results are
given in nis L' Astronomia nelV antico Testamento (1903), a work
which has been translated into English and German, whilst later
ones are to be found in various journals, the last being in Scientia
(1908).
SCHIAVONE, the Italian name of the basket-halted sword
of the 1 7th century, resembling what is erroneously called the
" claymore " of modern Highland regiments. The " schiavone "
was the sword of the Slavonic guards (Schiawni) of the doges
of Venice, whence the name (see SWORD).
SCHIAVONETTI, LUIGI (1765-1810), Italian engraver, was
born at Bassano in Venetia on the ist of April 1765. After
having studied art for several years he was employed by Testolini,
an engraver of very indifferent abilities, to execute imitations
of Bartolozzi's works, which he passed off as his own. In 1790
Testolini was invited by Bartolozzi to join him in England, and,
it having been discovered that Schiavonetti, who accompanied
him, had executed the plates in question, he was employed
by Bartolozzi and became an eminent engraver in both the
line and the dot manner. Among his early works are four plates
of subjects from the French Revolution, after Benazech. He also
produced a " Mater Dolorosa " after Vandyck, and Michelangelo's
cartoon of the " Surprise of the Soldiers on the Banks of the Arno."
From 1805 to 1808 he was engaged in etching Blake's designs
to Blair's Grave, which, with a portrait of the artist engraved
by Schiavonetti after T. Phillips, R.A., were published in 1808.
The etching of Stothard's " Canterbury Pilgrims " was one of his
latest works, and on his death on the 7th of June 1810 the plate
was taken up by his brother Niccolo, and finally completed by
James Heath.
SCHICHAU, FERDINAND (1814-1896), German engineer
and shipbuilder, was born at Elbing, where his father was a
smith and ironworker, on the soth of January 1814. He studied
engineering at Berlin and then in England, and returning to
Elbing in 1837 started works of his own, which from small begin-
nings eventually developed into an establishment employing
some 8000 men. He began by making steam engines, hydraulic
presses and industrial machinery, and, by concerning himself
with canal work and river or coast improvement, came to the
designing and construction of dredgers, in which he was the
pioneer (1841), and finally to the building of ships.
His " Borussia," in 1855, was the first screw-vessel constructed
in Germany. Schichau began to specialize in building torpedo-
boats and destroyers (at first for the Russian government) at an
early date. From 1873 he had the co-operation of Carl H. Ziese,
who married his daughter. Ziese introduced compound engines into
the first vessels built by Schichau for the German navy, the gun-
boats " Habicht " and " Mowe," launched in 1879, and also designed
in 1881 the first triple-expansion machinery constructed on the
continent, supplying these engines to the torpedo-boats built by
Schichau for the German navy in 1884, the first of some 1 60 that
by the year 1909 were provided for Germany out of the Elbing
yards. Torpedo-boats were also built for China, Austria and Italy.
Meanwhile Elbing had become insufficient for the increased output
demanded. In 1889 Schichau established a floating dock and re-
pairing shops at Pillau, and soon afterwards, by arrangement with
the government, started a large shipbuilding yard at Danzig, for
the purpose of constructing the largest ships of war and for the
mercantile marine. He died on the 23rd of January 1896; but
Ziese carried on the work, and not only made the Danzig yard the
chief cradle of the new German fleet, rivalling the finest English
establishments, but also largely developed the equipment at Elbing.
The Schichau works have made the name of their originator to rank
with that of Krupp.
SCHIEDAM, a town and river port of Holland, in the province
of South Holland, on the Schie, near its confluence with the
Maas, and a junction station 3 m. by rail and steam tramway
W. of Rotterdam. Pop. (1905) 29,227. The public buildings of
interest are the Groote or Janskerk, the old Roman Catholic
church, the synagogue, the town-hall, the exchange, the concert-
hall and a ruined castle. Schiedam is famous as the seat of a
great gin manufacture, which, carried on in more than three
hundred distilleries, gives employment besides to malt-factories,
cooperages and cork-cutting establishments, and supplies grain
refuse enough to feed about 30,000 pigs, as well as sufficient
yeast to form an important article of export. Other industries
include shipbuilding, glass-blowing and the manufacture of
stearine candles.
SCHIEFNER, FRANZ ANTON (1817-1879), Russian linguist,
was born at Reval, in Russia, on the i8th of July 1817. His
father was a merchant who had emigrated from Bohemia. He
was educated first at the Reval grammar school, matriculated
at St Petersburg as a law student in 1836, and subsequently
devoted himself at Berlin, from 1840 to 1842, exclusively to
Eastern languages. On his return to St Petersburg in 1843 he
was employed in teaching the classics in the First Grammar
School, and soon afterwards received a post in the Imperiil
Academy, where in 1852 the cultivation of the Tibetan language
and literature was assigned to him as his special function.
Simultaneously he held from 1860 to 1873 the professorship of
classical languages in the Roman Catholic theological seminary.
From 1854 till his death he was an extraordinary member of the
Imperial Academy. He visited England three times for purposes
of research in 1863, 1867 and 1878. He died on the i6th of
November 1879.
Schiefner made his mark in literary research in three directions.
First, he contributed to the Memoirs and Bulletin of the St Petersburg
Academy, and brought out independently a number of valuable
articles and larger publications on the language and literature of
Tibet. He possessed also a remarkable acquaintance with Mongolian,
and when death overtook him had just finished a revision of the New
Testament in that language with which the British and Foreign
Bible Society had entrusted him. Further, he was one of the greatest
authorities on the philology and ethnology of the Finnic tribes.
He edited and translated the great Finnic epic Kalevala ; he arranged,
completed and brought out in twelve volumes the literary remains
of Alexander Castren, bearing on the languages of the Samoyedic
tribes, the Koibal, Karagass, Tungusian, Buryat, Ostiak and Kottic
tongues, and prepared several valuable papers on Finnic mythology
for the Imperial Academy. In the third place, he made himself the
exponent of investigations into the languages of the Caucasus, which
his lucid analyses placed within reach of European philologists.
Thus he gave a full analysis of the Tush language, and in quick
succession, from Baron P. Uslar's investigations, comprehensive
papers on the Awar, Ude, Abkhasian, Tchetchenz, Kasi-Kumiik,
Hiirkanian and Kiirinian languages. He had also mastered Ossetic,
and brought out a number of translations from that language,
several of them accompanied by the original text.
SCHILL, FERDINAND BAPTISTA VON (1776-1809), Prussian
soldier, was born in Saxony. Entering the Prussian cavalry
at the age of twelve, he was still a subaltern of dragoons when
he was wounded at the battle of Auerstiidt. From that field
he escaped to Kolberg, where he played a very prominent part
in the celebrated siege of 1807, as the commander of a volunteer
force of all arms. After the peace of Tilsit he was promoted
major and given the command of a hussar regiment formed from
his Kolberg men. In 1809 the political situation in Europe
appeared to Schill to favour an attempt to liberate his country
from the French domination. Leading out his regiment from
Berlin under pretext of manoeuvres, he raised the standard
of revolt, and, joined by many officers and a company of light
infantry, marched for the Elbe. At the village of Dodendorf
(5th of May 1809) he had a brush with the Magdeburg garrison,
but was soon driven northwards, where he hoped to find British
support. The king of Prussia's proclamations prevented the
patriots from receiving any appreciable assistance, and with
little more than his original force Schill was surrounded by 5000
Danish and Dutch troops in the neighbourhood of Wismar.
He escaped by hard fighting (action of Damgarten, 24th of May)
to Stralsund, and attempted to put the crumbling fortifications
in order. The Danes and Dutch soon hemmed him in, and by
sheer numbers overwhelmed the defenders (May 31). Schill
himself was killed. Some parties escaped to Prussia, where
the officers were tried by court-martial, cashiered and imprisoned.
A few escaped to Swinemiinde, but the rest were either killed
or taken. Handed over to the French, the soldiers were sent
to the galleys, and the eleven officers shot at Wesel on the i6th
324
SCHILLER
of September. The body of Schill was buried at Stralsund, his
head sent to Leiden, where it remained until 1837. Monuments
were erected at Brunswick, Stralsund and Wesel, and the
ist Silesian Z,6-Hussars have borne Schill's name since 1889.
See Haken, Ferdinand von Schill (Leipzig, 1824); Barsch, Ferdi-
nand von Schill's Zug und Tod (Leipzig, 1860), and F. von Schill, ein
Charakterbild (Potsdam, 1860); Petrich, Pommer'sche Lebensbilder.
vol. ii. (Stettin, 1884); Francke, Aus Stralsunds Franzosenzfit
(1890).
SCHILLER, JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON (1750-
1805), German poet, dramatist and philosopher, was born at
Marbach on the Neckar, on the loth of November 1759. His
grandfather had been a baker in the village of Bittenfeld, near
Waiblingen; his father, Johann Kaspar (1723-1796), was an
army-surgeon, who had settled in Marbach and married the
dajghter'of an innkeeper, Elisabeth Dorothea Kodweis (1732-
ifco2). In 1757 Schiller's father again took service in the army
aad ultimately rose to the rank of captain. The vicissitudes of his
profession entailed a constant change of residence; but at Lorch
and at Ludwigsburg, where the family was settled for longer
periods, the child was able to receive a regular education. In
1 7 73 the duke Karl Eugen of Wiirttemberg claimed young Schiller
as a pupil of his military school at the " Solitude " near Ludwigs-
burg, where, instead of his chosen subject of study, theology,
he was obliged to devote himself to law. On the removal of the
school in 1775 to Stuttgart, he was, however, allowed to exchange
this subject for the more congenial study of medicine. The
strict military discipline of the school lay heavily on Schiller,
and intensified the spirit of rebellion, which, nurtured on Rousseau
and the writers of the Sturm und Drang, burst out in the young
poet's first tragedy; but such a school-life had for a poet of
Schiller's temperament advantages which he might not have
known had he followed his own inclinations; and it afforded
him glimpses of court life invaluable for his later work as a
dramatist. In 1776 some specimens of Schiller's lyric poetry
had appeared in a magazine, and in 1777-1778 he completed
his drama, Die Riiuber, which was read surreptitiously to an
admiring circle of schoolmates. In 1780 he left the academy
qualified to practise as a surgeon, and was at once appointed
by the duke to an ill-paid post as doctor to a regiment garrisoned
in Stuttgart. His discontent found vent in the passionate,
unbalanced lyrics of this period. Meanwhile Die Riiuber, which
Schiller had been obliged to publish at his own expense, appeared
in 1781 and made an impression on his contemporaries hardly
less deep than Goethe's Gotz von Berlichingen, eight years before.
The strength of this remarkable tragedy lay, not in its inflated
tone or exaggerated characterization the restricted horizon
of Schiller's school-life had given him little opportunity of
knowing men and women but in the sure dramatic instinct
with which it is constructed and the directness with which it
gives voice to the most pregnant ideas of the time. In this
respect, Schiller's Riiuber is one of the most vital German dramas
of the i8th century. In January 1782 it was performed in the
Court and National Theatre of Mannheim, Schiller himself
having stolen secretly away from Stuttgart in order to be present.
The success encouraged him to begin a new tragedy, Die
Verschworung des Fiesco zu Genua, and he edited a lyric
Anthologie auf das Jahr 1782, to which he was himself the chief
contributor. A second surreptitious visit to Mannheim came,
however, to the ears of the duke, who was also irritated by a
complaint from Switzerland about an uncomplimentary reference
to Graubiinden in Die Riiuber. He had Schiller put under a
fortnight's arrest, and forbade him to write any more
" comedies " or to hold intercourse with any one outside of
Wiirttemberg. Schiller, embittered enough by the uncongenial
conditions of his Stuttgart life, resolved on flight, and took
advantage of some court festivities in September 1782 to put
his plan into execution. He hoped in the first instance for
material support from the theatre in Mannheim, and its intendant,
W. H. von Dalberg; but nothing but rebuffs and disappoint-
ments were in store for him. He did not even feel secure against
extradition in Mannheim, and after several weeks spent mainly
in the village of Oggersheim, where his third drama, Luise
Millerin, or, as it was subsequently renamed, Kabale und Liebe,
was in great part written, he found a refuge at Bauerbach in
Thuringia, in the house of Frau von Wolzogen, the mother of
one of his former schoolmates. Here Luise Millerin was finished
and Don Carlos begun. In July 1783 Schiller received a definite
appointment for a year as " theatre poet " in Mannheim, and
here both Fiesco and Kabale und Liebe were performed in 1784.
Neither play is as spontaneous or inspired as Die Rduber had
been; but both mark a steady advance in characterization
and in the technical art of the playwright. Kabale und Liebe,
especially, is an admirable example of that " tragedy of common
life " which Lessing had introduced into Germany from England
and which bulked so largely in the German literature of the later
i8th century. In this drama Schiller's powers as a realistic
portray er of people and conditions familiar to him are seen
to best advantage. Although Schiller failed to win an established
position in Mannheim, he added to his literary reputation by
his address on Die Schaubuhne als eine moralische Anstalt
betrachtet (1784), and by the publication of the beginning of
Don Carlos (in blank verse) in his journal, Die rheinische Thalia
(1785). He had also the opportunity of reading the first act of
the new tragedy before the duke of Weimar at Darmstadt in
December 1784, and, as a sign of favour, the duke conferred
upon him the title of " Rat."
In April 1785 Schiller, whose position in Mannheim had, long
before this, become hopeless, accepted the invitation of four un-
known friends C. G. Korner, L. F. Huber, and their fiancees Minna
and Dora Stock with whom he had corresponded, to pay a visit to
Leipzig. He spent a happy summer mainly at Gohlis, near Leipzig,
his jubilant mood being reflected in the Ode an die Freude; and in
September of the same year he followed his new friend Korner to
Dresden. As Korner's guest in Dresden and at Loschwitz on the
Elbe, Schiller completed Don Carlos, wrote the dramatic tale, Der
Verbrecher aus Infamie (later entitled Der Verbrecher aus verlorener
Ehre, 1786) and the unfinished novel, Der Geisterseher (1789). The
Rheinische Thalia was continued as the Thalia (1786-1791 ; in 1792,
again renamed Die neue Thalia), and in this journal he published
most of his writings at this time. Korner's interest in philosophy
also induced Schiller to turn his attention to such studies, the first
results of which he published in the Philosophische Brief e (1786).
Don Carlos, meanwhile, appeared in book form in 1787, and added
to Schiller's reputation as a poet. In adopting verse instead of
prose as a medium of expression, Schiller showed that he was pre-
pared to challenge comparison with the great dramatic poets of
other times and other lands ; but in seeking a model for this higher
type of tragedy he unfortunately turned rather to the classic
theatre of France than to the English drama which Lessing, a little
earlier, had pronounced more congenial to the German temperament.
The unwieldiness of the plot and its inconsistencies show, too, that
Schiller had not yet mastered ihe new form of drama; but Don
Carlos at least provided him with an opportunity of expressing ideas
of political and intellectual freedom with which, as the disciple of
Rousseau, he was in warm sympathy.
A new chapter in Schiller's life opened with his visit to Weimar in
July 1787. Goethe was then in Italy, and the duke of Weimar was
absent from Weimar; but the poet was kindly received by Herder
and Wieland, by the duchess Amalie and other court notabilities.
The chief attraction for Schiller was, however, Frau von Kalb with
whom he had been passionately in love in Mannheim ; but not very
long afterwards he made the acquaintance at Rudolstadt of the
family von Lengefeld, the younger daughter of which subsequently
became his wife. Meanwhile the preparation for Don Carlos had
interested Schiller in history, and in 1788 he published the first
volume of his chief historical work, Geschichte des Abfalls der vereinig-
len Niederlande von der spanischen Regierung, a book which at once
gave him a respected position among the historians of the i8th
century. It obtained for him, on the recommendation of Goethe,
a professorship in the university of Jena, and in November 1789 he
delivered his inaugural lecture, Was heisst und zu welchem Etide
studiert man Universalgeschichte? In February of the following
year he married Charlotte von Lengefeld. Schiller's other historical
writings comprise a Sammlung historischer Memoires, which he
began to publish in 1790, and the Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen
Krieges (1791-1793). The latter work is more perfunctory in execu-
tion and written for a wider public than his first history, but the
narrative is dramatic and yivid, the portraiture is sympathetic,
and the historical events are interpreted by the light of the rational-
istic optimism of the later i8th century.
Before, however, the History of the Thirty Years' War was finished,
Schiller had turned from history to philosophy. A year after his
marriage he had been stricken down by severe illness, from the
effects of which he was never completely to recover; financial cares
followed, which were relieved unexpectedly by the generosity of the
SCHILLER
325
hereditary prince of Holstein-Augustenburg and his minister, Graf
Schimmelmann, who conferred upon him a pension of 1000 talers a
year for three years. Schiller resolved to devote the leisure of these
years to the study of philosophy. In the summer of 1790 he had
lectured in Jena on the aesthetics of tragedy, and in the following
year he studied carefully Kant's treatise on aesthetics, Kritik der
Urteilskraft, which had just appeared and appealed powerfully to
Schiller's mind. The influence of these studies is to be seen in the
essays Ober den Grund unseres Vergniigens an tragischen Gegenstdnden
and Ober tragische Kunst (1792), as well as in his correspondence with
his friend Korner. Here Schiller arrives at his definition of beauty, as
Freiheit in der Erscheinung, which, although it failed to remove
Kant's difficulty that beauty was essentially a subjective conception,
marked the beginning of a new stage in the history of German
aesthetic theory. Ober Anmut und Wiirde, published in 1793, was
a further contribution to the elucidation and widening of Kant's
theories; and in the eloquent Brief e iiber die asthetisclie Erziehung
des Menschen (1795), Schiller proceeded to apply his new standpoint
to the problems of social and individual lite. These remarkable
letters were published in Die Horen, a new journal, founded in I794i
which was the immediate occasion for that intimate friendship with
Goethe which dominated the remainder of Schiller's life. The two
poets had first met in 1788, but at that time Goethe, fresh from
Italy, felt little inclination towards the author of the turbulent
dramas Die Rauber, Kabale und Liebe and Don Carlos. By degrees,
however, Schiller's historical publications, and, in a higher degree,
the magnificent poems, Die Cotter Griechenlands (1788) and Die
Kunstler (1789), awakened Goethe's respect, and in 1794, when the
younger poet invited Goethe to become a collaborator in the Horen,
the latter responded with alacrity. In a very few weeks the two
men had become friends. In the meantime a holiday in Schiller's
Wiirttemberg home had brought renewed health and vigour. An
immediate outcome of the new friendship was Schiller's admirable
essays, published .in the Horen (1795-1796) and collected in 1800
under the title Uber naive_ und sentimentalische Dichtung. Here
Schiller applied his aesthetic theories to that branch of art which
was most peculiarly his own, the art of poetry; it is an attempt to
classify literature in accordance with an a priori philosophic theory
of " ancient " and " modern," " classic " and " romantic," " naive
and " sentimental "; and it sprang from the need Schiller himself
felt of justifying his own " sentimental " and " modern " genius
with the " naive " and " classic " tranquillity of Goethe's. While
Schiller's standpoint was too essentially that of his time to lay
claim to finality, it is, on the whole, the most concise statement we
possess of the literary theory which lay behind the classical literature
of Germany.
For Schiller himself this was the bridge that led back from
philosophy to poetry. Under Goethe's stimulus he won fresh
laurels in that domain of philosophical lyric which he had opened
with Die Kunstler; and in Das Ideal und das Leben, Die Macht
des Gesanges, Wiirde der Frauen, and Der Spaziergang, he pro-
duced masterpieces of reflective poetry which have not their
equal in German literature. These poems appeared in the
Musenalmanach, a new publication which Schiller began in
1796, the Horen, which had never met with the success it merited,
coming to an end in 1797. In the Musenalmanach were also
published the " Xenien " (1797), a collection of distichs by Goethe
and Schiller, in which the two friends avenged themselves on the
cavilling critics who were not in sympathy with them. The
Almanack of the following year, 1798, was even more noteworthy,
for it contained a number of Schiller's most popular ballads,
" Der Ring des Polykrates," " Der Handschuh," " Ritter
Toggenburg," " Der Taucher," " Die Kraniche des Ibykus "
and " Der Gang nach dem Eisenhammer;" " Der Kampf mit
dem Drachen " following in 1799, and " Das Lied von
der Glocke " in 1800. As a ballad poet, Schiller's
popularity has been hardly less great than as a dramatist; the
bold and simple outline, the terse dramatic characterization
appealed directly to the popular mind, which did not let itself be
disturbed by the often artificial and rhetorical tone into which
the poet falls. But the supreme importance of the last period of
Schiller's life lay in the series of master-dramas which he gave
to the world between 1799 and 1804. Just as Don Carlos had led
him to the study of Dutch history, so now his occupation with
the history of the Thirty Years' War supplied him with the
theme of his trilogy of Wallenstein (1798-1799). The plan of
Wallenstein was of long standing, and it was only towards the end,
when Schiller realized the impossibility of saying all he had to
say within five acts, that he decided to divide it into three parts,
a descriptive prologue, Wallensleins Lager, and the two dramas
Die Piccolomini and Wallensteins Tod. Without entirely break-
ing with the pseudo-classic method he had adopted in Don Carlos
the two lovers, Max Piccolomini and Thekla, are an obvious
concession to the tradition of the French theatre Wallenstein
shows how much Schiller's art had benefited by his study of
Greek tragedy; the fatalism of his hero is a masterly application
of an antique motive to a modern theme. His whole conception
of life and character had deepened since Don Carlos, and under
the influence of Kant's philosophy the drama became the
embodiment of ethical problems that are essentially modern.
The success of Wallenstein, with which Schiller passed at once
into the front rank of European dramatists, was so encouraging
that the poet resolved to devote himself with redoubled ardour
to dramatic poetry Towards the end of 1799 he took up his
residence permanently in Weimar, not only to be near his friend,
but also that he might have the advantage of visiting regularly
the theatre of which Goethe was director.
Wallenstein was followed in 1800 by Maria Stuart, a tragedy,
which, in spite of its great popularity in and outside of Germany,
was felt by the critics to follow too closely the methods of
the lachrymose " tragedy of common life " to maintain a high
position among Schiller's works. It is a serious flaw in the play
that the fate of the heroine is virtually decided before the curtain
rises, and the poet is obliged to create by theatrical devices the
semblance of a tragic conflict which, in reality, does not exist.
A finer production in every way is Schiller's " romantic tragedy,"
Die Jungfrau von Orleans (1801). The resplendent medieval
colouring of the subject, the essentially heroic character of Joan
of Arc, gave Schiller an admirable opportunity for the display
of his rich imagination and rhetorical gifts; and by an ingenious
alteration of the historical tradition, he was able to make the
drama a vehicle for his own imperturbable moral optimism.
In unity of style and in the high level of its dramatic diction,
Die Jungfrau von Orleans is unsurpassed among Schiller's works.
Between this drama and its successor, Die Braut von Messina,
Schiller translated and adapted to his classic ideals Shakespeare's
Macbeth (1801) and Gozzi's Turandot (1802). With Die Braut
con Messina (1803) he experimented with a tragedy on purely
Greek lines, this drama being as close an approximation to ancient
tragedy as its medieval and Christian milieu permitted of.
If the experiment cannot be regarded as successful, the fault lies
in the difficulty of reconciling the artificial conventions of the
Greek theatre, the chorus and the oracle here represented by
dreams and superstitions with the point of view of the poet's
own time. As far as the diction itself is concerned, the lyric
outbursts of the chorus gave Schiller's genius an opportunity
of which he was not slow to avail himself. In the poet's last
completed drama, Wilhelm Tell (1804), he once more, as in
Wallenstein, chose a historical subject involving wide issues.
Wilhelm Tell is the drama of the Swiss people; its subject is less
the personal fate of its hero than the struggle of a nation to free
itself from tyranny. This is the reason for the epic breadth
of the work, its picturesque and panoramic character. It also
justifies the idealization of the hero, on the one hand, and, on the
other, the introduction of episodes which have but little re-
lation to his personal fate, or even put his character in a directly
unfavourable light. Wilhelm Tell was an attempt to win for
the German drama a new field, to widen the domain of dramatic
poetry. Besides writing Tell, Schiller had found time in 1803
and 1804 to translate two French comedies by Picard, and to pre-
pare a German version of Racine's Phedre; and in the last months
of his life he began a new tragedy, Demetrius, which gave every
promise of being another step forward in his poetic achievement.
But Demetrius remains a fragment of hardly two acts.
Schiller died at Weimar on the gth of May 1805. His last
years were darkened by constant ill-health; and indeed it is
marvellous that he was able to achieve so much. A visit to
Leipzig in 1801, and to Berlin where there was some prospect of
his being invited to settle in 1804, were the chief outward events
of his later years. He was ennobled in 1802, and in 1804 the duke
of Weimar, unwilling to lose him, doubled his meagre salary of
400 talers. Schiller's art, with its broad, clear lines, its unambigu-
ous moral issues, and its enthusiastic optimism, has appealed with
326
SCHILTBERGER SCHIMMEL
peculiar force to the German people, especially in periods of
political despondency. But since the re-establishment of the
German empire in 1871 there has been, at least in intellectual
circles, a certain waning of his popularity, the Germans of to-day
realizing that Goethe more fully represents the aspirations of the
nation. In point of fact, Schiller's genius lacks that universality
which characterizes Goethe's; as a dramatist, a philosopher, an
historian, and a lyric poet, he was the exponent of 'ideas which
belong rather to the Europe of the period before the French
Revolution than to our time; we look to his high principles of
moral conduct, his noble idealism and optimism, rather as the
ideal of an age that has passed away than as the expression of
the more material ambitions of the modern world.
The first edition of Schiller's Samtliche Werke appeared in 1812-
1815 in 12 vols. and was edited by Schiller's most intimate friend,
C. G. Korner. Of the countless subsequent editions mention need
only be made here of the historisch-kritische Ausgabe by K. Goedeke
and others (15 vols., 1867-1876); the edition published by Hempel
and edited by R. Boxberger and W. von Maltzahn (16 vols., 1868-
1874); that in Kiirschner's Deutsche Nalionalliteratur, vols. 118-
129 (1882-1890), edited by R. Boxberger and A. Birlinger;
and the latest Cotta edition (Sdkularausgabe), edited by E. von der
Hellen and others (17 vols., 1904-1905). A critical edition of
Schiller's Briefe was published by F. Jonas (7 vols.) in 1892-1896;
the chief collections of his correspondence are : Briefwechsel zwischen
Schiller und Goethe (1828-1829, edited by F. Muncker, 4 vols.,
1893); Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und W. von Humboldt (1830,
edited by F. Muncker, 1893) > Schillers Briefwechsel mil Korner (1847,
edited by L. Geiger, 1893); Schiller und Lotte (1856, 4th ed. 1893);
Briefwechsel zwischen Schiller und Cotta, ed. by W. Vollmer (1876).
The chief biographies of Schiller are the following: T. Carlyle,
Life of Friedrich Schiller (1824; German translation with an intro-
duction by Goethe, 1830); Caroline von Wolzogen, Schillers Leben
(1830, 5th ed. 1876, cheap reprint, 1884); K. Hoffmeister,
Schillers Leben (1838-1842); G. Schwab, Schillers Leben (1840,
2nd ed. 1844); E. Palleske, Schillers Leben und Werken (1858-
1859, I4th ed. 1894, Eng. trans. 1885); H. Viehoff, Schillers
Leben (1875, new ed. 1888); H. Diintzer, Schillers Leben (1881);
J. Sime, Schiller (1882); R. Weltrich, F. Schiller (vol. i., 1890);
O. Brahm, Schiller (vols. i.-ii., 1888-1892); J. Minor, Schiller, sein
Leben und seine. Werke (vols. i.-ii., 1890); J. Wychgram, Schiller
(1895. 3rd ed. 1898, popular ed. 1905); O. Harnack, Schiller
(1898, 2nd ed. 1905); L. Bellermann, Schiller (1901); C. Thomas,
Life and Works of Schiller (1901) ; K. Berger, Schiller (vol. i., 1905) ;
E. Kiihnemann, Schiller (1905). See also E. Boas, Schillers Jugend-
jahre (1856); E. Miiller, Schillers Mutter (1894); by the same,
Schillers Jugenddichtung und Jugendleben (1896); A. Streicher,
Schillers Flucht von Stuttgart (1836, reprint, 1905); E. Miiller,
Regesten zu Schillers Leben und Werken (1900); A. Kontz. Les
Drames de lajeunesse de Schiller (1899); E. Kiihnemann, Kants und
Schillers Begriindung der Aslhelik (1895); V. Basch, La Poetique
de Schiller (1902); K. Tomaschek, Schiller in seinem Verhallnisse
zur Wissenschaft (1862); F. t)berweg, Schiller als Historiker und
Philosoph (1884); O. Harnack, Die klassische Aslhetik der Deutschen
(1892); W. Fielitz, Studien zu Schillers Dramen (1876); L. Beller-
mann, Schillers Dramen: Beitrage zu ihrem Verstandnis (2 vols.,
1888-1891; 2nd ed. 1898); K. Werder, Vorlesungen uber Schillers
Wallenstein (1889); A. K6ster, Schiller als Dramaturg (1891);
L. Belling, Schillers Metrik (1883); K. Fischer, Schiller- Schrif ten
(1891-1892); J. W. Braun, Schiller im Urteile seintr Zeitgenossen
(3 vols., 1882) ; J. G. Robertson, Schiller after a Century (1905).
(J. G. R.)
SCHILTBERGER, JOHANN or HANS (1381-1440?), German
traveller and writer, was born of a noble family in 1381 (May
9th?), probably at Hollern near Lohof, half way between Munich
and Freising, on what was then a property of his family. In
1394 he joined the suite of Lienhart Richartinger, and went off
to fight under Sigismund, king of Hungary (afterwards emperor),
against the Turks on the Hungarian frontier. At the battle of
Nicopolis (Sept. 28th, 1396) he was wounded and taken prisoner:
when he had recovered the use of his feet, Sultan Bayezid I.
(Ilderim) took him into his service as a runner (1396-1402).
During this time he seems to have accompanied Ottoman troops
to certain parts of Asia Minor and to Egypt. On Bayezid's
overthrow at Angora (July zoth, 1402), Schiltberger passed into
the service of Bayezid's conqueror Timur: he now appears to
have followed Themurlin to Samarkand, and perhaps also to
Armenia and Georgia. After Timur's death (February I7th,
1405) his German runner first became a slave of Shah Rukh, the
ablest of Timur's sons; then of Miran Shah, a brother, of Shah
Rukh; then of Abu Bekr, a son of Miran Shah, whose camp
roamed up and down Armenia. He next accompanied Chekre, a
Tatar prince living in Abu Bekr's horde, on an excursion to
Siberia, of which name Schiltberger gives us the first clear mention
in west European literature. He also probably followed his new
master in his attack on the Old Bulgaria of the middle Volga,
answering to the modern Kazan and its neighbourhood. Wan-
derings in the steppe lands of south-east Russia; visits to Sarai,
the old capital of the Kipchak Khanate on the lower Volga and
to Azov or Tana, still a trading centre for Venetian and Genoese
merchants; a fresh change of servitude on Chekre's ruin;
travels in the Crimea, Circassia, Abkhasia and Mingrelia; and
finally escape (from the neighbourhood of Batum) followed.
Arriving at Constantinople, he there lay hid for a time; he then
returned to his Bavarian home (1427) by wayof Kilia, Akkerman,
Lemberg, Cracow, Breslau and Meissen After his return he
became a chamberlain of Duke Albert III., probably receiving
this appointment in the first instance before the duke's accession
in 1438.
Schiltberger's Reisebuch contains not only a record of his own
experiences and a sketch of various chapters of contemporary
Eastern history, but also an account of countries and their manners
and customs, especially of those countries which he had himself
visited. First come the lands " this side " of Danube, where he had
travelled; next follow those between the Danube and the sea,
which had now fallen under the Turk; after this, the Ottoman
dominions in Asia; last come the more distant regions of Schilt-
berger's world, from Trebizond to Russia and from Egypt to
India. In this regional geography the descriptions of Brusa; of
various west Caucasian and Armenian regions; of the regions
around the Caspian, and the habits of their peoples (especially the
Red Tatars); of Siberia; of the Crimea with its great Genoese
colony at Kaffa (where he once spent five months) ; and of Egypt
and Arabia, are particularly worth notice. His ajlusions to the
Catholic missions still persisting in Armenia and in other regions
beyond the Euxine, and to (non-Roman ?) Christian communities
even in the Great Tatary of the steppes are also remarkable.
Schiltberger is perhaps the first writer of Western Christendom to
five the true burial place of Mahomet at Medina: his sketches of
slam and of Eastern Christendom, with all their shortcomings, are
of remarkable merit for their time: and he may fairly be reckoned
among the authors who contributed to fix Prester John, at the close
of the middle ages, in Abyssinia. His work, however, contains many
inaccuracies; thus in reckoning the years of his service both with
Bayezid and with Timur he unaccountably multiplies by two.
His account of Timur and his campaigns is misty, often incorrect,
and sometimes fabulous: nor can von Hammer's parallel between
Marco Polo and Schiltberger be sustained without large reservations.
Four MSS. of the Reisebuch exist: (i) at Donaueschingen in the
Fiirstenberg Library, No. 481; (2) at Heidelberg, University
Library, 216; (3) at Nuremberg, City Library, 34; (4) at St Gall,
Monast. Library, 628 (all of I5th century, the last fragmentary).
The work was first edited at Augsburg, about 1460; four other
editions appeared in the isth century, and six in the l6th; in the
19th the best were K. F. Neumann's (Munich, 1859), P. Bruun's
(Odessa, 1866, with Russian commentary, in the Records of the
Imperial University of New Russia, vol. i.), and V. Langmantel's
(Tubingen, 1885) ; " Hans Schiltbergers Reisebuch," in the iy2nd
volume of the Bibliothek des literarischen Vereins in Stuttgart. Sec
also the English (Hakluyt Society) version, The Bondage and Travels
of Johann Schiltberger . . ., trans, by Buchan Telfer with notes by
P. Bruun (London, 1879); von Hammer, " Berechtigung d. orien-
talischen Namen Schiltbergers," in Denkschriften d. Konigl. Akad.
d. Wissenschaften (vol. ix., Munich, 1823-1824); R. Rohrichl,
Bibliotheca geographica Palaeslinae (Berlin, 1890, pp. 103-104);
C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 356-378, 550, 555.
(C. R. B.)
SCHIMMEL, HENDRIK JAN (1825- ), Dutch poet and
novelist, was born on the 3oth of June 1825, at 'S Graveland,
in the province of North Holland, where his father was a notary
and the burgomaster. From 1836 to 1842 Schimmel served
in his father's office, and upon his death he was taken into the
office of the agent of the Dutch Treasury in Amsterdam, ex-
changing in 1849 for a post with the Dutch Trading Company
there. In 1863 he became a director of the Amsterdam Credit
Association. His first volume of poems appeared in 1852;
but it was as a writer of historical dramas in blank verse and one
of the regenerators of the Dutch stage that his literary position
was made. His finest production was Struensee (1868), which
was preceded by Napoleon Bonaparte (1851) and Ju/rouw
Serklaas (" Mrs Serklaas," 1857). Among his other dramatic
works may be mentioned Joan Woutersz (a drama, 1847), Twee
SCHINKEL SCHISTS
327
Tudors (" Two Tudors," 1847), Gondelbald (1848), Schuld en
Boete (" Guilt and Retribution," a drama, 1852), Het Kind
van Staat (" The State Child," a dramatic fragment, 1859); Zege
no, Strijd (" Struggle and Triumph," a drama, 1878). Schimmel's
renderings of Casimir de la Vigne's Louis XL, Geibel's
Sophonisbe, and Ponsard's Lucrece are also still acted in the
Netherlands. His novels are distinguished by their vigorous
style and able characterization. The earlier, better-known
ones betray the writer's English proclivities. The plots of
Mary Hollis (1860, 3 vols., English translation, London 1872,
under the title of " Mary Hollis, a Romance of the Days of
Charles II. and William, Prince of Orange," 3 vols.) and of
Mylady Carlisle (1864, 4 vols.) are laid in England, whereas
those of his Sinjeur Semeyns (1875, 3 vols.), a powerful picture
of the terrible year 1672, and of De Kapitein van de Lijf garde
(1888, 3 vols., English adaptation, 1896, under the title of
" The Lifeguardsman," i vol.), a continuation of " Master
Semeyns," are almost entirely centred in Holland. He had many
points of style and manner in common with Madame Bosboom-
Toussaint, though both remained highly original in their treat-
ment. Both finally reverted to essentially national subjects.
To the earlier romances of Schimmel belong: Bonaparte en
zyn Tyd (" Bonaparte and his Time," 1853), De Eerste Dag eens
Nieuwen Levens (" The First Day of a New Life," 2 vols., 1855),
Sproken en Vertellingen (" Legends and Tales," 1855), Een
Haagsche Jojfer (" A Hague Damsel," 1857), De Vooravond
der Revolutie (" The Eve of the Revolution," 1866). Schimmel
was an early collaborator of Potgieter on the Gids staff. His
dramatic works appeared in a collected edition in 1885-1886
at Amsterdam (3 vols.), followed by a complete and popular
issue of his novels (Schiedam, 1892).
SCHINKEL, KARL FRIEDRICH (1781-1841), German
architect and painter, and professor in the academy of fine arts
at Berlin from 1820, was born at Neuruppin, in Brandenburg,
on the i3th of March 1781. He was a pupil of Friedrich Gilly,
the continuation of whose work he undertook when his master
died in 1800. In 1803 Schinkel went to Italy, returning to
Berlin in 1805. The Napoleonic wars interfered seriously with
his work as architect, so that he took up landscape painting,
displaying a talent for the romantic delineation of natural
scenery. In 1810 he drew a plan for the mausoleum of Queen
Louise and in 1819 a brilliant sketch for the Berlin cathedral in
Gothic style. From 1808 to 1814 he painted a number of
dioramas for Gropins. From 1815 he devoted much time to
scene painting, examples of his work being still in use in the
royal theatres of Germany. Schinkel's principal buildings are in
Berlin and its neighbourhood. His merits are, however, best
shown in his unexecuted plans for the transformation of the
Acropolis into a royal palace, for the erection of the Orianda
Palace in the Crimea and for a monument to Frederick the
Great. These and other designs may be studied in his Sammlung
archilektonischer Entwiirfe (1820-1837, 3rd ed. 1857-1858) and
his Werke der hoheren Baukunst (1845-1846, new ed. 1874).
See the biographies by Kugler, Bottischer, Quast, H. Grimm,
Waagen, Woetmann, Pecht, Dohme, and vol. xxviii. of the Kunstler-
monographie, by Ziller (Leipzig, 1897).
SCHIRMER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1802-1866), German
landscape artist, was born in Berlin. As a youth he painted
flowers in the royal porcelain factory; afterwards he became
a pupil of F. W. Schadow in the Berlin Academy, but his art
owed most to Italy. He went to Italy in 1827; his sojourn
extended over three years; he became a disciple of his country-
man Joseph Koch, who built historic landscape on the Poussins,
and is said to have caught inspiration from Turner. In 1831
Schirmer established himself in Berlin in a studio with scholars
from 1839 to 1865 he was professor of landscape in the academy.
Schirmer's place in the history of art is distinctive: his sketches
in Italy were more than transcripts of the spots; he studied nature
with the purpose of composing historic and poetic landscapes. On
the completion of the Berlin Museum of Antiquities came his oppor-
tunity: upon the walls he painted classic sites and temples, and
elucidated the collections by the landscape scenery with which they
were historically associated. His supreme aim was to make his
art the poetic interpretation of nature and he deemed technique
secondary to conception. His pictures appeal to the mind by the
ideas they embody, by beauty of form, harmony of line, significance
of light and colour. In this constructional landscape German critics
discover " motive," " inner meaning," " the subjective," " the
ideal." And Schirmer thus formed a school.
SCHIRMER, JOHANN WILHELM (1807-1863), German land-
scape painter, was born at Jiilich in Rhenish Prussia. This
artist, a namesake of F. W. Schirmer, had a similar aim and
career. He first was a student, and subsequently became a
professor in the academy of Dusseldorf. In 1854 he was made
director of the art school at Carlsruhe, where he died. He travelled
and sketched in Italy, and aimed at historic landscape after
the manner of the Poussins. His Biblical landscapes with
figures are held in good esteem.
SCHISM, a division, especially used of a formal separation
from a church or religious body, a sect, or church formed by
such separation. The Greek axi^a, a cleft, split, from a^ tiv,
to cleave, is used in the New Testament of an actual rent in a
garment (Matt. ix. 16) and also several times of divisions or
differences of opinion as to the teaching and message of Christ
(John vii. 43) or of dissension in the church (i Cor. xi. 18)
In the early Christian Church, as defined by the Fathers, and
later, the offence of " schism " is distinguished from that of
" heresy "; it refers not to differences of belief or doctrine,
but to the promotion, or the state, of divisions of organisation,
and to the formation of bodies separate from the true church,
or to dissensions and separations due to disputes over matters
of discipline or authority (see HERESY). The dispute which
led to the separation of the Latin and Greek Churches is known
as the " Great Schism," and the division over the election to
the Papacy of Urban VI. and Clement VII. as the " Great Schism
of the West " (1378-1417) (see PAPACY and CHURCH HISTORY).
SCHISTS (Gr. <rxtf"', to split), in petrology, metamorphic
rocks which have a fissile character. In all of them there is at
least one mineral which crystallizes in platy forms (e.g. mica,
talc, chlorite, haematite), or in long blades or fibres (antho-
phyllite, tremolite, actinolite, tourmaline), and, when these
have a well marked parallel arrangement in definite bands or
folia, the rock will break far more easily along the bands than
across them. The platy minerals have also a perfect cleavage
parallel to their flat surfaces, while the fibrous species often have
two or more cleavages following their long axes; hence a schistose
rock may split not only by separation of the mineral plates from
one another but also by cleavage of the parallel minerals through
their substance.
Schists in the common acceptance of that term are really
highly crystalline rocks; fissile slates, shales or sandstones, in
which the original sedimentary structures are little modified
by recrystallization, are not included in this group by English
petrologists, though the French schistes and the German Schicfer
are used to designate also rocks of these types. The difference
between schists and gneisses is mainly that the latter have less
highly developed foliation; they also, as a rule, are more coarse
grained, and contain far more quartz and felspar, two minerals
which rarely assume platy or acicular forms, and hence do not
lead to the production of a fissile character in the rocks in which
they are important constituents. Schists, as a rule, are found
in regions composed mainly of metamorphic rocks, such as the
Central Alps, Himalayas, and other mountain ranges, Saxony,
Scandinavia, the Highlands of Scotland and north-west of Ireland.
They are typical products of " regional " metamorphism, and are
in nearly all cases older than the fossiliferous sedimentary rocks.
Transitions between schists and normal igneous or sedimentary
rocks are often found. The Silurian mica-schists of Bergen in
Norway are fossiliferous; in the Alps it is believed that even
Mesozoic rocks pass laterally into mica-schists and calc-schists.
These changes are regarded as having been produced by the
operation of heat, pressure and folding. It is often taught that
gneisses are the further stages of the crystallization of schists
and belong to a deeper zone where the pressures and the tempera-
tures were greater. Igneous rocks also may be converted readily
into schists (e.g. serpentine into talc-schist, dolerite into horn-
blende-schist) by the same agencies.
3 28
SCHLAGINTWEIT SCHLEGEL, A. W. VON
There are two great groups of schists, viz. those derived from
sedimentary and those derived from igneous rocks, or, as they have
been called, the " paraschists " and the " orthoschists." The first
group is the more important and includes some of the commonest
metamorphic rocks. In the paraschists, though fossils are ex-
ceedingly rare, sedimentary structures such as bedding and the
alternation of laminae of fine and coarse deposit may frequently
be preserved. The foliation is often parallel to the bedding, but
may cross it obliquely or at right angles; or the bedding may be
folded and contorted while the foliation maintains a nearly uniform
orientation. When the foliation is undulose or sinuous the rocks are
said to be crumpled, and have wavy splitting surfaces instead of
nearly plane ones. The development of foliation in shaly rocks is
undoubtedly closely akin to the production of cleavage in slates.
The sedimentary schists or paraschists have three great sub-
divisions, the mica-schists and chlorite-schists (which correspond in
a general way to shales or clay rocks) the calc-schists (impure
limestones) and the quartz-schists (metamorphosed sandstones).
In the mica-schists of this group biotite or muscovite may be the
principal mineral and often both are present in varying proportions;
the mica has developed from the argillaceous matter of the original
rock; in addition there is always quartz and sometimes lelspar
(albite or oligoclase). A large number of minerals may occur as
accessories, e.g. garnet, tourmaline, staurolite, andalusite, actinolite,
chloritoid or ottrelite, epidote, haematite, and if any of these is
abundant its presence may be indicated by the name given the rock,
e.g. staurolite-mica-schist. The phyllites (g..) form a middle term
between this group and the slates; they consist usually of quartz,
white mica and chlorite, and have much of the foliation and
schistosity of the mica-schists. Those rocks which contain andalusite
and staurolite are sometimes found in such associations as show
that they are due to contact action by intrusive igneous masses.
The chlorite-schists are often of igneous derivation, such as ash-beds
or fine lavas which have been metamorphosed. Many of them con-
tain large octahedra of magnetite Others are probably sedimentary
rocks, especially those which contain much muscovite. Calc-schists
are usually argillaceous limestones in which a large development of
biotite or phlogopite has occasioned foliation. Often they contain
quartz and felspar, sometimes pyroxene, amphibole, garnet or
epidote. Pure limestones do not frequently take on schistose fades.
The quartz-schists consist of quartz and white mica, and are inti-
mately related to quartzites. Many of them have been originally
micaceous or felspathic sandstones. We may mention also graphitic-
schists containing dark scaly graphite (often altered forms of car-
bonaceous shales), and haematite-schists which may represent beds
of ironstone.
The orthoschists are white mica-schists produced by the shearing
of acid rocks, such as felsite and porphyry. Some of the " porphy-
roids " which have grains of quartz and felspar in a finely schistose
micaceous matrix are intermediate between porphyries and mica-
schists of this group. Still more numerous are orthoschists of horn-
blendic character (hornblende-schists) consisting of green hornblende
with often felspar, quartz and sphene (also rutile, garnet, epidote
or zoisite, biotite and iron oxides). These are modified forms of
basic rocks such as basalt, dolerite and diabase. Every transition
can be found between perfectly normal ophitic dolerites and typical
hornblende-schists, and occasionally the same dike or sill will
provide specimens of all the connecting stages. A few hornblende-
schists are metamorphosed gabbros; others have developed from
dikes or sills of lamprophyre. Under extreme crushing these basic
rocks may be converted into dark biotite-schists, or greenish chloritc-
schists. Tremolite-schist and anthophyllite-schist are in nearly
all cases the representatives of the ultra-basic igneous rocks such
as peridotite in regions of high metamorphism. Talc-schists are
of the same category. They are soft and lustrous, with a peculiarly
smooth feel, and though often confounded with mica-schists may be
distinguished by their richness in magnesia; many of them contain
tremoiite or actinolite; others have residual grains of olivine or
augite; and here also every gradation can be found between the
unmodified igneous types and the perfectly metamorphic schists.
Occasionally serpentines become sheared without yielding talcose
minerals; they are then known as serpentine-schist and antigorite-
schist, the latter being tough leek-green rocks, more or less trans-
parent.
SCHLAGINTWEIT, the name of five German scientific ex-
plorers or students of foreign countries. They were brothers,
and were named HERMANN (1826-1882, who became known as
Hermann von Schlagintweit Saktinliinski), ADOLF (1829-1857),
EDUARD (1831-1866), ROBERT (1833-1885), and EMIL (1835-
1904). Hermann was born at Munich on the I3th of May 1826.
His first scientific labours were studies in the Alps, carried on
between 1846 and 1848 in association with his brother Adolf
(born at Munich on the 9th of January 1829). The publication
of the Untcrsuchungen ilber die physikalische Geographic der
Alpen in 1850 (Leipzig) founded the scientific reputation of the
two brothers, and their reputation was increased by subsequent
investigations in the same field, in which Robert (born at Munich
on the 27th of October 1837) also took part. Soon after the
publication of the Neue Untersuchungen iiber die phys. Geog. u.
Geol. der Alpen (Leipzig, 1854), the three brothers received, on
the recommendation of Alexander von Humboldt, a commission
from the East India Company to travel for scientific purposes in
their territory, and more particularly to make observations on
terrestrial magnetism. During 1854-1857 they travelled, some-
times in company, sometimes separately, in the Deccan and
in the region of the Himalayas, prosecuting their investigations
beyond the frontiers of the company's territory into the region
of the Karakorum and Kuen-lun mountains. Hermann and
Robert were the first Europeans who crossed the Kuen-lun, and
in honour of that achievement the former had the title or surname
of Sakunlunski bestowed upon him (in 1864). Robert returned
to Europe early in 1857; Hermann, after a visit to Nepal, joined
him on his homeward journey; but Adolf, who remained to
prosecute his explorations in Central Asia, was put to death by the
amir of Kashgar on the 26th of August. Hermann and Robert
published in four volumes the Results of a Scientific Mission to
India and High Asia (Leipzig, 1860-1866). They had, moreover,
made extensive ethnographical and natural history collections.
Hermann spent the last years of his life chiefly in literary and
scientific activity, partly at Munich, partly at the castle of
Jagernburg near Forchheim. He died at Munich on the igth of
January 1882. Robert was appointed professor of geography
at Giessen in 1863. He paid several visits to America, which
furnished him with material for such works as Die Pacific-
Eisenbahn (1870), Die Mormonen (1874), Die Prdrien (1876), &c.,
all published at Cologne. He died at Giessen on the 6th of June
1885. Eduard, born on the 23rd of March 1831, killed in battle
at Kissingen in 1866, made himself known by an account
of the Spanish expedition to Morocco in 1859-1860. Emil,
born on the 7th of July 1835, wrote several learned works
relating to India and Tibet. He died on the 2gth of October
1904.
SCHLAN (Czech, Slane], a town of Bohemia, 37 m. N.W. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9491, mostly Czech. The most
notable churches are St Gotthard (i4th century, remodelled
in 1782) St Mary, attached to the Piarist college (1655-1658),
the chapel of St Lawrence (i3th century) and the church of the
Holy Trinity belonging to the Franciscan friary (1655). There
are extensive coal-fields and important iron, metal and machine
industries, together with the manufacture of chemicals and
corn-milling.
Schlan probably the name of a castle occurs in documents of
the loth century. The town was probably founded in the I3th
century by Ottakar II. In the Hussite wars it took the utraquist
side, was occupied in 1420 by King Sigismund, but retaken the next
year by the troops of Prague. These were expelled, in 1425, after a
desperate resistance by the Taborites and Orphans. The town now
remained faithful to the Taborite cause till its collapse in 1434.
The place was re-fortified between 1460 and 1472. After the^battle
of the White Hill (1620), Schlan was granted to Jaroslaus Borita of
Martinic, lord of Smecno, whose descendants still own the lordship.
SCHLANGENBAD, a watering-place of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, pleasantly situated in a
deep and well-wooded valley of the Taunus range, 6 m. N.W.
of Wiesbaden, 4! m. S. of Langenschwalbach, and 5 m. E. of
Eltville on the Rhine, with which it is connected by a steam
tramway. Its eight thermal springs are mostly used for bathing,
and are efficacious in nervous complaints and feminine disorders.
There is a handsome kursaal connected with the principal bathing
establishment. Permanent population (1905) 400, while the
number of visitors numbers about 2500 annually.
See Baumann, Schlangenbad, mil besonderer Berucksichtigung
seiner Kur- und Bade-Anstalten (new ed., Wiesbaden, 1894); and
Bertrand, Schlangenbad und seine Warmquellen (Heidelberg, 1878).
SCHLEGEL, AUGUST WILHELM VON (1767-1845), German
poet, translator and critic, was born on the 8th of September,
1767, at Hanover, where his father, Johann Adolf Schlegel
(1721-1793), was a Lutheran pastor. He was educated at the
Hanover gymnasium and at the university of Gottingen. Having
spent some years as a tutor in the house of a banker at
SCHLEGEL, J. E. SCHLEGEL, K. W. F. VON
Amsterdam, he went to Jena, where, in 1796, he married Karoline,
the widow of the physician Bohmer (see SCHELLING, KAROLINE)
and in 1798 was appointed extraordinary professor. Here he
began his translation of Shakespeare, which was ultimately
completed, under the superintendence of Ludwig Tieck, by
Tieck's daughter Dorothea and Graf W. H. Baudissin. This
rendering is one of the best poetical translations in German,
or indeed in any language. At Jena Schlegel contributed to
Schiller's periodicals the Horen and the Muscnalmanach; and
with his brother Friedrich he conducted the Athenaeum, the
organ of the Romantic school. He also published a volume of
poems, and carried on a rather bitter controversy with Kotzebue.
At this time the two brothers were remarkable for the vigour
and freshness of their ideas, and commanded respect as the
leaders of the new Romantic criticism. A volume of their
joint essays appeared in 1801 under the title Charakteristitten
und Kritiken. In 1802 Schlegel went to Berlin, where he delivered
lectures on art and literature; and in the following year he
published Ion, a tragedy in Euripidean style, which gave rise
to a suggestive discussion on the principles of dramatic poetry.
This was followed by Spanisches Theater (2 vols., 1803-1809),
in which he presented admirable translations of five of Calderon's
plays; and in another volume, Blumenstrausse iialienischer,
spanischcr und portuguesischer Poesie (1804), he gave translations
of Spanish, Portuguese and Italian lyrics. In 1807 he attracted
much attention in France by an essay in the French language,
Comparaison entre la Phedre de Racine ct celle d'Euripide, in
which he attacked French classicism from the standpoint of the
Romantic school. His lectures on dramatic art and literature
(Uber dramatische Kunst und Literatur, 1809-1811), which bave
been translated into most European languages, were delivered
at Vienna in 1808. Meanwhile, after a divorce from his wife
Karoline, in 1804, he travelled in France, Germany, Italy and
other countries with Madame de Stael, who owed to him many
of the ideas which she embodied in her work, De I' Allemagne.
In 1813 he acted as secretary of the crown prince of Sweden,
through whose influence the right of his family to noble rank
was revived. Schlegel was made a professor of literature at the
university of Bonn in 1818, and during the remainder of his
life occupied himself chiefly with oriental studies, although he
continued to lecture on art and literature, and in 1828 he issued
two volumes of critical writings (Kritische Schriften). In 1823-
1830 he published the journal Indische Bibliothek (3 vols.) and
edited (1823) the Bhagavad-Gita with a Latin translation, and
(1829) the Ramayana. These works mark the beginning of
Sanskrit scholarship in Germany. After the death of Madame
de Stael Schlegel married (1818) a daughter of Professor Paulus
of Heidelberg; but this union was dissolved in 1821. He died
at Bonn on the i2th of May 1845. As an original poet Schlegel
is unimportant, but as a poetical translator he has rarely been
excelled, and in criticism he put into practice the Romantic
principle that a critic's first duty is not to judge from the stand-
point of superiority, but to understand and to " characterize "
a work of art.
In 1846-1847 Schlegel's Samtliche Wcrke were issued in twelve
volumes by E. Bocking. There are also editions by the same editor
of his CEuvres ecrites en fran^ais (3 vols., 1846), and of his Opuscula
Latine scripta (1848). Schlegel's Shakespeare translations have
been often reprinted; the edition of 1871-1872 was revised with
Schlegel's MSS. by M. Bernays. See M. Bernays, Zur Entstehungs-
geschichte des Schlegelschen Shakespeare (1872); R. Gene"e, Schlegel
und Shakespeare (1903). Schlegel's Berlin lectures of 1801-1804 were
reprinted from MS. notes by J. Minor (1884). A selection of the
writings of both A. W. and Friedrich Schlegel, edited by O. F.
Walzel, will be found in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteratur, 143
(1892). See especially R. Haym, Romantische Schule, and the
article in the Allg. deutsche Biographie by F. Muncker.
SCHLEGEL, JOHANN ELIAS (1719-1749), German critic
and dramatic poet, was born at Meissen on the 28th of January
1719- He was educated at Schulpforta and at the university
of Leipzig, where he studied law. In 1743 he became private
secretary to his relative, von Spener, the Saxon ambassador
at the Danish court. Afterwards he was made professor extra-
ordinary at the academy of Seroe, where he died on the I3th
329
of August 1749. Schlegel was a contributor to the Bremer
Beitrage and for some time, while he was living in Denmark,
edited a weekly periodical, Der Fremde. With his dramas as
well as with his critical writings he did much to prepare the way
for Lessing, by whom his genius was warmly appreciated. He
wrote two lively and well-constructed comedies, Der Triumph
der guten Frauen and Die stumme Schonheit, the former in prose,
the latter in alexandrines. Hermann and Canut (in alexandrines)
are generally considered his best tragedies.
His works were edited (in 5 vols., 1761-1770) by his brother,
J. H. Schlegel (1724-1780), who had a considerable reputation as a
writer on Danish history. Another brother, J. Adolf Schlegel
(1721-1793), an eminent preacher, and author of some volumes of
verse, was the father of August Wilhelm and Friedrich von Schlegel.
J. E. Schlegel's Asthetische und dramaturgische Schriften have been
edited by J. von Antoniewicz (1887), and a selection of his plays by
F. Muncker in Bremer Beitrage, vol. ii. (Kiirschner's Deutsche
Nationalliteratur, vol. xliv., 1899). See. besides the biography by
his brother in the edition of his works, E. Wolff, Johann Elias
Schlegel (1889); and J. Rentsch, Johann Elias Schlegel als Trauer-
spieldichter (1890).
SCHLEGEL, KARL WILHELM FRIEDRICH VON (1772-1829),
German poet, critic and scholar, was the younger brother of
August Wilhelm von Schlegel. He was born at Hanover on
the xoth of March 1772. He studied law at Gottingen and
Leipzig, but ultimately devoted himself entirely to literary
studies. He published in 1797 the important book Die Griechen
und Romer, which was followed by the suggestive Geschichte
der Poesie der Griechen und Romer (1798). At Jena, where he
lectured as a Privatdozent at the university, he contributed to
the Athenaeum the aphorisms and essays in which the principles
of the Romantic school are most definitely stated. Here also
he wrote Lucinde (1799), an unfinished romance, which is interest-
ing as an attempt to transfer to practical ethics the Romantic-
demand for complete individual freedom, and Alarcos, a tragedy
(1802) in which, without much success, he combined romantic
and classical elements. In 1802 he went to Paris, where he
edited the review Europa (1803), lectured on philosophy and
carried on Oriental studies, some results of which he embodied
in an epoch-making book, Uber die Sprache und Weisheit der
Indier (1808). In the same year in which this work appeared,
he and his wife Dorothea (1763-1839), a daughter of Moses
Mendelssohn, joined the Roman Catholic Church, and from
this time he became more and more opposed to the principles
of political and religious freedom. He went to Vienna and in
1809 was appointed imperial court secretary at the headquarters
of the archduke Charles. At a later period he was councillor
of legation in the Austrian embassy at the Frankfort diet,
but in 1818 he returned to Vienna. Meanwhile he had published
his collected Gedichte (1809) and two series of lectures, Uber
die neuere Geschichte (1811) and Geschichte der alien und neuen
Literatur (1815). After his return to Vienna from Frankfort
he edited Concordia (1820-1823), and began the issue of his
Samtliche Wcrke. He also delivered lectures, which were re-
published in his Philosophic des Lebens (1828) and in his Philo-
sophic der Geschichte (1829). He died on the nth of January
1829 at Dresden. A permanent place in the history of German
literature belongs to Friedrich Schlegel and his brother August
Wilhelm as the critical leaders of the Romantic school, which
derived from them most of its governing ideas as to the charac-
teristics of the middle ages, and as to the methods of literary
expression. Of the two brothers, Friedrich was unquestionably
the more original genius. He was the real founder of the
Romantic school; to him more than to any other member of
the school we owe the revolutionizing and germinating ideas
which influenced so profoundly the development of German
literature at the beginning of the igth century.
Friedrich Schlegel's wife, Dorothea, was the author of an
unfinished romance, Florentin (1801), a Sammlung romantischer
Dichtungen des Mittelalters (2 vols., 1804), a version of Lather
und Mailer (1805), and a translation of Madame de StaeFs
Corinne (1807-1808) all of which were issued under her hus-
band's name. By her first marriage she had a son, Philipp Veit,
who became an eminent painter.
330
SCHLEICHER SCHLEIERMACHER
Friedrich Schlegel's Samtliche Werke appeared in 10 vols. (1822-
1825); a second edition (1846) in 15 vols. His Prosaische Jugend-
schriften (1794-1802) have been edited by J. Minor (1882, 2nd ed.
1906) ; there are also reprints of Lucinde, and F. Schleiermacher's
Vertraute Briefe iiber Lucinde, 1800 (1907). See R. Haym, Die
romantische Schule (1870); I. Rouge, F. Schlegel et la genese du
romantisme allemand (1904); by the same, Erlaulerungen zu F,
Schlegels Lucinde (1905); M. Joachimi, Die Weltanschauung der
Romantik (1905); - W. Glawe, Die Religion F. Schlegels (1906);
E. Kircher, Philosophic der Romantik (1906). On Dorothea Schlegel
see J. M. Raich, Dorothea von Schlegel und deren Sohne (1881);
F. Diebel, Dorothea Schlegel als Schriftsteller im Zusammenhang mil
der romantischen Schule (1905).
SCHLEICHER, AUGUST (1821-1868), German philologist, was
born at Meiningen on the igth of February 1821, the son of a
medical practitioner. He attended (1835-1840) the gymnasium
at Coburg. In the autumn of 1840 he entered the university of
Leipzig as a student of theology, but exchanged Leipzig in the
spring of 1841 for Tubingen. Here he remained two years, and
under the influence of the famous orientalist Ewald, relinquished
the study of theology for that of languages. Proceeding to the
university of Bonn in 1843, he took his doctor's degree in 1846
and established himself as Privatdozent for comparative philology.
In 1850 he was appointed extraordinary professor of classical
philology at the university of Prague, and in 1853 was advanced
as ordinary professor to the chair of German and comparative
philology and Sanskrit. While at Prague he commenced the
study of Slavonic languages, and with the assistance of the
Vienna academy of sciences undertook in 1852 a journey of
scientific research into Prussian Lithuania, the fruits of which
were the first scientific examination and description of the
character of the Lithuanian language. In 1857 he became
professor of philology at Jena, where he lived and worked until his
death on the 6th of December 1868. Next to Franz Bopp (?..),
the founder on the science of language, no German savant left
a more enduring stamp of his personality upon this science than
did Schleicher.
His first scientific work, Zur vergleichenden Sprachgeschichte
(1848), was followed by Die Sprachen Europas (1850) ; but the book
by which he is best known is Kompendium der vergleichenden Gram-
matik der indogermanischen Sprachen (2 pts., 1861, 1864; 4th ed.,
1876), and a supplementary volume, Indogermanische Chrestomathie
(1869). Among his minor writings are " Zur Morphologic der Sprache "
(in the Memmres de I'academie de St. Petersbourg, 1859); Die Dar-
winsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft (1863, new ed. 1873),
Vber die Bedeutung der Sprache fur die Naturgeschtchte des Menschen
(1865); while in the department of Slavonic and Lithuanian
languages the following may be mentioned : Formenlehre der kirchen-
slavischen Sprache (1852); Handbuch der litauischen Sprache (with
grammar, reader and glossary, 1856-1857). Besides Lithuanian
legends he published an edition of Christian Donaleitis' Litauische
Dtchtuneen (1865).
See S. Lefmann, August Schleicher (1870) and Zeitschrift fur
vergleichende Sprachforschung, vol. xviii.
SCHLEIDEN, MATTHIAS JAKOB (1804-1881), German
botanist, was born at Hamburg on the $th of April 1804. He
studied law at Heidelberg and practised as an advocate in
Hamburg till 1831, but not succeeding he studied botany and
medicine at Gottingen and Berlin, and in 1839 graduated at Jena,
where he was appointed extraordinary professor of botany,
becoming honorary professor in 1846 and ordinary professor
in 1850. In 1863 he was called to Dorpat, but resigned the
following year and returned to Germany, where he lived as a
private teacher. He died at Frankfort-on-Main on the 23rd of
June 1881. His title to remembrance is twofold. Uniting the
labours of two centuries of workers in vegetable histology, he
proved that a nucleated cell is the only original constituent
of the plant embryo, and that the development of all vegetable
tissues must be referred to such cells, thus preparing the way for
the epoch-making cell theory of Theodor Schwann (?..); and
his Principles of Scientific Botany (1842-1843), which went
through several editions, did much to shake the tyranny of the
purely systematic Linnean school, whose accumulations he was
accustomed irreverently to describe as " hay." Despite a
certain inability to criticize and verify hisownhypotheses.hegave,
both by his speculative activity and by the introduction of
improved technical methods, so vivid an impulse to the younger
botanists of his time as to have earned from Anton de Bary the
title of reformer of scientific botany. His botanical labours
practically ceased after 1850, when he entered on various philo-
sophical and historical studies.
SCHLEIERMACHER, FRIEDRICH DANIEL ERNST (1768-
1834), theologian and philosopher, was the son of a Prussian
army chaplain of the Reformed confession, and was born on the
2ist of November 1768 at Breslau. He was educated in a
Moravian school at Niesky in upper Lusatia, and at Barby near
Halle. Moravian theology, however, soon ceased to satisfy him,
and his doubts rapidly took definite shape. Reluctantly his
father gave him permission to leave Barby for the university
of Halle, which had already (1787) abandoned pietism and
adopted the rationalist spirit of Wolf and Semler (see RATIONAL-
ISM). As a student he pursued an independent course of reading
and neglected to his permanent loss the study of the Old Testa-
ment and the Oriental languages. But he frequented the lectures
of Semler and of J. A. Eberhard, acquiring from the former the
principles of an independent criticism of the New Testament and
from the latter his love of PJato and Aristotle. At the same time
he studied with great earnestness the writings of Kant and Jacobi.
He acquired thus early his characteristic habit of forming his
opinions by the process of patiently examining and weighing the
positions of all thinkers and parties. But with the receptivity
of a great eclectic he combined the reconstructive power of
a profoundly original thinker. While yet a student he began to
apply ideas gathered from the Greek philosophers in a recon-
struction of Kant's system. At the completion of his three years'
course at Halle he was for two years private tutor in the family
of Count Dohna-Schlobitten, developing in a cultivated and
aristocratic household his deep love of family and social life.
In 1796 he became chaplain to the Charit6 Hospital in Berlin.
Having no scope for the development of his powers as a preacher,
he sought mental and spiritual satisfaction in the cultivated
society of Berlin, and in profound philosophical studies. This
was the period in which he was constructing the framework of
his philosophical and religious system. It was the period, too,
when he made himself widely acquainted with art, literature,
science and general culture. He was at that time profoundly
affected by German Romanticism, as represented by his friend
Friedrich Schlegel. Of this his Confidential Letters on Schlegel's
Lucinde (Verlrauten Briefe iiber Schlegel'i "Lucinde," 1801;
ed. 1835; by Jonas Frankel, 1907; R. Frank, 1907), as well
as his perilous relation to Eleonore Grunow, the wife of a Berlin
clergyman, are proof and illustration. Though his ultimate
principles were unchanged he gained much from the struggle.
It showed him much of the inner truth of human feeling and
emotion, and enriched his imagination and life with ideals
ancient and modern, which gave elevation, depth and colour
to all his thought. Meantime he studied Spinoza and Plato,
and was profoundly influenced by both, though he was never
a Spinozist; he made Kant more and more his master, though
he departed on fundamental points from him, and finally re-
modelled his philosophy; with some of Jacobi's positions he
was in sympathy, and from Fichte and Schelling he accepted
ideas, which in their place in his system, however, received
another value and import. The literary fruit of this period of
intense fermentation and of rapid development was his "epoch-
making " book, Redcn iiber die Religion (1799; ed. Gottingen,
1906), and his " new year's gift " to the new century, the Mono-
logen (1800; ed. 1902). In the first book he vindicated for re-
ligion an eternal place amongst the divine mysteries of human
nature, distinguished it from all current caricatures of it and allied
phenomena, and described the perennial forms of its manifestation
and life in men and society, giving thereby the programme of his
subsequent theological system. In the Monologen he threw out
his ethical manifesto, in which he proclaimed his ideas as to the
freedom and independence of the spirit, and as to the relation of
the mind to the world of sense and imperfect social organizations,
and sketched his ideal of the future of the individual and society.
From 1802 to 1804, Schleiermacher was pastor in the little
Pomeranian town of Stolpe. These years were full of literary
SCHLEIERMACHER
work, as well as rich in personal and moral progress. He relieved
Friedrich Schlegel entirely of his nominal responsibility for
the translation of Plato, which they had together undertaken
(vols. 1-5, 1804-1810; 3rd ed., 1855-1861; vol. 6, Repub.
1828; 2nd ed., 1855-1862). At the same time another work,
Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen SMenlehre (1803; 2nd
ed. 1834), the first of his strictly critical and philosophical
productions, occupied him. This work is a severe criticism of
all previous moral systems, especially those of Kant and Fichte,
Plato's and Spinoza's finding most favour; its leading principles
are that the tests of the soundness of a moral system are the
completeness of its view of the laws and ends of human life
as a whole and the harmonious arrangement of its subject-matter
under one fundamental principle; and, though it is almost
exclusively critical and negative, the book announces clearly the
division and scope of moral science which Schleiermacher
subsequently adopted, attaching prime importance to a
" Guterlehre," or doctrine of the ends to be obtained by moral
action. But the obscurity of the style of the book as well as
its almost purely negative results proved fatal to its immediate
success. In 1804 Schleiermacher removed as university
preacher and professor of theology to Halle, where he remained
until 1807, and where he quickly obtained a reputation as
professor and preacher, and exercised a powerful influence in
spite of the contradictory charges of his being atheist, Spinozist
and pietist. In this period he wrote his dialogue the Weih-
nachtsfeier (1806; 4th ed. 1850), a charming production, which
holds a place midway between his Reden and his great dogmatic
work, Der christliche Glaube, and presents in the persons of its
speakers phases of his growing appreciation of Christianity
as well as the conflicting elements of the theology of the period.
After the battle of Jena he returned to Berlin (1807), was soon
appointed pastor of the Trinity Church there, and the next
year married the widow of his friend Willich. At the foundation
of the Berlin university (1810), in which he took a prominent
part, he was called to a theological chair, and soon became
secretary to the Academy of Sciences. He was thus placed in a
position suited to his powers and in domestic and social surround-
ings adapted to meet the wants of his rich nature. At the
same time he approved himself in the pulpit and elsewhere
as a large-hearted and fearless patriot in that time of national
calamity and humiliation, acquiring a name and place in his
country's annals with Arndt, Fichte, Stein and Scharnhorst.
He took a prominent part too in the reorganization of the
Prussian church, and became the most powerful advocate of
the union of the Lutheran and Reformed divisions of German
Protestantism. The twenty-four years of his professional
career in Berlin were opened with his short but important outline
of theol ogical study ( .Krze Darstellung des theologlschen Sludiums,
1811; 2nd ed. 1830), in which he sought to do for theology
what he had done for religion in his Reden. While he preached
every Sunday, he also gradually took up in his lectures in the
university almost every branch of theology and philosophy
New Testament exegesis, introduction to and interpretation of
the New Testament, ethics (both philosophic and Christian),
dogmatic and practical theology, church history, history of philo-
sophy, psychology, dialectics (logic and metaphysics), politics,
pedagogy and aesthetics. His own materials for these lectures
and his students' notes and reports of them are the only form in
which the larger proportion of his works exist a circumstance
which has greatly increased the difficulty of getting a clear
and harmonious view of fundamental portions of his philo-
sophical and ethical system, while it has effectually deterred
all but the most courageous and patient students from reading
these posthumous collections. As a preacher he produced a
powerful effect, yet not at all by the force of his oratory but by
his intellectual strength, his devotional spirit and the philo-
sophical breadth and unity of his thought. In politics he was
an earnest friend of liberty and progress, and in the period of
reaction which followed the overthrow of Napoleon he was
charged by the Prussian government with " demagogic agita-
tion " in conjunction with the great patriot Arndt. At the same
time he prepared for the press his chief theological work Der
christliche Glaube nach den Grundsiitzen der evangelischen Kirche
(1821-1822; 2nd ed., greatly altered, 1830-1831; 6th ed.,
1884). The fundamental principle of this classical work is, that
religious feeling, the sense of absolute dependence on God as
communicated by Jesus Christ through the church, and not
the creeds or the letter of Scripture or the rationalistic under-
standing, is the source and law of dogmatic theology. The
work is therefore simply a description of the facts of religious
feeling, or of the inner life of the soul in its relations to God, and
these inward facts are looked at in the various stages of their
development and presented in their systematic connexion. The
aim of the work was to reform Protestant theology by means
of the fundamental ideas of the Reden, to put an end to the
unreason and superficiality of both supernaturalism and rational-
ism, and to deliver religion and theology from a relation of
dependence on perpetually changing systems of philosophy.
Though the work added to the reputation of its author, it naturally
aroused the increased opposition of the theological schools
it was intended to overthrow, and at the same time Schleier-
macher's defence of the right of the church to frame its own
liturgy in opposition to the arbitrary dictation of the monarch
or his ministers brought upon him fresh troubles. He felt himself
in Berlin more and more isolated, although his church and his
lecture-room continued to be largely attended. But he prose-
cuted his translation of Plato and prepared a new and greatly
altered edition of his Christliche Glaube, anticipating the latter
in two letters to his friend Liicke (in the Sludien und Kritiken,
1829), in which he defended with a masterly hand his theological
position generally and his book in particular against opponents
on the right and the left. The same year he lost his only son
a blow which, he said, " drove the nails into his own coffin."
But he continued to defend his theological position against
Hengstenberg's party on the one hand and the rationalists
von Colin and D. Schulz on the other, protesting against both
subscription to the ancient creeds and the imposition of a new
rationalistic formulary. In the midst of such labours, and
enjoying still full bodily and mental vigour, he was carried
off after a few days' illness by inflammation of the lungs, on the
1 2th of February 1834.
Philosophical System. A great antithesis lies at the basis of all
thought and life that of the real and the ideal, of organism, or
sense, and intellect. But the antithesis is not absolute, for in life
and being both elements are united though without its presence
life and thought would be impossible. In the actual world the
antithesis appears as reason and nature, in each of which, however,
there is a combination of its two elements the ideal and the real
the reason having a preponderance of the first and nature a pre-
ponderance of the second. At the basis of nature lies universal
reason as its organizing principle, and when reason becomes a con-
scious power in man it finds itself in conflict as well as in harmony
with external nature. The whole effort and end of human thought
and action is the gradual reduction of the realm and the power of this
antithesis in the individual, the race and the world. Though the
antithesis is real and deep, the human mind cannot admit its absolute
nature; we are compelled to suppose a transcendental reality or
entity in which the real and the ideal, being and thought, subject
and object, are one. Consciousness itself involves the union of the
antithetic elements, and prior to moral action nature is found
organized and reason manifested or symbolized therein. We arc
ourselves proofs of the unity of the real and the ideal, of thought and
being, for we are both, our self-consciousness supplying the ex-
pression of the fact. As we have in ourselves an instance of the
identity of thought and being, we must suppose a universal identity
of the ideal and real behind the antithesis which constitutes the
world. This supposition is the basis of all knowledge, for thought
becomes knowledge only when it corresponds to being. The sup-
position may be called a belief, but it is so only in the sense in which
belief appears in the religious department, where it is the ultimate
ground of all action. The supposition is the basis of all ethics, for
without the conviction of the correspondence of thought and reality
action would be fruitless and in the end impossible. It is above all
the substance of religious feeling, which is the immediate conscious-
ness of the unity of the world, of the absolute oneness behind the
infinite multiplicity of contrasts; indeed, it is the religious con-
viction of the unity which is the best guarantee of the truth of the
suppositions of philosophy. It is " the religious consciousness of
the unity of the intellectual and physical world in God " which is
to overcome the scepticism of the critical philosophy. But, though
332
SCHLEIERMACHER
this unity must be laid down as the basis of knowledge, it is absolute
and transcendental. In contrast with the " world," as the totality
of being in its differentiation, this absolute unity, or God, in whom
the real as manifold, and the spirit as one, find their unifying base,
by its very nature is unphenomenal, indefinable and inconceivable.
The idea is outside the boundary of thought, though its necessary
postulate, and it is no less inaccessible to religious feeling, though
it is its life and soul. Neither member of the antithesis of the real
and the ideal must be conceived as producing the other; they are
both equally existent and equally constituent elements of the world ;
but in God they are one, and therefore the world must not be identi-
fied with Him. The world and God are distinct, but correlative,
and neither can be conceived without the other. The world without
God would be " chaos," and God without the world an empty
" phantasm." But though God is transcendent and unknowable
He is immanent in the world. In self-consciousness God is present
as the basis of the unity of our nature in every transition from an
act of knowledge to an act of will, and vice versa. As far as man
is the unity of the real and the ideal, God is in him. He is also in
all things, inasmuch as in everything the totality of the world and
its transcendental basis is presupposed by virtue of their being and
correlation. The unity of our personal life amidst the multiplicity
of its functions is the symbol of God's immanence in the world,
though we may not conceive of the Absolute as a person. The
idea of the world as the totality of being is, like the correlative
idea of God, only of regulative value; it is transcendent, as 'we
never do more than make approaches to a knowledge of the sum of
being. The one idea is the transcendental terminus a quo and the
other the transcendental terminus ad quern of all knowledge. But
though the world cannot be exhaustively known it can be known
very extensively, and though the positive idea of God must always
remain unattainable we are able to reject those ideas which involve
a contradiction of the postulate of the Absolute. Thus the pan-
theistic and the theistic conceptions of God as the supreme power,
as the first cause, as a person, are alike unallowable, since they all
bring God within the sphere of antithesis and preclude His absolute
unity. On the other hand, the world can be known as the realm
of antithesis, and it is the correlative of God. Though He may
not be conceived as the absolute cause of the world, the idea of
absolute causality as symbolized in it may be taken as the best
approximate expression of the contents of the religious conscious-
ness. The unbroken connexion of cause and effect throughout the
world becomes thus a manifestation of God. God is to be sought
only in ourselves and in the world. He is completely immanent
in the universe. It is impossible that His causality should have any
other sphere than the world, which is the totality of being. " No
God without a world, and no world without God." The divine omni-
potence is quantitatively represented by the sum of the forces of
nature, and qualitatively distinguished from them only as the unity
of infinite causality from the multiplicity of its finite phenomena.
Throughout the world not excepting the realm of mind absolute
necessity prevails. As a whole the world is as good and perfect as
a world could possibly be, and everything in it, as occupying its
necessary place in the whole, is also good, evil being only the necessary
limitation of individual being.
Schleiermacher's psychology takes as its basis the phenomenal
dualism of the ego and the non-ego, and regards the life of man as
the interaction of these elements with their interpenetration as its
infinite destination. The dualism is therefore not absolute, and,
though present in man's own constitution as composed of body and
soul, is relative only even there. The ego is itself both body and
soul the conjunction of both constitutes it; our "organization"
or sense nature has its intellectual element, and our " intellect " its
organic element. There is no such thing as " pure mind " or " pure
boay_." The one general function of the ego, thought, becomes in
relation to the non-ego either receptive or spontaneous action, and in
both forms of action its organic, or sense, and its intellectual energies
co-operate; and in relation to man, nature and the universe the ego
gradually finds its true individuality by becoming a part of them,
every extension of consciousness being higher life." The specific
functions of the ego, as determined by the relative predominance
of sense or intellect, are either functions of the senses (or organism) or
functions of the intellect. The former fall into the two classes of
feelings (subjective) and perceptions (objective) ; the latter, accord-
ing as the receptive or the spontaneous element predominates, into
cognition and volition. In cognition being is the object and in
volition it is the purpose of thought: in the first case we receive
(in our fashion) the object of thought into ourselves; in the latter
we plant it out into the world. Both cognition and volition are
functions of thought as well as forms of moral action. It is in those
two functions that the real life of the ego is manifested, but behind
them is self-consciousness permanently present, which is always
both subjective and objective consciousness of ourselves and of
the non-ego. This self-consciousness is the third special form or
function of thought which is also called feeling and immediate
knowledge. In it we cognize our own inner life as affected by the
non-ego. As the non-ego helps or hinders, enlarges or limits, our
inner life, we feel pleasure or pain. Aesthetic, moral and religious
feelings are respectively produced by the reception into conscious-
ness of large ideas nature, mankind and the world ; those feelings
are the sense of being one with these vast objects. Religious feeling
therefore is the highest form of thought and of life; in it we are
conscious of our unity with the world and God; it is thus the sense
of absolute dependence. Schleiermacher's doctrine of knowledge
accepts the fundamental principle of Kant that knowledge is bounded
by experience, but it seeks to remove Kant's scepticism as to know-
ledge of the Ding an sich. or Sein, as Schleiermacher's term is. The
idea of knowledge or scientific thought as distinguished from the
passive^ form of thought of aesthetics and religion is thought
which is produced by all thinkers in the same form and which
corresponds to being. All knowledge takes the form of the concept
(Begriff) or the judgment (Urtheil), the former conceiving the
variety of being as a definite unity and plurality, and the latter
simply connecting the concept with certain individual objects. In
the concept therefore the intellectual and in the judgment the
organic or sense element predominates. The universal uniformity
of the production of judgments presupposes the uniformity of our
relations to the outward world, and the uniformity of concepts rests
similarly on the likeness of our inward nature. This uniformity is
not based on the sameness of either the intellectual or the organic
functions alone, but on the correspondence of the forms of thought
and sensation with the forms of being. The essential nature of the
concept is that it combines the general and the special, and the
same combination recurs in being; in being the system of sub-
stantial or permanent forms answers to the system of concepts and
the relation of cause and effect to the system of judgments, the
higher concept answering to " force " and the lower to the pheno-
mena of force, and the judgment to the contingent interaction of
things. The sum of being consists of the two systems of substantial
forms and interactional relations, and it reappears in the form of
concept and judgment, the concept representing being and the
judgment being in action. Knowledge has under both forms the
same object, the relative difference of the two being that when the
conceptual form predominates we have speculative science and
when the form of judgment prevails we have empirical or historical
science. Throughout the domain of knowledge the two forms are
found in constant mutual relations, another proof of the funda-
mental unity of thought and being or of the objectivity of know-
ledge. It is obvious that Plato, Spinoza and Kant had contributed
characteristic elements of their thought to this system, and directly
or indirectly it was largely indebted to Schelling for fundamental
conceptions.
Ethics. Next to religion and theology it was to the moral world,
of which, indeed, the phenomena of religion and theology were in
his systems only constituent elements, that he specially devoted
himself. In his earlier essays he endeavoured to point, out the
defects of ancient and modern ethical thinkers, particularly pf Kant
and Fichte, Plato and Spinoza only finding favour in his eyes.
He failed to discover in previous moral systems any necessary basis
in thought, any completeness as regards the phenomena of moral
action, any systematic arrangement of its parts and any clear and
distinct treatment of specific moral acts and relations. His own
moral system is an attempt to supply these deficiencies. It connects
the moral world by a deductive process with the fundamental idea
of knowledge and being; it offers a view of the entire world of
human action which at all events aims at being exhaustive; it
presents an arrangement of the matter of the science which tabulates
its constituents after the model of the physical sciences; and it
supplies a sharply defined treatment of specific moral phenomena in
their relation to the fundamental idea of human life as a whole.
Schleiermacher defines ethics as the theory of the nature of the
reason, or as the scientific treatment of the effects produced by
human reason in the world of nature and man. As a theoretical or
speculative science it is purely descriptive and not practical, being
correlated on the one hand to physical science and on the other to
history. Its method is the same as that of physical science, being
distinguished from the latter only by its matter. The ontological
basis of ethics is the unity of the real and the ideal, and the psycho-
logical and actual basis of the ethical process is the tendency of
reason and nature to unite in the form of the complete organization
of the latter by the former. The end of the ethical process is that
nature (i.e. all that is not mind, the human body as well as external
nature) may become the perfect symbol and organ of mind.
Conscience, as the subjective expression of the presupposed identity
of reason and nature in their bases, guarantees the practicability
of our moral vocation. Nature is preordained or constituted to
become the symbol and organ of mind, just as mind is endowed with
the impulse to realize this end. But the moral law must not be
conceived under the form of an " imperative " or a " Sollen "; it
differs from a law of nature only as being descriptive of the fact
that it ranks the mind as conscious will, or zuieckdenkend, above
nature. Strictly speaking, the antitheses of good and bad and of
free and necessary have no place in an ethical system, but simply
in history, which is obliged to compare the actual with the ideal,
but as far as the terms " good " and " bad " are used in morals
they express the rule or the contrary of reason, or the harmony or
the contrary of the particular and the general. The idea of " free "
as opposed to necessary expresses simply the fact that the mind
can propose to itself ends, though a man cannot alter his own nature.
In contrast to Kant and Fichte and modern moral philosophers
SCHLEIERMACHER
333
Schleiermacher reintroduced and assigned pre-eminent importance
to the doctrine of the summum bonum, or highest good. It repre-
sents in his system the ideal and aim of the entire life of man, sup-
plying the ethical view of the conduct of individuals in relation to
society and the universe, and therewith constituting a philosophy
of history at the same time. Starting with the idea of the highest
good and of its constituent elements (Guttr), or the chief forms of
the union of mind and nature, Schleiermacher's system divides itself
into the doctrine of moral ends, the doctrine of virtue and the
doctrine of duties; in other words, as a development of the idea of
the subjection of nature to reason it becomes a description of the
actual forms of the triumphs of reason, of the moral power mani-
fested therein and of the specific methods employed. Every moral
good or product has a fourfold character: it is individual and
universal ; it is an organ and symbol of the reason, that is, it is the
product of the individual with relation to the community, and
represents or manifests as well as classifies and rules nature. The
first two characteristics provide for the functions and rights of the
individual as well as those of the community or race. Though a
moral action may have these four characteristics at various degrees
of strength, it ceases to be moral if one of them is quite absent.
All moral products may be classified according to the predominance
of one or the other of these characteristics. Universal organizing
action produces the forms of intercourse, and universal symbolizing
action produces the various forms of science ; individual organizing
action yields the forms of property and individual symbolizing
action the various representations of feeling, all these constituting
the relations, the productive spheres, or the social conditions of
moral action. Moral functions cannot be performed by the in-
dividual in isolation but only in his relation to the family, the state,
the school, the church, and society all forms of human life which
ethical science finds to its hand and leaves to the science of natural
history to account for. The moral process is accomplished by the
various sections of humanity in their individual spheres, and the
doctrine of virtue deals with the reason as the moral power in each
individual by which the totality of moral products is obtained.
Schleiermacher classifies the virtues under the two forms of Gesinnung
and Fertigkeit, the first consisting of the pure ideal element in action
and the second the form it assumes in relation to circumstances,
each of the two classes falling respectively into the two divisions of
wisdom and love and of intelligence and application. In his system
the doctrine of duty is the description of the method of the attain-
ment of ethical ends, the conception of duty as an imperative, or
obligation, being excluded, as we have seen. No action fulfils the
conditions of duty except as it combines the three following
antitheses: reference to the moral idea in its whole extent and
likewise to a definite moral sphere; connexion with existing con-
ditions and at the same time absolute personal production; the
fulfilment of the entire moral vocation every moment though it
can only be done in a definite sphere. Duties are divided with
reference to the principle that every man make his own the entire
moral problem and act at the same time in an existing moral society.
This condition gives four general classes of duty : duties of general
association or duties with reference to the community (Rechtspflicht),
and duties of vocation (Berufspflicht) both with a universal re-
ference, duties of the conscience (in which the individual is sole
judge), and duties of love or of personal association. It was only
the first of the three sections of the science of ethics the doctrine
of moral ends -that Schleiermacher handled with approximate
completeness; the other two sections were treated very summarily.
In his Christian Ethics he dealt with the subject from the basis of
the Christian consciousness instead of from that of reason generally ;
the ethical phenomena dealt with are the same in both systems, and
they throw light on each other, while the Christian system treats
more at length and less aphoristically the principal ethical realities
church, state, family, art, science and society. Rothe, amongst
other moral philosophers, bases his system substantially, with
important departures, on Schleiermacher's. In Beneke's moral
system his fundamental idea was worked out in its psychological
relations.
Religious System. From Leibnitz, Lessing, Fichte, Jacob! and
the Romantic school he had imbibed a profound and mystical view
of the inner depths of the human personality. The ego, the person,
is an individualization of universal reason; and the primary act of
self-consciousness is the first conjunction of universal and individual
life, the immediate union or marriage of the universe with incarnated
reason. Thus every person becomes a specific and original repre-
sentation of the universe and a compendium of humanity, a micro-
cosmos in which the world is immediately reflected. While therefore
we cannot, as we have seen, attain the idea of the supreme unity of
thought and being by either cognition or volition, we can find it in
our own personality, in immediate self-consciousness or (which js
the same in Schleiermacher's terminology) feeling. Feeling in this
higher sense (as distinguished from " organic " sensibility, Emp-
findung), which is the minimum of distinct antithetic consciousness,
the cessation of the antithesis of subject and object, constitutes
likewise the unity of our being, in which the opposite functions of
cognition and volition have their fundamental and permanent
background of personality and their transitional link. Having
its seat in this central point of our being, or indeed consisting in
the essential fact of self-consciousness, religion lies at the basis of
all thought and action. At various periods of his life Schleier-
macher used different terms to represent the character and relation
of religious feeling. In his earlier days he called it a feeling or
intuition of the universe, consciousness of the unity of reason and
nature, of the infinite and the eternal within the finite and the
temporal. In later life he described it as the feeling of absolute
dependence, or, as meaning the same thing, the consciousness of
being in relation to God. In our consciousness of the world the
feelings of relative dependence and relative independence are found ;
we are acted upon, but we also react. In our religious conscious-
ness the latter element is excluded, and everything within ana
without us is referred to its absolute cause, that is, God. But,
when we call this absolute cause God, the name stands solely as
indicating the unknown source of our receptive and active existence;
on the one hand it means that the world upon which we can react
is not the source of the feeling, on the other, that the Absolute is
not an object of thought or knowledge. This feeling of absolute
dependence can arise only in combination with other forms of con-
sciousness. We derive the idea of a totality by means of its parts,
and the transcendental basis of being comes to us through the agency
of individual phenomena. As in every affection of pur being by
individual phenomena we are brought into contact with the t whole
universe, we are brought into contact with God at the same time
as its transcendental cause. This religious feeling is not know-
ledge in the strict sense, as it is purely subjective or immediate;
but it lies at the basis of all knowledge. As immediate knowledge,
however, it is no more than the consciousness of the unity of the
world, a unity which can never be reached by human inquiry.
Religious truths, such as the determination of all things by God,
are simply the implications of the feeling of absolute dependence.
While that feeling is the characteristic of religion generally, this
assumes various forms as the religions of the world. The so-called
natural as distinguished from positive religion, or the religion of
reason, is a mere abstraction. All religions are positive, or their
characteristics and value are mainly determined by the manner in
which the world is conceived and imagined. But these varying
conceptions with their religious meaning become religiously pro-
ductive only in the souls of religious heroes, who are the authors of
new religions, mediators of the religious life, founders of religious
communities. For religion is essentially social. It everywhere
forms churches, which are the necessary instruments and organs of
its highest life. The specific feature of Christianity is its mediatorial
element, its profound feeling of the striving of the finite individual
to reach the unity of the infinite whole, and its conception of the
way in which Deity deals with this effort by mediatorial agencies,
which are both divine and human. It is the religion of mediatorial
salvation, and, as Schleiermacher emphatically taught in his riper
works, of salvation through the mediation of Christ; that is, its
possessors are conscious of having been delivered by Jesus of Nazareth
from a condition in which their religious consciousness was overridden
by the sense-consciousness of the world and put into one in which
it dominates, and everything is subordinated to it. The conscious-
ness of being saved in this sense is now transmitted and mediated by
the Christian church, but in the case of Jesus, its originator, it was
an entirely new and original factor in the process of religious de-
velopment, and in so far, like every new and higher stage of being,
a supernatural revelation. It was at the same time a natural
attainment, in as far as man's nature and the universe were so con-
stituted as to involve its production. The appearance of the Saviour
in human history is therefore as a divine revelation neither absolutely-
supernatural nor absolutely beyond reason, and the controversy of
the 1 8th century between the rationalists and supernaturalists rests
on false grounds, leads to wrong issues, and each party is right and
wrong (see RATIONALISM). As regards Christian theology, it is not
its business to formulate and establish a system of objective truth,
but simply to present in a clear and connected form a given body
of Christian faith as the contents of the Christian consciousness.
Dogmatic theology is a connected and accurate account of the doc-
trine held at a particular time in a given section of the Christian
church But such doctrines as constitute no integral part of the
Christian consciousness e.g. the doctrine of the Trinity must be
excluded from the theological system of the evangelical theologian.
As regards the relation of theology and philosophy, it is not one of
dependence or of opposition on either side, but of complete inde-
pendence, equal authority, distinct functions and perfect harmony.
Feeling is not a mental function subordinate to cognition or volition,
but of equal rank and authority ; yet feeling, cognition and volition
alike conduct to faith in the unknown Absolute, though by different
paths and processes.
The marked feature of Schleiermacher's thought in every depart-
ment is the effort to combine and reconcile in the unity of a system
the antithetic conceptions of other thinkers. He is realistic and
idealistic, individualistic and universalistic, monistic and dualistic,
sensationalist and intellectualist, naturalist and supernaturalist,
rationalist and mystic, gnostic and agnostic. He is the prince of the
Vermittler in philosophy, ethics, religion and theology. But he
does not seek to reconcile the antitheses of thought and being by
weakening and hiding the points of difference; on the contrary,
he brings them out in their sharpest outlines. His method is to
334
SCHLEIZ SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN
distinctly define the opposing elements and then to seek their
harmonious combination by the aid of a deeper conception. Apart
from the positive and permanent value of the higher unities which
he succeeds in establishing, the light and suggestiveness of his dis-
cussions and treatment of the great points at issue in all the principal
fields of human thought, unsatisfactory as many of his positions
may be considered, make him one of the most helpful and instructive
of modern thinkers. And, since the focus of his almost universal
thought and inquiry and of his rich culture and varied life was
religion and theology, he must be regarded as the classical repre-
sentative of modern effort to reconcile science and philosophy with
religion and theology, and the modern world with the Christian
church.
Schleiermacher's collected works were published in three sections :
(l) Theological (ll vols.); (2) Sermons (10 vols., ed. 1873-1874,
5 vols.); (3) Philosophical and Miscellaneous (9 vols., Berlin, 1835
1864). His Pddagogische Schriften were separately published by
Platz (3rd ed., 1902). Of lives of him the best are his own corre-
spondence. Aus ScUeiermachers Leben in Brief en, published by
W. Dilthey (Berlin, 1858-1863, in 4 vols., Eng. trans, by Rowan);
Leben ScUeiermachers by Dilthey (vol. i., 1870, the period from
1768-1804); Friedrich Schleiermacher, ein Lebens- u. Charakterbild,
by D. Schenkel (Elberfeld, 1868); a selection of the letters by
M. Rade (Jena, 1906). See also E. von Willick, Aus ScUeiermachers
Hause, Jugenderinnerungen seines Stiefsohnes (1909). The accounts
and critiques of his philosophy, ethics and theology are numerous;
some of the most valuable are: I. Schaller, Vorlesungen iiber
Schleiermacher (Halle, 1844); G. Weisenborn, Darstellung und
Kritik der Schleiermacher' schen Glaubenslehre (1849); F. Yorliinder,
Schleiermacher s Sittenlehre (Marburg, 1851); W. Bender, ScUeier-
machers Theologie mil ihren philosophischen Grundlagen (1876-
1878); O. Ritschl, ScUeiermachers Stellung sum Christentum in
seinen Reden iiber die Religion (1888); and ScUeiermachers Theorie
von der Frommigkeit (1897) ; O. Kirn, Schleiermacher und die Roman-
tit (1895); H. Bleek, Die Grundlagen der Christologie ScUeiermachers
(1898); M. Fischer, Schleiermacher (1899); Lulmann, Das Bild des
Christentums bei den grossen deutschen Idealisten (1901), and ScUeier-
macher der Kirchenvater der IQ. Jahrhunderts (1907); Stephan, Die
Lehre ScUeiermachers von der Erlosung (1901); Theile, ScUeier-
machers Theologie und ihre Bedeutung fur die Gegenwart (1903) ;
G. Thimme, Die religionsphilosophischen Pramissen der Schleier-
macher' schen Glaubenslehre (1901); H. Sueskind, Der Einfluss
Schellings auf die Entwicklung von ScUeiermachers System (1909):
F. Kattenbusch, Von Schleiermacher zu RitscU (1903); E. Cramaus-
sel, La Philosophie religieuse de ScUeiermacher (1909). See also the
histories of philosophy and theology byZeller, Ueberweg, Chalybaus,
Dorner, Gass, Licntenberger (Eng. trans., 1889), Pfleiderer (Eng.
trans., 1890), and the articles in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyk. (0.
Kirn), and Allgem. deulsche Biog. (W. Dilthey). (J. F. S.; X.)
SCHLEIZ, a town of Germany, second capital of the princi-
pality of Reuss, Younger Line, situated in a fertile district on
the river Wiesenthal, 20 m. by rail N.W. of Plauen. Pop. (1905)
5577. It has a palace, with a chapel and a library, three churches,
one of them containing the burial vaults of the princes, several
educational establishments, and various small industries such as
the manufacture of hosiery, toys, sweetmeats and lamps. It
has a market for cattle and pigs.
Schleiz was originally a Slav settlement, but received civic
privileges in 1359. There was a settlement of the Teutonic
Order here, and for some years previous to 1848 the town was the
capital of the small principality of Reuss-Schleiz. In the vicinity
a battle was fought, on the Qth of October 1806, between the
French and the Prussians.
See Albert!, Aus vergangenen Tagen des Reussenlandes und der
Sladt ScUeiz (Schleiz, 1896).
SCHLESWIG (Dan. Slesvig), a town of Germany, capital
of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It is situated
at the west end of the long narrow arm of the sea called the
Schlei, 30 m. to the N.W. of Kiel on the railway from Hamburg
to Vamdrup, on the Danish frontier. Pop. (1905) 19,032.
The town consists mainly of a single street, 3$ m. long,
forming a semicircle round the Schlei, and is divided into the
old town (Altstadt), Holm, Lollfuss, and Friedrichsberg. The
church of St Peter, erected about noo and renewed in the
Gothic style in the isth century, has a lofty steeple (365 ft.)
and contains a very fine carved oak reredos by Hans Briigge-
mann, which is regarded as the most valuable work of art in
Schleswig-Holstein. Between Friedrichsberg and Lollfuss on an
island between the Schlei and Burg See is the old chateau
of Gottorp, now used as barracks. The former commercial
importance of the town has disappeared, and the Schlei now
affords access to small vessels only. Fishing, tanning, flour-
milling and brewing are the chief industries.
Schleswig (ancient forms Sliesthorp, Sliaswic, i.e. the town
or bay of the Slia or Schlei) is a town of very remote origin,
and seems to have been a trading place of considerable importance
as early as the 9th century. It served as a medium of com-
mercial intercourse between the North Sea and the Baltic, and
was known to the Arabian geographers. The first Christian
church in this district was built here by Ansgarius (d. 865),
and it became the seat of a bishop about a century later. The
town, which obtained civic rights in 1200, also became the seat
of the dukes of Schleswig, but its commerce gradually dwindled
owing to the rivalry of Liibeck, the numerous wars in which the
district was involved, and the silting up of the Schlei. At the
partition of 1544 the old chateau of Gottorp, originally built
in 1160 for the bishop, became the residence of the Gottorp
line of the Schleswig-Holstein family, which remained here till
expelled by the Danish king Frederick IV. in 1713. From 1731
to 1846 it was the seat of the Danish governor of the duchies.
In the wars of 1848 and 1864 Schleswig was an important
strategical point on account of its proximity to the Dannewerk
(q.v.) and was occupied by the different contending parties
in turn. It has been the capital of Schleswig-Holstein since its
incorporation by Prussia in 1864.
See Sach, Geschichte der Stadt Schleswig (Schleswig, 1875); and
Jensen, Schleswig und Umgebung (Schleswig, 1905).
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, a province in the north-west of
Prussia, formed out of the once Danish duchies of Schleswig,
Holstein and Lauenburg, and bounded W. by the North Sea,
N. by Denmark (Jutland), E. by the Baltic Sea, Liibeck and
Mecklenburg, and S. by the lower course of the Elbe (separating
it from Hanover). It thus consists of the southern half of the
Cimbric peninsula, and forms the connecting link between
Germany and Denmark. (For map, see DENMARK.) In addition
to the mainland, which decreases in breadth from south to north,
the province includes several islands, the most important being
Alsen and Fehmarn in the Baltic, and Rom, Sylt and Fohr of the
North Frisian chain in the North Sea. The total area of the
province is 7338 sq. m., 450 of which belong to the small duchy
of Lauenburg in the S.E. corner, while the rest are divided
almost equally between Holstein to the south of the Eider and
Schleswig to the north of it. From north to south the province
is about 140 m. long, while its breadth varies from 90 m. in
Holstein to 35 m. at the narrower parts of Schleswig.
Schleswig-Holstein belongs to the great North-German plain, of
the characteristic features of which it affords a faithful reproduction
in miniature, down to the continuation of the Baltic ridge or plateau
by a range of low wooded hills skirting its eastern coast and culminat-
ing in the Bungsberg (538 ft.), a little to the north of Eutin. This
hilly district contains the most productive land in the province, the
soil consisting of diluvial drift or boulder clay. The central part of
the province forms practically a continuation of the great Ltineburg
Heath, and its thin sandy soil is of little use for cultivation. Along
the west coast extends the " Marshland," a belt of rich alluvial soil
formed by the deposits of the North Sea, and varying in breadth
from 5 to 15 m. It is seldom more than a few feet above the sea-
level, while at places it is below it, and it has consequently to be
defended by an extensive system of dykes or embankments re-
sembling those of Holland.
The more ancient geological formations are scarcely met with in
Schleswig-Holstein. The contrast between the two coast-lines of
the province is marked. The Baltic coast has generally steep well-
defined banks and is irregular, being pierced by numerous long and
narrow inlets (FShrden) which often afford excellent harbours. The
islands of Alsen and Fehmarn are separated from the coast by narrow
channels. The North Sea coast is low and flat, and its smooth out-
line is interrupted only by the estuary of the Eider and the peninsula
of Eiderstedt. Dunes or sand-hills, though rare on the protected
mainland, occur on Sylt and other islands, while the small flat
islands called Halligen are being washed away where not defended
by dykes. The numerous islands on the west coast probably formed
part of the peninsula at no remote period, and the sea between them
and the mainland is shallow and full of sandbanks.
The climate of Schleswig-Holstein is mainly determined by the
proximity of the sea, and the mean annual temperature, varying
from 45 F. in the north to 49 F. in the south, is rather higher than
is usual in the same latitude. Rain and fog are frequent, but the
climate is on the whole healthy. The Elbe forms the southern
boundary of Holstein for 65 m., but the only river of importance
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION
335
within the province is the Eider, which rises in Holstein, and after
a course of 120 m. falls into the North Sea, forming an estuary
3 to 12 m. in breadth. It is navigable from its mouth as far as
Rendsburg, which is on the Kaiser Wilhelm (Kiel-Elbe) canal, which
intersects Holstein. There are numerous lakes in north-east Holstein,
the largest of which are the Ploner See (12 sq. m.) and the Selenter
See (9 sq. m.).
Of the total area of the province 57 % is occupied by tilled land,
22 % by meadows and pastures, and barely 7 % by forests. The
ordinary cereals are all cultivated with success and there is generally
a considerable surplus for export. Rape is grown in the marsh lands
and flax on the east coast, while large quantities of apples and other
fruit are raised near Altona for the Hamburg and English markets.
The marsh lands afford admirable pasture, and a greater proportion
of cattle (65 per 100 inhabitants) is reared in Schleswig-Holstein,
mainly by small owners, than in any other Prussian province. Great
numbers of cattle are exported to England. The Holstein horses are
also in request, but sheep-farming is comparatively neglected.
Bee-keeping is a productive industry. The hills skirting the bays
of the Baltic coast are generally pleasantly wooded, but the forests
are nowhere of great extent except in Lauenburg. The fishing in
the Baltic is productive; Eckernforde is the chief fishing station in
Prussia. The oysters from the beds on the west coast of Schleswig
are widely known under the misnomer of " Holstein natives."
The mineral resources are almost confined to a few layers of rock-
salt near Segeberg. The more important industrial establishments,
such as iron foundries, machine works, tobacco and cloth factories,
are mainly confined to the large towns, such as Altona, Kiel and
Flensburg. The shipbuilding of Kiel and other seaports, however,
is important; and lace is made by the peasants of north Schleswig.
The commerce and shipping of Schleswig-Holstein, stimulated by
its position between two seas, as well as by its excellent harbours
and waterways, are much more prominent than its manufactures.
Kiel is one of the chief seaports of Prussia, while oversea trade is
also carried on by Altona and Flensburg. The main exports are
grain, cattle, horses, fish and oysters, in return for which come
timber, coal, salt, wine and colonial produce.
The population of the province in 1905 was 1,504,248, com-
prising 1,454,526 Protestants, 41,227 Roman Catholics and 3270
Jews. The urban and rural communities are in the proportion
of 4 to 6. The great bulk of the Holsteiners and a large pro-
portion of the Schleswigers are of genuine German stock, but
of the 148,000 inhabitants in the north part of Schleswig 139,000
are Danish-speaking. Among the Germans the prevalent tongue
is Low German, but the North Frisians on the west coast of
Schleswig and the North Sea islands (about 19,000 in all) still
speak a Frisian dialect, which, however, is dying out. The
peninsula of Angeln, between the Gulf of Flensburg and the Schlei,
is supposed to have been the original seat of the English, and
observers profess to see a striking resemblance between this
district and the counties of Kent and Surrey. The peasants of
Dithmarschen in the south-west also retain many of their
ancient peculiarities. The boundary between the Danish and
German languages is approximately a line running from Flensburg
south-west to Joldelund and thence north-west to Tondern and
the North Sea coast; not more than 15% of the entire popula-
tion of the province speak Danish as their mother-tongue, but
the proportion is far larger for Schleswig alone, where there is
also a considerable bilingual population. The chief educational
institution in Schleswig-Holstein is the university of Kiel.
Schleswig is the official capital of the province, but Altona and
Kiel are the largest towns, the latter being the chief naval station
of Germany. Kiel and Friedrichsort are fortified, but the old lines
of Diippel have been dismantled. The province sends 10 members
to the Reichstag and 19 to the Prussian Abgeordnetenhaus (house
of deputies) . The provincial estates meet in Rendsburg.
For the history of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein see
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION below.
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION, the name given to the
whole complex of diplomatic and other issues arising in the igth
century out of the relations of the two " Elbe duchies," Schleswig
and Holstein, to the Danish crown on the one hand and the
German Confederation on the other, which came to a crisis with
the extinction of the male line of the reigning house of Denmark
by the death of King Frederick VII. on the I5th of November
1863. The central question was whether the two duchies did
or did not constitute an integral part of the dominions of the
Danish crown, with which they had been more or less intimately
associated for centuries. This involved the purely legal question,
raised by the death of the last common male heir to both Denmark
and the duchies, as to the proper succession in the latter, and
the constitutional questions arising out of the relations of the
duchies to the Danish crown, to each other, and of Holstein to
the German Confederation. There was also the national question :
the ancient racial antagonism between German and Dane, in-
tensified by the tendency, characteristic of the igth century, to
the consolidation of nationalities. Lastly, there was the inter-
national question: the rival ambitions of the German powers
involved, and beyond them the interests of other European
states, notably that of Great Britain in preventing the rise of a
German sea-power in the north.
To take the racial question first, from time immemorial the
country north of the Elbe had been the battle-ground of Danes
and Germans. Danish scholars point to the prevalence of Danish
place-names 1 far southward into the German-speaking districts
as evidence that at least the whole of Schleswig was at one time
Danish; German scholars claim it, on the other hand, as essenti-
ally German. That the duchy of Schleswig, or South Jutland
(Sonderjylland), had been from time immemorial a Danish fief
was, indeed, not in dispute, nor was the fact that Holstein had
been from the first a fief of the Germano-Roman Empire. The
controversy in the igth century raged round the ancient " in-
dissoluble " union of the two duchies, and the inferences to be
drawn from it; the " Eider Danes "* claimed Schleswig as an
integral part of the Danish monarchy, which, on the principle of
the union, involved the retention of Holstein also; the Germans
claimed Holstein as a part of Germany and, therefore, on the
same historic principle, Schleswig also. The history of the
relations of Schleswig and Holstein thus became of importance
in the practical political question.
Though the designation of Schleswig-Holstein, implying the
fusion of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein in a single Prussian
province, only dates from 1866, the history of the duchies Kariyhi,.
has since the 1 4th century been so closely interwoven t //."
that it is impossible to treat them separately. Some- , ^.f (
thing must, however, be said about their origins and
their separate history up to the time of their first union under the
Holstein counts.
When it first appears in history South Jutland was inhabited by
mingled Cimbri, Angles, Jutes and Frisians, upon whom the Danes
exercised an unceasing pressure from the north. To
the south of Schleswig what is now Holstein was in- ^*?, f .
habited mainly by Saxons, pressed upon from the east ic " /es "'-
by the Wends and other Slavonic races. These Saxons were the
last of their nation to submit to Charlemagne (804), who put their
country under Prankish counts, the limits of the Empire being
pushed in 810 as far as the Schlei in Schleswig. Then began the
secular struggle between the Danish kings and the German emperors,
and in 934 the German king Henry I. established the Mark of
Schleswig (Limes Danarum) between the Eider and the Schlei as an
outpost of Germany against the Danes. South of this raged the
contest between Germans and Slavs. The latter, conquered and
Christianized, rose in revolt in 983, after the death of the emperor
Otto II., and for a while reverted to paganism and independence.
The Saxon dukes, however, continued to rule central Holstein, and
when Lothair of Supplingenburg became duke of Saxony
(1106), on the extinction of the Billung line, he invested oun<sA/p
Adolf I. of Schauenburg with the countship of Holstein. Holstein.
Adolf I.'s son, Adolf II. (1128-1164), succeeded in recon-
quering the Slavonic Wagri and founded the city and see of Lubeck
to hold them in check. Adolf III. (d. 1225), his successor, received
Dithmarschen in fee from the emperor Frederick I., but in 1203 the
fortunes of war compelled him to surrender Holstein to Valdemar II.
of Denmark, the cession being confirmed by the emperor Frederick II.
in 1214 and the pope in 1217. yaldemar appointed Albert of
Orlamiinde his lieutenant in Holstein, and the Schleswig-Holstein
question might have been thus early settled but for Valdemar's
ill fortune in being taken prisoner in 1223. During his captivity
Albert of Orlamiinde was beaten at Mplln by Count Adolf III., to
whom Valdemar restored his countship as the price of his own
release. A papal dispensation from oaths taken under duress
excused a new war; but Valdemar himself was beaten at Born-
hovede on the 22nd of July 1227, and Holstein was permanently
secured to the house of Schauenburg. After the death of Adolf IV.
1 I.e. place-names according to popular usage, not the official
names given in German maps (e.g. Haderslev for Hadersleben).
See La Question du Slesvig, p. 61 seq., " Noms de lieux."
2 I.e. the party at Copenhagen which aimed at making the Eider,
the southern boundary of Schleswig, the frontier of the Danish
kingdom proper.
33 6
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION
in 1261, Holstein was split up into several countships by his sons
and grandsons: the lines of Kiel, Plon, Schauenburg-Pinneberg and
Rendsburg.
In 1232 King Valdemar II., who had retained the former German
Mark north of the Eider, erected South Jutland (Schleswig) into a
duchy for his second son, Abel. On the death of the
latter's descendant, Duke Eric, in 1319, Christopher II.
r of Denmark attempted to seize the duchy, the heir of which,
Valdemar V., was a minor; but Valdemar's guardian
and uncle, Gerhard III. of Holstein-Rendsburg (1304-
1340), surnamed " the Great " and a notable warrior, drove back
the Danes and, Christopher having been expelled, succeeded in
procuring the election of Valdemar to the Danish throne. His
reward was the duchy of Schleswig and the famous charter, known
as the Constitutio Valdemariana, which laid down the principle
that the duchy of South Jutland was never to be incor-
porated in the kingdom of Denmark or ruled by the same
sovereign (7 June 1326). Thus Schleswig and Holstein
were for the first time united. The union was, indeed, as
or South
Jutland.
yet precarious. In l33oChristopherII. wasrestored to his
throne and Valdemar V. to his duchy, G<
Union of
Schleswig
and
Holstein.
The Con-
stitutio
Valde-
mariana,
throne and Valdemar V. to his duchy, Gerhard having to be
content with the reversion in the case of the duke dying without
issue. Gerhard, however, was assassinated in 1340 by a Dane, and
it was not till 1375, when the male lines both in the kingdom and
the duchy became extinct by the deaths of King Valdemar IV.
and Duke Valdemar V., that the counts of Holstein seized on their
inheritance, assuming at the same time the style of " lords of
Jutland." In 1386 Queen Margaret allowed their claim in return
for the usual homage and promise of feudal service, and directed that
one of their number should be elected duke of Schleswig.
The choice fell on Gerhard VI., grandson of Gerhard III.
of Rendsburg, who after the extinction of the line of Kiel
(1390) obtained in 1403 the whole of the countship of
Holstein, except the small Schauenburg territories. With
this begins the history of the union of Schleswig and Holstein.
Gerhard VI. died in 1404, and soon afterwards war broke out
between his sons and Eric of Pomerania, Margaret's successor on the
throne oi Denmark, who claimed South Jutland as an integral part
of the Danish monarchy, a claim formally recognized by the emperor
Sigismund in 1424.' It was not till 1440 that the struggle ended
with the investiture of Count Adolf VIII., Gerhard's son, with the
hereditary duchy of Schleswig by Christopher III. of Denmark. On
the death of Christopher eight years later, Adolf's influence secured
the election of his nephew Count Christian of Oldenburg to the
vacant throne.
On the death of Adolf in 1459 without issue. King Christian I.,
though he had been forced to swear to the Constitutio Valdemariana,
. succeeded in asserting his claim to Schleswig in right of
dukJs of '" s motner ' Adolf's sister. Instead of incorporating
the Olden- S utn Jutland with the Danish kingdom, however, he
burg line ' P rc f err ed to take advantage of the feeling of the estates
in Schleswig and Holstein in favour of union to secure
both countries. On Schleswig the Schauenburg counts had no
claim ; their election in Holstein would have separated the countries;
and it was easy therefore for Christian to secure his election both as
Charter f c ' u ' ce ( Schl esw )g and count of Holstein (5 March 1460).
Kibe 1460 ^ e P r ' ce ne P a 'd * as a charter of privileges, issued first
TI.. !/ ' at Ribe and afterwards at Kiel, in which he promised
I ne in- . . . . ,r ..,,,,
dissoluble to P reserve the countries for ever as one and indivisible,
union." a d conceded to the estates the right to refuse to elect
as count and duke any Danish prince who should not
undertake, on becoming king, to confirm their privileges. By
these privileges the union between South Juliana and Holstein,
established under the Schauenburg line, was officially recognized.
For external affairs the two countries were to be regarded as one,
the bishop of Lubeck and five " good men " elected by the estates
of each country forming an advisory and executive council under
the duke-count. For internal affairs duchy and county were to
retain their separate estates and peculiar customs and laws. Above
all, Holstein remained a German, Schleswig a Danish fief. The claims
of the Schauenburg counts were surrendered for a money payment ;
'* was not t '" I ^4> however, that the extinction of their
'' nc Brought Schauenburg itself to the Danish crown.
Finally, in 1472 the emperor Frederick III. confirmed
Christian I.'s overlordship over Dithmarschen, and
erected Dithmarschen, Holstein and Stormarn into the duchy of
Holstein.
On the death of King Frederick I. (1523-1533), under whom the
Reformation had been introduced into the duchies, 2 occurred the
Suhdlri- fi rst f several partitions of the inheritance of the house
slonofthe ^ Oldenburg; the elder son, Christian III., succeeding
duchies. as king of Denmark, the younger, Adolphus (Adolf) I.,
founding the line of the dukes of Gottorp. In 1581 a
further partition was made, by a compact signed at Flensburg,
between King Frederick II. and his uncle Duke Adolphus I., under
1 Question du Slesvif>, p. 78.
The Church (Lutheran) was organized under a Probst (provost)
and consistory, the king himself assuming the jurisdiction of summus
episcopus.
Ouch of
Hnlsteln
14J2
which the rights of overlordship in the various towns and territories
of Schleswig were divided between them; the estates, however,
remained undivided, and the king and duke ruled the country
alternately. To make confusion worse confounded, Frederick II.
in 1582 ceded certain lands in Hardersleben to his brother John,
who founded the line of Schleswig-Sonderburg, and John's grand-
sons again partitioned this appanage, Ernest Giinther (1609-1689),
founding the line of Schleswig- Sonderburg-Augustenburg, and
Augustus Philip (1612-1675) that of Schleswig-Beck-Gliicksburg
(known since 1825 as Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg).
Meanwhile the Gottorp dukes were making themselves a great
position in Europe. Frederick III., duke from 1616 to 1659,
established the principle of primogeniture for his line, _.
and the full sovereignty of his Schleswig dominions was V 1 ?
secured to him by his son-in-law Charles X. of Sweden by " "
the convention of Copenhagen (12 May 1658)* and to
his son Christian Albert (d. 1694) by the treaty of Oliva, though it
was not till after years of warfare that Denmark admitted the claim
by the convention of Altona (30 June 1689). Christian Albert's
son Frederick IV. (d. 1702) was again attacked by Denmark, but
had a powerful champion in Charles XII. of Sweden, who secured his
rights by the treaty of Travendal in 1700. Frederick was killed at
the battle of Klissow in 1702, and his brother Christian Augustus
acted as regent for his son Charles Frederick until 1718. In 1713
the regent broke the stipulated neutrality of the duchy in favour
of Sweden and Frederick IV. of Denmark seized the excuse to expel
the duke by force of arms. Holstein was restored to him by the
peace of Frederiksborg in 1720, but in the following year Frederick
IV. was recognized as sovereign of Schleswig by the estates and by
the princes of the Augustenburg and Gliicksburg lines.
The situation was ultimately simplified by the marriage of Duke
Charles Frederick with the tsarevna Anna Pavlovna, and the
recognition in 1742 of their son Charles Peter Ulrich as
cesarevitch by the empress Elizabeth of Russia. For '
Peter as duke of Gottorp, Adolphus Frederick, bishop ** rf M
of Lubeck, son of Christian Augustus, acted as regent lo th f
until 1745; in 1751 he became king of Sweden. 4 But the duchies
rulers of Russia had no interest in maintaining their part nw,
of Holstein and their confused and disputed common 1773.
rights in Jutland, and in 1767 the empress Catherine II.
resigned them, by the treaty of Copenhagen, in the name of her son
Paul, who confirmed this action on coming of age in 1773. Olden-
burg and Delmenhorst, surrendered by the Danish king in com-
pensation, were handed over to Frederick Augustus, bishop of
Lubeck, the second son of Christian Augustus, who thus founded
the younger line of the house of Gottorp. Schleswig and Holstein
were thusonce more united under the Danish king.
On the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, Holstein
was practically, though not formally, incorporated in Denmark.
Under the administration of the Danish prime minister Count
Bernstorff, himself from Schleswig, many reforms were carried out
in the duchies, e.g. abolition of torture and of serfdom; at the same
time Danish laws and coinage were introduced, and Danish was
made the official language for communication with Copenhagen.
Since, however, the Danish court itself at the time was largely German
in language and feeling, this produced no serious expressions of
resentment.
The Congress of Vienna, instead of settling the questions involved
in the relations of the duchies of Denmark once for all, 6 sought to
stereotype the old divisions in the interests of Germany. _
The settlement of 1806 was reversed, and while Schleswig ^yf!^
remained as before, Holstein and Lauenburg were in- sls e "
eluded in the new German Confederation. The opening
up of the Schleswig-Holstein question thus became sooner or later
inevitable. The Germans of Holstein, influenced by the new national
enthusiasm evoked by the War of Liberation, resented more than
ever the attempts of the government of Copenhagen to treat them
as part of the Danish monarchy and, encouraged by the sympathy
of the Germans in Schlcswig, early tried to reassert in the interests
of Germanism the old principle of the unity of the duchies. The
political atmosphere, however, had changed at Copenhagen also;
and their demands were met by the Danes with a nationalist temper
as intractable as their own. Affairs were ripe for a crisis, which the
threatened failure of the common male heirs to the kingdom and the
duchies precipitated.
3 The king by a convention of the same date secured the full
sovereignty for his own particular appanage in Schleswig. The
attempt of the dukes of Gottorp to partition the actual government
of the duchy broke on the opposition of the estates.
* Adolphus Frederick had renounced his rights in Schleswig by
an agreement with the Danish king signed on the 25th of April
'75-
'The best solution, which afterwards had the support of Napoleon
III., would have been to partition Schleswig on the lines of nationality,
assigning the Danish part to Denmark, the German to Holstein.
This idea, which subsequently had supporters both among Danes
and Germans, proved impracticable later owing to the intractable
temper of the majority on both sides. See La Question de Slesvig,
p. 135 seq., " Historique de I'id6c d'un partage du Slesvig."
SCHLESWTG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION
337
When Christian VIII. succeeded his father Frederick VI.
in 18^9 the elder male line of the house of Oldenburg was obviously
on the point of extinction, the king's only son and heir
^"ff" c having no children. Ever since 1834, when joint
succession, consultative estates had been re-established for the
duchies, the question of the succession had been
debated in this assembly. To German opinion the solution
seemed clear enough. The crown of Denmark could be inherited
by female heirs; in the duchies the Salic law had never been
repealed and, in the event of a failure of male heirs to Christian
VIII., the succession would pass to the dukes of Augustenburg. 1
Danish opinion, on the other hand, clamoured for a royal pro-
nouncement proclaiming the principle of the indivisibility of the
monarchy and its transmission intact to a single heir, in accord-
ance with the royal law. To this Christian VIII. yielded so far
as to issue in 1846 letters patent declaring that the royal law
in the matter of the succession was in full force so far as Schleswig
was concerned, in accordance with the letters patent of August
22, 1721, the oath of fidelity of September 3, 1721, the guarantees
given by France and Great Britain in the same year and the
treaties of 1767 and 1773 with Russia. As to Holstein, he stated
that certain circumstances prevented him from giving, in regard
to some parts of the duchy, so clear a decision as in the case of
Schleswig. The principle of the independence of Schleswig and
of its union with Holstein were expressly reaffirmed. An appeal
against this by the estates of Holstein to the German diet
received no attention. The revolutionary year 1848 brought
matters to a head. On the 28th of January, Christian VIII.
issued a rescript proclaiming a new constitution which, while
preserving the autonomy of the different parts of the country,
incorporated them for common purposes in a single organiza-
tion. The estates of the duchies replied by demanding the
incorporation of Schleswig-Holstein, as a single constitutional
state, in the German Confederation. Frederick VII., who had
succeeded his father at the end of January, declared (March 4)
that he had no right to deal in this way with Schleswig, and,
yielding to the importunity of the Eider-Danish party, withdrew
the rescript of January (April 4) and announced to the people
of Schleswig (March 27) the promulgation of a liberal constitu-
tion under which the duchy, while preserving its local autonomy,
would become an integral part of Denmark.
Meanwhile, however, the duchies had broken out into open
insurrection; a provisional government had been established
at Kiel; and the duke of Augustenburg had hurried
' ^ Berlin t secure the assistance of Prussia in asserting
iioa, 1848. his rights. This was at the very crisis of the revolution
in Berlin, and the Prussian government saw in the
proposed intervention in Denmark in a popular cause an excellent
opportunity for restoring its damaged prestige. Prussian troops
were accordingly marched into Holstein; and, the diet having
on the 1 2th of April recognized the provisional government
of Schleswig and commissioned Prussia to enforce its decrees,
General Wrangel was ordered to occupy Schleswig also.
The principles which Prussia was commissioned to enforce
as the mandatory of Germany were: (i) that they were inde-
pendent states, (2) that their union was indissoluble,
ofthe (3) that they were hereditary only in the male line.
powers. But the Germans had reckoned without the European
powers, which were united in opposing any dismember-
ment of Denmark, even Austria refusing to assist in enforcing
the German view. Swedish troops landed to assist the Danes;
Nicholas I. of Russia, speaking with authority as representing
the elder Gottorp line, pointed out to King Frederick William
IV. the risks of a collision; Great Britain, though the Danes
rejected her mediation, threatened to send her fleet to assist
in preserving the status quo. Frederick William new ordered
Wrangel to withdraw his troops from the duchies; but the
general refused to obey, on the plea that he was under the
command not of the king of Prussia but of the regent of Germany,
'This was the argument of Karl Samwer, the German jurist, in
his Die Staatserbfolge der Herzogthumer Schleswig und Holstein,
published in 1844 at the instigation of the duke of Augustenburg.
and proposed that, at least, any treaty concluded should be
presented for ratification to the Frankfort government. This
the Danes refused; and negotiations were broken off. Prussia
was now confronted on the one side by the German nation
urging her clamorously to action, on the other side by the
European powers with one voice threatening the
worst consequences should she persist. After painful Caaven-
hesitation, Frederick William chose what seemed Maimoe.
the lesser of two evils and, on the 26th of August 1848,
Prussia signed at Maimoe a convention which yielded practically
all the Danish demands. The Holstein estates appealed to the
German parliament, which hotly took up their cause; but it
was soon clear that the central government had no means of
enforcing its views, and in the end the convention was ratified
at Frankfort.
The convention was only in the nature of a truce establishing
a temporary modus vivendi, and the main issues, left unsettled,
continued to be hotly debated. At a conference held in London
in October, Denmark suggested an arrangement on the basis
of a separation of Schleswig from Holstein, which was about
to become a member of the new German empire, Schleswig
to have a separate constitution under the Danish crown. This
was supported by Great Britain and Russia and accepted by
Prussia and the German government (27th January 1849). The
negotiations broke down, however, on the refusal of Denmark
to yield the principle of the indissoluble union with the Danish
crown; on the 23rd of February the truce was at an end, and on
the 3rd of April the war was renewed. At this point the tsar
intervened in favour of peace; and Prussia, conscious of her
restored strength and weary of the intractable temper of the
Frankfort government, determined to take matters into her
own hands. On the loth of July 1849 another truce was signed;
Schleswig, until the peace, was to be administered separately,
under a mixed commission, Holstein was to be governed by a
vicegerent of the German empire an arrangement equally
offensive to German and Danish sentiment. A settlement
seemed as far off as ever; the Danes still clamoured for the
principle of succession in the female line and union with Denmark,
the Germans for that of succession in the male line and union with
Holstein. In utter weariness Prussia proposed, in April 1850,
a definitive peace on the basis of the status quo ante helium and
the postponement of all questions as to mutual rights. To
Palmerston the basis seemed meaningless, the proposed settle-
ment to settle nothing. The emperor Nicholas, openly disgusted
with Frederick William's weak-kneed truckling to the Revolu-
tion, again intervened. To him the duke of Augustenburg
was a rebel; Russia had guaranteed Schleswig to the Danish
crown by the treaties of 1767 and 1773; as for Holstein, if the
king of Denmark was unable to deal with the rebels there, he
himself would intervene as he had done in Hungary. The threat
was reinforced by the menace of the European situation.
Austria and Prussia were on the verge of war, and the sole
hope of preventing Russia from throwing her sword into the
scale of Austria lay in settling the Schleswig-Holstein question
in the sense desired by her. The only alternative, an alliance
with " the devil's nephew," Louis Napoleon, who already
dreamed of acquiring the Rhine frontier for France at the
price of his aid in establishing German sea-power by the cession
of the duchies, was abhorrent to Frederick William.
On the 2nd of July 1850 was signed at Berlin a treaty of
peace between Prussia and Denmark. Both parties isso.
reserved all their antecedent rights; but for Denmark
it was enough, since it empowered the king-duke to restore
his authority in Holstein with or without the consent of the
German Confederation.
Danish troops now marched in to coerce the refractory duchies;
but while the fighting went on negotiations among the powers
continued, and on the 2nd of August 1850 Great Britain, France,
Russia and Norway-Sweden signed a protocol, to which Austria
subsequently adhered, approving the principle of restoring
the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The Copenhagen govern-
ment, which in May 1851 made an abortive attempt to come
338
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION
to an understanding with the inhabitants of the duchies by
convening an assembly of notables at Flensburg, issued on the
6th of December 1851 a project for the future organization
of the monarchy on the basis of the equality of its constituent
states, with a common ministry; and on the 28th of January
1852 a royal letter announced the institution of a unitary state
which, while maintaining the fundamental constitution of
Denmark, would increase the parliamentary powers of the estates
of the two duchies. This proclamation was approved by Prussia
and Austria, and by the German federal diet in so far as it affected
Holstein and Lauenburg. The question of the succession was
rhe next approached. Only the question of the Augus-
Succession tenburg succession made an agreement between the
Protocoioi powers impossible, and on the 3ist of March 1852 the
London, d u ke of Augustenburg resigned his claim in return
for a money payment. Further adjustments followed.
After the renunciation by the emperor of Russia and others
of their eventual rights, Charlotte, landgravine of Hesse, sister
of Christian VIII., and her son Prince Frederick transferred
their rights to the latter's sister Louise, who in her turn trans-
ferred them to her husband Prince Christian of Gliicksburg.
This arrangement received international sanction by the protocol
signed in London on the 8th of May 1852 by the five great
powers and Norway and Sweden. 1 On the 3ist of July 1853
King Frederick VII. gave his assent to a law settling the crown
on Prince Christian, " prince of Denmark," and his heirs male.
The protocol of London, while consecrating the principle of
the integrity of Denmark, stipulated that the rights of the
German Confederation in Holstein and Lauenburg should
remain unaffected. It was, in fact, a compromise, and left the
fundamental issues unsettled. The German federal diet had
been unrepresented in London, and the terms of the protocol
were regarded in Germany as a humiliation. As for the Danes,
they were far from being satisfied with the settlement, which
they approved only in so far as it gave them a basis for a more
vigorous prosecution of their unionist schemes. On the i5th
of February and the nth of June 1854 the king of Denmark,
after consulting the estates, promulgated special constitutions
for Schleswig and Holstein respectively, under which the pro-
vincial assemblies received certain very limited powers. On
the 26th of July 1854 he published a common constitution
Daalsh ^ or '^ e w hole monarchy; this, which was little more
unitary than a veiled absolutism, was superseded on the 2nd
Constitu- of October 1855 by a parliamentary constitution of
tioaof a modified type. The legality of this constitution
was disputed by the two German great powers, on the
ground that the estates of the duchies had not been consulted
as promised in the royal letter of the 6th of December 1851;
the diet of the Confederation refused to admit its validity so
far as Holstein and Lauenburg were concerned (nth February
1858).
The question was now once more the subject of lively inter-
national debate; but the European situation was no longer so
favourable as it had been to the Danish view. The Crimean
War had crippled the power of Russia, and Nicholas I. was dead.
France was prepared to sell the interests of Denmark in the
duchies to Prussia in return for " compensations " to herself
elsewhere. Great Britain alone sided with the Danes; but
the action of British ministers, who realized the danger to British
supremacy at sea of the growth of German sea-power in the Baltic,
was hampered by the natural sympathy of Queen Victoria and
the prince consort with the German point of view. 2 The result
was that the German diet, on the motion of Bismarck, having
threatened federal intervention (July 29), King Frederick VII.
issued a proclamation abolishing the general constitution so
far as it affected Holstein and Lauenburg, while retaining it
for Denmark and Schleswig (November 6).
'Hertslet, Map of Europe, ii. 1151.
"See Queen Victoria to Lord Malmesbury, 1st of May 1858, in
Letters (pop. ed., 1908), iii. 280. Compare the letters to Palmerston
of 2 1st of June 1849, ii. 222, and 22nd of June 1850, ii. 279, with
Palmerston to Russell, 2yd of June 1850, and Queen Victoria to
Russell, ii. 250.
Though even this concession violated the principle of the
" indissoluble union " of the duchies, the German diet, fully
occupied at home, determined to refrain from further action
till the Danish parliament should make another effort to pass a
law or budget affecting the whole kingdom without consulting the
estates of the duchies. This contingency arose in July 1860,
and in the spring of the following year the estates were once
more at open odds with the Danish government. The German
diet now prepared for armed intervention; but it was in no
condition to carry out its threats, and Denmark decided, on the
advice of Great Britain, to ignore it and open negotiations
directly with Prussia and Austria as independent powers. These
demanded the restoration of the union between the duchies, a
question beyond the competence of the Confederation. Denmark
replied with a refusal to recognize the right of any foreign power
to interfere in her relations with Schleswig; to which Austria,
anxious to conciliate the smaller German princes, responded
with a vigorous protest against Danish infringements of the
compact of 1852. Lord John Russell now intervened, on behalf
of Great Britain, with a proposal for a settlement of the whole
question on the basis of the independence of the duchies under
the Danish crown, with a decennial budget for common expenses
to be agreed on by the four assemblies, and a supreme council of
state consisting in relative proportion of Danes and Germans. 3
This was accepted by Russia and by the German great powers,
and Denmark found herself isolated in Europe. The international
situation, however, favoured a bold attitude, and she met the
representations of the powers with a flat defiance. The retention
of Schleswig as an integral part of the monarchy was to her a
matter of life and death; the German Confederation had made
the terms of the protocol of 1852, defining the intimate Deamark
relations between the duchies, the excuse for un- repudiates
warrantable interference in the internal affairs of the
Denmark; and on the 3oth of March 1863 a royal com P acts
proclamation was published at Copenhagen repudia-
ting the compacts of 1852, and, by defining the separate
position of Holstein in the Danish monarchy, negativing once
for all the claims of Germany upon Schleswig. 4
The reply of the German diet to this move was to forward
a note to Copenhagen (July 9) demanding, on pain of federal
execution, the withdrawal of the proclamation and the Danish
grant of a fresh constitution, based on the compacts Constitu-
of 1852 or on the British note of the 24th of September tloa ot
1862. Instead, King Frederick VII. issued on the I863f
28th of September 1863 a new constitution for " our kingdom
of Denmark-Slesvig." The diet now resolved on federal execu-
tion; but action was delayed, partly through British efforts
at mediation, partly because Bismarck judged the time for a
satisfactory solution of the whole question had not yet come.
Encouraged by this hesitating attitude, the Danish parliament
passed the new constitution on the i3th of November. Two days
later Frederick VII. died.
The " Protocol- King," Christian IX., who now ascended the
throne, was in a position of extraordinary difficulty. The
first sovereign act he was called upon to perform was to Accession
sign the new constitution. To sign was to violate the at
terms of the very protocol which was his title to reign ; Christian
to refuse to sign was to place himself in antagonism IX " '
to the united sentiment of his Danish subjects. He chose what
seemed the remoter evil, and on the i8th of November signed
the constitution. The news was received in Germany with
violent manifestations of excitement and anger. Frederick, duke
of Augustenburg, son of the prince who in 1852 had renounced
the succession to the duchies, now claimed his rights on the
ground that he had had no share in the renunciation. In Holstein
an agitation in his favour had begun from the first, and this
was extended to Schleswig on the terms of the new Danish
constitution becoming known. His claim was enthusiastically
1 Note of Sept. 24, 1862. For the diplomatic correspondence on
the duchies see Parl. Papers, Ixxiv. (1863).
4 For this and later correspondence see Parl. Papers, Ixiv. (1864),
p. 40 seq.
SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN QUESTION
339
supported by the German princes and people, and in spite of the
negative attitude of Austria and Prussia the federal diet decided
to occupy Holstein " pending the settlement of the
Decree at succession." On the 24th of December Saxon and
'execution Hanoverian troops marched into the duchy in the
name of the German Confederation, and supported by
their presence and by the loyalty of the Holsteiners the duke
of Augustenburg assumed the government under the style of
Duke Frederick VIII. With this " folly "as Bismarck roundly
termed it Austria and Prussia, in the teeth of violent public
opinion, would have nothing to do, for neither wished to risk
Attitude a European war. It was clear to Bismarck that the
ot Austria two powers, as parties to the protocol of 1852, must
and uphold the succession as fixed by it, and that any
Prussia. ac tion they might take in consequence of the violation
of that compact by Denmark must be so " correct " as to deprive
Europe of all excuse for interference. The publication of the new
constitution by Christian IX. was in itself sufficient to justify a
declaration of war by the two powers as parties to the signature
of the protocol. As to the ultimate outcome of their effective
intervention, that could be left to the future to decide. Austria
had no clear views. King William wavered between his Prussian
feeling and a sentimental sympathy with the duke of Augusten-
burg. Bismarck alone knew exactly what he wanted, and how
to attain it. " From the beginning," he said later (Reflections,
ii. 10), " I kept annexation steadily before my eyes."
The protests of Great Britain and Russia against the action
of the German diet, together with the proposal of Count Beust,
on behalf of Saxony, that Bavaria should bring forward in that>
assembly a formal motion for the recognition of Duke Frederick's
claims, helped Bismarck to persuade Austria that immediate
action must be taken. On the 28th of December a motion was
introduced in the diet by Austria and Prussia, calling on the
Confederation to occupy Schleswig as a pledge for the observance
by Denmark of the compacts of 1852. This implied the recognition
of the rights of Christian IX., and was indignantly rejected;
whereupon the diet was informed that the Austrian and Prussian
governments would act in the matter as independent European
powers. The agreement between them was signed on the
1 6th of January 1864. An article drafted by Austria, intended
to safeguard the settlement of 1852, was replaced at Bismarck's
instance by another which stated that the two powers would
decide only in concert on the relations of the duchies, and that
they would in no case determine the question of the succession
save by mutual consent.
At this stage, had the Danes yielded to the necessities of the
situation and withdrawn from Schleswig under protest, the
European powers would probably have intervened, a
congress would have restored Schleswig to the Danish
Prussia crown, and Austria and Prussia, as European powers,
occupy the wou i(i nave had no choice but to prevent any attempt
upon it by the duke of Holstein. To prevent this
possibility Bismarck made the Copenhagen government
believe that Great Britain had threatened Prussia with inter-
vention should hostilities be opened, " though, as a matter of
fact, England did nothing of the kind." The cynical stratagem
succeeded; Denmark remained defiant; and on the ist of
February 1864 the Austrian and Prussian forces crossed the
Eider.
An invasion of Denmark itself had not been part of the original
programme of the allies; but on the i8th of February some
Prussian hussars, in the excitement of a cavalry
skirmish, crossed the frontier and occupied the village
develop- f Kolding. Bismarck determined to use this tircum-
ments stance to revise the whole situation. He urged upon
during the Austria the necessity for a strong policy, so as to settle
Wai\ h once f r a ^ not on ly tne question of the duchies but
the wider question of the German Confederation;
and Austria reluctantly consented to press the war. On the 5th
of March a fresh agreement was signed between the powers,
under which the compacts of 1852 were declared to be no longer
valid, and the position of the duchies within the Danish monarchy
s(Hg
as a whole was to be made the subject of a friendly understanding.
Meanwhile, however, Lord John Russell on behalf of Great
Britain, supported by Russia, France and Sweden, had intervened
with a proposal that the whole question should once more be
submitted to a European conference. 1 The German powers
agreed on condition that the compacts of 1852 should not be
taken as a basis, and that the duchies should be bound to Den-
mark by a personal tie only. But the proceedings of the conference,
which opened at London on the 2th of April, only revealed the
inextricable tangle of the issues involved. Beust, on behalf
of the Confederation, demanded the recognition of the Augusten-
burg claimant; Austria leaned to a settlement on the lines of
that of 1852; Prussia, it was increasingly clear, aimed at the
acquisition of the duchies. The first step towards the realization
of this latter ambition was to secure the recognition of the
absolute independence of the duchies, and this Austria could
only oppose at the risk of forfeiting her whole influence in
Germany. The two powers, then, agreed to demand the complete
political independence of the duchies bound together by common
institutions. The next move was uncertain. As to the question
of annexation Prussia would leave that open, but made it
clear that any settlement must involve the complete military sub-
ordination of Schleswig-Holstein to herself. This alarmed Austria,
which had no wish to see a further extension of Prussia's The
already overgrown power, and she began to champion Powers
the claims of the duke of Augustenburg. This con- and
tingency, however, Bismarck had foreseen and himself Augastea-
offered to support the claims of the duke at the con- arg '
ference if he would undertake to subordinate himself in all naval
and military matters to Prussia, surrender Kiel for the purposes
of a Prussian war-harbour, give Prussia the control of the pro-
jected North Sea Canal, and enter the Prussian Customs Union.
On this basis, with Austria's support, the whole matter might
have been arranged without as Beust pointed out (Mem. i. 272)
the increase of Prussia's power beyond the Elbe being any
serious menace to Austrian influence in Germany. Fortunately,
however, for Bismarck's plans, Austria's distrust and jealousy
of Prussia led her to oppose this settlement and at her instigation
the duke of Augustenburg rejected it.
On the 25th of June the London conference broke up without
having arrived at any conclusion. On the 24th, in view of the
end of the truce, Austria and Prussia had arrived at a
new agreement, the object of the war being now
declared to be the complete separation of the duchies
from Denmark. As the result of the short campaign
that followed, the preliminaries of a treaty of peace were signed
on the ist of August, the king of Denmark renouncing all his
rights in the duchies in favour of the emperor of Austria and the
king of Prussia. The definitive treaty was signed at Vienna on
the 30th of October 1864. By Article XIX., a period of six years
was allowed during which the inhabitants of the duchies might
" opt " for Danish nationality and transfer themselves and
their goods to Denmark; and the right of " indigenacy " was
guaranteed to all, whether in the kingdom or the duchies, who
enjoyed it at the time of the exchange of ratifications of the
treaty. 2
The Schleswig-Holstein Question from this time onward
became merged in the larger question of the general relations
of Austria and Prussia, and its later developments are 7^,, / as<
sketched in the article GERMANY: History. So far as phase at
Europe was concerned it was settled by the decisive
result of the war of 1866. It survived, however, as
between Danes and Germans, though narrowed down to the
question of the fate of the Danish population of the northern
duchy. This question is of great interest to students of inter-
national law and as illustrating the practical problems involved
in the assertion of the modern principle of " nationality."
1 Part. Papers (1864), Ixv. 124 seq. Beust (Mem. i. 252) says that
Queen Victoria personally intervened to prevent British action in
favour of Denmark.
2 The full text of the treaty is in La Question du Slesvig, p. 173
et seq.
question.
340
SCHLETTSTADT SCHLEY
The position of the Danes in Schleswig after the cession was de-
termined, so far as treaty rights are concerned, by two instruments
the Treaty of Vienna (October 30, 1864) and the Treaty of
Prague (August 23, 1866). By Article XIX. of the former treaty
The Danish su .bjects domiciled in the ceded territories had the right,
"op- within six years of the exchange of ratifications, of opting
tants." for the Danish nationality and transferringthemselves, their
families and their personal property to Denmark, while
keeping their landed property in the duchies. The last paragraph
of the Article ran: " Le droit d'indigenat, tant dans le royaume
de Danemark que dans les Duches, est conserve^ a tous les individus
qui le possedent a 1'epoque de 1'echange des ratifications du present
Trait6." By Article V. of the Treaty of Prague Schleswig was
ceded by Austria to Prussia with the reservation that " the popula-
tions of the North of Schleswig shall be again united with Denmark
in the event of their expressing a desire so to be by a vote freely
exercised." Taking advantage of the terms of these treaties, about
50,000 Danes from North Schleswig (out of a total population of
some 150,000) opted for Denmark and migrated over the frontier,
pending the plebiscite which was to restore their country to them.
But the plebiscite never came. Its inclusion in the treaty had
been no more than a diplomatic device to save the face of the em-
peror Napoleon III.; Prussia had from the first no intention of
surrendering an inch of the territory she had conquered; the out-
come of the Franco-German War made it unnecessary for her even
to pretend that she might do so; and by the Treaty of Vienna of
October n, 1878, the clause relating to the plebiscite was formally
abrogated with the assent of Austria.
Meanwhile the Danish " optants," disappointed of their hopes,
had begun to stream back over the frontier into Schleswig. By
doing so they lost, under the Danish law, their rights as Danish
citizens, without acquiring those of Prussian subjects; and this
disability was transmitted to their children. By Article XIX. of
the Treaty of 1864, indeed, they should have been secured the rights
of " indigenacy," which, while falling short of complete citizenship,
implied, according to Danish law, all the essential guarantees for
civil liberty. But in German law the right of Indigenat is not
clearly differentiated from the status of a subject; and the supreme
court at Kiel decided in several cases that those who had opted for
Danish nationality had forfeited their rights under the Indigenat
paragraph of the Treaty of Vienna. There was thus created in the
frontier districts a large and increasing class of people who dwelt in
a sort of political limbo, having lost their Danish citizenship through
ceasing to be domiciled in Denmark, and unable to acquire Prussian
citizenship because they had failed to apply for it within the six
years stipulated in the Treaty of 1864. Their exclusion from the
rights of Prussian subjects was due, however, to causes other than
the letter of the treaty. The Danes, in spite of every discouragement,
never ceased to strive for the preservation and extension of their
national traditions and language; the Germans were equally bent
on effectually absorbing these recalcitrant " Teutons into the
general life of the German empire; and to this end the uncertain
status of the Danish optants was a useful means. Danish agitators
of German nationality could not be touched so long as they were
careful to keep within the limits of the law; pro- Danish newspapers
owned and staffed by German subjects enjoyed immunity in accord-
ance with the constitution, which guarantees the liberty of the
press. The case of the " optants " was far other. These unfor-
tunates, who numbered a large proportion of the population, were
subject to domiciliary visits, and to arbitrary perquisitions, arrest
and expulsion. When the pro-Danish newspapers, after the ex-
ulsion of several " optant ' editors, were careful to appoint none
ut German subjects, the vengeance of the authorities fell upon
" optant " type-setters, printers and printers' devils. The Prussian
police, indeed, developed an almost superhuman capacity for de-
tecting optants: and since these pariahs were mingled indistinguish-
ably with the mass of the people, no household and no business was
safe from official inquisition. One instance out of many may serve
to illustrate the type of offence that served as excuse for this syste-
matic official persecution. On the 27th of April 1896 the second
volume for 1805 of the Sdnderjyske Aarboger was confiscated for
having used the historic term Sondtrjylland (South Jutland) for
Schleswig. To add to the misery, the Danish government refused
to allow the Danish optants expelled by Prussia to settle in Denmark,
though this rule was modified by the Danish Nationality Law of
1898 in favour of the children of optants born after the passing of
the law. It was not till the signature of the treaty between Prussia
and Denmark on the nth of January 1907 that these intolerable
Treaty of conditions were ended. By this treaty the German
January government undertook to allow all children born of
II, 1907. Danish optants before the passing of the new Danish
Nationality Law of 1898 to acquire Prussian nationality
on the usual conditions and on their own application. This provision
was not to affect the ordinary legal rights of expulsion as exercised
by either power, but the Danish government undertook not to
refuse to the children of Schleswig optants who should not seek to
acquire or who could not legally acquire Prussian nationality per-
mission to reside in Denmark. The provisions of the treaty apply
not only to the children of Schleswig optanls, but to their direct
descendants in all degrees.
This adjustment, brought about by the friendly intercourse
between the courts of Berlin and Copenhagen, seemed to close the
last phase of the Schleswig question. Yet, so far from allaying, it
apparently only served to embitter the inter-racial feud. The
" autochthonous Germans of the Northern Marches " regarded the
new treaty as a betrayal, and refused " to give the kiss of peace "
to their hereditary enemies. For forty years Germanism, backed
by all the weight of the empire and imposed with all the weapons
of official persecution, had barely held its own in North Schleswig;
in spite of an enormous emigration, in 1905, of the 148,000 in-
habitants of North Schleswig 139,000 spoke Danish, while of the
German-speaking immigrants it was found that more than a third
spoke Danish in the first generation; and this in spite of the fact
that, from 1864 onward, German had gradually been substituted
for Danish in the churches, the schools, and even in the playground.
But the scattered outposts of Germanism could hardly be expected
to acquiesce without a struggle in a situation that threatened them
with social and economic extinction. Forty years of dominance,
secured by official favour, had filled them with a double measure
of aggressive pride of race, and the question of the rival nationalities
in Schleswig, like that in Poland, remained a source of trouble and
weakness within the frontiers of the German empire.
AUTHORITIES. -The literature on the subject is vast. From the
German point of view the most comprehensive treatment is in
C. Jansen and K. Samwer, Schleswig-Holsteins Befreiung (Wiesbaden,
1897) ; see also H. C. L. von Sybel, Foundation of the German Empire
(Eng. trans., New York, 1890^1891); Bismarck's Reflections and
Reminiscences, and L. Hahn, Bismarck (5 vols., 1878-1891). The
Danish point of view is ably and moderately presented in La Question
du Slesvig, a collection of essays by various writers edited by F. de
Jessen (Copenhagen, 1906), with maps and documents. (W. A. P.)
SCHLETTSTADT, a town of Germany, in the imperial province
of Alsace-Lorraine, on the 111; 26 m. S. of Strassburg by the
railway to Basel. Pop. (1905) 9700. It possesses two fine
Roman Catholic churches, a Protestant church, numerous
remains of its old walls and some quaint houses of the isth and
1 6th centuries. It has a theatre, a municipal library, a gym-
nasium, and other educational establishments. The Roman
Catholic churches are the cathedral church of St George, a fine
Gothic building founded in the i3th century, and the church of St
Fides, dating from the nth century. Its industries comprise
wire-drawing, tanning and saw-milling, and there is a considerable
trade in wine, fruit and other agricultural produce.
Schlettstadt is a place of very early origin. It was a royal
residence in Carolingian times and became a free town of the
Empire in the i3th century. In the isth century it was the seat
of a celebrated academy, founded by the humanist Rodolphus
Agricola, which contributed not a little to the revival of learning
in this part of Germany; Erasmus of Rotterdam was one of its
students. In 1634 the town came into the possession of France,
and it was afterwards fortified by Vauban. It offered little
resistance, however, to the Germans in 1870, and the fortifications
have since been razed. The Hoh-Konigsburg, a great castle
standing at an elevation of 2475 ft., was presented to the emperor
William II. by the town of Schlettstadt in 1899, and was com-
pletely restored in 1908. The site is first mentioned as bearing a
castle in the 8th century.
See Naumann, Die Eroberung von Schlettstadt (Berlin, 1876); and
J. Geny, Die Reichstadt Schlettstadt 1490-1536 (Freiburg i. B. 1900).
SCHLEY, WINFIELD SCOTT (1839-191!), American naval
officer, was born at Richfields, near Frederick, Maryland, on the
9th of October 1839. He graduated at the United States Naval
Academy in 1860, and during the Civil War was in active service
as a lieutenant until July 1863. In 1867-1869 he was an in-
structor in the U.S. Naval Academy. He took part in Rear-
Admiral John Rodgers's expedition to Korea in 1871, and was
adjutant of the American land forces in the attack on the Korean
forts on Salee river on the loth and nth of June. In 1872-1875
he was head of the department of modern languages in the U.S.
Naval Academy. He was promoted commander in June 1874;
in 1876-1879 commanded the " Essex," most of the time in the
South Atlantic, and then until October 1883 was inspector of the
second lighthouse district. In February 1884, after the failure in
1883 of the second expedition (under Lieut. E. A. Garlington)
for the relief of the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition commanded
by Lieut. A. W. Greely, Schley was appointed to command the
third Greely relief expedition; and near Cape Sabine on the
22nd of June rescued Greely and six (of his twenty-four) com-
panions. He was chief of the bureau of equipment and recruiting
SCHLIEMANN SCHLIPPE'S SALT
in 1885-1889; and in April 1888 was promoted captain. He
commanded the " Baltimore " in Rear-Admiral George Brown's
squadron off the coast of Chile in 1891. Early in 1892 he was
again transferred to the lighthouse bureau, and until February
1895 was inspector of the third lighthouse district; and in
1897-1898 he was a member (and chairman) of the Lighthouse
Board. He was commissioned commodore on the 6th of February
1898, and on the 24th of March, although lowest on the list of
commodores, he was put in command of the " flying squadron,"
with the " Brooklyn " as his flagship, for service in the war
with Spain. The command of the fleet off Santiago de Cuba
was taken from Schley by Acting Rear-Admiral W. T. Sampson
on the ist of June. In the battle of Santiago on the 3rd of July
Schley, in Sampson's absence, was the senior officer and the
" Brooklyn " did especial service, with the " Oregon," in over-
hauling and disabling the " Cristobal Colon." On the loth of
August Schley was advanced six numbers and was made rear-
admiral for " eminent and conspicuous conduct in battle."
On the i pth he was appointed a commissioner of the United
States to arrange the evacuation of Porto Rico. When the
Navy Department recommended that Sampson be promoted
eight numbers and over the head of Schley, who had ranked him
for forty-two years, there was a bitter controversy, and the Senate
did not confirm the promotion. On the i4th of April 1899
Schley was commissioned rear-admiral, ranking as major-general.
In November 1899 he was put in command of the South Atlantic
Station, and in October 1901 he retired from active service upon
reaching the age limit. At his request, because of the charges
made against him in E. S. Maclay's History of the Navy, a court
of inquiry investigated Schley's conduct before and during the
battle of Santiago; on the I3th of December 1901 the court
pronounced Schley guilty of delay in locating Cervera's squadron,
of carelessness in endangering the " Texas " by a peculiar
" loop " movement or turn of the "Brooklyn" which blanketed
the fire of other American vessels, and of disobedience to a
departmental order of the 25th of May, but it recommended
that no action be taken. Admiral Schley filed a protest against
the court's findings, which, however, were approved by the
Secretary of the Navy.
Schley wrote, with James Russell Soley, The Rescue of Greely
(New York, 1885). See Schley's Forty-five Years under the Flag
(New York, 1904).
SCHLIEMANN, HEINRICH (1822-1890), German archaeo-
logist, was born on the 6th of January 1822 at Neu Buckow in
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, the son of a poor pastor. He has
stated in his autobiography that through all his early years
of struggle, when he was successively grocer's apprentice at
Fiirstenberg, cabin-boy on the " Dorothea " bound for Venezuela,
and, after her wreck, office attendant and then book-keeper in
Amsterdam, he nourished a passion for the Homeric story and
an ambition to become a great linguist. In the end, thanks to an
unusually powerful memory and determined energy, he acquired
a knowledge of seven or eight tongues besides his own, including
ancient and modern Greek. The house of B. H. Schroder of
Amsterdam sent him in 1846 to St Petersburg, where he estab-
lished a business of his own and embarked in the indigo trade.
He made a fortune at the time of the Crimean War, partly as a
military contractor. Happening to be in California when made
a state of the Union, in 1850, he became and remained an American
citizen. After travels in Greece, Tunisia, India, China and
Japan, and writing a short sketch of the last two countries, he
took his large fortune to Greece in 1868, and proceeded to
visit Homeric sites. In an ensuing book Ithaka, der Peloponnes,
und Troja he propounded two theories which he was destined
eventually to test in practice, viz. that Hissarlik, not Bunarbashi,
was the site of Troy, and that the Atreid graves, seen by Pausanias
at Mycenae, lay within the citadel wall. Two years later he
took up Calvert's work on the former site, and, convinced that
Troy must be on the lowest level, hewed his way down, regard-
less of the upper strata, wherein lay unseen the remains of which
he was really in search. By 1873 he had laid bare considerable
fortifications and other remains of a burnt city of very great
antiquity, and discovered a treasure of gold jewelry. We now
know this city to have belonged to the middle pre-Mycenaean
period, long prior to the generation of Homer's Archaeans;
but Schliemann far and wide proclaimed it " Troy," and was
backed by Gladstone and a large part of the European public.
Trying to resume his work in February 1874, he found himself
inhibited by the Ottoman government, whose allotted share
of the gold treasure had not been satisfactory, and it was not
till April 1876 that he obtained a firman. During the delay
he issued his Troy and its Remains (1875), and betook himself
to Mycenae. There in August 1876 he began work in the Dome-
tombs and by the Lion Gate, and opened a large pit just within
the citadel. The famous double ring of slabs and certain stone
reliefs came to light. Schliemann, thinking it was only a plat-
form levelled as a place of Achaean assembly, paused, and did
not resume till November. Then, resolved to explore to the
rock, he cleared away some three feet more of earth and stones,
and lighted on the five shaft graves which have placed him
first among fortunate excavators. A sixth grave was found im-
mediately after his departure. The immense treasure of gold,
silver, bronze, fine stone and ivory objects, which was buried
with the sixteen corpses in this circle, is worth intrinsically
more than any treasure-trove known to have been found in any
land, and it revealed once for all the character of a great civiliza-
tion preceding the Hellenic. The find was deposited at Athens,
and gradually cleaned and arranged in the Polytechnic; and
the discoverer, publishing his Mycenae in English in 1877, had
his full share of honours and fame. He had now settled in Athens,
where he married a Greek lady, and built two splendid houses,
which became centres of Athenian society. In 1878 he dug
unsuccessfully in Ithaca, and in the same year and the following
resumed work at Hissarlik, and summed up his results in a
discursive memoir, Ilios, upon which a sequel, Troja, issued
in 1884, after Wilhelm Dorpfeld, associated in 1882, had intro-
duced some archaeological method into the explorations, was a
considerable improvement.
In 1880 and 1881 Schliemann cleared out the ruined dome-
tomb of Orchomenus, finding little except remains of its beautiful
ceiling; and in 1885, with Dorpfeld, he laid bare the upper
stratum on the rock of Tiryns, presenting scholars with a complete
ground plan of a Mycenaean palace. This was his last fortunate
excavation. While Tsountas, for the Greek Archaeological
Society, picked up his work at Mycenae in 1886, and gradually
cleared the Acropolis, with notable results, Schliemann tried
for traces of the Caesareum at Alexandria, of the Palace of
Minos at Knossos, in Crete, and of the Aphrodite temple at
Cythera (1888); but he was not successful, meeting in the two
former enterprises with a local opposition which his wealth
was unable to bear down. In 1889 he entertained at Hissarlik
a committee of archaeological experts, deputed to examine
Botticher's absurd contention that the ruins represented not
a city, but a cremation necropolis; and he was contemplating
a new and more extensive campaign on the same site when, in
December 1890, he was seized at Naples with an illness which
ended fatally on the morning of Christmas Day. His great
wealth was left mainly to the two families that he had in Russia
and Greece; but a sum was reserved for Hissarlik, where
Dorpfeld in 1891 and 1892, by clearing away the debris of the
former excavations, exposed the great walls of the sixth stratum
which Schliemann had called Lydian, and proved their synchron-
ism with Mycenae, and identity with Mycenaean remains; that
is to say, with Homer's Troy, if Troy ever vvas.
Schliemann was on several occasions in England, in 1883
to receive honours from the great universities, and in 1886
to confute, at a special gathering of the Hellenic Society,
the assertion of Stillman and Penrose that the Tirynthian
palace was posterior to the Christian era. Nowhere was he
better appreciated, and most of his books were first issued in
English. (D. G. H.)
SCHLIPPE'S SALT, or sodium thioantimoniate, NajSbS^QHjO,
named after K. F. Schlippe (1799-1867), is prepared by dissolv-
ing the calculated quantities of antimony trisulphide, sulphur
342
SCHLOSSER SCHLOZER
and sodium hydroxide in water, or by fusing sodium sulphate
(16 parts), antimony sulphide (13 parts) and charcoal (4-5 parts),
dissolving the melt in water and boiling the solution with 2
parts of sulphur. The liquid is then filtered and evaporated.
The salt crystallizes in large tetrahedra, which are easily
soluble in water, and have a specific gravity 1-806. The
anhydrous salt .melts easily on heating, and in the hydrated
condition, on exposure to moist air becomes coated with
a red film. It combines with sodium thiosulphate to form
Na 3 SbS 4 -Na 2 S 2 O 3 -2OH 2 O.
SCHLOSSER, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (1776-1861), German
historian, was born at Jever in East Friesland on the I7th of
November 1776. He took up the study of theology, mainly
at Gottingen, and began life as a private tutor. Turning to the
study of history, he carried with him the tendency to construct
his syntheses upon the scanty basis of iSth-century generaliza-
tions; yet in spite of the growing scientific school he became
and remained for a quarter of a century the most popular German
historian. In 1807, inspired by his study of Dante, he published
his first work Abalard und Dulcin, a defence of scholasticism
and medieval thought. Two years later biographical studies
of Theodore Beza and Peter Martyr Vermili (Leben des Theodor
de Beza und des Peter Martyr Vermili, Heidelberg, 1809) revealed
more genuine scholarship. In 1812 appeared his History of
the Iconoclastic Emperors of the East (Geschichte der bilderstur-
menden Kaiser des ostromischen Reichs), in which he contro-
verted some points in Gibbon and sought to avoid painting the
past in present-day colours. His own strong predispositions
prevented him from accomplishing this, however, and the
history remains open to grave scientific criticism. But it won
for him the favour of Archbishop Karl Theodor Dalberg, and
secured for him a professorship in the Frankfort Lyceum. He
left Frankfort in 1819 to become professor of history at Heidel-
berg, where he resided until his death on the 23rd of September
1861.
In 1815 appeared the first volume of his World History
(Weltgeschichle in zusammenhdngender ErziMung). This work,
though never completed, was extended through many volumes,
bespeaking an inexhaustible energy and a vast erudition. But
it lacks both accuracy of fact and charm of style, and is to-day
deservedly quite forgotten. On the other hand a translation of
the pedagogical handbook of Vincent of Beauvais and the
accompanying monograph are still of value. The next note-
worthy work was a history of antiquity and its culture (Universal-
historische Obersicht der Geschichte der alien Welt und ihrer
Kultur, ist part, 1826; 2nd part, 1834), which, while revealing
little knowledge of the new criticism of sources inaugurated
by F. A. Wolf and B. G. Niebuhr, won its way by its unique
handling of the subject and its grand style. In 1823 he published
in two volumes a Geschichte des iSten Jahrhunderls; then, enlarged
and improved, this work appeared in six volumes as Geschichte
des iSten Jahrhunderls und des if>tenbiszumSturzdesfranzosischen
Kaiserreichs (1836-1848). The history had a most extraordinary
success, especially among the common people, owing, not to
its scientific qualities, but to the fact that the author boldly
and sternly sat in judgment upon men and events, and in his
judgments voiced the feelings of the German nation in his day.
For this very reason it is no longer read. It has been translated
into English by D. Davison (8 vols., 1843-1852). Finally,
Schlosser undertook a popular World History for the German
People (Weltgcsckichle ftir das deutscke Volk, 1844-1857), which
also enjoyed the favour of those for whom it was written.
Schlosser stands apart from the movement towards scientific
history in Germany in the ipth century. Refusing to limit
himself to political history, as did Ranke, he never learned to
handle his literary sources with the care of the scientific historian.
History was to him, as it had been to Cicero, a school for morals;
but he had perhaps a juster conception than Ranke of the breadth
and scope of the historian's field.
See G. G. Gervinus (Schlosser's pupil), F. C. Schlosser, ein Nekrolog
1861); G. Weber, F. C. Schlosser, der Historiker, Erinnerungsbldtter
(Leipzig, 1876) ; and O. Lorenz, F. C. Schlosser (Vienna, 1878).
SCHLOTHEIM, ERNST FRIEDRICH, BARON VON (1764-
1832), German palaeontologist, was born in Grafschaft Schwarz-
burg on the 2nd of April 1764. He was Privy Councillor and
President of the Chamber at the court of Gotha. Becoming
interested in geology he gathered together a very extensive
collection of fossils. In 1804 he published descriptions and
illustrations of remarkable remains of (Carboniferous) plants,
Ein Beitrag zur Flora der Vorwelt. His more important work
was entitled Die Petrefactenkunde (1820). In this he incorporated
the plates used in his previous memoir and supplemented it by
a folio atlas (1822), in which he illustrated his collection " of
petrified and fossil remains of the animal and vegetable kingdom
of a former world." For the first time in Germany the fossils
were named according to the binomial system. The specimens
are preserved in the Berlin Museum. He died at Gotha on the
28th of March 1832.
SCHLOZER, AUGUST LUDWIG VON (1735-1809), German
historian, was born at Gaggstedt, in the county of Hohenlohe-
Kirchberg, on the sth of July 1735. Having studied theology
and oriental languages at the universities of Wittenberg and
Gottingen, he went in 1755 as a tutor to Stockholm, and after-
wards to Upsala; and while in Sweden he wrote in Swedish
an Essay on the General History of Trade and of Seafaring in the
most Ancient Times (1758). In 1759 he returned to Gottingen,
where he began the study of medicine. In 1761 he went to St
Petersburg with Gerhardt Friedrich Muller, the Russian historio-
grapher, as Muller's literary assistant and as tutor in his family.
Here Schlozer learned Russian and devoted himself to the study
of Russian history. In 1762 a quarrel with Muller placed him
in a position of some difficulty from which he was delivered
by an introduction to Count Rasumovski, who procured his
appointment as adjunct to the Academy. In 1765 he was
appointed by the empress Catherine an ordinary member of
the Academy and professor of Russian history. In 1767 he
left Russia on leave and did not return. He settled at Gottingen,
where in 1764 he had been made professor extraordinarius, and
doctor honoris causa in 1766, and in 1769 he was promoted to an
ordinary professorship. In 1804 he was ennobled by the emperor
Alexander I. of Russia and made a privy councillor. He retired
from active work in 1805 and died on the gth of September 1809.
Schlozer's activity was enormous, and he exercised great
influence by his lectures as well as by his books, bringing
historical study into touch with political science generally, and
using his vast erudition in an attempt to solve practical questions
in the state and in society. He was " a journalist before the days
of journalism, a traveller before that of travelling, a critic of
authorities before that of political oppositions." His most
important works were his Allgemeine nordische Geschichte, 2 vols.
(Halle, 1772) and his translation of the Russian chronicler Nestor
to the year 980, 5 vols. (Gottingen, 1802-1809). He awoke
much intelligent interest in universal history by his Weltgeschichle
im Auszuge und Zusammenhange, 2 vols. (2nd ed., Gottingen,
1792-1801); and in several works he helped to lay the founda-
tions of statistical science. He also produced a strong impression
by his political writings, the Briefwechsel, 10 vols. (1776-1782)
and the Staalsanzeigen, 18 vols. (1782-1793).
Schlozer, who in 1769 married Caroline Roederer, daughter
of Johann Georg Roederer (1726-1763), professor of medicine
at Gottingen and body physician to the king of England, left
five children. His daughter Dorothea, born on the loth of August
1770, was one of the most beautiful and learned women of her
time, and received in 1787 the degree of doctor. She was re-
cognized as an authority on several subjects, especially on Russian
coinage. After her marriage with Rodde, the burgomaster
of Lttbeck, she devoted herself to domestic duties. She died on
the 1 2th of July 1825 (see Reuter, Dorothea Schlozer, Gottingen,
1887). Schlozer's son Christian (1774-1831) was a professor
at Bonn, and published Anfangsgriinde der Staatswirlhschafl
(1804-1806) and his father's 6/enlliches und Privat-Leben
aus Originalurkunden (1828). The youngest son, Karl von
SchlSzer, a merchant and Russian consul-general at Lubeck,
was the father of Kurd von Schlozer (1822-1894), the historian
SCHLUSSELBURG SCHMIDT, H. J.
343
and diplomatist, who in 1871 was appointed German ambassador
to the United States and in 1882 to the Vatican, when he was
instrumental in healing the breach between Germany and the
papacy caused by the " May Laws."
See Zermelo, August Ludwig Schlozer (Berlin, 1875); Wesendonck,
Die Begriindung der neuern deutschen Geschichtsschreibung durch
Gatterer und SMozer (Leipzig, 1876) and F. Frensdorff in Allgemeine
deutsche Biog. vol. xxxi.
SCHLUSSELBURG, a town of Russia, in the government of
St Petersburg, situated on low ground surrounded by marshes,
at the issue of the river Neva from Lake Ladoga, 40 m. by
steamer E. of the city of St Petersburg. Pop. (1897) 5285.
It was founded in 1323 by the Novgorodians, and though after-
wards lost by Russia, was reconquered by Peter the Great in
1702. It has a cathedral and a fortress, built on an island in
the Neva, which is now used as a political prison.
SCHLUTER, ANDREAS (1664-1714), German sculptor and
architect, was born in Hamburg. Much of his activity as a
sculptor was exercised in Warsaw, but in 1694 he was summoned
to Berlin. Two years later he began his designs for the rebuilding
of the royal palace. The execution of these occupied him from
1699 to 1706, and the palace became a conspicuous example of
barocco style in Germany. In 1713 Schluter went to St Peters-
burg, where he did architectural work for Peter the Great. His
principal works in Berlin are the monument of the great elector
Frederick William and the 21 masks of dying warriors in the
courtyard of the arsenal, the tombs of King Frederick I. and his
wife, and the marble pulpit in the Marienkirche.
See C. Gurlitt, Andreas Schluter (1891); C. F. von Kloeden,
Andreas Schluter (1855).
SCHM ALKALDEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau, situated in a narrow valley at the south-
western slope of the Thuringian forest, 30 m. S.W. of Erfurt,
on the railway Wernshausen-St Blasii. Pop. (1905) 9529. It
has a Gothic parish church, a palace Schloss Wilhelmsburg
with an interesting chapel and a collection of antiquities, and
possesses a Gothic town hall in which the important Protestant
League of Schmalkalden, or Smalkald, was concluded in 1331,
and also the house in which the articles of Schmalkalden were
drawn up in 1537 by Luther, Melanchthon and other reformers.
It has three other Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic
church and several schools. Its industries are chiefly connected
with ironwares, but leather, beer, soap and toys are also manu-
factured. Karl Wilhelms (1815-1873), the composer of " Die
Wacht am Rhein," was born here, and there is a memorial of him
in the market-place. Schmalkalden, which was first mentioned
in 874, came wholly into the possession of Hesse in 1583, having
been a town since 1335.
See Wagner, Geschichte der Stadt und Herrschaft Schmalkalden
(Marburg, 1849); and Wilisch, Schmalkalden und seine Umgebungen
(Schmalkalden, 1884).
SCHMERLING, ANTON VON (1805-1893), Austrian statesman,
was born on the 23rd of August 1805 at Vienna, where his father
held a high position on the judicial side of the civil service.
After studying law at Vienna, in 1829 he entered the public
service, and during the next eighteen years was constantly
occupied, chiefly in Lower Austria. In 1847, as a member of
the lesser nobility, he entered the Estates of Lower Austria,
and took an active part in the Liberal movement for administra-
tive and constitutional reform of which they were the centre.
On the outbreak of the revolution in Vienna in March 1848,
when the mob broke into the Assembly, Schmerling was one of the
deputation which carried to the palace the demands of the people,
and during the next few days he was much occupied in organizing
the newly formed National Guard. At the end of the month he
was sent by the ministry to Frankfort as one of the men of
" public confidence." He soon succeeded Count Colleredo as
president of the Diet, and in this capacity officially transferred to
the archduke John, who had been elected regent of Germany,
the powers of the Diet. For this he was violently attacked in the
German parliament by the extreme Radicals; but on this and
other occasions (he had himself been elected to the parliament)
he defended moderate and constitutional principles, all the more
effectively because he depended not on eloquence but on a
recognition of what has been called the " irony of facts "
to which the parliament as a whole was so blind. He was the
first and the most influential member of the ministry which
the regent formed; he held the ministry of the interior and,
later, also that of foreign affairs, and it was almost entirely due
to him that at least for a short time this phantom government
maintained some appearance of power and dignity. A defeat
in the parliament when he defended the armistice of Malmo led
to his resignation; but he was immediately called to office again,
with practically dictatorial power, in order to quell the revolt
which broke out in Frankfort on the i8th of September. His
courage and resolution averted what nearly became a terrible
catastrophe. It was his hope to establish in Germany the
supremacy of a Liberal and reformed Austria. This brought him
into opposition to the party of Prussian supremacy; and when
they attained a majority, he resigned, and was succeeded by
Gagern. He remained at Frankfort, holding the post of Austrian
envoy, and was the leader of the so-called Great German party
until the dissolution of the Austrian parliament showed that the
forces of reaction had conquered at Vienna and shattered all
hopes of Austria attaining the position he had hoped for her.
After the abortive election of the king of Prussia to be emperor,
he, with the other Austrians, left Frankfort. On his return to
Vienna he became minister of justice, and the reforms which he
carried out added to his reputation. His popularity among all
Liberals was increased by his resignation in 1851, as a protest
against the failure of the government to establish the constitution
they had promised. During the next few years he was judge of
the supreme court of appeal. When his forecast was fulfilled,
and the system of absolutism broke down, he became minister
in January 1862. His first act was the publication of the con-
stitution by which the whole of the empire was to be organized
as a single state with a parliamentary government. The experi-
ment failed, chiefly because of the opposition of the Croatians
and Magyars, whom he bitterly offended by his celebrated saying
that " Hungary could wait." Faults of manner, natural in a
man whose life had been spent as an official and a judge, pre-
vented him from keeping together the German Liberals as a
strong and united party; he was opposed by a powerful faction
at court, and by the Clerical leaders. After the first few months
the emperor gave him only a very lukewarm support; and with
his retirement in 1865 the attempt to carry out the ideals of
Joseph II. to Germanize while he liberalized the whole of the
empire, and to compel Hungarians, Poles, Czechs and Croatians
to accept a system in which the government of the whole should
be carried on by a German-speaking parliament and bureaucracy,
failed. The constitution of 1862, though suspended on Schmer-
ling's fall, was still regarded as legally valid for the cis-Leithan
territories, and is the basis on which the present constitution for
half the empire was framed. On his retirement he returned
to his judicial duties; in 1867 he was made life-member of the
Upper House in the Reichsrath, of which he became vice-
president, and in 1871 president. This post he laid down in 1879,
and came forward as leader of the Liberal German opposition to
the administration of Count Taaffe. In 1891 he retired from
public life, and died at Vienna on the 23rd of May 1893.
Schmerling married, in 1835, Pauline, daughter of Field-
Marshal-Lieutenant Baron von Koudelka. Frau von Schmerling,
who was distinguished by literary and artistic abilities, at that
time rare in the Austrian capital, died in 1840, leaving two
daughters.
See Arneth, Anton v. Schmerling (Prague, 1895). This contains a
full account of Schmerling's life during 1848-1849, but does not deal
with his later life. Wurzbach, Biographtsches Lexicon des Kaiser-
thums Osterreich; Friedjung, Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in
Deutschland; Rogge, Geschichte Osterreichs. (J. W. HE.)
SCHMIDT, HEINRICH JULIAN (1818-1886), German
journalist and historian of literature, was born at Marienwerder
in East Prussia on the 7th of March 1818, and after studying
history and philosophy at the university of Konigsberg was
appointed, in 1842, to a mastership in the Luisenstadt Realschule
in Berlin. In 1847 he joined the editorial staff of the Grenzboten
344
SCHMIDT, K. VON SCHNEIDER, J. G.
in Leipzig, and in the following year became, with Gustav
Freytag, joint owner of that periodical. In 1861 he removed
to Berlin as editor-in-chief of the Berliner allgemeine Zeitung,
and in 1878 was rewarded for the journalistic services rendered
to the government, by a pension from the emperor William I.
He died at Berlin on the 27th of March 1886.
Julian Schmidt's principal contributions to literary history are
Geschichte der Romantik im Zeitalter der Revolution und Restauration
(1848); Geschichte der deutschen Nationalliteratur im 19. Jahrhundert
(1853) ; Geschichte des geistigen Lebens in Deutschland von Leibniz
bis auf Lessings Tod (1861-1863). These works subsequently
appeared as Geschichte der deutschen Lileratur von Leibniz bis auf
unsere Zeit (4 vols., 1886-1896) ; Schmidt also wrote a Geschichte der
franzosischen Literatur seit der Revolution (1857), and a biography
of Schiller (1859).
SCHMIDT, KARL VON (1817-1875), Prussian cavalry general,
was born at Schwedt on the Oder, on the i2th of January 1817,
and entered the 4th Ulans as a second lieutenant in 1834. His
long regimental service was varied by staff service and instruc-
tional work, and in the mobilization of 1859 he had the command
of a landwehr cavalry regiment. In 1863 he was made colonel
of the 4th Cuirassiers, which he commanded in the, for the cavalry
arm, uneventful campaigns of 1864 and 1866. He then com-
manded a newly raised regiment of Schleswig-Holstein troops,
the i6th Hussars, but at the outbreak of the Franco-German
War he was still an obscure and perhaps a mistrusted officer,
though his grasp of every detail of cavalry work was admitted.
But an opportunity for distinction was grasped in the cavalry
fighting around Mars-la-Tour (Aug. 16), in which he temporarily
led a brigade and was severely wounded. He was soon promoted
major-general and succeeded to the temporary command of his
division on the disablement of its leader. In this post he did
brilliant work in the campaign on the Loire, and even in the
winter operations towards Le Mans, and earned a reputation
second to none amongst the officers and men of his arm. After
the war he took a leading part in the reorganization of the
Prussian cavalry, which in ten years raised its efficiency to a
point far beyond that of any other cavalry in Europe. In 1875,
though his health was failing, he refused to give up the conduct
of certain important cavalry manoeuvres with which he had
been entrusted. But a few days of heavy work in the field
brought on a fatal illness, and he died at Danzig on the zsth
of August 1875. In 1889 the 4th Ulans, in which his regimental
service was almost entirely spent, were given the name " Von
Schmidt."
His drill and manoeuvre instructions were codified and published
after his death by his staff officer, Captain von Vollard Bockelberg,
who was authorized by Prince Frederick Charles to do so. An
English translation, Instructions for Cavalry, has been published by
the War Office. Von Schmidt himself wrote a pamphlet, Auch ein
Wort uber die Ausbildung der Cavallerie (1862). The original German
edition of the Instructions for Cavalry is prefaced by a memoir of
Von Schmidt's life and services, written by Major Kaehler.
SCHMIDT, WILHELM ADOLF (1812-1887), German historian,
was born in Berlin on the 26th of September 1812. He became
in 1851 professor of history at Zurich, and nine years later
professor at Jena, where he died on the loth of April 1887. He
was a member of the Frankfort parliament in 1848, and of the
German Reichstag from 1874 to 1876. His historical works
deal mainly with modern German history, and the most important
of them are:
Preussens deutsche Politik (Berlin, 1850, and other editions);
Geschichte der preussisch-deutschen Unionsbestrebungen (Berlin, 1851);
Zeitgenbssische Geschichten (Berlin, 1859); Elsass und Lothringen
(Leipzig, 1859 and 1870); and Geschichte der deutschen Verfassungs-
frage wdhrend der Befreiungskriege und des Wiener Kongresses
(Stuttgart, 1890), which was published after his death by A. Stern.
Schmidt also wrote : Tableaux de la Revolution Franc,aise publics sur
les papiers inedits du department de la police secrete de Pans (Leipzig,
1867-1870); Pariser Zustande wahrcnd der Revolutionszeit (Jena,
1874-1876), translated into French by P. Vioilet (Paris, 1880-1885) ;
Das Perikleische Zeitalter (Jena, 1877-1879); Handbuch der griechi-
schen Chronologie (Jena, 1888) ; and Abhandlungen zur alien Geschichte
(Leipzig, 1888).
See H. Landwehr, Zur Erinnerung an Adolf Schmidt (Berlin, 1887).
SCHMOLLER, GUSTAV (1838- ), German political
economist, was born at Heilbronn on the 24th of June 1838. He
studied political science, philosophy and history at the university
of Tubingen from 1857 to 1861, when he obtained an appointment
at the Wiirttemberg Statistical Department. In 1864 Schmoller
became extraordinary and in the following year, ordinary
professor of political economy and science at Halle, was trans-
ferred in a like capacity to Strasburg in 1872 and finally in 1882
to Berlin. In 1884 he was admitted a member of the Prussian
Staatsrath, in 1887 a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences,
and in 1899 was called to the Prussian Herrenhaus (Upper
Chamber) as representative of the university of Berlin.
Schmoller is famous for his researches in the field of the history
of political economy and is one of the founders of the Verein
fiir Social Politik (Social Political Society).
Among his numerous scientific works must be specially mentioned :
Der franzosiche Handelsvertrag und seine Gegner (1862); Zur
Geschichte des deutschen Kleingewerbes im lyten Jahrhundert (1869);
Uber einige Grundfragen des Rechts und der Volkswirtschaft (1875).
In late years Schmoller concentrated his attention more upon the
history of Prussian administration, and besides editing the Jahrbuch
fur preussische Geschichte und Landeskunde, published the result of
his labours in this department in the Umrisse und Untersuchungen
zur Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, besonders
des preussischen Staates, im ijten und iSten Jahrhundert (1898).
For an estimate of Schmoller's work cf. Stampfer, Gustav Schmoller
(1901).
SCHNEEBER6, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
in the Erzgebirge, 14 m. S.E. from Zwickau by rail. Pop.
(1905) 9034. It contains a handsome Gothic parish church,
one of the largest ecclesiastical buildings in Saxony, dedicated
to St Wolfgang, with an altar-piece by Lucas Cranach the elder,
and numerous tombs; a gymnasium; a school of lace-making
and a hospital. Hand-made lace and silver mining, formerly
its two most important industries, have greatly declined. The
first has been almost entirely superseded by machine-made
goods, while the second appears to have languished owing to
exhaustion of the mines. Cobalt, bismuth and nickel are worked
and yield satisfactory results, and machine-made lace, em-
broidery, porcelain, corsets, shoes and colours are among the
chief of its other industrial products. Schneeberg is also noted
for a snuff made of aromatic herbs, which commands a ready
sale in the district.
See Lehmann, Chronik von Schneeberg (Schneeberg, 1837-1840).
SCHNEEKOPPE, a mountain of Germany, on the Silesian
Bohemian frontier, the highest peak (5100 ft.) of the Riesen-
gebirge, situated immediately above the town of Schmiedcberg,
8 m. S. from Hirschberg. From the crest, which is about 50
yds. sq. and across which runs the frontier line between Silesia
and Bohemia, a magnificent view is obtained across the Oder
plain to Breslau on the north and over Bohemia to the south-
west. Just below the ridge, on the Prussian side, lies the chapel
of St Lawrence, which was used as a hospice for travellers from
1824 to 1850, when a new hostel was erected. Since 1900 a
meteorological station has been established here.
See Zetzmann, Panorama von der Schneekoppe (Berlin, 1903).
SCHNEIDEMUHL (Polish Pila), a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Posen, situated on the Ciiddow, 60 m. N.
of Posen and 145 m. N.E. of Berlin on the main line to Konigsberg,
and at the junction of lines to Stargard and Thorn. Pop. (1905),
21,624. It has five churches, a classical school and a Roman
Catholic teachers' seminary. Schneidemiihl carries on a trade
in wood, grain and potatoes, and possesses an iron foundry,
several glass works and machine-shops, and other industrial
establishments. Considerable damage was done to the town
in 1893 by a violent overflow of water from a deep artesian well.
SCHNEIDER, JOHANN GOTTLOB (1750-1822), German
classical scholar and naturalist, was born at Kollmen in Saxony
on the i8th of January 1750. In 1774, on the recommendalion
of Heyne, he became secretary to the famous Strassburg scholar,
R. F. Brunck, and in 1811 professor of ancient languages and
eloquence at Breslau (chief librarian, 1816) where he died on the
1 2th of January 1822. Of his numerous works the most im-
portant was his Kritisches griechisch-deutsches Handworterbuch
(1797-1798), the first independent work of the kind since
Stephanus's Thesaurus, and the basis of F. Passow's and all
succeeding Greek lexicons. A special improvement was the
SCHNEIDER, L. SCHOFIELD
345
introduction of words and expressions connected with natural
history and science. The scientific writings of ancient authors
especially attracted him. He published editions of Aelian,
De natura animalium; Nicander, Alexipharmaca and Theriaca;
the Scriptores rei rusticae; Aristotle, Historic, animalium and
Polilica; Epicurus, Physica and M eteorologica; Theophrastus,
Edogae physicae; Oppian, Halieutica and Cynegetica; the
complete works of Xenophon and Vitruvius; the Argonautica
of the so-called Orpheus (for which Ruhnken nicknamed him
" Orpheomastix ") ; an essay on the life and writings of Pindar
and a collection of his fragments. His Edogae physicae is a
selection of extracts of various length from Greek and Latin
writers on scientific subjects, containing the original text and
commentary, with essays on natural history and science in ancient
times.
See F. Passow, Opuscula academica (1835); C. Bursian, Ceschichtc
der classischen Philologie in Deutschland (1883).
SCHNEIDER, LOUIS (1805-1878), German actor and author,
was born at Berlin on the 2pth of April 1805, the son of George
Abraham Schneider (1770-1839). At an early age he was
engaged at the Royal Theatre, Berlin, where he soon rose to
play leading comedy parts. His reputation as a comedian grew
with his success in such roles as Zierl in the Einfahrt iiom Lande,
Peter in the Kapellmeister von Venedig, Schikaneder in the
Schauspieldirektor and Basileo in Figaro's Hochzeit, and he
became the favourite of Berlin. In 1845 he was appointed
head of the Royal opera in Berlin. But his bold patriotic
couplets and impromptus during the revolutionary year 1848
necessitated his retirement, and thereafter he translated and
adapted for the stage Mozart's Cosi fan tutti; published, under
the pseudonym " L. W. Both," Das Biihnenrepertoire des
Auslandes; and founded, as a result of his experiences as a
soldier in the Danish war of 1849, the periodical Der Soldaten-
frcund. He also wrote Geschichte der Oper und des Opernhauses
in Berlin (1845-1852). Soon after his retirement he was ap-
pointed reader to King Frederick William IV. of Prussia, and
subsequently he received the title of Geheimen Hofrat. He
continued to enjoy the favour of the court, and, as correspondent
of the Staatsanzeiger , was attached to the headquarters' staff
of the Prussian army during the campaign of 1866; and, by
special invitation, accompanied the emperor William during
the war of 1870. Schneider also wrote a novel. Das base Cluck,
and several volumes of reminiscences: Konig Wilhelm (1869),
Kaiser Wilhelm, 1867-1871 (1875). He died at Potsdam on
the i6th of December 1878.
See his posthumous memoirs, Aus meinem Leben (Berlin, 1879-
1880), and Aus dem Leben Kaiser Wilhelms (1888), which caused
some sensation on their publication.
SCHNEIDEWIN, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1810-1856),
German classical scholar, was born at Helmstedt on the 6th of
June 1810. In 1833 he became a teacher at the Brunswick
gymnasium, in 1837 extraordinary and in 1842 ordinary professor
of classical languages and literature in the university of Gottingen,
where he died on the i ith of January 1856. Schneidewin's work
on Sophocles and the Greek lyric poets is of permanent value.
His most important publications are: Ibyci Rhegini reliquiae
( I 833), severely criticized by G. Hermann; Simonidis Cei
reliquiae (1835); Delectus poesis Graecorum elegiacae, iambicae,
melicae (1838-1839), in which the fragments of the lyric poets
were for the first time published in a convenient form; Paroe-
miographi graeci (1839, with E. von Leutsch); Sophocles (1849-
1854, revised after his death by A. Nauck). He also edited the
fragments of the speeches of Hypereides on behalf of Euxenippus
and Lycophron (already published by Churchill Babington from
a papyrus discovered in Egyptian Thebes in 1847) an d a Latin
poem on rhetorical figures by an unknown author (Incerti auctoris
de figuris vel schematibus versus her old, 1841), found by Jules
Quicherat in MS. in the Paris library. Schneidewin was also the
founder of Philologus (1846), a journal devoted to classical
learning, and dedicated to the memory of K. O. Miiller.
See A. Baumeister in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic; E. von
Leutsch in Philologus, x. ; and M. 'Lechner, Zur Erinnerung an
JC. F. Hermann, F. W. Schneidewin (1864).
SCHNORR VON KAROLSFELD, JULIUS (1794-1872),
German painter, was born in 1 794 at Leipzig, where he received
his earliest instruction from his father Johann Veil Schnorr
(1764-1841), a draughtsman, engraver and painter. At seventeen
he entered the Academy of Vienna, from which Overbeck and
others who rebelled against the old conventional style had been
expelled about a year before. In 1818 he followed the founders
of the new school of German pre-Raphaelites in the general
pilgrimage to Rome. This school of religious and romantic art
abjured modern styles and reverted to and revived the principles
and practice of earlier periods. At the outset an effort was made
to recover fresco painting and " monumental art," and Schnorr
found opportunity of proving his powers, when commissioned to
decorate with frescoes, illustrative of Ariosto, the entrance hall
of the Villa Massimo, near the Lateran. His fellow-labourers
were Cornelius, Overbeck and Veit. His second period dates
from 1825, when he left Rome, settled in Munich, entered the
service of King Ludwig, and transplanted to Germany the art
of wall-painting learnt in Italy. He showed himself qualified
as a sore of poet-painter to the Bavarian court; he organized
a staff of trained executants, and set about clothing five halls in
the new palace with frescoes illustrative of the Nibclungenlied.
Other apartments his prolific pencil decorated with scenes from
the histories of Charlemagne, Frederick Barbarossa and Rudolph
of Habsburg. These interminable compositions are creative,
learned in composition, masterly in drawing, but exaggerated in
thought and extravagant in style.
Schnorr's third period is marked by his " Bible Pictures "
or Scripture History in 180 designs. The artist was a Lutheran,
and took a broad and unsectarian view which won for his
Pictorial Bible ready currency throughout Christendom. Fre-
quently the compositions are crowded and confused, wanting in
harmony of line and symmetry in the masses; thus they suffer
under comparison with Raphael's Bible. The style is severed
from the simplicity and severity of early times, and surrendered
to the florid redundance of the later Renaissance. Yet through-
out are displayed fertility of invention, academic knowledge with
facile execution; and modern art has produced nothing better
than " Joseph Interpreting Pharaoh's Dream," the " Meeting of
Rebecca and Isaac " and the " Return of the Prodigal Son." Bib-
lical drawings and cartoons for frescoes formed a natural prelude
to designs for church windows. The painter's renown in Germany
secured commissions in Great Britain. Schnorr made designs,
carried out in the royal factory, Munich, for windows in Glasgow
cathedral and in St Paul's cathedral, London. This Munich
glass provoked controversy: medievalists objected to its want
of lustre, and stigmatized the windows as coloured blinds and
picture transparencies. But the opposing party claimed for
these modern revivals " the union of the severe and excellent
drawing of early Florentine oil-paintings with the colouring and
arrangement of the glass-paintings of the latter half of the i6th
century." Schnorr died at Munich in 1872. His brother Ludwig
Ferdinand (1780-1853) was also a painter.
SCHOFIELD, JOHN MCALLISTER (1831-1906), American
soldier, was born at Gerry, Chautauqua county, New York, on
the 2gth of September 1831. He graduated at West Point in
1853, served for two years in the artillery, was assistant pro-
fessor of natural and experimental philosophy at West Point
in 1855-1860, and while on lea.ve (1860-1861) was professor of
physics at Washington university, St Louis. When the Civil
War broke out, he became a major in a Missouri volunteer regi-
ment and served as chief of staff to Major-General Nathaniel
Lyon until the death of that officer. (In 1892 he received a
Congressional medal of honour for " conspicuous gallantry at the
battle of Wilson's Creek.") In 1861-1863 he performed various
military duties in Missouri. In April 1863 he took command of a
division in the Army of the Cumberland, and in 1864, as com-
mander of the Army of the Ohio, he took part in the Atlanta
campaign under Major-General W. T. Sherman. In October
1864 Schofield was sent to Tennessee to join Major-General
G. H. Thomas in opposing General J. B. Hood, and on the 3oth of
November he fought with General Hood the desperate and
34-6
SCHOLAR SCHOLASTICISM
indecisive battle of Franklin. Two weeks later he took part in
Thomas's crowning victory at Nashville. For his services at
Franklin he was awarded the rank of brigadier-general (November
1864) and the brevet rank of major-general (March 1865) in the
regular army. Being ordered to co-operate with Sherman in
North Carolina, Schofield moved his corps by rail and sea to Fort
Fisher, North Carolina, in seventeen days, occupied Wilmington
on the 22nd of February 1865, fought the action at Kinston on
the 8-ioth of March, and on the 23rd joined Sherman at Golds-
boro. After the war he was sent on a special diplomatic mission
to France, on account of the presence of French troops in Mexico;
and from June 1868 to March 1869 he served as secretary of war
under President Andrew Johnson, after the retirement of E. M.
Stanton (?..). From 1876 to 1881 he was superintendent of the
Military Academy at West Point, and from 1888 until his retire-
ment in 1895 he was commanding general of the United States
army. He had become major-general in March 1869, and in
February 1895 he was made lieutenant-general. He died at
St Augustine, Florida, on the 4th of March 1906. General
Schofield published Forty-six Years in the Army (New York,
1897)-
SCHOLAR, SCHOLARSHIP. The term "scholar," primarily
meaning a " learner," is secondarily applied to one who has
thoroughly learnt all that " the school " can teach him, one who
by early training and constant self -culture has attained a certain
maturity in precise and accurate knowledge. Hence the term
" scholarship " in the sense of the knowledge or method of a
scholar. Similarly " classical scholarship " may be defined as
the sum of the mental attainments of a classical scholar. Scholar-
ship is sometimes identified with classical learning or erudition;
it is more often contrasted with it. The contrast is thus drawn
by Donaldson in his Classkal Scholarship and Classical Learning
(1856), and by Mark Pattison, in his Essay on Oxford Studies
(1855). " I maintain," says Donaldson, " that not all learned
men are accomplished scholars, though any accomplished
scholar may, if he chooses to devote the time to the necessary
studies, become a learned man " (p. 149). " It is not a know-
ledge," writes Mark Pattison, " but a discipline, that is required;
not science, but the scientific habit; not erudition, but scholar-
ship " (Essays, i. 425).
The expression " a scholarship " is also used in England for
a money payment made by a school, college or university, as a
prize (either for one year or a series of years) to the successful
competitors at an examination at which one or more such scholar-
ships are to be awarded; and the successful candidate is called
a " scholar," as the holder of a " scholarship." In this sense the
word is almost synonymous with " an exhibition," but the latter
is usually considered inferior in merit and dignity, if not in
amount.
On the general history of classical scholarship, see CLASSICS:
Greek and Latin.
SCHOLASTICISM, the name usually employed to denote
the most typical products of medieval thought. After the
centuries of intellectual darkness which followed upon the
closing of the philosophical schools in Athens (529), and the
death of Boetius, the last of the ancient philosophers, the first
symptoms of renewed intellectual activity appear contempor-
aneously with the consolidation of the empire of the West in
the hands of Charlemagne. He endeavoured to attract to his
court the best scholars of Britain and Ireland, and by imperial
decree (787) commanded the establishment of schools in con-
nexion with every abbey in his realms. Peter of Pisa and
Alcuin of York were his advisers, and under their care the opposi-
tion long supposed to exist between godliness and secular learning
speedily disappeared. Besides the celebrated school of the
Palace, where Alcuin had among his hearers the members of the
imperial family and the dignitaries of the empire as well as
talented youths of humbler origin, we hear of the episcopal schools
of Lyons, Orleans and St Denis, the cloister schools of St Martin
of Tours, of Fulda, Corbie, Fontenelle and many others, besides
the older monasteries of St Gall and Reichenau. These schools
became the centres of medieval learning and speculation,
and from them the name Scholasticism is derived (cf. Sandys,
Hist, of Class. Schol., i. 471, 1906). They were designed to
communicate instruction in the seven liberal arts which con-
stituted the educational curriculum of the middle ages (see
TRIVIUM). The name doctor scholasticus was applied originally
to any teacher in such an ecclesiastical gymnasium, but gradually
the study of dialectic or logic overshadowed the more elementary
disciplines, and the general acceptation of " doctor " came
to be one who occupied himself with the teaching of logic. The
philosophy of the later Scholastics is more extended in its scope;
but to the end of the medieval period philosophy centres in the
discussion of the same logical problems which began to agitate
the teachers of the gth and roth centuries.
Scholasticism in the widest sense thus extends from the
9th to the end of the I4th or the beginning of the 1 5th century
from Erigena to Occam and his followers. The belated
Scholastics who lingered beyond the last mentioned
date served only as marks for the obloquy heaped Soots.
upon the schools by the men of the new time.
Erigena' is really of the spiritual kindred of the Neoplatonists
and Christian mystics rather than of the typical Scholastic
doctors, and, in fact, the activity of Scholasticism is mainly
confined within the limits of the nth and the i4th centuries.
It is divisible into two well-marked periods the first extend-
ing to the end of the i2th century and embracing as its chief
names Roscellinus, Anselm, William of Champeaux and Abelard,
while the second extended from "the beginning of the i3th
century to the Renaissance and the general distraction of
men's thoughts from the problems and methods of Scholasti-
cism. In this second period the names of Albertus Magnus,
Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus represent (in the I3th century
and the first years of the i4th century) the culmination of
Scholastic thought and its consolidation into system.
Prantl says that there is no such thing as philosophy in the
middle ages; there are only logic and theology. The remark
overlooks two facts firstly that the main objects of
theology and philosophy are identical, though the
method of treatment is different, and secondly that
logical discussion commonly leads up to metaphysical problems,
and that this was pre-eminently the case with the logic of the
Schoolmen. But the saying draws attention to the two great in-
fluences which shaped medieval thought the tradition of ancient
logic and the system of Christian theology. Scholasticism opens
with a discussion of certain points in the Aristotelian logic; it
speedily begins to apply its logical distinctions to the doctrines of
the church; and when it attains its full stature in St Thomas
it has, with the exception of certain mysteries, rationalized or
Aristotelianized the whole churchly system. Or we might say
with equal truth that the philosophy of St Thomas is Aristotle
Christianized. The Schoolmen contemplate the universe of
nature and man not with their own eyes but in the glass of
Aristotelian formulae. Their chief works are in the shape of
commentaries upon the writings of "the philosopher." 1 Their
problems and solutions alike spring from the master's dicta
from the need of reconciling these with one another and with
the conclusions of Christian theology.
The fact that the channels of thought during the middle
ages were determined in this way is usually expressed by saying
that reason in the middle age is subject to authority.
It has not the free play which characterizes its activity
in Greece and in the philosophy of modern times. Its au thortty.
conclusions are predetermined, and the initiative
of the individual thinker is almost confined, therefore, to
formal details in the treatment of his thesis. To the church,
reason is the handmaid of faith (ancilla fidei) . But this principle
of the subordination of the reason wears a different aspect accord-
ing to the century and writer referred tp. In Scotus Erigena,
at the beginning of the Scholastic era, there is no such subordina-
tion contemplated, because philosophy and theology in his work
are in implicit unity. " Conficitur inde veram esse philosophiam
veram religionem, conversimque veram religionem esse veram
1 The common designation of Aristotle in the middle ages.
SCHOLASTICISM
347
philosophiam " (De divina praedestinatione, Proem). Reason
in its own strength and with its own instruments evolves a system
of the universe which coincides, according to Erigena, with the
teaching of Scripture. For Erigena, therefore, the speculative
reason is the supreme arbiter; and in accordance with its results
the utterances of Scripture and of the church have not infre-
quently to be subjected to an allegorical or mystical interpreta-
tion. But this is only to say again that Erigena is more of
a Neoplatonist than a Scholastic. Hence Cousin suggested in
respect of this point a threefold chronological division at the
outset the absolute subordination of philosophy to theology,
then the period of their alliance, and finally the beginning of
their separation. In other words, we note philosophy gradually
extending its claims. Dialectic is, to begin with, a merely
secular art, and only by degrees are its terms and distinctions
applied to the subject-matter of theology. The early results
of the application, in the hands of Berengarius and Roscellinus,
did not seem favourable to Christian orthodoxy. Hence the
strength with which a champion of the faith like Anselm insists
on the subordination of reason. To Bernard of Clairvaux and
many other churchmen the application of dialectic to the things
of faith appears .as dangerous as it is impious. Later, in the
systems of the great Schoolmen, the rights of reason are fully
established and acknowledged. The relation of reason and faith
remains external, and certain doctrines an increasing number
as times goes on are withdrawn from the sphere of reason.
But with these exceptions the two march side by side; they
establish by different means the same results. For the conflicts
which accompanied the first intrusion of philosophy into the
theological domain more profound and cautious thinkers with
a far ampler apparatus of knowledge had substituted a harmony.
" The constant effort of Scholasticism to be at once philosophy
and theology" 1 seemed at last satisfactorily realized. But
the further progress of Scholastic thought consisted in a with-
drawal of doctrine after doctrine from the possibility of rational
proof and their relegation to the sphere of faith. Indeed, no
sooner was the harmony apparently established by Aquinas
than Duns Scotus began this negative criticism, which is carried
much farther by William of Occam. But this is equivalent
to a confession that Scholasticism had failed in its task, which
was to rationalize the doctrines of the church. The Aristotelian
form refused to fit a matter for which it was never intended;
the matter of Christian theology refused to be forced into an
alien form. The end of the period was thus brought about
by the internal decay of its method and principles quite as much
as by the variety of external causes which contributed to transfer
men's interests to other subjects.
But, although the relation of reason to an external authority
thus constitutes the badge of medieval thought, it would be
Schobs- un J ust to look upon Scholasticism as philosophically
tkism not barren, and to speak as if reason, after an interregnum
unpro- of a thousand years, resumed its rights at the Renais-
gressive. sance Such language was excusable in the men of
the Renaissance, fighting the battle of classic form and
beauty and of the manysidedness of life against the bar-
barous terminology and the monastic ideals of the schools, or
in the protagonists of modern science. The new is never just to
the old. In the schools and universities of the middle age the
intellect of the semi-barbarous European peoples had been
trained for the work of the modern world. But we may go
further and say that, in spite of their initial acceptance of
authority, the Scholastics are not the antagonists of reason;
on the contrary they fight its battles. The attempt to establish
by argument the authority of faith is in reality the unconscious
establishment of the authority of reason. Reason, if admitted
at all, must ultimately claim the whole man. Anselm's motto,
Credo ut intelligam, marks well the distance that has been
traversed since Tertullian's Credo quia absurdum est. The claim
of reason has been recognized to manipulate the data of faith,
at first blindly and immediately received, and to weld them into
a system such as will satisfy its own needs. Scholasticism that
1 Milman's Latin Christianity, ix. 101.
has outlived its day may be justly identified with obscurantism,
but not so the systems of those who, by then- intellectual force
alone, once held all the minds of Europe in subjection. The
scholastic systems are not the free products of speculation;
in the main they are summae theologiae, or they are modified
versions of Aristotle. But each system is a fresh recognition
of the rights of reason, and Scholasticism as a whole may be
regarded as the history of the growth and gradual emancipa-
tion of reason which was completed in the movements of the
Renaissance and the Reformation.
In speaking of the origin of Scholasticism name and thing
it has been already noted that medieval speculation takes its
rise in certain logical problems. To be more precise,
it is the nature of " universals " which forms the v el a j s
central theme of Scholastic debate (see NOMINALISM,
REALISM). This is the case almost exclusively during the
first period, and only to a less extent during the second, where
it reappears in a somewhat different form as the difficulty
concerning the principle of individuation. The controversy
was between Nominalists and Realists; and, exclusively logical
as the point may at first sight seem to be, adherence to one side
or the other is an accurate indication of philosophic tendency.
The two opposing theories express at bottom, in the phraseology
of their own time, the radical divergence of pantheism and
individualism the two extremes between which philosophy
seems pendulum-wise to oscillate, and which may be said still
to await their perfect reconciliation. First, however, we must
examine the form which this question assumed to the first
medieval thinkers, and the source from which they derived it.
A single sentence in Porphyry's Isagoge or " introduc-
tion " to the Categories of Aristotle furnished tl
text of the discussion. The treatise of Porphyry deals
with the notions of genus, species, difference, property and
accident (see PREDICABLES) ; and he mentions, but declines
to discuss, the various theories that have been held as to the
ontological import of genera and species. In the Latin translation
of Boetius, in which alone the Isagoge was then known, the
sentence runs as follows:
" Mox de generibus et speciebus illud quidem sive subsistant, sive
in solis nuclis intellectibus posita sint, sive subsistentia corporalia
sint an incorporalia, et utrum separata a sensibilibus an in sensi-
bilibus posita et circa haec consistentia, dicere recusabo ; altissimum
enim negotium est hujusmodi et majoris egens inquisitionis."
This passage indicates three possible positions with regard to
universals. It may be held that they exist merely as conceptions
in our minds; this is Nominalism or Conceptualism (q.v.). It
may be held that they have a substantial existence of their
own, independent of their existence in our thoughts. This is
Realism, which may be of two varieties, according as the sub-
stantially existent universals are supposed to exist apart from
the sensible phenomena or only in and with the objects of sense
as their essence. The first form of Realism corresponds to the
Platonic theory of the transcendence of the ideas; the second
reproduces the Aristotelian doctrine of the essence as inseparable
from the individual thing. But, though he implies an ample
previous treatment of the questions by philosophers, Porphyry
gives no references to the different systems of which such dis-
tinctions are the outcome, nor does he give any hint of his own
opinion on the subject, definite enough though that was. He
simply sets the discussion aside as too difficult for a preliminary
discourse, and not strictly relevant to a purely logical inquiry.
Porphyry, the Neoplatonist, the disciple of Plotinus, was
an unknown personage to those early students of the Isagoge.
The passage possessed for them a mysterious charm, largely
due to its isolation and to their ignorance of the historic specula-
tions which suggested it. And accordingly it gave rise to the
three great doctrines which divided the medieval schools:
Realism of the Platonic type, embodied in the formula universalia
ante rent; Realism of the Aristotelian type, universalia in re;
and Nominalism, including Conceptualism, expressed by the
phrase universalia post rent, and also claiming to be based upon
the Peripatetic doctrine.
SCHOLASTICISM
To form a proper estimate of the first stage of Scholastic discussion
it is requisite above all things to have a ckar idea of the appliances
then at the disposal of the writers. What was the extent
th e " I ^ tne ' r knowledge of ancient philosophy? To begin with,
School* we know tnat *'" the '3 tn century the middle age was
ignorant of Greek, and possessed no philosophical works in
knowledge. theirGreekoriginal(seeCLASsics). In translations they had
1 ' only the Categories and the De interpretation of Aristotle
in the versions of Boetius, the Timaeus of Plato in the version of
Chalcidius, and -Boetius's translation of Porphyry's Isagoee. Some
general information as to the Platonic doctrines (chiefly in a Neo-
platonic garb) was obtainable from the commentary with which
Chalcidius (6th century) accompanied his translation, from the work
of Apuleius (2nd century) De dogmate Platcnis, and indirectly from
the commentary of Macrobius (c. 400) on the Somnium Scipionis of
Cicero, and from the writings of St Augustine. As aids to the study
of logic, the doctors of this period, beside the commentaries and
treatises of Boetius (q.v.), possessed two tracts attributed to St Augus-
tine, the first of which, Principia dialeclicae, is probably his, but
is mainly grammatical in its import. The other tract, known as
Categpriae decem, and taken at first for a translation of Aristotle's
treatise, is really a rapid summary of it, and certainly does not
belong to Augustine. To this list must be added: (l) the Satyricon
of Martianus Capella (q.v.), the greater part of which is a treatise
on the seven liberal arts, the fourth book dealing with logic ; (2)
the De artibus ac disciplinis liberaliuni literarum of Cassiodorus
(9--); (3) the Origines of Isidore of Seville (ob. 636), which is little
more than a reproduction of (2). The above constitutes the whole
material which the earlier middle age had at its disposal.
The grandly conceived system of Erigena (see ERIGENA
and MYSTICISM) stands by itself in the gth century like the
Erigcoa. P roduct f another age. John the Scot was still
acquainted with Greek, seeing that he translated
the work of the pseudo-Dionysius; and his speculative genius
achieved the fusion of Christian doctrine and Neoplatonic
thought in a system of quite remarkable metaphysical complete-
ness. It is the only complete and independent system between
the decline of ancient thought and the system of Aquinas in
the I3th century, if indeed we ought not to go further, to modern
times, to find a parallel. Erigena pronounces no express opinion
upon the question which was even then beginning to occupy
men's minds; but his Platonico-Christian theory of the Eternal
Word as containing in Himself the exemplars of created things
is equivalent to the assertion of universalia ante rent. His whole
system, indeed, is based upon the idea of the divine as the
exclusively real, of which the world of individual existence is
but the theophany; the special and the individual are immanent,
therefore, in the general. And hence at a much later date (in
the beginning of the i3th century) his name was invoked to
cover the pantheistic heresies of Amalrich of Bena.
Erigena does not separate his Platonic theory of pre-existent
exemplars from the Aristotelian doctrine of the universal as in the
individuals. As Ueberweg points out, his theory is rather a result
of the transference of the Aristotelian conception of substance to
the Platonic Idea, and of an identification of the relation of accidents
to the substance in which they inhere with that of the individuals
to the Idea of which, in the Platonic doctrine, they are copies (Hist,
of Philosophy, i. 363, Eng. trans.). Hence it may be said that the
universals are in the individuals, constituting their essential reality
(and it is an express part of Erigena's system that the created but
creative Word, the second division of Nature, should pass into the
third stage of created and non-creating things) ; or rather, perhaps,
we ought to say that the individuals exist in the bosom of their
universal. At all events, while Erigena's Realism is pronounced,
the Platonic and Aristotelian forms of the doctrine are not dis-
tinguished in his writings. Prantl has professed to find the head-
stream of Nominalism also in Scotus Erigena; but beyond the fact
that he discusses at considerable length the categories of thought
and their mutual relations, occasionally using the term voces to
express his meaning, Prantl appears to adduce no reasons for an
assertion which directly contradicts Erigena's most fundamental
doctrines. Moreover, Erigena again and again declares that dialectic
has to do with the stadia of a real or divine classification: " In-
telligitur quod ars ilia, quae dividit genera in species et species in
genera resolvit, quae SiaXtxrucri dicitur, non ab humanis machinationi-
bus sit facta, sed in natura rerum ab auctore omnium artium, quae
verae artes sunt, condita et a sapientibus inventa " (De divisione
naturae, iv. 4).
The immediate influence of Erigena's system cannot have
been great, and his works seem soon to have dropped out of
notice in the centuries that followed. The real germs of Realism
and Nominalism are to be found in the gth century, in scattered
commentaries and glosses upon the statements of Porphyry and
Boetius. Boetius in commenting upon Porphyry had already
started the discussion as to the nature of univeisals. He is
definitely an ti -Platonic, and his language sometimes
takes even a nominalistic tone, as when he declares /nffueDCe
that the species is nothing more than a thought or
conception gathered from the substantial similarity
of a number of dissimilar individuals. The expression " sub-
stantial similarity" is still, however, sufficiently vague to cover
a multitude of views. He concludes that the genera and species
exist as universals only in thought; but, inasmuch as they
are collected from singulars on account of a real resemblance,
they have a certain existence independently of the mind, but
not an existence disjoined from the singulars of sense. " Sub-
sistuntergo circa sensibilia, intelliguntur autem praeter corpora."
Or, according to the phrase which recurs so often during the
middle ages, " universale intelligitur, singulare sentitur."
Boetius ends by declining to adjudicate between Plato and
Aristotle, remarking in a semi-apologetic style that, if he has
expounded Aristotle's opinion by preference, his course is
justified by the fact that he is commenting upon an introduction
to Aristotle. And, indeed, his discussion cannot claim to be
more than semi-popular in character. The point in dispute
has not in his hands the all-absorbing importance it afterwards
attained, and the keenness of later distinctions is as yet unknown.
In this way, however, though the distinctions drawn may still
be comparatively vague, there existed in the schools a Peripatetic
tradition to set over against the Neoplatonic influence of John
the Scot, and amongst the earliest remains of Scholastic
thought we find this tradition asserting itself somewhat vigorously.
There were Nominalists before Roscellinus among these early
thinkers.
Alcuin (q.v.) does nothing more in his Dialectic than abridge
Boetius and the other commentators. But in the school of
Fulda, presided over by his pupil Hrabanus Maurus
(776-856), there are to be found some fresh contribu-
tions to the discussion. The collected works of
Hrabanus himself contain nothing new, but in some glosses on
Aristotle and Porphyry, first exhumed by Cousin, there are
several noteworthy expressions of opinion in a Nominalistic
sense. The author interprets Boetius's meaning to be " Quod
eadem res individuum et species et genus est, et non esse univer-
salia individuis quasi quoddam diversum." He also cites,
apparently with approval, the view of those who held Porphyry's
treatise to be not de quinque rebus, but de quinque vocibus. A
genus, they said, is essentially something which is predicated of
a subject; but a thing cannot be a predicate (res enim non
praedicalur). These glosses, it should be added, however, have
been attributed by Prantl and Kaulich, on the ground of diver-
gence from doctrines contained in the published works of
Hrabanus, to some disciple of his rather than to Hrabanus
himself. Fulda had become through the teaching of the latter
an intellectual centre. Eric or Heiricus, who studied there
under Haimon, the successor of Hrabanus, and after- ^^
wards taught at Auxerre, wrote glosses on the margin
of his copy of the pseudo-Augustinian Calegoriae, which have
been published by Cousin and Haureau. He there says in words
which recall the language of Locke (Essay, iii. 3) that because
proper names are innumerable, and no intellect or memory
would suffice for the knowing of them, they are all as it were
comprehended in the species. Taken strictly his words state
the position of extreme Nominalism; but even if we were not
forbidden to do so by other passages, in which the doctrine
of moderate Realism is adopted (under cover of the current
distinction between the singular as felt and the pure universal
as understood), it would still be unfair to press any passage
in the writings of this period. As Cousin says, " Realism and
Nominalism were undoubtedly there in germ, but their true
principles with their necessary consequences remained profoundly
unknown; their connexion with all the great questions of religion
and politics was not even suspected. The two systems were
nothing more as yet than two different ways of interpreting
a phrase of Porphyry, and they remained unnoticed in the
SCHOLASTICISM
349
e '
obscurity of the schools. ... It was the nth century which
gave Nominalism to the world." *
Remigius of Auxerre, pupil of Eric, became the most celebrated
professor of dialectic in the Parisian schools of the icth century.
As he reverted to Realism, his influence, first at
Remigius. j^jjeims anc j tnen j n p ar ; Sj was doubtless instrumental
in bringing about the general acceptance of that doctrine till
the advent of Roscellinus as a powerful disturbing influence.
" There is one genus more general than the rest," says Remi
(J. B. Haureau, Histoire de la philosophic scolastique, i. 146),
" beyond which the intellect cannot rise, called by the Greeks
ovtria, by the Latins essentia. The essence, indeed, comprehends
all natures, and everything that exists is a portion of this essence,
by participation in which everything that is hath its existence."
And similarly with the intermediate genera. " Homo est
multorum hominum substantialis unitas." Remigius is thus
a Realist, not so much in the sense of Plato as in the spirit of
Parmenides, and Haureau applies to this form of Realism
Bayle's description of Realism in general as " le Spinosisme
non developpe." The loth century as a whole is especially
marked out as a dark age, being partly filled with civil troubles
and partly characterized by a reaction of faith against reason.
In the monastery of St Gall there was considerable logical
activity, but nothing of philosophical interest is recorded. The
chief name of the century is that of Gerbert (died
as Pope Silvester II. in 1003). His treatise De rationale
et ratione uti is more interesting as a display of the logical
acquirements of the age than as possessing any direct philo-
sophical bearing. The school of Chartres, founded in 990 by
Fulbert, one of Gerbert's pupils, was distinguished
^ or near ty two centuries not so much for its dialectics
and philosophy as for its humanistic culture. The
account which John of Sah'sbury gives of it in the first half of
the 1 2th century, under the presidency of Theodoric and Bernard,
affords a very pleasant glimpse into the history of the middle
ages. Since then, says their regretful pupil, " less time and less
care have been bestowed on grammar, and persons who profess
all arts, liberal and mechanical, are ignorant of the primary
art, without which a man proceeds in vain to the rest. For
albeit the other studies assist literature, yet this has the sole
privilege of making one lettered." 2
Hitherto, if dialectical studies had been sometimes viewed
askance by the stricter churchmen, it was not because logic
Appika- had dared to stretch forth its hands towards the
tton of ark of God, but simply on the ground of the old opposi-
logicto tion between the church and the world. But now
eology. Bolder spirits arose who did not shrink from applying
the distinctions of their human wisdom to the mysteries
of theology. It was the excitement caused by their attempt,
and the heterodox conclusions which were its first result, that
lifted these Scholastic disputations into the central position
which they henceforth occupied in the life of the middle ages.
The next centuries show that peculiar combination of logic
and theology which is the mark of Scholasticism, especially
in the period before the i3th century.
One of the first of these attacks was made by Berengarius
of Tours (999-1088) upon the doctrine of transubstantiation;
Beren- denied the possibility of a change of substance
garhis. i n t ne bread and wine without some corresponding
change in the accidents. M de Remusat characterizes
his view on the Eucharist as a specific application of Nominalism.
More intimately connected with the progress of philosophical
thought was the tritheistic view of the Trinity propounded
by Roscellinus as one of the results of his Nominalistic theory
Roscei- of know i n g an d being. The sharpness and onesidedness
Onus. mth which he formulated his position were the im-
mediate occasion of the contemporaneous crystalliza-
tion of Realism in the theories of Anselm and William of
Champeaux. Henceforth discussion is carried on with a full
^Victor Cousin, Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard, Introd. p. Ixxxv.
Metalogicus, i. 27, quoted in Poole's Illustrations of Medieval
Thought.
consciousness of the differences involved and the issues at
stake; and, thanks to the heretical conclusion disclosed by
Roscellinus, Realism became established for several centuries
as the orthodox philosophical creed. Roscellinus (d. c. 1125)
was looked upon by later times as the originator of the sententia
vocum, that is to say, of Nominalism proper. From the scanty
and ill-natured notices of his opponents (Anselm and Abelard),
we gather that he refused to recognize the reality of anything
but the individual; he treated " the universal substance,"
says Anselm, as no more than " flatum vocis," a verbal breathing
or sound; and in a similar strain he denied any reality to the
parts of which a whole, such as a house, is commonly said to
be composed. The parts in the one case, the general name or
common attributes in the other, are only, he seems to have
argued, so many subjective points of view from which we choose
to regard that which in its own essence is one and indivisible,
existing in its own right apart from any connexion with other
individuals. This pure individualism, consistently interpreted,
involves the denial of all real relation whatsoever; for things
are related and classified by means of their general characteristics.
Accordingly, if these general characteristics do not possess reality,
things are reduced to a number of characterless and mutually
indifferent points. It is possible, as Haureau maintains, that
Roscellinus meant no more than to refute the extreme Realism
which asserts the substantial and, above all, the independent
existence of the universals. Some of the expressions used by
Anselm in controverting his position favour this idea. He
upbraids Roscellinus, for example, because he was unable to
conceive whiteness apart from its existence in something white.
But this is precisely an instance of the hypostatization of abstrac-
tions in exposing which the chief strength and value of Nominal-
ism lie. Cousin is correct in pointing out, from the Realistic
point of view, that it is one thing to deny the hypostatization
of an accident like colour or wisdom, and another thing to
deny the foundation in reality of those " true and legitimate
universals " which we understand by the terms genera and
species. It is not to be supposed that the full scope of his
doctrine was present to the mind of Roscellinus; but Nominalism
would hardly have made the sensation it did had its assertions
been as innocent as Haureau would make them. Like most
innovators, Roscellinus stated his position in bold language,
which emphasized his opposition to accepted doctrines; and
his words, if not his intentions, involved the extreme Nominalism
which, by making universality merely subjective, pulverizes
existence into detached particulars. And, though we may
acquit Roscellinus of consciously propounding a theory so
subversive of all knowledge, his criticism of the doctrine of the
Trinity is proof at least of the determination with which he was
prepared to carry out his individualism. If we are not prepared
to say that the three Persons are one thing in which case the
Father and the Holy Ghost must have been incarnate along
with the Son then, did usage permit, he says, we ought to
speak of three Gods.
This theological deduction from his doctrine drew upon Roscellinus
the polemic of his most celebrated opponent, Anselm of Canterbury
(10331109). Roscellinus appears at first to have imagined
that his tritheistic theory had the sanction of Lanfranc Aaselm -
and Anselm, and the latter was led in consequence to compose his
treatise De fide Trinitatis. From this may be gathered his views
on the nature of universals. " How shall he who has not arrived at
understanding how several men are in species one man comprehend
how in that most mysterious nature several persons, each of which is
perfect God, are one God? " The manner in which humanity exists
m the individual was soon to be the subject of keen discussion, and
to bring to light diverging views within the Realistic camp; but St
Anselm does not go into detail on this point, and seems to imply that
it is not surrounded by special difficulties. In truth, his Realism was
of a somewhat uncritical type. It was simply accepted by him in a
broad way as the orthodox philosophic doctrine, and the doctrine
which, as a sagacious churchman, he perceived to be most in harmony
with Christian theology. Anselm's natural element was theology,
and the high metaphysical questions which are as it were the obverse
of theology. On the other hand, as the first to formulate the onto-
logical argument (in his Proslogion) for the existence of God, he joins
hands with some of the profoundest names in modern philosophy.
To Anselm specially belongs the motto Credo lit intelligam, or, as it is
35
SCHOLASTICISM
otherwise expressed in the sub-title of his Proslogion, Fides quaerens
intcllectum. He endeavoured to give a philosophical demonstration
not only of the existence of God but also of the Trinity and the Incar-
nation, which were placed by the later Scholastics among the
" mysteries." The Christological theory of satisfaction expounded
in the Cur Deus Homo falls beyond the scope of the present article.
But the Platonically conceived proof of the being of God contained
in the Monologion shows that Anselm's doctrine of the universals as
substances in things (universalia in re) was closely connected in his
mind with the thought of the universalia ante rent, the exemplars of
perfect goodness and truth and justice, by participation in which all
earthly things are judged to possess these qualities. In this way he
rises like Plato to the absolute Goodness, Justice and Truth, and
then proceeds in Neoplatonic fashion to a deduction of the Trinity
as involved in the idea of the divine Word (see further ANSELM).
Besides its connexion with the speculations of Anselm, the
doctrine of Roscellinus was also of decisive influence within
the schools in crystallizing the opposite opinion.
William William of Champeaux (1070-1121), who is reputed
the f ounder of a definitely formulated Realism, much
as Roscellinus is regarded as the founderof Nominalism,
was instructed by Roscellinus himself in dialectic. Unfortunately
none of William's philosophical works have survived, and we
depend upon the statements of his opponent Abelard, in the
Hisloria calamitatum mearum, and in certain manuscripts
discovered by Cousin. From these sources it appears that
he professed successively two opinions on the nature of the
universals, having been dislodged from his first position by the
criticism of Abelard, his quondam pupil. There is no obscurity
about William's first position. It is a Realism of the most
uncompromising type, which by its reduction of individuals
to accidents of one identical substance seems to tremble on the
very verge of Spinozism. He taught, says Abelard, that the
same thing or substance was present in its entirety and essence
in each individual, and that individuals differed no whit in
their essence but only in the variety of their accidents. Thus
" Socratitas " is merely an accident of the substance " humanitas,"
or, as it is put by the author of the treatise De generibus et
speciebus, 1 " Man is a species, a thing essentially one (res una
essentialiter), which receives certain forms which make it Socrates.
This thing, remaining essentially the same, receives in the same
way other forms which constitute Plato and the other individuals
of the species man; and, with the exception of those forms
which mould that matter into the individual Socrates, there is
nothing in Socrates that is not the same at the same time under
the forms of Plato. . . . According to these men, even though
rationality did not exist in any individual, its existence in nature
would still remain intact " (Cousin, Introduction, &c., p. cxx.).
Criticism was speedily at work upon William of Champeaux's
position. He had said expressly that the universal essence,
by the addition of the individual forms, was individualized and
present secundum totam suam quantitatem in each individual.
But if homo is wholly and essentially present in Socrates, then
it is, as it were, absorbed in Socrates; where Socrates is not,
it cannot be, consequently not in Plato and the other individua
hominis. This was called the argument of the homo Socraticus;
and it appears to have been with the view of obviating such
time and space difficulties, emphasized in the criticism of Abelard,
that William latterly modified his form of expression. But his
second position is enveloped in considerable obscurity. Abelard
says, " Sic autem correxit sententiam, ut deinceps rem eamdem
non essentialiter sed individualiter diceret." In other words,
he merely sought to avoid the awkward consequences of his
own doctrine by substituting " individualiter " for " essenti-
aliter " in his definition. If we are to put a sense upon this
new expression, William may probably have meant to recall
any words of his which seemed, by locating the universal in the
entirety of its essence in each individual to confer upon the
individual an independence which did not belong to it thus
leading in the end to the demand for a separate universal for
1 This treatise, first published by Cousin in his Ouvrages inedits
d' Abelard, was attributed by him to Abelard, and he was followed in
this opinion by Haurfeau; but Prantl adduces reasons which seem
satisfactory for believing it to be the work of an unknown writer of
somewhat later date (see Prantl. Gesthichte d. Logik, ii. 143).
each individual. In opposition to this Nominalistic view,
which implied the reversal of his whole position, William may
have meant to say that, instead of the universal being multiplied,
it is rather the individuals which are reduced to unity in the
universal. The species is essentially one, but it takes on in-
dividual varieties or accidents. If, however, we are more ill-
natured, we may regard the phrase, with Prantl, as simply
a meaningless makeshift in extremities; and if so, Abelard 's
account of the subsequent decline of William's reputation would
be explained. But there is in some of the manuscripts the
various reading of " indifferenter " for " individualiter," and
this is accepted as giving the true sense of the passage by Cousin
and Remusat (Haureau and Prantl taking, on different grounds,
the opposite view). According to this reading, William sought
to rectify his position by asserting, not the numerical identity
of the universal in each individual, but rather its sameness in the
sense of indistinguishable similarity. Ueberweg cites a passage
from his theological works which apparently bears out this
view, for William there expressly distinguishes the two senses
of the word " same." Peter and Paul, he says, are the same
in so far as they are both men, although the humanity of each is,
strictly speaking, not identical but similar. In the Persons
of the Trinity, on the other hand the relation is one of absolute
identity.
Whether this view is to be traced to William or not, it is certain
that the theory of " indifference " or " non-difference " (indifferentia)
was a favourite solution in the Realistic schools soon after
his time. The inherent difficulties of Realism led to a
variety of attempts to reach a more satisfactory formula. ..
John of Salisbury, in his account of the controversies of
these days (Metalogicus, ii. 17) reckons up nine different views which
were held on the question of the universals, and the list is extended
by Prantl (ii. 118) to thirteen. In this list are included of course all
shades of opinion, from extreme Nominalism to extreme Realism.
The doctrine of indifference as it appears in later writers certainly
tends, as Prantl points out, towards Nominalism, inasmuch as it'
gives up the substantiality of the universals. The universal consists
of the non-different elements or attributes in the separate individuals,
which alone exist substantially. If we restrict attention to these
non-different elements, the individual becomes for us the species,
the genus, &c. ; everything depends on the point of view from which
we regard it. " Nihil omnino est praeter individuum, sed et illud
aliter et aliter attentum species et genus et generalissimum est."
Adelard of Bath (whose treatise De eodem et diverse must have been
written between 1105 and 1117) was probably the author or at all
events the elaborator of this doctrine, and he sought by its means to
effect a reconciliation between Plato and Aristotle : " Since that
which we see is at once genus and species and individual, Aristotle
rightly insisted that the universals do not exist except in the things
of sense. But, since those universals, so far as they are called genera
and species, cannot be perceived by any one in their purity without
the admixture of imagination, Plato maintained that they existed
and could be beheld beyond the things of sense, to wit, in the divine
mind. Thus these men, although in words they seem opposed, yet
held in reality the same opinion." Prantl distinguishes from the
system of indifference the " status " doctrine attributed by John of
Salisbury to Walter of Mortagne (d. If 74), according to which the
universal is essentially united to the individual, which may be looked
upon, e.g. as Plato, man, animal, &c., according to the " status " or
point of view which we assume. But this seems only a different
expression for the same position, and the same may doubtless be
said of the theory which employed the outlandish word " maneries "
(Fr. maniere) to signify that genera and species represented the
different ways in which individuals might be regarded. The con-
cessions to Nominalism which such views embody make them repre-
sentative of what Haur6au calls " the Peripatetic section of the
Realistic school."
Somewhat apart from current controversies stood the teaching of
the school of Chartres, humanistically nourished on the study of the
ancients, and important as a revival of Platonism in
opposition to the formalism of the Aristotelians. Bernard
of Chartres, at the beginning of the I2th century, en-
deavoured, according to John of Salisbury, to reconcile Plato and
Aristotle ; but his doctrine is almost wholly derived from the former
through St Augustine and the commentary of Chalcidius. The
universalia in re have little place in his thoughts, which are directed
by preference to the eternal exemplars as they exist in the super-
sensible world of the divine thought. His Megacosmus and Micro-
cosmus are little more than a poetic gloss upon the Timaeus.
William of Conches, a pupil of Bernard's, devoting himself to psycho-
logical and physiological questions, was of less importance for the
specific logico-metaphysical problem. But Gilbert de la Porrtie,
according to Haur6au, is the most eminent logician of the Realistic
School of
Chartres.
SCHOLASTICISM
Abelard.
school in the I2th century and the most profound metaphysician of
either school. The views which he expressed in his commentary on
the pseudo-Boetian treatise, De Trinitate, are certainly much more
important than the mediatizing systems already referred to. The
most interesting part of the work is the distinction which Gilbert
draws between the manner of existence of genera and species and of
substances proper. He distinguishes between the quod est and the
quo est. Genera and species certainly exist, but they do not exist in
their own right as substances. What exists as a substance and the
basis of qualities or forms (quod est) may be said substare ; the forms
on the other hand by which such an individual substance exists
qualitatively (quo est) subsistunt, though it cannot be said that they
substant. The intellect collects the universal, which exists but not
as a substance (est sed non substat), from the particular things which
not merely are (sunt) but also, as subjects of accidents, have sub-
stantial existence (substant), by considering only their substantial
similarity or conformity. The universals are thus forms inherent in
things " native forms," according to the expression by which
Gilbert's doctrine is concisely known. The individual consists of
an assemblage of such forms; and it is individual because nowhere
else is exactly such an assemblage to be met with. The form exists
concretely in the individual things (sensibilis in re sensibili), for in
sensible things form and matter are always united. But they may
be conceived abstractly or non-sensuously by the mind (sed menie
concipitur insensibilis), and they then refer themselves as copies to
the Ideas their divine exemplars. In God, who is pure form without
matter, the archetypes of material things exist as eternal immaterial
forms. In this way Gilbert was at once Aristotelian and Platonist.
The distinctions made by him above amount to a formal criticism
of categories, and in the same spirit he teaches that no one of the
categories can be applied in its literal sense to God (see further
GILBERT DE LA PORREE).
But the outstanding figure in the controversies of the first
half of the iath century is Abelard. There is considerable
difference of opinion as to his system, some, like Ritter
and Erdmann, regarding it as a moderate form of
Realism a return indeed to the position of Aristotle while
others, like Cousin, Remusat, Haureau and Ueberweg, consider
it to be essentially Nominalistic, only more prudently and perhaps
less consistently expressed than was the case with Roscellinus.
His position is ordinarily designated by the name Conceptualism
(q.v.), though there is very little talk of concepts in Abelard's own
writings. There can be no doubt, at all events, that Abelard
himself intended to find a compromise. As against Realism he
maintains consistently Res de re non praedicatur; genera and
species, therefore, which are predicated of the individual subject,
cannot be treated as things or substances. This is manifestly
true, however real the facts may be which are designated by the
generic and specific names; and the position is fully accepted,
as has been seen, by a Realist like Gilbert, who perhaps adopted
it first from Abelard. Abelard also perceived that Realism, by
separating the universal substance from the forms which in-
dividualize it, makes the universal indifferent to these forms,
and leads directly to the doctrine of the identity of all beings in
one universal substance or matter a pantheism which might
take either an Averroistic or a Spinozistic form. Against the
system of non-difference Abelard has a number of logical and
traditional arguments to bring, but it is sufficiently condemned
by his fundamental doctrine that only the individual exists in
its own right. For that system still seems to recognize a generic
substance as the core of the individual, whereas, according to
Cousin's rendering of Abelard's doctrine, " only individuals exist,
and in the individual nothing but the individual." Holding fast
then on the one hand to the individual as the only true substance,
and on the other to the traditional definition of the genus as
that which is predicated of a number of individuals (quod praedi-
catur de pluribus), Abelard declared that this definition of itself
condemns the Realistic theory; only a name, not a thing, can
be so predicated not the name, however, as a flatus vocis or a
collection of letters, but the name as used in discourse, the name
as a sign, as having a meaning in a word, not vox but sermo.
Sermo est praedicabilis.
By these distinctions Abelard hoped to escape the consequences
of extreme Nominalism, from which, as a matter of history, his
doctrine has been distinguished under the name of Conceptualism,
seeing that it lays stress not on the word as such but on the
thought which the word is intended to convey. Moreover, Abelard
evidently did not mean to imply that the distinctions of genera
and species are of arbitrary or merely human imposition. His
favourite expression for the universal is " quod de pluribus
natum est praedicari " (a translation of Aristotle, De inter-
prelalione, 7), which would seem to point to a real or objective
counterpart of the products of our thought; and the traditional
definitions of Boetius, whom he frequently quotes, support the
same view of the concept as gathered from a number of individuals
in virtue of a real resemblance. What Abelard combats is
the substantiation of these resembling qualities, which leads to
their being regarded as identical in all the separate individuals,
and thus paves the way for the gradual undermining of the
individual, the only true and indivisible substance. But he
modifies his Nominalism so as to approach, though somewhat
vaguely, to the position of Aristotle himself. At the same time
he has nothing to say against the Platonic theory of universalia
ante rem (see IDEALISM). Abelard's discussion of the problem
(which it is right to say is on the whole incidental rather than
systematic) is thus marked by an eclecticism which was perhaps
the source at once of its strength and its weakness. But his
brilliant ability and restless activity made him the central figure
in the dialectical as in the other discussions of his time. To him
was indirectly due, in the main, that troubling of the Realistic
waters which resulted in so many modifications of the original
thesis; and his own somewhat eclectic ruling on the question
in debate came to be tacitly accepted in the schools, as the
ardour of the disputants began to abate after the middle of the
century.
Abelard's application of dialectic to theology betrayed the
Nominalistic basis of his doctrine. He zealously combated the
Tritheism of Roscellinus, but his own views on the
Trinity were condemned by two councils (at Soissons
in 1 1 21 and at Sens in 1140). Of the alternatives
three Gods or una res which his Nominalistic logic presented
to Roscellinus, Roscellinus had chosen the first; Abelard
recoiled to the other extreme, reducing the three Persons to
three aspects or attributes of the Divine Being (Power, Wisdom
and Love). For this he was called to account by Bernard of
Ciairvaux (1091-1153), the recognized guardian of orthodoxy
in France. Nor can it be said that the instinct of the saint was
altogether at fault. The germs of Rationalism were unquestion-
ably present in several of Abelard's opinions, and still more so,
the traditionalists must have thought, in his general attitude
towards theological questions. " A doctrine is believed," he said,
" not because God has said it, but because we are convinced by
reason that it is so." " Doubt is the road to inquiry, and by
inquiry we perceive the truth." The application of dialectic to
theology was not new. Anselm had made an elaborate employ-
ment of reason in the interest of faith, but the spirit of pious
subordination which had marked the demonstrations of Anselm
seemed wanting in the argumentations of this bolder and more
restless spirit; and the church, or at least an influential section
of it, took alarm at the encroachments of Rationalism. Abelard's
remarkable compilation Sic et Non was not calculated to allay
their suspicions. In bringing together the conflicting opinions
of the fathers on all the chief points of Christian dogmatics, it
may be admitted that Abelard's aim was simply to make -these
contradictions the starting point of an inquiry which should
determine in each case the true position and via media of Christian
theology. Only such a determination could enable the doctrines
to be summarily presented as a system of thought. The book
was undoubtedly the precursor of the famous Books of Sentences
of Abelard's own pupil Peter Lombard and others, and of all the
Summae theologiae with which the church was presently to
abound. But the antinomies, as they appeared in Abelard's
treatise, without their solutions, could not but seem to insinuate
a deep-laid scepticism with regard to authority. And even the
proposal to apply the unaided reason to solve questions which had
divided the fathers must have been resented by the more rigid
churchmen as the rash intrusion of an over-confident Rationalism.
Realism was in the beginning of the i2th century the dominant
doctrine and the doctrine of the church; the Nominalists were
the innovators and the especial representatives of the Rationalistic
352
SCHOLASTICISM
tendency. In order to see the difference in this respect between
the schools we have only to compare the peaceful and fortunate
life of William of Champeaux (who enjoyed the friendship of
St Bernard) with the agitated and persecuted existence of
Roscellinus and, in a somewhat less degree, of Abelard. But now
the greater boldness of the dialecticians awakened a spirit of
general distrust in the exercise of reason on sacred subjects,
and we find even a Realist like Gilbert de la Porree arraigned by
Bernard and his friends before a general council on a charge of
heresy (at Rheims, 1148). Though Gilbert was acquitted, the
fact of his being brought to trial illustrates the growing spirit
of suspicion. Those heresy-hunts show us the worst side of St
Bernard, yet they are in a way just the obverse of his deep
mystical piety. The same attitude is maintained by the mystical
Hugo of school of St Victor. Hugo of St Victor (1097-1141)
St victor declares that " the uncorrupted truth of things cannot
and the be discovered by reasoning." The perils of dialectic are
manifold, especially in the overbold spirit it engenders.
Nevertheless Hugo, by the composition of his Summa sentenli-
arum, endeavoured to give a methodical or rational presentation
of the content of faith, and was thus the first of the so-called
Summists. Richard of St Victor, prior of the monastery from
1162 to 1173, is st ill more absorbed in mysticism, and his successor
Walter loses his temper altogether in abuse of the dialecticians
and the Summists alike. The Summists have as much to say
against the existence of God as for it, and the dialecticians,
having gone to school to the pagans, have forgotten over Aristotle
the way of salvation. Abelard, Peter Lombard, Gilbert de la
Porree and Peter of Poitiers he calls the " four labyrinths of
France."
This anger and contempt may have been partly justified by
the discreditable state into which the study of logic had fallen.
The speculative impulse was exhausted which marks
the end of the nth and the first half of the 1 2th century
a period more original and more interesting in many
ways than the great age of Scholasticism in the i3th century.
By the middle of the century, logical studies had lost to a great
extent their real interest and application, and had degenerated
into trivial displays of ingenuity. On the other hand, the
Summists 1 occupied themselves merely in the systematizing
of authorities. The mystics held aloof from both, and devoted
themselves to the practical work of preaching and edification.
The intellect of the age thus no longer exhibited itself as a unity.
And it is significant of this that the ablest and most cultured
representative of the second half of the century was rather an
historian of opinion than himself a philosopher or a
Salisbury, theologian. John of Salisbury (Johannes Sarisberiensis)
was educated in France in the years 1136-1148. The
autobiographical account of these years contained in his Meta-
logicus is of the utmost value as a picture of the schools of the
time; it is also one of the historian's chief sources as a record of
the many-coloured logical views of the period. John recoiled from
the idle casuistry which occupied his own logical contemporaries;
and, mindful probably of their aimless ingenuity, he adds the
caution that dialectic, valuable and necessary as it is, is " like
the sword of Hercules in a pigmy's hand " unless there be added
to it the accoutrement of the other sciences. Catholic in spirit
rather than dogmatic, John ranks himself at times among the
Academics, " since, in those things about which a wise man may
doubt, I depart not from their footsteps." It is not fitting to
subtilize overmuch, and in the end John of Salisbury's solution is
the practical one, his charitable spirit pointing him in particular
to that love which is the fulfilling of the law.
'Among these may be mentioned Robert Pulleyn (d. 1150),
Peter Lombard (d. 1164), called the Magister senlentiarum, whose
work became the text-book of the schools, and remained so for
centuries. Hundreds of commentaries were written upon it. Peter
of Poitiers, the pupil of Peter the Lombard, flourished about 1160-
1170. Other names are Robert of Melun, Hugo of Amiens, Stephen
Langton and William of Auxerre. More important is Alain de Lille
(Alanus de Instills), who died at an advanced age in 1203. His De
arte sen de articulis catholicae fidei is a Summa of Christian theology,
but with a greater infusion than usual of philosophical reasoning.
Alanus was acquainted with the celebrated Liber de causis.
Extension
of know-
ledge ol
the works
of Aris-
totle.
The first period of Scholasticism being thus at an end, there is an
interval of nearly half a century without any noteworthy philosophical
productions. The cause of the new development of
Scholasticism in the I3th century was the acquisition for
the first time of the complete works of Aristotle (see
CLASSICS and ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY). The doctrines and
the works of Aristotle had been transmitted by the
Nestorians to the Arabs, and among those kept alive by a
succession of philosophers, first in the East and afterwards
in the West. The chief of these, at least so far as regards the influence
which they exerted on medieval philosophy, were Avicenna, Avem-
pace and Averroes. The unification by the last-mentioned of
Aristotle's active intellect in all men, and his consequent denial of
individual immortality are well known. The universal human in-
tellect is made by him to proceed from the divine by a series of Neo-
platonic emanations. In the course of the I2th century the writings
of these men were introduced into France by the Jews of Andalusia,
of Marseilles and Montpellier. " These writings contained," says
Haureau, " the text of the Organon, the Physics, the Metaphysics,
the Ethics, the De anima, the Parva natu.ra.lia and a large number of
other treatises of Aristotle, accompanied by continuous commentaries.
There arrived besides by the same channel the glosses of Theophrastus,
of Simplicius, of Alexander of Aphrodisias, of Philoponus, annotated
in the same sense by the same hands. This was the rich but danger-
ous present made by the Mussulman school to the Christian " (i. 382).
To these must be added the Neoplatonically inspired Fans Vitae of
the Jewish philosopher and poet Ibn Gabirol (..), or Avicebron.
By special command of Raimund, archbishop of Toledo, the chief
of these works were translated from the Arabic through the Castilian
into Latin by the archdeacon Dominicus Gonzalvi with the aid of
Johannes Avendeath ( = ben David), a converted Jew, about 1150.
About the same time, or not long after, the Liber de causis became
known a work destined to have a powerful influence on Scholastic
thought, especially in the period immediately succeeding. Ac-
cepted at first as Aristotle's, and actually printed in the first Latin
editions of his works, the book is in reality an Arabian compilation of
Neoplatonic theses. Of a similar character was the pseudo-Aris-
totelian Theologia which was in circulation at least as early as 1200.
The first effects of this immense acquisition of new material
were markedly unsettling on the doctrinal orthodoxy of the
time. The apocryphal Neoplatonic treatises and thep /re<
views of the Arabian commentators obscured for the effects of
first students the genuine doctrine of Aristotle, and the ""> w
1 3th century opens with quite a crop of mystical kttowled x e -
heresies. The mystical pantheism taught at Paris by Amalrich
of Bena (d. 1207; see AMALRIC and MYSTICISM), though based
by him upon a revival of Scotus Erigena, was doubtless connected
in its origin with the Neoplatonic treatises which now become
current. The immanence of God in all things and His incarnation
as the Holy Spirit in themselves appear to have been the chief
doctrines of the Amalricans. They are reported to have said,
" Omnia unum, quia quicquid est est Deus." About the same
time David of Dinant, in a book De tomis (rendered by Albertus
De divisionibus) , taught the identity of God with matter (or the
indivisible principle of bodies) and nous (or the indivisible
principle of intelligences) an extreme Realism culminating in
a materialistic pantheism. If they were diverse, he argued, there
must exist above them some higher or common element or being,
in which case this would be God, nous, or the original matter.
The spread of the Amalrican doctrine led to fierce persecutions,
and the provincial council which met at Paris in 1209 expressly
decreed " that neither the books of Aristotle on natural philo-
sophy, nor commentaries on the same, should be read, whether
publicly or privately, at Paris." In 1215 this prohibition is
renewed in the statutes of the university of Paris, as sanctioned by
the papal legate. Permission was given to lecture on the logical
books, both those which had been known all along and those
introduced since 1 1 28, but the veto upon the Physics is extended
to the Metaphysics and the summaries of the Arabian com-
mentators. By 1231, however, the fears of the church were
beginning to be allayed. A bull of Gregory IX. in that year
makes no mention of any Aristotelian works except the Physics.
Finally, in 1254, we find the university officially prescribing how
many hours are to be devoted to the explanation of the Meta-
physics and the principal physical treatises of Aristotle. These
dates enable us to measure accurately the stages by which the
church accommodated itself to, and as it were took possession
of, the Aristotelian philosophy. Growing knowledge of Aristotle's
works and the multiplication of translations enabled students to
SCHOLASTICISM
353
distinguish the genuine Aristotle from the questionable accom-
paniments with which he had made his first appearance in Western
Europe. Fresh translations of Aristotle and Averroes had already
been made from the Arabic (Ileptra f cpa laropiai from the Hebrew)
by Michael Scot, and Hermannus Alamaanus, at the instance of
the emperor Frederick II.; so that the whole body of Aristotle's
works was at hand in Latin translations from about 1210 to 1225.
Soon afterwards efforts began to be made to secure more literal
translations direct from the Greek. Robert Grosseteste (d.
1253) was one of the first to stir in this matter, and he was
followed by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Half a
century thus sufficed to remove the ban of the church, and soon
Aristotle was recognized on all hands as " the philosopher "
par excellence, the master of those that know. It even became
customary to draw a parallel between him as the praecursor
Christi in naturalibus and John the Baptist, the praecursor
Christi in graluitis.
This unquestioned supremacy was not yielded, however, at
the very beginning of the period. The earlier doctors who avail
themselves of Aristotle's works, while bowing to his authority
implicitly in matters of logic, are generally found defending a
Christianized Platonism against the doctrine of the Metaphysics.
So it is with Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), the first Scholastic who
was acquainted with the whole of the Aristotelian works and the
. Arabian commentaries upon them. He was more of a
theologian than a philosopher; and in his chief work,
Summa universae theologiae, he simply employs his in-
creased philosophical knowledge in the demonstration of theological
doctrines. So great, however, did his achievement seem that he was
honoured with the titles of Doctor irrefragabilis and Theologorum
monarcha. Alexander of Hales belonged to the Franciscan order,
and 'it is worth remarking that it was the mendicant orders
M dicant w hich now came forward as the protagonists of Christian
learning and faith and, as it were, reconquered Aristotle
for the church. During the first half of the I3th century,
when the university of Paris was plunged in angry feuds with the
municipality, feuds which even led at one time (1229) to the flight of
the students in a body, the friars established teachers in their con-
vents in Paris. After the university had settled its quarrels these
continued to teach, and soon became formidable rivals of the secular
lecturers. After a severe struggle for academical recognition they
were finally admitted to all the privileges of the university by a bull
of Alexander IV. in 1253. The Franciscans took the lead in this
intellectual movement with Alexander of Hales and Bonaventura,
but the Dominicans were soon able to boast of two greater names in
Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. Still later Duns Scotus and
Occam were both Franciscans. Alexander of Hales was succeeded
... in his chair of instruction by his pupil John of Rochelle,
VocheUe w ^ c ''? c ' * n I2 7 X *? ut tau ght only till 1253. His treatise
De anima, on which Haureau lays particular stress, is
interesting as showing the greater scope now given to psychological
discussions. This was .a natural result of acquaintance with
Aristotle's De anima and the numerous Greek and Arabian com-
mentaries upon it, and it is observable in most of the writers that
have still to be mentioned. Even the nature of the universals is no
longer discussed from a purely logical or metaphysical point of view,
but becomes connected with psychological questions. And, on the
whole, the widening of intellectual interests is the chief feature by
which the second period of Scholasticism may be distinguished from
the first. In some respects there is more freshness and interest in
the speculations which burst forth so ardently in the end of
charter. the ? Ith and the first half of the I . 2th century. Albert and
istlcsot Aquinas no doubt stood on a higher level than Anselm
second anc ^ Abelard, not merely by their wider ranee of knowledge
period. but also by the intellectual massiveness of their achieve-
ments; but it may be questioned whether the earlier
writers did not possess a greater force of originality and a keener
talent. Originality was at no time the strong point of the middle
ages, but in the later period it was almost of necessity buried under
the mass of material suddenly thrust upon the age, to be assimilated.
On the other hand, the influence of this new material is everywhere
evident in the wider range of questions which are discussed by the
doctors of the period. Interest is no longer to the same extent con-
centrated on the one question of the universals. Other questions,
says Haureau, are " placed on the order of the day the question
of the elements of substance, that of the principle of individuation,
that of the origin of the ideas, of the manner of their existence in the
human understanding and in the divine thought, as well as various
others of equal interest " (i. 420). Some of these, it may be said, are
simply the old Scholastic problem in a different garb; but the ex-
tended horizon of which Haureau speaks is amply proved by mere
reference to the treatises of Albert and St Thomas. They there
seek to reproduce for their own time all the departments of the
Aristotelian system.
XXIV. 12
John of Rochelle was succeeded in 1253 by John Fidanza, better
known as Bonaventura (?..), who also had been a pupil of Alexander
of Hales. But the fame of " the Seraphic Doctor " is Bona-
connected more closely with the history of mysticism (see yentura
MYSTICISM) than with the main stream of Scholastic
thought. Like his master, he defended Plato or what he considered
to be the Platonic theory against the attacks of Aristotle. Thus
he defended the universolia ante rem as exemplars existent in the
divine intelligence, and censured Aristotle's doctrine of the eternity
of the world. Among the earlier teachers and writers of this century
we have also to name William of Auvergne (d. 1249),
whose treatises De universe and De anima make extensive
use of Aristotle and the Arabians, but display a similar
Platonic leaning. The existence of intellections in our minds is, he
maintains, a sufficient demonstration of the existence of an intelligible
world, just as the ideas of sense are sufficient evidence of a sensible
world. This archetypal world is the Son of God and true God.
Robert Grosseteste, important in the sphere of ecclesi- arosse-
astical politics, has been already mentioned as active in tests.
procuring translations of Aristotle from the Greek. He
also wrote commentaries on logical and physical works of Aristotle.
Michael Scot, the renowned wizard of popular tradition, Michael
earned his reputation by numerous works on astrology scot,
and alchemy. His connexion with philosophy was
chiefly in the capacity of a translator. Vincent of Beauvais (d.
1264) was the author of an encyclopaedic work called yiaceatof
Speculum majus, in which, without much independent Beauvais.
ability, he collected the opinions of ancient and
medieval writers on the most diverse points, transcribing the
fragments of their works which he deemed most interesting.
Albertus Magnus introduces us at once to the great age of
Scholasticism (1193-1280). The limits of his long life include
that of his still greater pupil, Thomas Aquinas (1227-
1274). For this reason and because the system of Aq U i aas .
Thomas is simply that of Albert rounded to a greater
completeness and elaborated in parts by the subtle intellect
of the younger man, it will be convenient not to separate the
views of master and scholar, except where their differences
make it necessary. Albert was " the first Scholastic who repro-
duced the whole philosophy of Aristotle in systematic order with
constant reference to the Arabic commentators, and who re-
modelled it to meet the requirements of ecclesiastical dogma "
(Ueberweg, i. 436). On this account he was called " the Universal
Doctor." But in Albert it may be said that the matter was still
too new and too multifarious to be thoroughly mastered. In
St Thomas this is no longer so. The pupil, entering into his
master's labours, was able from the first to take a more com-
prehensive survey of the whole field; and in addition he was
doubtless endowed with an intellect which was finer, though it
might not be more powerful, than his master's.
The monotheistic influence of Aristotle and his Arabian
commentators shows itself in Albert and Aquinas, at the outset,
in the definitive fashion in which the " mysteries " ,, M
of the Trinity and the Incarnation are henceforth teries"
detached from the sphere of rational or philosophical excluded
theology. So long as the Neoplatonic influence remained
strong, attempts were still made to demonstrate the
doctrine of the Trinity, chiefly in a mystical sense as in Erigena,
but also by orthodox churchmen like Anselm. Orthodoxy,
whether Catholic or Protestant, has since generally adopted
Thomas's distinction. The existence of God is maintained by
Albert and Aquinas to be demonstrable by reason; but here again
they reject the ontological argument of Anselm, and restrict
themselves to the a posteriori proof, rising after the manner of
Aristotle from that which is prior for us to that which is prior
by nature or in itself. God is not fully comprehensible by us,
says Albert, because the finite is not able to grasp the infinite,
yet he is not altogether beyond our knowledge; our intellects
are touched by a ray of his light, and through this contact we are
brought into communion with him. God, as the only self-
subsistent and necessary being, is the creator of all things. Here
the Scholastic philosophy comes into conflict with Aristotle's
doctrine of the eternity of the world. Albert and Aquinas alike
maintain the beginning of the world in time; time itself only
exists since the moment of this miraculous creation. But
Aquinas, though he holds the fact of creation to be rationally
demonstrable, regards the beginning of the world in time as only
5
354
SCHOLASTICISM
an article of faith, the philosophical arguments for and against
being inconclusive.
The question of universals, though fully discussed, no longer forms
the centre of speculation. The great age of Scholasticism presents,
indeed, a substantial unanimity upon this vexed point, maintaining
at once, in different senses, the existence of the universals ante rent,
in re and post rem. Albert and Aquinas both profess the moderate
Aristotelian Realism which treats genera and species only as sub-
stantiae secundae, yet as really inherent in the individuals, and
constituting their form or essence. The universals, therefore, have
no existence, as universals, in rerum nalura; and Thomas endorses,
in this sense, the polemic of Aristotle against Plato's hypostatized
abstractions. But, in the Augustinian sense of ideas immanent in
the divine mind, the universal ante rem may well be admitted as
possessing real existence. Finally, by abstraction from the individual
things of sense, the mind is able to contemplate the universal apart
from its accompaniments (animal sine nomine, asino, et aliis specie-
bus) ; these subjective existences are the universalia post rem of the
Nominalists and Conceptualists. But the difficulties which em-
barrassed a former age in trying to conceive the mode in which the
universal exists in the individual reappear in the systems of the
present period as the problem of the principium indi-
[* viduationis. The universal, as the form or essence of the
lid) individual, is called its quidditas (its " what-ness " or
," '. nature); but, besides possessing a general nature and
' answering to a general definition (i.e. being a " what "),
every man, for example, is this particular man, here and now. It is
the question of the particularity or " this-ness " (haecceitas, as Duns
Scotus afterwards named it) that embarrasses the Scholastics.
Albert and Aquinas agree in declaring that the principle of indi-
viduation is to be found in matter, not, however, in matter as a
formless substrate but in determinate matter (materia signata),
which is explained to mean matter quantitatively determined in
certain respects. " The variety of individuals," says Albert, " de-
pends entirely upon the division of matter," and Aquinas says
" the principle of the diversity of individuals of the same species is the
quantitative division of matter," which his followers render by the
abbreviated phrase materia quanta. A tolerably evident shortcoming
of such a doctrine is that, while declaring the quantitative deter-
mination of matter to be the individual element in the individual, it
gives no account of how such quantitative determination arises.
Yet the problem of the individual is really contained in this prior
question; for determinate matter already involves particularity or
this-ness. This difficulty was presently raised by Duns Scotus and
the realistically-inclined opponents of the Thomist doctrine. But,
as Ueberweg points out, it might fairly be urged by Aquinas that he
does not pretend to explain how the individual is actually created,
but merely states what he finds to be an invariable condition of the
existence of individuals. Apart from this general question, a diffi-
culty arises on the Thomist theory in regard to the existence of
spirits or disembodied personalities. This affects first of all the
existence of angels, in regard to whom Aquinas admits that they are
immaterial or separate forms (formae separatae). They possess the
principle of individuation in themselves, he teaches, but plurality of
individuals is in such a case equivalent to plurality of species (in eis
tot sunt species quot sunt indiyidua). The same difficulty, however,
affects the existence of the disembodied human spirit. If individu-
ality depends in matter, must we not conclude with Averroes that
individuality is extinguished at death, and that only the universal
form survives ? This conclusion, it is needless to say, is strenuously
opposed both by Albert and by Aquinas. It is still admissible,
however, to doubt whether the hateful consequence does not follow
consistently from the theory laid down. Aquinas regards the souls of
men, like the angels, as immaterial forms; and he includes in the
soul-unit, so to speak, not merely the anima rationalis of Aristotle,
but also the vegetative, sensitive, appetitive and motive functions.
The latter depend, it is true, on bodily organs during our earthly
sojourn, but the dependence is not necessary. The soul is created by
God when the body of which it is the entclechy is prepared for it.
It is the natural state of the soul to be united to a body, but being
immaterial it is not affected by the dissolution of the body. The
soul must be immaterial since it has the power of cognizing the
universal ; and its immortality is further based by St Thomas on the
natural longing for unending existence which belongs to a being
whose thoughts are not confined to the " here " and " now," but
are able to abstract from every limitation.
Thomism, which was destined to become the official philosophy
of the Roman Catholic Church, became in the first instance the
accepted doctrine of the Dominican order, who were
Status. presently joined in this allegiance by the Augustinians.
The Franciscan order, on the other hand, early showed
their rivalry in attacks upon the doctrines of Albert and Aquinas.
One of the first of these was the Reprehensorium seu correctorium
fratris Thomae, published in 1285 by William Lamarre, in which
the Averroistic consequences of the Thomist doctrine of individua-
tion are already pressed home. More important was Richard
of Middletown (d. c. 1300), who anticipated many of the objec-
tions urged soon after him by Duns Scotus (q.v.). His system
is conditioned throughout by its relation to that of Aquinas,
of which it is in effect an elaborate criticism. The chief character-
istic of this criticism is well expressed in the name bestowed
on Duns by his contemporaries Doctor subtilis. It will be
sufficient therefore to note the chief points in which the two
antagonists differ. In general it may be said that Duns shows
less confidence in the power of reason than Aquinas, and to
that extent Erdmann and others are right in looking upon his
system as the beginning of the decline of Scholasticism. For
Scholasticism, as perfected by AqUinas, implies the harmony
of reason and faith, in the sense that they both teach the same
truths. To this general position Aquinas, it has been seen,
makes several important exceptions; but the exceptions are
few in number and precisely defined. Scotus extends the
number of theological doctrines which are not, according to
him, susceptible of philosophical proof, including in this class
the creation of the world out of nothing, the immortality of the
human soul, and even the existence of an almighty divine
cause of the universe (though he admits the possibility of proving
an ultimate cause superior to all else). His destructive criticism
thus tended to reintroduce the dualism between faith and
reason which Scholasticism had laboured through centuries
to overcome, though Scotus himself, of course, had no such
sceptical intention. But the way in which he founded the leading
Christian doctrines (after confessing his inability to rationalize
them) on the arbitrary will of God was undoubtedly calculated to
help in the work of disintegration. And it is significant that this
primacy of the undetermined will (voluntas superior intelleclu)
was the central contention of the Scotists against the Thomist
doctrine. Voluntary action, Aquinas had said, is action originat-
ing in self or in an internal principle. The freedom here spoken
of is a freedom from the immediacy of impulse a freedom
based upon our possession of reason as a power of comparison,
memory and forethought. Nothing is said of an absolute
freedom of the will; the will is, on the contrary,
subordinated to the reason in so far as it is supposed
to choose what reason pronounces good. Accordingly,
the Thomist doctrine may be described as a moderate
determinism. To this Scotus opposed an indeterminism of the
extremest type, describing the will as the possibility of determin-
ing itself motivelessly in either of two opposite senses. Trans-
ferred to the divine activity, Aquinas's doctrine led him to insist
upon the perseitas boni. The divine will is, equally with the
human, subject to a rational determination; God commands
what is good because it is good. Scotus, on the other hand,
following out his doctrine of the will, declared the good to be
so only by arbitrary imposition. It is good because God willed
it, and for no other reason; had He commanded precisely
the opposite course of conduct, that course would have been
right by the mere fact of His commanding it. Far removed
from actuality as such speculations regarding the priority of
intellect or will in the Divine Being may seem to be, the side
taken is yet a sure index of the general tendency of a philosophy.
Aquinas is on the side of rationalism, Scotus on the side of
scepticism.
While agreeing with Albert and Thomas in maintaining the three-
fold existence of the universals, Duns Scotus attacked the Thomist
doctrine of individuation. The distinction of the universal essence
and the individualizing determinations in the individual does not
coincide, he maintained, with the distinction between form and
matter. The additional determinations are as truly " form " as the
universal essence. If the latter be spoken of as quidditas, the former
may be called haecceitas. Just as the genus becomes the species by
the addition of formal determinations called the difference, so the
species becomes the individual by the addition of fresh forms of
difference. As animal becomes homo by the addition of humanitas,
so homo becomes Socrates by the addition of the qualities signified
by Socratitas. It is false, therefore, to speak of matter as the principle
of individuation; and if this is so there is no longer any foundation
for the Thomist view that in angelic natures every individual con-
stitutes a species apart. Notwithstanding the above doctrine, how-
ever, Scotus holds that all created things possess both matter and
form the soul, for example, possessing a matter of its own before its
SCHOLASTICISM
355
union with the body. But the matter of spiritual beings is widely
different from the matter of corporeal things. In his treatment of
the conception of matter, Duns shows that he inclined much more
to the Realism which makes for pantheism than was the case with
the Aristotelianism of Thomas. A perfectly formless matter (materia
prima) was regarded by him as the universal substratum and common
element of all finite existences. He expressly intimates in this
connexion his acceptance of Avicebron's position.
In the end of the I3th century and the beginning of the I4th
the Thomists and Scotists divided the philosophical and theo-
logical world between them. Among the Thomists
Thomists ma y be named John of Paris, Aegidius of Lessines
Scotfsfs. (wrote in 1278), Bernard of Trilia (1240-1292) and
Peter of Auvergne. More important was Aegidius
of Colonna (1247-1316), general of the Augustinian order,
surnamed Doctor Fundatissimus or Fundamentarius. Hervaeus
Natalis (d. 1323) and Thomas Bradwardine (d. 1349) were
determined opponents of Scotism. Siger of Brabant and
Gottfried of Fontaines, chancellor of the university of Paris,
taught Thomism at the Sorbonne; and through Humbert,
abbot of Prulli, the doctrine won admission to the Cistercian
order. Among the disciples of Duns Scotus are mentioned
John of Bassolis, Francis of Mayrone (q.v.), Antonius Andreae
(d. c. 1320), John Dumbleton and Walter Burleigh (Burley)
(b. 1275) of Oxford, Nicolaus (q.v.) of Lyra, Peter of Aquila
and others. Henry Goethals or Henry of Ghent (Henricus
Gandavensis, 1217-1293), surnamed Doctor solennis, occupied on
the whole an independent and pre-Thomist position, leaning to an
Augustinian Platonism (see HENRY OF GHENT). Gerard of
Bologna (d. 1317) and Raoul of Brittany are rather to be
ranked with the Thomists. So also is Petrus Hispanus (Pope
John XXI.), who is chiefly important, however, as the author
of the much-used manual Summulae logicales, in which the
logic of the schools was expanded by the incorporation of fresh
matter of a semi-grammatical character. Petrus Hispanus had
predecessors, however, in William of Shyreswood (died 1249 as
chancellor of Lincoln) and Lambert of Auxerre, and it has been
hotly disputed whether the whole of the additions are not
originally due to the Byzantine Synopsis of Psellus. By far
the greatest disciple of Aquinas is Dante Alighieri, in whose
Divina Commedia the theology and philosophy of the middle
ages, as fixed by Saint Thomas, have received the immortality
which poetry alone can bestow. Two names stand apart
from the others of the century Raimon Lull (1234-1315) and
Roger Bacon (1214-1294). The Ars magna of the former
professed by means of a species of logical machine to give a
rigid demonstration of all the fundamental Christian doctrines,
and was intended by its author as an unfailing instrument
for the conversion of the Saracens and heathen. Roger Bacon
was rather a pioneer of modern science than a Scholastic, and
persecution and imprisonment were the penalty of his opposition
to the spirit of his time.
The last stage of Scholasticism preceding its dissolution is
marked by the revival of Nominalism in a militant form. This
doctrine is already to be found in Petrus Aureolus (q.v.), a Fran-
ciscan trained in the Scotist doctrine, and in William Durand
of St Pourcain (d. 1332), a Dominican who passed over from
Thomism to his later position. But the name with which the
Nominalism of the I4th century is historically associated is
wini t t ' lat ^ t ^ le " Invincible Doctor," William of Occam
Occam. (?- c -)i who, as the author of a doctrine which came
to be almost universally accepted, received from his
followers the title Venerabilis inceptor. The hypostatizing of
abstractions is the error against which Occam is continually
fighting. The Realists, he considers, have greatly sinned against
this maxim in their theory of a real universal or common element
in all the individuals of a class. From one abstraction they are
led to another, to solve the difficulties which are created by the
realization of the first. Thus the great problem for the Realists
is how to derive the individual from the universal. But the
whole inquiry moves in a world of unrealities. Everything
that exists, by the mere fact of its existence, is individual
(Quadibet res, eo ipso quod est, est haec res). It it absurd, therefore,
to seek for a cause of the individuality of the thing other than
the cause of the thing itself. The individual is the only reality,
whether the question be of an individual thing in the external
world or an individual state in the world of mind. It is not the
individual which needs explanation but the universal. Occam
reproaches the " modern Platonists " for perverting the
Aristotelian doctrine by these speculations, and claims the
authority of Aristotle for his own Nominalistic doctrine. The
universal is not anything really existing; it is a terminus or pre-
dicable (whence the followers of Occam were at first called
Terminists). It is no more than a " mental concept signifying
univocally several singulars." It is a natural sign representing
these singulars, but it has no reality beyond that of the mental
act by which it is produced and that of the singulars of which
it is predicated. As regards the existence (if we may so speak)
of the universal in mente, Occam indicates his preference, on the
ground of simplicity, for the view which identifies the concept
with the actus intelligendi, rather than for that which treats
ideas as distinct entities within the mind. And in a similar
spirit he explains the universalia ante rem as being, not substantial
existences in God, but simply God's knowledge of things a
knowledge which is not of universals but of singulars, since these
alone exist realiter. Such a doctrine, in the stress it lays upon
the singular, the object of immediate perception, is evidently
inspired by a spirit differing widely even from the moderate
Realism of Thomas. It is a spirit which distrusts abstractions,
which makes for direct observation, for inductive research. Occam,
who is still a Scholastic, gives us thje Scholastic justification of
the spirit which had already taken hold upon Roger Bacon,
and which was to enter upon its rights in the 15th and i6th
centuries. Moreover, there is no denying that the new Nominal-
ism not only represents the love of reality and the spirit of
induction, but also contains in itself the germs of that empiricism
and.'sensualism so f requentlyassociated with the former tendencies.
Aquinas had regarded the knowledge of the universal as an
intellectual activity which might even be advanced in proof
of the immortality of the soul. Occam, on the other hand,
maintains in the spirit of Hobbes that the act of abstraction
does not presuppose any activity of the understanding or will,
but is a spontaneous secondary process by which the first act
(perception) or the state it leaves behind (habitus derelictus ex
primo actu = Hobbes's " decaying sense ") is naturally followed,
as soon as two or more similar representations are present.
In another way also Occam heralds the'dissolution of Scholasticism.
The union of philosophy and theology is the mark of the middle ages,
but in Occam their severance is complete. A pupil of _..
Two!
demonstrable. Even the existence and unity of God were
Scotus, he carried his master's criticism farther, and
denied that any theological doctrines were rationally
to be accepted as articles of faith. The Centilogium theologicum
has often been cited as an example of thoroughgoing scepticism under
a mask of solemn irony. But if that were so, it would still remain
doubtful, as Erdmann remarks, whether the irony is directed against
the church or against reason. The most interesting example of this
method is seen in the Tractatus de Sacramento altaris where Occam
accepts the doctrine of Real Presence as a matter of Faith, and sets
forth a rational theory of the Eucharist (afterwards adopted by
Luther) known as " Consubstantiation." On the whole, there is no
reason to doubt Occam's honest adhesion to each of the two guides
whose contrariety he laboured to display. None the less is the
position in itself an untenable one and the parent of scepticism. The
principle of the twofold nature of truth ' thus embodied in Occam's
system was unquestionably adopted by many merely to cloak their
theological unbelief; and it is significant of the internal dissolution
of Scholasticism. Occam denied the title of a science to theology,
emphasizing, like Scotus, its practical character. He also followed
his master in laying stress on the arbitrary will of God as the founda-
tion of morality.
Nominalism was at first met by the opposition of the church
and the constituted authorities. In 1339 Occam's treatises
were put under a ban by the university of Paris, and in the
following year Nominalism was solemnly condemned. Never-
theless the new doctrine spread on all hands. Dominicans like
1 This principle appeared occasionally at an earlier date, for ex-
ample in Simon of Tournay about 1200. It was expressly censured by
Pope John XXI. in 1276. But only in the period following Occam
did it become a current doctrine.
SCHOLEFIELD SCHOLTEN
Nominal-
Ism.
Armand de Beauvoir (d. 1334) and Gregory of Rimini accepted
it. It was taught in Paris by Albert of Saxony (about 1350-
1360) and Marsilius of Inghen (about 1364-1377, after-
wards at Heidelberg) , as well as by Johannes Buridanus,
rector of the university as early as 1327. We find, how-
ever, as late as 1473 the attempt made to bind all
teachers in the university of Paris by oath to teach the doctrines
of Realism; but this expiring effort was naturally ineffectual,
and from 1481 onward even the show of obedience was no longer
exacted. Pierre d'Ailly (1350-1425) and John Gerson (Jean
Charlier de Gerson, 1363-1429), both chancellors of the university
of Paris, and the former a cardinal of the church, are the chief
figures among the later Nominalists. Both of them, however,
besides their philosophical writings, are the authors of works of
religious edification and mystical piety. They thus combine
temporarily in their own persons what was no longer combined
in the spirit of the time, or rather they satisfy by turns the claims
of reason and faith. Both are agreed in placing repentance
and faith far above philosophical knowledge. They belong indeed
(Gerson in particular) to the history of mysticism rather than of
Scholasticism, and the same may be said of another cardinal,
Nicolausof Cusa (1401-1464), who is sometimes reckoned among
the last of the Scholastics, but who has more affinity with
Tbe"la*t Erigena than with any intervening teacher. The
ottbe title " last of the Scholastics " is commonly given to
Scbol- Gabriel Biel (q.v.), the summarizer of Occam's doctrine.
astks." -phe t ; t j e ; s not actually correct, and might be more
fitly borne by Francisco Suarez (q.v.), who died in 1617. But
after the beginning of the i sth century Scholasticism was divorced
from the spirit of the time, and it is useless to follow its history
further. As has been indicated in the introductory remarks, the
end came both from within and from without. The harmony
of reason and faith had given place to the doctrine of the dual
nature of truth. While this sceptical thesis was embraced by
philosophers who had lost their interest in religion, the spiritually
minded sought their satisfaction more and more in a mysticism
which frequently cast itself loose from ecclesiastical trammels.
The i4th and isth centuries were the great age of German
mysticism, and it was not only in Germany that the tide set this
way. Scholasticism had been the expression of a universal church
and a common learned language. The university of Paris, with
its scholars of all nations numbered by thousands, was a symbol
of the intellectual unity of Christendom; and in the university
of Paris, it may almost be said, Scholasticism was reared and
flourished and died. But the different nations and tongues of
modern Europe were now beginning to assert their individuality,
and men's interests ceased to be predominatingly ecclesiastical.
Scholasticism, therefore, which was in its essence ecclesiastical,
had no longer a proper field for its activity. It was in a manner
deprived of its accustomed subject-matter and died of inanition.
Philosophy, as Haureau finely says, was the passion of the I3th
century; but in the isth humanism, art and the beginnings of
science and of practical discovery were busy creating a new world,
which was destined in due time to give birth to a new philosophy.
AUTHORITIES. Besides the numerous works quoted in articles on
the individual philosophers, see Haureau, Histoire de la philosophic
scolastique (2 vols., 1850; revised and expanded in 1870 as Histoire
de la phil. seal.), Kaulich, Geschichte d. schol. Philosophic; Stockl,
Gesch. der Phil, des Mittelalters; Karl Werner, Die Scholastik des
spdteren Mittelalters; and, on a smaller scale, de Wulf's Histoire de
la phil. medievale (1900). Supplementary details are given in
Haur&iu's Singularites historiques el litteraires (1861) and in R. L.
Poole's Illustrations of the History of Mediaeval Thought (1884),
while much light is thrown upon the minuter history of the period
by the Charttaarium Universitatis Parisiensis edited by Denifle and
Cnatelain in 1804, by Haureau 's Notices el extraits de quelques MS.
latins de la Bibliotheque Nationale (6 vols., 1890-1895) and by the
Beitrdge zur Geschichte d. Phil. d. Mittelallers, in course of publication
since 1891 by Baeumker and others. A critical survey of recent
literature on Scholasticism is given by Baeumker in the Archiv fur
Geschichte der Philosophic, vols. v. and x. The accounts of _medieval
thought given by Ritter, Erdmann and Ueberweg in their general
histories of philosophy are exceedingly good. That of Windelband,
though going less into detail, is a remarkably fresh treatment of the
problems involved. There are also notices of the leading systems in
Milman's History of Latin Christianity; and the same writers are
considered from the theological side in many works devoted to
theology, and the history of dogma. The psychology of the Schol-
astic writers is ably dealt with in Siebeck's Die Psychologic von
Aristoteles bis zu Thomas von Aquino (1885). Jourdain's Recherches
critiques sur V&ge el I'origine des traductions latines d'Aristote
(Pans, 1819; 2nd ed. 1843); Rousselot's Etudes sur la philosophie
dans le moyen age (1840-1842), Cousin's Introduction to his
Ouvrages inedits d' Aboard (1836), and Prantl's Geschichte der Logik
im Abendlande (4 vols., 1855-1870) are invaluable aids in studying
the history of medieval thought. (A. S. P.-P. ; X.)
SCHOLEFIELD, JAMES (1780-1853), English classical scholar,
was born at Henley -on-Thames on the isth of November 1789.
He was educated at Christ's Hospital and Trinity College,
Cambridge, and was in 1825 appointed professor of Greek in
the university and canon of Ely (1849). H g was f r some time
curate to Charles Simeon, the evangelical churchman, and his low
church views involved him in disputes with his own parishioners
at St Michael's, Cambridge, of which he was perpetual curate
from 1823 till his death at Hastings on the 4th of April 1853.
Scholefield was an excellent teacher. His most useful work was
his edition of the Adversaria of P. P. Dobfee (q.v.), his predecessor
in the chair of Greek. He also published editions of Aeschylus
(1828), in which he dealt very conservatively with the text, and
of Person's four plays of Euripides. His Hints for an improved
Translation of the New Testament met with considerable success.
He was one of the examiners in the first Classical Tripos (1824).
The Scholefield Theological Prize at Cambridge was established
in commemoration of him in 1856.
See Memoirs of James Scholefield (1855), by his wife, Harriet
Scholefield; Gentleman's Magazine (June 1853, p. 644).
SCHOLIUM 1 (crxoXioi'), the name given to grammatical,
critical and explanatory notes, extracted from existing com-
mentaries and inserted on the margin of the MS. of an ancient
author. These notes were altered by successive copyists and
owners of the MS. and in some cases increased to such an extent
that there was no longer room for them in the margin, and it
became necessary to make them into a separate work. At
first they were taken from one commentary only, subsequently
from several. This is indicated by the repetition of the lemma
(" catchword "), or by the use of such phrases as " or thus,"
" or otherwise," " according to some," to introduce different
explanations. The name of " the first scholiast " has been given
to Didymus of Alexandria (q.v.), and the practice of compiling
scholia continued till the isth or i6th century A.D. The word
erx6Xtov itself is first met with in Cicero (Ad Alt. xvi. 7). The
Greek scholia we possess are for the most part anonymous, the
commentaries of Eustathius on Homer and Tzetzes on Lycophron
being prominent exceptions. Although frequently trifling, they
contain much information not found elsewhere, and are of
considerable value for the correction and interpretation of the
text. The most important are those on Homer (especially the
Venetian scholia on the Iliad, discovered by Villoison in 1781
in the library of St Mark), Hesiod, Pindar, Sophocles, Aristo-
phanes and Apollonius Rhodius; and, in Latin, those of Servius
on Virgil, of Aero and Porphyrio on Horace, and of Donatus on
Terence.
See E. F. Grafenhan, Geschichte der classischen Philologie, iii.
(1843-1850); W. H. Suringar, Historia critica scholiastarum Lati-
norum (1835).
SCHOLL, AURELIEN (1833- ), French author and
journalist, was born at Bordeaux on the I3th of July 1833.
He was successively editor of the Voltaire and of the Echo de
Paris. He wrote largely for the theatre, and also a number of
novels dealing with Parisian life.
SCHOLTEN, JAN HENDRIK (1811-1885), Dutch Protestant
theologian, was born at Vleuter near Utrecht on the i?th of
August 1811. After studying at Utrecht University, he was
appointed professor of theology at Franeker. From Franekcr in
1843 he went to Leiden as professor extraordinarius, and in 1845
was promoted to the rank of ordinarius. Through Scholten,
A. Kuenen became interested in theology; Scholten was not
then the radical theologian he became later. The two scholars
in course of time created a movement resembling that of the
1 To be distinguished from scolium (a/tAXuM-), an after-dinner song.
SCHOMANN SCHOMBERG
357
Tubingen School in Germany. Pursuing first the study of
dogmatic theology and the philosophy of religion, Scholten
published a work on the Principles of the Theology of the Reformed
Church (2 vols., 1848-1850, 4th ed. 1861-1862). He then gave
special attention to the New Testament, and wrote A Critical
Study of the Gospel of John (1864, in German 1867). He died
on the loth of April 1885.
Scholten's other works include: Historical and Critical Introduc-
tion to the New Testament (1853-1856); The Oldest Witnesses to the
Writings of the New Testament (1866); The Oldest Gospel (1868); and
The Pauline Gospel (1870). An account of his theological develop-
ment is given in Afscheidsrede bij het Neerleggen van het Hoogleeraar-
sambt (1881), and in the biography written by A. Kuenen, Levens-
bericht van J. Henricus Scholten (1885).
SCHOMANN, GEORG FRIEDRICH (1793-1879), German
classical scholar, was born at Stralsund in Pomerania on the
28th of June 1793. In 1827 he was appointed professor of
ancient literature and eloquence in the university of Greifswald,
where he died on the 2Sth of March 1879. Schomann's attention
was chiefly devoted to the constitutional and religious antiquities
of Greece. His first works on the subject were De comitiis
Atheniensium (1819), the first independent account of the
forms of Athenian political life, and a treatise De sortitione
judicum apud Athenienses (1820). In conjunction with M. H. E.
Meier, Schomann wrote Der atlische Process (1824, revised ed.
by J. H. Lipsius, 1883-1887), which, although in some respects
out of date, still has considerable value.
Among his other works are: editions of Isaeus (1831) and
Plutarch s Agis and Cleomenes (1839, important for the Attic law of
inheritance and the history of the Spartan constitution); Anti-
auitales juris publici Graecorum (1838); a critical examination of
Grote's account of the Athenian constitution (1854, Eng. trans, by
B. Bosanquet, 1878) from a conservative point of view; and lastly,
Griechische Alterthumer (1855-1859; 4th ed. by J. H. Lipsius, 1897-
1902; Eng. trans, of vol. i. by E. G. Hardy and J. S. Mann, 1880),
treating of the general historical development of the Greek states,
followed by a detailed account of the constitutions of Sparta, Crete
and Athens, the cults and international relations of the Greek tribes.
The question of the religious institutions of the Greeks, which he
considered an essential part of their public life, had early engaged
his attention, and he held the opinion that everything really religious
was akin to Christianity, and that the greatest intellects of Greece
produced intuitively Christian, dogmatic ideas. From this point of
view he edited the Theogony of Hesiod (1868), with a commentary,
chiefly mythological, and Cicero's De natura deorum (1850, 4th
ed. 1876); translated with introduction and notes Aeschylus's
Prometheus Bound, and wrote a Prometheus Unbound (1844), in which
Prometheus is brought to see the greatness of his offence and is
pardoned by Zeus. Of his contributions on grammatical subjects
special mention may be made of Die Lehre von den Redetheilen nach
den Alien dargestellt (1862), an introduction to the elements of the
science of grammar. His many-sidedness is shown in his Opuscula
academica (4 vols., 1856-1871).
See F. S(usemihl) in C. Bursian's Biog. Jahrbuchfiir Altertumskunde
(1879); A. Baumeister in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xxxii.;
C. Bursian, Gesch. der class. Philologie in Deutschland (1883), and
J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), p. 165.
SCHOMBERG (originally SCHONBEEG), FRIEDRICH HERMANN
(or FREDERIC ARMAND), DUKE OF (c. 1615-1690), marshal of
France and English general, was descended from an old family
of the Palatinate, and was born in December 1615 or January
1616, at Heidelberg, the son of Hans Meinard von Schonberg
(1582-1616) and Anne Sutton, daughter of the gth Lord Dudley.
An orphan within a few months of his birth, he was educated
by various friends, among whom was the " Winter King,"
Frederick V. of the Palatinate, in whose service his father had
been. He began his military career under Frederick Henry,
prince of Orange, and passed about 1634 into the Swedish
service, whence he entered that of France in 1635. His family,
and the allied house of the Saxon Schonbergs had already
attained eminence in France. 1 After a time he retired to his
family estate at Geisenheim on the Rhine, but in 1639 he re-
*0f the Misnian Schonbergs in French history may be named
Gaspard de Schomberg, count of Nanteuil (d. 1599), French soldier
and statesman, his son, Henri, count of Nanteuil and Duretal,
marquis d'Espinoy (1575-1632) grandmaster of the artillery, marshal
of France, and Henri's son Charles (d. 1656), who by marriage became
due d'Halluin, and was marshal of France and also, during the war
with Spain, viceroy of Catalonia. Of the Palatinate family, Theo-
doric (d. 1590) was killed at Ivry in the service of Henry IV.
entered the Dutch army, in which, apparently, with a few intervals
spent at Geisenheim, he remained until about 1650. He then
rejoined the French army as a general officer (marechal de camp),
served under Turenne in the campaigns against Conde, and
became a lieutenant-general in 1665, receiving this rapid
promotion perhaps partly owing to his relationship with the
due d'Halluin, but mainly because he was looked upon as the
eventual successor of the great generals then at the height of
their fame.
After the peace of the Pyrenees (1659) the independence of
Portugal being again menaced by Spain, Schomberg was sent as
military adviser to Lisbon with the secret approval of Charles II.
of England (who knew him personally and about this time
created him baron of Tetford) and Louis XIV., who in order not
to infringe the treaty just made with Spain, deprived Schomberg
of his French offices. After meeting in the three first campaigns
many difficulties from the insubordination of many of the
Portuguese officers, Schomberg won the victory of Montes
Clares on the 17th of June 1665 over the Spaniards under the
prince of Parma. After participating with his army in the
revolution which deposed the reigning king in favour of his
brother dom Pedro, and ending the war with Spain, Schomberg
returned to France, became a naturalized Frenchman and
bought the lordship of Coubert near Paris. He had been rewarded
by the king of Portugal, in 1663, with the rank of Grandee, the
title of count of Mertola and a pension of 5000 a year. In
1673 he was invited by Charles to England, with the view of
taking command of the army, but sentiment was so strong
against the appointment, as savouring of French influence,
that it was not carried into effect. He therefore again entered
the service of France. His first operations in Catalonia were
unsuccessful owing to the disobedience of subordinates and
the rawness of his troops, but he retrieved the failure of 1674 by
retaking Bellegarde in 1675. For this he was made a marshal,
being included in the promotion that followed the death of
Turenne. The tide had now set against the Huguenots, and
Schomberg's merits had been long ignored on account of his
adherence to the Protestant religion. The revocation of the
edict of Nantes (1685) compelled him to quit his adopted country.
Ultimately he became general-in-chief of the forces of the
elector of Brandenburg, and at Berlin he was the acknowledged
leader of the thousands of Huguenot refugees there. Soon
afterwards, with the elector's consent, he joined the prince of
Orange on his expedition to England in 1688, as second in com-
mand to the prince. The following year he was made a knight
of the Garter, was created successively baron, marquis and duke,
was appointed master-general of the ordnance, and received
from the House of Commons a vote of 100,000 to compensate
him for the loss of his French estates, of which Louis had deprived
him. In August he was appointed commander-in-chief of the
expedition to Ireland against James II. After capturing
Carrickfergus he marched unopposed through a country desolated
before him to Dundalk, but, as the bulk of his forces were raw
and undisciplined as well as inferior in numbers to the enemy,
he deemed it imprudent to risk a battle, and entrenching himself
at Dundalk declined to be drawn beyond the circle of his defences.
Shortly afterwards pestilence broke out, and when he retired
to winter quarters in Ulster his forces were more shattered
than if they had sustained a severe defeat. His conduct was
criticized in ill-informed quarters, but the facts justified his
inactivity, and he gave a striking example of his generous
spirit in placing at William's disposal for military purposes the
100,000 recently voted him. In the spring he began the campaign
with the capture of Charlemont, but no advance southward
was made until the arrival of William. At the Boyne (July
i, 1690) Schomberg gave his opinion against the determination of
William to cross the river in face of the opposing army. In the
battle he commanded the centre, and while riding through
the river without his cuirass to rally his men, was surrounded
by Irish horsemen and instantly killed. He was buried in St
Patrick's cathedral, Dublin, where there is a monument to him,
erected in 1731, with a Latin inscription by Dean Swift.
i
SCHOMBURGK SCHONGAUER
His eldest son Charles, the second duke in the English
peerage, died in the year 1693 of wounds received at the battle
of Marsaglia.
The most important work on Schomberg's life and career is
Kazner's Leben Friedrichs von Schomberg oder Schonberg (Mannheim,
1789). The military histories and memoirs of the time should also be
consulted.
SCHOMBURGK, SIR ROBERT HERMANN (1804-1865),
British traveller, was born at Freiburg, Prussian Saxony, on the
5th of June 1804, the son of a Protestant minister. In 1829
he went to the United States, but in 1830 left for Anegada, one
of the Virgin Isles. He surveyed the island at his own expense, and
sent to the Royal Geographical Society, London, a report which
created such an impression that, in 1835, he was entrusted
by that body with the conduct of an exploring expedition to
British Guiana. He fulfilled his mission with great success,
incidentally discovering the Victoria Regia lily. In 1841 he
returned to Guiana to survey the colony and fix the boundary
for the British Government. The result was the provisional
boundary between British Guiana and Venezuela known as the
" Schomburgk Line," for which see the articles on those two
countries. On his return to England he was knighted. In
1848 he was appointed British consul to St Domingo, and, in
1857, British consul to Bangkok. While holding these posts
he continued his geographical surveys. He retired from the
public service in 1864, and died at Berlin on the nth of March
1865. He was the author of a Description of British Guiana
and a History of Barbadoes.
SCHONBEIN, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1790-1868), chemist,
was born at Metzingen, Swabia, on the i8th of October 1799, and
died at Sauersberg, near Baden Baden, on the 29th of August
1868. After studying at Tubingen and Erlangen, he taught
chemistry and physics, first at Keilhau, Thuringia, and then at
Epsom, England, but most of his life was spent at Basel, where
he undertook the duties of the chair of chemistry and physics in
1828 and was appointed full professor in 1835. His name is
chiefly known in connexion with ozone, which he began to in-
vestigate in 1839, and with guncotton, which he prepared and
applied as a propellant in fire-arms early in 1846. He was a
most prolific writer, 364 papers appearing under his name in
the Royal Society's Catalogue, and he carried on a large corre-
spondence with other men of science, such as Berzelius, Faraday,
Liebig and Wohler.
Many of his letters together with a life will be found in G. W. A.
Kahlbaum's Monotraphtcn aus der Geschichte der Chemie, vols. iv. and
vi. (1899 and 1901).
SCHONEBECK, a town of Germany, in the province of Prussian
Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe, 9 m. S. of Magdeburg by
the railway to Halle and Leipzig. Pop. (1005) 1 7 ,786. It contains
manufactories of chemicals, machinery, starch, white lead and
various other articles, but is chiefly noted for its extensive salt
springs and works, which produce about 75,000 tons of salt
per annum. Large beds of rock-salt also occur in the neighbour-
hood, in which shafts have been sunk to a depth of more than
1200 ft. There is a harbour on the Elbe here, and a brisk trade
is carried on in coal, grain and timber.
See Magnus, Geschichte der Stadt Schonebeck (Berlin, 1880).
SCHONEBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, forming a suburb of Berlin, which it adjoins on the
south-west. Pop. (1905) 141,010. It has four churches, a statue
of the emperor William I. and several educational establishments.
It contains the railway station of the military line to Zossen and is
connected with the metropolis by electric trams and omnibuses
Its chief manufactures are railway plant, cigars, soap, papei
and chemicals. The foundation of Alt-Schoneberg is ascribed
to Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, in the 1 2th century
while Neu-Schoneberg was founded by Frederick the Great in
1750 to accommodate some Bohemian weavers exiled for their
religion. It was made a town in 1898.
SCHONFELD, EDUARD (1828-1891), German astronomer
was born at Hildburghausen, in the duchy of Meiningen, on the
22nd of December 1828. He had a distinguished career at th<
gymnasium of his native town, and on leaving desired to devote
limself to astronomy, but abandoned the idea in deference to his
ather's wishes. He went first to Hanover, and afterwards to
lassel to study architecture, for which he seems to have had little
nclination. In 1849 we find him studying chemistry under
iunsen at Marburg, where his love for astronomy was revived
jy Gerling's lectures. In 1851 he visited the Bonn Observatory,
and studied astronomy under Argelander. In 1853 he was
appointed assistant, and in the following year won a doctor's
degree with his treatise Nova elementa Thetidis. At Bonn he
ook an important part in preparing the Durchmusterung of the
northern heavens. He took up the investigation of the light-
changes in variable stars, devoting to this work nights which,
on account of moonlight, were unsuitable for zone observations.
The results of these researches are published in the Sitz. Berich.
Vien. Akad. vol. xlii. For a short time he was a Privatdozent
at Bonn, but in 1859 he was appointed director of the Mannheim
Observatory. The instrumental equipment of that observatory
vas somewhat antiquated, his largest telescope being a small
refractor of 73 lines aperture, but he selected a line of work to
suit the instruments at his disposal, observing nebulae and vari-
able stars and keeping a watch on comets and new planets.
The results of his observations of nebulae are contained in two
catalogues published in the Astronomische Beobachtungen der
Grossherzoglichen Sternivarte zu Mannheim, ist and 2nd parts
(1862 and 1875), and those of his variable star observations
appeared in the Jahresberichte des Mannheimer Vereins fur
Naturkunde, Nos. 32 and 39 (1866 and 1875). On the death of
Argelander, which occurred on February I7th 1875, Schonfeld
was appointed to succeed him as director of the Bonn Observatory,
and soon after his appointment he began his last and greatest
piece of work, the extension, on Argelander's plan, of the survey
i)f the heavens down to 23 of south declination. The experience
gained on the northern survey under Argelander's direction
enabled Schonfeld to introduce some improvements in the
methods employed, which increased the accuracy of this work,
which was practically accomplished in March 1881, some revision
only remaining to be done. These zone observations afforded
363,932 separate places of stars, and form the groundwork of
the catalogue of 133,659 stars between 2 and 23 south declina-
tion, which was published in 1886 as the eighth volume of the
Bonn observations.
Schonfeld was a member of the Astronomische Gesellschaft
from its foundation in 1863, being a member of Council up to
1869, and in 1875 becoming editor of its publications and secretary
in conjunction with Winnecke. In 1878 he was elected a Foreign
Associate of the Royal Astronomical Society. He died on the
ist of May 1891. (A. A. R.*)
SCHONGAUER (or SHON), MARTIN (c. 1445-^- 1488), the
most able engraver and painter of the early German school.
His father was a goldsmith named Casper, a native of Augsburg,
who had settled at Colmar, where the chief part of Martin's
life was spent. 1 Schongauer established at Colmar a very
important school of engraving, out of which grew the " little
masters" of the succeeding generation, and a large group of
Nuremberg artists. As a painter, Schongauer was a pupil of the
Flemish Roger van der Weyden the Elder, and his rare existing
pictures closely resemble, both in splendour of colour and ex-
quisite minuteness of execution, the best works of contemporary
art in Flanders. Among the very few paintings which can with
certainty be attributed to him, the chief is a magnificent altar-
piece in the church of St Martin at Colmar. The Colmar Museum
1 The date of Schongauer's birth is usually given wrongly as c.
1420; he was really born twenty-five or thirty years later, and i
mentioned by A. Durer as being a young apprentice in 1470. !
portrait in the Munich Pinakothek is now known to be a copy by
Burgkmair, painted after 1510, from an original of 1483 not 1453
as has been supposed. The date (1499) for Schongauer s deatn.wntten
on the back of the panel by Burgkmair, is obviously a blunder; sc
Hensler in Naumann's Archiv (1867), p. 129, and Wurzbach, A
Schongauer (Vienna, 1880). These contradict the viewof Goutzwiller,
in his Martin Schongauer el son (cole (Paris, 1875). Cf. Schnaue,
" Gesch. M. Schongauers," in the Mittheil. der K. K. Commission
(1863), No. 7.
SCHONINGEN SCHOOLS
359
possesses eleven panels by him, and a small panel of " David with
Goliath's Head" in the Munich Gallery is attributed to him. The
miniature painting of the " Death of the Virgin " in the English
National Gallery is probably the work of some pupil. 1 In 1488
Schongauer died at Colmar, according to the register of St
Martin's church. Other authorities state that his death, occurred
in 1491-
The main work of Schongauer's life was the production of a large
number of beautiful engravings, which were largely sold, not only m
Germany, but also in Italy and even in England. Vasari says that
M ichelangelo copied one of hisengravings the ' ' Trial of St Anthony,
"chongauer was known in Italy by the names " Bel Martino " and
Martino d'Anversa." His subjects are always religious; more
Schongauer was known in Italy by the names " Bel Martino
" Martino d'Anversa." His subjects are always religious;
than 130 prints from copper by his hand are known, and about 100
more are the production of his bottega. 3 Most of his pupils' plates as
well as his own are signed M+S. Among the most beautiful of
Schongauer's engravings are the series of the"Passion"and the "Death
and Coronation of the Virgin," and the series of the "Wise and Foolish
Virgins." All are remarkable for their miniature-like treatment,
their brilliant touch, and their chromatic force. Some, such as the
" Death of the Virgin " and the " Adoration of the Magi " are richly-
filled compositions of many figures, treated with much largeness of
style in spite of their minute scale.
The British Museum possesses a fine collection of Schongauer's
prints. Fine facsimiles of his engravings have been produced by
Armand-Durand with text by Duplessis (Paris, 1881).
SCHONINGEN, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Brunswick,
29 m. by rail W. of Magdeburg. Pop. (1905) 9298. It has
three churches, and manufactures of chemicals, machinery and
sausages. The place is mentioned as early as 747 and received
municipal rights in 1370. It has the remains of a ducal residence
and some interesting wooden houses.
SCHOOLCRAFT, HENRY ROWE (1793-1864), American
traveller, ethnologist and author, was born on the 28th of March
1793 at what is now Guilderland, New York, and died
at Washington on the loth of December 1864. After studying
chemistry and mineralogy in Union College he had several
years' experience of their application, especially at a glass-
factory of which his father was manager, and in 1817 published
his Vitreology. In the following year he collected geological and
mineralogical specimens in Missouri and Arkansas, and in 1819
he published his View of the Lead Mines of Missouri. In 1820
he accompanied General Lewis Cass as geologist in his expedition
to the Upper Mississippi and the Lake Superior copper region,
and in 1823 he was appointed Indian agent for the Lake
Superior country. More than sixteen millions of acres were
ceded by the Indians to the United States in treaties which he
negotiated. He married the granddaughter of an Indian chief;
and during several years' official work near Lake Superior,
and later under authorisation of an Act of Congress of 1847,
he acquired much information as to institutions, &c., of the
American natives. From 1828 to 1831 Schoolcraft was an
active member of the Michigan legislature. In 1832, when on
an embassy to some Indians, he ascertained the real source of
the Mississippi to be Lake Itasca.
In 1825 he published Travels in the Central Portions of the
Mississippi Valley, and in 1839 appeared his Algic Researches, con-
taining Indian legends, notably, " The Myth of Hiawatha and other
Oral Legends." He composed a considerable quantity of poetry
and several minor prose works, especially Notes on the Iroquois
(1846); Scenes and Adventures in the Ozark Mountains (1853). His
principal book, Historical and Statistical Information respecting the
Indian Tribes of the United States, illustrated with 336 plates from
original drawings, in part a compilation, was issued under the
patronage of Congress in six quarto volumes, from 1851 to 1857.
1 Another painting of the same subject in the Doria Palace in
Rome (usually attributed to Durer) is given to Schongauer by Crowe
and Cavalcaselle, Flemish Painters (London, 1872), p. 359; but the
execution is not equal to Schongauer's wonderful touch.
2 An interesting example of Schongauer's popularity in Italy is
given by the lovely Faenza plate in the British Museum, on which is
painted a copy of Martin's beautiful engraving of the " Death of the
3 See Bartsch, Peintre Graveur, and Willshire, Ancient Prints, best
edition of 1877. According to a German tradition Schongauer was
the inventor of printing from metal plates; he certainly was one ol
the first who brought the art to perfection. See an interesting
article by Sidney Colvin in the Jahrbuch der k. preussischen Kunst-
sammlung, vi. p. 69 (Berlin, 1885).
SCHOOLS. As is the case with so many of the institutions
of modern civilization, so with schools; the name, the thing,
the matter, the method have been derived from Greece through
Rome. A strange fortune has converted the Greek word (rxoXi?,
which originally meant leisure, particularly the " retired leisure
that in trim gardens takes his pleasure " of men, into the proper
term for the modern school.
Greek Schools. The term and the institution date, not from
the great or what may be called the Hellenic age of Greece,
but from the later Macedonian or Hellenistic period. The
account given by K. I. Freeman in his Schools of Hellas (1907)
may be summed up in the statement, " There were no schools
in Hellas." That is, there were no schools in our sense, where,
during boyhood and youth, boys spent their whole time in a
continuous course of instruction. There were professional
teachers of three kinds: (i) the grammatistes, who taught
reading, with writing and perhaps arithmetic, in the grammateion;
(2) the citharistes, who taught music, i.e. playing and singing to
the cithara it is significant that there was no word for the
music school; (3) the paedolribes, who taught gymnastic,
wrestling, boxing, running, jumping, throwing the javelin, &c.,
in the palaistra. To these teachers the boys were taken by
slaves, called boy-leaders (iratSo/yoryoi, whence our pedagogues),
as single pupils, and they were taught not in classes but singly.
That all boys did not go through all three schools is clear.
For we hear of Socrates, when he was grown up, repairing to
a lyre-school to learn music, because he thought his education
was not complete without it. Roughly, the age for the grammar-
school and song-school was 7 to 14, for the gymnastic school
12 to 1 8. A certain amount of literature was imparted, as,
especially in the song-school, Homer and other early poets,
the very Bibles of Hellas, were learnt by heart. In later days,
under the Sophists, and Socrates, " the greatest of the Sophists,"
450-400 B.C., something approaching to secondary education
was developed. But it was wholly unorganized, though a similar
division of labour between separate private tutors took place
as in primary education. The orators or rhetoricians taught
oratory, and the learning that was considered necessary to the
political orator, a smattering of Greek history, constitutional
law and elementary logic. The philosophers, such as Protagoras,
discoursed vaguely on natural science, " things in the heavens
above and the earth beneath," and divinity, " whether there
are gods or not," mathematics and ethics, or any subject which
attracted them, while the lawyers, in the same unsystematic
way, taught what law was necessary in a state where the con-
stitution was at the mercy of chance majorities in a sovereign
assembly of 30,000 people, and trials at law were settled by
600 jurymen-judges. The orators and sophists were popular
lecturers, here to-day and gone to-morrow. There was no co-
ordination between them, no regular curriculum, and the youths
wandered from one to another as their own or their parents'
prejudices and purses dictated.
In the next generation, the orators and the philosophers,
by settling down in fixed places, began to establish something
more like schools. Plato, though like his master Socrates he
taught without asking fees, was the first to give a regular educa-
tional course extending over three or four years, and in a fixed
place, the Academy. The gymnasium was originally a parade
or practice ground for the militia or conscript army of the state,
which derived its name from the exercises being in that climate
performed naked (yvnvos). At the age of 15 or 16 the boys left
the palaestra, or private gymnasium, for this public training
school, maintained at the public expense, preparatory to their
admission as youths (e<)j/3o(.), to take the oath of citizenship
and undergo two years' compulsory training in regiments on
the frontier. After those two years were over, they still required
continuous exercise to keep themselves in training; consequently
men of all ages, from 16 to 60, were to be found in the gymnasium.
Though the gymnasium was free, the teachers and trainers
in gymnastics were paid, and as the poorer citizens had to earn
their own living, the Athenian gymnasium, like the modern
university, was for educational purposes chiefly frequented
3 6
SCHOOLS
by the well-to-do. So the Academy became a fashionable
lounge, and here developed the walking and talking clubs, which
became the Platonic or Academic Schools. Logic and ethics,
built on a foundation of geometry and mathematics, seem to
have been the staple subjects. An inner circle met, and dined
together in Plato's private house and garden, close to the
Academy. Plato devised the house and garden to his successor
Speusippus, who passed them on to Xenocrates. They thus
became the first endowment of the first endowed college, which
grew very rich and lasted till the disestablishment and disendow-
ment of the old learning by Justinian in A.D. 529. Aristotle,
a pupil of Plato for twenty years, set up a school of his own in
the Lyceum, another public gymnasium, where he lectured twice
a day, in the morning esoterically to the inner circle of regular
attendants, in the afternoon to the public. From these two
institutions three nations of Europe have derived three different
terms for a school, the Germans their gymnasium, the French
their lycee, and the Scotch their academy. Yet neither of the
originals was a school in any real sense of the word. In the
days of their founders they were like discussion forums; at the
most, courses of lectures. In later years, the gilded youth
who flocked to Athens from the whole Greco-Roman world were
enrolled among the ephebi, and the so-called "university of
Athens" was evolved (Dumont, L'6,phebie attique).
Meanwhile the intellectual hegemony of Greece had for a time
passed with the political hegemony from Athens to Alexandria.
It is to the Alexandrines, either to Antiodorus or to Eratos-
thenes, c. 250 (J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, 7),
that grammar, as a term and a science, which included literary
criticism and scholarship, and the grammar school are due.
The earliest extant treatise on grammar is by Dionysius of
Thrace (born c. 146), a pupil of the Homeric critic, Aristarchus.
It defines grammar as " the practical knowledge of the usage of
writers of poetry and prose " and includes exegesis or explana-
tion of the author in the widest sense as well as mere verbal or
syntactical grammar. It was from the term thus understood
that the grammar school (scola grammaticalis), the term which
described the typical secondary school from that day to 1869,
derived its denotation and its connotation. For a true con-
ception of the history of secondary schools it cannot be repeated
too often and too emphatically that to this day the true title
of the greatest English "public schools" is grammar school.
Winchester and Eton are the grammar schools of the colleges
of the Blessed Mary of Winchester and of Eton respectively,
and Westminster is the grammar school of the collegiate church
of St Peter, Westminster. Throughout the thirteen centuries
which intervened between Dionysius Thrax and Dr Kennedy,
Dionysius's grammar was the standard work and the foundation,
directly or indirectly, of all other grammars, while the grammar
school has always meant, and, in the hands of the better class of
teachers, has always been, not a gerund-grinding machine, but
a place for the training and exercise of the mind by the study
of literature. The word " school," as well as the word
" grammar," seems to be due to Alexandria. Plato in the Laws
had spoken of a learned discussion or teaching, the product of
leisure, as a schole. But it does not appear that the word was
transferred to the place where such discussion took place before
the Alexandrian epoch. The first known use of it in that sense
seems to be in Dionysius Halicarnassus' Letter to Ammaeus,
c. 30 B.C. But as Plautus (c. 210) uses the corresponding Latin
term, Indus literarius, some two centuries earlier, we may safely
infer that he used it, not on the principle of Indus a non ludendo,
but as a translation of grammar school.
Roman Schools. At Rome schools began with intercourse
with Greeks. According to Suetonius, the emperor Hadrian's
secretary, who wrote The School Masters (De grammaticis) about
A.D. 140, literary teaching and the science of grammar began
with Livius Andronicus, a Greek from Magna Graecia in the
south of Italy, who, being brought to Rome as a slave in 272 B.C.,
became a freed man, translated the Odyssey into Latin, and taught
both Greek and Latin. Ennius, the first Latin poet, was also
half- Greek, and came to Rome in 209 B.C., where he also taught
both languages. According to Plutarch (Quaest. Rom. 59)
the first grammar school (grammatodidaskaleion) was opened by
Spurius Carvilius, a freedman of Carvilius, who was the first
Roman to divorce his wife. Like master, like man. These two
innovations in morals and manners took place about 230 B.C.
According to Suetoaius, Crates of Mallus in Cilicia, who about
169 B.C. came to Rome as ambassador from Attalus, king of
Pergamum, a great centre of learning, and was kept there By a
broken leg, occupied himself in giving lectures. His example
was soon followed by Romans. Schools of grammar, in which,
even as late as Cicero's time, the Laws of the Twelve Tables
were the chief text-book and were learnt by heart, were kept
by Greeks or freedmen. These seem to have been of the nature
of elementary schools. But at Rome, as at Athens, the working-
classes were for the most part slaves; and elementary schools
were like English preparatory schools rather than public elemen-
tary schools. The teachers were called litteratores, a translation
of the Greek ypawaTiaTal. Schools of rhetoric, which were
more like secondary schools, were also opened after the model
of that of Isocrates at Athens. Their teachers were called
litterali, corresponding to the Greek ypa.fi.iJ.a.TiKoL Suetonius says
that " the early litteratores also taught rhetoric, and we have
many of their treatises which include both sciences." In 92 B.C.
schools of Latin rhetoric were put down as an innovation. Yet
among the treatises written by Cato, the praiser of the past
at the expense of the present, was one on public speaking, the
chief rule in which was " take care of the sense, and the sounds
will take care of themselves." Cicero learned to declaim both
in Greek and Latin, and the Gracchi had studied rhetoric under
Greek teachers. Neither the gymnasium or palaestra, nor the
music school, flourished at Rome. As at Athens, so at Rome
the boys were sent to school in charge of a slave, a pedagogus,
comes or custos. But it would seem that at Rome the peda-
gogus, generally a Greek slave, often himself gave elementary
instruction. In Varro's much-debated phrase, " Educat nutrix,
instituit pedagogus, docet magister," " the nurse brings up,
the pedagogue instils the elements, the master teaches."
Magister, which in English became "maister" and then
" master," remained the term for the teacher of the public
school from that day to this, though attempts were made at the
time of the Reformation to introduce the Greek word didascalus
in its place.
The Roman school was very much like the modern school. All the
methods of torture which have made the service of the Muses for
most boys a veritable slavery were in full vogue. Instruction was
now in a foreign language, and grammar became prominent. Early
rising, loud speaking and hard flogging were in the ascendant.
Martial curses the master of a neighbouring, school whose shouts
and blows woke him up at cock crow. Horace assures us that he
admires the old Latin poets in spite of their having been flogged
into him by the pedagogus, Orbilius, whose name has become pro-
verbial. The staple of instruction in the Roman schools was the
works of the poets, Greek and Latin, Homer and Virgil, Hesiod and
Aesop, Menander and Terence. _ Horace says (Ep. i. 19. 40) " that
he was not thought worthy of going the round of the schoolmasters'
desks "; but it was a fate not long delayed, and the writings of the
poets of the silver age, Lucan and Statius, became school-books
in their own lifetimes.
Our knowledge of the Roman curricula is mainly due to Quintilian's
Institutio oratorio,, c. A.D. 91. Fabius Quintihanus, born on the
banks of the Ebro, was not only the son of a man who kept a rhetoric
school, but himself kept one, and is said by St Jerome to have been
the first who kept a public school, in the sense that he was the first
who received a stipend from the emperor. In endeavouring to
create the perfect orator, Quintilian discusses the whole of educa-
tion from the cradle upwards. It is clear from him that the grammar
school had trenched on the rhetoric school. The latter was then
restricted to actual oratory, the rules and practice of public speaking,
while the grammar school gave much the same teaching as English
grammar schools did until 1850.
The first definitely endowed school we hear of is one founded by
Pliny the younger, a pupil of Quintilian, at his native place Como.
In a letter to the historian Tacitus (iv. 12) he informs him that he
found a Como boy was at school at Milan, because there were no
teachers at Como, whereupon he lectured the parents on the " small
additional expense " a day-school at Como would be, compared to
the cost of boarding boys at Milan. He therefore offered to find
a third of the cost, and would have found the whole did he not
" fear that such an endowment might be corrupted ... to privat
SCHOOLS
361
interests, which he saw happen in many places where teachers are
hired by the public " (preceptores publics conducuntur). The choice
of the master he left to the parents. Later historians say that the
emperor Antoninus Pius (138-161) assigned offices and salaries
(honores et solaria) for rhetoricians throughout the provinces; and
that Alexander Severus did the same, and also established exhibitions
for poor boys, with the limitation, curiously repeated a thousand
years later in the statutes of All Souls College and of Eton, modo
ingenues, i.e. provided only that they should be free-born.
There were complaints that the masters were ill-paid. The only
definite statement as to tuition fees appears to be a line of Horace
(Sat.i.6. 76), who says his father took him to school at Rome as he
did not care to send him where the sons of his country neighbours
went, at 8 asses a month, said to represent 4d. a month, equivalent
to " about a shilling "; even this is founded on a disputed reading.
Quintilian made a fortune by his school, but Juvenal calls him in this
respect a white crow. As in modern times the winning jockey, so
then the victorious charioteer, received more pay for a single race
than the master for a whole year's labours.
Grammar and rhetoric schools spread throughput the Roman
world and continued substantially unchanged in method and
subject to the days of Gregory the Great and Augustine the apostle
of the English. The Confessions of St Augustine of Hippo, a school-
master at Carthage, Rome and Milan, before his baptism in the
year 387, and the poems of his contemporary Ausonius, educated in
the grammar school at Toulouse, and himself a schoolmaster at
Bordeaux before becoming prefect of Illyria and of Gaul, show that
the schools were much the same in the 4th century as in the first.
Ausonius celebrated in verse all the Bordeaux schoolmasters, some
coming from schools at Athens, Constantinople, Syracuse and
Corinth, one the son of a Druid at Bayeux, others schoolmasters from
Poitou, Narbonne, Toulouse, who went to Lerida and other places
in Spain. Ausonius had for his pupil the emperor Gratian, who in
376 established a legal tariff for schoolmasters' salaries. " In every
town which is called a metropolis, a noble professor shall be elected. '
The rhetoric master (rhetor) was to have at least 24 annonae (an
annona being a year's wages of a working man) ; while the grammar
masters were to receive half that. But at Trier, then the capital
of the Western empire, the rhetor was to have 30, the Latin gram-
marian 20, and the Greek grammarian, if one can be found, 12
annonae (Cod. Theod. xiii. 3. n). The works of Ennodius, bishop
of Pavia, 513-521, preserve many school declamations delivered in
Milan school. The same century saw Priscian, a schoolmaster at
Constantinople, compose the Latin grammar, which, itself for the
most part a mere translation from Greek, reigned without a rival
till the Reformation, and is represented by over 1000 MSS. Venan-
tius Fortunatus, educated in the grammar school at Treviso, wrote
in 570 a life of St Martin of Tours in three books of hexameter
verse, and lives of saints and bishops. His era was one of transition,
and marks the passing of the schools from secular to ecclesiastical
control. His contemporary Pope Gregory rates Desiderius, " bishop
of Gaul," at Vienne (Ep. xi. 54), because " as we cannot relate
without shame, it has come to our knowledge that your brotherhood
teaches grammar to certain persons: which we take all the worse
as it converts what we formerly said in your favour to lamentation
and mourning, since the praise of Christ cannot lie in one mouth
with the praise of Jupiter. Consider yourself what a crime it is for
bishops to recite what would be improper for religiously minded
laymen " words which are an adaptation of a sentiment of Jerome
at his worst.
This letter is the more remarkable, because it ends with com-
mending to Desiderius the monks whom Gregory was sending with
Laurence the priest and Mellitus the abbot to Augustine of Canter-
bury, thus bringing the grammar-school-teaching bishop into direct
connexion with the conversion of the English, and the foundation of
the first English school.
English Schools. St Augustine of Canterbury landed in Kent
in 596, and the king of Kent, Ethelbert, was christened two
years later. He " did not defer giving his teachere a settled
residence in his metropolis of Canterbury, with such possessions
as were necessary for their subsistence," says Bede. We may
therefore attribute the establishment of the Church of England
and the first English school to the year 598. For as nowadays
the first thing modern missionaries do is to establish a school,
so did Augustine. Indeed a school was even more necessary
then. Now the Scriptures are always translated into the native
tongue, and services conducted in it. But in those days the
converted heathen, to understand the church service and to
read the Scriptures, had to learn Latin and begin with Latin
grammar; and indeed as the kyrie, the creed and the gloria
were still rendered in Greek, if he was thoroughly to comprehend
it he had to learn some Greek.
The first actual mention of Canterbury school is in 631.
Sigebert of Essex, Bede tells us (Eccl. Hist. iii. 18, ed. Plummer,
p. 162), while in exile in Gaul, was baptized. " On his return,
as soon as he obtained the kingdom (of the East Saxons), wishing
to imitate what he had seen well done in Gaul, he founded a
grammar school (scolam in qua pueri litteris erudirentur) , with
the assistance of Bishop Felix, whom he had received from Kent,
who provided them with ushers and masters (pedagogos et
magistros) after the manner of the Canterburians (more Cantua-
riorum)." If the last words are translated Kentish folk the meaning
is the same, as naturally the first and chief school of the Kentish
folk was at Canterbury. Felix was a Burgundian, who had
come over to Honorius, one of the last survivors of the original
band of Augustine, who became archbishop in 627. The East
Saxon see was placed at Dunnoc, now Dunwich, and the school
there has been claimed by patriotic Suffolk historians as the
first school in England. Though long before the Conquest
Dunwich had ceased to be an episcopal see, being deposed
in favour of Thetford, while half of it was swallowed up by the
sea, yet, when between 1076 and 1083 the priory of Eye was
founded by Robert Malet, he appropriated to it all the churches
of Dunwich " the tithes of the whole town both of money and
herrings . . . the school also of the same town." So the school
of Sigebert and Felix was still existing 400 years afterwards.
It afterwards perished at the dissolution of the priory, to which
it had been handed over.
As the model must be older than the copy, Canterbury school
must be allowed the primacy over Dunwich. Being spoken of
as an existing institution, with no suggestion that it was then
newly established, we need not doubt that it was founded by
St Augustine as part of the cathedral establishment of Christ
Church, Canterbury. This church was not then monastic, but
like all other cathedrals, a college of priests, the monks being
placed apart, outside the city walls in the abbey, first called
St Paul's, afterwards known as St Augustine's. Enthusiastic
" Grecians" have attributed Canterbury school rather to the
Greek archbishop, the monk Theodore, who reached Canterbury
on the 27th of May 669. " Soon after]" he "travelled through
the whole English parts of the island," and first established a
united church of England, being " the first archbishop whom
the whole English church consented to obey." He travelled
with Hadrian, a Latin- African monk, who had been first offered
the archbishopric, and was sent by the pope to look after Theo-
dore " lest after the fashion of Greeks he should introduce
something against the true faith. " " Because both were
abundantly learned in sacred and profane literature, they
collected crowds of disciples, and streams of saving knowledge
daily flowed from them, as together with holy writ they gave
their hearers instruction both in the arts of metre and astronomy
and ecclesiastical arithmetic," or, as the Anglo-Saxon transla-
tion has it, " metercraft, tungolcraft and grammaticraft" (Bede,
Eccl. Hist. iv. 2). " The proof is," says Bede, " that even to
this day," c. 735, " some of their pupils survive who know
Latin and Greek as well as their own language in which they
were born." It is a strange misconception of this passage which
has narrowed a triumphant record of the first metropolitical
visitation of England, the very point of which is that the arch-
bishop left Canterbury to travel to the farthest parts of the
heptarchy, into the foundation of a school at Canterbury.
Though it is clear that Theodore did not found, there is evidence
that he did actually teach in the school at Canterbury, since
Albinus, who succeeded Hadrian as abbot of St Paul's, is said
to have been " the most learned man of his time in everything,
having been educated in the church of Canterbury" (not, it
may be noted, in the monastery of St Paul's) by Theodore and
Hadrian. Tobias, who died bishop of Rochester in 726, is also
described as " a most learned man, for he was a pupil of Theodore
and Hadrian, and so, together with a knowledge of literature
ecclesiastical and general, Greek and Latin were as familiar to
him as his native tongue." We may therefore credit Rochester
with its school at least as early as Toby's episcopate.
Of schools still existing, we must give the precedence after Canter-
bury and Rochester to St Peter's school, the cathedral grammar
school at York. If it was originally started by Paulinus, the Roman
362
SCHOOLS
missionary, in 630 or 633, and there was no church or bishop
there till the time of Wilfrid, c. 700, it cannot claim to be older
than his day. Whoever may be the originator of York school, it
is at all events earlier than Archbishop Egbert (Ecgberht), to whom
it has been credited by many writers (cf. Diet. Christian Biog.).
But their authority is a life of Alcuin by a French monk, in a MS.
said to have existed at Reims in 1617, but never seen since, a mere
piece of hagiology, and certainly not contemporary. It makes a
mystic monastic chain of Greek learning from Theodore to Bede,
Bede to Egbert, Egbert to Alcuin, Alcuin to Hrabanus Maurus, the
monks of St Gall and so on. It is flattering to insular pride, as it
makes England the mother of all continental schools. But the chain
breaks at the second link. Egbert was neither a pupil of Bede's,
nor Alcuin's master. Nor was Egbert ever a monk, and Alcuin
only became one late in life. Had Bede been Egbert's master, he
could not have failed to mention it in the well-known letter he wrote
to him on becoming archbishop, in which he addresses him, not as a
master might have written to a pupil, but as a rather humble but
lecturing friend. Moreover, Alcuin himself, in the poem on the
bishops and saints of the church of York (Hist. Ch. York., Rolls ser.
i. 390), written when schoolmaster at York, only says of Egbert
that he was of royal blood, an illustrious ruler of the church and an
admirable teacher (egregius doctor) He finds no space for more
about him, because his " muse hastens to the end of his song and
the doings of his own master, who, after Egbert, received the insignia
of the venerable see, Albert, called the wise." On Albert's merits,
Alcuin descants in many verses. Nearly related to Egbert, Albert
" was sent to the Minster to school in his boyish years and became
a priest quite young, and by Egbert was made advocate of the clergy
and preferred as master in the city of York." This phrase exactly
describes the duties of the later chancellor of the Minster, who was
the chief lawyer of the college of canons and also head of the school ;
while it shows that the school was the school, not only of the church,
but of the city, of the laity as well as of the clergy. Albert taught
grammar, rhetoric, law, singing, playing on the flute and lyre,
natural history and the church calendar: above all, theology.
There were boarders. For " whatever youths he saw of eminent
intelligence, these he joined to himself, taught, fed and loved, and
so he had many pupils, advanced in various arts." Albert travelled
abroad, went tollome and was received " as the prince of doctors,
and kings and princes invited him to irrigate their lands with learn-
ing." But he preferred to return home. Even when he became
archbishop, he still continued to teach. Two years before his death
he retired, and, of his two chief pupils, Eanbald succeeded him in
the archbishopric. But " he gave the dearer treasures of his books
to the other son, who was always close to his father's side, thirsting
to drink the floods of learning. To the one the rule of the church,
its treasures and lands; to the other the school (studium), the chair,
the books." This other son was Alcuin himself. A catalogue of the
books is given. Besides the " Fathers," including Boethius and
Cassiodorus, Popes Leo and Gregory, there were Aldhelm of Sher-
borne and Bede the wise. There were Pliny and Pompeius Trogus,
Aristotle and Cicero (De oratore). Among poets, there were Virgil,
Statius and Lucan. But of four lines full of the names of poets,
these are the only ones whom the ordinary classical scholar has
heard of. The rest were Christian poets, who versified various parts
of the Bible; Juvencus (c. 330), Paulinus (353-431), Prosper of
Aquitaine (370-431), Sedulius (c. 460), Venantius Fortunatus (535-
600), Arator (c. 550). Among grammarians were Valerius Probus,
Donatus, Priscian, Servius (the great Virgihan commentator).
Phocas (who wrote a life of Virgil in verse), Comminianus (probably
Commodianus), of the 5th century. There were " many other
masters eminent in the schools, in art, in oratory, who have written
many a volume of sound sense, but whose names it seemed too long
to write in verse." Alcuin himself wrote dialogues on grammar,
rhetoric and dialectic. In the first, the speakers were an English
boy of i and a Frank boy of 14; in the latter, Charlemagne and
Alcuin himself. For Alcuin yielded to the temptation which his
master, Albert, had resisted, and meeting Charlemagne, on a visit
to Rome, accepted the headship of an itinerant school attached to
his court, the so-called Palace School. Except for a short visit in
792-793, Alcuin deserted England for Frankland. But he continued
to take an interest in the school of York, and in one of his poems
expresses the hope that the youth of York will handle Virgil s bow
and fill the Frisian ships with poems. When Eanbald II. was ap-
pointed archbishop of York in 796 Alcuin wrote to congratulate
him, and recommended him to divide the school and have different
masters for grammar, for song and for writing; and also to establish
hospitals, which he calls by their Greek name (xenodochia), one of
the many proofs that he had a tincture of Greek learning. The
advice seems to have been taken, as in later times we find here, as
elsewhere, the song school under the precentor quite separate from
the grammar school under the chancellor, and St Peter's hospital
just outside the cathedral precinct, which was endowed by King
Athelstan, and afterwards known as St Leonard's hospital. In
another letter Alcuin sends one of his pupils to King Offa of Mercia
to act as master in the school Offa was establishing, and expresses his
pleasure at Offa's jntention to study and make the light of wisdom,
which was extinct in so many places, shine in his kingdom. Whether
this refers to the establishment of a school at Lichfield, or elsewhere,
does not appear. It is to be noticed that Alcuin, all the time he was
master at York and master of the so-called palace school of Charle-
magne, was not a monk but a secular clerk. He always describes
himself as Alcuin the levite, or deacon, until in his old age he retired
to an abbacy by way of retiring pension. So too Augustine himself,
though a monk, when he became a bishop and set up a school,
had been advised by Pope Gregory to abandon the monastic seclusion
and live with his clergy like an ordinary bishop.
The recognition pt this fact is vital to an understanding of the
history of schools in England and other modern countries. The
history of medieval and modern schools has, thanks to the superior
industry and research of the French and Germans, started with
Charlemagne and Alcuin. Though the schools of France came
straight from the Roman grammar and rhetoric schools, and the
English schools, by new importation, direct from Italy, it has always
been assumed that their origin was monastic and that monks were
the chief educators. This is because Charlemagne, largely it would
seem under Alcuin's influence, did make a distinct effort to convert
the monasteries practically into colleges and public schools. How
far he succeeded in this is very doubtful, but if the monasteries ever
did become the seats of public schools, or if the monks did anything
for general education, it was only during his reign. Save for that
short period, alike in England and on the continent general education
and public schools were the exclusive duty and privilege of the
secular clergy from the days of Augustine to the days of Laud.
The monks from first to last were never public schoolmasters or
educators, they never acted as teachers, and the monasteries never
kept schools, except for their own novices, and they never, except
incidentally as lords of manors or trustees, or transferees of the
spiritual rights of secular colleges, even controlled schools.
The early monasteries and monks, as may be seen by the example
of even Jerome, not only did not cultivate learning other than that
of the scriptures, but even repudiated it as heathenish. It was not
till Cassiodorus, about 550, composed his Institutions for the two
monasteries he founded in Calabria, that the copying of MSS. and
reading came to be regarded as a monkish duty. The original
Benedictine rule a few years earlier set apart only two hours a day
for reading, except in Lent. Then, lack of food making the monks
less able to labour with their hands, they had three hours' reading
in the morning, and had to read one book through in the course
of the 40 days. Even this rule was not absolute, special provision
being made for work for those who were too lazy to read. There is
not a word in the rule to suggest that education was one of the
duties of monks or of the objects of a monastery. The only reference
to boys is apropos of the reception of new brethren, boy novices
" offered " (oblaii) at 'he altar. The Celtic monasteries, according
to Dr Skene (Celtic Scotland, ii. 75), became " great educational
seminaries, in which the youth of the tribe were sent, not only to be
trained to monastic life, but also for the purpose of receiving secular
education." But the quotations given from the ancient laws of
Ireland and the life of St Brendan in support of this statement by
no means bear it out. It may be questioned whether even in Ireland,
or its daughter settlement in Wales, at lona in Scotland and at
Lindisfarne in England, anyone other than sucking monks imbibed
the milk of learning in the nurseries of the monasteries. Where,
however, as in these communities, the church and secular clergy
were practically swallowed up in the monastery and monks, where
even the bishops became kept officials under an abbot, it is perhaps
not possible to draw a distinction between the regular and the
secular clergy. The mission of St Columban in 590 took the Celtic
monastery to the borders of Alsace, while indirectly through Lindis-
farne it may have been known to Alcuin, as it certainly was at Fulda
(Skenc, 43).
Charlemagne was perhaps consciously acting under Celtic influence
when in the council of Aachen (Aix-la-Chapclle), on the 23rd of March
789-790, he entreated the congregations of monks as well as those
of the secular canons " not only to get together children of slaves
but also the sons of freemen, and take them into their societies," and
directed that " schools of reading boys should be established in every
monastery and cathedral, where psalms, music (notas), arithmetic
and grammar, and the writing of good editions of books should be
taught; not allowing the boys, however, to corrupt the gospels,
psalters or mass books by reading or writing, but employing men of
full age for that purpose." It must have been in pursuance of this
design of turning the monasteries to account as schools, that the
extant plan of the monastery of St Gall (see ABBEY) was prepared.
This plan shows an " inner school of the novices, and an " outer "
school for the young gentlemen. The novices' school is shown as a
replica on a smaller scale of the monastery, complete in itself with
chapel, dormitory, refectory and infirmary. On the plan of it is
written, " In this cloister the oblates are associated with the postu-
lants," i.e. the boys offered to God, set apart for the monastic life
from infancy, were brought up with the ordinary novices of riper
years seeking for admission. This school was at the east end of the
church, next to the infirmary of the monks. But the other school,
the public school, stood on the north side of the church, as far as
possible from the monks' quarters, which, at St Gall, as elsewhere
when topography permitted, were on the south. This school was
close to the guest hall for gentlemen, near the public entrance to
the church from the street. It shows provision for about 150
SCHOOLS
boarders. The plan is credited to Charlemagne's son-in-law, Egin-
hard. But it is known not to have been carried out in its entirety;
and whether any " outer " school was ever actually erected or
carried on we do not know. But, if in Charlemagne's time the
monasteries in general admitted lay or clerical boys even in a separate
outer school, it is certain that the next generation saw them excluded
again. A council at Aachen on the gth of July 817 (Baluze, Capit.
i. 581), attended by abbots and a large number of monks, decreed
" No school shall be kept in a monastery except for oblates." That
this was considered as binding, or at least was followed, in England,
is clear from the decrees of this council being included with the
rules of Benedict, Dunstan and Ethelwold in the great Saxon
monastic collection now in the British Museum (Cott. Tib. A, iii.).
In England, at all events from this time, we always find public
schools taught not by the monks, but by the secular clergy.
The notion that schools were monastic and monasteries schools
is partly due to a verbal confusion, ecclesiastical and monastic
having been ignorantly treated as convertible terms. Education
and schools were the province of the church, they were subject to
the canon law, and every one connected with them was reckoned as
a clerk with the privilege of clergy. The secular courts could take
no cognizance of pleas concerning the conduct of schools or school-
masters, as was emphatically reaffirmed in the Gloucester School
Case in 1410, any more than they could as to churches or the conduct
of rectors and vicars. Just as they could entertain suits about the
patronage of livings, so they could about the appointment of school-
masters, patronage being regarded as property, and a temporal not
a spiritual right, as was settled in a case against the Abbot of Battle
in 1343. Both these cases have unfortunately been misrepresented
as establishing that the common law of England not only ' allowed
all to be taught but also controlled the administration of educational
foundations (J. E. G. de Montmorency, State Intervention in
English Education, 1902, p. 16). In truth, that was solely the
business of the clergy, and especially of the bishops as the ecclesi-
astical judges of first instance, with appeal to the court of Canterbury
and thence to the supreme court of the pope at Rome. There is a
decree of Pope Eugenius II. in a synod held in 826 (Dec. prima pars.
Dist. xxxvii. c. 12) : " From certain places complaint is made
to us that neither are masters found nor care taken for a school of
letters (i.e. grammar school), wherefore let all care and diligence be
taken by all bishops and their subjects, and in other places where
necessary, that masters and teachers should be established to teach
continually grammar schools (studio, litterarum) and the principles
of the liberal arts, as in them chiefly are the divine commands set
forth and declared." This canon only crystallized into statute what
had for two centuries at least been the customary law of the church,
that schools should be kept in every cathedral city, as we have seen
they were at Canterbury, Dunwich and York.
After York the next place in England in which we have actual
evidence of a school is at Winchester, to which intellectual superiority
seems to have passed with the political suzerainty. In the history
of education in the 9th century the name of Alfred takes the place
of Alcuin in the 8th. Of Alfred's own education we have no real
knowledge, as the tales of the so-called Asser are mere fairy stories
("The Real Alfred," The Times, London, 17 March 1898). But
Asser's account of the education of Alfred's children may be ac-
cepted as applying to Winchester, and as at all events evidence
that there was a public school there in the days when " Asser "
wrote, about a hundred years after Alfred's death. Edward the
eldest son and /Elfthryth the eldest daughter were bred in the
king's court, " nor among their other pursuits appertaining to this
life were they suffered to pass their time idly and unprofitably
without liberal learning. For they carefully learn the Psalms and
Saxon books, especially Saxon poems, and are continually in the
habit of making use of books.' But " Ethelward the youngest,
by the divine counsels and the admirable prudence of the king, was
sent to the Grammar School (ludis litterariae disciplinae) , where with
the children of almost all the nobility of the country, and many
also who were not noble, he prospered under the diligent care of
his masters. Books in both languages, namely Latin and Saxon,
were diligently read in the school. They also learned to write, so
that before they were of an age to practise manly arts, namely
hunting and such pursuits as befit gentlemen (nobilibus), they
became studious and clever in the liberal arts." This passage so
entirely coincides with the description of York school given by
Alcuin in its evidence that the grammar school was frequented by
laymen as well as clerics, and it is so improbable that " Asser "
borrowed from Alcuin, that we may take it to be the normal thing
that young Englishmen of good birth were brought up in the public
grammar schools then as now.
Anglo-Saxon schools were not confined to bishops' sees. Apart
from Malmesbury, the story of which has been so obscured by
monastic writers as to make it impossible to ascertain whether
it had a public school or not, there were public schools in all
the principal centres of population, generally marked by being
also the sites of collegiate churches. At least, wherever Ethel-
fleda, the Lady of the Mercians, and her brother, Edward the
Elder, are recorded as building " burns" through the Midlands
to consolidate their conquests from the Danes, there we find
also collegiate churches of pre-Conquest origin and early grammar
schools; e.g. at Stafford and Derby, Huntingdon, Bedford and
Leicester, at Bridgenorth, Tamworth and Warwick.
It is perhaps only at the last place that the direct evidence of
the continuance of the school from pre-Conquest to post-Con-
quest times>is preserved. There, in 1123 (Leach, Hist. Warwick
School, ipcS), the earl of Warwick, having granted to the canons
of St Mary's collegiate church in the town " the school of the
church, that the service of God in the same may be improved
by the attendance of scholars," the older church of All Saints
in the castle appealed to the crown, and Henry I. issued a writ
to " command that the church of All Saints have all its customs
and ordeals ... as fully as it used to have them in the time
of King Edward and my father and brother and the school
(scolas) in like manner." In the result the two collegiate churches
were united, the canons of All Saints being transferred to St
Mary's and " the school of Warwick" confirmed to the united
church, which was to enjoy the same liberties as London, Lincoln,
Salisbury and York churches, i.e. be like a cathedral church of
secular canons. That this included the maintenance of a
school is clear from a reply to one of a number of questions as
to their liberties and customs put by the Warwick chapter to
the dean and chapter of Salisbury in 1155, viz. " the scholars
to their own master stand and fall," i.e. the master not the
chapter was to look after the boys.
Even the Danes became founders of churches and schools.
Thus Herman, the historian of Bury, writing in 1098 (Mem.
Bury St Edmunds, Rolls ser. i. 46), and speaking of Canute
little more than a generation after his death, recalls his charities,
how " when he came to a minster or fortified town, he handed
over, to be taught at his own expense, for the clerical or the
monastic order, not any chance boy of good birth, but the more
select of the poor." Abbot Sampson, writing about a century
later, c. 1180 (ibid. 126), credits Canute with " instituting public
schools (publicas scolas; the earliest use probably of the term
public school in any English writer) in the cities and towns,
and, establishing masters at the state expense, sent to them
boys of good promise to be taught grammar, including even
freed sons of slaves." Canute is praised because he turned out
the canons from Bury to put in monks. But the school, though
it thus fell under the sway of the abbot, continued in the town,
outside the precinct of the abbey, and was served by secular
masters. So when Earl, afterwards King, Harold founded the
college of Holy Cross at Waltham, the chief officer next the
dean was the schoolmaster, Master Athelard, imported from
Liege, whose " lessons in grammar and verses and composition
did not prevent equal knowledge of singing and divine service.
The boys knew the psalter by heart, and entered the choir in
procession from school, and on leaving choir returned to school
with all the gravity of the regular canons" who in 1177 sup-
planted the seculars. The secular canon, one of the expelled,
who wrote the history about 1180, was himself the pupil of
Master Peter, son of Athelard; for secular canons married and
had children.
In the half century which followed the Conquest, the cathedral
and many of the collegiate churches were reconstituted and en-
larged, the normal number of seven canons being increased, and
reaching in some cases as many as fifty. In this reconstitution
schools were not forgotten. The statutes called " The Institution
of St Osmund," said to have been made at the foundation of Salis-
bury Cathedral in 1091, are in almost identically the same words as
the statutes of Lincoln, York and Wells, and they established,
instead of two principal persons, provost or dean and schoolmaster,
four, viz. dean, singer (cantor), schoolmaster or chancellor (can-
cellarius) and treasurer. Of these, " the cantor ought to rule the
choir as to singing; the treasurer in keeping the ornaments, the
chancellor in teaching school (scolis regendis), correcting the books;
the archiscola ought to hear the lessons and determine, carry the
church seal, and compose letters and deeds, note the readers on the
table as the cantor does the singers. ' The York statutes codified
in 1307 expressly state that the chancellor was " anciently called the
schoolmaster " (magister scolarum, a variant of which was scolasticus).
At St Paul's a series of documents relating to the chancellor are
3 6 4
SCHOOLS
endorsed " of the schoolmaster, now the chancellor." When he
dropped the title of schoolmaster, the chancellor ceased himself to
teach any school except the theological school, in which he con-
tinued to lecture until the Reformation, but he always remained the
educational officer of the chapter. Thus at York in 1307 he was
bound to be a master in theology, i.e. D.D., and " to him belongs the
collation to grammar schools; but the school of York, he ought to
give to a regent in arts " (i.e. an M.A. who has not taken his degree
more than two years) " to hold for three years, and not longer,
except by grace for four years." The grammar schools outside
York to which he was to appoint were probably thdSe in York
diocese, outside special liberties, such as Beverley (itself a collegiate
church), but except for an appointment by the chapter, when the
chancellorship was vacant, to Doncaster grammar school in 1351
(A. F. Leach, Early Yorks. Schools, i. 22), we do not know what
they were. At Lincoln " no one can teach in the city of Lincoln
without his (the chancellor's) licence and all the schools in Lincoln-
shire he confers at his own pleasure " (Viet. County Hist.: Lines, ii.).
In London the chancellor was called schoolmaster until 1205.
The original writ is still extant (Mem. St Paul's, A. ii. 25), in which,
in 1138, Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester, acting as bishop of
London, holding the see in commendam during a vacancy, enforced
the exclusive privilege of Henry the Schoolmaster (scolarum magistro)
of St Paul's, ordering the dean and archdeacon " to excommunicate
those who without a licence from schoolmaster Henry presume to
teach in the city of London, except those teaching the schools of
St Mary le Bow and St Martin's ie Grand." St Martin's le Grand
was itself a collegiate church with a dean and chapter and the duty
and right of keeping a grammar school, and St Mary le Bow was a
" peculiar " of the archbishop of Canterbury and extra diocesan to
London.
Precisely similar provisions prevailed at the great collegiate
churches like Beverley and Ripon in Yorkshire, and Southwell in
Nottinghamshire (A. F. Leach, Mem. of Southwell Minster, xli. ii. 13,
205), all pre-Conquest churches and secondary cathedrals to the vast
diocese of York. At the former, where we hear (Hist. Ch. of York,
Rolls ser., i. 281) a curious tale about the schoolmaster (scolasticus),
c. 1 100, falling in love with a girl he saw in church, the schoolmaster
also became chancellor. In 13041306 we find a series of reported
cases in which he enforced by excommunication the monopoly of
the grammar schoolmaster he appointed against unlicensed rivals
teaching in the chapter liberty (A. F. Leach, Beverley Chap. Act
Book, i. 42, 48, 55, 102, 108, 114). Similarly the collegiate churches
in the castles of Pontefract and Hastings (Viet. County Hist.:
Sussex, ii.) had their grammar schoolmasters about lioo. They
were spread all over the kingdom.
The grammar school was a public school open to every one.
It has been indeed repeatedly asserted that the cathedral schools
were choristers' schools and taught nothing but the 'psalter
and a little elementary Latin grammar. The assertion is founded
on a complete misunderstanding. It is a question whether there
were any choristers in the I2th century or whether they are
not a later introduction, the canons and their vicars choral or
choir deputies at first doing the singing themselves. Choristers
at Salisbury are not mentioned in the Institution of St Osmund,
and they first appear in the 1220 edition of that document. At
Lincoln we first find choristers mentioned in a statute of 1236,
" To the Precentor belongs the instruction and discipline of the
boys and their admission and ordering in choir." At York the
1307 edition of the statutes says " the collection (i.e. appoint-
ment of masters) to song schools belongs to the singer," now
called precentor, " and cases affecting them ought to be heard
and decided by him, though execution belongs to the chapter "
(Leach, Early Yorks. Schools, i. 12). At St Paul's there was
no precentor till the I3th century and there is no mention of
choristers till 1263, though school-boys (pueri scolarum) appear
as witnessing a deed between 1142 and 1148 and receiving 4d.
for cherries for doing so. It must be remembered also how very
small the number of choristers was and how incapable of con-
stituting a school. At St Paul's they were only eight until the
15th century, at York only seven in the I4th. So far from the
grammar school being a school solely or even chiefly for choristers,
there are several cases in which contests arose whether they had
any right of admission to the grammar school. Thus the I4th
century register of the almoner or almsgiver of St Paul's, who
about 1180 was given a house for the poor, in which later the
choristers were boarded, records that the grammar school-
master claimed five shillings a year for teaching them grammar.
At Beverley in 1312 a contest between the grammar school-
master and the song schoolmaster took place as to whether
the grammar schoolmaster was bound to admit all choristers
free, or only the original number of seven. It was held after
evidence as to old custom that all must be admitted free. But
there could have been no doubt if the grammar school had
been for their sole or chief benefit. A contest at Warwick,
between the grammar schoolmaster and the music school-
master, about 1215 (or 1315), owing to the latter intruding
on the domain of the former, was settled by the chapter on the
basis that the latter was to teach no grammar, but only " those
learning their letters, the psalter, music and song " (A. F. Leach,
Hist. Warwick School, 62-66). Everywhere from the I3th
century onwards the song or choristers' school was of the nature
of an elementary school, like that attended by Chaucer's " litel
clergeon " in the Prioress' Tale, in which the boy " sat in the
scole at his prymer " but could not construe the Alma Re-
demptoris because "I lerne song, I can (i.e. know) but smal
grammere." Even in quite small places, as at Northallerton,
Yorkshire, the distinction between the grammar school and the
song school was at first strictly drawn, but tended to disappear
in the dearth of M.A.S after the Black Death (Early Yorks.
Schools, ii. 60-62). In the larger places the distinction was
strictly maintained until the Reformation, when the song schools
disappeared, except in the cathedrals and the few collegiate
churches, including Winchester and Eton, which survived it, and
at Newark and Coventry.
The cathedral and collegiate church grammar schools under
the control of the secular clergy in the person of the chancellor
of the church furnished the chief, and perhaps in the i2th
century the sole, supply of schools. There is, however, some
excuse for the notion that monasteries kept them, in the fact
that in England, differing from the rest of the world, the cathedral
churches had, in many of the chief places, notably Canterbury,
Winchester and Worcester, during the monastic outburst con-
nected with the names of Ethelwold bishop of Winchester and
Dunstan of Canterbury, been taken from the secular clergy,
and monks placed in their room. In those places there was no
chancellor. But so essentially was education regarded as the
business, not of monks, but of the secular clergy, that even in
these places the grammar schools were not placed under the
monks but remained under the immediate care of the bishop,
either personally or through his archdeacon, a secular. Thus
we find at Winchester about 1154 Master Jordan Fantosme and
John Joichel (Jekyll), " clerks of the bishop of Winchester,"
carrying an appeal from the bishop about the right to teach
the school at Winchester first to the Court of Arches and then
to the pope, and as late as 1488 Bishop William Waynflete
appointing a master to the grammar school " called in the
vulgar tongue, the High School " (A. F. Leach, Hist. Win. Coll.).
This school was in Symonds Street outside the monastic precinct.
So at Canterbury the grammar schoolmaster appears among
lay witnesses in 1259; his right to excommunicate anyone
assaulting his scholars or carrying on a rival school was allowed
on appeal to the Court of Arches, on production of a confirma-
tion by the archbishop of the right as already ancient in 1292,
and appointments by the archbishops of the master in 1306,
1311, 1375 and 1443 are preserved (The Times, Sept. 1897).
Here also the school was outside the monastic precinct, by the
parish church of St Alphege in the town (Guardian, 12 and
19 Jan. 1898). Similar evidence is forthcoming at Worcester,
Norwich, Carlisle and elsewhere.
At the end of the nth and beginning of the i2th century
a renewed movement began for the further extrusion of the
secular clergy, on the ground of their wicked lives, the wicked-
ness being that they insisted on the liberty to marry, and for
the conversion of collegiate churches into monasteries of the
new orders, first of Cluniac monks, then of Augustinian, Black
or regular canons, who eschewed matrimony. Thus Dunwich
School passed under the rule of Eye Priory (Cluniacs) between
1076 and 1083; and Thetford School to Thetford Priory
(Cluniacs) in 1094, though it was released again to the secular
dean of Thetford in 1114. Similarly the government of Glouce-
ster School was handed over to Llanthony Abbey (Augus-
tinians) in 1137; Reading School was given to the newly-founded
SCHOOLS
365
Reading Abbey (Cluniacs) in 1139; Dunstable School to Dun-
gtable Priory in 1130; Derby School to Barley Priory (Augus-
tinian) about 1150. Bedford collegiate church was converted
into a priory and moved to Newnham, and its right to the school
acknowledged by the archdeacon of Bedford in 1155. A similar
acknowledgment is found at Christ Church, Hants, in 1161;
while Bristol School was taken from the Kalenders Gild and
handed to Keynsham Abbey in 1171; and Arundel School to
Arundel Priory at some date unknown (see articles on " Schools "
in Victoria County History for the several counties in which
these places occur). But these transfers did not make the
schools monastic in the sense that the schools were kept in the
monasteries or taught, much less frequented, by monks. The
schools remained secular, outside the monastic precincts,
frequented by lay boys and secular clerks, and taught by secular
clerks, sometimes in holy orders and at that time even sub-
deacons were reckoned as holy orders but more often only in
minor orders, and not seldom married men. Thus in 1420 the
Patent Rolls show us one Ralph Strode, master of the scholars
of the city of Winchester, bringing an action with Dionysia his
wife. All that was transferred to the monks was the right of
appointing the schoolmaster and the power and duty of pro-
tecting the authorized schoolmaster's monopoly. At Bury
St Edmunds indeed the extrusion of seculars had gone so far
that even the archdeaconry of Bury was vested in the monastery
and exercised by the sacrist of it, subject to appeal to the abbot
(Viet. County Hist.: Suffolk Schools, ii.). The substitution of
regulars for seculars ceased in the latter part of the 1 2th century,
owing chiefly to the secular clergy at length, under papal pressure,
accepting the rule of celibacy, and to the growth of universities.
The universities were developed out of the cathedral and
collegiate church schools. In the days of Alcuin, as we saw,
the one schoolmaster taught all subjects from the elements of
grammar to theology and philosophy. In Italy the faculties
of law and medicine had early in the I2th century developed
schools of their own. In France theology similarly segregated
itself, and, owing to the fortunate independence which the
collegiate church of St Genevieve enjoyed from the jurisdiction
of the scolasticus or chancellor of Notre Dame, much as in London
the master of St Martin's le Grand did from that of the chancellor
of St Paul's, rival schools of theology became possible, and the
university of Paris, essentially a theological university, was
born. The first university teaching in England came, not from
France, but Italy, and was not in theology but law, and at
Oxford the two collegiate churches of St Frideswide and St
George's in the castle occupied much the same relative position
as Notre Dame and St Genevieve at Paris. It is rather in their
development and rivalry, not in a purely imaginary colony
from Paris, that the origin of Oxford University must be sought.
But the story of universities (q.v.) is told elsewhere. The im-
portant thing for the schools was that the university movement
made the cathedral schoolmasters devote themselves to theology
and to grown-up students, to the exclusion of grammar and
arts, and left the grammar school entirely for boys and youths
to be instructed in classical literature, rhetoric and the elements
of logic, preparatory for the university. Moreover, the move-
ment for university colleges perhaps caused a new crop of
collegiate churches to spring up, of which grammar schools
formed an integral and important part. In the quinquennium
1260 to 1265, the collegiate church of Howden was founded
on the Yorkshire estates of the bishop and priory of Durham
at one end of the kingdom, and that of Glasney in Cornwall
on the estate of the bishop of Exeter at the other. These were
ordinary colleges of secular canons with grammar schools at-
tached, and the schools outlived the colleges at the Reformation.
They were contemporary with the first university colleges.
The college of St Nicholas, with 20 university students, was
founded by Bishop Giles Bridport of Salisbury at Salisbury
in 1261, Merton College by Walter of Merton at Maiden in
Surrey in 1265, and St Edmund's College at Salisbury by Bishop
Wyly in 1270, and Merton College was moved to Oxford in 1275.
The difference between these colleges and the ordinary collegiate
churches was simply that the former were ad orandum el studen-
dum, the latter ad studendum et orandum. So closely did Merton
College follow the ordinary collegiate church model, that its
chapel was an impropriated parish church and it contained
the usual appendage of a grammar school, though it was limited
to 13 boys, who were to be of the founder's kin. The master
who taught them was called the " master of glomery," an odd
corruption found also at Salisbury, Cambridge and Orleans.
A similar grammar school was found at Queen's College in 1340,
but this from lack of endowment was never developed according
to its founder's intentions. These two colleges formed a starting
point for yet another new development, when William of Wyke-
ham, in founding New College on a scale more than twice as
large as Merton, separated the grammar students from the
theological and legal students, and placed the former as the
main object of a separate, though connected and more or less
subordinate college, at Winchester in 1382. Though Winchester
was the first boys' school-college, Oxford itself had been ap-
parently the first place in medieval England at which grammar
schools were maintained as separate entities, not attached to
cathedrals or colleges, and practically as private adventure
schools. The university apparently placed no limit on their
number and rivalry, though retaining control and supervision
over their efficiency, through two grammar school surveyors
elected by convocation.
In the first quarter of the I4th century even the monasteries
contributed to the spread of education by almonry schools, which
were now built as quasi-separate institutions by, or just outside,
their outer gates, under the management of the almoner or almsgiver
of the house. The almonry boys were apparently introduced as
choristers to sing in the Lady chapels, which had become almost
necessary appendages to great churches. At Canterbury a staff of
six secular priests with clerks and scholars was established in the
Lady chapel to sing for the soul of Edward I. in 1319. The scholars
were admitted at ten years old and might stay to twenty-five, but
were expected to be ordained sub-deacons and retire at twenty.
They were lodged in a separate hall (Aula Puerorum), but waited on
the sick and infirm monks who lived in the infirmary. At first they
were taught wholly in the city or archbishop's grammar school.
But by 1362 they had a separate grammar master, probably only as
a house master, as the one mentioned in that year found Kingston
school a better post, to which he had gone off without notice. The
master was always a secular, and in 1451 was a married man. There
is no evidence as to how many boys there were. At Westminster
boys first appear in the almonry in 1354, and they first had a master
in 1367, who from 1387 onwards, but not before, is called school-
master. The boys numbered thirteen in 1373, twenty-eight in 1385,
twenty-two in 1387. The normal number seems to have been twenty-
four (A. F. Leach in Journal of Education, Jan. 1905). This almonry
school for charity boys is the only school, other than the novices'
school, which existed at Westminster Abbey before, on its con-
version into a cathedral by Henry VI 1 1., the present school with
forty scholars and unlimited town boys was established on the
model of the old cathedral grammar schools. At Durham the
almonry school first occurs in 1352; their master is first called
schoolmaster in 1362 (Ibid. Oct. 1905). At the dissolution there
were thirty boys, who waited on the monks in the infirmary, prayed
all night round dead monks, sang in the Lady chapel, were fed on
the broken meats from the novices' table and lodged in a hospital
or infirmary opposite but outside the great gate of the monastery.
At Reading almonry boys first appear in 1346, and were ten in
number. They seem to have attended the town grammar school.
At St Albans statutes were made for apparently thirteen almonry
boys in 1399, who lodged by the great gate but attended the grammar
school in the town. At Coventry there were fourteen boys in the
almonry school, and the town quarrelled with the prior in 1439 for
trying to interfere with the town grammar school for the benefit of
the almonry school. The Carthusian monastery at Coventry had
twelve boys in its almonry. At St Mary's Abbey, York, the almonry
had fifty boys who attended St Peter s, i.e. the city and cathedral
grammar school (Early Yorks. Schools, i.).
Taken altogether these almonry schools provided for the education
of, or gave exhibitions to, a large number of boys, probably not
less than 1000 in all. But they were not " monastic " ; the boys
themselves were not novices or oblates, and were looked after and
taught by seculars. Various efforts were made in the I4th century
and onwards to make the monks themselves learned. By papal
statute in 1337 the Benedictine monasteries were each to send 5%
of their number to the universities. Though Gloucester College
had been established at Oxford in 1283 (reorganized in 1291) to
receiye them, not i% of the monks went there, for there is reason
to think it never had more than sixty, and in 1537 had only thirty-
two students ( Viet. Co. Hist.: Gloucester, ii. 342). Also the monasteries
3 66
SCHOOLS
were ordered to provide a grammar master who might be, and in
tact nearly always was, to teach the young monks and novices.
Yet in 1387 the Winchester cathedral monks were found by William
of Wykeham to be '' wholly ignorant of grammar " and to make the
lessons in church unintelligible by wild false quantities. In the
visitations of Norwich monasteries in the late I5th century (Dr
Tessopp, Camd. Soc. 1892) hardly one had its grammar master as
it ought to have had. In 1495 Osney Abbey provided for the monks
a grammar master who was a secular (Boase, Oxford, Historic Towns).
At Canterbury itself Archbishop Warham in 1511 found the monks
totally ignorant of the meaning of the mass and of the lessons which
they read, and ordered them to have a grammar master to teach the
young monks. In 1531 Bishop Longland of Lincoln issued injunc-
tions to Messenden Priory in English " for that ye be ignorant and
have small understanding of Latin." At the Dissolution a grammar
master was teaching the monks at Winchester grammar, but he was
not a monk but ex-second-master of Winchester College (Hist.
Winchester Coll. 26), and other Wykehamists were to be found
teaching grammar at the London Charterhouse and Netley Abbey,
Hants. It is clear that the monks were by no means a learned
body.
It is chiefly from the London and Oxford schools that we learn what
grammar schools actually taught in the I2th to the isth centuries.
The local classicus is Fitzstephen's Description of London (Mat.
Hist. Becket, Rolls series, iii. 4), as it was in the youth of Thomas
a Becket when about 1127 he attended St Paul's school, "the
city school," before going to Paris university. Fitzstephen describes
the contests of the scholars from it and the other two schools on
saints' days, when the elders contended in logic and rhetoric,
and the boys " vie with each other in verses, or in the principles
of the art of grammar or the rules of preterites and supines, others
in epigrams, rhymes and metres "; while on Shrove Tuesday, after
a cock-fight in the morning, they had a great game of (foot?) ball
in Smithfield. About a century later, 1267, Oxford University
statutes show us that B.A.s had to read for their degree Priscian On
Constructions twice, and Donatus's Barbarismus once; books which
imply an advanced knowledge of Latin syntax. The Oxford
grammar school statutes, not dated but of the I3th century, provide
for grammar masters being examined in verse-making and prose
composition and knowledge of Latin authors before being licensed
to teach. The only authors actually mentioned, and that for the
sake of being forbidden as improper, are Ovid's Art of Love and
Pamphilus who wrote De Amort. Every fortnight the masters were
to set a copy of verses and letters to write, which the boys were
to do the next holiday, and show up on the following whole school-
day. Special attention was to be paid to the smaller boys in hearing
and examining them on their rules as to parts of speech and accidence.
It was particularly ordered that they were to observe the rule in
Latin and Roman (Romanis), i.e. translations were to be done not
into English but Romance, i.e. French. For after the Conquest
French was the vernacular language of the upper classes, and while
the pre-Conquest school glossary of jElfric translated Latin into
English, the post-Conquest glossaries, such as Neckam of St Albans
school, give the translation in French. Though by the I3th century
English was supplanting French, the schools as usual lagged behind,
and the fiction was kept up that French was still the vernacular of
England till after the victories of Edward III. John of Treviea,
translating the Polychronicon of Higden, who, writing in 1327,
commented on the corruption of English due to the strange custom
of boys in school being compelled to construe in French, tells us
that this custom of construing into French " was changed after the
first murrain (the Black Death of 1349) by John Cornwal, a ' mayster
of gramere,' " followed by Richard Pencrych, so that " now, A.D.
1385, in al the gramer scoles of Engelond children leaveth Frensch
and construeth and lurneth an Englysch," the advantage of which
was that they learnt Latin quicker, but the disadvantage was that
they knew " no more French than their left heel." Master John
Cornwall was an Oxford grammar schoolmaster, being paid lod.
in 1347 for " salary " of his school for the six founder' s-kin boys at
Merton ; and Pencrych was not, as supposed by Mr de Montmorency
(State Intervention, 22) through a strange misunderstanding, a school-
master at Penkridge in Staffordshire (though he no doubt took his
name from that place), but was another Oxford man, living in 1367
in a hall by Merton, afterwards called Pencrych Hall. Though this
very rational innovation thus began in Oxford, yet a new edition
of the Oxford Grammar School Statutes in the late I4th or early
I5th century provided that the masters should in construing teach
the meaning of words by turns in English and French, " lest the
French tongue should be utterly lost," as it came to be.
It is extremely difficult to ascertain what books were actually
read in English schools before the i6th century. Whether the
Christian poets such as Sedulius and Juvencus, the staple of Alcuin
and recommended by Colet for St Paul's in 1518, were much read
in the intermediate times, is doubtful. Vincent of Beauvais, who
wrote about 1245 " on the education of noblemen " for the queen of
France, quotes Horace, Ovid, Apuleius and Valerius Maximus, but
would like to substitute the Christians for the classics. But he was
a Dominican friar. It is certain that classical authors were not
expelled. In 1356 Bishop Grandison of Exeter abused the school-
masters of his diocese for taking the boys, " as soon as they could
read the Lord's Prayer, the creed or matins and the hours of the
Virgin, and before they could construe or parse them," to " other
school books and poets as if they were heathens instead of
Christians." Books of manners in verse were read in schools from
the days of John de Garlandia, c. 1220. to the Quos decet in mensa
of Sulpicius, a Roman schoolmaster of 1498, which was read in the
lower forms of Winchester and Eton in 1535. The metrical grammar
of Alexander of De villa Dei (Dol) was almost as popular as Donatus.
In rhetoric Cicero De orator e was the staple work. In dialectic or
logic successive manuals were founded on Boethius and Isidore of
Seville. The I5th century saw a reaction against the logic, which,
valuable as it was, was begun much too early and was strongly
reprobated by Wayneflete, who at Magdalen School insisted that his
" demyes," or scholars, should not go on to logic till perfect in
grammar. The wide knowledge of the classics shown by Chaucer,
who no doubt, like Becket before him and Milton after him, went to
St Paul's school, indicates what the average laymen and cleric
learnt in the average grammar school.
A question has been raised as to who attended the grammar
schools. The answer appears to be, all classes. Theoretically,
sons of slaves and villeins were excluded. But it seems certain
that picked specimens even of this class were admitted. The
bulk of early schools were then, as now, in cities and boroughs,
where all were free. .fElfric's Anglo-Saxon colloquies represent
sons of smiths, huntsmen, cowherds, shepherds attending school
and learning Latin. That villeins' sons did go to school is
clear from two instances alone. In 1312 Walter of Merton,
fellow of Merton College, Oxford, a villein, was manumitted by
the prior of Durham. In 1344 the manor rolls at Great Waltham,
Essex, show a villein fined 3d. for sending his son to school without
licence from the lady of the manor (Hist. Rev., July 1905).
In 1391, after the Peasants' Revolt, the Commons sent up a bill
to Richard II. " that no neif " (said to mean a female villein)
" or villein may henceforth send their children]to school (a escoles)
for their advancement by clergy, and that for the maintenance
and salvation of the honour of all the freemen of the realm."
The petition was rejected. In 1406 the statute of artisans,
while putting numerous restrictions on their freedom, adds,
" provided always that every man or woman of whatever estate
or condition shall be free to send their son or daughter to learn
grammar (litterature) at any school in our kingdom." Henry VI.,
in the statutes of Eton, bears witness to the admission of the un-
free to schools by inserting a reactionary prohibition against
villeins (nativi) or illegitimate children being admitted scholars.
Illegitimates were theoretically excluded from the priesthood,
but the papal registers are crammed with indulgences to scholars
who were illegitimate for admission to holy orders. As to the
upper class, an erroneous inference that gentlemen's sons were
not sent to school has been drawn from the passage of Higden
above quoted, because, after saying that children in grammar
schools learnt no French now, he adds that neither did gentlemen
teach their sons French. But the two classes are not mutually
exclusive. Elder sons, who were going to be knights or squires,
did not as a rule go to school, but the younger sons did. The
vast majority of bishops, and the higher clergy, were the younger
sons of noblemen and gentlemen, and had certainly been to school.
It is made a reproach against Bishop Grosseteste of Lincoln in
his contest with his chapter that he was not a gentleman. We
find Giffard, archbishop of York, son of a great Gloucestershire
magnate, sending three wards to Beverley grammar school
in 1276, and another archbishop of York, William Melton,
ex-privy seal and lord chancellor, sending two nephews to
Newark school in 1338. The only known mention of the school of
Taunton before the days of its wrongly-reputed founder, Bishop
Fox, is preserved in an inquisition in 1310 to prove the age of
a royal ward, Hugh, son and heir of Thomas de la Tour. John
of Kent, 60 years old, knows Hugh's age because he had a son
at the school of Taunton with him seventeen years before (The
Genealogist, iii. 211). Thiscannot have been an isolated instance.
William of Wykeham would not have provided for " 10 sons of
noblemen and gentlemen, special friends of the college," being
admitted as commensales or boarders with the scholars, nor have
forbidden the scholars of Winchester and New College to quarrel
as to whether their birth was eoble or otherwise, nor would the
earliest lists of scholars and commoners there contain the names
SCHOOLS
3 6 7
of sons of judges and masters in chancery and country gentlemen,
like the Pophams of Dorset and the ffaringtons of Lancashire, if
the gentle classes were not already in the habit of going to school.
At Eton the number of noblemen and gentlemen commoners was
doubled. The first or second headmaster and third provost of
Eton, William Westbury, a Winchester and New College scholar,
was almost certainly the son of the chief justice of that name.
In 1464 Mr Thomas Bourchier, son of the earl of Essex and of Eu,
nephew of the archbishop of Canterbury, was a commoner outside
college at Winchester, and in 1479 the son of William Paston,
the judge and Norfolk landowner, was writing verses at Eton
in his letters home. In 1 502 Sir John Percy vale founded Maccles-
field grammar school expressly for " gentlemen's and other good
men's sons thereabout."
Tuition fees were normally paid in grammar schools. In 1277
the fee paid to the " master of glomery ' at Oxford for five Merton
founder s-kin boys was sod., or 4d. a head a term; in 1306 the
" scolagium " of eight boys in the winter term was 33., of seven
boys in the Lent term 2s. nd. and in the summer term 2s. 4d., a
variation from 4d. to 4jd- and 5d. a term, probably owing to varia-
tion in the length of the term, and representing Jd. a week. In that
year the dica of the usher was id. a term, and in 1310 the usher was
paid 4d. for three terms for eight boys, or jd. a term. The usher
must have been paid something by the master, as even in that age,
when the majority of livings were under 3 a year, a halfpenny
could hardly have been a living wage for eight weeks. Perhaps the
usher got a share of the levy of 2d. a head for offerings to the light
of St Nicholas, the school boys' patron saint. For at Worcester in
1291 the bishop was called in to settle a quarrel between the school-
master and the rector of St Nicholas church as to the right to the
wax which guttered from St Nicholas' light, which the boys main-
tained. An undated Oxford statute of the isth century fixes the
upward limit of grammar school fees at 8d. a term (Reg. Giffard,
f. 341). The tariff settled by the bishop of Norwich, for Ipswich
grammar school in 1476-1477 was lod. for grammarians, 8d. for
psalterians, or those learning to read the psalter in Latin, and 6d.
for primerians, or those learning the primer or accidence (Viet. Co.
Hist., Suffolk, ii.). But the corporation rebelled against the fee of
lod. for grammarians, and in 1482 cut it down to 8d. a term. This
was certainly the normal fee. In the return of chantries at their
dissolution in 1548, the school at Newland is reported (Leach, English
Schools at the Reformation, 78) to have been founded in 1446, to be
" half-free, that is to say, taking of scholars learning grammar 8d.
the quarter, and of others learning to read 4d. a quarter."
At successive epochs there have been attempts to make
education free (Journ. of Educ., June and July 1908). Hitherto
after every attempt fees have crept back under some guise or
other, as the endowments provided to ensure freedom were often
inadequate to start with, and anyhow became inadequate by
change in the value of money, while the inveterate habit of the
rich in giving " tips " to secure special attention forced contribu-
tions on others. The movement began under the Roman
Empire, Pliny founding a practically free school at Como, while
successive emperors from Vespasian onwards extended the area
and pay of public schools at the state expense, both of rhetoric
and grammar. There can be little doubt that the cathedral
schools were intended to be free just as much as the church
services. Yet it had become necessary by the Lateran Council in
1 179 for the canon law definitely to provide that, " to prevent the
poor who could not be helped by their parents' means from being
deprived of the opportunity of learning and advancement,"
every cathedral church should provide a competent benefice for a
master to teach the clerks of the church and poor scholars gratis:
and that in other churches if any endowment had been assigned
for the purpose it should be restored, while no fees were to be
exacted for licences to teach. At the next Lateran council
in 1215 this canon was recited and its non-observance in many
places lamented. The canon was confirmed and extended from
cathedrals to all churches of sufficient means, while the cathedrals
were also directed to provide a theological lecturer. That the
first canon was not everywhere a dead letter is proved by the
grant about 1180 of Archbishop Roger to the chapter of York
f S a year " to the fee of your school," charged on the synodals
of three archdeaconries, confirmed by Archbishop Geoffrey
(1191-1212), and arrears demanded in a violent letter by the
chancellor to Archbishop Giffard in 1271 (A. F. Leach, Early
Yorkshire Schools, c. 12-16). So at Bury St Edmunds in 1180
Abbot Sampson, who had himself when a boy and a secular clerk
been admitted to the grammar school free as a special personal
favour, first made the grammar school free of fees for " school-hire "
by giving it a school house outside the abbey in the town, and
a few years later endowed it with half of a living worth 5 a year,
for which the master was to teach 40 boys free, relations of the
monks being preferred. There were also many exhibition endow-
ments, which made schools free or partially free for poor boys,
such as the provision at St Cross Hospital, Winchester, founded
in 1 130, of free meals daily for twelve boys from the High School,
Winchester; and an endowment given to the Durham Abbey
almoner about 1180 for board and lodging of three boys from
Durham grammar school, while at St Nicholas' Hospital, Ponte-
fract, the custom was ancient in 1267 to provide 40 loaves a week
" except in vacations " for the scholars of Pontefract school, which
is mentioned about noo as granted to the collegiate church in the
castle there. It is significant that while the inquisition which
established this custom was taken in French in 1267 it was
confirmed in a mixture of Latin and English in 1464. In con-
nexion with Stapledon Hall, now Exeter College, Oxford,
Bishop Stapledon about 1327 provided for twelve scholars of
Exeter Cathedral grammar school being boarded and clothed
gratis in St John's Hospital by one of the gates of the city. In
1441 St Anthony's school was established in St Anthony's
Hospital, London. Later, as in the famous case of Banbury
Hospital, under Stanbridge in 1501, hospitals were bodily con-
verted into schools, a precedent frequently followed since. Henry
VI., in 1441, under the guidance of Chicheley and Wayneflete,
copied Winchester down to the minutest particulars, and the
wording of its statutes, but with the important difference that
its school was declared, what Winchester was not, a free grammar
school open to all from all parts of England. Another class of
school, which if not free at first generally became so, was that of
the grammar schools established by joint stock effort of the
numerous gilds, or trades unions, which studded the towns.
As the London City gilds still keep chaplains, so nearly every
gild maintained one or more priests to perform the gild masses,
say grace at the gild feasts, and bury the gild brethren and sisters
and pray for their souls. Some of the larger ones converted
parish churches, as at Boston, into little less than cathedrals in
size and splendour, with a staff of priests and singing clerks as
large as that of the greatest collegiate churches. Some of these
priests or clerks kept schools of grammar and of song. There are
unfortunately no accounts of such gilds preserved earb'er than
the isth or i6th centuries. But there can be no doubt that
they kept schools much earlier than that. The grammar schools
at Louth and Boston, which appear, the former in the isth
century and the latter in the I4th, in gild documents, occur in
other documents in 1276 and 1329 respectively. The school of the
gild of Wisbech in Cambridgeshire is similarly mentioned in 1446.
At Stratford-on-Avon the school appears in the earliest extant
gild accounts, in 1402, but existed more than a century earlier,
when, in 1295, its master or " rector " was ordained a subdeacon
side by side with the rector of the parish church, William Gren-
field, a future archbishop of York. It was converted into a free
school by endowments given by one of the gild priests in 1482,
and has continued without intermission to the present day
(Viet. Co. Hist., Warwick, ii. 329).
Probably the most numerous schools were those kept by
chantry priests, endowed by single benefactors to pray for their
souls, who sometimes by express terms of the foundation, more
often perhaps to occupy their time or eke out not too substantial
endowments, kept schools. These were sometimes free, more
often at first not. But we know scarcely anything of these schools
before the i4th century, the foundation deeds of those isolated
institutions not having been preserved like those of colleges.
We find, however, Oswestry endowed as a free school by David
Holbeach, a lawyer, about 1406; Middleton, Lancashire, by
Bishop Langley of Durham, in 1412; Durham itself by the same
in 1414; Sevenoaks by William Sennock (Sevenock), a London
grocer, the schoolmaster of which was " by no means to be in
holy orders," in 1432; Newport, Shropshire, by Thomas Draper,
3 68
SCHOOLS
1442; Newland, Gloucestershire, by Robert Gryndour esquire,
1446; Alnwick, Northumberland, by William Alnwick, bishop
of Lincoln, 1448; Deritend, now in Birmingham, 1448;
Towcester by Archdeacon Sponne in 1449. There was somewhat
of a stoppage of such foundations during the Wars of the Roses,
but it was resumed with renewed vigour during the later years
of Edward IV., and under Henry VII., and continued to the
dissolution of monasteries. Among colleges may be noticed
Acaster College for three schools of grammar, song and scrivener
craft, i.e. writing and accounts, by ex-chancellor Bishop Stilling-
fleet about 1472; Rotherham College with three similar schools
by ex-chancellor Archbishop Rotherham, 1484; Ipswich by the
chancellor Cardinal Wolsey, 1528; and among chantry schools,
Hull, 1482; Long Melford, 1484; Chipping Camden and Stow
on the Wold, 1487; Stockport, by ex-Lord Mayor Sir Edmund
Shaa, 1487; Macclesfield, by ex-Lord Mayor Sir John Percival,
1502; Cromer, by ex-Lord Mayor Read, 1505; Week St Mary,
by the ex-Lady Mayoress Percival, 1508; and so on. The re-
endowment of the old St Paul's school, London, by Dean Colet
in 1510-1512, with the property he inherited from Lord Mayor
Colet, and its transfer under papal, episcopal, capitular and royal
licence from the dean and chapter of St Paul's to the Mercers'
Company, and its conversion into a school free for 153 boys,
created no small stir. Especially was this so, because it is the
first instance in which the teaching of Greek is mentioned in
school statutes, though only in the tentative form of a direction
that the high master should be learned in Latin " and also in
Greek yf suyche may be gotten." Though Greek was probably
taught at Eton and Winchester under William Herman, head-
master of Eton (1485) and Winchester (1494), whose Vulgaria,
composed when headmaster, contains frequent references to
Greek, and even to a Greek play seemingly prepared by the boys,
it did not become a regular school subject till the reign of Eliza-
beth. School exercises in Greek at Winchester under Edward VI.
are preserved, but Sir Thomas Pope says it had been dropped at
Eton under Mary. There is no evidence of it at St Paul's before
Elizabeth's reign. At the time of the meeting of the Reformation
parliament in 1535 there were between 300 and 400 grammar
schools in England, the majority of which were free schools,
charging no fees for teaching.
Free schools received a notable accession, on the dissolution of
monasteries, in the schools attached to all the cathedrals " of the
new foundation," except Winchester, by Henry VIII. in 1540,
including Gloucester, Bristol, Peterborough, Chester and West-
minster, which had not been cathedrals before. On the other
hand, the list of free schools and endowed schools was much re-
duced by the doctrine which treated the endowments of schools
under the control of monasteries not only through the I2th
century transfers but even by much later and known foundations
as trustees, as included in the confiscation of the monastery itself.
Coventry, St Albans, Eye, Reading, Bury St Edmunds, Abing-
don, Faversham are some out of many which suffered from this
doctrine, and if they did not in fact cease, were for a time deprived
of their endowments and only revived with new ones. Reading
school was actually granted to its master, an Eton and King's
scholar. St Albans was restored by the munificence of its last
and well-pensioned abbot; Bury St Edmunds, like a good many
more, by grant of Edward VI.; Abingdon by a private donor;
Faversham by restoration of the trust-property on cause shown.
But many, like Dunwich, perished irretrievably.
Spite of the dissolution of monasteries, the creation of chantry
schools and other grammar schools went on. In this very year,
1540, John Harmon (who is generally known by his assumed
name Veysey or Voysey), bishop of Exeter, endowed Sutton
Coldfield grammar school, and in 1 544 made its gild the governors.
One of the latest of great schools, that of Berkhamsted, was
founded by John Incent, dean of St Paul's, in 1541; while
archbishop Holgate of York founded three free grammar schools,
though without any chantry provisions, at York, Malton and
Hemsworth in 1 546. In 1 548 all the endowed schools in England ,
othet than the cathedral schools, were threatened and the vast
majority destroyed by the act for the dissolution of colleges and
chantries. Only Winchester, Eton and Magdalen College School
were exempted, and they owed their exemption to being regarded
as part of the universities with which (through New College,
King's and Magdalen) they were connected; and even they had
been included in the similar act passed in 1546, which was,
however, permissive and lasted for Henry VIII. 's life only.
The Chantries Act, while providing for the abolition of colleges,
gilds and chantries, contained indeed provision for the continu-
ance by special order of all schools attached to them, which were
grammar schools by foundation, and for their increase and en-
largement out of the confiscated lands. Unfortunately there
was neither time nor money to spare for the purpose. A com-
mission consisting of Sir Walter Mildmay, afterwards chancellor
of the exchequer, and Robert Keylway, or Kelway, afterwards
serjeant-at-law and author of Kelway's Reports, continued by
warrant of the 2oth of June 1548 " until further order " such
schools as were clearly shown to be grammar schools by founda-
tion, at the net income specifically enjoyed by the schoolmasters
at the time. The " further order," which was to re-endow them
with lands, never came. Only in a comparatively few places,
where the inhabitants or powerful persons bestirred themselves
to beg, or more often to buy, chantry lands from the Crown,
were the schools restored and re-endowed. The few that were
restored, and even by an irony of fate some of those which were
deprived of their lands by Edward VI. but managed to struggle
on, got the name of Free Grammar Schools of King Edward VI.
So Edward VI. has been credited with being not only the founder
of schools, estimated by various writers at 22, 30 and 44 in
number, of which in the most favourable cases he increased
the endowment, but also with being the promoter instead of
the spoiler of a grammar school system. The earliest school
actually restored by him was Berkhamsted, which was refounded
by act of parliament in 1549; St Albans, Stamford and Pockling-
ton being also refounded by acts of the same year. Acts of
parliament were found too cumbrous. Some, as at Morpeth,
Northumberland, and Saffron Walden in Essex, were refounded
by grant to a town corporation of gild property with a grammar
school attached. Most of the later refoundations were by letters
patent. The first refoundation by patent for a school per se
under a governing body created ad hoc was that of Sherborne,
I3th of May 1550, Bury St Edmunds often, but wrongly,
claimed as the first, not being till the 3rd of August 1550. The
bulk were refounded in 1551-1553.
The notion that there was any great advance or change in
the curriculum of schools at the Reformation is erroneous.
There is hardly any difference between the authors prescribed
at Bury in 1550 and those at Ipswich in 1528; Cato's Moralia,
Aesop, Terence, Ovid, Erasmus, Sallust, Caesar, Virgil and
Horace appearing in the statutes of both. If anything Ipswich
was the more advanced, as Wolsey directed his boys to be taught
precis writing in English, and essays and themes, also apparently
in English, which are not mentioned at Bury. But Ipswich
was a school of the first grade with eight forms, whereas at
Bury only five were contemplated. The reign of Mary did not
affect the schools as such one way or the other. Several, like
Basingstoke grammar school and St Peter's school, York, were
re-endowed in her reign, the former by restoration of gild lands,
the latter by appropriation of the endowment of a hospital for
poor priests. " Heretic " masters were extruded, and occasion-
ally, like the master of Reading school, Juh'an Palmer, burnt.
Similar extrusions of Romanists followed on the accession of
Elizabeth. In 1580 and subsequent years the bishops were
ordered to inquire as to schoolmasters who did not attend
church or had not licences from the ordinaries to teach. The
visitations of the chapter of Southwell as ordinaries in their
liberty show schoolmasters in many small towns and villages,
some of them " popish recusants," and others inhibited until
they had been duly licensed. How far they taught grammar
schools and not elementary schools is not very clear. But one
unfortunate result of the suppression of the song schools was
that attempts were now made, as at Wellingborough in North-
amptonshire, to make the grammar schools serve the two
SCHOOLS
369
incompatible purposes of grammar and elementary schools, with
the result too often that the grammar school was degraded and
the elementary school inefficient.
The number of school foundations credited to Queen Elizabeth
or her era is very much larger than the facts justify. The
greatest of all, Westminster, which during the i8th century
was facile princeps in the numbers, social rank and academic
and literary achievement of its scholars, had in fact never
ceased after its foundation, or refoundation, as a cathedral
school under Henry VIII. Though Mary had restored the monks,
the school went on throughout her reign 1 and until Elizabeth
formally refounded it with the restored canons. It is more
extraordinary to find St Albans, founded under act of parlia-
ment of Edward VI., with Coventry, restored under patent of
Henry VIII., and Lincoln, which had existed uninterruptedly
from the nth century, credited to her time. Similarly Bristol,
Mansfield, Worcester, Darlington, Leicester, Eye, Bromyard,
Richmond, Bodmin, Penryn, Fotheringay and others long
previously existing and deriving no benefit from her or augmenta-
tion in her time, are erroneously dubbed Elizabethan.
In the curriculum of the schools, the change made by the Re-
formation has been much exaggerated. Already in 1446, in founding
at Cambridge the college of God's House, now included in Christ's
College, which was the first training college for grammar or secondary
schoolmasters, Bingham had put forward the necessity of Latin,
not only for translating the scriptures and carrying on the law and
business of the realm, but also for communication with strangers
and foreigners. In the Elizabethan schools the preparation for
public life was slightly more emphasized. But methods and authors
were little changed. The growth of Greek in all the great schools,
and the attempt, as theological discussion grew keener towards the
end of the reign, to acclimatize Hebrew, are the chief features.
Under James I. and the Commonwealth the mention of Hebrew in
statutes and the teaching of it in schools became quite common. It
was advocated even by John Comenius, the Czech-German, who
created a stir a few years before the Civil War by denouncing Latin
as a subject of instruction except for boys going to the universities,
and advocating the substitution of teaching in the vernacular
language of each country instead.
There is one not wholly novel but notable feature which may
be remarked in Elizabethan school foundations, mostly no
doubt replacing old ones, and that is that many were the product
of joint effort, partly in annual subscriptions and partly in
donations of land or money down, not from one benefactor
but from many persons. This is the case in many which have
been attributed to the queen herself or to individual founders.
Wakefield and Halifax in Yorkshire; Ashbourne, Derbyshire;
Sandwich, Kent; Hexham, Northumberland; and St Saviour's
and St Olave's, Southwark, are cases in which the evidence of
joint stock enterprise has been fortunately preserved, as it has
in that of Nottingham, which, after an existence of at least
300 years as a fee school, was refounded as a free school in 1512.
Another and less fortunate feature may be observed in the
frequent attempt to make the grammar schools do double work,
and supply the loss caused by the suppression of the song schools,
by doing duty also as elementary schools to teach the three R's.
It is an attempt which is being continually renewed and always
results in failure; generally ending in degrading the secondary
school while not making the elementary school efficient. Welling-
borough in Northamptonshire is a remarkable example of this.
It is a school which, founded by joint effort and out of common
town estate, always languished until in recent years it shook
off the elementary school and became one of the most flourishing
secondary schools in the county (Viet. Co. Hist., Northants., ii.).
During the Civil War and the Commonwealth, when new
ideas on every subject were broached, education received new
impetus, and under the fostering care of parliament schools
were increased in numbers. Many new schools were created,
many old schools obtained an increase of endowment and
efficiency. Among the great schools it was during this time that
Westminster, with a parliamentary committee of lords and
commons substituted for the dean and chapter, under Busby,
definitely placed itself in that position of pre-eminence which
it retained till the first decade of the igth century. It is signifi-
1 Nicholas Udal (q.v.) was master in 1555-1556.
cant that the two oldest extant school-lists are of this period,
that for Winchester, which flourished under a Puritan warden
and headmaster, for 1653, and that for Westminster for 1655.
The care that parliament showed for schools was most con-
spicuous, where it might have least been expected, in regard
to the cathedral schools. On the I4th of October 1642 the
estates of deans and chapters were ordered to be sequestered,
subject to a direction that " allowances assigned for scholars,
almsmen and other charitable uses might not be interrupted."
On the pth of October 1643 parliament extended to school-
masters the functions of the Committee for Plundered Ministers,
to remove those scandalous in life or doctrine or who had deserted
their cures.
As the property of deans and chapters was gradually sequestrated
in 1643-1646, power was given this committee to relieve poor
ministers and schoolmasters out of the proceeds. By act of parlia-
ment, on the 3Oth of April 1649, deans and chapters were abolished, but
the schools were expressly saved by a clause that all payments from
their revenues which before the 1st .of December 1641 had been or
ought to have been paid to the maintenance of any grammar school
or scholars should continue to be paid. The temporal estates were
ordered to be sold, but the spiritual property, i.e. livings and tithes,
devolved on thirteen trustees, and afterwards on the University
Reform Committee, for salaries and augmentations for preaching
ministers and schoolmasters, of which 2000 a year was to go to the
increase of the universities. Under these two provisions not only
were all the cathedral grammar schools preserved intact, the existing
masters being left in undisturbed possession where they attended
to their business and did not bear arms against parliament, but in
many cases they received large increases of stipend. The chapters
had kept the schoolmasters at the fixed amounts prescribed by Henry
VIII.'s statutes or older custom, though their own incomes they had
increased to many times the statutable amounts by dividing fines
amongst themselves. They had not even properly maintained the
school buildings. At Canterbury, parliament had at once to spend
the large sum of 50 in repairing the school and masters' houses;
and at Rochester similar amounts. The committee augmented
salaries at Chester, the master from 22 to 36 and the usher from
10 to 19; at Salisbury the master from 10 to 20 and the usher
from 5 to 15; at Chichester the masters from 20 to 30; at
Rochester they doubled the former stipend of 13, 6s. 8d. ; at
Durham the allowance of 20 was doubled. So at St Anthony's
school, London, which by a grievous error the local historians killed
under Elizabeth though it survived till the Fire of London, the salary,
paid by St George's, Windsor, settled in 1442, at the rate of 16,
was now increased to 36 a year. Other schools paid from chapter
or crown revenues received similar increases, Grimston 30; New-
castle under Lyme 20; Bridport, Dorset, 15, io's. Two of the
most backward districts had each obtained a special " act for the
propagation of the gospel and the maintenance of godly and able
ministers and schoolmasters there," Wales on the 22nd of February,
and the four northern counties on the 1st of March 1650. Under
these acts, the school at Llanrwst was increased by 8 and at Aber-
gavenny by 10 a year, while new schools were established at some
twenty-four places, including Carnarvon, Cardiff, Cardigan, Mont-
>mery and Denbigh, with salaries ranging from 10 a year at
lenberiog to 40 for the master and 25 for the usher at Wrexharn.
In fact, the act was an anticipation of the Welsh Intermediate
Education Act 1888. So in the northern counties the stipends of
the Durham Cathedral grammar schoolmasters were doubled; and
the masters of Darlington grammar school and of Bishop Auckland
grammar school each received an augmentation of 20 or more
than double, and the master of Heighington of 10 a year; while
new grammar schools were established at Barnard Castle and
Ferry Hill. New schools, perhaps elementary, were erected at
Stanhope, Staindrop, Brancepeth, Aycliffe and Whickham, while
a new departure was taken in the erection of navigation schools at
Sunderland and Nether Heworth. The greatest effort was the
establishment of the university college of Durham, anticipating by
near 200 years the present university, while an elaborate plan was
published in 1647 for the establishment of a university of London.
But none of the good work of parliament was allowed to stand at
the Restoration, and the revenues appropriated to education went
back to the prebendaries whom Archbishop Cranmer wished to turn
out of the hive as drones 100 years before. The master of Durham
grammar school alone, on an express letter from the king, was
allowed to receive an augmentation of 20 a year.
A more permanent result of the abolition of bishops and
chapters and their licensing powers was the immense develop-
ment given to private schools all over the country, and not
least in London. Among them, John Farnaby, a royalist, who
had been employed to produce a revised Lilly's grammar in
anticipation of Kennedy's Latin Primer of two centuries later,
was the most famous and successful at the time; and John
370
SCHOOLS
Milton, though he was perhaps rather a private tutor than a
schoolmaster, is the most famous now. Another of them,
Charles Hoole, royalist and ex-master of Rotherham, who
taught first close to Milton in Aldersgate Street and then in
Tokenhouse Garden in Lothbury, produced a most novel and
useful school book in his N ew Discovery of the Old Art of Teaching
School, written in 1637 and published " after 14 years' diligent
trial in practice in London " in 1660. There is no more illuminat-
ing work for demonstrating the absurdity of the notion that
thought and theorizing were not brought to bear on education
in those days. Milton's Tractate on Education (1643) is but a
series of vague generalities compared with Hoole's book, and is
chiefly noticeable for its denunciation, not of education being
wholly classical, which is assumed as a matter of course, but
of the absurd method which devoted ten years to not learning
a smattering of Latin when Italian or French were learnt in a
year. But Milton's own idea of cramming the unfortunate
boys with Varro and Columella, with agriculture and fishing,
tactics and strategics in Greek and Latin authors, so that the
pupils might learn things instead of words, was as visionary a
one as could be conceived.
The Restoration parliament not only cut off the supply of
new schools and new endowments, but by the Act of Uniformity
in 1662 and the Five Mile Act in 1665, imposing prohibitory
penalties on all teaching hi public or private schools, except
by rigid Church of England men, did its best to stop all advance.
The very ferocity of the attempt in the long run defeated itself.
By a series of decisions of the courts all the schools but the
endowed grammar schools were (in defiance, it must be ad-
mitted, of the law and historical right) freed from the control
cf the bishops, and even some grammar schools. Thus in Bates's
case, 1670, it was held that where a master was put in by lay
patrons he could not be turned out for teaching without the
licence of the ordinary, but only censured, and that the statutory
penalty was a bar to proceedings in the ecclesiastical courts.
Next year in Cox's case it was settled that the bishop's licence
was only required in grammar schools. Private schools nomin-
ally to teach writing, arithmetic, French, geography and naviga-
tion were outside ecclesiastical cognizance and gradually monopo-
lized the education of the middle classes. Singleton, expelled
from the headmastership of Eton at the Restoration, is said to
have had 300 boys in a school in St Mary Axe. Foubert, banished
from France for Protestantism, had an academy in the Hay-
market under royal patronage. No dissenter, however, could
be a member of a governing body or master of an endowed
school, and if a dissenter went as a scholar he had to go to
church and learn the church catechism. The church was there-
fore left in sole control of the endowed schools, with the result
that at the end of the i8th century the schools were in a more
decrepit condition than they were at any time in their long
history. Only those which had great possessions and attracted
the aristocracy flourished.
The post-Restoration period is distinguished, however, by one
great innovation, the development of girls' schools. There
were girls' schools at Hackney and at Chelsea, at Oxford and at
Bicester, boarding-schools where " young gentlewomen learnt
to play, dance and sing," and where needlework was usually
taught. In 1673 Mrs Makin, who had a ladies' school at Totten-
ham High Cross, and had been governess to the Princess Eliza-
beth, published an " Essay to Revive the Antient Education of
Gentlewomen," dedicated to the princess, afterwards queen,
Mary. She advocates the education of girls in the same subjects
as men, including Latin, though not by learning Lily's grammar
by heart, but by learning grammar in English.
In the 1 8th century, with the progress of the means of com-
munication, a few great schools, of which Westminster, Eton,
Winchester, Harrow were the greatest, throve at the expense
of the country grammar schools to which the local nobility
and gentry used to resort. They were conducted, however,
like private schools the town boys at Westminster, the dames'
houses at Eton, the Commoners' houses at Winchester, being
in fact private ventures. The process was imitated at Harrow
from 1725, and Rugby from 1765, which emulated and some-
times surpassed the three old schools: while Charterhouse
and Shrewsbury (which in the latter days of Elizabeth had been
one of the largest schools in the country) also developed on the
same lines. But there was little change even in their matter or
method. In those schools in which French was taught and
English poetry and prose were cultivated it was hi a sort of
amateur way and as a by-study. The serious work of scholar-
ship was still confined to classics, though they were made the
medium of excursions into history, geography and political
science. The grammar schools in the country towns, with on
the whole inferior teachers, clung more closely to the ancient
ways. As the growth of commerce and manufactures brought
into the ranks of the local aristocracy men mostly dissenters,
the grammar schools, which refused to admit them either as
governors or scholars, and which despised, if they did not, as
they often did, wholly reject modern languages and modern
subjects, were relegated to the free boys, who went there not
for love of learning but because learning was free. Where some
enterprising man got together a boarding-school his " young
gentlemen," who paid relatively high fees, were carefully secluded
even in work, still more in play, from the common herd of free
boys.
Never probably since the pth century was the condition of
the public schools of England worse than in the years 1750 to
1840. In the Victoria County Histories, in Carlisle's Endowed
Grammar Schools, in the reports of Lord Brougham's Commission
of Inquiry concerning Charities (1818-1837), it may be read in
the case of county after county and school after .school how
the grammar schools, where they still struggled to preserve a
semblance of higher education, were often taught by the nearest
vicar or curate, and were reduced to ten or even to no boys.
Thus at Stamford in 1729 there were five boys; at Birmingham
in 1734 none; at Moulton in 1744 none; at Wainfleet in 1753
none; at Oundle in 1762 one entry, in 1779 four in the school,
in 1785 none. At Repton between 1779 and 1800 fifteen boys
were admitted; at Abingdon from 1792 to 1803 there were from
three to ten boys; at Derby in 1826 four boys; at Chesterfield
in 1827 four boys, and from 1832 to 1836 one boy constituted
the whole school. Often for half a century no more than half
a dozen boys had been known to attend the school; sometimes
this was the case for a century, while a large proportion of the
schools had been definitely converted into elementary schools,
and bad ones at that. Great, if partial, improvement followed
after the publication of the reports of Lord Brougham's com-
mission and the suits in Chancery and private acts of parliament
for the restitution of endowments of schools which followed
them. But the Public Schools Commission Report of 1863 and
the Schools Inquiry Report of 1868 revealed still a deplorable
state of things. This has largely been remedied by the removal
of religious disabilities, the introduction of the principle of
representative government in the governing bodies of schools,
and the widening of the curriculum through special commissions
with drastic powers, in the case of the great public schools under
the Public Schools Commission, and in the case of the lesser public
schools by the Endowed Schools Commissioners and the Charity
Commissioners under the Endowed Schools Act 1869, and the
carving of endowed grammar or high schools for girls out of
the old schools for boys.
It is satisfactory to end this review of the history of
schools with the conclusion that however much might still
require to be done, the conditions in 1910 showed a complete
alteration. English schools of all grades had never been
so full of pupils, so well equipped with buildings and appli-
ances, or staffed with such devoted and active bands of
teachers.
Elementary Schools. Elementary teaching prevailed in
medieval England to an infinitely wider extent than has been
commonly supposed. It was at first the duty of every parish
priest. Its origin has been credited, even as lately as 1908
(Foster Watson, English Grammar Schools to 1660), to a decree
of Theodulf, bishop of Orleans in France, in 787, and to a law
SCHOOLS
37 1
of King Ethelbert in England in 994 (De Montmorency, Stale
Intervention in English Education, 1902): "mass priests ought
always to have in their houses a school of disciples, and if any
good man desires to commit his little ones to them for instruction
they ought gladly to receive and kindly teach them." These
decrees were, in fact, merely re-issues of the 5th canon of the
6th council of Constantinople: " Let priests throughout the
towns and villages have schools, and if any of the faithful wish
to commend their little ones to them to learn their letters, let
them not refuse to receive them, exacting however no price
nor taking anything from them, except what the parents volun-
tarily offer," a phrase repeated again and again in the founda-
tion documents of free schools, grammar or other, to the middle
of the i8th century. The mass priests, however, neglected
their duty. In 1295, John of Pontissera, bishop of Winchester,
tried to recall those of his diocese to it by a synodal statute:
" Let rectors, vicars and parish priests see that the sons of their
parishioners know the Lord's Prayer, Creed and Salutation
of the Virgin . . . and the parents should be induced to let
their boys, when they know how to read the psalter, learn
singing also. " It may be observed that now the rectors are
not required to teach boys themselves, but to see them taught.
The duty of the parson had in fact been devolved on the clerk.
In a decretal of Gregory IX., c. 1234, every parish priest was
ordered to have a clerk to sing with him, read the epistle and
lesson, and be able to keep school and warn the parishioners
to send their sons to the church to learn the faith, whom he is
to teach with all chastity (Decret. lib. iii., tit. i., c. iii.). This
seems to be only an amplification of Leo IV., c. 850, omnis pres-
byter clericum habeat scholarem qui epistolam, &c. Many parish
clerks duly did their duty in teaching. So we find in 1481 at
St Nicholas, Bristol, " The clerks ought not to take no boke
oute of the quere for childeryne to lerne in with owte licence of
the procurators," i.e. the churchwardens. At Faversham in
1 506, "Item the said clarkis or one of theym as moche as in theym
is shall endeavour theymself to teche children to rede and synge
... as of olde tyme hath be accustomed." But probably most
neglected their duty, as we find in many places other provision
for elementary instruction; sometimes by reading and writing
schools, more often, as already stated, by the song schools. At
Barnack, Northamptonshire, the rector had licence in 1359
from the bishop of Lincoln to establish a master to teach reading,
song and grammar. A reading school is mentioned at Howden,
Yorkshire, in 1394, but it had then become united to the song
school, and a chaplain, i.e. a priest, was appointed to it (scholas
tarn lectuales quant cantuales). In 1401 William Coke " alias
clerk," probably because he was the parish clerk, not apparently
in orders, was appointed to this joint song and reading school,
a reservation, however, being made to one John Lowyke of the
right to teach a reading school only (sludium lectuale) for 18
boys. Next year, 1402, William Lowyke, probably John's son,
was appointed to the reading and song school, an appointment
repeated in 1412, while another person was appointed to the
two schools in 1426. But in 1456 the reading school was com-
bined with the grammar school under John Armandson, B.A.
At Northallerton in 1426 the reading and song school are com-
bined; the grammar school separate; but in 1440 reading,
grammar and song schools were combined in the hands of John
Leuesham, chaplain.
We owe our knowledge of these schools to the casual preservation
in the British Museum of a letter book of the prior of Durham
cathedral monastery, who was the " Ordinary " for the Yorkshire
possessions of St Cuthbert, among which were the two places named.
But they can hardly have been as exceptional in fact as they are
in records. Separate reading schools must have existed elsewhere.
Nor can the two Yorkshire colleges of Acaster and Rotherham,
founded about 1472 and 1484, be as unique as they appear to be in
having, besides a grammar and song school, a writing school. At
Acaster a " third [master] to teche to write and all such thing as
belonged to scrivener craft," and at Rotherham " because that
country produces many youths endowed with the light and acuteness
of ability, but all do not wish to attain the dignity and height of the
priesthood, that they may be the better fitted for the mechanical
arts and other worldly concerns, a third fellow, knowing and skilled
in the art of writing and accounts," was added to the grammar and
song masters (A. F. Leach, Early Yorkshire Schools, ii. 62, 84-87, 89.
no, 151). At Aldwinkle, Northants, the chantry priest was by
foundation ordinance of 1489 to teach six of the poorest boys spelling
and reading (syllabilacione et lectura). At Barking, in Essex, a
chantry priest was founded in 1392 to " teache the childerne to
wrytte and read," while the chantry priest at Bromyard, Hereford-
shire, was founded in 1394 to " brynge upe the childerne borne in the
parish in reading, wrytynge and gramar." At Normanton, Yorkshire,
the chantry of Our Lady was " for good educatcion as well in grammar
as wrytinge," and at Burgh under Stainmore, Westmorland, the
stipendiary priest was " to kepe a Free Grammar Schole and also
to teche scholers to wryte." At Kingsley, Staffordshire, the chantry
priest was also " to kepe scole and teche pore men's children of
the said parishe grammar and to rede and singe." At Montgomery,
on the other hand, it is made matter of complaint, in 1548, that the
fraternity of Our Lady hired a " prest or lerned man to kepe scole "
for thirty years past, but he now " taught but yonge begynners
onelye to write and syng and to reade soo far as the accidens rules
and noo grammer." At Farthinghoe, Northants, was apparently
a purely elementary school, the chantry priest being directed by
foundation in 1443 by a London mercer to teach the little ones
(parvulos), later translated petits, freely. At Ipswich in 1477 the
little ones called Apeseyes (ABC's) and Songe were not under the
grammar schoolmaster but an independent teacher. The most
elementary school was the ABC school. At Christ's College, Brecon,
founded, or refounded, by Henry VIII., besides a grammar master
at 13, 6s. 8d. a year and an usher at half that, there was a chaplain
to sing mass and " to teache the yonge children resorting to the said
scoole there ABC " at the same pay as the usher. This seems to
have been really a song school. At the college of Glasney, Cornwall,
founded, or refounded, in 1264, the bell-ringer had 2 a year " as
well for teachyng of pore mens children their ABC as for ringing " ;
while at Launceston the grammar master had 16 a year, and
133. 4d. was " yerly distributed to an aged man chosen by the mayre
to teache younge chylderne the ABC. At Saffron Walden, Essex,
in 1423, it was settled after legal proceedings, that the chantry
priests at the parish church might teach children the alphabet and
graces, but not further. Anything more was the privilege of the
grammar schoolmaster.
In 1542 an injunction of Bonner as bishop of London shows
an attempt on Henry VIII. 's part to recall the clergy to the duty
of teaching " every of you that be parsons, vicars, curates and
also chantry priests and stipendiaries to ... teach and bring
up in learning the best ye can all such children of your parishioners
as shall come to you, or at the least teach them to read English."
The advisers of Edward VI. at first appear to have contemplated
a similar development by an injunction in 1 547 that " all chauntry
priests shall exercise themselves in teaching youth to read and
write and bring them up in good manners and other virtuous
exercises." But the Chantries Act next year swept all the
chantries away by Easter 1548; and while professing to apply
their endowments to education, struck a deadly blow at ele-
mentary education by omitting any saving clause for elementary
schools, whether song, reading, writing or ABC schools. The
first duty of a song or of a reading school being " to teach a child
to help a priest to sing mass," they were regarded as superstitious;
and the rest were presumably looked on as tainted with the
same poison. So of all the hundreds of song schools in the
country, only two, outside the cathedrals and the university
colleges and those of Winchester and Eton, Westminster and
Windsor colleges, survived. These were the song school of the
archdeacon Magnus foundation of a grammar school and song
school at Newark in 1532; and that forming part of the grammar
school in St John's Hospital, Coventry, established by John Hales
under royal licence in 1545, though not legally settled till 1572.
The gap left by these schools took long to fill, and probably the
ignorance of the masses and of the lower middle classes in Eliza-
bethan and Jacobean times was greater than before the Reforma-
tion. In the big towns, like London, during the reign of Elizabeth,
voluntary rates, or application of the rates, were made to partly
fill the gap. Christ's Hospital in 1553 with its 280 foundling
children had, besides its grammar schoolmaster and usher,
" a teacher of pricksonge, a teacher to wrighte and two schoole
masters for the Petties ABC." But in Mary's reign, Grafton
the printer was " clapt in the Flete for two daies because he
suffered the children to learne the Englishe prymer" for "the
Lattin abseies." In Southwark, while St Saviour's parish set up
a grammar school in 1559, St Olave's parish in 1 560 directed the
churchwardens to ask the inhabitants " watte they will gyve
372
SCHOONER SCHOPENHAUER
towards the settyng up of a free skolle," which was started
next year to " teche the cheldarne to write and rede and cast
accompthe." At St Lawrence Jewry in 1 568 a school was kept over
the vestry. At St Ethelwyn's in isSpSmythe" the schoolmaster "
paid IQS. " for kepinge scole in the belfry." At Stevenage in 1 561-
1562 the old Brotherhood house and some endowment was bought
by subscription for a school " to teach scholars called pet tits to
read English, write, cast accounts and learn the accidence."
Some of these and other like schools were rather junior or
preparatory departments of the grammar school than independent
elementary schools. The foundation of purely elementary schools
was rare in Elizabeth's reign. In Warwickshire, Alcester in 1582,
Henley-in-Arden in 1586, in-Salop, Onibury in 1593, in Essex,
Littlebury in 1595, appear to be pretty well all those known.
Those mentioned in Mr de Montmorency's " State Intervention,"
taken from the Digest of Schools of 1842, are mostly of charities
afterwards applied to elementary education, not founded for the
purpose. In most counties the earliest elementary endowed
schools are of James I.'s reign, such as Appleton, Berkshire, in
1604, Northiam, Sussex, in 1614, Sir William Borlase's school
at Great Marlow in Buckinghamshire (now a secondary school)
in 1624. At great impetus was given to them by the Common-
wealth, and many were founded by state action, only to be
destroyed at the Restoration. Conspicuous among Common-
wealth schools was that of Polesworth, Warwickshire, founded
by deed of loth March 1655, the first endowed school which
provided for girls as well as boys, the boys under a master
to learn to write and read English, the girls in a separate
schoolroom under a mistress to learn to read and work with the
needle. In Wales Thomas Gouge, an ejected minister, in 1672,
started voluntary schools.
After 1670 there was a large increase in elementary school
foundations. The reign of Queen Anne saw a new development
take place of the charity schools. The movement was started
in 1698 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and
taken up by the bishops with an organized propaganda for getting
subscriptions. The schools founded were commonly called blue
or blue-coat schools, though there were red maids', green and
even yellow schools. Many were boarding-schools on the model
of Christ's Hospital, where slum children, girls and boys, in
separate schools of course, were taken in and prepared for service
and work. But there were many day schools. All, however,
provided a uniform of the Christ's Hospital type. They were
chiefly in the large towns, and still comprise some of the richest
endowed elementary schools. Over 100 of them were established
between 1698 and 1715 in London and Westminster, and in 1729
there were 1658 schools with 34,000 children. In that year the
curious development of " circulating schools " was started in
Wales, the masters residing for a certain time in one district and
then passing on to another. (This was a device known in medieval
times, and notable examples of it were Sir Robert Hitcham's
rotatory school for Earl's Colne and two other places in Essex
during the Commonwealth.) Griffith Jones was the principal
promoter, and at his death in 1761 there were 10,000 children
in the schools. In 1801 the Lancasterian system of schools,
not of a few boys or girls, but of several hundreds taught in classes
of 60 or 80, chiefly by pupil teachers, was inaugurated in the
Borough Road by Joseph Lancaster. Out of it grew the British
and Foreign School Society. This was undenominational.
In 181 1 the National Society adopted the similar, but rival, Bell
or " Madras system " for Church of England teaching. The
effect of these two organizations was to cover the country with
elementary schools, partly endowed, chiefly supported by
voluntary contributions and low fees. These completed the
system, if system it could be called, of sporadic elementary
schools. After the Reform Act of 1832 the state stepped in
with grants and has gradually made elementary education
universal. (A. F. L.)
See further under EDUCATION.
SCHOONER, a vessel rigged with fore and aft sails, properly
with two masts, but now often with three, four and sometimes
more masts; they are much used in the coasting trade, and
require a smaller crew in proportion to their size than square-
rigged vessels (see RIGGING and SHIP). According to the story,
which is probably true, the name arose from a chance spectator's
exclamation " there she scoons," i.e. glides, slips free, at the
launch of the first vessel of this type at Gloucester, Massachusetts,
in 1713, her builder being one Andrew Robinson. The spelling
" schooner " is due to a supposed derivation from the Dutch
schooner, but that and the other European equivalents, Ger.
Schoner, Dan. skonnert, Span, and Portuguese escuna, &c., are
all from English. " To scoon," according to Skeat, is a Scottish
(Clydesdale) dialect word, meaning to skip over water like a flat
stone, and is ultimately connected with the root, implying quick
motion, seen in shoot, scud, &c. In American colloquial usage
" schooner " is applied to the covered prairie-wagons used by
the emigrants moving westward before the construction of
railways, and to a tall, narrow, lager-beer glass.
SCHOPENHAUER, ARTHUR (1788-1860), German philo-
sopher, was born in Danzig on the 22nd of February 1788. His
parents belonged to the mercantile aristocracy the bankers
and traders of Danzig. His father, Heinrich Floris Schopen-
hauer, the youngest of a family to which the mother had brought
the germs of mental malady, was a man of strong will and
originality, and so proud of the independence of his native town
that when Danzig in 1793 surrendered to the Prussians he and
his whole establishment withdrew to Hamburg. At the age
of forty he married Johanna Henrietta Trosiener, then only
twenty, but the marriage owing to difference of temperament
was unhappy. Their two children, Arthur and Adele (born
1796), bore the penalty of their parents' incompatibilities.
They were burdened by an abnormal urgency of desire and
capacity for suffering, which no doubt took different phases in
the man and the woman, but linked them together in a common
susceptibility to ideal pain. 1
In the summer of 1787, a year after the marriage, the elder
Schopenhauer, whom commercial experiences had made a
cosmopolitan in heart, took his wife on a tour to western Europe.
It had been his plan that the expected child should see the light
in England, but the intention was frustrated by the state of
his wife's health. The name Arthur was chosen because it
remains the same in-English, French and German.
During the twelve years which followed the removal of the
family to Hamburg (1793-1805) the Schopenhauers made
frequent excursions. From 1797 to 1799 Arthur was a
boarder with M. Gregoire, a merchant of Havre, and friend of
the Hamburg house, with whose son Anthime he formed a fast
friendship. Returning to Hamburg, for the next four years
he had but indifferent training. When he reached the age of
fifteen the scholarly and literary instincts began to awaken.
But his father, steeped in the spirit of commerce, was unwilling
that a son of his should worship knowledge and truth. Accord-
ingly he offered his son the choice between the classical school
and an excursion to England. A boy of fifteen could scarcely
hesitate. In 1803 the Schopenhauers and their son set out on
a lengthened tour, of which Johanna has given an account,
to Holland, England, France and Austria. Six months were
spent in England. He found English ways dull and precise
and the religious observances exacting; and his mother had
not for the last time to talk seriously with him on his un-
social and wilful character. At Hamburg in the beginning of
1805 he was placed in a merchant's office. He had only been
there for three months when his father, who had shown
'Johanna Schopenhauer (1768-1838) was in her dav an "author
of some reputation. Besides editing the memoirs of Fernow, she
published Notes on Travels in England, Scotland and Southern France
(1813-1817); Johann van Eyck and his Successors (1823); three
romances, Gabriele (1819-1820), Die Tante (1823) and Sidonia
(1828), besides some shorter tales. These novels teach the moral of
renunciation (Entsagung). Her daughter Adele (1796-1849) seems
to have had a brave, tender and unsatisfied heart, and lavished on
her brother an affection he sorely tried. She also was an authoress,
publishing in 1844 a volume of Haus-, Wold-, ttnd Feld-Mdrchen,
full of quaint poetical conceits, and in 1845 Anna, a novel, in two
vols. See Laura Frost, Johanna Schopenhauer: ein Frauenleben
(1905)-
SCHOPENHAUER
373
symptoms of mental alienation, fell or threw himself into the
canal. After his death the young widow (still under forty),
leaving Arthur at Hamburg, proceeded with her daughter
Adele in the middle of 1806 to Weimar, where she arrived only
a fortnight before the tribulation which followed the victory
of Napoleon at Jena. At Weimar her talents, hitherto held in
check, found an atmosphere to stimulate and foster them,
her aesthetic and literary tastes formed themselves under the
influence of Goethe and his circle, and her little salon gained
a certain celebrity. Arthur, meanwhile, became more and more
restless, and his mother allowed him to leave his employment.
He began his education again at Gotha, but a satire on one of
the teachers led to his dismissal. He was then placed with the
Greek scholar Franz Passow, who superintended his classical
studies. This time he made so much progress that in two years
he read Greek and Latin with fluency and interest.
In 1809 his mother handed over to him (aged twenty-one)
the third part of the paternal estate, which gave him an income
f 1 5> an d in October 1809 he entered the university of
Gottingen. The direction of his philosophical reading was
fixed by the advice of G. E. Schulze to study, especially, Plato
and Kant. For the former he soon found himself full of rever-
ence, and from the latter he acquired the standpoint of modern
philosophy. The names of " Plato the divine and the marvellous
Kant " are conjunctly invoked at the beginning of his earliest
work. But even at this stage of his career the pessimism of his
later writings began to manifest itself, together with a sus-
ceptibility to morbid fears which led him to keep loaded weapons
always at his bedside. He was a man of few acquaintances,
amongst the few being Bunsen, the subsequent scholar-diploma-
tist, and Bunsen's pupil, W. B. Astor, the son of Washing-
ton living's millionaire hero. Even then he found his trustiest
mate in a poodle, and its bearskin was an institution in his
lodging. Yet, precisely because he met the world so seldom
in easy dialogue, he was unnecessarily dogmatic in controversy;
and many a bottle of wine went to pay for lost wagers. But
he had made up his mind to be not an actor but an onlooker
and critic in the battle of life; and when Wieland, whom he
met on one of his excursions, suggested doubts as to the wisdom
of his choice, Schopenhauer replied, " Life is a ticklish business;
I have resolved to spend it in reflecting upon it."
After two years at Gottingen he took two years at Berlin.
Here also he dipped into divers stores of learning, notably
classics under Wolf. In philosophy he heard Fichte and Schleier-
macher. Between 1811 and 1813 the lectures of Fichte (sub-
sequently published from his notes in his N achgelassene Werke)
dealt with what he called the " facts of consciousness " and
the " theory of science," and struggled to present his final
conception of philosophy. These lectures Schopenhauer at-
tended at first, it is allowed, with interest, but afterwards
with a spirit of opposition which is said to have degenerated
into contempt, and which in after years never permitted him
to refer to Fichte without contumely. Yet the words Schopen-
hauer then listened to, often with baffled curiosity, certainly
influenced his speculation.
In Berlin Schopenhauer was lonely and unhappy. One of
his interests was to visit the hospital La Charite and study the
evidence it afforded of the interdependence of the moral and
the physical in man. In the early days of 1813 sympathy with
the national enthusiasm against the French carried him so far
as to buy a set of arms; but he stopped short of volunteering
for active service, reflecting that Napoleon gave after all only
concentrated and untrammelled utterance to that self-assertion
and lust for more life which weaker mortals feel but must per-
force disguise. Leaving the nation and its statesmen to fight
out their freedom, he hurried away to Weimar, and thence to
the quiet Thuringian town of Rudolstadt, where in the inn " Zum
Ritter," out of sight of soldier and sound of drum, he wrote,
helped by books from the Weimar library, his essay for the
degree of doctor in philosophy. On the 2nd of October 1813
he received his diploma from Jena; and in the same year
from the press at Rudolstadt there was published without
winning notice or readers his first book, tjber die vierfache
Wurzel des Salzes wm zureichenden Grunde, trans, in Bohn's
Philological Library (1889).
In November 1813 Schopenhauer returned to Weimar, and
for a few months boarded with his mother. But the strain
of daily association was too much for their antagonistic natures.
His splenetic temper and her volatility culminated in an open
rupture in May 1814. From that time till her death in 1838
Schopenhauer never saw his mother again. During these few
months at Weimar, however, he made some acquaintances
destined to influence the subsequent course of his thought.
Conversations with the Orientalist F. Mayer directed his studies
to the philosophical speculations of ancient India. In 1808
Friedrich Schlegel had in his Language and Wisdom of the Old
Hindus brought Brahmanical philosophy within the range of
European literature. Still more instructive for Schopenhauer
was the imperfect and obscure Latin translation of the Upani-
shads which in 1801-1802 Anquetil Duperron had published
from a Persian version of the Sanskrit original. Another friend-
ship of the same period had more palpable immediate effect,
but not so permanent. This was with Goethe, who succeeded
in securing his interest for those investigations on colours on
which he was himself engaged. Schopenhauer took up the
subject in earnest, and the result of his reflexions (and a few
elementary observations) soon after appeared (Easter 1816)
as a monograph, Uber das Sehen und die Farben (ed. Leipzig,
1834). The essay, which must be treated as an episode or
digression from the direct path of Schopenhauer's development,
due to the potent force of Goethe, was written at Dresden, to
which he had transferred his abode after the rupture with his
mother. It had been sent in MS. to Goethe in the autumn of
1815, who, finding in it a transformation rather than an expan-
sion of his own ideas, inclined to regard the author as an opponent
rather than an adherent.
The pamphlet begins by re-stating with reference to sight the
general theory that perception of an objective world rests upon an
instinctive causal postulation, which even when it misleads KSSO on
still remains to haunt us (instead of being, like errors of slrhtaad
reason, open to extirpation by evidence), and proceeds to colours
deal with physiological colour, i.e. with colours as felt (not
perceived) modifications of the action of the retina. First of all, the
distinction of white and black, with their mean point in grey, is
referred to the activity or inactivity of the total retina in the gradu-
ated presence or absence of full light. Further, the eye is endowed
with polarity, by which its activity is divided into two parts quali-
tatively distinct. It is this circumstance which gives rise to the
phenomenon of colour. All colours are complementary, or go in
pairs; each pair makes up the whole activity of the retina, and so
is equivalent to white; and the two partial activities are so con-
nected that when the first is exhausted the other spontaneously
succeeds. Such pairs of colour may be regarded as infinite in
number; but there are three pairs which stand out prominently,
and admit of easy expression for the ratio in which each contributes
to the total action. These are red and green (each = J), orange and
blue (2 : l), and yellow and violet (3 : l). 1 This theory of comple-
mentary colours as due to the polarity in the qualitative action of
the retina is followed by some criticism of Newton and the seven
colours, by an attempt to explain some facts noted by Goethe, and
by some reference to the external stimuli which cause colour.
The grand interest of his life at Dresden was the composition
of a work which should give expression in all its aspects to the
idea of man's nature and destiny which had been gradually form-
ing within him. Without cutting himself altogether either from
social pleasures or from art, he read and took notes with regularity.
More and more he learned from Cabanis and Helvetius to see in
the will and the passions the determinants of intellectual life,
and in the character and the temper the source of theories and
beliefs. The conviction was borne in upon him that scientific
explanation could never do more than systematize and classify
the mass of appearances which to our habit-blinded eyes seem
to be the reality. To get at this reality and thus to reach a stand-
point higher than that of aetiology was the problem of his as of
all philosophy. It is only by such a tower of speculation that an
1 In this doctrine, so far as the facts go, Schopenhauer is indebted
to a paper by R. Waring Darwin in vol. Ixxvi. of the Transactions of
the Philosophical Society.
374
SCHOPENHAUER
escape is possible from the spectre of materialism, theoretical and
practical; and so, says Schopenhauer, " the just and good must
all have this creed: I believe in a metaphysic." The mere
reasonings of theoretical science leave no room for art, and
practical prudence usurps the place of morality. The higher life
of aesthetic and ethical activity the beautiful and the good
can only be based upon an intuition which penetrates the heart
of reality. Towards the spring of 1818 the work was nearing its
end, and Brockhaus of Leipzig had agreed to publish it and pay
the author one ducat for every sheet of printed matter. But,
as the press loitered, Schopenhauer, suspecting treachery, wrote
so rudely and haughtily to the publisher that the latter broke off
correspondence with his client. In the end of 1818, however, the
book appeared (with the date 1819) as Die Welt als Wille und
Vorstellung, in four books, with an appendix containing a criticism
of the Kantian philosophy (Eng. trans, by R. B. Haldane and
J. Kemp, 1883). Long before the work had come to the hands of
the public Schopenhauer had rushed off to Italy. He stayed for
a tune hi Venice, where Byron was then living; but the two did
not meet. At Rome he visited the art galleries, the opera, the
theatre, and gladly seized every chance of conversing in English
with Englishmen. In March 1819 he wjnt as far as Naples and
Paestum. About this time the fortunes of his mother and sister
and himself were threatened by the failure of the firm in
Danzig. His sister accepted a compromise of 70%, but
Schopenhauer angrily refused this, and eventually recovered
9400 thalers.
After some stay at Dresden, hesitating between fixing himself
as university teacher at Gottingen, Heidelberg or Berlin, he
finally chose the last-mentioned. He was, however, not a good
lecturer, and his work soon came to an end. His failure he attri-
buted to Hegelian intrigues. Thus, except for some attention to
physiology, the first two years at Berlin were wasted. In May
1822 he set out by way of Switzerland for Italy. After spending
the winter at Florence and Rome, he left in the spring of 1823
for Munich, where he stayed for nearly a year, the prey of illness
and isolation. When at the end of this wretched time he left for
Gastein, in May 1824, he had almost entirely lost the hearing
of his right ear. Dresden, which he reached in August, no longer
presented the same hospitable aspect as of old, and he was
reluctantly drawn onwards to Berlin in May 1825.
The six years at Berlin were a dismal period in the life of
Schopenhauer. In vain did he watch for any sign of recognition
of his philosophic genius. Hegelianism reigned in the schools and
in literature and basked in the sunshine of authority. Thus
driven back upon himself, Schopenhauer fell into morbid medita-
tions, and the world which he saw, if it was stripped naked of
its disguises, lost its proportions in the distorting light. The
sexual passion had a strong attraction for him at all times, and,
according to his biographers, the notes he set down in English,
when he was turned thirty, on marriage and kindred topics are
unfit for publication. Yet in the loneliness of life at Berlin the
idea of a wife as the comfort of gathering age sometimes rose before
his mind only to be driven away by cautious hesitations as
to the capacity of his means, and by the shrinking from the loss
of familiar liberties. He wrote nothing material. In 1828 he
made inquiries about a chair at Heidelberg; and in 1830 he got
a shortened Latin version of his physiological theory of colours
inserted in the third volume of the Scriptores ophlhalmologki
minores (edited by Radius).
Another pathway to reputation was suggested by some
remarks he saw in the seventh number of the Foreign Review,
in an article on Damiron's French Philosophy in the igth Century.
With reference to some statements in the article on the import-
ance of Kant, he sent in very fair English a letter to the writer,
offering to translate Kant's principal works into English. He
named his wages and enclosed a specimen of his work. His
correspondent, Francis Haywood, made a counter-proposal
which so disgusted Schopenhauer that he addressed his next
letter to the publishers of the review. When they again referred
him to Haywood, he applied to Thomas Campbell, then chairman
of a company formed for buying up the copyright of meritorious
but rejected works. Nothing came of this application. 1 A
translation of selections from the works of Balthazar Gracian,
which was published by Frauenstadt in 1862, seems to have been
made about this time. 2
In 1833 he settled finally at Frankfort, gloomily waiting for the
recognition of his work, and terrified by fears of assassination and
robbery. As the years passed he noted down every confirmation
he found of his own opinions in the writings of others, and every
instance in which his views appeared to be illustrated by new
researches. Full of the conviction of his idea, he saw everything
in the light of it, and gave each aperqu a place in his alphabetically
arranged note-book. Everything he published in later life may
be called a commentary, an excursus or a scholium to his main
book ; and many of them are decidedly of the nature of common-
place books or collectanea of notes. But along with the ac-
cumulation of his illustrative and corroborative materials grew
the bitterness of heart which found its utterances neglected and
other names the oracles of the reading world. The gathered ill-
humour of many years, aggravated by the confident assurance of
the Hegelians, found vent at length in the introduction to his next
book, where Hegel's works are described as three-quarters utter
absurdity and one-quarter mere paradox a specimen of the
language in which during his subsequent career he used to advert
to his three predecessors Fichte, Schelling, but above all Hegel.
This work, with its wild outcry against the philosophy of the
professoriate, was entitled Uber den Willen in der Natur, and was
published in 1836 (revised and enlarged, 1854; Eng. trans., 1889).
In 1837 Schopenhauer sent to the committee entrusted with
the execution of the proposed monument to Goethe at Frank-
fort a long and deliberate expression of his views, in general and
particular, on the best mode of carrying out the design. But
his fellow-citizens passed by the remarks of the mere writer of
books. More weight was naturally 'attached to the opinion he
had advocated in his early criticism of Kant as to the importance,
if not the superiority, of the first edition of the Kritik; in the
collected issue of Kant's works by Rosenkranz and Schubert in
1838 that edition was put as the substantive text, with supple-
mentary exhibition of the differences of the second.
In 1841 he published under the title Die beiden Grundprobleme
der Ethik two essays which he had sent in 1838-1839 in com-
petition for prizes offered. The first was in answer to the question
" Whether man's free will can be proved from self -consciousness,"
proposed by the Norwegian Academy of Sciences at Drontheim.
His essay was awarded the prize, and the author elected a
member of the society. But proportionate to his exultation in
this first recognition of his merit was the depth of his mortification
and the height of his indignation at the result of the second
competition. He had sent to the Danish Academy at Copenhagen
in 1839 an essay " On the Foundations of Morality " in answer
to a vaguely worded subject of discussion to which they had
invited candidates. His essay, though it was the only one in
competition, was refused the prize on the grounds that he had
failed to examine the chief problem (i.e. whether the basis of
morality was to be sought in an intuitive idea of right), that
his explanation was inadequate, and that he had been wanting
in due respect to the summi philosophi of the age that was just
passing. This last reason, while probably most effective with
the judges, only stirred up more furiously the fury in Schopen-
hauer's breast, and his preface is one long fulmination against
the ineptitudes and the charlatanry of his bete noire, Hegel.
In 1844 appeared the second edition of The World as Will and
Idea, in two volumes. The first volume was a slightly altered
reprint of the earlier issue; the second consisted of a series of
chapters forming a commentary parallel to those into which the
original work was now first divided. The longest of these new
chapters deal with the primacy of the will, with death and with
the metaphysics of sexual love. But, though only a small
edition was struck off (500 copies of vol. i. and 750 of vol. ii.),
1 It was not till 1841 that a translation of Kant's Kritik in English
appeared.
* He also projected a translation of Hume's Essays and wrote a
preface for it.
SCHOPENHAUER
375
the report of sales which Brockhaus rendered in 1846 was
unfavourable, and the price had afterwards to be reduced. Yet
there were faint indications of coming fame, and the eagerness
with which each new tribute from critic and admirer was wel-
comed is both touching and amusing. From 1843 onwards a
jurist named F. Dorguth had trumpeted abroad Schopenhauer's
name. In 1844 a letter from a Darmstadt lawyer, Joh. August
Becker, asking for explanation of some difficulties, began an
intimate correspondence which went on for some time (and which
was published by Becker's son in 1883). But the chief evangelist
(so Schopenhauer styled his literary followers as distinct from
the apostles who published not) was Frauenstadt, who made
his personal acquaintance in 1846. It was Frauenstadt who
succeeded in finding a publisher for the Parerga und Paralipomena,
which appeared at Berlin in 1851 (2 vols., pp. 465, 531 ; sel. trans,
by J. B. Saunders, 1889; French by A. Dietrich, 1909). Yet
for this bulky collection of essays, philosophical and others,
Schopenhauer received as honorarium only ten free copies of the
work. Soon afterwards, Dr E. O. Lindner, assistant editor of
the Vossische Zeitung, began a series of Schopenhauerite articles.
Amongst them may be reckoned a translation by Mrs Lindner
of an article by John Oxenford which appeared in the West-
minster Review for April 1853, entitled " Iconoclasm in German
Philosophy," being an outline of Schopenhauer's system. In
1854 Frauenstadt's Letters on the Schopenhauerean Philosophy
showed that the new doctrines were become a subject of dis-
cussion a state of things made still more obvious by the
university of Leipzig offering a prize for the best exposition and
examination of the principles of Schopenhauer's system. Besides
this, the response his ideas gave to popular needs and feelings
was evinced by the numerous correspondents who sought his
advice in their difficulties. And for the same reason new editions
of his works were called for a second edition of his degree
dissertation in 1847, of his Essay on Colours and of The Will in
Nature in 1854, a third edition of The World as Will and Idea in
1859, and in 1860 a second edition of The Main Problems of
Ethics.
In 1854 Richard Wagner sent him a copy of the Ring of the
Nibelung, with some words of thanks for a theory of music which
had fallen in with his own conceptions. Three years later he
received a visit from his old college friend Bunsen, who was then
staying in Heidelberg. On his seventieth birthday congratula-
tions flowed in from many quarters. In April 1860 he began to
be affected by occasional difficulty in breathing and by palpita-
tion of the heart. Another attack came on in autumn (9th
September), and again a week later. On the evening of the i8th
his friend and subsequent biographer, Dr Gwinner, sat with him
and conversed. On the morning of the zist September he
rose and sat down alone to breakfast; shortly afterwards his
doctor called and found him dead in his chair. By his will,
made in 1852, with a codicil dated February 1859, his property,
with the exception of some small bequests, was devised to the
above-mentioned institution at Berlin. Gwinner was named
executor, and Frauenstadt was entrusted with the care of his
manuscripts and other literary remains.
It is often said that a philosophic system cannot be rightly
understood without reference to the character and circumstances
of the philosopher. The remark finds ample application in the
case of Schopenhauer. The conditions of his training, which
brought him in contact with the realities of life before he learned
the phrases of scholastic language, give to his words the stamp
of self-seen truth and the clearness of original conviction. They
explain at the same time the naivete which set a high price on
the products his own energies had turned out, and could not
see that what was so original to himself might seem less unique to
other judges. Preoccupied with his own ideas, he chafed under
the indifference of thinkers who had grown blasS in speculation
and fancied himself persecuted by a conspiracy of professors of
philosophy. It is not so easy to demonstrate the connexion
between a man's life and doctrine. But it is at least plain that in
the case of any philosopher, what makes him such is the faculty
he has, more than other men, to get a clear idea of what he himself
is and does. More than others he leads a second life in the spirit or
intellect alongside of his life in the flesh the life of knowledge
beside the life of will. It is inevitable that he should be especially
struck by the points in which the sensible and temporal life
comes in conflict with the intellectual and eternal. It was thus
that Schopenhauer by his own experience saw in the primacy of
the will the fundamental fact of his philosophy, and found in the
engrossing interests of the selfish epws the perennial hindrances
of the higher life. For his absolute individualism, which recog-
nizes in the state, the church, the family only so many superficial
and incidental provisions of human craft, the means of relief
was absorption in the intellectual and purely ideal aims which
prepare the way for the cessation of temporal individuality
altogether. But theory is one thing and practice another; and
he will often lay most stress on the theory who is most conscious
of defects in the practice. It need not, therefore, surprise us
that the man who formulated the sum of virtue in justice and
benevolence was unable to be just to his own kinsfolk and
reserved his compassion largely for the brutes, and that the
delineator of asceticism was more than moderately sensible of
the comforts and enjoyments of life.
The philosophy of Schopenhauer, like almost every system of the
igth century, can hardly be understood without reference to the
ideas of Kant. Anterior to Kant the gradual advance of
idealism had been the most conspicuous feature in philo-
sophic speculation. That the direct objects of knowledge,
the realities of experience, were after all only our ideas or
perceptions was the lesson of every thinker from Descartes
to Hume. And this doctrine was generally understood .
to mean that human thought, limited as it was by its
own weakness and acquired habits, could hardly hope to cope suc-
cessfully with the problem of apprehending the real things. The
idealist position Kant seemed at first sight to retain with an even
stronger force than ever. But it is darkest just before the dawn;
and Kant, the Copernicus of philosophy, had really altered the
aspects of the doctrine of ideas. It was his purpose to show that
the forms of thought (which he sought to isolate from the peculiarities
incident to the organic body) were not merely customary means for
licking into convenient shape the data of perception, but entered as
underlying elements into the constitution of objects, making ex-
perience possible and determining the fundamental structure of
nature. In other words, the forms of knowledge were the main
factor in making objects. By Kant, however, these forms are gener-
ally treated psychologically as the action of the several faculties
of a mind. Behind thinking there is the thinker. But in his suc-
cessors, from Fichte to Hegel, this axiom of the plain man is set
aside as antiquated. Thought or conception without a subject-
agent appears as the principle thought or thinking in its univer-
sality without any individual substrata in which it is embodied :
ri> voeiv or v6i;<rts is to be substituted for vovs. This is the step' of
advance which is required alike by Fichte when he asks his reader
to rise from the empirical ego to the ego which is subject-object
(i.e. neither and both), and by Hegel when he tries to substitute the
Begrif or notion for the Vorstellung or pictorial conception. As
spiritism asks us to accept such suspension of ordinary mechanics
as permits human bodies to float through the air and part without
injury to their members, so the new philosophy of Kant's immediate
successors requires from the postulant for initiation willingness to
reverse his customary belief s in quasi-material subjects of thought.
But, besides removing the psychological slag which clung to
Kant's ideas from their matrix and presenting reason as the active
principle in the formation of a universe, his successors carried out
with far more detail, and far more enthusiasm and historical scope,
his principle that in reason lay the a priori or the anticipation of
the world, moral and physical. Not content with the barren asser-
tion that the understanding makes nature, and that we can construct
science only on the hypothesis that there is reason in the world,
they proceeded to show how the thing was actually done. But
to do so they had first to brush away a stone of stumbling which
Kant had left in the way. This was the thing as it is by itself
and apart from our knowledge of it the something which we
know, when and as we know it not. This somewhat is what Kant
calls a limit-concept. It marks only that we feel our knowledge to
be inadequate, and for the reason that there may be another species
of sensation than ours, that other beings may not be tied by the
special laws of our constitution, and may apprehend, as Plato says,
by the soul itself apart from the senses. But this limitation, say
the successors of Kant, rests upon a misconception. The sense of
inadequacy is only a condition of growing knowledge in a being
subject to the laws of space and time; and the very feeling is a
proof of its implicit removal. Look at reason not in its single
temporal manifestations but in its eternal operation, and then tnis
universal thought, which may be called God, as the sense-con-
ditioned reason is called man, becomes the very breath and structure
376
SCHOPPE
of the world. Thus in the true idea of things there is no irreducible
residuum of matter: mind is the Alpha and Omega, at once the
initial postulate and the final truth of reality.
In various ways a reaction arose against this absorption of every-
thing in reason. In Fichte himself the source of being is primeval
activity, the groundless and incomprehensible deed-action (That-
Handlung) of the absolute ego. The innermost character of that
ego is an infinitude in act and effort. " The will is the living principle
of reason," he says again. " In the last resort," says Schelling
(1809), in his Inquiries into the Nature of Human Freedom, " there
is no other being out will. Wotten ist Ursein (will is primal being) ;
and to this alone apply the predicates fathomless, eternal, inde-
pendent of time, self-affirming." It is unnecessary to multiply
instances to prove that idealism was never without a protest that
there is a heart of existence, life, will, action, which is presupposed
by all knowledge and is not itself amenable to explanation. We
may, if we like, call this element, which is assumed as the basis
of all scientific method, irrational will instead of reason, feeling
rather than knowledge.
It is under the banner of this protest against rationalizing idealism
that Schopenhauer advances. But what marks out his armament
is its pronounced realism. He fights with the weapons of physical
doctrine and on the basis of the material earth. He knows no reason
but the human, no intelligence save what is exhibited by the animals.
He knows that both animals and men have come into existence
within assignable limits of time, and that there was an anterior age
when no eye or ear gathered the life of the universe into perceptions.
Knowledge, therefore, with its vehicle, the intellect, is dependent
upon the existence of certain nerve-organs located in an animal
system; and its function is originally only to present an image of
the interconnexions of the manifestations external to the individual
organism, and so to give to the individual in a partial and reflected
form that feeling with other things, or innate sympathy, which it
loses as organization becomes more complex and characteristic.
Knowledge or intellect, therefore, is only the surrogate of that more
intimate unity of feeling or will which is the underlying reality the
principle of all existence, the essence of all manifestations, inorganic
and organic. And the perfection of reason is attained when man
has transcended those limits of individuation in which his know-
ledge at first presents him to himself, when by art he has risen from
single objects to universal types, and by suffering and sacrifice has
penetrated to that innermost sanctuary where the euthanasia of
consciousness is reached the blessedness of eternal repose.
In substantials the theory of Schopenhauer may be compared
with a more prosaic statement of Herbert Spencer (modernizing
Hume). All psychical states may, according to him, be
open- treate( j as incidents of the correspondence between the
Herbert organism and its environment. In this adjustment the
^^ lowest stage is taken by reflex action and instinct, where
the change of the organs is purely automatic. As the
external complexity increases, this automatic regularity fails; there
is only an incipient excitation of the nerves. This feeble echo
of the full response to stimulus is an idea, which is thus only
another word for imperfect organization or adjustment. But
gradually this imperfect correspondence is improved, and the idea
passes over again into the state of unconscious or organic memory.
Intellect, in short, is only the consequence of insufficient response
between stimulus and action. Where action is entirely automatic,
feeling does not exist. It is when the excitation is partial only,
when it does not inevitably and immediately appear as action, that
we have the appearance of intellect in the gap. The chief and
fundamental difference between Schopenhauer and Spencer lies in
the refusal of the latter to give this adjustment " or " automatic
action " the name of will. Will, according to Mr Spencer, is only
another aspect of what is reason, memory or feeling the difference
lying in the fact that as will the nascent excitation (ideal motion) is
conceived as passing into complete or full motion. But he agrees
with Schopenhauer in basing consciousness, in all its forms of
reason, feeling or will, upon " automatic movement psychical
change," from which consciousness emerges and in which it dis-
appears.
What Schopenhauer professed, therefore, is jto have dispelled
the claims of reason to priority and to demonstrate the relativity
. and limitation of science. Science, he reminds us, is
,_-,.. based on final inexplicabilities ; and its attempts by
tendencies , . , . . r <..* .. . . , r . f
othli theories of evolution to find an historical origin for
system. humanity in rudimentary matter show a misconception
of the problem. In the successions of material states
there can nowhere be an absolute first. The true origin of man, as
of all else, is to be sought in an action which is everlasting and
which is ever present: nee te quaesiveris extra. There is a source
of knowledge within us by which we know, and more intimately
than we can ever know anything external, that we will and feel.
That is the _ first and the highest knowledge, the only knowledge
that can strictly be called immediate; and to ourselves we as the
subject of will are truly the " immediate object." It is in this
sense of will of will without motives, but not without conscious-
ness of some sort that reality is revealed. Analogy and experi-
ence make us assume it to be omnipresent. It is a mistake to say
will means lor Schopenhauer only force. It means a great deal
more ; -and it is his contention that what the scientist calls force
is really will. In so doing he is only following the line predicted
by Kant 1 and anticipated by Leibnitz. If we wish, said Kant, to
give a real existence to the thing in itself or the noumenon we can
only do so by investing it with the attributes found in our own
internal sense, viz. with thinking or something analogous thereto.
It is thus that Fechner in his " day-view " of things sees in plants
and planets the same fundamental " soul " as in us that is, " one
simple being which appears to none but itself, in us as elsewhere
wherever it occurs self-luminous, dark for every other eye, at the
least connecting sensations in itself, upon which, as the grade of
soul mounts higher and higher, there is constructed the conscious-
ness of higher and still higher relations." 2 It is thus that Lotze
declares 3 that " behind the tranquil surface of matter, behind its.
rigid and regular habits of behaviour, we are forced to seek the
glow of a hidden spiritual activity." So Schopenhauer, but in a
way all his own, finds the truth of things in a will which is indeed
unaffected by conscious motives and yet cannot be separated from
some faint analogue of non-intellectual consciousness.
In two ways Schopenhauer has influenced the world. He has
shown with unusual lucidity of expression how feeble is the spon-
taneity of that intellect which is so highly lauded, and how over-
powering the sway of original will in all our action. He thus re-
asserted realism, whose gospel reads, " In the beginning was appetite,
passion, will," and has discredited the doctrinaire belief that ideas
have original force of their own. This creed of naturalism is
dangerous, and it may be true that the pessimism it implies often
degenerates into cynicism and a cold-blooded denial that there
is any virtue and any truth. But in the crash of established creeds
and the spread of political indifferentism and social disintegration
it is probably wise, if not always agreeable, to lay bare the wounds
under which humanity suffers, though pride would prompt their
concealment. But Schopenhauer's theory has another side. If
it is daringly realistic, it is no less audacious in its idealism. The
second aspect of his influence is the doctrine of redemption of the
soul from its sensual bonds, first by the medium of art and second
by the path of renunciation and ascetic life. It may be difficult
in each case to draw the line between social duty and individual
perfection. But Schopenhauer reminds us that the welfare of
society is a temporal and subordinate aim, never to be allowed to
dwarf the full realization of our ideal being. Man's duty is un-
doubtedly to join in the common service of sentient beings; but his
final goal is to rise above the toils and comforts of the visible creature
into the vast bosom of a peaceful Nirvana.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Complete works edited by J. Frauenstadt
(6 vols., Leipzig, 1873, 1874); with notes and introduction, M.
Brasch (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1891); E. Grisebach (6 vols., Leipzig,
1892). There are many translations of special works in all languages;
among English translators are R. B. Haldane, T. B. Saunders,
W. M. Thompson, A. B. Bullock. Arthur Schopenhauers hand-
schriftlicher Nachlass was published by Grisebach in 4 vols. (1896),
from MSS. in the Royal Library at Berlin. On Schopenhauer's
life see Gwinner, Schopenhauers Leben (1878); E. Grisebach,
Schopenhauer, Geschichte seines Lebens (1897); J. Volkeft, Schopen-
hauer (1907). A list of works is given by Balan, Schopenhauer-
Literalur (1880); see also G. F. Wagner, Encyklop&disches Register
zu Schopenhauers Werken (1909), and W. L. Hertslet, Schopenhauer-
Register (1890). Among earlier criticisms see: Frauenstadt and
Lindner, A. Schopenhauer; von ihm; tiber ihn (1863); Helen
Zimmern, Schopenhauer and his Philosophy (1877); O. Busch,
A. Schopenhauer (1878); K. Peters, Schopenhauer als Philosoph
(1883); Koeber, Schopenhauers Erlosungslehre (1881), and Die
Philos. A. Schopenhauers (1888). More recent works are: T.
Whittaker, Schopenhauer (1909); G. Simmel, Schopenhauer und
Nietzsche (1907); F. Paulsen, Schopenhauer. Hamlet. Mephistopheles
(1900), three studies in pessimism; T. Lorenz, Zur Entwicklungs-
eeschichte der Metaphysih Schopenhauers (1897); Mpbius, Schopen-
hauer (1899); R. Lehmann, Schopenhauer und die Entwickelung
der monistischen Weltanschauung (1892); and Schopenhauer. Ein
Beitrag zur Psychologie der Metaphysik (1894); Th. Ribot, La
Philosophie de Schopenhauer (gth ed., 1903); H. Bamberger, Das
Tier in der Philosophie Schopenhauers (1897); Kuno Fischer,
Schopenhauer (in the Gesch. d. neuer. Philos., 1893); R. Bottger,
Das Grundproblem der Schopenhauer schen Philos. (1898); W.
Caldwell, Schopenhauer's System (1896); O. Damm, Schopenhauers
Ethik im Verhaltnis zu seiner Erkenntnislehre (1898) and Schopen-
hauers Rechts- und Staatsphilosophie (1901); W. Hauff, Die Uber-
windung des Schopenhauerschen Pessimismus durch F. Nietzsche
(1904); M. Kelly, Kant's Ethics and Schopenhauer's criticism
(1910). (W. W.;X.)
SCHOPPE, CASPAR (1576-1649), German controversialist
and scholar, was born at Neumarkt in the upper Palatinate
on the 27th of May 1376 and studied at several German univer-
sities. Having become a convert to Roman Catholicism about
1599, he obtained the favour of Pope Clement VIII., and, even
1 Kritik (Trans. Anal.), bk. ii. Appendix.
* Vber die Seelenfrage, p. 9 (Leipzig, 1861).
* Mikrokosmus, i. 408 (2nd ed.).
SCHORL SCHOULER
377"
in an age of violent polemics, distinguished himself by the
virulence of his writings against the Protestants. He became
involved in a controversy with Joseph Justus Scaliger, formerly
his intimate friend, and others, wrote Ecclesiasticus auclorilati
Jacobiregis oppositus (1611), an attack upon James I. of England;
and in Classicum belli scari (1619) urged the Catholic princes
to wage war upon the Protestants. About 1607 Schoppe entered
the service of Ferdinand, archduke of Styria, afterwards the
emperor Ferdinand II., who found him very useful in rebutting
the arguments of the Protestants, and who sent him on several
diplomatic errands. According to Pierre Bayle, he was almost
killed by some Englishmen at Madrid in 1614, and again fearing
for his life he left Germany for Italy in 1617, afterwards taking
part in an attack upon the Jesuits. Schoppe, as the long list
of his writings shows, knew also something of grammar and
philosophy, and had an excellent acquaintance with Latin.
His chief work is, perhaps, his Grammatica philosophica (Milan,
1628). Schoppe died at Padua on the ipth of November 1649.
In his Life of Sir Henry Wotton Izaac Walton, calling him Jasper
Scioppius, refers to Schoppe as " a man of a restless spirit and
a malicious pen."
Besides the works already noticed, he wrote De arte critica (1597) ;
De Antichristo (1605); Pro auctoritate ecclesiae in decidendis fidei
controversies libellus; Scaliger hypololymaeus (1607), a virulent
attack on Scaliger; and latterly the anti-Jesuitical works, Flagellum
Jesuilicum (1632); Mysteria patrum jesuitorum (1633); and Arcana
societatis Jesu (1635). For a fuller list of his writings see J. P.
Niceron Memoires, (1727-1745). See also C. Nisard, Les Gladiateurs
de la republique des lettres (Paris, 1860).
SCHORL, in mineralogy, the name given to coarse black
varieties of tourmaline (?..). The schorl rocks are crystalline
aggregates of quartz and tourmaline. They are granular and
massive, not banded or foliated as a rule, grey of various shades,
the darkest coloured being most rich in schorl. Some are very
fine grained, but in most cases the individual crystals are easily
discernible with the unaided eye. They are hard, splintery,
and very resistant to weathering. Veined, brecciated, porous
and banded varieties occur, but are less common than the
granular massive rocks.
Schorl rocks occur practically always in association with
tourmaline-bearing granites. Most of them are of igneous
origin and, though there may be a few which are direct products
of consolidation from a plutonic magma, in the vast majority
of cases they originate by the action of gases and vapours on
granites, porphyries and other rocks. All magmas contain
vapours in solution and give them off more or less readily as
they crystallize. Water, carbonic acid and hydrochloric acid
(or chlorides) are the commonest dissolved substances, but
fluorine, boron, lithium and phosphoric acid occur also, and as
they pass outwards these last may act on the surrounding
rocks, probably still at a high temperature and produce minerals
of a special kind. This action is said to be pneumatolytic.
Tourmaline contains boron and flourine, hence the presence
of these elements in the emanations from the granite may be
assumed. Schorl rocks often also contain varieties of white
mica which are rich in fluorine and lithium; in addition apatite
is usually present. Lastly, many of the rocks of this group
contain tinstone or are associated with tin-bearing veins, and
it is probable that the ores of this metal were brought up in solu-
tion as fluorides or chlorides and deposited in the situations
where now they are found.
Along the sides of fissures, through which, no doubt, the gases
ascended, the granite is converted into schorl rock for a distance
ranging from a fraction of an inch to several feet, and vein-like
masses of grey schorl rock branching and uniting are thus produced.
In other places considerable areas of granite are changed in this
way, principally near the margin of the granite, and an interrupted
belt of this kind of rock encircles some of the larger outcrops of
granite in Cornwall. A similar origin must be ascribed to greisen
(<?..), the aggregate of quartz and white mica commonly found in
association with tin-bearing granites; there are complete gradations
between schorl rock and greisen, according to the varying pro-
portions of white mica and tourmaline which may be present in each
specimen. Another mineral which is produced by the pneumato-
lytic alteration of granite is topaz (a silicate and fluoride of alu-
minium) ; an aggregate of quartz and topaz is called topaz-fels or
topaz rock, and is largely developed in some of the tin-mining
districts of Germany, though not found in Cornwall.
As might be expected every stage of the conversion of granite
into schorl rock can be found. Tourmaline may have been to some
extent an original constituent of the granite, but most of it is of
new formation and must have resulted from the alteration of the
biotite and the felspar of the original rock, both of these minerals
having disappeared when the metamorphosis was complete. It is
commonly found that the schorl is of a brown colour in the interior
of the crystals but blue at the edges; probably the brown is primary
or has been derived from biotite, but the blue principally from the
replacement of felspar. The rock known as luxullianite, obtained
near Luxullian village in Cornwall and used as an ornamental stone
for the_ sarcophagus of the duke of Wellington's monument in
St Paul's Cathedral, is a tourmaline granite in which the replacement
of biotite and felspar by quartz and tourmaline can be seen in
progress. The new tourmaline is in fine pointed needles which have
a stellate or divergent arrangement, and is embedded in quartz:
often these needles are planted on the surface of corroded crystals
of primary brown schorl. This rock still contains a good deal of
flesh-coloured felspar in large porphyritic crystals which contrast
well with the dark matrix and give polished specimens a very
handsome appearance. In the completely altered schorl rocks
there are rarely needles of tourmaline, but this mineral occurs as
irregular grains mingled in varying proportions with small crystals
of quartz. In nearly all cases the structure of the granite has
vanished, but at Trevalgan, St Austell, and other places in Cornwall
there are schorl rocks which contain white pseudomorphs of quartz
after porphyritic crystals of orthoclase.
In porphyries of " elvans " tourmalinization also is frequent,
though not so common as greisening. Veins of quartz with stellate
schorl needles may be seen spreading through the groundmass or
when this has been previously converted into an aggregate of quartz
and fine scaly white mica, the porphyritic crystals of felspar alone
may be replaced by bunches of tourmaline embedded in quartz.
Tinstone often makes its appearance in these rocks either in small
crystals enclosed in quartz or lining fissures and cavities left by the
removal of a portion of the rock in solution.
The same process goes on also in sedimentary rocks; a felspathic
sandstone may yield a schorl rock which can hardly be distinguished
from one derived from a fine-grained granite. In shales brown
tourmaline is often deposited in the vicinity of fissures, and the whole
mass may be converted into a hard splintery aggregate of quartz
and schorl (often containing also rutile and tinstone). But these
rocks are always banded, like the original slate; their original
structures (bedding and cleavage) are probably never completely
effaced and the ultimate product has been called schorl-schist
(tourmaline hornfels, cornubianite).
The stanniferous veins which in large numbers intersect the
granites of Devon and Cornwall and the slates around them, and
have yielded a large part of the world's supply of tin consist mostly
of quartz, tourmaline and chlorite (with varying proportions of
cassiterite). The veinstones are typically very fine grained, hard
and dark blue or dark green in colour. The green varieties contain
much chlorite, the blue are richer in tourmaline, and both kinds
are known to the miners as " peach." Essentially aqueous deposits
in lines of fissure, these rocks show that quartz and tourmaline were
carried up in hot solutions at a late period in the cooling of the
granite, and the changes above described are due to the operation
of these solutions as they spread outwards through the surrounding
rocks. Their tourmaline crystals are very small and usually of
dark-blue shades, but owing to repeated movements of the walls
of the veins the ore deposits have sometimes an intricate history, as
microscopic studies show that the first infillings of the fissures have
been broken up and cemented together again by a later material of
slightly different character. (J. S. F.)
SCHOTTISCHE, the German for " Scottish," a name given
to a dance, der schottische Tanz, introduced into England about
1850. It was a form of polka, with two figures. The " High-
land Schottische " is a lively dance resembling a fling. What
is known as the " barn dance " was first known in America
as the " Military Schottische."
SCHOULER, JAMES (1839- ), American lawyer and
historian, was born in West Cambridge (now Arlington) , Massa-
chusetts, on the 20th of March 1839, the son of William Schouler
(1814-1872), who from 1847 to 1833 edited the Boston Atlas,
one of the leading Whig journals of New England. The son
graduated at Harvard in 1859, studied law in Boston and was
admitted to the bar there in 1862. In 1869 he removed to
Washington, where for three years he published the United
States Jurist. After his return to Boston, in 1874, he devoted
himself to office practice and to literary pursuits. He was a
lecturer in the law school of Boston University between 1885
and 1903, a non-resident professor and lecturer in the National
378
SCHRADER SCHRODER, F. L.
University Law School, Washington, D.C., in 1887-1909, and
a lecturer on American history and constitutional law at Johns
Hopkins University in 1891-1908. In 1896-1897 he was presi-
dent of the American Historical Association. His legal treatises
are The Law of Domestic Relations (1870), The Law of Personal
Property (1872-1876; new ed., 1907), The Law of Bailments
(1880), The Law of Executors and Administrators (1883), The
Law of Husband and Wife (1882) and The Law of Wills (1910).
He is best known, however, as an historian; his most important
work being a History of the United States under the Constitution,
1789-1865 (6 vols., 1880-1899). Among his other publications
are A Life of Thomas Jefferson (1893); Historical Briefs (1896),
containing a biography of Mr Schouler; Constitutional Studies,
Slate and Federal (1897); a brief Life of Alexander Hamilton
(1901); Americans of 1776 (1906); and Ideals of the Republic
(1908).
SCHRADER, EBERHARD (1836-1908), German orientalist,
was born at Brunswick on the 7th of January 1836, and educated
at Gottingen under Ewald. In 1858 he took a university prize
for a treatise on the Ethiopian languages, and in 1863 became
professor of theology at Zurich. Subsequently he occupied
chairs at Giessen (1870) and Jena (1873), and finally became
professor of oriental languages at Berlin. Though he turned
first to biblical research, his chief achievements were in the
field of Assyriology, in which he was a pioneer in Germany and
acquired an international reputation. He died on the 4th of
July 1908.
His publications include: Studien zur Kritik und Erkldrung der
biblischen Urgeschichte (1863); the 8th edition of De Wette's Ein-
leitung in das Alte Testament (1869); Die assyr.-babyl. Keilinschriften
(1872); Die Keilinschriften una das Alt. Test. (1872; 3rd ed.
by Zimmern and Winckler, 1901-1902); Keilinschriften und Ge-
schichisforschung (1878); Die Hollenfahrt der Istar (text, trans.,
notes, 1874); Zur Frage nach dent Ursprung der altbabylonischen
Kultur (1884); in conjunction with other scholars, Keilinschriftliche
Bibliothek (1877).
SCHREIBER, LADY CHARLOTTE ELIZABETH (1812-
1895), better known as Lady Charlotte Guest, Welsh scholar
and connoisseur of china, daughter of Albemarle Bertie, gth
earl of Lindsey, was born at Ufiington House, Lincolnshire,
on the igth of May 1812. She married in 1833 Sir Josiah John
Guest, manager and afterwards owner of the Dowlais iron-
works near Merthyr Tydvil. Lady Charlotte Guest studied
the Welsh language and literature, and published (3 vols.,
1838-1849) The Mabinogion, from the Llyfr Coch o Hergest, and
other ancient Welsh Manuscripts, with an English translation
and notes. A second edition without the Welsh text appeared
in 1877, and in 1881 The Boy's Mabinogion; being the earliest
Welsh tales of King Arthur in the famous Red Book of Hergest,
edited with an introduction by S. Lanier. Sir Josiah Guest died
in 1852, and Lady Charlotte married in 1855 Charles Schreiber,
M.P. for Cheltenham and Poole. She made a valuable collection
of English porcelain and china, now in the South Kensington
Museum, another of fans and fan leaves, presented to the British
Museum, and a third of playing cards, part of which is in the
British Museum. On all three subjects she left elaborate
treatises. She died on the isth of January 1895 at Canford
Manor, Dorset, at the house of her eldest son Ivor Guest, Baron
Wimborne.
Editions of Lady Charlotte Guest's translation of the Mabinogion
are in The Temple Classics (1902), The Welsh Library (1902), &c.
SCHREIBERHAU, a village and climatic health resort of
Germany, in the Prussian province of Silesia, situated in the
valley of the Zacken in the Riesengebirge, 1900 ft. above the
sea, 16 m. S.W. from Hirschberg by the railway to Griinthal.
Pop. (1905) 4994. It has two Roman Catholic and two Evangeli-
cal churches, and works for the making and polishing of glass.
It is a popular resort, being visited by about 10,000 visitors
annually.
See Kloidt, Schreiberhau im Riesengebirge (Breslau, 1893).
SCHREYER, ADOLF (1828-1899), German painter, was born
at Frankfort-on-Main, and studied art first at the Staedel
Institute in his native town, and then at Stuttgart, Munich, and
DUsseldorf; but he formed his style in Paris, whilst he found his
favourite subjects in his travels in the East. He first accom-
panied Prince Thurn and Taxis through Hungary, Wallachia,
Russia and Turkey; then, in 1854, he followed the Austrian
army across the Wallachian frontier. In 1856 he went to Egypt
and Syria, and in 1861 to Algiers. In 1862 he settled in Paris,
but returned to Germany in 1870; and settled at Cronberg near
Frankfort, where he died in 1899. Schreyer was, and is still,
especially esteemed as a painter of horses, of peasant life in
Wallachia and Moldavia, and of battle incidents. His work
is remarkable for its excellent equine draughtsmanship, and for
the artist's power of observation and forceful statement; and has
found particular favour among French and American collectors.
Of his battle-pictures there are two at the Schwerin Gallery,
and others in the collection of Count Mensdorff-Pouilly and in the
Ravene Gallery, Berlin. His painting of a " Charge of Artillery
of Imperial Guard " was formerly at the Luxembourg Museum.
The Metropolitan Museum, New York, owns three of Schreyer's
oriental paintings: " Abandoned," " Arabs on the March "
and " Arabs making a detour "; and many of his best pictures
are in the Rockefeller, Vanderbilt, J. J. Astor, W. Astor, A.
Belmont, and W. Walters collections. At the Kunsthalle in
Hamburg is his " Wallachian Transport Train," and at the
Staedel Institute, Frankfort, are two of his Wallachian scenes.
SCHRIJVER, PETER (1576-1660), Dutch author, better known
as SCRIVERIUS, was born at Haarlem on the I2th of January
1576. He was educated at the university of Leiden, where he
formed a close intimacy with Daniel Heinsius. He belonged to
the party of Oldenbarneveldt and Grot ius, and brought down the
displeasure of the government by a copy of Latin verses in
honour of their friend Hoogerbeets. Most of his life was passed
in Leiden, but in 1650 he became blind, and the last years of his
life were spent in his son's house at Oudewater, where he died
on the 30th of April 1660.
He is best known as a scholar by his notes on Martial, Ausonius,
the Pervigilium Veneris; editions of the poems of Scaliger (Leiden,
1615), of the De re militari of Vegetius Renatus, the tragedies of
Seneca (P. Scriverii collectanea veterum tragicorum, 1621), &c. His
Opera anecdota, philologica, et poetica (Utrecht, 1738) were edited
by A. H. Westerhovius, and his Nederduitsche Gedichten (1738)
by S. Dockes. He made many valuable contributions to the history
of Holland: Batavia Illustrata (4 parts, Leiden, 1609); Carte
historische Beschryvinghe der Nederlandscher Oorlogen (1612); In-
ferioris Germaniae . . . historia (1611, 4 parts); Beschryvinghe van
Out Batavien (Arnheim, 1612); Het oude gontsche Chronycxken van
Hollandt, edited by him, and printed at Amsterdam in 1663;
Principes Hollandiae Zelandiae et rrisiae (Haarlem, 1650), translated
(1678) into Dutch by Pieter Brugman.
See Peerlkamp, Vitae Belgarum qui latina carmina scripserunt
(Brussels, 1822), and J. H. Hoeufft, Parnassus latino-belgicus
(Amsterdam, 1819).
SCHRODER, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1744-1816), German
actor, manager and dramatist, was born in Schwerin on the 3rd
of November 1744. Shortly after his birth, his mother, Sophie
Charlotte Schroder (1714-1792), separated from her husband,
and joining a theatrical company toured with success in Poland
and Russia. Subsequently she married Konrad Ernst Acker-
mann and appeared with his company in many German cities,
finally settling in Hamburg. Young Schroder early showed
considerable talent, but his childhood was rendered so unhappy
by his stepfather that he ran away from home and learnt the
trade of a shoemaker. He rejoined his parents, however, in 1759,
and became an actor. In 1 764 he appeared with the Ackermann
company in Hamburg, playing leading comedy parts; but these
he soon exchanged for the tragic r61es in which he became famous.
These included Hamlet, Lear and Philip in Schiller's Don Carlos.
After Ackermann's death in 1771 Schroder and his mother took
over the management of the Hamburg theatre, and he began to
write plays largely adaptations from the English, making his
first success with the comedy Die Arglistige. In 1780 he left
Hamburg, and after a tour with his wife, Anna Christina Hart,
a former pupil, accepted an engagement at the Court theatre in
Vienna. In 1 785 Schroder again took over his Hamburg manage-
ment and conducted the theatre with marked ability until his
retirement in 1798. The Hamburg theatre again falling into
decay, the master was once more summoned to assist in its
SCHRODER, S. SCHUBERT
379
rehabilitation, and in 1811 he returned to it for one year. He
died on the 3rd of September 1816. As an actor Schroder was
the first to depart from the stilted style of former tragedians;
as a manager he raised the standard of plays presented and first
brought Shakespeare before the German public. Schroder's
Dramatische Werke, with an introduction by Tieck, were published
in four volumes (Berlin, 1831).
See B. Litzmann, Friedrich Ludwig Schroder (Hamburg, 1890-
1894); R. Blum in the Allgemeines Theater- Lexikon (1842); and
Brunier, Friedrich Ludwig Schroder (Leipzig, 1864).
SCHRODER, SOPHIE (1781-1868), German actress, was born
at Paderborn on the 23rd of February 1781, the daughter of an
actor, Gottfried Burger. She made her first appearance in opera
at St Petersburg, in 1793. On Kotzebue's recommendation she
was engaged for the Vienna Court theatre in 1798, and here and
in Munich and Hamburg she won great successes in tragic roles
like Marie Stuart, Phedre, Merope, Lady Macbeth, and Isabella in
The Bride of Messina, which gave her the reputation of being
" the German Siddons." She retired in 1840 and lived in Augs-
burg and Munich until her death on the 25th of February 1868.
She had married, in 1795, an actor, Stollmers (properly Smets),
from whom she separated in 1799. In 1804 she married the
tenor Friedrich Schroder, and on his death in 1825, an actor,
Kunst. Mme Schroder's eldest daughter was the opera singer,
Wilhelmine Devrient-Schroder (q.v.).
See Ph. Schmidt, Sophie Schroder (Vienna, 1870); also Das
Lexikon der deutscher Biihnen-Angehdrigen.
SCHRODER - DEVRIENT, WILHELMINE (1804-1860),
German operatic singer, was born on the 6th of December 1804,
in Hamburg, being the daughter of the actress, Sophie Schroder
(1781-1868). Her first impersonation was at the age of fifteen
as Aricia in Schiller's translation of Racine's Phedre, and in
1821 she was received with so much enthusiasm as Pamina in
Mozart's Zauberflote that her future career in opera was assured.
In 1823 she married Karl Devrient, but was separated from him
in 1828, afterwards making two other marriages. Meanwhile
she had maintained her popularity at Dresden and elsewhere.
She made her first Paris appearance in 1830, and she sang in
London in 1833 and 1837. As a singer she combined a rare
quality of tone with dramatic intensity of expression, which was
as remarkable on the concert platform as in opera. She died
in Coburg on the 26th of January 1860.
See E. von Gliimer, Erinnerungen an Wilhelmine Schroder-Devrient
(Leipzig, 1862); and A. von Wolzogen, Wilhelmine Schroder-
Devrient (Leipzig, 1863).
SCHROTER, JOHANN HIERONYMUS (1745-1816), German
astronomer, was born at Erfurt on the 3oth of August 1745.
Having studied law al Gottingen, he became chief magistrate
at Lilienthal, near Bremen, in 1788. Here he built an
observatory, and, equipped in 1785 by a 7-ft. reflector by
Herschel, and later by a i3-ft. reflector by Johann Gottlieb
Friedrich Schrader of Kiel, he made his famous observations
on the surface features of the moon and planets. His work
was ruined in 1813 by the French under Vandamme, who
destroyed his books, writings and observatory; he never
recovered from the catastrophe, and died on the 29th of August
1816.
SCHUBART, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH DANIEL (1730-1791),
German poet, was born at Obersontheim in Swabia (now the
kingdom of Wurttemberg) on the 24th of March 1739, and
entered the university of Erlangen in 1758 as a student of theo-
logy. He led a dissolute life, and after two years' stay was
summoned home by his parents. After attempting to earn a
livelihood as private tutor and as assistant preacher, his musical
talents gained him the appointment of organist in Geislingen,
and subsequently in Ludwigsburg; but in consequence of
his wild life and blasphemy, which found expression in a parody
of the litany, he was expelled the country. He then visited in
turn Heilbronn, Mannheim, Munich and Augsburg. In the last-
named town he made a considerable stay, began his Deutsche
Chronik (1774-1778) and eked out a subsistence by reciting from
the latest works of prominent poets. Owing to a bitter attack
upon the Jesuits, he was expelled from Augsburg and fled to Ulm,
where he was arrested in 1777 and confined in the fortress of
Hohenasperg. Here he met with lenient treatment, and he
beguiled the time by a study of mystical works and in compos-
ing poetry. His Samtliche Gedichte appeared in two volumes at
Stuttgart in 1785-1786 (new edition by G. Hauff, Leipzig, 1884,
in Reclam's Universal- Bibliothek) ; in this collection most of the
pieces are characterized by the bombast of the " Sturm und
Drang "period. He was set at liberty in 1787,31 the instance of
Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, and expressed his gratitude
in Hymnus auf Friedrich den Grossen. Schubart was now
appointed musical director and manager of the theatre at Stutt-
gart, where he continued his Deutsche Chronik and began his
autobiography, Schubarts Leben und, Gesinnungen (2 vols.,
1791-1793), but]before its completion he died at Stuttgart on the
loth of October 1791. His Gesammelte Schriftenund Schicksale-
appeared in 8 vols. (Stuttgart, 1839-1840).
See D. F. Strauss, Schubarts Leben in seinen Brief en (2 vols.,
1849; 2nd ed., 1878); G. Hauff, Christian Daniel Schubart (1885);
and E. Nagele, Aus Schubarts Leben und Wirken (1888).
SCHUBERT, FRANZ PETER (1797-1828), German composer,
was born on the 3ist of January 1797, in the Himmelpfortgrund,
a small suburb of Vienna. His father, Franz, son of a Moravian
peasant, was a parish schoolmaster; his mother, Elizabeth Fitz,
had before her marriage been cook in a Viennese family. Of their
fourteen children nine died in infancy; the others were Ignaz
(b. 1784), Ferdinand (b. 1794), Karl (b. 1796), Franz and a
daughter Theresia (b. 1801). The father, a man of worth and
integrity, possessed some reputation as a teacher, and his
school, in the Lichtenthal, was well attended. He was also a fair
amateur musician, and transmitted his own measure of skill
to his two elder sons, Ignaz and Ferdinand.
At the age of five Schubert began to receive regular instruction
from his father. At six he entered the Lichtenthal school where
he spent some of the happiest years of his life. About the same
time his musical education began. His father taught him the
rudiments of the violin, his brother Ignaz the rudiments of the
pianoforte. At seven, having outstripped these simple teachers,
he was placed under the charge of Michael Holzer, the Kapell-
meister of the Lichtenthal Church. Holzer's lessons seem to
have consisted mainly in expressions of admiration, and the
boy gained more from a friendly joiner's apprentice, who used to
take him to a neighbouring pianoforte warehouse and give him the
opportunity of practising on a better instrument than the poor
home could afford. The unsatisfactory character of his early train-
ing was the more serious as, at that time, a composer had little
chance of success unless he could appeal to the public as a per-
former, and for this the meagre education was never sufficient.
In October 1808 he was received as a scholar at the Convict,
which, under Salieri's direction, had become the chief music-
school of Vienna, and which had the special office of training the
choristers for the Court Chapel. Here he remained until nearly
seventeen, profiting little by the direct instruction, which was
almost as careless as that given to Haydn at St Stephen's,
but much by the practices of the school orchestra, and by associ-
ation with congenial comrades. Many of the most devoted friends
of his after life were among his schoolfellows: Spaun and Stadler
and Holzapfel, and a score of others who helped him out of their
slender pocket-money, bought him music-paper which he could
not buy for himself, and gave him loyal support and encourage-
ment. It was at the Convict, too, that he first made acquaintance
with the overtures and symphonies of Mozart there is as yet no
mention of Beethoven and between them and lighter pieces,
and occasional visits to the opera, he began to lay for himself
some foundation of musical knowledge.
Meanwhile his genius was already showing itself in composition.
A pianoforte fantasia, thirty-two close-written pages, is dated
April 8-May i, 1810 : then followed, in 1811, three long vocal
pieces written upon a plan which Zumsteeg had popularized,
together with a " quintet-overture," a string quartet, a second
pianoforte fantasia and a number of songs. His essay in
chamber-music is noticeable, since we learn that at the time
a regular quartet-party was established at his home " on Sundays
3 8o
SCHUBERT
and holidays," in which his two brothers played the violin, his
father the 'cello and Franz himself the viola. It was the first
germ of that amateur orchestra for which, in later years, many of
his compositions were written. During the remainder of his
stay at the Convict he wrote a good deal more chamber-music,
several songs, some miscellaneous pieces for the pianoforte
and, among his more ambitious efforts, a Kyrie and Salve Regina,
an octet for wind instruments said to commemorate the death of
his mother, which took place in 1812 a cantata, words and music,
for his father's name-day in 1813, and the closing work of his
school-life, his first symphony.
At the end of 1813 he left the Convict, and, to avoid military
service, entered his father's school as teacher of the lowest class.
For over two years he endured the drudgery of the work, which,
-we are told, he performed with very indifferent success. There
were, however, other interests to compensate. He took private
lessons from Salieri, who annoyed him with accusations of
plagiarism from Haydn and Mozart, but who did more for his
training than any of his other teachers; he formed a close
friendship with a family named Grob, whose daughter Therese
was a good singer and a good comrade; he occupied every
moment of leisure with rapid and voluminous composition. His
first opera Des Teufels Lustschloss and his first Mass in
F major were both written in 1814, and to the same year belong
three string quartets, many smaller instrumental pieces, the first
movement of the symphony in Bb and seventeen songs, which
include such masterpieces as Der Toucher and Gretchen am Spinn-
rade. But even this activity is far outpaced by that of the
annus mirabUis 1815. In this year, despite his school-work, his
lessons with Salieri and the many distractions of Viennese life,
he produced an amount of music the record of which is almost
incredible. The symphony in Bb was finished, and a third, in
D major, added soon afterwards. Of church music there
appeared two Masses, in G and Bb, the former written within
six days, a new Dona nobis for the Mass in F, a Slabat Mater and
a Salve Regina. Opera was represented by no less than five
works, of which three were completed Der Vierjahrige Fasten,
Fernando and Claudine von VUlabella and two, Adrast and
Die beiden Freunde von Salamanca, apparently left unfinished.
Besides these the list includes a string quartet in G minor, four
sonatas and several smaller compositions for piano, and, by way
of climax, 146 songs, some of which are of considerable length,
and of which eight are dated Oct. 15, and seven Oct. 19.
" Here," we may say with Dryden, " is God's plenty." Music
has always been the most generous of the arts, but it has never,
before or since, poured out its treasure with so lavish a hand.
In the winter of 1814-1815 Schubert made acquaintance with
the poet Mayrhofer: an acquaintance which, according to his
usual habit, soon ripened into a warm and intimate friendship.
They were singularly unlike in temperament: Schubert frank,
open and sunny, with brief fits of depression, and sudden out-
bursts of boisterous high spirits; Mayrhofer grim and saturnine,
a silent man who regarded life chiefly as a test of endurance; but
there is good authority for holding that " the best harmony is the
resolution of discord," and of this aphorism the ill-assorted pair
offer an illustration. The friendship, as will be seen later, was
of service to Schubert in more than one way.
As 1815 was the most prolific period of Schubert's life, so
1816 saw the first real change in his fortunes. Somewhere about
the turn of the year Spaun surprised him in the composition of
Erlkonig Goethe's poem propped among a heap of exercise-
books, and the boy at white-heat of inspiration " hurling "
the notes on the music-paper. A few weeks later Von Schober,
a law-student of good family and some means, who had heard
some of Schubert's songs at Spaun's house, came to pay a visit to
the composer and proposed to carry him off from school-life and
give him freedom to practice his art in peace. The proposal was
particularly opportune, for Schubert had just made an un-
successful application for the post of Kapellmeister at Laibach,
and was feeling more acutely than ever the slavery of the class-
room. His father's consent was readily given, and before the
end of the spring he was installed as a guest in Von Schober's
lodgings. For a time he attempted to increase the household
resources by giving music lessons, but they were soon abandoned,
and he devoted himself to composition. " I write all day," he
said later to an inquiring visitor, " and when I have finished
one piece I begin another. "
The works of 1816 include three ceremonial cantatas, one
written for Salieri's Jubilee on June 16; one, eight days later,
for a certain Herr Watteroth who paid the composer an
honorarium of 4 (" the first time," said the journal, " that I have
composed for money "), and one, on a foolish philanthropic
libretto, for Herr Joseph Spendou " Founder and Principal of the
Schoolmasters' Widows' Fund." Of more importance are two
new symphonies, No. 4 in C minor, called the Tragic, with a
striking andante, No. 5 in Bt>, as bright and fresh as a symphony
of Mozart: some numbers of church music, fuller and more
mature than any of their predecessors, and over a hundred songs,
among which are comprised some of his finest settings of Goethe
and Schiller. There is also an opera, Die Burgschaft, spoiled by
an illiterate book, but of interest as showing how continually his
mind was turned towards the theatre.
All this time his circle of friends was steadily widening.
Mayrhofer introduced him to Vogl, the famous baritone, who
did him good service by performing his songs in the salons of
Vienna; Anselm Hiittenbrenner and his brother Joseph ranged
themselves among his most devoted admirers; Gahy, an ex-
cellent pianist, played his sonatas and fantasias; the Sonn-
leithners, a rich burgher family whose eldest son had been at the
Convict, gave him free access to their home, and organized in his
honour musical parties which soon assumed the name of Schuber-
tiaden. The material needs of life were supplied without much
difficulty. No doubt Schubert was entirely penniless, for he
had given up teaching, he could earn nothing by public per-
formance, and, as yet, no publisher would take his music at a
gift; but his friends came to his aid with true Bohemian
generosity one found him lodging, another found him appli-
ances, they took their meals together and the man who had any
money paid the score. Schubert was always the leader of the
party, and was known by half-a-dozen affectionate nicknames,
of which the most characteristic is " kann er 'was? " his usual
question when a new acquaintance was proposed.
1818, though, like its predecessor, comparatively unfertile
in composition, was in two respects a memorable year. It saw the
first public performance of any work of Schubert's an overture
in the Italian style written as an avowed burlesque of Rossini,
and played in all seriousness at a Jail concert on March i . It also
saw the beginning of his only official appointment, the post of
music-master to the family of Count Johann Esterhazy at
Zelesz, where he spent the summer amid pleasant and congenial
surroundings. The compositions of the year include a Mass and
a symphony, both in C major, a certain amount of four-hand
pianoforte music for his pupils at Zelesz and a few songs,
among which are Einsamkeit, Marienbild and the Litaney.
On his return to Vienna in the autumn he found that Von
Schober had no room for him, and took up his residence with
Mayrhofer. There his life continued on its accustomed lines.
Every morning he began composing as soon as he was out of bed,
wrote till two o'clock, then dined and took a country walk,
then returned to composition or, if the mood forsook him, to
visits among his friends. He made his first public appearance
as a song-writer on February 28, 1819, when the Schajers Klage-
lied was sung by Jager at a Jail concert. In the summer of the
same year he took a holiday and travelled with Vogl through
Upper Austria. At Steyr he wrote his brilliant piano quintet in
A, and astonished his friends by transcribing the parts without a
score. In the autumn he sent three of his songs to Goethe, but,
so far as we know, received no acknowledgment.
The compositions of 1820 are remarkable, and show a marked
advance in development and maturity of style. The unfinished
oratorio Lazarus was begun in February; later followed, amid a
number of smaller works, the 23rd Psalm, the Gesang der Geisler,
the Quartettsatz in C minor and the great pianoforte fantasia
on Der Wanderer. But of almost more biographical interest is
SCHUBERT
381
the fact that in this year two of Schubert's operas appeared at
the Karnthnerthor theatre, Die Zwillingsbruder on June 14, and
Die Zauberharfe on August 19. Hitherto his larger compositions
(apart from Masses) had been restricted to the amateur orchestra
at the Gundelhof , a society which grew out of the quartet-parties
at his home. Now he began to assume a more prominent position
and address a wider public. Still, however, publishers held
obstinately aloof, and it was not until his friend Vogl had sung
Erlkiinig at a concert in the Karnthnerthor (Feb. 8, 1821) that
DiabelU hesitatingly agreed to print some of his works on com-
mission. The first seven opus-numbers (all songs) appeared
on these terms; then the commission ceased, and he began to
receive the meagre pittances which were all that the great publish-
ing houses ever accorded to him. Much has been written about
the neglect from which he suffered during his lifetime. It was
not the fault of his friends, it was only indirectly the fault of the
Viennese public; the persons most to blame were the cautious
intermediaries who stinted and hindered him from publication.
The production of his two dramatic pieces turned Schubert's
attention more firmly than ever in the direction of the stage;
and towards the end of 1821 he set himself on a course which
for nearly three years brought him continuous mortification and
disappointment. Alfonso und Estretta was refused, so was
Fierrabras; Die Verschworenen was prohibited by the censor
(apparently on the ground of its title) ; Rosamunde was withdrawn
after two nights, owing to the badness of its libretto. Of these
works the two former are written on a scale which would
make their performances exceedingly difficult (Fierrabras, for
instance, contains over 1000 pages of manuscript score), but Die
Verschworenen is a bright attractive comedy, and Rosamunde
contains some of the most charming music that Schubert ever com-
posed. In 1822 he made the acquaintance both of Weber and of
Beethoven, but little came of it in either case, though Beethoven
cordially acknowledged his genius. Von Schober was away from
Vienna; new friends appeared of a less desirable character; on
the whole these were the darkest years of his life.
In the spring of 1824 he wrote the magnificent octet, "A
Sketch for a Grand Symphony "; and in the summer went back
to Zelesz, when he became attracted by Hungarian idiom, and
wrote the Divertissement a I'Hongroise and the string quartet in
A minor. Most of his biographers insert here a story of his
hopeless passion for his pupil Countess Caroline Esterhazy; but
whatever may Be said as to the general likelihood of the romance,
the details by which it is illustrated are apocryphal, and the
song I'Addio, placed at its climax, is undoubtedly spurious.
A more debatable problem is raised by the grand duo in C major
(op. 140) which is dated from Zelesz in the summer of this year.
It bears no relation to the style of Schubert's pianoforte music,
it is wholly orchestral in character, and it may well be a transcript
or sketch of the " grand symphony " for which the octet was
a preparation. If so, it settles the question, raised by Sir George
Grove, of a " Symphony in C major " which is not to be found
among Schubert's orchestral scores.
Despite his preoccupation with the stage and later with his
official duties he found time during these years for a good deal
of miscellaneous composition. The Mass in At> was completed
and the exquisite " Unfinished Symphony " begun in 1822. The
Mullerlieder, and several other of his best songs, were written in
1825; to 1824, beside the works mentioned above, belong the
variations on Trockne Blumen and the two string quartets in
E and Eb. There is also a sonata, for piano and " Arpeggione,"
an interesting attempt to encourage a cumbersome and now
obsolete instrument.
The mishaps of the recent years were compensated by the
prosperity and happiness of 1825. Publication had been moving
more rapidly; the stress of poverty was for a time lightened;
in the summer there was a pleasant holiday in Upper Austria,
where Schubert was welcomed with enthusiasm. It was during
this tour that he produced his " Songs from Sir Walter Scott,"
and his piano sonata in A minor (op. 42), the former of which
he sold to Artaria for 20, the largest sum which he had yet
received for any composition. Sir George Grove, on the authority
of Randhartinger, attributes to this summer a lost " Gastein "
symphony which is possibly the same work as that already
mentioned under the record of the preceding year.
From 1826 to 1828 Schubert resided continuously in Vienna,
except for a brief visit to Graz in 1827. The history of his
life during these three years is little more than a record of his
compositions. The only events worth notice are that in 1826
he dedicated a symphony to the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde,
which voted him in return an honorarium of 10, that in the
same year he applied for a conductorship at the opera, and lost
it by refusing to alter one of his songs at rehearsal, and that in
the spring of 1828 he gave, for the first and only time in his
career, a public concert of his own works. But the compositions
themselves are a sufficient biography. The string quartet in D
minor, with the variations on " Death and the Maiden," was
written during the winter of 1825-1826, and first played on
Jan. 25. Later in the year came the string quartet in G major,
the " Rondeau brilliant," for piano and violin, and the fine
sonata in G which, by some pedantry of the publisher's, is
printed without its proper title. To these should be added the
three Shakespearian songs, of which " Hark! Hark! the Lark "
and " Who is Sylvia?" were written on the same day, the former
at a tavern where he broke his afternoon's walk, the latter on
his return to his lodging in the evening. In 1827 he wrote the
Winterreise, the fantasia for piano and violin, and the two
piano trios: in 1828 the Song of Miriam, the C major symphony,
the Mass in Eb, and the exceedingly beautiful Tantum Ergo in
the same key, the string quintet, the second Benedictus to the
Mass in C, the last three piano sonatas, and the collection of
songs known as Schwanengesang. Six of these are to words by
Heine, whose Buck der Licder appeared in the autumn. Every-
thing pointed to the renewal of an activity which should equal
that of his greatest abundance, when he was suddenly attacked
by typhus fever, and after a fortnight's illness died on Nov. 19
at the house of his brother Ferdinand. He had not completed
his thirty-second year.
Some of his smaller pieces were printed shortly after his
death, but the more valuable seem to have been regarded by the
publishers as waste paper. In 1838 Schumann, on a visit to
Vienna, found the dusty manuscript of the C major symphony
and took it back to Leipzig, where it was performed by Mendels-
sohn and celebrated in the Neue Zeitschrifl. The most important
step towards the recovery of the neglected works was the journey
to Vienna which Sir George Grove and Sir Arthur Sullivan made
in the autumn of 1867. The account of it is given in Grove's
appendix to the English translation' of Kreissle von Hellborn;
the travellers rescued from oblivion seven symphonies, the
Rosamunde music, some of the Masses and operas, some of
the chamber works, and a vast quantity of miscellaneous pieces
and songs. Their success gave impetus to a widespread public
interest and finally resulted in the definitive edition of Breit-
kopf and Hartel.
Schubert is best summed up in the well-known phrase of
Liszt, that he was " le musicien le plus poete qui fut jamais."
In clarity of style he was inferior to Mozart, in power of musical
construction he was far inferior to Beethoven, but in poetic
impulse and suggestion he is unsurpassed. He wrote always
at headlong speed, he seldom blotted a h'ne, and the greater
part of his work bears, in consequence, the essential mark of
improvisation: it is fresh, vivid, spontaneous, impatient of
restraint, full of rich colour and of warm imaginative feeling.
He was the greatest songwriter who ever lived, and almost
everything in his hand turned to song. In his Masses, for
instance, he seems to chafe at the contrapuntal numbers and
pours out his whole soul on those which he found suitable for
lyrical treatment. In his symphonies the lyric and elegiac
passages are usually the best, and the most beautiful of them
all is, throughout its two movements, lyric in character. The
standpoint from which to judge him is that of a singer who
ranged over the whole field of musical composition and
everywhere carried with him the artistic form which he loved
best.
SCHUCKING SCHULTZ
Like Mozart, whose influence over him was always considerable,
he wrote nearly all the finest of his compositions in the last ten years
of his life. His early symphonies, his early quartets, even his early
masses, are too much affected by a traditional style to establish an
enduring reputation. It is unfair to call them imitative, but at the
time when he wrote them he was saturated with Mozart, and early
Beethoven, and he spoke what was in his mind with a boy's frank-
ness. The Andante of the Tragic Symphony (No. 4) strikes a more
distinctive note, but the fifth is but a charming adaptation of a past
idiom, and the sixth, on which Schubert himself placed little value,
shows hardly any appreciable advance. It is a very different
matter when we come to the later works. The piano quintet in
A major (1819) may here be taken as the turning-point; then come
the Unfinished Symphony, which is pure Schubert in every bar; the
three quartets in A minor, D minor, and G major, full of romantic
colour; the delightful piano trios; the great string quintet; and the
C major symphony which, though diffuse, contains many passages
of surprising beauty. Every one of them is a masterpiece, and a
masterpiece such as Schubert alone could have written. The days
of brilliant promise were over and were succeeded by the days of
full and mature achievement.
His larger operas are marred both by their inordinate length and
by their want of dramatic power. The slighter comedies are pretty
and tuneful, but, except as curiosities, are not likely to be revived.
We may, however, deplore the fate which has deprived the stage
of the Rosamunde music. It is in Schubert's best vein; the en-
tractes, the Romance, and the ballets are alike excellent, and it is
much to be hoped that a poet will some day arise and fit the music
to a new play.
Of his pianoforte compositions, the sonatas, as might be expected,
are the least enduring, though there is not one of them which does
not contain some first-rate work. On the other hand his smaller
pieces, in which the lyric character is more apparent, are throughout
interesting to play and extremely pleasant to hear. He developed
a special pianoforte technique of his own not always " orthodox,"
but always characteristic. A special word should be added on his
fondness for piano duets, a form which before his time had been
rarely attempted. Of these he wrote a great many fantasias,
marches, polonaises, variations all bright and melodious with
sound texture and a remarkable command of rhythm.
His concerted pieces for the voice are often extremely difficult,
but they are of a rare beauty which would well repay the labour of
rehearsal. The 23rd psalm (for female voices) is exquisite; so are
the Gesang der Geister, the Nachthalle, the Nachtgesang im Walde
(for'male voices and horns), and that " dewdrop of celestial melody "
which Novello has published with English words under the title of
" Where Thou Reignest." Among all Schubert's mature works
there are none more undeservedly neglected than these.
Of the songs it is impossible, within the present limits, to give
even a sketch. They number over 600, excluding scenas and
operatic pieces, and they contain masterpieces from the beginning
of his career to the end. Gretchen am Spinnrade was written when
he was seventeen, Erlkonig when he was eighteen; then there
follows a continuous stream which never checks or runs dry, and
which broadens as it flows to the Mullerlieder, the Scott songs, the
Shakesperian songs, the Winterreise, and the Schwanengesang. He
is said to have been undiscriminating in his choice of words. Schu-
mann declared that " he could set a handbill to music," and there
is no doubt that he was inspired by any lyric which contained,
though even in imperfect expression, the germ of a poetic idea.
But his finest songs are almost all to fine poems. He set over 70
of Goethe's, over 60 of Schiller's; among the others are the names
of Shakespeare and Scott, of Schlegel and Ruckert, of Novalis and
VVilhelm Milller a list more than sufficient to compensate for the
triviality of occasional pieces or the inferior workmanship of personal
friends. It was a tragedy that he only lived for a few weeks after
the appearance of the Buck der Lieder. We may conjecture what
the world would have gained if he had found the full complement of
his art in Heine.
In his earlier songs he is more affected by the external and pictorial
aspect of the poem; in the later ones he penetrates to the centre
and seizes the poetic conception from within. But in both alike he
shows a gift of absolute melody which, even apart from its meaning,
would be inestimable. Neither Handel nor Mozart his two great
predecessors in lyric tune have surpassed or even approachea him
in fertility and variety of resource. The songs in Acts are wonderful ;
so are those in Zauberflote, but they are not so wonderful as Litaney,
and " Who is Syjvia?" and the Standchcn. To Schubert we owe
the introduction into music of a particular quality of romance, a
particular "addition of strangeness to beauty"; and so long as
the art remains his place among its supreme masters is undoubtedly
assured. (W. H. HA.)
SCHUCKING, LEVIN (1814-1883), German novelist, was born
on the estate of Klemenswerth, near Meppen, in Westphalia, on
the 6th of September 1814. After studying law at Munich,
Heidelberg and Gottingen, he wished to enter the government
judicial service, but, confronted by serious difficulties, abandoned
the legal career, and settling al Miinster in 1837, devoted himself
to literary work. In 1841 he removed to Schloss Meersburg
on the Lake of Constance, joined in 1843 the editorial staff of
the Allgemeine Zeitung in Augsburg, and in 1845 that of the
Kolnische Zeitung in Cologne. In 1852 he retired to his estate,
Sassenberg near Miinster, and died at Pyrmbnt on the 3ist
of August 1883. Among his numerous romances, which are
distinguished by good taste and patriotic feeling, largely reflect-
ing the sound, sturdy character of the Westphalians, must
be especially mentioned: Ein Schloss am Meer (1843); Ein
Sohn des Volkes (1849); Ein Staatsgeheimnis (1854); Ver-
schlungene Wege (1867); Die Herberge der Gerechtigkeit (1879).
Schiicking wrote a number of short stories: Aus den Tagen der
grossen Kaiserin (1858) and Neue Novetten (1877). In Annette
von Droste-Hiilshoff (q.v.) (1862) he gives a sketch of this poet
and acknowledges his indebtedness to her beneficial influence
upon his mind. There appeared posthumously, Lebenserin-
nerungen (1886) and Brief e von Annette von Droste-Hulsheff und
Levin Schiicking (1893). His wife, Luise (1815-1855), daughter
of the General Freiherr von Gall, in the Hessian service,
published some novels and romances of considerable merit.
Among the latter may be mentioned Gegen den Strom (1851)
and Der neue Kreuzritter (1853).
Schiicking's Gesammelte Erzahlungen und Novellen appeared in
6 yols. (1859-1866); Ausgewahlte Romane (12 vols., 1864; 2nd
series, also 12 vols., 1874-1876).
SCHULTENS, the name of three Dutch Orientalists. The
first and most important, ALBERT SCHULTENS (1686-1750),
was born at Groningen. He studied for the church at Groningen
and Leiden, applying himself specially to Hebrew and the
cognate tongues. His dissertation on The Use of Arabic in the
Interpretation of Scripture appeared in 1706. After a visit to
Reland in Utrecht he returned to Groningen (1708); then,
having taken his degree in theology (1709), he again went to
Leiden, and devoted himself to the study of the MS. collections
there till in 1711 he became pastor at Wassenaer. Disliking
parochial work, in 1713 he took the Hebrew chair at Franeker,
which he held till 1729, when he was transferred to Leiden as
rector of the collegium theologicum, or seminary for poor students.
From 1732 till his death (at Leiden on the 26th of January 1750)
he was professor of Oriental languages at Leiden. Schultens
was the chief Arabic teacher of his time, and in some sense a
restorer of Arabic studies, but he differed from J. J. Reiske and
A. I. De Sacy in mainly regarding Arabic as a handmaid to
Hebrew. He vindicated the value of comparative study of the
Semitic tongues against those who, like Gousset, regarded
Hebrew as a sacred tongue with which comparative philology
has nothing to do. His principal works were Origines Hebraeae
(2 vols., 1724, 1738), a second edition of which, with the De
defeclibus linguae Hebraeae (1731), appeared in 1761; Job
(!737)'> Proverbs (1748); Vetus et regia via hebraezandi (1738);
Monumenta vetustiora Arabum (1740), &c.
His son, JOHN JAMES SCHULTENS (1716-1778), became professor
at Herborn in 1742, and afterwards succeeded to his father's
chair. He was in turn succeeded by his son, HENRY ALBERT
SCHULTENS (1749-1793), who, however, left comparatively
little behind him, having succumbed to excessive work while
preparing an edition of Meidani, of which only a part appeared
posthumously (1795).
SCHULTZ, HERMANN (1836- ), German Protestant
theologian, was born at Liichow in Hanover on the 3Oth of
December 1836. He studied at Gottingen and Erlangen,
became professor at Basel in 1864, and eventually (1876)
professor ordinarius at Gottingen. Here he has also held the
appointments of chief university preacher, councillor to the
consistory (from 1881) and abbot of Bursfelde (1890). Professor
Schultz's theological standpoint was that of a moderate liberal.
" It is thought by many that he has succeeded in discover-
ing the via media between the positions of Biblical scholars
like Delitzsch on the one hand and Stade on the other " (Prof.
J. A. Paterson). He is well known to British and American
students as the author of an excellent work on Old Testament
Theology (i vols., 1869, sth ed., 1896; Eng. trans., 2nd ed., 1895).
SCHULTZE SCHUMANN
383
In his work on the doctrine of the Divinity of Christ (Die Lehre
von dcr Gottheit Ckristi, 1881) he follows the method of Ritschl,
and contends that the deity of Christ ought to be understood
as the expression of the experience of the Christian community.
In his own person and work Christ represents to the community
a personal revelation of God. Faith in the divinity of Christ
does not rest upon a miracle in nature, but upon a miracle in
the moral world.
Schultz's other works include: Die Stellung des christl. Glaubens
zur heiligen Schrift (1876; 2nd ed., 1877), Lehre vom heiligen
Abendmahl (1886); Grundriss der evang. Dogmatik (1890; 2nd ed.,
1892), Grundriss der evang. Ethik (2nd ed., 1897), and Grundriss der
christl. Apologetik (2nd ed., 1902).
SCHULTZE, MAX JOHANN SIGISMUND (1825-1874),
German microscopic anatomist, was born at Freiburg in Breisgau
(Baden) on the 25th of March 1825. He studied medicine at
Greif swald and Berlin, and was appointed extraordinary professor
at Halle in 1854 and five years later ordinary professor of anatomy
and histology and director of the Anatomical Institute at Bonn.
He died at Bonn on the i6th of January 1874. He founded,
in 1865, and edited the important Archiv fur mikroskopische
Anatomic , to which he contributed many papers, and he advanced
the subject generally, by refining on its technical methods. His
works included Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Turbellarien
(1851), Uber den Organismus der Polythalamien (1854), Beitrage
zur Kenntnis der Landplanarien (1857), Zur Kenntnis der elek-
Irischen Organe der Fische (1858) and Zur Anatomie und Physio-
logie der Retina (1866). His name is especially known for his
work on the cell theory. Uniting F. Dujardin's conception of
animal sarcode with H. von Mom's of vegetable protoplasma,
he pointed out their identity, and included them under the
common name of protoplasm, defining the cell as " a nucleated
mass of protoplasm with or without a cell-wall " (Das Proto-
plasma der Rhizopoden und der Pflanzenzellen ; ein Beitrag zur
Theorie der Ze/le, 1863).
SCHULZE-DELITZSCH, FRANZ HERMANN (1808-1883),
German economist, was born at Delitzsch, in Prussian Saxony,
on the 29th of August 1808. The place-name Delitzsch was added
in 1848 to distinguish him from other Schulzes in the National
Assembly. He studied law at Leipzig and Halle universities and,
when thirty, he became an assessor in the court of justice at
Berlin, and three years later was appointed patrimonialrichter
at Delitzsch. Entering the parliament of 1848, he joined the
Left Centre, and, acting as president of the commission of inquiry
into the condition of the labourers and artisans, became impressed
with the necessity of co-operation to enable the smaller trades-
people to hold their own against the capitalists. He was a
member of the Second Chamber in 1848-1849; but as matters
ceased to run smoothly between himself and the high legal officials,
he threw up his public appointments in October 1851, and with-
drew to Delitzsch. Here he devoted himself to the organization
and development of co-operation in Germany, and to the
foundation of Vorschussvereine (people's banks), of which he had
established the first at Delitzsch in 1850. These developed so
rapidly that Schulze-Delitzsch in 1858, in Die arbeitenden
Klassen und das Assoziationswesen in Deutschland, enumerated
twenty-five as already in existence. In 1859 he promoted
the first Genossenscha/tslag, 01 co-operative meeting, in Weimar,
and founded a central bureau of co-operative societies. In
1861 he again entered the Prussian Chamber, and became a
prominent member of the Progressist party. In 1863 he devoted
the chief portion of a testimonial, amounting to 7500, to the
maintenance of his co-operative institutions and offices. This,
however, was only to meet an exceptional outlay, for he always
insisted that they must be self-supporting. The next three
or four years were given to the formation of local centres, and
the establishment of the Deutsche Genossenschafts-Bank, 1865.
The spread of these organizations naturally led to legislation
on the subject, and this too was chiefly the work of Schulze-
Deiitzsch. As a member of the Chamber in 1867 he was mainly
instrumental in passing the Prussian law of association, which
was extended to the North German Confederation in 1868, and
later to the empire. Schulze-Delitzsch also contributed to
uniformity of legislation throughout the states of Germany,
in 1869, by the publication of Die Gesetzgebung uber die prival-
rechtliche Stellung der Erwerbs- und Wirthschaftsgenossenschaften,
&c. His life-work was now complete ; he had placed the
advantages of capital and co-operation within the reach of
struggling tradesmen throughout Germany. His remaining
years were spent in consolidating this work. Both as a writer
and a member of the Reichstag his industry was incessant, and
he died in harness on the 2gth of April 1883 at Potsdam, leaving
the reputation of a benefactor to the smaller tradesmen and
artisans, in which light he must be regarded rather than as the
founder of true co-operative principles in Germany. (See also
CO-OPERATION.)
SCHUMACHER, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN (1780-1850), German
astronomer, was born at Bramstedt in Holstein on the 3rd of
September 1780. He was director of ihe Mannheim observatory
from 1813 to 1815, and then became professor of astronomy
in Copenhagen. From 1817 he directed the triangulation of
Holstein, to which a few years later was added a complete
geodetic survey of Denmark (finished after his death). For the
sake of the survey an observatory was established at Altona, and
Schumacher resided there permanently, chiefly occupied with
the publication of Ephemerides (n parts, 1822-1832) and of
the journal Astronomische Nachrichten, of which he edited thirty-
one volumes. He died at Altona on the 28th of December 1850.
His son, RICHARD SCHUMACHER (1827-1902), was his assistant
from 1844 to 1850 at the conservatory at Altona. Having
become assistant to Carlos Guillelmo Moesta (1825-1884),
director of the observatory at Santiago, in 1859, he was associated
with the Chilean geodetic survey in 1864. Returning in 1869,
he was appointed assistant astronomer at Altona in 1873, and
afterwards at Kiel.
H. C. Schumacher's nephew, CHRISTIAN ANDREAS SCHU-
MACHER (1810-1854), was associated with the geodetic survey
of Denmark from 1833 to 1838, and afterwards (1844-1845)
improved the observatory at Pulkowa.
SCHUMANN, ROBERT ALEXANDER (1810-1856), German
musical composer, was born on the 8th of June 1810 in Zwickau
in Saxony. His father was a publisher, and it was in the cultiva-
tion of literature quite as much as in that of music that his
boyhood was spent. He himself tells us that he began to compose
before his seventh year. At fourteen he wrote an essay on the
aesthetics of music and also contributed to a volume edited by
his father and entitled Portraits of Famous Men. While still
at school in Zwickau he read, besides Schiller and Goethe,
Byron (whose Beppo and Childe Harold had been translated by
his father) and the Greek tragedians. But the most powerful
as well as the most permanent of the literary influences exercised
upon him, however, was undoubtedly that of Jean Paul Richter.
This influence may clearly be seen in his youthful novels Junius-
abende and Selene, of which the first only was completed (1826).
In 1828 he left school, and after a tour, during which he met
Heine at Munich, he went to Leipzig to study law. His interest
in music had been stimulated when he was a child by hearing
Moscheles play at Carlsbad, and in 1827 his enthusiasm had been
further excited by the works of Schubert and Mendelssohn.
But his father, who had encouraged the boy's musical aspirations,
had died in 1826, and neither his mother nor his guardian
approved of a musical career for him. The question seemed
to be set at rest by Schumann's expressed intention to study
law, but both at Leipzig and at Heidelberg, whither he went in
1829, he neglected the law for the philosophers, and though to
use his own words " but Nature's pupil pure and simple "
began composing songs. The restless spirit by which he was
pursued is disclosed in his letters of the period. At Easter 1830 he
heard Paganini at Frankfurt. In July in this year he wrote to
his mother, " My whole life has been a struggle between Poetry
and Prose, or call it Music and Law," and by Christmas he was
once more in Leipzig, taking piano lessons with his old master,
Friedrich Wieck. In his anxiety to accelerate the process by
which he could acquire a perfect execution he permanently
injured his right hand. His ambitions as a pianist being thus
384
SCHUMANN
suddenly ruined, he determined to devote himself entirely to
composition, and began a course of theory under Heinrich Dorn,
conductor of the Leipzig opera. About this time he contemplated
an opera on the subject of Hamlet.
The fusion of the literary idea with its musical illustration,
which may be said to have first taken shape in Papillons
(op. 2), is foreshadowed to some extent in the first criticism by
Schumann, an essay on Chopin's variations on a theme from
Don Juan, which appeared in the Allgemeine musikalische
Zeitung in 1831. Here the work is discussed by the imaginary
characters Florestan and Eusebius (the counterparts of Vult
and Walt in Jean Paul's novel Flegeljahre), and Meister Raro
(representing either the composer himself or Wieck) is called
upon for his opinion. By the time, however, that Schumann had
written Papillons (1831) he had gone a step farther. The
scenes and characters of his favourite novelist had now passed
definitely and consciously into the written music, and in a letter
from Leipzig (April 1832) he bids his brothers " read the last
scene in Jean Paul's Flegeljahre as soon as possible, because the
Papillons are intended as a musical representation of that
masquerade." In the winter of 1832 Schumann visited his rela-
tions at Zwickau and Schneeberg, in both of which places was
performed the first movement of his symphony in G minor,
which remains unpublished. In Zwickau the music was played
at a concert given by Wieck 's daughter Clara, who was then only
thirteen. The death of his brother Julius as well as that of his
sister-in-law Rosalie in 1833 seems to have affected Schumann
with a profound melancholy. By the spring of 1834, however, he
had sufficiently recovered to be able to start Die neue Zeitschrifl
fur Musik, the paper in which appeared the greater part of his
critical writings. The first number was published on the 3rd of
April 1834. It effected a revolution in the taste of the time,
when Mozart, Beethoven and Weber were being neglected for
the shallow works of men whose names are now forgotten.
To bestow praise on Chopin and Berlioz in those days was to
court the charge of eccentricity in taste, yet the genius of both
these masters was appreciated and openly proclaimed in the new
journal.
Schumann's editorial duties, which kept him closely occupied
during the summer of 1834, were interrupted by his relations
with Ernestine von Fricken, a girl of sixteen, to whom he became
engaged. She was the adopted daughter of a rich Bohemian,
from whose variations on a theme in C$ minor Schumann
constructed his own tudes symphoniques. The engagement
was broken off by Schumann, for reasons which have always
remained obscure. In the Carnaval (op. 9=1834), one of
his most genial and most characteristic pianoforte works,
Schumann commenced nearly all the sections of which it is
composed with the musical notes signified in German by
the letters that spell Asch, the town in which Ernestine
was born, which also are the musical letters in Schumann's own
name. By the sub-title " Estrella " to one of the sections in the
Carnaval, Ernestine is meant, and by the sub-title " Chiarina "
Clara Wieck. Eusebius and Florestan, the imaginary figures
appearing so often in his critical writings, also occur, besides
brilliant imitations of Chopin and Paganini, and the work comes
to a close with a march of the men of David against the Philistines
in which may be heard the clear accents of truth in contest
with the dull clamour of falsehood. In the Carnaval Schu-
mann went farther than in Papillons, for in it he himself
conceived the story of which it was the musical illustration. On
the 3rd of October 1835 Schumann met Mendelssohn at Wieck's
house in Leipzig, and his appreciation of his great contemporary
was shown with the same generous freedom that distinguished
him in all his relations to other musicians, and which later enabled
him to recognize the genius of Brahms when he was still obscure.
In 1836 Schumann's acquaintance with Clara Wieck, already
famous as a pianist, ripened into love, and a year later he asked
her father's consent to their marriage, but was met with a
refusal. In the series Phantasiestttcke for the piano (op. 12)
he once more gives a sublime illustration of the fusion of literary
and musical ideas as embodied conceptions in such pieces as
" Warum " and " In der Nacht." After he had written the
latter of these two he detected in the music the fanciful suggestion
of a series of episodes from the story of Hero and Leander. The
Kreisleriana, which he regarded as one of his most successful
works, was written in 1838, and in this the composer's realism
is again carried a step farther. Kreisler, the romantic poet
brought into contact with the real world, was a character drawn
from life by the poet E. T. A. Hoffmann (q.v.), and Schumann
utilized him as an imaginary mouthpiece for the recital in music
of his own personal experiences. The Phantasie (op. 17), written
in the summer of 1836, is a work of the highest quality of passion.
With the Faschingsckwank aus Wien, his most pictorial work
for the piano, written in 1839, after a visit to Vienna, this
period of his life comes to an end. As Wieck still withheld
his consent to their marriage, Robert and Clara at last dispensed
with it, and were married on the I2th of September at Schonefeld
near Leipzig.
The year 1840 may be said to have yielded the most extra-
ordinary results in Schumann's career. Until now he had
written almost solely for the pianoforte, but in this one year he
wrote about a hundred and fifty songs. Schumann's biographers
represent him as caught in a tempest of song, the sweetness, the
doubt and the despair of which are all to be attributed to varying
emotions aroused by his love for Clara. Yet it would be idle
to ascribe to this influence alone the lyrical perfection of such
songs as " Friihlingsnacht," " Im wunderschonen Monat Mai "
and " Schone Wiege meiner Leiden." His chief song-cycles of this
period were his settings of the Liederkreis of J. von Eichendorff
(op. 39), the Frauenliebe und Leben of Chamisso (op. 42),
the Dichterliebe of Heine (op. 48) and Myrthen, a collection
of songs, including poems by Goethe, Riickert, Heine, Byron,
Burns and Moore. The songs " Belsatzar " (op. 57) and " Die
beiden Grenadiere " (op. 49), each to Heine's words, show
Schumann at his best as a ballad writer, though the dramatic
ballad is less congenial to him than the introspective lyric. As
Grillparzer said, " He has made himself a new ideal world in which
he moves almost as he wills." Yet it was not until long after-
wards that he met with adequate recognition. In his lifetime
the sole tokens of honour bestowed upon Schumann were the
degree of Doctor by the University of Jena in 1840, and in 1843
a professorship in the Couservatorium of Leipzig. Probably no
composer ever rivalled Schumann in concentrating his energies on
one form of music at a time. At first all his creative impulses were
translated into pianoforte music, then followed the miraculous
year of the songs. In 1841 he wrote two of his four symphonies.
The year 1842 was devoted to the composition of chamber music,
and includes the pianoforte quintet (op. 44), now one of his
best known and most admired works. In 1843 he wrote Paradise
and the Peri, his first essay at concerted vocal music. He had
now mastered the separate forms, and from this time forward
his compositions are not confined during any particular period
to any one of them. In Schumann, above all musicians, the
acquisition of technical knowledge was closely bound up with the
growth of his own experience and the impulse to express it.
The stage in his life when he was deeply engaged in his music
to Goethe's Faust (1844-1853) was a critical one for his health.
The first half of the year 1844 had been spent with his wife in
Russia. On returning to Germany he had abandoned his
editorial work, and left Leipzig for Dresden, where he suffered
from persistent nervous prostration. As soon as he began to work
he was seized with fits of shivering, and an apprehension of
death which was exhibited in an abhorrence for high places,
for all metal instruments (even keys) and for drugs. He
suffered perpetually also from imagining that he had the note
A sounding in his ears. In 1846 he had recovered and in the
winter revisited Vienna, travelling to Prague and Berlin in the
spring of 1847 and in the summer to Zwickau, where he was
received with enthusiasm, gratifying because Dresden and
Leipzig were the only large cities in which his fame was at this
time appreciated.
To 1848 belongs his only opera, Genoveva, a work contain-
ing much beautiful music, but Licking dramatic force. It is
SCHUMANN
385
interesting for its attempt to abolish the recitative, which
Schumann regarded as an interruption to the musical flow. The
subject of Genoveva, based on Tieck and Hebbel, was in itself
not a particularly happy choice; but it is worth remembering
that as early as 1842 the possibilities of German opera had been
keenly realized by Schumann, who wrote, " Do you know my
prayer as an artist, night and morning? It is called 'German
Opera.' Here is a real field for enterprise . . . something
simple, profound, German." And in his notebook of suggestions
for the text of operas are found amongst others: Nibelungen,
Lohengrin and Till Eulenspiegel. The music to Byron's
Manfred is pre-eminent in a year (1849) in which he wrote
more than in any other. The insurrection of Dresden caused
Schumann to move to Kreischa, a little village a few miles
outside the city. In the August of this year, on the occasion
of the hundredth anniversary of Goethe's birth, such scenes of
Schumann's Faust as were already completed were performed
in Dresden, Leipzig and Weimar, Liszt as always giving un-
wearied assistance and encouragement. The rest of the work
was written in the latter part of the year, and the overture in
1853. From 1850 to 1854 the text of Schumann's works is
extremely varied. In 1850 he succeeded Ferdinand Hiller as
musical director at Dusseldorf; in 1851-1853 he visited Switzer-
land and Belgium as well as Leipzig. In January 1854 Schumann
went to Hanover, where he heard a performance of his Paradise
and the Peri. Soon after his return to Dusseldorf, where he was
engaged in editing his complete works and making an anthology
on the subject of music, a renewal of the symptoms that
had threatened him before showed itself. Besides the single
note he now imagined that voices sounded in his ear. One night
he suddenly left his bed, saying that Schubert and Mendelssohn
had sent him a theme which he must write down, and on this
theme he wrote five variations for the pianoforte, his last work.
On the zyth of February he threw himself into the Rhine. He
was rescued by some boatmen, but when brought to land was
found to be quite insane. He was taken to a private asylum
in Endenich near Bonn, and remained there until his death on
the 2gth of July 1856. He was buried at Bonn and in 1880 a
statue by A. Donndorf was erected on his tomb.
His wife, CLARA SCHUMANN (1819-1896), trained from an early
age by Wieck, had a brilliant career as a pianist from the age
of thirteen up to her marriage. In the various tours on which
she accompanied her husband, she extended her own reputation
beyond the borders of Germany, and it was thanks to her efforts
that his compositions became generally known in Europe. From
the time of her husband's death she devoted herself principally
to the interpretation of her husband's works, but when in 1856
she first visited England the critics received Schumann's music
with a chorus of disapprobation. She returned to London in
1865 and continued her visits annually, with the exception of
four seasons, until 1882; and from 1885 to 1888 she appeared
each year. In 1878 she was appointed teacher of the piano at
the Hoch Conservatorium at Frankfurt, a post which she held
until 1892, and in which she contributed greatly to the modern
improvement in technique. As an artist she will be remembered,
together with Joseph Joachim, as one of the first executants who
really played like composers. Besides being remembered for
her eminence as a performer of nearly all kinds of pianoforte
music, at a time when such technical ability was considerably
rarer than in the present day, she was herself the composer of a
few songs and of some charming music, mainly for the piano, and
the authoritative editor of her husband's works for Breitkopf
and Hartel.
The following are the chief compositions of Robert Schumann.
Pianoforte Works.
Papillons (op. 2) .
Etudes symphoniques (op. 13)
Carnaval (op. 9) .
Sonata in F sharp minor (op. n)
Sonata in G minor (op. 22)
Kinderszenen (op. 15)
Fantasia in C (op. 17)
Fantasiestucke (op. 12)
XXIV. 13
1829-1831
1834
1834-1835
1835
1833-1835
. 1836
. 1836
1837
Kreisleriana (op. 16)
Novelletten (op. 21)
Faschingschwank aus Wien (op. 26) .
Songs and Choral Works.
1838
1838
1839
- 1840
1841
Songs: " Liederkreis " (Heine), nine songs (op. 24) ."
" Myrthen," twenty-six songs (4 books) (op. 25)
" Liederkreis" (Eichendorff) , twelve songs (op. 39).
" Frauenliebe und Leben " (Chamisso), eight songs
(op. 42) . _
" Dichterliebe," sixteen songs from Heine's Buck der
Lieder (op. 48)
" Belsatzar," ballad (Heine) (op. 57) .
Song, " Tragodie " (Heine) from op. 64 .
Ballad, " Der Handschuh " (Schiller). . probably 1851
Songs from Wilhelm Meister and Requiem for Mignon
for chorus (op. 98) 1849
Spanische Liebeslieder (op. 138) 1849
Choral and Dramatic Works: " Paradise and the
Peri," for solos, chorus and orchestra (op. 50) . 1843
Faust music 1844-1853
" Genoveva," opera 1848
Manfred music 1849
" Der Rose Pilgerfahrt " (Moritz Horn), for solos,"
chorus and orchestra (op. 112) ....
" Der Konigssohn " (Uhland), for solos, chorus and
orchestra (op. 103)
" Des Sangers Fluch (Uhland) for solos, chorus and
orchestra (op. 139)
Mass for four part chorus and orchestra (op. 148)
" Vom Pagen und der Konigstochter," four ballads
(Geibel) for solos, chorus and orchestra (op. 135)
Das Gluck von Edenhall," ballad (Uhland); fi
1851
1852
i
for
solos, chorus and orchestra (op. 143)
Festival overture on the Rheinweinlied
orchestra and chorus (op. 123) .
Chamber Music.
Three quartets for strings in A minor, F and AT
(op. 41)
Quintet for pianoforte and strings in E flat (op. 44) I
Quartet for pianoforte and strings in E flat (op. 47) [
Fantasiestucke for pianoforte, violin and violoncello
(op. 88) J
Andante and variations for two pianofortes (op. 46) 1
Trjo for pianoforte and strings in D minor (op. 63).
Trio for pianoforte and strings in F (op. 80) .
Fantasiestucke for clarinet and pianoforte (op. 73).
Five " Stucke im Volkston " for piano and violoncello
(op. 102)
Three Romances for oboe and piano (op. 94)
" Marchenbilder " for pianoforte and viola (( .
Sonata for pianoforte and violin in A minor (op. 105)
Trio for pianoforte and strings in G minor (op. no).
Sonata for pianoforte and violin in D minor (op. 121)
" Marchenerzahlungen," four pieces for clarinet,
viola and pianoforte, probably written in .
Orchestral Works.
B flat Symphony (pp. 38)
Fourth Symphony in D minor (op. I2o) 2
Overture, Scherzo and Finale ....
Second Symphony in C (op. 61) .
Third or " Rhenish " Symphony in E flat (op. 97)
Concertos and Concert-Slucke.
1853
1842
1843
1847
1849
1851
1853
1841
1846
1850
1841-1845
For Pianoforte in A minor (op. 54) . .
Concert-stuck for four horns (op. 86) . .
Introduction and Allegro-appassionato for Piano- (-1849
forte (op. 92) J
Concerto for Violoncello (op. 126) .... 1852
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Wasielewski, Robert Schumann; A. Reismann,
Robert Schumanns Leben und Werke;]. A. Fuller Maitland, Schumann
(" Great Musicians " series); The Life of Robert Schumann told in
his Letters (with a preface by J. G. Jansen), translated from the
German by May Herbert ; Letters of R. Schumann, edited by Karl
Storck (Eng. trans, by Hannah Bryant) ; V. Joss, Der Musikpada-
eoge Friedrich Wieck und seine Familie ; Litzmann, Clara Schumann
(1902) ; Moser's Joseph Joachim and the first volume of Kalbeck's
Brahms contain much that is important as to Schumann's later
years. See also W. H. Hadow, Studies in Modern Music, first series
(1894).
1 Originally for two pianofortes, two violoncellos and horn. The
original version (which contains four additional variations) was
published in 1893.
1 Revised 1851 ; original version published 1891.
3 86
SCHURER SCHURZ
SCHURER, EMIL (1844-1910), German Protestant theologian,
was born at Augsburg on the 2nd of May 1844. After studying
at Erlangen, Berlin and Heidelberg from 1862 to 1866, he became
in 1873 professor extraordinarius at Leipzig and eventually
(1895) professor ordinarius at Gottingen. In 1876 he founded
and edited the Theologische Literaturzeitung, and from 1881
to 1910 he edited it with Adolf Harnack. His elaborate work
on the history of the Jews in the time of Christ (Geschichte des
jiidischen Volks im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 2 vols., 1886-1890;
new ed. in 3 vols., 1901-1902; Eng. trans., 1890 ff.) made
him in Great Britain and America one of the best known of
modern German scholars. He died after a long illness on the
30th of April 1910.
His other works include: SMeiermacher' s Religionsbegriff (1868);
Lehrbuch der neulestamentlichen Zeitgeschichte (1874; an earlier form
of Gesch. des jud. Volks), and Die Gemeindeverfassung der Juden in
Rom (1879). See A. Harnack in the Theologische Literaturzeitung
for May 14, 1910.
SCHURMAN, JACOB GOULD (1854- ), American educa-
tionist, was born at Freetown, Prince Edward Island, on the
22nd of May 1854, of Dutch descent, his Loyalist ancestors
having left New York in 1784. While a student at Acadia
College, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, in 1875, ne won tne Canadian
Gilchrist scholarship in the University of London, from which
he received the degree of B.A. in 1877 and that of M.A. in 1878,
and in 1877-1880 studied hi Paris, Edinburgh and (as Hibbert
Fellow) in Heidelberg, Berlin and Gottingen. He was professor
of English literature, political economy and psychology at
Acadia College in 1880-1882, of metaphysics and English litera-
ture at Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S., in 1882-1886, and of
philosophy (Sage professor) at Cornell University in 1886- -1892,
being Dean of the Sage School of Philosophy in 1891-1892.
In 1892 he became president of Cornell University. He was
chairman of the First United States Philippine Commission
in 1899, and wrote (besides a part of the official report to Congress)
Philippine A/airs A Retrospect and an Outlook (1902). With
J. E. Creighton and James Seth he founded in 1892 The Philo-
sophical Review. He also wrote Kantian Ethics and the Ethics
of Evolution (1881); The Ethical Import of Darwinism (1888);
Belief in God (1890), and Agnosticism and Religion (1896).
SCHURZ, CARL (1829-1906), German American statesman
and reformer, was born in Liblar, near Cologne, on the 2nd of
March 1829, the son of a school-teacher. He studied in the
Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne in 1840-1846, and then entered the
University of Bonn, where he became a revolutionary, partly
through his friendship with Gottfried Kinkel, professor of
literature and art-history. He assisted Kinkel in editing the
Banner Zeitung, and on the outbreak of the Revolution of 1848
took the field, but when Rastatt surrendered he escaped to
Zurich. In 1850 he returned secretly to Germany, rescued
Kinkel from the prison at Spandau and helped him to escape to
Scotland. Schurz went to Paris, but the police forced him to
leave France on the eve of the coup d'etat, and until August 1852
he lived in London, making his living by teaching German. He
married in July 1852 and removed to America, living for a time
in Philadelphia.
In 1856 after a year in Europe he settled in Watertown,
Wisconsin, and immediately became prominent in the Republican
party of that state. In 1857 he was an unsuccessful candidate
for lieutenant-governor on the Republican ticket. In the Illinois
campaign of the next year between Abraham Lincoln and
Stephen A. Douglas he took part as a speaker; and later in 1858
he was admitted to the Wisconsin bar and began to practise law
in Milwaukee. In the state' campaign of 1859 he made a speech
attacking the Fugitive Slave Law and arguing for state's rights
and thus injured his political standing in Wisconsin; and in
April he delivered in Faneuil Hall, Boston, an oration on " True
Americanism," which coming from an alien was intended to clear
the Republican party of the charge of " nativism." The Germans
of Wisconsin unsuccessfully urged his nomination for governor
by the Republican party in 1859. In the Republican National
Convention of 1860 Schurz was chairman of the delegation from
Wisconsin, which voted for W. H. Seward ; he was on the comm i ttee
which drew up the platform and served on the committee which
announced his nomination to Abraham Lincoln. In spite of
Secretary Seward's objection, grounded on Schurz's European
record as a revolutionary, Lincoln sent him in 1861 as minister
to Spain. He returned to America in January 1862, resigned
his post, was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in
April, and in June took command of a division under Fremont,
and then in Sigel's corps, with which he took part hi the second
battle of Bull Run. He was promoted major-general of volunteers
on the i4th of March and was a division commander at Chan-
cellorsville of the Eleventh Corps, under General O. O. Howard,
with whom he later had a bitter controversy over this battle.
He was at Gettysburg and at Chattanooga. After the Eleventh
and Twelfth Corps were united as the Twentieth he was put in
command of a Corps of Instruction at Nashville, and saw no
more active service except in the last months of the war when he
was with Sherman's army in North Carolina. He resigned from
the army immediately after the close of hostilities. In the summer
of 1865 President Johnson sent him through the South to study
conditions; the President quarrelled with Schurz because the
latter approved General H. W. Slocum's order forbidding the
organization of militia in Mississippi, and Schurz's valuable
report (afterwards published as an executive document), sug-
gesting the readmission of the states with complete rights and
the investigation of the need of further legislation by a Con-
gressional committee, was not heeded by the President. In
1866-1867 he was chief editor of the Detroit Post and then became
editor and joint proprietor with Emil Praetorius (1827-1905)
of the Westliche Post of St Louis. In the winter of 1867-1868 he
travelled in Germany the account of his interview with Bis-
marck is one of the most interesting chapters of his Reminiscences.
He spoke against " repudiation " and for " honest money "
during the Prpsidential campaign of 1868.
In 1869-1875 he was United States senator from Missouri,
and made a great reputation (especially in 1873-1874) by his
speeches on financial subjects. During this period he broke
with the administration: he started the Liberal Republican
movement in Missouri in 1870 which elected B. Gratz Brown
governor; and in 1872 he presided over the Liberal Republican
convention which nominated Horace Greeley for the presidency
(Schurz's own choice was Charles Francis Adams or Lyman
Trumbull) and which did not in its platform represent Schurz's
views on the tariff, or Greeley's. He opposed Grant's Santo
Domingo policy after Fessenden's death Schurz was a member
of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, his Southern policy, and
the government's selling arms and making cartridges for the
French army in the Franco-Prussian War. But in 1875 he
campaigned for Hayes, as the representative of sound money,
in the Ohio gubernatorial campaign. In 1876 he supported
Hayes in the contest for the presidency, and Hayes made him in
1877 his secretary of the interior, and followed much of his
advice in other cabinet appointments and in his inaugural
address. In this department Schurz put in force his theories
in regard to merit in the Civil Service, permitting no removals
except for cause, and requiring competitive examinations for
candidates for clerkships; he reformed the Indian Bureau and
successfully opposed a bill transferring it to the War Department;
and he prosecuted land thieves and attracted public attention
to the necessity of forest preservation. Upon his retirement in
1881 he removed to New York City, and from the summer of 1881
to the autumn of 1883 was editor-in-chief and one of the pro-
prietors of the New York Evening Post. In 1884 he was a leader
in the Independent (or Mugwump) movement against the
nomination .of James G. Blaine for the presidency and for the
election of Grover Cleveland. From 1888 to 1892 he was general
American representative of the Hamburg American Steamship
Company. In 1892 he succeeded George William Curtis as
president of the National Civil Service Reform League and held
this office until 1901. He succeeded Curtis as editorial writer
for Harper's Weekly in 1892-1898, in which he did much for
civil service reform and for Cleveland's nomination and election
SCHUTZENBERGER SCHWABE
387
in 1892. In 1895 he spoke for the Fusion anti-Tammany ticket
in New York City. He opposed W. J. Bryan for the presidency
in 1896, speaking for sound money and not under the auspices
of the Republican party; in 1900 on the anti-imperialism issue
he supported Bryan; and in 1904 he supported A. B. Parker,
the Democratic candidate. He died in New York City on the
I4th of May 1906.
Schurz published a volume of Speeches (1885); Henry Clay
(1887) in the " American Statesmen " series, a standard biography;
Abraham Lincoln (1889), a remarkable essay; and Reminiscences
(New York, 3 vols., 1907-1908), in the third volume of which is
a sketch of his life and public services from 1869 to 1906 by
Frederic Bancroft and William A. Dunning. During the last
twenty years of his life Schurz was perhaps the most prominent
Independent in American politics, and even more notable than
his great abilities was his devotion to his high principles. He
was the first German-born American to enter the United States
Senate, and was an able debater; and his command of the English
language, written and spoken, was remarkable. A sense of
humour added much to his campaign speeches.
SCHUTZENBERGER, PAUL (1829-1897), French chemist,
was born on the 23rd of December 1829 at Strassburg, where
his father Georges Frederic Schutzenberger (1779-1859) was
professor of law, and his uncle Charles Schutzenberger (1809-
1881) professor of chemical medicine. He was intended for a
medical career and graduated M.D. at Strassburg in 1855, but
his interests lay in physical and chemical science. In 1853 he
went to Paris as preparateur to J. F. Persoz (1805-1868), professor
of chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. A year
later he was entrusted with a course of chemical instruction at
Miilhausen, and he remained in that town till 1865 as professor
at the Ecole Superieure des Sciences. He then returned to Paris
as assistant to A. V. Balard at the College de France, in 1876 he
succeeded that chemist in the chair of chemistry, and in 1882
he became directing professor at the municipal ficole de Physique
et de Chimie. The two latter chairs he held together until his
death, which happened on the 26th of June 1897 at Mezy, Seine
et Oise. During the period he spent at Miilhausen, Schutzenberger
paid special attention to industrial chemistry, particularly in
connexion with colouring matters, but he also worked at general
and biological chemistry which subsequently occupied the
greater part of his time. He is known for a long series of researches
on the constitution of alkaloids and of the albuminoid bodies,
and for the preparation of several new series of platinum com-
pounds and of hyposulphurous acid, H 2 S2O,|. Towards the end
of his life he adopted the view that the elements have been
formed by some process of condensation from one primordial
substance of extremely small atomic weight, and he expressed
the conviction that atomic weights within narrow limits are
variable and modified according to the physical conditions in
which a compound is formed.
His publications include Chimie appliquee a la physiologic et a la
pathologie animale (1863); Traite des matieres color antes (1867);
Les Fermentations (1875), which was translated into German, Italian
and English; and an excellent Traite de chimie generate in seven
volumes (1880-1894).
SCHUYLER, PHILIP JOHN (1733-1804), American soldier,
was born at Albany, New York, on the nth of November 1733.
The Schuyler family was established in the New World by
Philip Pieterse Schuyler (d. 1683), who migrated from Amsterdam
in 1650, and whose son, Peter (1657-1754), was the first mayor
of Albany and chairman of the board of Indian commissioners
of the province. The family was one of the wealthiest and most
influential in the colony and was closely related by marriage to
the Van Rensselaers, Van Cortlandts and other representatives
of the old Dutch aristocracy. Philip Schuyler served in the
Provincial Army during the Seven Years' War, first as captain
and later as deputy-commissary with the rank of major, taking
part ini the battles of Lake George (1755), Oswego River (1756),
Ticonderoga (1758) and Fort Frontenac (1758). From 1768
to 1775 he represented Albany in the New York Assembly, and
he was closely associated with the Livingston family in the
leadership of the Presbyterian or Whig party. He was a delegate
to the second Continental Congress in May 1775, and on the igth
of June was chosen one of the four major-generals in the Con-
tinental service. Placed in command of the northern department
of New York, he established headquarters at Albany, and made
preparations for an invasion of Canada. Soon after the expedi-
tion started he was prostrated by rheumatic gout, and the
actual command devolved upon General Richard Montgomery.
Schuyler returned to Ticonderoga and later to Albany, where he
spent the winter of 1775-1776 in collecting and forwarding
supplies to Canada and in suppressing the Loyalists and their
Indian allies in the Mohawk Valley. On the death of Mont-
gomery and the failure to take Quebec the army retreated to
Crown Point, and its commander, General John Sullivan, was
superseded by General Horatio Gates. Gates claimed precedence
over Schuyler and, on failing to secure recognition, intrigued to
bring about Schuyler's dismissal. The controversy was taken
into Congress. The necessary withdrawal of the army from
Crown Point in 1776 and the evacuation of Ticonderoga in 1777
were magnified by Schuyler's enemies into a retrograde move-
ment, and, on the igth of August 1777, he was superseded.
A court martial appointed in 1 778 acquitted him on every charge.
He resigned from the army in April 1779. He was a delegate
from New York to the Continental Congress in 1770-1781, and
state senator in 1781-1784, 1786-1790 and 1792-1797. In
1788 he joined his son-in-law Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and
others in leading the movement for the ratification by New
York of the Federal constitution. He served in the United
States Senate as a Federalist from 1790 to 1791 and was again
elected in 1797, but resigned in January 1798 on account of ill-
health. He was also active for many years as Indian com-
missioner and surveyor-general and helped to settle the New
York boundary disputes with Massachusetts and Pennsylvania.
He prepared plans for the construction of a canal between the
Hudson river and Lake Champlain before 1776, and, in 1792-
1796, carried to a successful conclusion a more pretentious
scheme for connecting the Hudson with Lake Ontario by way
of the Mohawk, Oneida Lake and the Onondaga river. He died
in Albany on the iSth of November 1804.
See Bayard Tuckerman, Life of General Philip Schuyler (New York,
1903)-
Other prominent members of the family were: Montgomery
Schuyler (1814-1896) and his cousin Anthony (1816-1896),
Protestant Episcopal clergymen; George Washington (1810-
, treasurer of New York State in 1863-1865 and of Cornell
University in 1868-1874 and author of Colonial New York:
Philip Schuyler and his Family (2 vols., 1885); his son Eugene
(1840-1890), who was long in the consular and diplomatic service
of the United States, and who translated some of the novels of
Tourgeniev and Tolstoi and wrote Peter the Great (1884) and
American Diplomacy and the Furtherance of Commerce (1886);
and Montgomery (b. 1843), a son of Anthony, and a journalist
and writer on architecture.
SCHWABACH, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
9 m. by rail S. of Nuremberg. Pop. (1905) 10,342. It has the
interesting Evangelical church of St John, built in the isth
century, with carvings by Veil Stoss, paintings by Wohlgemut,
Martin Schon and others, and a ciborium by Adam Krafft; a
fountain, the Schone Brunnen, and several schools. Schwa-
bach is the chief seat of the needle manufacture in Bavaria;
its other industries include gold and silver wire work, brewing
and the making of soap and earthenware. Schwabach was
purchased in 1364 by the burgrave of Nuremberg.
See Petzoldt, Chronik der Stadt Schwabach (Schwabach, 1854).
SCHWABE, SAMUEL HEINRICH (1789-1875), German
astronomer, was born on the 25th of October 1789 at Dessau,
where he died on the nth of April 1875. At first an apothecary,
he turned his attention to astronomy, and in 1826 commenced
his observations on sun-spots. In 1843 he made the suggestion
of a probable ten year period (i.e. that at every tenth, year
the number of spots reached a maximum), but it met with
scant approval, and he continued his observations, which were
3 88
SCHWALBACH SCHWARTZE
afterwards utilized in 1851 by Humboldt in the third volume
of his Kosmos. The periodicity of sun-spots is now fully recog-
nized (see SUN); and to Schwabe is thus due the credit of one
of the most important discoveries in astronomy.
See H. H. Turner, Astronomical Discovery (1904).
SCHWALBACH, or LANGENSCHWALBACH, a favourite German
health resort, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau,
pleasantly situated in a deep valley, near the junction of the
Schwalbach with the Aar, 12 m. N.W. from Wiesbaden, on
the railway Dotzheim-Dietz. Permanent population (1905)
2836. Besides a large kursaal, the town has four churches,
two Evangelical, a Roman Catholic and an English, a syna-
gogue and several schools. There are eight springs, which are
largely impregnated in varying proportions with iron and
carbonic acid, and are used both for drinking and bathing.
They are especially efficacious in feminine disorders, and the
greater number of visitors (about 6000 annually) are ladies.
The public grounds are prettily laid out and there are numerous
fashionable hotels.
See Frickhoffer, Die Eisenquetten zu Schwalbach (2nd ed., Schwal-
bach, 1888), and A. Genth, Geschichte des Kurortes Schwalbach
(3rd ed., Wiesbaden, 1884).
SCHWANN, THEODOR (1810-1882), German physiologist,
was born at Neuss in Rhenish Prussia on the yth of December
1810. His father was a man of great mechanical talent; at
first a goldsmith, he afterwards founded an important printing
establishment. Schwann inherited his father's tastes, and
the leisure of his boyhood was largely spent in constructing
little machines of all kinds. He studied at the Jesuits' college
in Cologne and afterwards at Bonn, where he met Johannes
Miiller, in whose physiological experiments he soon came to
assist. He next went to Wurzburg to continue his medical
studies, and thence to Berlin to graduate in 1834. Here he
again met Miiller, who had been meanwhile translated to Berlin,
and who finally persuaded him to enter on a scientific career
and appointed him assistant at the anatomical museum.
Schwann in 1838 was called to the chair of anatomy at the Roman
Catholic university of Louvain, where he remained nine years.
In 1847 he went as professor to Liege, where he remained till
his death on the nth of January 1882. He was of a peculiarly
gentle and amiable character, and remained a devout Catholic
throughout his life. It was during the four years spent under
the influence of Miiller at Berlin that all Schwann's really valuable
work was done. Miiller was at this time preparing his great
book on physiology, and Schwann assisted him in the experi-
mental work required. His attention being thus directed to
the nervous and muscular tissues, besides making such histo-
logical discoveries as that of the envelope of the nerve-fibres
which now bears his name, he initiated those researches in
muscular contractility since so elaborately worked out by Du
Bois Reymond and others. He was thus the first of Muller's
pupils who broke with the traditional vitalism and worked
towards a physico-chemical explanation of life. Miiller also
directed his attention to the process of digestion, which Schwann
showed to depend essentially on the presence of a ferment
called by him pepsin. Schwann also examined the question
of spontaneous generation, which he greatly aided to disprove,
and in the course of his experiments discovered the organic
nature of yeast. In fact the whole germ theory of Pasteur, as
well as its antiseptic applications by Lister, is traceable to his
influence. Once when he was dining with Schleiden in 1837,
the conversation turned on the nuclei of vegetable cells.
Schwann remembered having seen similar structures in the
cells of the notochord (as had been shown by Miiller)
and instantly realized the importance of connecting the two
phenomena. The resemblance was confirmed without delay
by both observers, and the results soon appeared in his famous
Microscopic Investigations on the Accordance in the Structure
and Growth of Plants and Animals (Berlin, 1839; trans. Syden-
ham Society, 1847). The cell theory was thus definitely con-
stituted. In the course of his verifications of the cell theory,
in which he traversed the whole field of histology, he proved
the cellular origin and development of the most highly differ-
entiated tissues, nails, feathers, enamels, &c. His generaliza-
tion became the foundation of modern histology, and in the
hands of Rudolf Virchow (whose cellular pathology was an
inevitable deduction from Schwann) afforded the means of
placing modern pathology on a truly scientific basis.
An excellent account of Schwann's life and work is that by L6on
Fredericq (Liege, 1884).
SCHWANTHALER, LUDWIG MICHAEL (1802-1848), German
sculptor, was born in Munich on the 26th of August 1802. His
family had been sculptors in Tirol for three centuries; young
Ludwig received his earliest lessons from his father, and the
father had been instructed by the grandfather. The last to
bear the name was Xaver, who worked in his cousin Ludwig's
studio and survived till 1854. For successive generations the
family lived by the carving of busts and sepulchral monuments,
and from the condition of mechanics rose to that of artists.
From the Munich gymnasium Schwanthaler passed as a student
to the Munich academy; at first he purposed to be a painter,
but afterwards reverted to the plastic arts of his ancestors.
His talents received timely encouragement by a commission
for an elaborate silver service for the king's table. Cornelius
also befriended him; the great painter was occupied on designs
for the decoration in fresco of the newly erected Glyptothek,
and at his suggestion Schwanthaler was employed on the sculp-
ture within the halls. Thus arose between painting, sculpture,
and architecture that union and mutual support which charac-
terized the revival of the arts in Bavaria. Schwanthaler in
1826 went to Italy as a pensioner of the king, and on a second
visit in 1832 Thorwaldsen gave him kindly help. His skill was
so developed that on his return he was able to meet the extra-
ordinary demand for sculpture consequent on King Ludwig's
passion for building new palaces, churches, galleries and museums,
and he became the fellow-worker of the architects Klenze,
Gartner and Ohlmiiller, and of the painters Cornelius, Schnorr
and Hess. Owing to the magnitude and multitude of the plastic
products they turned out, over-pressure and haste in design
and workmanship brought down the quality of the art. The
works of Schwanthaler in Munich are so many and miscellaneous
that they can only be briefly indicated. The new palace is
peopled with his statues: the throne-room has twelve imposing
gilt bronze figures 10 ft. high; the same palace is also enriched
with a frieze and with sundry other decorations modelled and
painted from his drawings. The sculptor, like his contemporary
painters, received help from trained pupils. The same prolific
artist also furnished the old Pinakothek with twenty-five marbles,
commemorative of as many great painters; likewise he supplied
a composition for the pediment of the exhibition building facing
the Glyptothek, and executed sundry figures for the public
library and the hall of the marshals. Sacred art lay outside
his ordinary routine, yet in the churches of St Ludwig and St
Mariahilf he gave proof of the widest versatility. The Ruhmes-
halle afforded further gauge of unexampled power of production;
here alone is work which, if adequately studied, might have
occupied a lifetime; ninety-two metopes, and, conspicuously,
the colossal but feeble figure of Bavaria, 60 ft. high, rank among
the boldest experiments. A short life of forty-six years did not
permit serious undertakings beyond the Bavarian capital, yet
time was found for the groups within the north pediment of the
Walhalla, Ratisbon, and also for numerous portrait statues,
including those of Mozart, Jean Paul Richter, Goethe and
Shakespeare. Schwanthaler died at Munich in 1848, and left
by will to the Munich academy all his models and studies, which
now form the Schwanthaler Museum.
SCHWARTZE, TERESA (1852- ), Dutch portrait painter,
was born at Amsterdam, the daughter of Johan Georg Schwartze
(1814-1874), from whom she received her first training, before
studying for a year under Gabriel Max and Franz von Lenbach
in Munich. In 1879 she went to Paris to continue her studies
under Jean Jacques Henner. Her portraits are remarkable
for excellent character drawing, breadth and vigour of handling
and rich quality of pigment. She is one of the few women painters
SCHWARZ, C. F. SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN 389
who have been honoured by an invitation to contribute their
own portraits to the hall of the painters at the Uffizi Gallery
in Florence. Some of her best pictures, notably a portrait of
Piet J. Joubert, and " Three Inmates of the Orphanage at
Amsterdam," are at the Ryks Museum, and one entitled " The
Orphan " at the Boyman Museum in Rotterdam.
SCHWARZ (or SCHWARTZ), CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH (1726-
1798), German Protestant missionary to India, was born on
the 8th of October 1726 at Sonnenburg, in the electorate of
Brandenburg, Prussia. Having learned Tamil to assist in a
translation of the Bible into that language, he was led to form
the intention of becoming a missionary to India. He received
ordination at Copenhagen on the 8th of August 1749, and,
after spending some time in England to acquire the English
language, embarked early in 1750 for India, and arrived at
Trichinopoly on the 3oth of July. Tranquebar was for some
time his headquarters, but he paid frequent visits to Tanjore
and Trichinopoly, and in 1766 removed to the latter place.
Here he acted as chaplain to the garrison, who erected a church
for his general use. In 1769 he secured the friendship of the
raja of Tanjore, who, although he never embraced Christianity,
afforded him every countenance in his missionary labours.
Shortly before his death he committed to Schwarz the education
of his adopted son and successor. In 1779 Schwarz undertook,
at the request of the Madras government, a private embassy to
Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore. When Hyder invaded the
Carnatic, Schwarz was allowed to pass through the enemy's
camp without molestation. After twelve years in Trichinopoly
he removed to Tanjore, where he spent the remainder of his life.
He died on the I3th of February 1798. Schwarz's direct success
in making converts exceeded that of any other Protestant
missionary in India, in addition to which he succeeded in winning
the esteem of Mahommedans and Hindus. The raja of Tanjore
erected a monument, executed by Flaxman, in the mission
church, in which he is represented as grasping the hand of the
dying missionary and receiving his benediction. A splendid
monument to Schwarz by Bacon was placed by the East India
Company in St Mary's church at Madras.
See Remains of Schwarz, with a sketch of his life (1826); Memoirs
of Life and Correspondence, by H. N. Pearson (1834, 3rd ed. 1839);
Life, by H. N. Pearson (1855).
SCHWARZ, KARL (1812-1885), German Protestant theologian,
was born at Wiek on the Isle of Rugen on the igth of November
1812. His father, Theodor Schwarz, pastor at Wiek, was well
known as a preacher, and as the writer of a number of popular
works (parables, romances, &c.) under the pseudonym " Theodor
Melas." Karl Schwarz pursued the study of theology and
philosophy at Halle, and afterwards at Bonn (1831) and Berlin
{1832-1834). At Berlin he came under the influence of Schleier-
macher and Hegel, whose influences are seen in his work Das
Wesen der Religion (1847). In 1837 he was imprisoned for six
months on account of his advanced political opinions. After
his release he helped (from 1838) with the Hallische Jahrbiicher.
From 1843-1845 he lectured at Halle, and was then suspended
by the government. In 1849, however, he was appointed
professor extraordinarius, and later received a number of dis-
tinctions (in 1858 chief court preacher, &c.). Schwarz took an
important part in the founding and directing of the German
Protestantenverein, and became an eminent exponent of liberal
theology. His work Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie (1856,
4th ed. 1869) is a valuable source for the history of theology
in Germany. His other works include Lessing als Theologe
(1854) and Grundriss der christl. Lehre (1873, 5th ed. 1876).
He died on the 25th of March 1885. In his memory a Karl-
Schivarz-stiftung was founded in connexion with the theological
faculty at Jena.
See G. Rudloff, Karl Schwarz (1887); F. Hummel, Die Bedeutung
der Schrift von Karl Schwarz: Vber das Wesen der Religion (1890);
and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie.
SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT, a principality of Germany,
an independent member of the German empire, and one of the
Thuringian states (see THURINGIA). It shares with Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen the possessions of the old house of Schwarzburg,
consisting of the upper barony (Oberherrschaft) in Thuringia,
on the Gera, Ilm and Saale, and the lower barony (Unterherr-
schaft), an isolated district on the Wipper and Helbe, about
25 m. to the north, surrounded by the Prussian province of
Saxony. As the dignity of prince is held in virtue of the Ober-
herrschaft alone, a share of both baronies was given to each
sub-line of the main house. The total area of Schwarzburg-
Rudolstadt is 363 sq. m., of which 283 are in the upper and 80
in the lower barony; the chief towns in the former district
are Rudolstadt (pop. 12,500 in 1905), the capital, and Blanken-
burg (2000), and in the latter Frankenhausen (6374). Both
baronies are hilly, the highest elevation being attained in the
Grossfarmdenkopf, 2900 ft. The scenery of the Thuringian
portion of Schwarzburg- Rudolstadt attracts many visitors
annually, the most beautiful spots being the gorge of the
Schwarza and the lovely circular valley in which the village of
Schwarzburg nestles at the foot of a curiously isolated hill, crowned
by the ancient castle of the princely line. Cattle-rearing and
fruit-growing flourish in the lower barony, while the upper barony
is finely wooded. Of the whole country 44% is under forest
(mainly coniferous trees), and 50% is devoted to agriculture
and pasture. The chief grain crops are rye, oats, barley and
potatoes. Great attention is paid to poultry farming and bee-
keeping, and the exports from these sources are considerable.
About 14% of the population are engaged in agriculture and
forestry, 21% in mining and cognate industries. Trade and
manufactures are insignificant; iron, lignite, cobalt, alum
and vitriol are among the mineral productions. In 1905 the
population was 96,835 or about 265 to the square mile. Nearly
all these were Protestants.
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt is a limited hereditary monarchy,
its constitution resting on laws of 1854 and 1870. A diet has
met at intervals since 1816, and is now entitled to be summoned
every three years. The present diet consists of sixteen members
elected for three years, four chosen by the highest assessed
taxpayers, the others by general election. The troops of Schwarz-
burg-Rudolstadt have been incorporated with the Prussian army
since the convention of 1867. The principality has one vote
in the Reichstag and one in the federal council.
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt is the cadet branch of the house of
Schwarzburg, descended from Albrecht VII. (1605). In 1710
the count was made a prince, in spite of the remonstrances of
the elector of Saxony, although he was prevented from taking
his seat in the imperial college at Regensburg until 1754. The
principality entered the Confederation of the Rhine in 1807 and
the German League in 1815. In 1819 it redeemed the Prussian
claims of superiority by surrendering portions of its territory.
See Sigismund, Landeskunde des Furstentums Sckivarzburg-
Rudolstadt (2 vols., Rudolstadt, 1862-1863).
SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN, a principality of Ger-
many, and constituent state of the German empire. It shares
the old Schwarzburg lands with Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. In
general it may be said that while Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
forms the southern, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen occupies the
northern portion of the lands once divided between them.
The total area of the principality is 333 sq. m., of which 133 are
in the upper and 200 in the lower barony. The chief towns are
Arnstadt (pop. 16,275 in I 95) ) which at one time gave name to
a line of counts, in the southern, and Sondershausen (7425),
the capital, in the northern (or upper) barony. The general
description of the nature and resources of Schwarzburg-Rudol-
stadt applies also to this principality, except that 62% of the
whole is devoted to agriculture and pasture and 30% to forests,
only about two-fifths of which are coniferous trees. The chief
crops are oats, barley, wheat and rye, but by far the most land
is planted with potatoes. About 15% of the population are
supported by agriculture and forestry, and about 18% by mining
and cognate industries. The industries are varied, and in some
branches, notably gloves (at Arnstadt), glass, sausages and sugar-
refining, considerable. In 1905 the population was 85,152, or
about 245 to the square mile. Almost all of these were
Protestants.
39 o SCHWARZENBERG SCHWARZENBERG, PRINCE ZU
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen is a limited hereditary monarchy,
its constitution resting on a law of 1857. The diet consists of
five representatives elected by the highest taxpayers, five by
general election, and five nominated for life by the prince. The
first ten members are elected for four years, which is also the
financial period. There is a ministry with five departments
for the prince's -household, domestic affairs, finance, churches
and schools, and justice. The budget for the years 1908-1911
estimates the income at 164,440 and the expenditure at the
same. The state debt in 1909 was 167,970. The troops of
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen have been incorporated with the
Prussian army by convention since 1867. The principality has
one vote in the Reichstag and one in the federal council.
The house of Schwarzburg is one of the oldest and noblest in
Germany; and tradition traces its descent from Widukind and
the kings of the Franks. Its historical ancestors were the counts
of Kafernburg, from whom the counts of Schwarzburg sprang
about the beginning of the i3th century. The name Giinther
became the distinctive name for the members of this house
(corresponding to Heinrich in the Reuss family), the various
Giinthers being at first distinguished by numbers and afterwards
by prefixed names. Various subdivisions and collateral lines
were formed, but by 1599 all were extinct but the present two.
Count Giinther XL., who died in 1552, was the last common
ancestor of both lines. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen is the senior
line, although its possessions are the smaller. In 1697 the count
was raised to the dignity of imperial prince by the emperor
Leopold I. The prince had to pay 7000 thalers to the elector
of Saxony and 3500 to the duke of Saxe- Weimar, and numerous
disputes arose in connexion with the superiorities thus indicated.
In 1807 Schwarzburg-Sondershausen entered the Confederation
of the Rhine and became a sovereign state. In 1816 it joined the
German League, and redeemed with portions of its territory all
rights of superiority claimed by Prussia. Its domestic govern-
ment has gradually, though not very quickly, improved since that
time the oppressive game-laws in particular having been
abolished. A treaty of mutual succession was made between the
two families in 1713. Prince Charles Giinther succeeded on the
1 7th of July 1880, his father having on account of eye disease
renounced the throne in favour of his son. By a law, promulgated
in 1896, Sizzo, prince of Leutenberg, was recognized as the heir-
presumptive to this principality and, by treaty with Schwarz-
burg-Rudolstadt, to that principality also.
See Apfelstedt, Heimatskunde des Furstentums Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen (Sondersh., 1854-1857); Irmisch, Beitrdge zur
schwarzburgischen Heimatskunde (Sondersh., 1905-1906). ,
SCHWARZENBERG, a princely family of Franconian origin,
established in Bavaria and Austria, and carrying its present name
since 1437. It was raised to princely rank in 1670. Besides
Karl Philipp (see below) and Johann (1463-1528), a moralist
and reformer who, as judge of the episcopal court at Bamberg,
introduced a new code of evidence which amended the procedure
then prevalent in Europe by securing for the accused a more
impartial hearing, its best-known representative is Felix (1800-
1852), Karl Philipp's nephew, an important Austrian statesman.
After six years' service in the Austrian army Felix espoused a
diplomatic career' at the instance of MetterniCh, and underwent
a period of probation (1824-1848) at various European courts,
in the course of which he confirmed his aristocratic aversion to
popular government, but was led to acknowledge that absolutism
needs to be justified by efficiency of administration. In 1848
he took an active part in the war against Piedmont and the
insurgents in Vienna. .On Nov. 2ist of the same year he was
appointed head of a reactionary ministry. Himself a soldier,
he aimed at the ultimate restoration of the absolute monarchy
by means of the army. At first he temporized, and on the
27th of November a proclamation was issued stating the intention
of the government to uphold constitutional principles, but at the
same time maintaining its intention to keep the empire intact even
at the cost of a separation from Germany. The removal of the
Austrian parliament to Kremsier followed the abdication of the
emperor Ferdinand, and on March 7th 1849 the proclamation
of a centralized constitution for the whole Austro-Hungarian
monarchy, after the Austrian victory at Kopolna had seemed to
Schwarzenberg to have crushed the Magyar power of resistance.
This was followed by the declaration of Hungarian independence;
and Schwarzenberg did not hesitate ultimately to cal 1 in the aid
of Russia to put an end to the insurrection (November). This
done, he was free to turn his whole attention to Germany. His
refusal to incorporate only the German provinces of the monarchy
in the proposed new German Empire had thrown the German
parliament into the arms of Prussia. His object now was to
restore the status quo ante of the Confederation, with the old
predominance of Austria. His success in this respect was partly
due to exterior circumstances, notably the mistimed exaggera-
tions of the German revolutionists, but largely to his diplomatic
skill, unscrupulousness and iron tenacity of purpose with which
the weakness of Frederick William IV. and his ministers was
unable to cope. His triumph came with the restoration of the
old federal diet in May 1850 and the signature of the convention
of Olmiitz on the 29th of November of the same year (see
GERMANY: History).
See Berger, Felix, Fiirst zu Schwarzenberg (Leipzig, 1853); A. '
Beer, Fiirst Schwarzenberg' s Deutsche Politik bis zu den Dresdener
Konferenzen (Historisches Taschenbuch, Leipzig, 1891). For Johann
see W. Scheel, Johann, Freiherr von S. (Berlin, 1905).
SCHWARZENBERG, KARL PHILIPP, PRINCE zu (1771-
1820), Austrian field marshal, was born on the i$th of April 1771
at Vienna. 1 He entered the imperial cavalry in 1788, fought
in 1789 under Lacy and Loudon against the Turks, distinguished
himself by his bravery, and became major in 1792. In the
French campaign of 1793 he served in the advanced guard of the
army commanded by Prince Josias of Coburg, and at Cateau
Cambresis in 1794 his impetuous charge at the head of his
regiment, vigorously supported by twleve British squadrons,
broke a whole corps of the French, killed and wounded 3000 men,
and brought off 32 of the enemy's guns. He was immediately
decorated with the cross of the Maria Theresa order. After
taking part in the battles of Amberg and Wiirzburg in 1796 he
was raised to the rank of major-general, and in 1799 he was
promoted lieutenant field marshal. At the defeat of Hohenlinden
in 1800 his promptitude and courage saved the right wing of the
Austrian army from destruction, and he was afterwards entrusted
by the archduke Charles with the command of the rearguard.
In the war of 1805 he held command of a division under Mack,
and when Ulm was surrounded by Napoleon in October he was
one of the brave band of cavalry, under the archduke Ferdinand,
which cut its way through the hostile lines. In the same year
he was made a commander of the order of Maria Theresa and in
1809 he received the Golden Fleece. When in 1808, in view of a
new war with France, Austria decided to send a special envoy to
Russia, Schwarzenberg, who was persona grata at the court of
St Petersburg, was selected. He returned, however, in time
to take part in the battle of Wagram, and was soon afterwards
promoted general of cavalry. After the peace of Vienna he was
sent to Paris to negotiate the marriage between Napoleon and
the archduchess Maria Louisa. The prince gave a ball in honour
of the bride on the ist of July 1810, which ended in the tragic
death of many of the guests, including his own sister-in-law, in
a fire. Napoleon held Schwarzenberg in great esteem, and it
was at his request that the prince took command of the Austrian
auxiliary corps in the Russian campaign of 1812. The part
the Austrians was well understood to be politically rather than
1 The family of Schwarzenberg, of which many members are
known to history, was derived from Erkinger yon Seinsheim (b. 1362),
a distinguished soldier under the emperor Sigismund, who bought the
lordship of Schwarzenberg in Franconia in 1420. Count Adolf vo-
Schwarzenberg (1547-1600) was a renowned general of the empir
whose sword, along with that of his descendant Prince Karl Philipp,
is preserved in the arsenal of Vienna. He fought in the wars of
religion, but was chiefly distinguished in the wars on the Eastern
frontier against the Turks. He was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers
at Papa in Hungary in 1600. GEORG LUDWIG, COUNT VON
SCHWARZENBERG (1586-1646), was an Austrian statesman in the
Thirty Years' War. JOHANN, FREIHERR VON SCHWARZENBERG UNO
HOHENLANDSBERG (1463-1528), was a celebrated jurist and a friend
of Luther.
SCHWARZENBERG SCHWEIDNITZ
39 1
morally hostile, and Schwarzenberg gained some minor successes
by skilful manoeuvres without a great battle; afterwards, under
instructions from Napoleon, he remained for some months
inactive at Pultusk. In 1813, when Austria, after many hesita-
tions, took the side of the allies against Napoleon, Schwarzenberg,
recently promoted to be field marshal, was appointed com-
mander-in-chief of the allied Grand Army of Bohemia. As such
he was the senior of the allied generals who conducted the
campaign of 1813-1814 to the final victory before Paris and the
overthrow of Napoleon. It is the fashion to accuse Schwarzen-
berg of timidity and over-caution, and his operations can easily
be made to appear in that colour when contrasted with those of
his principal subordinate, the fiery Blucher, but critics often
forget that Schwarzenberg was an Austrian general first of all,
that his army was practically the whole force that Austria could
put into the field in Central Europe, and was therefore not lightly
to be risked, and that the motives of his pusillanimity should be
sought in the political archives of Vienna rather than in the
text-books of strategical theory. In any case his victory, how-
ever achieved, was as complete as Austria desired, and his rewards
were many, the grand crosses of the Maria Theresa and of many
foreign orders, an estate, the position of president of the Hof-
kriegsrath, and, as a specially remarkable honour, the right to
bear the arms of Austria as an escutcheon of pretence. But
shortly afterwards, having lost his sister Caroline, to whom he
was deeply attached, he fell ill. A stroke of paralysis disabled
him in 1817, and in 1820, when revisiting Leipzig, the scene of the
V ' olkerschlacht that he had directed seven years before, he was
attacked by a second stroke. He died there on the i$th of
October.
His eldest son, FRIEDRICH, PRINCE zu SCHWARZENBERG (1800-
1870), had an adventurous career as a soldier, and described his
wanderings and campaigns in several interesting works, of
which the best known is his W ' anderungen eines Lanzknechtes
(1844-1845). He took part as an Austrian officer in the campaigns
of Galicia 1846, Italy 1848 and Hungary 1848, and as an amateur
in the French conquest of Algeria, the Carlist wars in Spain and
the Swiss civil war of the Sonderbund. He became a major-
general in the Austrian army in 1849, and died after many years
of well-filled leisure in 1870. The second son, KARL PHILIPP
(d. 1858), was a Feldzeugmeister; the third, EDMUND LEOPOLD
FRIEDRICH (1803-1873), a field marshal in the Austrian army.
Of Schwarzenberg's nephews, Felix, the statesman, is separately
noticed, and FRIEDRICH JOHANN JOSEF COELESTIN (1809-1885)
was a cardinal and a prominent figure in papal and Austrian
history.
See Prokesch-Osten, Denkwurdigkeiten CMS dem Leben des Feld-
marschall's Fursten Schwarzenberg (Vienna, 1823); Berger, Das
Furstenhaus_ Schwarzenberg (Vienna, 1866), and a memoir by the
same hand in Streffleur's Ost. Militiirzeitschrift, 1863.
SCHWARZENBERG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Saxony, situated on the Schwarzwasser, 16 m. W. from Annaberg
by rail. Pop. (1905) 4629. It has a handsome parish church,
an old palace and some schools. It has some small industries
and there are large iron-works in the vicinity.
SCHWECHAT, a market-town of Austria, in Lower Austria,
5 m. S.E. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 8241. Here is situated
the Dreher brewery, the largest in the monarchy; and there are
also important smelting and iron works, cotton-spinning, factories
of electrical plant, &c. The meeting at Schwechat of the emperor
Leopold I. with Sobieski in 1683, after the liberation of Vienna,
is commemorated by an obelisk. The imperial troops defeated
the Hungarian insurgents in a battle fought here in October
1848.
SCHWEDT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Brandenburg, on the left bank of the Oder, 13 m. N.E. from
Angermunde by rail. Pop. (1905) 9530. It is a pleasant, well-
built town, with broad streets and shady avenues. There are
three Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a palace,
built in 1580, and a gymnasium. The royal riding school was
removed hence to Hanover in 1867. The industries include
the manufacture of tooacco, cigars, machinery, vinegar, soap
and bricks, and there is a considerable trade by water in agricul-
tural produce.
Schwedt is mentioned in chronicles as early as 1138, and
became a town in 1265. Towards the end of the i5th century
it passed to Brandenburg, and, in 1684, after a great conflagration
which laid it in ruins, was handsomely rebuilt by the electress
Dorothea. The lordship of Schwedt was in the possession of the
counts of Hohenstein from 1481 to 1609, when it passed to
Brandenburg. In 1689 it was given to Philip William, a younger
son of the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, and he
and his successors called themselves margrave of Brandenburg-
Schwedt. When this line became extinct in 1784 the lordship
reverted to Prussia, being claimed both by the king as personal
property and by the state. The matter was not settled until
1872, when it was assigned to the state.
See Thomii,' Geschichte der Sladt und Herrschaft Schwedt (Berlin,
1873)-
SCHWEGLER, ALBERT (1819-1857), German philosopher
and theologian, was born at Michelbach in Wiirttemberg on the
loth of February 1819, the son of a country pastor. He entered
the university of Tubingen in 1836, and was one of the earliest
pupils of F. C. Baur, under whose influence he devoted himself
to church history. His first work was Der M onlanismus u. die
christliche Kirche des 2ten Jahrhunderts (1841), in which he
pointed out for the first time that Montanism was much more
than an isolated outbreak of eccentric fanaticism in the early
church, though he himself introduced fresh misconceptions by
connecting it with Ebionitism as he conceived the latter. This
work, with other essays, brought him into conflict with the
authorities of the church, in consequence of which he gave up
theology as his professional study and chose that of philosophy.
In 1843 he founded the Jahrbiicher der Gegemvart, and became
Privatdozent of philosophy and classical philology in Tubingen
university. In 1848 he was made professor extraordinarius of
Roman literature and archaeology, and soon afterwards professor
ordinarius of history. He died on the 5th of January 1857.
His principal theological work was Das nachapostolische Zeitalter
(2 vols., 1846). It was this book which first put before the world,
with Schwegler's characteristic boldness and clearness, the results
of the critical labours of the earlier representatives of the new
Tubingen school in relation to the first development of Christianity.
Schwegler published also an edition of the Clementine Homilies
(1847), and of Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History (1852) ; in philosophy
Ubersetzung und Erlduterung der aristot. Metaphysik (4 vols., 1847-
1848), his excellent Geschichte der Philosophie im Umriss (1848,
I4th ed. 1887; loth edition of Eng. trans, by I. Hutchison Stirling,
1888), and a posthumous Geschichte der Griech. Philosophie (1859).
In history he began a Rpmische Geschichte (vols. i.-iii., 1853-1858,
2nd ed. 1867-1872), which he brought down only to the laws of
Licinius.
See Edward Zeller, Vortrage, vol. ii. (1878), pp. 329-363; and the
Allgemeine deutsche Biographic.
SCHWEIDNITZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, picturesquely situated on the left bank of the Weistritz,
28 m. S.W. of Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 30,540. The town
has wide streets and contains several old churches, one of which,
a Roman Catholic church, built in the i4th century, has a tower
330 ft. high. It has an old town hall, a theatre and several
statues of eminent men. The surrounding country is fertile and
highly cultivated, and the large quantities of flax and hemp there
raised encourage an active weaving industry in the town. Beetroot
for sugar, grain and fruit are also grown. The manufacture of
woollens, linens, hosiery, furniture, gloves, paper, machinery and
tools, carriages, nuts and screws, needles and other hardware
goods is carried on. The beer of Schweidnitz has long been
famous under the name of " Schwarze Schops," and in the i6th
century it was exported as far as Italy. Schweidnitz is the chief
grain market of the district.
Schweidnitz, dating from about the nth century, received
civic rights in 1250. About 1278 it became the capital of a
principality, with an area of about 1000 sq. m., which belonged to
Bohemia from 1353 till 1741, when it passed into the possession
of Prussia. The " Pb'lerei of Schweidnitz " is the name given to
the riotous revolt of the town, in 1520-1522, against a royal
edict depriving it of the right of coining its own money. One of
392
SCHWEIGHAUSER SCHWEITZER
the strongest towns in Silesia it was besieged several times during
the I7th and i8th centuries. In 1807 it was captured by the
French, who demolished the fortifications. Restored to Prussia
in 1816 it was again fortified, but in 1862 the fortifications were
converted into a public park.
See F. J . Schmidt, Geschichte der Stadt Schweidnitz (2 vols., Schweid-
nitz, 1846-1848).
SCHWEIGHAUSER, JOHANN (1742-1830), German classical
scholar, was born at Strassburg on the 2Sth of June 1742. From
an early age his favourite subjects were philosophy (especially
Scottish moral philosophy as represented by Hutchinson and
Ferguson) and Oriental languages; Greek and Latin he took up
later, and although he owes his reputation to his editions of Greek
authors, he was always diffident as to his classical attainments.
After visiting Paris, London and the principal cities of Germany,
he became assistant professor of philosophy (1770) at Strassburg.
When the French Revolution broke out, he was banished; in
1794 he returned, and after the reorganization of the Academy
in 1809 was appointed professor of Greek. He resigned his post
in 1824, and died on the ipth of January 1830.
His son, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1776-1844), was also a distin-
guished scholar and archaeologist, joint-author with M. Golbery
of Antiquites de I' Alsace (1828).
Schweighauser's first important work was his edition of Appian
(1785), with Latin translation and commentary, and an account of
the MSS. On Brunck's recommendation, he had collated an Augs-
burg MS. of Appian for Samuel Musgrave, who was preparing an
edition of that author, and after Musgrave's death he felt it a duty
to complete it. His Polybius, with translation, notes and special
lexicon, appeared in I78g-;i795. But his chief work is his edition of
Athenaeus (1801-1807), in fourteen volumes, one of the Bipont
editibns. His Herodotus (1816; lexicon, 1824) is less successful;
he depends too much on earlier editions and inferior MSS., and lacks
the finer scholarship necessary in dealing with such an author.
Mention may also be made of his Encheiridion of Epictetus and
Tabula of Cebes (1798), which appeared at the time when the
doctrines of the Stoics were fashionable; the letters of Seneca to
Lucilius (1809); corrections and notes to Suidas (1789); some
moral philosophy essays. His minor works are collected in his
Opuscida academics (1806).
See monographs by J. G. Dahler, C- L. Cuvier, F. J. StieVenart
(a|l 1830), L. Spach (1868), Ch. Rabany (1884), the two last con-
taining an account of both father and son.
SCHWEINFURT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Bavaria, situated on the right bank of the Main, which is here
spanned by several bridges, 27 m. N.E. of Wiirzburg by rail, and
at the junction of lines to Kissingen, Bamberg and Gemunden.
Pop. (1905) 18,416. The Renaissance town-hall in the spacious
market-place dates from 1570; it contains a library and a
collection of antiquities. St John's church is a Gothic edifice
with a lofty tower; St Salvator's was built about 1720. Schwein-
f urt is well furnished with benevolent and educational institutions,
including a gymnasium originally founded by Gustavus Adolphus
in 1631, and rebuilt in 1881. The chief manufacture is paint
(" Schweinfurt green " is a well-known brand in Germany),
introduced in 1809; but beer, sugar, machinery, soap and other
drysalteries, straw-paper and vinegar are also produced. Cotton-
spinning and bell-founding are carried on, and the Main supplies
water-power for numerous saw, flour and other mills. Schwein-
furt carries on an active trade in the grain, fruit and wine pro-
duced in its neighbourhood, and it is the seat of an important
sheep and cattle market. A monument was erected in 1900 to
Friedrich Rtickert the poet (1788-1866).
Schweinfurt is mentioned in 790, and in the loth century
was the seat of a margrave. It fell later to the counts of Henne-
berg; but, receiving civic rights in the I3th century, it maintained
its independence as a free imperial city with few interruptions
until 1803, when it passed to Bavaria. Assigned to the grand
duke of Wiirzburg in 1810, it was restored to Bavaria in 1814.
In the Thirty Years' War it was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus,
who erected fortifications, remains of which are still extant.
See Beck, Chronik der Stadt Schweinfurt (2 vols., Schweinfurt,
1836-1841); and Stein, Geschichte der Reichstadt Schweinfurl (2 vols.,
Schweinfurt, 1900).
SCHWEINFURTH, GEORG AUGUST (1836- ), German
traveller in East Central Africa and ethnologist, was born at
Riga on the 29th of December 1836. He was educated at
the universities of Heidelberg, Munich and Berlin (1856-1862),
where he particularly devoted himself to botany and palaeon-
tology. Commissioned to arrange the collections brought from
the Sudan by Freiherr von Barnim and Dr Hartmann, his
attention was directed to that region; and in 1863 he travelled
round the shores of the Red Sea, repeatedly traversed the
district between that sea and the Nile, passed on to Khartum,
and returned to Europe in 1866. His researches attracted so
much attention that in 1868 the Humboldt-Stiftung of Berlin
entrusted him with an important scientific mission to the interior
of East Africa. Starting from Khartum in January 1869, he
went up the White Nile to Bahr-el-Ghazal, and then, with a party
of ivory dealers, through the regions inhabited by the Diur
(Dyoor), Dinka, Bongo and Niam-Niam; crossing the Nile
watershed he entered the country of the Mangbettu (Monbuttu)
and discovered the river Welle (igth of March 1870), which by
its westward flow he knew was independent of the Nile. Schwein-
furth formed the conclusion that it belonged to the Chad system,
and it was several years before its connexion with the Congo
was demonstrated. The discovery of the Welle was Schwein-
furth's greatest geographical achievement, though he did much
to elucidate the hydrography of the Bahr-el-Ghazal system.
Of greater importance were the very considerable additions
he made to the knowledge of the inhabitants and of the flora and
fauna of Central Africa. He described in detail the cannibalistic
practices of the Mangbettu, and his discovery of the pygmy Akka
settled conclusively the question as to the existence of dwarf
races in tropical Africa. Unfortunately nearly all his collections
made up to that date were destroyed by a fire in his camp in
December 1870. He returned to Khartum in July 1871 and
published an account of the expedition, under the title of
1m Herzen von Afrika (Leipzig, 1874; English edition, The
Heart of Africa, 1873, new ed. 1878). In 1873-1874 he accom-
panied Gerhard Rohlfs in his expedition into the Libyan Desert.
Settling at Cairo in 1875, ne founded a geographical society,
under the auspices of the khedive Ismail, and devoted himself
almost exclusively to African studies, historical and ethno-
graphical. In 1876 he penetrated into the Arabian Desert with
Paul Gussfeldt, and continued his explorations therein at
intervals until 1888, and during the same period made
geological and botanical investigations in the Fayum, in
the valley of the Nile, &c. In 1889 he removed to Berlin;
but he visited the Italian colony of Eritrea in 1891, 1892
and 1894.
The accounts of all his travels and researches have appeared
either in book or pamphlet form or in periodicals, such as Peler-
manns Mitteiluneen, the Zeitschrift fur Erdkunde, &c. Among
his works may be mentioned Aries Africanae; Illustrations and
Descriptions of Productions of the Industrial Arts of Central African
Tribes (1875).
SCHWEITZER, JEAN BAPTISTA VON (1833-1875), German
politician and dramatic poet, was born at Frankfort-on-the-Main
on the 1 2th of July 1833, of an old aristocratic Catholic family.
He studied law at Berlin and Heidelberg, and afterwards practised
in his native city. He was, however, from the first more in-
terested in politics and literature than in law. He was attracted
by the social democratic labour movement, and after the death
of Ferdinand Lassalle in 1864, he became president of the
" General Working-men's Union of Germany," and in this
capacity edited the Sozialdemokrat, which brought him into
frequent trouble with the Prussian government. In 1867 he
was elected to the parliament of the North German Federation,
and on his failure to secure election to the German Reichstag
in 1871, he resigned the presidency of the Labour Union, and
retired from political life. Schweitzer composed a number of
dramas and comedies, of which several for a while had con-
siderable success. Among them may be mentioned Alcibiades
(Frankfort, 1858); Friedrich Barbarossa (Frankfort, 1858);
Canossa (Berlin, 1872); Die Darwinianer (Frankfort, 1875);
Die Eidechse (Frankfort, 1876); and Epidemisch (Frankfort,
1876). He also wrote one political novel, Lucinde oder Kapital
und Arbeit (Frankfort, 1864).
SCHWELM SCHWERIN, COUNT VON
393
SCHWELM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, situated on the river of the same name, 4 m. E. of
Barmen, with which it is connected by an electric tramway,
and on the main line of railway, Dusseldorf-Hagen. Pop. (1905)
18,469. It has three churches and various schools and public
institutions. Lying close to the Harkort iron and sulphur mines,
and within the populous and rich mineral district on the lower
Rhine, it carries on iron-founding, wire-drawing and the manu-
facture of machinery of various kinds, besides an active trade in
iron, steel and brass goods. Scarcely less important are its
manufactures of ribbons, damask, cord, pianos and paper.
In the neighbourhood is a hydropathic establishment. Schwelm
is said to have existed as early as 1085, though it did not receive
civic rights until 1590.
SeeTobien, Bilder aus der Geschichte von Schwelm (Schwelm, 1890).
SCHWENKFELD, KASPAR (1490-1561), of Ossing, German
theologian, was born in 1490, and after studying at Cologne
and other universities served in various minor courts of Silesia,
finally entering the service of the duke of Liegnitz, over whom
he had great influence. The writings of Tauler and Luther so
impressed him, that in 1522 he visited Wittenberg, where he
made the acquaintance of Andreas Carlstadt and Thomas
Miinzer. On his return to Liegnitz he helped to spread the
principles of the Reformation in the principality and in Silesia,
while warning his colleagues against the abuse of the doctrine
of justification by faith. The Protestant controversy on the
Eucharist (1524) revealed his disagreement with Luther on that
critical point. He sought to establish a via media between the
doctrines of Luther and Zwingli, and vainly hoped to obtain for
it Luther's acceptance. He as vainly sought to secure Luther's
adoption of a strict rule of church discipline, after the manner of
the Moravian Brethren. Meanwhile the Anabaptists obtained a
footing in Silesia, and suspicions of Schwenkfeld's sympathy
with them were aroused. Letters and writings of his own (1527-
1528) proved him to hold strongly anti-Lutheran heresies, and
both Catholics and Lutherans urged the duke of Liegnitz to
dismiss him. He voluntarily left Liegnitz in 1529, and lived
at Strasburg for five years amongst the Reformed clergy there.
In 1533, in an important synod, he defended against Martin
Bucer the principles of religious freedom as well as his own
doctrine and life. But the heads of the church carried the day,
and, more stringent measures being adopted against dissenters,
Schwenkfeld left Strasburg for a time, residing in various cities
of south Germany and corresponding with many nobles. In
1535 a sort of compromise was brought about between himself
and the Reformers, he promising not to disturb the peace of the
church and they not to treat him as a disturber. The compromise
was of only short duration. His theology took a more distinctly
heterodox form, and the publication (1539) of a book in proof of
his most characteristic doctrine the deification of the humanity
of Christ led to his active persecution by the Lutherans and his
expulsion from the city of Ulm. The next year (1540) he pub-
lished a refutation of the attacks upon his doctrine with a more
elaborate exposition of it, under the title Grosse Confession.
The book was very inconvenient to the Protestants, as it served
to emphasize the Eucharistic differences between the Lutherans
and Zwinglians at a moment when efforts were being made to
reconcile them. An anathema was accordingly issued from
Schmalkald against Schwenkfeld (together with Sebastian
Franck); his books were placed on the Protestant "index";
and he himself was made a religious outlaw. From that time he
was hunted from place to place, though his wide connexions
with the nobility and the friendship of his numerous followers
provided for him secure hiding-places and for his books a large
circulation. An attempt in 1543 to approach Luther only in-
creased the Reformer's hostility and rendered Schwenkfeld's
situation still more precarious. He and his followers withdrew
from the Lutheran Church, declined its sacraments, and farmed
small societies of kindred views. He and they were frequently
condemned by Protestant ecclesiastical and political authorities,
especially by the government of Wurttemberg. His personal
safety was more and more imperilled, and he was unable to
stay in any place for more than a short time. At last, in his
seventy-second year, he died at Ulm, on the icth of December
1 561, surrounded by attached friends and declaring undiminished
faith in his views.
Schwenkfeld, whose gentle birth and courtly manners won him
many friends in high circles, left behind him a sect (who were called .
subsequently by others Schwenkfeldians, but who called themselves
" Confessors of the Glory of Christ ") and numerous writings to
perpetuate his ideas. His writings were partially collected in four
folio volumes, the first of which was published in the year 1564,
containing his principal theological works. Erbkam states that his
unprinted writings would make more than another four folios. His
adherents were to be found at his death scattered throughout
Germany. In Silesia they formed a distinct sect, which has lasted
until the present time. In the i?th century they were associated
with the followers of Jacob Bohme, and were undisturbed until 1708,
when an inquiry was made as to their doctrines. In 1720 a com-
mission of Jesuits was despatched to Silesia to convert them by force.
Most of them fled from Silesia into Saxony, and thence to Holland,
England and North America. Frederick the Great of Prussia,
when he seized Silesia, extended his protection to those who re-
mained in that province. Those who had fled to Philadelphia in
Pennsylvania (1734) formed a small community under the name of
Schwenkf elders; and Zinzendorf and Spangenberg, when they
visited the United States, endeavoured, but with little success, to
convert them to their views. This community still exists in Penn-
sylvania and their views appear to be substantially those of
the Quakers.
Schwenkfeld's mysticism was the cause of his divergence from
Protestant orthodoxy and the root of his peculiar religious and
theological position. It led him to oppose the Lutheran view of
the value of the outward means of grace, such as the ministry of
the word and the sacraments. He regarded as essential a direct
and immediate participation in the grace of the glorified Christ,
and looked on religious ordinances as immaterial. He distinguished
between an outward word of God and an inward, the former being
the Scriptures and perishable, the latter the divine spirit and eternal.
In his Christology he departed from the Lutheran and Zwinglian
doctrine of the two natures by insisting on what he called the Ver-
gotterung des Fleisches Christi, the deification or the glorification of the
flesh of Christ. The doctrine was his protest against a separation
of the human and the divine in Christ, and was intimately connected
with his mystical view of the work of Christ. He held that, though
Christ was God and man from his birth from the Virgin, he only
attained his complete deification and glorification by his ascension,
and that it is in the estate of his celestial Vergotterung or glorification
that he is the dispenser of his divine life to those who by faith
become one with him. This fellowship with the glorified Christ
rather than a less spiritual trust in his death and atonement is with
him the essential thing. His peculiar Christology was based upon
profound theological and anthropological ideas, which contain the
germs of some recent theological and Christological speculations.
See Arnoldt, Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie (Frankfort, ed. 1700);
Salig, Historic der Augsburg. Confession; W. H. Erbkam, Gesch. der
prot. Sekten (1848); Dorner, Gesch. d. prot. Theol. (1867); also
R. H. Grutzmacher's article in Hauck-Herzog's Realencyklopadie;
Robert Barclay's Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Common-
wealth (1876), and C. Beard's Hibbert Lectures (1883), ch. vi.
SCHWERIN, KURT CHRISTOPH, COUNT VON (1684-1757),
Prussian general field marshal, was born at Lowitz in Pomerania,
and at an early age entered the Dutch army, with which he
served at the Schellenberg and at Blenheim. In 1707 he became
a lieutenant-colonel in the army of the duke of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin, and was present at Ramillies and Malplaquet, and
with the Swedish commander Sttnbock at Gadebusch. In
1713 he was with Charles XII. of Sweden in his captivity at
Bender, and in 1 7 18 was made major-general. In 1 7 19 he opposed
the Hanoverian army which invaded Mecklenburg (in the
course of which he fought a brilliant action at Walsmuhlen
on the 6th of March 1719), and in the following year entered the
service of the king of Prussia. At first he was employed in
diplomatic missions, but in January 1722/3 he received the
command of an infantry regiment. In 1730, as a major-general,
he was a member of the court martial which tried the crown
prince of Prussia (afterwards Frederick the Great) for desertion,
and in 1733, at the head of a Prussian army, conducted with
great skill the delicate and difficult task of settling the Mecklen-
burg question. In the following year he became lieutenant-general
and in 1739 general of infantry. During the life-time of King
Frederick William, Schwerin was also employed in much admini-
strative work. Frederick the Great, on his accession, promoted
Schwerin to the rank of general field marshal and made him a
394
SCHWERTN SCHWIND
count. At the battle of Mollwitz (April loth, 1741) he justified
his sovereign's choice by his brilliant leading, which, when the
king had disappeared from the field, converted a doubtful battle
into a victory which decided for the time being the fate of Silesia.
After the conclusion of the war he was governor of the important
fortresses of Brieg and Neisse. In the Second Silesian War
(1744-1745) Schwerin commanded the army which, marching
from Glatz, met the king's army under the walls of Prague, and
in the siege and capture of that place he played a distinguished
part (September loth, 1644). Some time afterwards, the king
being compelled to retreat from Bohemia, Schwerin again dis-
tinguished himself, but, resenting a real or fancied slight, retired
to his estate, to which, and its inhabitants, he devoted his
energies during the years of peace. He reappeared on the field
at the outbreak of the Seven Years' War (1756), and during the
first campaign conducted the war on the Silesian side of Bohemia;
and in 1757, following the same route as in 1744, again joined
Frederick at Prague. On the 6th of May followed the battle of
Prague. Leading on a regiment of the left wing to the attack
with its colour in his hand, the old field marshal was shot dead.
Frederick erected a statue on the Wilhelmsplatz to his foremost
'soldier, and a monument on the field of Prague commemorates the
place where he fell. Since 1889 the I4th (3rd Pomeranians)
Infantry of the German army has borne his name.
See Varnhagen von Ense, Biographische Denkmale, vol. vi. (yd ed.,
Leipzig, 1873), and Leben Schwerins (Berlin, 1841); Wollner, Ein
Christ und tin Held, oder Nachrichten von Schwerin (Frankfurt a. O.,
1758); Pauli, Lebtn Grosser Helden, i. (Halle, 1759); Gollmert,
Gesch. des Geschlechts von Schwerin (Berlin, 1878); Schwebel, Die
Herren und Graf en von Schwerin (Berlin, 1885).
SCHWERIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Posen, at the confluence of the Obra and the Warthe, 28 m.
by rail E. of Custrin. Pop. (1005) 6768. Its principal manufac-
tures are cigars, furniture, bricks and starch. By river a brisk
trade is carried on in agricultural produce.
SCHWERIN, a town of Germany, the capital of the grand
duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, prettily situated at the S.W.
corner of the lake of Schwerm (14 m. long and 3! m. broad),
129 m. by rail N.W. of Berlin, and 20 m. S. of the Baltic. Pop.
(1905) 41,638. The town is closely surrounded and hemmed in
by a number of lakelets, with high and well-wooded banks, and
the hilly environs are occupied by meadows, woods and pretty
villas. The old and new towns of Schwerin were only united as
one city in 1832; and since that date the suburb of St Paul and
another outer suburb, known as the Vorstadt, have grown up.
Though Schwerin is the oldest town in Mecklenburg, its aspect
is comparatively modern, a fact due to destructive fires, which
have swept away most of the ancient houses. The most con-
spicuous of the many fine buildings is the ducal palace, a huge
irregularly pentagonal structure with numerous towers, built
in 1844-1857 in the French Renaissance style. It stands on a
small round island between Castle Lake and the lake of Schwerin,
formerly the site of a Wendish fortress and of a later medieval
castle, portions of which have been skilfully incorporated with
the present building. The older and much simpler palace;
the opera house, rebuilt after a fire in 1882; the government
buildings, erected in 1825-1834 and restored in 1865 after a fire;
and the museum, in the Greek style, finished in 1882, comprising
a fine collection of paintings of the I7th century Dutch school;
all stand in the " old garden," an open space at the end of the
bridge leading to the new palace. Among the other secular
buildings are the palace of the heir-apparent, built in 1779 and
restored in 1878, the large arsenal, the ducal mews, the ducal
library containing 180,000 volumes, the town hall, the artillery
barracks and the military hospital. The cathedral was originally
consecrated in 1248, though the present building a brick
structure in the Baltic Gothic style, with an unfinished tower
dates for the most part from the isth century. Among other
religious edifices are St Paul's church, a Roman Catholic church
and a synagogue. Schwerin is rich in educational institutions,
which include a classical school, a veterinary college and a
technical school. Since 1837 Schwerin has been once more the
residence of the grand duke, and the seat of government, a fact
which has had considerable influence on the character of the
town and the tone of its society. The chief industry is the making
of furniture, and there are also some manufactures of dyes
and soap.
Schwerin is mentioned as a Wendish stronghold in 1018, its
name (Zwarin or Swarin) being a Slavonic word equivalent to
" game-preserve." The Obotrite prince Niclot, whose statue is
placed above the portal of the palace as the ancestor of the
present reigning family, had his residence here. The town, found
in 1161 by Henry the Lion in opposition to this pagan fortress,
received civic rights in 1166. From 1170 to 1624 it gave name
to a bishopric; and it was also the capital of the duchy of
Schwerin, which forms the western part of the grand-duchy of
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Destructive fires, the hardships of the
Thirty Years' War, and the removal of the court to Ludwigslust
in 1756 seriously depressed the town. It owes its revival and
many of its chief buildings to the grand-duke Paul Frederick,
to whom a statue by Rauch was erected in 1859.
See Fromm, Chronik der Haupt- und Residenzstadt Schwerin
(Schwerin, 1863, revised and continued by G. Quade, 1892); G.
Quade, Vaterlandskunde (Wismar, 1894); and Worl, Fuhrer durch
Schwerin (1905).
SCHWERTE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, 9 m. by rail N.E. of Hagen, at the junction of
the lines Aix-la-Chapelle-Holzminden and Schwerte-Cassel.
Pop. (1905) 13,015. It has a Romanesque church, with a carved
altar of 1523, and stained glass of the i4th and isth centuries;
and there is a i6th century town hall. The industries are practi-
cally confined to the manufacture of iron and steel goods.
Schwerte received civic rights in the I2th century.
SCHWETZ, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
West Prussia, on the left bank of the Vistula, 29 m. by rail N.E.
of Bromberg. Pop. (1905) 7747. It has an Evangelical church,
two Roman Catholic churches, a synagogue and an old convent,
now used as a lunatic asylum, and also the remains of a castle
built in the i4th century by the Teutonic Order. The chief
industries are the making of sugar and shoes, and there are also
electrical works and saw-mills.
See Kcitz, Geschichte der Stadt Schwetz seit 1772 (Marienwerder,
1904).
SCHWETZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the grand duchy of
Baden, situated in a plain 9 m. by rail S.E. of Mannheim at the
junction of lines to Carlsruhe, Heidelberg and Spires. Pop.
(1905) 6858. It has a castle, formerly the residence of the
electors palatine of the Rhine, built in 1656, destroyed by the
French in 1689, but afterwards rebuilt. Its gardens, which occupy
117 acres, were laid out in the middle of the i8th century in
imitation of those of Versailles. Cigars, vinegar, beer, yeast
and jam are manufactured, while tobacco and hops are cultivated.
Schwetzingen became a town in 1833.
SCHWIEBUS, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Brandenburg, situated in a fertile plain, 47 m. E. of Frankfort-
on-Oder by the railway to Posen. Pop. (1905) 9321. It is still
in part surrounded by its medieval wall, and has an old market-
place, a castle and many old houses. Velvet, cloth, machinery,
bricks and candles are manufactured, and there are flour-mills,
breweries, distilleries and lignite mines. The territory of
Schwiebus originally belonged to the principality of Glogau,
and in the i6th and I7th centuries was a bone of conten-
tion between the electors of Brandenburg and the emperors.
A compromise was arrived at in 1686, by which the elector
received the lordship of Schwiebus on renouncing his claims to
the principalities of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau. The electoral
prince Frederick, afterwards the elector Frederick III., had,
however, in a private compact pledged himself to restore
Schwiebus to the emperor Leopold I. when he became elector,
and he did so in 1695, receiving 40,000 in exchange. By the
peace of 1742, Frederick the Great regained Schwiebus with the
rest cf Silesia, and it was incorporated with the department
Glogau.
SCHWIND, MORITZ VON (1804-1871), German painter, was
born in Vienna in 1804. He received rudimentary training and
led a joyous careless life in that gay capital ; among his companions
SCHWYZ
395
was the composer Schubert, whose songs he illustrated. In 1828
he removed to Munich, and had the advantage of the friendship
of the painter Schnorr and the guidance of Cornelius, then
director of the academy. In 1834 he received the commission
to decorate King Ludwig's new palace with wall paintings
illustrative of the poet Tieck. He also found in the same place
congenial sport for his fancy in a " Kinderfries "; his ready
hand was likewise busy on almanacs, &c., and by his illustrations
to Goethe and other writers he gained applause and much
employment. In the revival of art in Germany Schwind held
as his own the sphere of poetic fancy. To him was entrusted
in 1839, in the new Carlsruhe academy, the embodiment in fresco
of ideas thrown out by Goethe; he decorated a villa at Leipzig
with the stbry of Cupid and Psyche, and further justified his
title of poet-painter by designs from the Niebelungenlied and
Tasso's Gerusalemme for the walls of the castle of Hohen-
schwangau in Bavarian Tirol. From the year 1844 dates his
residence in Frankfort; to this period belong some of the best
easel pictures, pre-eminently the Singers' Contest in the Wartburg
(1846), also designs for the Goethe celebration, likewise numerous
book illustrations. The conceptions for the most part are better
than the execution. In 1847 Schwind returned to Munich on
being appointed professor in the academy. Eight years later
his fame was at its height on the completion in the castle of the
Wartburg of wall pictures illustrative of the Singers' Contest
and of the history of Elizabeth of Hungary. The compositions
received universal praise, and at a grand musical festival in
their honour Schwind himself played among the violins. In
1857 appeared his exceptionally mature " cyclus " of the Seven
Ravens from Grimm's fairy stories. In the same year he visited
England to report officially to King Ludwig on the Manchester
art treasures. And so diversified were his gifts that he turned
his hand to church windows and joined his old friend Schnorr
in designs for the painted glass in Glasgow cathedral. Towards
the close of his career, with broken health and powers on the
wane, he revisited Vienna. To this time belong the " cyclus "
from the legend of Melusine and the designs commemorative
of chief musicians which decorate the foyer of the new opera
house. Cornelius writes, " You have here translated the joyous-
ness of music into pictorial art." Schwind's genius was lyrical;
he drew inspiration from chivalry, folk-lore, and the songs of
the people; his art was decorative, but lacked scholastic training
and technical skill. Schwind died at Munich in 1871, and was
buried in the old Friedhof of the same town.
SCHWYZ (modern spelling Schwiz), one of the forest cantons
of central Switzerland. Its total area is 350-5 sq. m., of which
293-6 sq. m. are reckoned as " productive " (forests covering
64-9 sq. m. and vineyards -17 sq. m.), while of the rest 2ij sq. m.
are occupied by lakes (nearly 9 sq. m. of that of Zurich, 8f sq.
m. of that of Lucerne, 3! sq. m. of that of Zug, and the whole
of the lake of Lowerz), and -5 sq. m. is covered by glaciers.
Its loftiest point is the Boser Faulen (920x3 ft.), while the two
highest summits of the Rigi (the Kulm, 5906 ft., and the
Scheidegg, 5463 ft.) rise within its borders. The canton extends
from the upper end of the lake of Zurich on the north to the
middle reach of the lake of Lucerne on the south; on the west
it touches at Kiissnacht, the northern arm of the same lake, and
in the same direction the lake of Zug at Arth, mountain ridges
dividing it from Glarus on the east and from Uri on the south.
It is made up of two main valleys, those of the Muota, flowing
through the older portion of the canton to the lake of Lucerne,
and of the Sihl that passes near Einsiedeln on its way to Ziirich.
Less important are the Aa, that waters the Waggi glen before
joining the lake of Zurich, and the Biber, which receives the
Alpbach that flows past Einsiedeln. It is thus a hilly rather than
a mountainous region, and is all but wholly devoted to pastoral
pursuits. It has not many railways, the principal being that
portion of the main St Gotthard line between Kiissnacht and
Sisikon (about 20 m.), while from Arth-Goldau a line runs past
Biberbriicke (where falls in the branch from Einsiedeln, 3 m.)
towards Wadenswil. From Arth-Goldau a mountain line runs
up to the Rigi Kulm, with a branch to the Rigi Scheidegg,
while from Arth-Goldau the line towards Zug runs for 5^ m.
within the canton. There is also a mountain line from Brunnen
to Axenstein. In 1900 the population was 55,385, of whom
53,834 were German-speaking, 1108 Italian-speaking, and 296
French-speaking, while 53,537 were Romanists, 1836 Protestants
and 9 Jews. The most populous town is Einsiedeln, with
its famous Benedictine monastery, but Schwyz (the port of
which is Brunnen) is the political capital.
There is a certain amount of industrial activity in the canton,
particularly in the portion bordering on the lake of Zurich, while
silk-weaving at home is widespread. There are many fruit
trees, particularly cherry trees. But on the whole the region
is essentially a pastoral one, and the local brown race of cattle
is much esteemed and largely exported, mainly to north Italy.
There are 417 mountain pastures or "alps" in the canton,
capable of supporting 17,492 cows, and of an estimated capital
value of 1,128,000 frs. Till i8r4 the canton was included in
the diocese of Constance, but it is now nominally part of that of
Coire. There are six administrative districts in the canton,
which comprise thirty communes. The cantonal constitution
dates mainly from 1876, but was revised in 1898. The legislature
(Kantonsrat) is composed of members elected in the proportion
of one for every six hundred (or fraction over two hundred)
inhabitants and holds office for four years the elections in
twelve (the larger) of the thirty electoral circles take place
according to the principles of proportional representation.
The executive (Rcgierungsrat) of seven members is elected by
a popular vote, and holds office for four years. The two members
of the federal Standerat and the three of the federal Nationalrat
are also chosen by a popular vote. The " obligatory referendum "
prevails in the case of all laws approved by the legislature and
important financial measures, while two thousand citizens may
claim a popular vote as to any decrees or resolutions of the
legislature, and have also the right of " initiative " as to the
revision of the cantonal constitution or as to legislative projects.
The valley of Schwyz is first mentioned in 972 under the
form of " Suittes." Later, a community of freemen is found
settled at the foot of the Mythen, possessing common lands,
and subject only to the count of the Zurichgau, as representing
the German king. Its early history consists mainly of disputes
with the great monastery of Einsiedeln about rights of pasture.
In 1240 the community obtained from the Emperor Frederick II.
the privilege of being subject immediately to the empire. Its
territory then included only the district round the village of
Schwyz and the valley of the Mucta. But in 1269 it bought
from Count Eberhard of Habsburg-Laufenburg (who in 1273
sold all his other rights to the head of the elder line of the Habs-
burgs), Steinen and Rothenthurm. Schwyz took the lead in
making the famous everlasting league of the ist of August
1291, with the neighbouring districts of Uri and of Unterwalden,
its position and political independence specially fitting it for
this prominence. An attack by Schwyz on Einsiedeln was the
excuse for the Austrian invasion that was gloriously beaten
back in the battle of Morgarten (November isth, 1315). In
the history of the league Schwyz was always to the front, so
that its name in a dialectal form (Schweiz) was from the early
I4th century onwards applied by foreigners to the league as a
whole, though it formed part of its formal style only from
1803 onwards. Between 1319 and 1354 Schwyz secured posses-
sion of Arth. But it was only after the victory of Sempach
(1386) that it greatly extended its borders. An " alliance "
with Einsiedeln in 1397 ended in 1434 with the assumption
of the position of " protector " of that great house, between
1386 and 1436 the whole of the " March " (the region near the
upper lake of Zurich) was acquired, in 1402 Kussnacht was
bought, and in 1440 the " Hofe," the parishes of Wollerau,
Feusisberg and Freienbach, situated on the main lake of Zurich.
All these districts were governed by Schwyz as " subject lands,"
the supreme power resting with the Lands gemeinde (or assembly
of all male citizens of full age), which is first distinctly mentioned
in 1294, though it seems to have already existed in 1281, when
mention is also made of a common seal. Schwyz joined the
39 6
SCHWYZ SCIENCE
other forest cantons in opposing the Reformation and took
part in the battle of Kappel (1531), in which Zwingli fell. In
1586 it became a member of the Golden or Borromean League,
formed to continue the work of St Charles Borromeo in carrying
out the counter reformation in Switzerland. In 1798 Schwyz,
including Gersau (free from 1390), formed part of the Republique
Telliane (or Tellgau) set up by the French, which a week later
gave way to the. Helvetic republic. The men of Schwyz, under
Aloys Reding, offered a valiant resistance to the French, but
they were forced to yield. Their land formed part of the vast
canton of the Waldstatten, though the March and the Hb'fe
were lost to that of the Linth. In 1799 a French occupation
was successfully resisted, while later in the same year part of
the canton was the scene of the disastrous retreat from Altdorf
to Glarus over the Kinzigkulm and Pragel passes by the Russians
under Suvarov in face of the French army. In 1803 the separate
canton of Schwyz was again set up, the March and the Hofe
being recovered, while Gersau now became part of it. In 1806
the great landslip from the Rossberg buried Goldau, causing
great loss of life and of property. Later, Schwyz resisted
steadily all proposals for the revision of the pact of 1815, joined
in 1832 the league of Sarnen, and in 1845 the Sonderbund,
which was put down by a short war in 1847. In 1832 the outer
districts (Einsiedeln, the March, Kiissnacht and Pfaffikon)
formed themselves into a separate canton, an act which brought
about a federal occupation of the old canton in 1833, this ending
in the dissolution of the new canton, the constituent parts of
which were put on an equal political footing with the rest. In
1838 a strife broke out in the older portion of the canton between
the richer peasant proprietors (nicknamed the " Horns," as
they owned so many cows) and the poorer men (dubbed the
" Hoofs," as they possessed only goats and sheep) as to the
use of the common pastures, which the " Horn " party utilized
far more than the others. The " Horn " party finally carried
the day at the Landsgemeinde held at Rothenthurm. The
cantonal constitution of 1848 put an end to the ancient Lands-
gemeinde; it was revised in 1876 (when membership of one of
the 29 communes became the political qualification), and in 1898.
AUTHORITIES. J. T. Blumer, Stoats- und Rechtsgeschichte d.
schweiz. Demokratien (3 vols., St Gall, 1850-1859); I. C. Benziger,
Die RatspTotokotte des Kant. Schwyz, 1548-1798 (Schwyz, 1906);
T. Fassbmd, Geschichte d. Kant. Schwyz (5 vols., Schwyz, 1832-
1838); Geschichtsfreund, from 1843; M. Kothing, Das Landbuch
von Schwyz (Zurich and Frauenield, 1850); A. Lutolf, Sagen,
Brduche, Legenden aus den funf Orte (Lucerne, 1852) ; G. Meyer von
Knonau, Der Kanton Schwyz (St Gall, 1835); Mitteil. d. hist. Vereins
d. Kant. Schwyz (from 1882); W. Oechsli, Die Anjange d. schweiz.
Eidgenossenschaft (Zurich, 1891); R. von Reding- Biberegg, Der
Zug Suworoffs durch die Schweiz in 1799 (Stans, 1895); H. Ryffcl,
Die schweiz. Lands gcmeinden (Zurich, 1903); 1. Sowerby, The
Forest Cantons of Switzerland (London, 1892); D. Steinauer, Ge-
schichte d. Freistaates Schwyz (1798-1861) (2 vols., Einsiedeln, 1861) ;
A. Strtiby and H. Schneebeli, Die Atpwirtschaft im Kant. Schwyz
(Soleure, 1899); W. H. Vormann, Aus den Fremdenbuchern von
Rigi-Kulm (Bern, 1883); K. Zay, Goldau und seine Gegend (Zurich,
1807). (W. A. B. C.)
SCHWYZ, the capital of the Swiss canton of that name, a
picturesque little town, admirably situated, amid fruit trees,
on a mountain terrace (at a height of 1706 ft.), commanding
a glorious view, at the north-west foot of the conical peak
of the Gross Mythen (6240 ft.), and at a considerable height
above the valley of the Muota. Besides a stately i8th century
parish church and several convents, it contains a i6th century
town hall (housing various precious MSS. and banners captured
in various wars), as well as several curious old patrician houses,
such as that of the Reding family, a member of which, Aloys
(1765-1818), headed the patriotic resistance toithe French in
1798-1799., Including the neighbouring hamlets of Ibach,
Rickenbach, &c., the parish had 7398 inhabitants in 1900,
practically all German-speaking and Romanists. The town is
connected by an electric tramway with the Schwyz-Seewen
station on the St Gotthard railway, about 3 m. from Brunnen,
the port of Schwyz on the lake of Lucerne.
SCIACCA, a town and episcopal see of Sicily, on the S. coast,
in the province of Girgenti, 45 m. N.W. of Girgenti by road,
and about 30 m. direct. Pop. (1906) 24,645. It is surrounded
by walls erected in 1400, and has two ruined castles, belonging
to the Luna and Perollo families, whose hereditary feuds lasted
from 1410 to 1529, some fine medieval palaces, and several
interesting churches. The cathedral, founded in 1090, was
largely reconstructed in 1686. The convent of Sta. Maria delle
Giummare, with its battlemented walls, occupies the former
palace of the Saracen governors, and contains a painting of the
foundation of the convent by Count Roger. The town has
only an open roadstead. It has an important trade in coral.
Three miles E. of the town is the Monte San Calogero (the
ancient Mons Cronius) with sulphurous and saline springs and
vapour baths, which are still frequented and were known in
Roman times as Aquae Larodes or Thermae Selinuntiae (Sciacca
is about 15 m. direct S.E. of Selinus). The name Sciacca is
Arabic, but of uncertain meaning. The town is the birthplace
of Tommaso Fazello (1498-1570), the father of Sicilian history.
SCIATICA (from a late Lat. corruption, sciaticus, of Gr.
iCTX'o^wos, from l<r\ua>, the hip-joint), a form of neuralgia
localized in the sciatic nerve, or its cords of origin; see NEUR-
ALGIA.
SCIENCE (Lat. scientia, from scire, to learn, know), a word
which, in its broadest sense, is synonymous with learning and
knowledge. Accordingly it can be used in connexion with any
qualifying adjective, which shows what branch of learning is
meant. But in general usage a more restricted meaning has
been adopted, which differentiates " science " from other
branches of accurate knowledge. For our purpose, science may
be defined as ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and
of the relations between them; thus it is a short term for
" natural science," and as such is used here technically in con-
formity with a general modern convention.
The beginnings of physical science are to be sought in the
slow and unconscious observation by primitive races of men
of natural occurrences, such as the apparent move-
ments of the heavenly bodies, and in the gradually The
acquired mastery over the rude implements by the ^,'^ leacc ,
aid of which such men strove to increase the security
and comfort of their lives. Biological science similarly must
have begun with observation of the plants and animals useful
to man, and with empirical medicine and surgery. It was only
when a considerable progress had been made with ordered
knowledge that men began to ask questions about the meaning
and causes of the phenomena, and to discern the connexions
between them.
In the earliest stage of development it seems that an anthropo-
morphic or mythological explanation is always assigned to the
phenomena of nature. With no clue to trace the regularity of
sequence and connexion between those phenomena, an untutored
mind inevitably refers the apparently capricious events which
succeed each other to the direct and immediate intervention of
some unseen being of a nature essentially similar to his own.
The sun is the naming chariot of the sun-god, driven day by day
across the heavens; the clouds are cows from which milk
descends as nourishing rain on the fruitful earth. We may regard
such myths as childlike fancies, but they were doubtless an
advance on the want of all explanation which preceded them;
they supplied hypotheses which, besides giving rise to themes
of beauty and suggestiveness for poetry and art, played the first
and chief part of a scientific hypothesis in pointing the way for
further inquiry. Much useful knowledge was acquired and much
skill gained in logical analysis before these primitive explana-
tions were proved insufficient. A false theory which can be
compared .with facts may be more useful at a given stage of
development than a true one beyond the comprehension of the
time, and incapable of examination by observation or experiment
by any means then known. The Newtonian theory of gravitation
might be useless to a savage, to whose mind the animistic view
of nature brought conviction and helpful ideas, which he could
test by experience.
The phenomena of the heavens are at once the most striking,
the most easily observed and the most regular of those whic
SCIENCE
397
are impressed inevitably on the minds of thinking men. Thus
it is to astronomy we must look for the first development of
scientific ideas. The orientation of many prehistoric
froaoai*' monuments shows that a certain amount of astro-
nomical observation had been acquired at a very early
age, and the Chaldeans seem to have gone so far as to
recognize a law of periodicity even in eclipses. From the land
of Asia the Greeks took their earliest ideas of science, and it is to
the Ionian philosophers, of whom Thales of Miletus (580 B.C.)
is regarded as the first, that we must turn for the earliest known
example of an advance on the mythological view of nature.
Anaximenes recognized the rotation of the heavens round the
pole star, and saw that the dome overhead was but the half
of a complete sphere. The earth was thus deprived of the base
stretching to unfathomed depths imagined by the mythologists,
and left free to float as a flattened cylinder at the centre of the
celestial sphere. Anaximenes, too, seems to have grasped the
doctrine of the uniformity of nature, teaching that all material
transformations must have a true cause.
Next came the Pythagoreans, who simplified these conceptions
by the suggestion that instead of a rotation of the vast sphere of the
heavens the earth itself might be a sphere and revolve about a
central fixed point, like a stone at the end of a string. The unin-
habited side of the earth always faced the fixed point, and its in-
habited side faced successively the different parts of the heavens.
At the central fixed point they placed a " universal fire," which,
like the fire on an altar, served as a centre for the circling of the
worshipping earth. Mythology was losing its hold of science, but
mystical symbolism still held sway. When, however, in the 4th
century B.C. the growth of geographical discovery failed to
disclose any trace of this central fire, the idea of its existence
faded away, and was replaced by the conception of the revolution
of the earth on its own axis. Finally, Aristarchus (280 B.C.),
believing that the sun was larger than the earth, thought it
unlikely that it should revolve round the earth, and developed
a heliocentric theory. But the time was not ripe; no indisput-
able evidence could be adduced, no general conviction followed,
and to mankind the earth remained the centre of creation till
many centuries later. Even to Lucretius, the visible universe
consisted of the central earth with its attendant water, air and
aether founded by the sphere of the heavens, which formed the
flaming walls of the world flammantia moenia mundi.
Simultaneously with the birth of astronomy the problem of
matter came into being. The old Ionian nature philosophers,
observing the sequence of changes from earth and
water mto tne structure of plants and the bodies of
animals, and through them again into the original
constituents, began to grasp the conception of the
indestructibility of matter, and to put forward the idea that all
forms of matter might ultimately consist of a single " element."
But the conception of a single ultimate basis of matter was far
in advance of the age. It is only now becoming a fertile working
hypothesis in the light of all the gigantic increase in knowledge
of the intervening two thousand years. At the time when it
was put forward, the conception was of little use, and the immedi-
ate pathof advance was found in the idea of Empedocles(45OB.C.)
that the primary elements were four: earth, water, air and fire
a solid, a liquid, a gas and the flame which seemed to the ancients
a type of matter of still rarer structure. This hypothesis served
to interpret the phenomena of nature for many centuries, till,
in modern days, the growth of chemistry disclosed the seventy
or eighty elements of our text-books. Signs are not wanting
that they too have served their turn as a conception of the ulti-
mate nature of matter, while still maintaining their place as the
proximate units of chemical action.
In the four elements of Empedocles we trace the germ of the
ideas of the Atomists. Empedocles saw that, by combining his
separate elements in different proportions, he could
of atoms. ex pl am a ll the endless differences in matter as known
to the senses. Leucippus and Democritus developed
the conception and gave to the world the theory of atoms,
described at a later date by the Roman poet Lucretius. As
T
matter is subdivided does it keep its characteristic properties
throughout? Is iron always iron, however finely we divide it;
is water always water? Are the properties of any kind of matter
ultimate facts of which no explanation no description in simpler
terms is possible? To avoid answering this last question in the
affirmative, and resigning all hope of an advance in knowledge,
the atomic theory of the Greeks was framed.
To recognize the significance of the doctrines of the Greek
Atomists, we must remove from our minds all sense of comparison
with the atomic theory of to-day. The Greeks had none of the
detailed physical and chemical knowledge on which that theory
is founded, and which it was framed to explain. The object of
Leucippus and Democritus was quite different from that of
Dalton and Avogadro. To the latter, the conception of atoms
and molecules served as a means of explaining certain definite
and detailed facts of chemical combination and gaseous volume
in a more definite and exact way than any other hypothesis
available at the time. To the Greek philosophers, the atomic
theory was an attempt to make the universe intelligible. The
particular explanation offered was not of so much importance as
the idea that an explanation of some kind was possible. When
we see the beliefs that held sway before their day, we realize the
advance their ideas produced. The qualities of substances were
thought to be of their essence the sweetness of sugar was as
much a reality as sugar itself, the black colour of water must
survive all changes in its form, so that, to one who knew this
doctrine, snow could never look white again. It was such con-
fusion as this such denial of facts if they failed to support a
theory that Democritus assailed: " According to convention
there is a sweet and a bitter, a hot and a cold, and according to
convention there is colour. In truth there are atoms and a
void." Atoms were many in size and shape, but identical in
substance. All qualitative differences in substances were to be
assigned to differences in size, shape, situation and movement of
particles of the same ultimate nature. No attempt was made
to examine into the nature of this ultimate substance; but one
set of phenomena was expressed in terms of something simpler,
and no " explanation " even of the most recondite observation
by the most modern physicist can do more.
The atomic theory of the Greeks as transmitted to us by
the poem of Lucretius presented a wonderfully consistent
picture of nature within the limits of the knowledge of their
day. It is easy to show where it fails in the light of the know-
ledge of phenomena we now possess; it is easy to point to
places where, as in its application to psychological problems,
its authors passed in imagination over logical chasms without
even seeing that a difficulty existed. But the attempt to frame
an intelligible picture was a great step in advance, and a study
of the flaws which we can now detect may serve to suggest
the provisional nature of some of the theories by the aid of which
knowledge is advancing so fast in our own day.
But the great difference between the position of the Greeks
and that of ourselves in regard to natural knowledge consists
in the small number of phenomena known to them contrasted
with the enormous wealth of accumulated observation which
is available for us, as the result of years of experiment with
the aid of apparatus unknown to the ancients. When a new
theory is put forward, it is now almost always possible to test
its concordance with facts by the use of material already
accumulated, or to suggest, in the light of such material,
experiments which will serve to refute it, or to lend it greater
probability. Thus a theory which survives the trials that follow
its birth has nowadays a fairly long expectation of life probably
the theory will serve to interpret phenomena discovered either
by its means or in other ways for some time to come. But in
the ancient world this was not so. To test a new theory, other
phenomena were very rarely available than those which sug-
gested it, or to explain which it was put forward. Thus thought
was much more speculative, and, as is still the case with meta-
physics, no general consensus of opinion was reached. Each
philosopher had a system of his own in science, just as he still
has in metaphysics a system which, beginning from first
398
SCIENCE
principles anew, raises on them a superstructure, which, even
if it logically follows from them, can have no more validity than
the premises on which it is based. When the premises are not
accepted by other philosophers, the whole scheme becomes
merely the doctrine of one man, and, if it lives at all, may
oppress by the dead weight of authority the struggle of living
thought beneath it.
The history of the atomic theory of Leucippus and Democritus
illustrates the difficulties of a position where speculation has
Aristotle outstr 'PP e( i observation. The theory was nearer
what is now accepted as truth than any other of the
ancient schemes of physics. Yet the grounds on which it was
based were so insecure 'that Aristotle (c. 340 B.C.), who started
with other preconceptions, was able to bring to bear such destruc-
tive criticism that the theory ceased to occupy the foremost
place in Greek thought. Although, with the knowledge then
available, we can but admit that some of Aristotle's criticism
was just, much of it consists of metaphysical arguments against
the atomists, while in parts he rejects true conclusions owing
to what he considers their impossibility. Democritus, for
instance, had held that all things would fall with equal speed
in a vacuum, and that the fact that heavy bodies were observed
to fall faster than very light ones was due to the resistance of
the air. Democritus's belief was true, though he was of course
quite unconscious of the grounds on which it can alone be
demonstrated the universal attraction of gravity, and the
remarkable and curious experimental fact that the weights of
bodies are proportional to their masses. Aristotle agrees that
in a vacuum all bodies would fall at an equal rate, but the
conclusion appears to him so inconceivable that he rejects the
idea of the existence of any empty space at all, and with the
" void " rejects the rest of the allied concepts of the atomic
theory. If all bodies were composed of the same ultimate
matter, he argues, they must all be heavy, and nothing would
be light in itself and disposed to rise. A large mass of air or
fire would then necessarily be heavier than a small mass of
earth or water. This result he thinks impossible, for certain
bodies always tend upwards and rise faster as their bulk
increases. It will be seen that Aristotle has no idea of the con-
ceptions we now call density and specific gravity, though clear
views about the question why some things rise through water
or air might have been obtained without the aid of physical
apparatus. Aristotle's doctrine that bodies are essentially
heavy or light in themselves persisted all through the middle
ages, and did much to delay the attainment of more exact
knowledge. It was not till Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) dis-
covered by actual experiment that, in cases where the resist-
ance of the air is negligible, heavy things fall at the same speed
as light ones, that the Aristotelian dogma was overthrown.
Turning to the biological sciences, we may trace a somewhat
similar course of development. Owing to its practical im-
^^ portance, medicine has left many records by which
biology. ' ts progress can be traced. Just as primitive man
personified the sun and the moon, the wind and the
sea, so he regarded disease as due to the action of some malignant
demon or to the spells of some human enemy. Once more Greek
literature enables us to trace the gradual decrease in the import-
ance assigned to charms and magic, and the growth of more
rational ideas among physicians. 'But here, as in the physical
sciences, the philosophic range of the intellect of the Greeks
led them astray. Assumptions as to the nature of man or the
origin of organic life were too often made the starting point
of a train of deductive reasoning, the consequences of which
were not always compared with the results of observation and
experiment, even where such comparison was possible. -The
Greek philosophers tried to make bricks without straw, usually
in sublime unconsciousness that straw was necessary. Many
centuries of humble observation and tentative fitting together
of small parts of the great puzzle were needed before enough
material was collected to make possible useful generalizations
about the questions, answers to which the Greeks assumed as
the very basis of their inquiries.
Among the multitude of their guesses, a few somewhat re-
sembled the views that are now again rising into prominence
from the basis of definite and exact experiment. A good example
of the strength and weakness of ancient speculation is found
in the cosmogony of the atomists, both on its physical and
on its biological side. Lucretius describes how the world was
formed by the conjunction of streams of atoms, which con-
densed into the earth, with its attendant water, air and aether,
to form a self-contained whole. Unconscious of the mighty
gap between inorganic matter and living beings, he proceeds
to tell how, in the chances of infinite time, all possible forms of
life appeared, while only those fittest to survive persisted and
reared offspring. Here, surrounded by unsupported statements
and false conclusions, we see dimly the germs of the ideas of
the nebular hypothesis and the theory of natural selection,
though Lucretius had the profoundest ignorance of the diffi-
culties of the problem, and the vast stretches of time necessary
for cosmical and biological development.
In those branches of biological science in which less ambitious
theorizing and more detailed observation were forced on the
Greeks, considerable progress was made. Aristotle compiled a
laborious account of the animals known in his day, with many
accurate details of their anatomical structure. Beginning from
an earlier date, steady advance was made with geographical
discovery. Maps of the known world, developed from the local
maps invented by the Egyptians for the purposes of land-
surveying, gave definiteness to the knowledge thus acquired,
and showed its bearing on wider problems.
One of the most striking successes of Greek thought is seen
in the development of geometry. Geometry has a twofold
importance, as being itself the study of the properties Oeometry
of the space known to our senses, and as teaching
us methods and means of studying nature by unfolding the full
logical consequences of any hypothesis: geometry is the best
type of deductive reasoning. Based on axioms, the result of
simple experience, it traces from the ideas of solids, surfaces,
lines and points the properties of other figures defined in terms
of those ideas. As an example to other sciences, the deductive
geometry of Euclid (c. 300 B.C.) had, perhaps, an unfortunate
influence in emphasizing the deductive method, and teaching
men to neglect the need of verifying by experiment the theories
put forward to explain the more complex phenomena of nature
at the conclusion, and at each possible step, of the deduction.
But, in itself, the science of Euclidian geometry was brought to
such a state of perfection that no advance was made till modern
times: no change even in form attempted till quite recently.
Unlike some other branches of inquiry we have mentioned,
Euclid's geometry carried universal conviction, and represented
a permanent step in advance which never had to be retraced.
Alongside the study of individual sciences, the Greeks paid
even more attention to the laws of thought, and to the examina-
tion of the essence of the methods by which knowledge
in general is acquired. In opposition to Plato's theory J* eorte
that all knowledge is but the unfolding and develop- knowledge.
ment of forgotten memories of a previous state of
existence, Aristotle taught that we learn to reach the generaliza-
tions, which alone the Greeks regarded as knowledge, by remem-
bering, comparing and co-ordinating numerous particular acts
or judgments of sense, which are thus used as a means of gaining
knowledge by the action of the innate and infallible nous or
intellect. Neither Plato nor Aristotle could be satisfied without
finding infallibility somewhere. Aristotle, it is true, investigated
the logical processes by which we pass from particular instances
to general propositions, and laid stress on the importance of
observing the facts before generalizing about them, but he had
little appreciation of the conditions in which observation and the
induction based on it must be conducted in practice in order to
obtain results where the probability of error is a minimum.
Aristotle regarded induction merely as a necessary preliminary
to true science of the deductive type best seen in geometry, and,
in applying his principles, he never reached the " positive " stage,
in which metaphysical problems are evaded, if not excluded,
SCIENCE
399
origin of
mechanics.
and a scheme of natural knowledge built up in a consistent
manner, so that metaphysical ideas, though they may underlie
the foundation of the ultimate conceptions, do not intrude
between the parts of the building. Hence Aristotle's explanations
often turn directly on metaphysical ideas such as form, cause,
substance, terms which do not occur (in the Aristotelian sense)
in modern scientific terminology.
A century later than the time of Aristotle, Archimedes of
Syracuse (287 to 212 B.C.) formulated the fundamental concep-
tions of hydrostatics and took what may be regarded
The as t ne fi rs t step in the exact science of mechanics.
The use of the lever must have been discovered at a
very early date, and Archimedes set to work to in-
vestigate its quantitative laws by the application of principles
learnt from the geometers. He begins by laying down two
axioms: (i) Equal weights placed at equal distances from the
point of support of a bar will balance: (2) Equal weights placed
at unequal distances do not balance, but that which hangs at the
greater distance descends. The ancient philosophers based such
axioms as the first of these two on the " principle of sufficient
reason." No motion can take place, because, from the symmetry
of the system, there is no reason why the balance should descend
on one side more than the other. Even if we grant the theoretical
validity of this principle, it is impossible to make sure without
trial that the system in any given case is really symmetrical.
Electrification of the bar, for instance, though imperceptible to
our senses, would cause one end to descend if an oppositely
electrified body were placed near that end; we cannot assume
without trial that the position of the sun, or the colour of the
arms, will not affect the result. Archimedes based the second
axiom on the sounder ground of direct experience. On these
two axioms he proceeded to construct an elaborate deductive
proof of the numerical law of the lever, but, in the course of it,
he assumed as known the principle of the centre of gravity. In
reality, this principle is identical with that of the lever, and
assuming one, implicitly we assume the other. Nevertheless,
Archimedes' proof is of use and interest. On the assumptions
made, it shows the connexion between the general case of the
lever with unequal arms, and the special and more familiar case
when the arms are equal. Indeed, if we also treat the principle
of the centre of gravity as an axiom known by experience,
Archimedes' proof is a true type of all scientific " explanations ";
it reduces an unfamiliar phenomenon to others already well
known to our minds, which, creatures of habit as they are, regard
the familiar cases as in ho need of explanation. Nowadays we
should treat the law of the lever of unequal arms as one that
is verified by direct and familiar experiment, and use it, in its
turn, as the starting point for further deduction.
Thus before the intellectual activity of Greece was absorbed
by the utilitarianism of Rome, which, in its turn, was lost in
the dark ages following the barbarian conquests, the
seeds were sown which, germinating after the lapse cf
centuries, developed in the more fruitful soil of the age
of experiment. But for a time they were buried, and only
remembered by compendiums written just before the ancient
light was wholly lost. During the dark ages, the contents of
secular learning, based on those compendiums, settled down
into the elementary " trivium," consisting of grammar, rhetoric
and dialectic, and the more advanced " quadrivium " music,
arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. Music included a half-
mystical doctrine of numbers and the rules of plainsong; geo-
metry consisted of a selection of the propositions of Euclid
without the demonstrations; while arithmetic and astronomy
were cultivated chiefly because they taught the means of finding
Easter. Meanwhile, the early alchemists of Alexandria, by the
aid of mystical analogies with the conceptions of astrology, were
making primitive experiments on the transformations of various
substances. It was probably from them that the " sacred
science" passed to the Arabs, among whom Geber (c. A.D. 750)
discovered many new chemical reactions and compounds.
With the intellectual revival which began in the nth century,
and the gradual recovery of some of the lost works of the ancient
The dart
ages.
writers, we turn a new page. The controversy between Plato and
Aristotle upon the doctrine of ideas fascinated the minds of the
middle ages, saturated as they were with the logical
subtleties of dialectic. This controversy originated
the long debate on the reality of universals, which
absorbed the intellectual energies of many generations of men.
Did reality belong only to the idea or universal to the class
rather than to the individual to the common humanity of
mankind, for instance, rather than to each isolated being?
Or were the individuals the reality, and the universals mere
names? In this question, trivial, almost meaningless, as it
seems at first sight, logical analysis disclosed to the medieval
mind the whole theory of the universe. Either answer contained
danger to theological orthodoxy as then understood; hence the
fervour with which it was debated. But, as communication with
the East was reopened early in the i3th century, Latin transla-
tions of Aristotle's works gradually were recovered; the whole
of Aristotle's philosophy was reimported into the schools of
Europe, and reconciled and adopted by Christian theology.
For three hundred years Aristotle reigned supreme in European
thought, and exponents of the scholastic philosophy, ignoring
their master's teaching on the need of experiment, settled
questions of fact as well as those of opinion by an appeal to
his books. But outside the academic schools of the newly
founded universities, experiment was kept alive by the labours
of the alchemists, who, early in the I3th century, caught their
ideas from the Arabs, and began to search for an elixir vitae and
for a means of transmuting baser metals into gold. But alchemy
never quite squared its account with orthodox theology, and the
" sacred science " of the Alexandrians became associated in the
medieval mind with the " black art " of witchcraft. Even a man
like Roger Bacon, who, with some astrological mysticism, had a
more modern idea of experiment both in chemical and physical
problems, did not escape condemnation.
We now reach the period in the history of the world known
as the Renaissance, when many converging streams of thought
were given room to join by the increased material
prosperity and improved political stability of the na i ss ^ce.
15th and i6th centuries. The Renaissance was not,
as it is sometimes represented, a sudden break with medievalism
and a birth of the modern world. But a number of conditions
favourable to rapid development happened to coincide, and,
in the course of a century, men's outlook on themselves and
on nature became profoundly modified. The recovery of the
Greek language, the voyages of Columbus, the decay of the
Western and the passing of the Eastern empire, the temporary
diminution in power of the papacy, the invention of printing,
all tended to produce new ideas and to prepare men's minds
to accept the more human and naturalistic view of the universe
which had been current among the Greeks, in place of the
mystical aspect which it wore to the medieval schoolmen and
ecclesiastics. At first the tendency was to substitute the
authority of the ancients for the authority of the schoolmen,
but gradually more independence of thought was secured;
men like Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) began to experiment
and to record their results; Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
revived the heliocentric theory, and showed how the accumu-
lated mass of astronomical observations could be interpreted
by its means; and anatomy began again to be studied in the
schools of medicine, gradually making its way in face of the
prejudice against mutilating the human body.
The philosophy of the new experimental methods was first
studied deeply by Francis Bacon (1561-1626). Sensible of the
confused and disjointed information which then con-
stituted the only scientific knowledge, Bacon set
himself to describe a new method by which definite
knowledge might be acquired with certainty. Warned by
the failure of the scholastic methods, Bacon laid exclusive
stress on experimental research, and it was perhaps natural
that he should incline to the other extreme and ignore almost
entirely the use of hypothesis and the deductive method. To
arrive at the underlying causes, said Bacon, we must study the
400
SCIENCE
natural history of the phenomena, collect and tabulate all
observations which bear on them, notice which phenomena are
related in such a way as to vary together, and then, by a merely
mechanical process of exclusion, we discover the cause of any
given phenomenon. As a corrective of the medieval philosophy
Bacon's work was of the greatest value in the history of thought,
and, from this point of view, it is perhaps but a small drawback
that scientific discovery is seldom or never made by the pure
Baconian method. The multitude of phenomena are too great
for any subject to be attacked with success without the aid of
hypothesis framed by the use of the scientific imagination.
Facts are collected to prove or disprove the consequences deduced
from the hypothesis, and thus the number of facts to be examined
becomes manageable.
Even while- Bacon was philosophizing, the true method was
being used by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) to found the science
fl<flfco of dynamics. We have seen how the Aristotelians
held the belief that every body sought its natural
place, the place of heavy bodies being below and that of light
ones above. Innate qualities of heaviness and lightness were
thus invoked to explain why some things fell, and others, in
similar circumstances, rose. Galileo, rightly rejecting the
whole current point of view, set himself to examine not why,
but how, things fell. This change of attitude was in itself one
of his great achievements. Now a falling body starts from rest
and falls with a speed which is increasing constantly. Galileo
sought to find the law of increase. To isolate the real law out
of all possible laws he made a guess at a simple law which seemed
likely to be true. He assumed that the speed acquired is pro-
portional to the distance fallen through. But, working out the
consequences of this hypothesis, he soon convinced himself that
it involved a contradiction. He abandoned the hypothesis and
made another. He supposed that the speed was proportional
to the time of fall. Again he deduced mathematically the
consequences of this new hypothesis, and, finding no incon-
sistencies, put some of his deductions to the test of experiment,
and verified their accuracy. Thus Galileo proved mathemati-
cally that, if the speed of fall is proportional to the time from
the moment of starting, the space traversed by a falling body
must be proportional to the square of the time of fall. To
verify this result experimentally, Galileo convinced himself
that a body falling down an inclined plane acquired a speed
which is the same as that it would have attained in falling
through the same vertical height. He was able therefore to
use a slow fall down a plane for his experiments instead of the
unmanageably- rapid course of a body falling freely. Nor was
this all. From this stage to the investigation another con-
sequence of his results was found to spring. A ball after running
down an inclined plane of a certain height will run up another
plane of the same height irrespective of its inclination that is,
if friction be small. The second plane may be made very long,
but still, if its final height be the same, the ball will reach its
end. Hence it is the height that matters; none of the speed
of the ball is destroyed unless it rises. If the second plane be
made horizontal, the ball will thus run on for ever unless stopped
by friction or some other applied force. This fundamental
result, put into definite words by Newton, is known as the first
law of motion, and is the foundation of the whole science of
dynamics. In Galileo's day it was an entirely new conception.
It has been assumed that every motion required some cause or
force to maintain it. Hence arose the need of hypothetical
vortices to maintain planetary movements, and similar com-
plications in astronomy and mechanics. But it now became
evident that it was not the continuous motion of the planets
which needed explanation, but the constant deflection of that
motion from the straight path it would hold if no applied force
were in action. The way was open for Newton.
Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proved mathematically that
the observed motion of the planets about the sun could be
Newton explained, and explained only, by the supposition that
the sun exerted a force on each planet proportional
inversely to the square of its distance from the planet. But
the earth, at any rate, does attract bodies on or near its surface,
the phenomenon being the familiar but mysterious gravity. Is
this force competent to account for the motion of the moon
round the earth? On the assumption of the law of inverse
squares, Newton calculated what the known force of gravity
would become at the distance of the moon. Owing to faulty
data, his first result indicated that the force would be too great,
and Newton put aside his calculations. Six years later a new
determination of the size of the earth gave him a new basis for
calculation, and, in an excitement so great that he could hardly
see his figures, Newton found that the fall of a stone to the
earth and the sweep of the moon in her orbit were due to the
same cause. The mechanism by means of which the force is
exerted remained unrevealed to Newton, and has baffled all
inquirers since his day, but the discovery that all the move-
ments of the heavens could be described by one simple physical
law, represents the greatest achievement in the history of
science.
Newton brought the existing state of the solar system within
the cognizance of known dynamical principles, and the logical
extension of such principles to explain the origin of , ;
that system was made by the speculations of Pierre
Simon, marquis de Laplace (1740-1827), and developed by those
who followed him. They imagined a primitive state of nebu-
losity from which, by the action of known dynamical processes,
the sun and planets would be evolved.
These speculations, isolated at first, coalesced with the more
detailed conclusions of geology during the ipth century. The
earlier conceptions of the origin of the rocks of the Qe /Q
earth imagined catastrophes of fire or water, processes
alien to those of everyday experience. But the " uniformi-
tarian " school, founded by James Hutton (1726-1797) and
expounded by Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875), produced evidence
to show that much, at any rate, of the structure of the surface
of the globe was produced by the action of causes and processes
still going on under our eyes. The deposition of material by
the action of seas and rivers and other natural agencies, e.g.
volcanoes, &c., was seen to need only time enough to produce
beds of rock like those which make up our mountains. Com-
parison of the fossil remains of plants and animals found in
different kinds of rock then enabled geologists to classify the
rocks, and place them in a chronological sequence. Moreover,
it became evident that a series of animal and plant types was
associated with the gradual formation of the rocks, and that
the age both of the earth itself and of the organic life found
on it was much greater than had been suspected. The few
thousand years of received cosmogonies stretched out into
untold millions, during which the same familiar laws described
the phenomena of development. The remains and traces of
man, found, it is true, only in the later sedimentary deposits
of the earth, still were enough to prove his existence through
ages beside which the dawn of history was but as yesterday.
As Newton had extended known principles throughout the
gigantic spaces of the heavens, so the later geologists pushed
them back over enormous epochs of time. The extent of the
kingdom of ordered knowledge expanded both in space and
time to a degree truly marvellous.
The discovery by Sir George G. Stokes (1819-1903), R. W.
Bunsen (1811-1898) and G. R. Kirchhoff (1824-1887),
that the spectroscope gave a means of investigating the
chemical composition of the sun and the stars, brought
another set of phenomena under the control of ter-
restrial experiment. Moreover, the differences in stellar spectra
once more suggested the idea of cosmical .development, familiar
from the nebular hypothesis of Laplace.
Besides the direct extension of the dominion of science pro-
duced by geology and spectroscopy the new results emphasized
the idea of development, and prepared the way for D arw la
the biological work of Charles Darwin (1800-1882).
The origin of living beings from a few ancestral types was an
old conception, but Darwin first found an adequate intelligible
cause in the slow action of sexual selection, joined to the pressure
SCIENCE
401
of the struggle for life, which allowed only those individuals
most suited by favourable variation to the environment to
survive and rear their offspring. The advantage thus given
to beings with useful variations may develop into permanent
modifications in the course of ages, and, when the parent types
have disappeared, their common posterity may exhibit the
marked differences characteristic of the separate and distinct
species now existent. From the point of view of scientific
thought, the significance of Darwin's theory lies in the new and
vast extension it gives to the field in which causes intelligible
to the human mind can be sought as explanations of phenomena.
Thus evolution is co-ordinated in the history of . thought with
the Newtonian theory of gravitation, and with the uniformitarian
theory of geology.
Both before and after the appearance of Darwin's work,
biologists devoted their attention to the study of how the useful
variations arise. Three views have been held, (i)
Varlatoa. j eaQ g a p(.j ste; chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1829),
regarded variation as due to the accumulated and inherited
effect of use. Thus the giraffe acquires his long neck by the
successive efforts of countless generations to browse on leaves
just beyond their reach. (2) Darwin, while accepting changes
in accordance with Lamarck's ideas as exceptional aids to
variation, revolutionized biology by showing the primary
importance of the struggle for life, when extended over long
periods of time, in selecting useful variations which arise acci-
dentally or in other ways. (3) Darwin also recognized the
possible occasional effect of discontinuous variations or "sports,"
when a plant or an animal diverges from its parents in a marked
manner. But of late years the study by Hugo de Vries, William
Bateson and others, of discontinuous variations which arise
spontaneously has pointed to the conclusion that in nature
such sudden leaps are the normal cause of development. If
a " sport " has advantages over the parental type, it tends
to survive, while, if it is not as fitted for its life struggle, it is
destroyed by natural selection and never establishes itself.
Such a theory avoids the difficulty of pure " Darwinism, " that
organs useful, when fully developed, to an animal or plant are
of no advantage in incipient stages. Statistical methods, too,
suggest that a definite limit may exist to the amount of a given
variation which proceeds by small steps, each insignificant
in itself.
Closely connected with such problems is the question of
inheritance. Lamarck's theory required the inheritance of
characteristics acquired during the life of a parent.
But difficulties, such as that of seeing how such a
change could affect the simple germ cells, has led some
more recent biologists to pass to the other extreme, and to deny
the possibility of any acquired characteristic being transmitted
to offspring.
A new light has been thrown on the problem of inheritance
by the recent re-discovery of the work of G. J. Mendel, abbot
of Brunn (1822-1884). Certain characters in both
plants and animals have been found to be separable,
and some of these characters exist in pairs, so that the presence
of one involves the absence of the other. To take a simple
example. Blue Andalusian fowls do not breed " true. " On
the average, half the offspring of two blue parents are blue,
while the remaining half are divided equally between black and
white birds. Both black and white when mated with a consort
of the same colour breed " true " and yield only offspring similar
to the parents. A white bird mated with a black, however,
produces invariably all blue chicks. White mated with blue
gives half blue and half white, while black mated with blue
gives half blue and half black. Such phenomena are explained
if we suppose that of the germ cells of the blue birds half bear
the black character and half the white. If, in reproduction, a
" black " cell meets a " black " the resulting chick is black;
if " white " meets " white " the chick is white; while if " white "
meets " black " the chick possesses a mixture of the two char-
acters which in this case yield blue colour. But the reproductive
cells of this intermediate form are not intermediate in character;
Inherit-
ance.
they possess the pure parental characters in equal numbers.
Knowing these facts, it is evident that we can reproduce any
of the results at will, and from the mixed blue type produce
a pure true breed of either black or white birds. Experiments
of this kind must lead to a power of breeding new varieties
of plants and animals hitherto undreamed of, and already have
changed altogether our views of the problems of heredity.
Instead of a vague mixture of all our ancestors, we possess
definite characteristics of some of them only, though, like the
blue Andalusian fowl, we may transmit to our children ancestral
characters we do not ourselves exhibit. The family or race is
more important in heredity than the individual parent. Thus
the aristocratic theory of politics receives support from the
experience of biology.
Simultaneously with the growth of geology, and the birth
of the Darwinian hypothesis, a new development took place in
physical science the development of the conception Thg
of energy as a quantity invariable in amount through- <Aeor>r /
out a series of physical changes. The genesis of the energy.
idea in its modern form may be traced in the work
of Newton and C. Huygens (1620-1695), who applied it to the
problems of pure dynamics. But, in, the middle of the iQth
century, by the work of James Prescott Joule (18181889),
Lord Kelvin (1824-1907), H. L. F. von Helmholtz (1821-1894),
J. Willard Gibbs (1839-1903), R. J. E. Clausius (1822-1888)
and others, it was extended to physical processes. The amount
of heat produced by friction was found to bear a constant
proportion to the work expended, and this experimental result
led to the conception of an invariable quantity of something,
to which the name of energy was given, manifesting itself in
various forms such as heat or mechanical work. Energy thus
took its place beside mass as a real quantity, conserved through-
out a series of physical changes. Of late years, as we shall see
below, evidence has appeared to show that mass is not absolutely
constant, but may depend on the velocity when the velocity
approaches that of light. Since the only essential quality of
matter is its mass, this result seems to strike at the root of the
metaphysical conception of matter as a real, invariable quantity.
It remains to be seen whether the conception of energy as an
.invariable quantity will hold its place or give way to some
similar modification as science develops. But, in the present
state of knowledge, we may accept the principle of the con-
servation of energy as one of the most firmly established of
physical laws.
The amount of energy in an isolated system remains invariable,
but, if changes are going on in the system, the energy tends
continually to become less and less available for the performance
of useful work. All heat engines require a difference of tempera-
ture a boiler and refrigerator, or their equivalents. We cannot
continue to transform heat into mechanical work if all available
objects are at a uniform temperature. But, if temperature
differences exist, they tend to equalize themselves by irreversible
processes of thermal conduction, and it becomes increasingly
difficult to get useful work out of the supplies of heat. In an
isolated system, then, equilibrium will be reached when this
process of " dissipation of energy " is complete, and, from this
single principle, the whole theory of the equilibrium of physical
and chemical systems was worked out by Willard Gibbs. Such
a method avoids altogether the use of atomic and molecular
conceptions. In fact, some supporters of the theory of " ener-
getics " expressly disclaim the conceptions of natural atoms
and molecules as unnecessary and misleading, and prefer to
found all science on the idea of energy. Matter, they argue, is
knpwn to us only as a vehicle for energy, and may itself be but
a manifestation of that energy.
But the other great line of advance in recent physics, although
it may lead us in the end to somewhat similar conclusions, has
been traced by a method which used atomic and f he
molecular conceptions in an extreme form. The theory of
passage of electricity through liquids had been ex- elect 1 *
plained by Michael Faraday (1791-1867) and others
as a transference of a succession of electric charges carried by
4-O2
SCIENCE
moving particles of matter or ions. At the end of the igth
century these ideas were extended, chiefly by the labours of J. J.
Thomson, to elucidate also the conduction of electricity through
gases. In 1897 Thomson discovered that, in certain cases, the
moving particles which carried the electric current were of much
smaller mass than the smallest chemical atom, that of hydrogen,
and that these minute particles, to which he gave the name of
corpuscles, were identical from whatever substance they were
obtained. They enter into the structure of all matter, and form
a common constituent of all chemical atoms. The only known
properties of these corpuscles are their mass and their electric
charge. Now, a charged body when set in motion spreads
electromagnetic energy into the surrounding medium. Thus,
more force is needed to produce a given acceleration than if the
body were uncharged. The body acts as though its mass were
greater than when it is uncharged. Now there is reason to believe
that the whole apparent mass of the minute corpuscles to which
we have referred is an effect of their electric charge. The idea of
a material particle thus disappears with that of material mass,
and the corpuscle becomes an isolated unit of electricity
an electron. It is impossible to resist making the speculation
that the whole of an atom is made up of electrons, and that
mass is to be explained in terms of electricity, though it must be
pointed out that there is no conclusive evidence in favour of
this hypothesis.
Another train of reasoning, starting from a different point,
reinforces this result. The phenomena of the interference of
beams of light in certain circumstances, to produce darkness or
colour, indicate that light is some form of wave motion, and, to
carry these waves, a hypothetical luminiferous aether was
invented. The theoretical work of J. Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)
and the experiments of H. R. Hertz (1857-1894) showed that the
properties and velocity of propagation of light and of electro-
magnetic waves were identical and that their other properties
differed only in degree. Thus light became an electromagnetic
phenomenon. But light is started by some form of atomic vibra-
tion, and to start an electromagnetic wave requires a moving
electric charge. Thus electric charges must exist within the
atom, and we are led again to the theory of electrons by the road
opened up by H. A. Lorentz and Joseph Larmor. Such a theory
suggests the occasional instability of the atom, and the phenomena
of radioactivity, shown in a remarkable form by the substance
radium, discovered by M. and Mme. Curie, have been explained
satisfactorily by the theory of E. Rutherford and F. Soddy,
who regard the energy liberated as due to the disintegration
of the atom. The evolutionary view of nature, established in the
biological and sociological sciences, is thus extended to physical
science, not only in the development of planets and suns, but
even in the chemical atoms, hitherto believed indestructible
and eternal.
As we have seen, Francis Bacon described a new method of
discovery in which exclusive attention was paid to the collection
and tabulation of facts, with a view to the detection of
Method* re ' at ' ons between them, and the consequent reference
oi science, of " effects " to their proper " causes." Impressed by
the barrenness of the a priori methods of the Schoolmen,
Bacon in his philosophy went to the other extreme. The use
of the Baconian method in its purity would be too laborious for
success. Some guide is necessary in the collection of facts at an
early stage of our investigations. Here the scientific imagination
is brought into play, and some hypothesis is framed to explain
the phenomena under investigation. The hypothesis may be
suggested by the theories which are accepted at the time in
cognate branches of knowledge, or it may be suggested by the
few isolated facts already known or just discovered in the pheno-
mena to be considered. From this new hypothesis, consequences
are deduced by processes of logical reasoning consequences
which may be put to the test by comparison with the results
of observation or experiment. If agreement is found, the hypo-
thesis is, so far, confirmed, and gains in authority with every
fresh concordance discovered. If the deductions from the hypo-
thesis do not agree with the accepted interpretation of facts, the
hypothesis may need modification, it may have to be abandoned
altogether, or the want of concordance may point to some error
or inconsistency in the fundamental concepts on which the
hypothesis is based the whole framework of that branch of
science may need revision, as the idea of heat as a caloric sub-
stance had to be abandoned under the pressure of the experiments
of Joule on the equivalence between work done and heat
developed. But the ultimate test of the validity of our know-
ledge can only be the consistency with each other of the parts
of the whole scheme. If the received interpretation of one set
of phenomena is not consistent with that of another, one or
other or both of the interpretations must be wrong if we make
the assumption necessary for all knowledge, namely, that the
universe is intelligible to a mind capable of dealing with its
complexity.
In early times, when the knowledge of nature was small, little
attempt was made to divide science into parts, and men of science
did not specialize. Aristotle was a master of all science j-/, e
known in his day, and wrote indifferently treatises dassifica-
on physics or animals. As increasing knowledge made tionofthe
it impossible for any one man to grasp all scientific scleaces -
subjects, lines of division were drawn for convenience of study
and of teaching. Besides the broad distinction into physical
and biological science, minute subdivisions arose, and, at a
cerain stage of development, much attention was given to
methods of classification, and much emphasis laid on the results,
which were thought to have a significance beyond that of the
mere convenience of mankind.
But we have reached the stage when the different streams
of knowledge, followed by the different sciences, are coalescing,
and the artificial barriers raised by calling those sciences by
different names are breaking down. Geology uses the methods
and data of physics, chemistry and biology; no one can say
whether the science of radioactivity is to be classed as chemistry
or physics, or whether sociology is properly grouped with biology
or economics. Indeed, it is often just where this coalescence
of two subjects occurs, when some connecting channel between
them is opened suddenly, that the most striking advances in
knowledge take place. The accumulated experience of one de-
partment of science, and the special methods which have been
developed to deal with its problems, become suddenly available
in the domain of another department, and many questions
insoluble before may find answers in the new light cast upon
them. Such considerations show us that science is in reality one,
though we may agree to look on it now from one side and now
from another as we approach it from the standpoint of
physics, physiology or psychology.
Having traced the development of the most important of the
fundamental conceptions of science, and followed the subdivision
of natural knowledge into the various sections which j-hephiio-
for convenience mankind has made, let us now examine sophicai
the meaning of the knowledge thus acquired, and its basls of
relation to other branches of learning.
By the slow and laborious methods of observation, hypothesis,
deduction, and experimental verification, a scheme has been
constructed which for the most part is consistent with itself,
and bears the test of the comparison of one part with another.
As a chart is drawn by the explorer of unknown seas to represent
his discoveries in a conventional manner, so the scientific in-
vestigator constructs a mental model of the phenomena he
observes, and tests its consistency with itself and its concordance
with the results of further experiment. The chart does not give
a lifelike picture of the coast as does a painting, but it represents
one aspect of it conventionally in a manner best adapted for the
immediate purpose. So the conceptions of one branch of science-
mechanics let us say represent the phenomena of nature in the
conventional aspect best suited for one particular line of inquiry.
It does not follow necessarily that " nature " in reality resembles
the particular mental chart which mechanical science enables us
to construct. It does not even follow that there is any " reality "
underlying phenomena and corresponding with any of our con-
ceptions. The whole problem which mankind has to face
SCIENCE
403
undoubtedly includes an inquiry into the ultimate nature of
reality. But that inquiry lies in the province of metaphysics,
and is not necessarily involved in the pursuit of natural science.
Metaphysics uses the results of natural science, as of all other
branches of learning, as evidence bearing on her own deeper and
more difficult questions. But it does not follow that natural
science must solve metaphysical problems before being of use to
man and enlarging the sphere of his knowledge. We need not
ask whether the reality is represented accurately by our conven-
tional model, whether indeed there be any reality at all, before
using that model to introduce order into what would otherwise
be mental confusion, and to enable us to make systematic and
progressive use of natural resources. It is true that the possibility
of constructing consistent schemes of scientific concepts is an
argument in favour of the existence of a definite reality underly-
ing phenomena resembling in some respects the pictures of it we
draw. But metaphysicians are not agreed that it is a conclusive
argument. The difficulty of making a scientific picture of the
ultimate nature of reality may be illustrated by an example.
Our first conception of a wooden stick involves the ideas of a
certain long-shaped form, of smoothness, of hardness, of weight,
of a certain brown colour, perhaps of some amount of elasticity.
A microscope reveals a structure much more detailed than we
imagined, and our mental model of the stick ceases to be smooth.
It becomes co-ordinated with those of a number of other bodies
which we know to be parts of trees, and study, as regards growth
and structure, by the help of botany. From the results of observa-
tion and experiment, physics teaches us that the properties of the
stick can only be represented satisfactorily by imagining that
the substance of it is not infinitely divisible, that it consists of
discontinuous particles or molecules. Again, chemistry assures
us that the molecules of the stick are made up of still smaller
parts or atoms, which separate from each other when, for instance,
the stick is burned, and afterwards can arrange themselves
into new molecules. When we pursue our inquiries into the
nature of these atoms, we find that they can be resolved, partly
at any rate, into much smaller particles or corpuscles in con-
tinual motion within the atom. These corpuscles themselves
have been identified with isolated units of negative electricity
or electrons, the vibrations of which within the atom sort out the
electromagnetic radiation which Tails on them and allow to reach
our eyes those waves only which give us the sensation of brown
colour. At present pioneers are attempting to explain electrons
in terms of centres of elastic strain in a hypothetical aether.
But we have travelled far from our original conception of the
nature of the stick, and, should the problem last stated be solved,
we should only find ourselves faced by the next one, the nature
of the aether. But what constitutes reality? Where, in the
endless chain of explanations discovered or to be discovered, can
we stop and say: " Here is the true picture of what the stick is"?
But this impossibility does not prevent us from getting the full
use of each conception in turn when used for its particular
purpose. To the schoolboy, the effective and deterrent con-
ception of the stick is that of a hard, elastic, long-shaped solid.
The botanist regards it as built up by the action of vegetable
cells, which he refers to a particular kind of tree. To the chemist
the stick is made up of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,
each with definite properties and arranged in certain combina-
tions. The physicist sees these atoms composed of whirling
electrons, each an ultimate electric unit not capable of further
explanation, or possibly a centre of strain in an all-pervading
aether of unknown nature. Each idea is useful in turn, and each
corresponds truly with certain properties of the stick, corre-
sponds with the stick itself in certain of its aspects.
Such considerations show us the meaning of the subdivisions
into which science has been arranged for convenience of study and
research. They represent different aspects of nature, different
sections, as it were, cut through the solid model which stands for
the sum of all our scientific knowledge of the universe.
A nerve-impulse may be regarded from a psychological aspect
when we deal with the thought which accompanied it; from a
physiological aspect when we examine its relation to other
changes in the body. But modern methods have co-ordinated it
also with definite chemical and electrical changes, and are said
sometimes to have " explained " the nerve-impulse in physical
terms.
But, as always, an " explanation " proves to be simply a
restatement of a phenomenon in terms of other phenomena which
previously are familiar to the mind, and therefore appear to be
better understood. Nevertheless, from our present point of view,
no one of these possible aspects of the phenomenon of the nerve-
impulse is essentially more fundamental than any other.
To the psychologist the nerve-impulse is expressed in terms of
thought, to the physicist by physical changes. The fact that a
thought is accompanied by movement of matter or electricity
does not make the thought less a fundamental conception.
But perhaps the best illustration is to be sought in the relation
between the physical concepts of matter and electricity. As
we have seen, J. J. Thomson discovered corpuscles which were
common constituents of all matter, with masses smaller than
those of any known atoms. One of these corpuscles represents
a unit of negative electricity. An atom with a corpuscle in
excess is an atom negatively electrified, an atom with one
corpuscle less than the normal number is an atom positively
electrified. In this scheme electricity is described in terms of
matter. But these corpuscles have been identified with the
hypothetical electrons of Lorentz and Larmor, who consider
matter to be composed of such isolated units of electricity.
Such electrons, it has been shown, would possess mass by virtue
of their electromagnetic properties. In this theory the idea of
mechanical mass is eliminated altogether, and mass, and therefore
matter, explained in terms of electricity. The view has been held
by some that a mechanical explanation of a phenomenon is
fundamental, and that a phenomenon so explained in terms of
mechanical conceptions is fully understood. This idea may be
traced to the familiarity with mechanical conceptions of our
everyday experience. The mind obtains its concept of matter
from the resistance which that matter manifests to forces
tending to set it in motion when at rest, or to change its state
of motion when travelling. This fundamental property of inertia
is the measure of mass, and we reach the concept of mass by our
muscular sense of the force needed to set mass in motion. Force
seems to be a direct sense perception, though mathematically
it is better to define force in terms of acceleration and mass since
mass is found normally to keep constant throughout a series of
physical changes. The familiarity we feel, then, with the con-
ception of matter is based on our familiarity with the conception
of force. Our minds form this conception from their experience
of a direct sense perception of muscular effort. This seems to be
the basis of the whole feeling that mechanical conceptions are
more fundamental than any others, and that, for instance, it is
more intelligible to explain electricity in terms of mechanics than
vice versa. But the fact that we have a special muscular sense
is an accident of our bodies. It is possible that the electric fish,
or torpedo, has a special electric sense, and that to such a fish-
philosopher the perception of electromotive force is more real
than that of mechanical force. Such a being might well argue
that it is intelligible and satisfactory to explain the mysterious
concept of mass, which he only reaches through the other equally
mysterious concept of mechanical force, in terms of the familiar
concept of electricity, well known to every torpedo from his direct
sense perception of electromotive force. This instance may
serve to show that it is quite as correct philosophically to explain
matter in terms of electricity, as to explain electricity in terms
of mass. The object of science is to find connexions between
phenomena and thus to correlate them. At present a greater
simplification may be reached by reducing all possible phenomena
to mechanical conceptions than in any other way, but that only
shows that the mechanical aspect of nature gives us a fuller view
than any other at present known, not that mechanics is philo-
sophically the most fundamental science.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers (Eng. trans.,
L. Magnus. IQOI); J. Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (1892); J.
Masson, The Atomic Theory of Lucretius (1884); H. Rashdall, The
SCILLITAN MARTYRS SCILLY ISLES
404
Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford 1895): J- J-
Fahie, Galileo, his Life and Work (1903); W. E. H. Lecky, History
of the Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe (4th ed., 1870);
Sir D Brewster, Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of
Sir Isaac Newton (2nd ed., 1860); J. Spedding, Life and Letters of
Sir Francis Bacon (1862-1874)- Novum Organon, ed.; Francis
Darwin, Life and Letters of Charles Darwin; W. C. D. Whetham,
The Recent Development of Physical Science (3rd ed., 1905):. R- H -
Lock, Recent Progress in the Study of Variations Heredity and
Evolution (1907). ( W - C " D - W ->
SCILLITAN MARTYRS, a company of early North African
Christians who suffered under Marcus Aurelius in A.D. 180, and
whose Ada are at once the earliest documents of the Church of
Africa and the earliest specimen of Christian Latin. The martyrs
take their name from Scilla (or Scillium), a town in Numidia.
Their trial and execution took place in Carthage under the
Pro-consul Vigellius Saturninus, whom Tertullian declares to
have been the first persecutor of the Christians in Africa. The
date of their martyrdom is the i?th of July A.D. 180. It is thus
the concluding scene of the persecution under Marcus Aurelius,
which is best known from the sufferings of the churches of Vienne
and Lyons in South Gaul. Marcus Aurelius died on the i7th
of March of the year in question, and persecution ceased almost
immediately upon the accession of Commodus. A group of
sufferers called the Madaurian martyrs seems to belong to the
same period: for in the correspondence of St Augustine, Nam-
phamo, one of their number, is spoken of as " archimartyr,"
which appears to mean protomartyr of Africa. We have in this
martyrdom an excellent example of " Acts of Martyrs " properly
so called. The document is in brief legal form, beginning with
the date and the names of the accused, and giving the actual
dialogue between them and their judge. It closes with the
sentence, based on " obstinate " persistency in an illicit cult, and
with the proclamation by the herald of the names of the offenders
and the penalty. All this may quite well be a transcript of the
Acta, or official report of the proceedings. A Christian appends
the words: " And so they all together were crowned with
martyrdom; and they reign with the Father and the Son and
the Holy Ghost, for ever and ever. Amen."
The Scillltan sufferers were twelve in all seven men and five
women. Two of these bear Punic names (Nartzalus, Cintinus),
but the rest Latin names. Six had already been tried: of the
remainder, to whom these Acta primarily relate, Speratus is the
principal spokesman. He claims for himself and his companions
that they have lived a quiet and moral life, paying their dues and
doing no wrong to their neighbours. But when called upon to
swear by the genius of the emperor, he replies: " I recognize not
the empire of this world; but rather do I serve that God whom
no man hath seen, nor with these eyes can see." Here he uses
the language of i Tim. vi. 16; and it is interesting also to note
that in reply to the question, " What are the things in your
satchel ? " he says, " Books and letters of Paul, a just man."
The martyrs are offered a delay of thirty days to reconsider their
decision, but this they all alike refuse. These Acts have been
long known in an expanded form, or rather in a variety of later
recensions. The fame of the martyrs led to the building of a
basilica in their honour at Carthage; and their annual com-
memoration required that the brevity and obscurity of their
Acts should be supplemented and explained, to make them
suitable for public recitation.
The historical questions connected with these martyrs are treated
by Lightfoot, Ignatius (1889, 2nd ed.), i. 524 The Latin text,
together with later recensions and a Greek version, is published in
Texts and Studies, i. 2 (Passion of Perpetua, 1890) ; see also Analecta
Bollandiana (1889), viii. 5; H. M. Gwatkin, Selections from Early
Christian Writers, where, as in Ante-Nicenc Fathers, ix. 285, there
is an English translation. 0- A. R.)
SCILLY ISLES, a group of small islands, belonging to Cornwall,
England, 25 m. W. by S. of Land's End. (For map, see ENGLAND,
Section VI.) They form an outlying portion of the granite high-
lands of Cornwall; and contain a few metallifeious veins or
lodes, which could never have yielded much ore. An old theory
that the Scilly Isles could be identified with the " Cassiterides "
or
' Tin Islands " of Herodotus is abandoned, and the origin of
their name has never been authoritatively settled. The islands
are wild and picturesque, with sheer cliffs and many large caves
hollowed out by the Atlantic. Owing to the reefs and shoals by
which these shores are surrounded, navigation becomes perilous
in rough weather, and many disasters have occurred. In 1707
Sir Cloudesley Shovel perished in the shipwreck of his flagship and
two other men-of-war, while two fireships of his squadron were
driven aground, and the remainder only narrowly escaped. The
graveyard of an old Puritan church on St Mary's contains the
bodies of 311 persons, drowned in the wreck of the " Schiller "
in 1875; and a local proverb tells that for every man who dies
a natural death on the islands the sea takes nine. Much, how-
ever, has been done to minimise the danger, especially by
lighting the coast. On St Agnes there is a lighthouse, and on
an outlying rock to the south-west is the lonely Bishop Light,
constructed with infinite difficulty in 1858, and rebuilt thirty
years later.
The islands are composed wholly of granite outliers of the
granite highlands of Cornwall. Most of the granite is coarse
and porphyritic, but towards the centre of the original igneous
mass it is finer and non-porphyritic. The finer granite occurs
on the north-west side of St Mary's, the southern part of Tresco,
Bryher and Samson and the north-west side of Annet. Elvans
of quartz-porphyry are found in the granite. On the north-east
end of White Island a fragment of the altered killas, which
once covered the whole area, is still visible. A gravel deposit
with chalk flints and Greensand cherts which caps some of the
higher ground on St Mary's may possibly be of Eocene age.
Raised beach, blown sand, fragmental granitic waste or " head"
and an iron-cemented glacial deposit are found resting upon
the granite.
The 'climate of the islands is unusually mild, snow being
rarely seen, and the temperature varying from about 46 F.
in winter to 58 in summer. As a result, vegetation is luxuriant;
fuchsias, geraniums and myrtles attain an immense size, and aloes,
cactus and prickly pear flourish in the open. All these, together
with palms, may be seen in the gardens of the governor on
Tresco Island, which are quite subtropical in character, and,
therefore, unique in the British Isles. Great flocks of sea-birds
haunt the remoter parts, and on some of the islands there are
deer. On Tean there is a wan en of white rabbits; and some of
the rarer land-birds occasionally visit the islands, such as the
golden oriole, which has been known to breed here.
The islands are served by steamers from Penzance, and
telephone and telegraph communication is established with
the mainland. The raising of early asparagus and other spring
vegetables, and of flowers, has taken the place of potato culture
as the principal industry. In spring the fields of narcissus and
other flowers add greatly to the beauty of the islands. There
is also a small coasting trade; and fishing is carried on to some
extent, its most important branch being the taking of lobsters
for the London market.
The islands which may be distinguished from mere rocks
number about 40, and the group has a total area of 4041 acres;
but only five islands are inhabited St Mary's, Tresco, St
Martin's, St Agnes and Bryher. The total population in 1901
was 2092. Hugh Town in St Mary's is the capital, occupying a
sandy peninsula crowned by the height known as the Garrison,
with Star Castle, dating from the days of Elizabeth. The town
possesses a harbour, which is used by the Penzance steamers,
and a roadstead where large vessels can lie at anchor. The
government of the islands is vested in a county council created
in 1890, consisting of a chairman, vice-chairman, 4 aldermen,
and 1 8 councillors. For parliamentary purposes the isles are
included in the St Ives division of Cornwall.
On Tresco there are the ruins of an abbey, and of two fortifica-
tions called Oliver Cromwell's Tower and King Charles's Tower;
and here also is a church built in 1882 and dedicated to S
Nicholas. Numerous rude pillars and circles of stones, resemb-
ling those of Cornwall, are to be noticed; and barrows are
common, the most remarkable of these prehistoric remains being
a barrow on the Isle of Samson, 58 ft. in girth, and containing,
SCIMITAR SCIPIO
405
amongst other relics, the only perfect " kistvaen," or sepulchral
chamber of stone, which has been disinterred from any Cornish
tomb.
Although the Scilly Isles have been regarded as the remains
of Lyonesse, as identical with the Cassiterides, and as the object
of an expedition and of conquest on the part of Athelstan in
pursuance of a vow made at the shrine of St Burian, it is not
until the reign of Henry I. that we have indisputable evidence
concerning them. The king gave all the churches of Scilly and
the land, as the hermits held it in the days of the Confessor,
to the abbot and church of Tavistock. A confirmation of this
grant and a further grant to the monks of all wrecks except
whole ships and whales was made by Reginald, earl of Cornwall.
In 1 1 80 the bishop of Exeter confirmed a grant by Richard de
Wicha of tithes, hitherto withheld, and of rabbits. Secular
priests were temporally substituted for regulars by the abbot of
Tavistock in 1345. Sharing the dignity of lords of Scilly with
the abbot, holding apparently the better half of St Mary's
Island, which was already furnished with a castle and a prison,
and like the abbot practically beyond the jurisdiction of the
hundred courts, the family of Blanchminster (de Albo Monas-
terio), at the beginning of the I4th century, held of the earldom
of Cornwall lands in Scilly at a yearly service of 6s. 8d. or 600
puffins. The Year Books tell us that in cases of felony the
punishment under this family was for the convicted person
to be taken to a certain rock in the sea with two barley loaves
and one pitcher of water and to be left on the rock until drowned
by the tide. The Blanchminsters resisted and imprisoned the
coroner of Cornwall and in 1319 were granted a coroner of their
own. In 1345 they are found petitioning the king for a remedy
owing to an invasion by 600 of the king's Welsh troops, who,
being becalmed at Scilly, had carried away everything, and so
impoverished the tenants that they were unable to pay their
yearly rent of 40. In 1547 Silvester Danvers, as representing
the Blanchminsters, being one of the coheirs, sold his moiety
of Scilly to Sir Thomas Seymour, by whose attainder in 1549
this and probably the other moiety fell to the crown. The
suppression of the religious houses had already placed the
church's land and revenues at the king's disposal. During
the Civil Wars, Hugh Town stood for the king, and in 1645
afforded a temporary shelter to Prince Charles, until his escape
to Jersey. In 1649 the islands were occupied by a royalist, Sir
Richard Grenville, and formed the base from which he swept
the surrounding seas for two years, before a fleet under Admiral
Blake and Sir John Ayscue forced him to surrender. In ancient
times a haunt of pirates, the islands were afterwards notorious
for smuggling. In 1687 the whole of Scilly was granted to
Sidney Godolphin for eighty-nine years from the expiration of
the lease for fifty years granted to Francis Godolphin in 1636 by
Charles I. In 1831 Augustus Smith succeeded the Godolphins
as lessee or lord-proprietor, and under his and his nephew's
wise autocracy the islands prospered.
SCIMITAR, the term generally used of all oriental single-
edged curved or crescent-shaped swords (see SWORD). The
word has appeared in a variety of forms in English, due to
Fr. cimetare, It. scimitarra or Span, cimitarra; it has even
been corrupted into " smyter," as if connected with " smite."
Most probably it represents an early Western corruption of the
Persian word for a sabre, shamshir or shimshir, which means
literally " lion's claw " (sher, lion, in Hindustani " tiger," and
sham, nail, claw).
SCIOLIST, one who, with only a superficial knowledge or a
smattering of knowledge on any particular subject, claims or
pretends to a complete or profound learning. The Lat. sciohis,
a diminutive of scius , learned, from scire, to know, is only found
in post-classical times, e.g. Hieronymus, A.D. 420, Episl. 48. 18.
It first appears in English at the beginning of the i7th century.
SCIOMANCY (Gr. OKI&, shade, shadow, and navreta, sooth-
saying, divination), a form of divination by means of supposed
communication with the shades or spirits of the dead. The
calling up of the spirit of Samuel by the Witch at Endor when
consulted by Saul is the classical example (i Sam. xxviii.).
SCION, a slip or cutting of a tree or plant used for grafting,
hence a young shoot or twig. In a transferred sense the word
is used of the heir or any young member of a family, a descendant.
The word in O. Fr. was don or syon, mod. scion, and the early
forms in English are syon, don or cyan. These forms seem to
disprove the usual etymology, which connects it with Fr. sder,
to cut, Lat. secure.
SCIPIO 1 ("staff"), the name of a patrician branch of the
Cornelian gens, of which the following are the principal historical
representatives :
1. PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, father of the elder Africanus.
He was consul in 218 B.C., the first year of the Second Punic
War, and sailed with an army from Pisa to Massilia, with the
view of arresting Hannibal's advance on Italy. Failing, however,
to meet his enemy, he hastened to return by sea to Cisalpine
Gaul, having sent back his army to Spain under the command
of his brother Gnaeus, with instructions to hold the Carthaginian
forces there in check. On his return to Italy he at once ad-
vanced to meet Hannibal. In a sharp cavalry engagement in
the upper valley of the Po, on the Ticinus, he was defeated and
severely wounded. Again, in December of the same year, he
witnessed the complete defeat of the Roman army on the Trebia,
his colleague T. Sempronius Longus having insisted on fighting
contrary to his advice. But he still retained the confidence
of the Roman people; his term of command was extended,
and we find him with his brother in Spain in the following year,
winning victories over the Carthaginians and strengthening
Rome's hold on that country, till 212 (or 211). The details
of these campaigns are not accurately known, but it would seem
that the ultimate defeat and death of the Scipios were due to the
desertion of the Celtiberi, bribed byHasdrubal,Hannibal's brother.
See Polybius iii. ,'40; Livy xxi.-xxv.; Appian, Hannib. 5-8,
Hisp. 14-16.
2. PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS, the elder (237*-
183 B.C.), son of the above. He was present at the disastrous
battles of the Ticinus (where, according to one tradition, he
saved his father's life), the Trebia and Cannae. Even after the
last of these he resolutely protested against several Roman
nobles who advocated giving up the struggle and quitting
Italy in despair (see METELLUS, 2). The year after his father's
death, he offered himself for the command of the new army
which the Romans resolved to send to Spain. In spite of his
youth, his noble demeanour and enthusiastic language had
made so great an impression that he was unanimously elected.
All Spain south of the Ebro in the year of his arrival (210 or
209) was under Carthaginian control, but fortunately for him
the three Carthaginian generals, Hasdrubal and Mago (Hannibal's
brothers), and Hasdrubal the son of Gisgo, were not disposed
to act in concert and were preoccupied with revolts in Africa.
Scipio, on landing at the mouth of the Ebro, was thus enabled
to surprise and capture New Carthage, the headquarters of
the Carthaginian power in Spain. He thus obtained a rich
booty of war stores and supplies, and an excellent harbour.
His kindly treatment of the Spanish hostages and prisoners
brought many over to his side. In 209 he drove back Hasdrubal,
from his position at Baecula, on the upper Guadalquivir, but
was unable to hinder his march to Italy. After winning over a
number of Spanish chiefs he achieved in 206 a decisive victory
over the full Carthaginian levy at llipa (near Corduba), which
resulted in the evacuation of Spain by the Punic commanders.
With the idea of striking a blow at Carthage in Africa, he paid
a short visit to the Numidian princes, Syphax and Massinissa,
but at the court of Syphax he was foiled by the presence of
Hasdrubal, the son of Gisgo, whose daughter Sophonisba was
married to the Numidian chief. On his return to Spain Scipio
had to quell a mutiny which had broken out among his troops.
Hannibal's brother Mago had meanwhile sailed for Italy, and
in 206 Scipio himself, having secured the Roman occupation
of Spain by the capture of Gades, gave up his command and
returned to Rome. In the following year he was unanimously
1 The first is long Scipio.
* So Polybius: 235 according to Livy.
406
SCIPIO
elected to the consulship, the province of Sicily being assigned
to him. By this time Hannibal's movements were restricted
to the south-western extremity of Italy, and the war was now
to be transferred to Africa. Scipio was himself intent on this,
and his great name drew to him a number of volunteers from
all parts of Italy, but the old-fashioned aristocracy of Rome,
who disliked his luxurious tastes and his Greek culture, and
still entertained a wholesome dread of Hannibal, opposed the
idea; all Scipio could obtain was permission to cross over from
Sicily to Africa, if it appeared to be in the interests of Rome.
The introduction (205) of the Phrygian worship of Cybele and
the transference of the image of the goddess herself from Pessinus
to Rome (see GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS) to bless the expedi-
tion no doubt had its effect on public opinion. A commission
of inquiry was sent over to Sicily, and it found that Scipio was
at the head of a well-equipped fleet and army. At the com-
missioners' bidding he sailed in 204 and landed near Utica.
Carthage meanwhile had secured the friendship of the Numidian
Syphax, whose advance compelled Scipio to raise the siege of
Utica and to entrench ^himself on the shore between that place
and Carthage. Next year he destroyed two combined armies
of the Carthaginians and Numidians. After the failure of peace
negotiations in which Scipio displayed great moderation, he
defeated Hannibal in a decisive battle near Zama (Oct. 19,
202; see PUNIC WARS). In the subsequent settlement with
Carthage he upheld with success his comparatively lenient
terms against the immoderate demands of many Roman aristo-
crats. Scipio was welcomed back to Rome with the surname
of Africanus, and had the good sense to refuse the many honours
which the people would have thrust upon him. For some years
he lived quietly and took no part in politics. In 193 he was one of
the commissioners sent to Africa to settle a dispute between
Massinissa and the Carthaginians. In 190, when the Romans
declared war against Antiochus III. of Syria, Publius was at-
tached as legate to his brother Lucius, to whom the chief com-
mand had been entrusted. The two brothers brought the war
to a conclusion by a decisive victory at Magnesia in the same
year. Meanwhile Scipio's political enemies had gained ground,
and on their return to Rome a prosecution was started (187)
by two tribunes against Lucius on the ground of misappropriation
of moneys received from Antiochus. As Lucius was in the act
of producing his account-books his brother wrested them from
his hands, tore them in pieces, and flung them on the floor of
the senate-house. This created a bad impression; Lucius was
brought to trial, condemned and heavily fined. Africanus
himself was subsequently (185) accused of having been bribed
by Antiochus, but by reminding the people that it was the
anniversary of his victory at Zama he caused an outburst of
enthusiasm in his favour. The people crowded round him
and followed him to the Capitol to offer thanks to the gods
and beg them to give Rome more citizens like himself. He
then retired to his native country seat at Liternum on the coast
of Campania, where he died. By his wife Aemilia, daughter
of the Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae, he had a daughter
Cornelia, who became the mother of the two famous Gracchi.
Scipio was one of Rome's greatest generals. Skilful alike
in strategy and in tactics, he had also the faculty of inspiring
his soldiers with confidence. According to the story, Hannibal,
who regarded Alexander as the first and Pyrrhus as the second
among military commanders, confessed that had he beaten
Scipio he should have put himself before either of them. He
was a man of great intellectual culture and could speak and
write Greek perfectly. He wrote his own memoirs in Greek.
He also enjoyed the reputation of being a graceful orator. There
was a belief that he was a special favourite of heaven and held
actual communication with the gods. It is quite possible that
he himself honestly shared this belief; to his political op-
ponents he was often harsh and arrogant, but towards others
singularly gracious and sympathetic. According to Gellius, his
life was written by Oppius and Hyginus, and also, it was said,
by Plutarch.
See Livy xxi.-xxxviii. and Polybius; Aulus Gellius iv. 18;
Val. Max. iii. 7; biography by F. D. Gerlach (1868); E. Berwick
(1817), with notes and illustrations; also PUNIC WARS.
3. PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AEMILIANUS AFRICANUS, the
younger (185-129 B.C.), was the younger son of L. Aemilius
Paullus, the conqueror of Macedonia. He fought when a youth
of seventeen by his father's side at the battle of Pydna (168),
which decided the fate of Macedonia and made northern Greece
subject to Rome. He was adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio
Africanus, the eldest son of Scipio Africanus the elder, and from
him took the name Scipio with the surname Africanus. In 151,
a time of defeat and disaster for the Romans in Spain, he volun-
tarily offered his services in that country and obtained an influence
over the native tribes similar to that which the elder Scipio, his
grandfather by adoption, had acquired nearly sixty years
before. In the next year an appeal was made to him by the
Carthaginians to act as arbiter between them and the Numidian
prince Massinissa, who, backed up by a party at Rome, was
incessantly encroaching on Carthaginian territory. In 149 war
was declared by Rome, and a force sent to besiege Carthage.
In the early operations of the war, which went altogether against
the Romans, Scipio, though a subordinate officer, distinguished
himself repeatedly, and in 147 he was elected consul, while yet
under the legal age, in order that he might hold the supreme
command. After a year of desperate fighting and splendid
heroism on the part of the defenders he carried the fortress, and
at the senate's bidding levelled it to the ground. On his return
to Rome he celebrated a splendid triumph, having also established
a personal claim to his adoptive surname of Africanus. In 142,
during his censorship, he endeavoured to check the growing
luxury and immorality of the period. In 139 he was unsuccess-
fully accused of high treason by Tiberius Claudius Asellus, whom
he had degraded when censor. The speeches delivered by him on
that occasion (now lost) were considered brilliant. In 134 he was
again consul, with the province of Spain, where a demoralized
Roman army was vainly attempting the conquest of Numantia
on the Durius (Douro). After devoting several months to
restoring the discipline of his troops, he reduced the city by
blockade. The fall of Numantia in 133 established the Roman
dominion in the province of Hither Spain. For his services
Scipio received the additional surname of Numantinus.
Scipio himself, though not in sympathy with the extreme
conservative party, was decidedly opposed to the schemes of the
Gracchi (whose sister Sempronia was his wife). When he heard
of the death of Tiberius Gracchus, he is said to have quoted the
line from the Odyssey (i. 47), " So perish all who do the like
again "; after his return to Rome he was publicly asked by the
tribune C. Papirius Carbo what he thought of the fate of Gracchus,
and replied that he was justly slain. This gave dire offence to the
popular party, which was now led by his bitterest foes. Soon
afterwards, in 129, on the morning of the day on which he had
intended to make a speech in reference to the agrarian proposals
of the Gracchi, he was found dead in bed. The mystery of his
death was never cleared up, and there were political reasons
for letting the matter drop, but there is little doubt that he
was 'assassinated by one of the supporters of the Gracchi,
probably Carbo, whose guilt is expressly stated by Cicero (see
GRACCHUS).
The younger Scipio, great general and great man as he was,
is for ever associated with the destruction of Carthage. The
horror he expressed at its fate was a tardy repentance. Yet
he was a man of culture and refinement; he gathered round him
such men as the Greek historian Polybius, the philosopher
Panaetius, and the poets Lucilius and Terence. At the same
time he had all the virtues of an old-fashioned Roman, according
to Polybius and Cicero, the latter of whom gives an appreciation
of him in his De republica, in which Scipio is the chief speaker.
As a speaker he seems to have been no less distinguished than
as a soldier. He spoke remarkably good and pure Latin, and
he particularly enjoyed serious and intellectual conversation.
After the capture of Carthage he gave back to the Greek cities
of Sicily the works of art of which Carthage had robbed them.
He did not avail himself of the many opportunities he must
SCIRE FACIAS SCONE
407
have had of amassing a fortune. Though politically opposed to
the Gracchi, he cannot be said to have been a foe to the interests
of the people. He was, in fact, a moderate man, in favour
of conciliation, and he was felt by the best men to be a safe
political adviser, while he unfortunately contrived to offend
both parties.
See Polybius xxxv. 4, xxxix. ; Veil. Pat. i. 12; Florus ii. 15,
17, 18; Appian, Punica, 72, 98, 113-131, Hisp. 48-95, Bell. Civ.
i. 19; Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus, 22, Tib. Gracchus, 21, C.Gracchus,
10; Gellius iv. 20, v. 19; Cicero, De oral. ii. 40; exhaustive life
by E. Person (Paris, 1877); monograph by Lincke (Dresden,
1898).
4. PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO NASICA SERAPIO, consul 138 B.C.,
took a prominent part in the murder of Tiberius Gracchus.
To save him from the vengeance of the people, he was sent
by the senate on a pretended mission to Asia, where he died.
The nickname Serapio was given him by the tribune C. Curiatius
from his likeness to one Serapio, a dealer in sacrificial victims.
See Appian, Punica, 80 B.C., i. 16; Val. Max. ix. 14; Plutarch,
Tib. Gracchus, 21.
SCIRE FACIAS, in English law, a judicial writ founded upon
some record directing the sheriff to make it known (scire facias) to
the party against whom it is brought, and requiring the latter
to show cause why the party bringing the writ should not have
the advantage of such record, or why (in the case of letters
patent and grants) the record should not be annulled and vacated.
Proceedings in scire facias are regarded as an action, and the
defendant may plead his defense as in an action. The writ is now
of little practical importance; its principal uses are to compel
the appearance of corporations aggregate in revenue suits, and
to enforce judgments against shareholders in such companies
as are regulated by the Companies Clauses Act 1845, or similar
private acts, and against garnishees in proceedings in foreign
attachment in the lord mayor's court. Proceedings by scire facias
to repeal letters patent for inventions were abolished by the
Patents, 'Designs and Trademarks Act 1883, and a petition to
the court substituted. It is not used in Scottish procedure.
SCISSORS, a cutting instrument, consisting of two crossed
blades with the inner edges sharpened, pivoted at the crossing,
and terminating with two looped handles for the insertion of
the fingers of the person using them. The term is usually con-
fined to small cutting implements, the larger being known as
" shears " (<?..). The modern form of the word points to a
derivation from Lat. scindere, to cleave or cut, and is no doubt
due to Lat. scissor, a cutter, which was used only of a carver,
a butcher and a class of gladiators, never of a cutting instrument;
but the earlier forms, cysowres, sisoures, cisors, cissers, sizars, &c.,
show the origin to be found in O. Fr. cisoires, shears, mod.
ciseaux, plural of ciseau, earlier cisel, a chisel, and therefore
to be referred to Lat. caedere, to cut, cisorium, a cutting
instrument.
SCLOPIS DI SALERANO, FEDERIGO (1798-1878), Italian
statesman and jurist. While still comparatively young he was
appointed attorney-general to the Sardinian senate, and took
part in the compilation of the new codes. An advocate of liberal
ideas and reform, he proclaimed the necessity for a constitution,
and was himself one of the authors of the Statuto, or Sardinian
charter of 1848, which is to this day the constitution of the
Italian kingdom; the introduction is entirely his work. Sclopis
also wrote the proclamation in which Charles Albert announced
to the people of Lombardy and Venetia his war against Austria.
He was minister in the first Sardinian constitutional ministry
under the presidency of Count Balbo, and afterwards president of
the senate. In 1871 he was sent to Geneva as Victor Emmanuel's
representative on the " Alabama " arbitration, and was chosen
president of that tribunal; on his return to Italy the king con-
ferred on him the Order of the Annunziata. The last years of his
life were mainly occupied with municipal affairs and charitable
administration at Turin. Between 1819 and 1878 he published
over seventy works on history, jurisprudence, politics and
literature, in Italian, Latin and French. At the age of thirty he
was elected member of the Turin Academy of Sciences, of which
he became life president in 1864; he was also foreign member
of the Institut de France. His most important work is his Storia
delta legislaziona Italiana dalle origini fino al 1847 (Turin, 1840),
issued as a sequel to his Storia dell' antica legislazione del Pie-
monte, published in 1833.
Among his other writings we may mention the following : Ricerche
sui Longobardi in Italia (1827), Delle relazioni politicks fra la dinastia
di Savoia e il governo Britannico dal 1240 al 181$ (1853), Rimembranze
sul Conte di Cavour (1876), and Consider azioni storiche sulle antiche
assemblee rappresentative del Piemonte e delta Savoia (1878).
See E. Ricotti, Notizia biografica di F. Sclopis; A. Manno,
Bibliografia degli scritti di F. Sclopis; M. Ricci, Necrologia di F.
Sclopis (in the Archivio storico Italiano, ser. iv. torn. ii. p. 331 seq.).
SCOLD, one who scolds, i.e. chides, finds fault with or rebukes
with violence or persistence or vituperation. It is usually a
term applied to women, and a " common scold " (in Low Lat.
communis rixatrix) was indictable in England at common law
as a public nuisance, special instruments of punishment being
devised in the " branks " or " scold's bridle," and the " cucking
stool." The word is apparently an adaptation of the Norse
skald, skald or scald, a poet, and according to the New English
Dictionary the intermediate meaning through which the sense
develops is " libeller " or " lampooner." Skeat derives from
Du. schold, .schellen, and takes the word as originally meaning
a loud talker, cf. Icel. skjalla, to clash, Ger. schallen. The
Norse word is also to be connected in this case, the " skald "
being one who talks loudly.
SCOLECITE, a mineral belonging to the zeolite group;
a hydrated calcium silicate, CaAUSisOio+SHiO. It is a
lime-zeolite, and like the soda-zeolite natrolite and the soda-lime-
zeolite mesolite, usually occurs as acicular and fibrous aggrega-
tions. Although having nearly the same interfacial angles as
the orthorhombic natrolite, it crystallizes in the monoclinic
system, and, as shown by the etched figures and the pyro-
electric character, in the hemihedral class of this system, there
being a plane, but no axis, of symmetry. Scolecite can therefore
be distinguished from natrolite by an optical examination, since
the acicular crystals do not extinguish parallel to their length
between crossed nicols. Twinning on the ortho-pinacoid is
usually evident. The mineral is colourless or white, transparent,
and vitreous in lustre: the hardness is 52, and the specific
gravity 2-2. It is a mineral of secondary origin, and occurs
with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of weathered
volcanic rocks of basic composition. Fine divergent groups of
prismatic crystals are found in the basalt of Berufjord near
Djupivogr in Iceland and in the Deccan traps near Poona in
India; hence the synonym poonahlite for this species. The
name scolecite is derived from Gr. oxa;X7;, a worm, because
the crystals sometimes curl up like worms when heated before
the blowpipe. (L. J. S.)
SCONCE (Lat. absconsus, Fr. esconce), a word of many meanings,
mostly signifying a covering or protection, or, by extension,
that which is covered or protected. Its most familiar significance
is that of a wall light, consisting of a metal bracket, with two or
more socketed branches for candles. The word is also used for
the orifice of a candlestick into which the candle is fixed, and
for the rim 'of metal, glass or china, placed round a candle to
intercept grease droppings. Among its obsolete meanings is
that of head or skull. At the English universities " to sconce "
is still used as the term for imposing a penalty at dinner in the
shape of a quart-pot of beer or cider.
SCONE (pron. Skoon; Gaelic, skene, "a cutting"), a parish
of Perthshire, Scotland, containing Old Scone, the site of an
historic abbey and palace, and New Scone, a modern village
(pop. 1585), 2 m. N. of Perth, near the left bank of the Tay.
Pop. of parish (1901) 2362. It became the capital of Pictavia,
the kingdom of northern Picts, in succession to Forteviot.
Parliaments occasionally assembled on the Moot Hill, where
the first national council of which we possess records was held
(906). The Moot Hill was known also as the Hill of Belief from
the fact that here the Pictish king promulgated the edict regulat-
ing the Christian church. The abbey was founded in 1115 by
Alexander I., but long before this date Scone had been a centre
of ecclesiastical activity and the seat of a monastery. Kenneth
SCONE SCORDISCI
is alleged to have brought the Stone of Destiny, on which the
Celtic kings were crowned, from Dunstaffnage Castle on Loch
Etive, and to have deposited it in Scone, whence it was con-
veyed to Westminster Abbey (where it lies beneath the Corona-
tion Chair) by Edward I. in 1296. Most of the Scottish kings
were crowned at Scone, the last function being held on the ist
of January 1651, when Charles II. received the crown. Ap-
parently there was never any royal residence in the town, owing
to the proximity of Perth. Probably the ancient House of
Scone, which stood near the abbey, provided the kings with
temporary accommodation. Both the abbey and the house
were burned down by the Reformers in 1559, and next year the
estates were granted to the Ruthvens. On the attainder of
the family after the Cowrie conspiracy in 1600, the land passed
to Sir David Murray of the Tullibardine line, who became ist
viscount Stormont (1621) and was the ancestor of the earl of
Mansfield, to whom the existing house belongs. Sir David
completed in 1606 the palace which the earl of Gowrie had
begun. The 5th viscount father of the ist earl of Mansfield,
the lord chief justice of England (b. at Scone 1705) entertained
the Old Pretender for three weeks in 1716, and his son received
Prince Charles Edward in 1746. The present palace, which
dates from 1803, stands in a beautiful park. It contains several
historic relics, the most interesting being a bed adorned with
embroidery worked by Mary Queen of Scots during her im-
prisonment in Lochleven Castle. The gallery in which Charles II.
was crowned, a hall 160 ft. long, has been included in the palace.
Two hundred yards east of the mansion is an ancient gateway,
supposed to have led to the old House of Scone, and near it
stands the cross of Scone, removed hither from its original site
in the town.
SCONE, the Scots name of a species of cake made of wheat
or barley meal and baked on a griddle. The cakes are round
and are usually cut into four pieces, thus giving the familiar
shape of a wedge with circular edge. The broad lowland bonnet
was called a " scone " or " scone-cap " from its shape. The
word appears to have been a shortened form of a Low Ger.
Schonbrot, i.e. fine bread, explained in the Bremen Glossary
(1771), quoted in the New English Dictionary, as a sort of white
loaf with two acute and two obtuse angles. The Hamburg
dialect word schonroggen, fine rye, was adopted into Swedish
and Icelandic in the sense of biscuit.
SCOOP (from M. L. Ger. or M. Du. schope, cf. Du. schoep,
a bailing vessel, Ger. schopfen, and, from M, Du. schoppe, Ger.
Schiippe, shovel), properly a utensil or implement for ladling
or bailing out water or liquid from a vessel, and so used of the
bucket of a water-wheel or of a dredger; in its most usual sense
the word is applied to a small kind of shovel with a short handle
and a sharply curved blade, often covered in towards the handle
end, and used for the moving and lifting of loose materials or
for cutting out a rounded piece from any substance. In journal-
istic slang, originally American, a " scoop " is an exclusive
piece of information obtained by a newspaper.
SCOPAS, probably of Parian origin, the son of Aristander,
a great Greek sculptor of the 4th century B.C. Although classed
as an Athenian, and similar in tendency to Praxiteles, he was
really a cosmopolitan artist, working largely in Asia and Pelopon-
nesus. The extant works with which he is associated are the
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, and the temple of Athena Alea at
Tegea. In the case of the Mausoleum, though no doubt the
sculpture generally belongs to his school, we are unable to single
out any special part of it as his own. But we have good reason
to think that the pedimental figures from Tegea, some of which
are at Athens, while some are kept in the local museum, are
Scopas' own work. The subjects of the pedimental compositions
were the hunting of the Calydonian boar and the battle between
Achilles and Telephus. Four heads remain, that of Hercules,
that of Atalanta and two of warriors: also part of the body of
Atalanta and the head of the boar. Unfortunately all these are
in very poor preservation; but it is allowed that they are our best
evidence for the style of Scopas. The head of a helmeted warrior
(see GREEK ART, Plate III. fig. 63) is especially valuable to us.
It is very powerful, with massive bony framework; the fore-
head is projecting, the eyes deep-set and heavily shaded, the
mouth slightly open and full of passion. It shows us that while
in general style Scopas approached Praxiteles, he differed from
him in preferring strong expression and vigorous action to repose
and sentiment. The temple at Tegea was erected after 395 B.C.;
and the advanced character of the sculpture seems to indicate
a date at least twenty years later than this.
Attempts have been made, through comparison of these heads,
to assign to Scopas many sculptures now in museums, heads
of Heracles, Hermes, Aphrodite, Meleager and others. It is,
however, very risky thus to attribute works executed in Roman
times, and often thoroughly eclectic in character. Ancient writers
give us a good deal of information as to works of Scopas. He
made for the people of Elis a bronze Aphrodite, riding on a goat
(copied on the coins of Elis) ; a Maenad at Athens, running with
head thrown back, and a torn kid in her hands was ascribed to
him; of this Dr Treu has published a probable copy in the
Albertinum at Dresden (Melanges Perrot, p. 317). Another type
of his was Apollo as leader of the Muses, singing to the lyre.
The most elaborate of his works was a great group representing
Achilles being conveyed over the sea to the island of Leuce by his
mother Thetis, accompanied by Nereids riding on dolphins and
sea-horses, Tritons and other beings of the sea, " a group," says
Pliny (36. 25), "which would have been remarkable had it been
the sole work of his life." He made also an Aphrodite which
rivalled the creation of Praxiteles, a group of winged love-gods
whom he distinguished by naming them Love, Longing and
Desire, and many other works.
Jointly with his contemporaries Praxiteles and Lysippus,
Scopas may be considered as having completely changed the
character of Greek sculpture. It was they who initiated the
lines of development which culminated in the schools of
Pergamum, Rhodes and other great cities of later Greece. In
most of the modern museums of ancient art their influence may
be seen in three-fourths of the works exhibited. At the Re-
naissance it was especially their influence which dominated
Italian painting and through it modern art. (P. G.)
SCOPE (through Ital. scopo, aim, purpose, intent, from Or.
ff/co7ros, mark io shoot at, aim, <rK<nre<X to see, whence the
termination in telescope, microscope, &c.), properly that which
is aimed at, purpose, intention; hence outlook, view, range of
observation or action; more generally, the sphere or field
over which an activity extends, room or opportunity for play or
action.
SCORDISCI, in ancient geography, a Celtic tribe inhabiting
the southern part of lower Pannonia between the Savus, Dravus
and Danuvius. Some Roman authorities consider them a
Thracian stock, because of their admixture with an older Thraco-
Illyrian population. As early as 175 B.C. they came into collision
with the Romans by assisting Perseus, king of Macedonia; and
after Macedonia became a Roman province they were for many
years engaged in hostilities with them. In 135 they were
defeated by M. Cosconius in Thrace (Livy, epit. 56); in 118,
according to a memorial stone discovered near Thessalonica
(W. Dittenberger, Sylloge inscriptionum Graecarum, i. No. 247,
1883 edition), Sextus Pompeius, probably the grandfather of the
triumvir, was slain fighting against them near Stobi. In 114
they surprised and destroyed the army of Gaius Porcius Cato in
the Servian mountains, but were defeated by Q. Minucius Rufus
in 107. Nevertheless, they still from time to time gave trouble
to the Roman governors of Macedonia, whose territory they
invaded in combination with the Maedi and Dardani. They
even advanced as far as Delphi and plundered the temple; but
Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus finally overcame them in 88
and drove them across the Danube. In Strabo's time they had
been expelled from the valley of the Danube by the Dacians
(Strabovii. pp. 293,313).
See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. iv. ch. 5, who puts
the final conquest of the Scordisci by the Romans not later than 91.
Also H. Pomtow, " Die drei Brande des Tempels zu Delphi " in
Rheinisches Museum, \\. p. 369 (1896) ; A. Holder, Altceltischer Sprac h-
schatz, ii. (1904).
SCORE SCORPION
409
SCORE (O.E. scor, from sceran, to cut, notch, cf. " shear "),
properly a notch or groove cut in a piece of wood, called a
" tally " (q.v.), as a method of counting ;-hence an account or
reckoning made in this way. Either from a custom of keeping
each series of twenty numbers or notches on a separate tally,
or of marking the twentieth number by a longer or deeper
mark, the word was early used to denote the number twenty;
it is still used as a measure of weight, equivalent to 20 Ib, com-
puting the weight of animals sold for slaughtering for food.
In music, a score is the written or printed copy of a composition
on two or more staves, barred and braced together. For instru-
mental and vocal music a " full score " has the parts for each
class of voice and instrument on a separate staff.
SCORESBY, WILLIAM (1780-1857), English Arctic explorer,
scientist and divine, was born near Whitby, Yorkshire, on the
5th of October 1789. His father, William Scoresby (1760-
1829), made a fortune in the Arctic whale fishery. The son
made his first voyage with his father when he was eleven years
of age, but on his return he was sent back to school, where he
remained till 1803. After this he was his father's constant com-
panion, and was with him on the 25th of May 1806, as chief
officer of the whaler " Resolution," when he succeeded in reach-
ing 81 30' N. lat. (19 E. long.), for twenty-one years the highest
northern latitude attained in the eastern hemisphere. During
the following winter, Scoresby attended the natural philosophy
and chemistry classes at Edinburgh university, and again in
1809. In his voyage of 1807 he began the study of the meteor-
ology and natural history of the polar regions, among the earlier
results of which are his original observations on snow and
crystals; and in 1809 Robert Jameson brought certain Arctic
papers of his before the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, of
which he was at once elected a member. In 1811 his father
resigned to him the command of the " Resolution," and in
the same year he married the daughter of a Whitby shipbroker.
In his voyage of 1813 he established for the first time the fact
that the temperature of the polar ocean is warmer at considerable
depths than it is on the surface, and each subsequent voyage
in search of whales found him no less eager of fresh additions
to scientific knowledge. His letters of this period to Sir Joseph
Banks, whose acquaintance he had made a few years earlier,
no doubt gave the first impulse to the search for the North- West
Passage which followed. In 1819 he was elected a fellow of
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and about the same time
communicated a paper to the Royal Society of London " On
the Anomaly in the Variation of the Magnetic Needle." In
1820 he published An Account of the Arctic Regions and Northern
Whale Fishery, in which he gathers up the results of his own
observations, as well as those of previous navigators. In his
voyage of 1822 to Greenland he surveyed and charted with
remarkable accuracy 400 m. of the east coast, between 69 30'
and 72 30', thus contributing to the first real and important
geographic knowledge of East Greenland. This, however, was
the last of his Arctic voyages. On his return he was met by
the news of his wife's death, and this event, with other influences
acting upon his naturally pious spirit, decided him to enter the
church. After two years of residence in Cambridge he took his
degree (1825) and was appointed to the curacy of Bassingby,
Yorkshire. Meantime had appeared at Edinburgh his Journal
of a Voyage to the Northern Whale Fishery, including Researches
and Discoveries on the Eastern Coast of Greenland (1823). The
discharge of his clerical duties at Bassingby, and later at Liver-
pool, at Exeter and at Bradford, did not prevent him from
continuing his interest in science. In 1824 the Royal Society
elected him a fellow, and in 1827 he was elected an honorary
corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, while
in 1839 he took the degree of D.D. From the first he was an
active member and official of the British Association, and he
contributed especially to the knowledge of terrestrial magnetism.
Of his sixty pape r s in the Royal Society list many are more
or less connected with this department of research. But his
observations extended into many other departments, including
certain branches of optics. In order to obtain additional data
for his theories on magnetism he made a voyage to Australia
in 1856, the results of which were published in a posthumous
work Journal of a Voyage to Australia for Magnetical Re-
search, edited by Archibald Smith (1859). He made two visits
to America, in 1844 and 1848; on his return home from the
latter visit he made some valuable observations on the height
of Atlantic waves, the results of which were given to the British
Association. He interested himself much in social questions,
especially the improvement of the condition of factory opera-
tives. He also published numerous works and papers of a
religious character. In 1850 he published a work urging the
prosecution of the search for the F-anklin expedition and giving
the results of his own experience in Arctic navigation. He
was twice married after the death of his first wife. After his
third marriage (1849) he built a villa at Torquay, where he
died on the 2ist of March 1857.
See the Life by his nephew, Dr R. E. Scoresby-Jackson (1861).
SCORIA (Lat. scoria, slag), in geology, a name applied to lava
when moderately vesicular and having a structure like that
of a clinker. Ejected masses of scoriaceous lava are often
called " cinders," a term conveniently used for all lumps of
vesicular lava (see VOLCANO).
SCORPIO ("THE SCORPION"), in astronomy, the 8th sign of
the zodiac (q.v.), denoted by the symbol Tfl,. It is also a con-
stellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus
(3rd century B.C. ), and catalogued by Ptolemy (24 stars), Tycho
Brahe (10), Hevelius (20). The Greeks fabled that Orion having
boasted to Diana and Latona that he would kill every animal
on the earth, these goddesses sent a poisonous reptile a scorpion
which stung him so that he died. Jupiter raised the scorpion
to heaven, and afterwards, at Diana's request, did the same
for Orion. The chief star in this constellation is a Scorpii or
Antares, a reddish star of the first magnitude, accompanied by
a green companion of the seventh magnitude, fi Scorpii is a
spectroscopic binary; J Nova Scorpii is a " new " star dis-
covered in 1860 by G. F. Auwers in the cluster Messier 80.
SCORPION (Lat. Scorpio), the common name for members
of the class Arachnida (q.v.), distinguishable at a glance from
all the other existing members by having the last five segments
of the body modified to form a highly flexible tail, armed at the
end with a sting consisting of a vesicle holding a pair of poison
glands, and of a sharp spine behind the tip of which the ducts
of the glands open. Like spiders they have four pairs of walking
legs; but the limbs of the second pair form a couple of powerful
pincers, and those of the first pair two much smaller nippers.
They feed entirely upon animal food, principally upon insects
such as beetles or other ground species, although the larger
kinds have been known to kill small lizards and mice. The
large pincers are studded with highly sensitive tactile hairs,
and the moment an insect touches these he is promptly seized
by the pincers and stung to death, the scorpion's tail being
swiftly brought over his back and the sting thrust into the
struggling prey. Paralysis rapidly follows, and, when dead, the
insect is pulled to pieces by the small nippers and its soft tissues
sucked into the scorpion's mouth. Scorpions vary in size from
about i in. to 8 in.; and the amount of poison instilled into
a wound depends principally upon the size of the animal. But
the poison is more virulent in some of the smaller than in the
larger species. Upon mankind the effects of the poison are seldom
fatal, though death has been known to follow in the case of
patients in a poor state of health at the time. In small scorpions,
like those belonging to the genus Euscorpius, which occurs
in Italy and other countries of South Europe, the sting is said
to be as bad as that of a wasp; but in many tropical species
acute pain, accompanied by inflammation and throbbing of the
wounded part, follows. But unless molested, scprpions are
perfectly harmless, and only make use of the sting for the purpose
of killing prey.
The belief that scorpions commit suicide by stinging them-
selves to death when tortured by fire is of considerable antiquity
and is prevalent wherever these animals occur. It is neverthe-
less quite without foundation in fact; for it has been proved
410
SCORPION-FLYSCOT
experimentally of late years that the venom has no effect upon
the individual itself, nor yet upon a member of the same species.
Scorpions, however, are extraordinarily susceptible to heat, and
succumb very rapidly when exposed either to the warmth of a
fire or to that of the tropical sun. Moreover, when they feel the
heat beating upon them they brandish their tails and strike
right and left as if to drive off or destroy the unseen enemy ; and
there can be no dbubt that the belief above alluded to is traceable
primarily to observation of the sequence of events just described,
the final event being the death of the animal, not, however, from
a self-inflicted wound but from the heat which provoked the
behaviour suggestive of suicidal purpose. It may be that under
such circumstances a random stroke has now and again wounded
the animal itself;
but a wound so
inflicted would be
accidental, not
intentional, and
at most would
contribute in a
small measure to
the creature's
death. Scorpions
are very easily
rendered innocu-
ous by scraping
off the sharp
point of the sting;
and specimens,
which are handled
with impunity by
Arabs and Der-
vishes to impress
the uninitiated
with their super-
human attributes,
have generally
been treated in
this way. At the
same time it has
been shown that
ScoUL
I
African Scorpion (Pandinus heros).
\bak.
insensibility to the pain of the sting and immunity to the ill
effects can be acquired by any one who has the courage to
permit himself to be repeatedly stung.
Like many poisonous animals, scorpions are for the most part
rendered conspicuous by distinctive coloration of jet-black or
black and yellow; and many of them are gifted with stridulat-
ing organs, developed in various parts of the body which are
functionally comparable to the rattles of rattlesnakes, porcupines
and other noxious animals. In habits scorpions are cryptozoic
and nocturnal, spending the daytime concealed under stones or
fallen tree trunks or in burrows, and only venturing out after
sunset in search of food. Amongst the burrowing kinds are the
large African species belonging to the genera Pandinus and Opis-
thophthalmus and to the eastern genus Palamnaeus. The yellow
scorpions of the genus Buthus, which are common in Egypt and
the Sahara, lurk on the watch for prey in shallow depressions
which they excavate with their legs in the sand.
Unlike the majority of Arachnida, scorpions are viviparous.
The young are born two at a time, and the brood, which consists
of a dozen or more individuals, is carried about on its mother's
back until the young are large and strong enough to shift for
themselves. The young in a general way resemble their parents
and undergo no metamorphosis with growth, which is accom-
panied by periodical casting of the entire integument. Moulting
is effected by means of a split in the integument which takes place
just below the edge of the carapace all round, exactly as in king-
crabs, spiders and Pedipalpi. Through the split the young
scorpion gradually makes its way, leaving the old integument
behind.
Scorpions are of great antiquity. In coal deposits of the
Carboniferous Period their remains are not uncommonly found,
and no essential structural difference has been discovered be-
tween these fossils and existing forms a fact proving that the
group has existed without material structural modification for
untold thousands of years. These Carboniferous scorpions, how-
ever, were preceded by others, now occurring in marine Silurian
deposits, which evidently lived in the sea and exhibit some
anatomical differences marking them off as a group distinct from
their Carboniferous and recent descendants and attesting affinity
with the still earlier marine Arachnida referred to the group
Gigantostraca. Their legs were short, thick, tapering, and ended
in a single strong claw, and were well adapted, it seems, like the
legs of shore-crabs, for maintaining a secure hold upon rocks or
seaweed against the wash of waves. The method of breathing
of these ancient types is not certainly known; but probably
respiration was effected by means of gills attached to the ventral
plates of the body. At all eveuts no trace of respiratory stigmata
has been detected even in well-preserved material. These
Silurian scorpions, of which the best-known genus is Palaeophonns,
were of small size, only i in. or 2 in. in length.
At the present time scorpions are almost universally dis-
tributed south of about the 4oth or 45th parallels of north
latitude; and their geographical distribution shows in many
particulars a close and interesting correspondence with that of the
mammalia, their entire absence from New Zealand being not the
least interesting point of agreement. The facts of their dis-
tribution are in keeping with the hypothesis that the order
originated in the northern hemisphere and migrated southwards
into the southern continent at various epochs, their absence
from the countries to the north of the above-mentioned latitudes
being due, no doubt, to the comparatively recent glaciation of
those areas. When they reached Africa, Madagascar was part
of that continent; but their arrival in Australia was subsequent
to the separation of New Zealand from the Austro-Malayan area
to the north of it. Moreover, the occurrence of closely related
forms in Australia and South America on the one hand, and in
tropical Africa and the northern parts of South America on the
other, suggests very forcibly that South America was at an early
date connected with Australia by a transpacific bridge and with
Africa by a more northern transatlantic tract of land.
In conformity with their wide dispersal, scorpions have become
adapted to diverse conditions of existence, some thriving in
tropical forests, others on open plains, others in sandy deserts,
and a few even at high altitudes where the ground is covered
with snow throughout the winter. In the tropics they aestivate
at times of drought; and in the Alps they pass the cold months of
the year in a state of hibernation. (R. I. P.)
SCORPION-FLY, the popular name given to insects of the
family Panorpidae, deriving the name from the fact that in the
typical genus, Panorpa, the last two or three segments of the
abdomen are narrow and can be flexed over the back like a
scorpion's tail. The scorpion-flies are remarkable for the elonga-
tion of the oral region of the head into a prominent beak. The
larva is grub-like, beset with spines and generally furnished with
eight pairs of abdominal pro-legs in addition to the legs on the
thorax, which are short. They live in the soil or in rotten wood
and are carnivorous. The species of the genus Biltacus are
superficially strikingly similar to the Tipulidae or " daddy-long-
legs "; while those referred to, Boreus, are anomalous in being
apterous and like small grasshoppers. They have usually been
included in the order Neuroptera, but it is now generally con-
sidered that they should form a distinct order, which is termed
Panorpata or Mecaptera.
SCORZONERA (Scorzonera hispanica), a hardy perennial,
native to central and southern Europe, and cultivated in gardens
as a vegetable for its fleshy cylindrical roots, which resemble
those of salsafy except in being black outside. They should be
treated in every respect like salsafy. The genus is a member
of the natural order Compositae, and nearly allied to Tragopogon,
to which salsafy belongs.
SCOT, MICHAEL (? 1175-1232), Scottish mathematician and
astrologer. The dates of his birth and death are quite uncertain,
the most probable being those here given. The efforts of Sir
SCOT AND LOT SCOTIA
411
Walter Scott and others to identify him with the Sir Michael
Scot of Balwearie, who in 1290 was sent on a special embassy
to Norway, must be considered unsuccessful, though he may
have been a member of the family. Scot studied at Oxford and
Paris, devoting himself to philosophy and mathematics. It
appears that he had also studied theology, and was ordained
a priest, as Pope Honorius III. wrote to Stephen Langton on
(he i6th of January 1223/4, urging him to confer an English
benefice on Scot, and actually himself nominated him archbishop
of Cashel in Ireland. This appointment Scot refused to take
up, but he seems to have held benefices in Italy from time to
time. From Paris he went to Bologna, and thence, after a stay
at Palermo, to Toledo. There he acquired a knowledge of
Arabic. This opened up to him the Arabic versions of Aristotle
and the multitudinous commentaries of the Arabians upon
them, and also brought him into contact with the original works
of Avicenna and Averroes. His own first work was done as a
translator. He was one of the savants whom Frederick II.
attracted to his brilliant court, and at the instigation of the
emperor he superintended (along with Hermannus Alemannus)
n fresh translation of Aristotle and the Arabian commentaries
from Arabic into Latin. There exist translations by Scot
himself of the Historia animalium, the De anima and De
coelo, along with the commentaries of Averroes upon them.
This connexion with Frederick and Averroes both of evil
reputation in the middle ages doubtless contributed to the
formation of the legend which soon enveloped Michael Scot's
name. His own books, however, dealing as they do almost
exclusively with astrology, alchemy and the occult sciences
generally, are mainly responsible for his popular reputation.
Chief among these are Super auctorem spherae, printed at
Bologna in 1495 and at Venice in 1631; De sole et luna, printed
at Strassburg (1622), in the Theatrum chimicum, and containing
more alchemy than astronomy, the sun and moon being taken
as the images of gold and silver; De chiromantia, an opuscule
often published in the isth century; De physio gnomia et de
hominis procreatione, which saw no fewer than eighteen editions
between 1477 and 1660. The Physiognomic, (which also exists
in an Italian translation) and the Super auctorem spherae
expressly state that they were undertaken at the request of the
emperor Frederick. Michael is said to have foretold (after the
double-tongued manner of the ancient oracles) the place of
Frederick's death, which took place in 1250. Around his own
death many legends gathered. He was supposed to have fore-
told that he would end by a blow from a stone of not more than
two ounces in weight, and that to protect himself he wore an
iron helmet, and that, raising this in church at the elevation
of the host, the fatal stone fell on him from the roof. Italian
tradition says he died in that country, while another legend is
that he returned to his native land to die, and according to one
account was buried at Holme Cultram in Cumberland; accord-
ing to another, which Sir Walter Scott has followed in the Lay
of the Last Minstrel, in Melrose Abbey. In the notes to that
poem, of which the opening of the wizard's tomb forms the most
striking episode, Scott gives an interesting account of the
various exploits attributed by popular belief to the great magi-
cian. " In the south of Scotland any work of great labour
and antiquity is ascribed either to the agency of Auld Michael,
of Sir William Wallace or the devil." He used to feast his
friends with dishes brought by spirits from the royal kitchens
of France and Spain and other lands. His embassy to France
alone on the back of a coal-black demon steed is also celebrated,
in which he brought the French monarch to his knees by the
results of the stamping of his horse's hoof: the first ringing the
bells of Notre Dame and the second causing the towers of the
palace to fall. Other powers and exploits are narrated in
Folengo's Macaronic poem of Merlin Coccaius (1595). But
Michael's reputation as a magician was already fixed in the
age immediately following his own. He appears in the Inferno
of Dante (canto xx. 115-117) among the magicians and sooth-
sayers. He is represented in the same character by Boccaccio,
and is severely arraigned by Giovanni Pico della Mirandola in
his work against astrology, while Gabriel Naude finds it necessary
to defend his good name in his Apologie pour Jes grands per-
sonnages faussement accuses de magie.
For full details and analysis of all the legends attaching to Scot,
see Rev. J. Wood Brown, Life and Legend of Michael Scot (1897).
SCOT AND LOT (O. Fr. escot, A.S. sceot, a payment; lot,
a portion or share) , a phrase common in the records of English
medieval boroughs, applied to those householders who were
assessed to any payment (such as tallage, aid, &c.) made by the
borough for local or national purposes. They were usually
members of a gild merchant. Previous to the Reform Act
1832 those who paid scot and bora lot were entitled to the
franchise in virtue of this payment, and the rights of those
living in 1832 were preserved by the act. The phrase is pre-
served in the Disorderly Houses Act 1751, which empowers
inhabitants of a parish or place paying scot and bearing lot
therein (i.e. ratepayers) to require the constable of the parish
to prosecute disorderly houses.
See D. P. Fry, " On the Phrase Scot and Lot," in Trans. Philological
Society (1867), pp. 167-197; C. Gross, Gild Merchant, i. c. iv. ;
Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, p. 647.
SCOTER, a word of doubtful origin, perhaps a variant of
" Scout," one of the many local names shared in common
by the guillemot (q.v.) and the razorbill (<?..), or perhaps
primarily connected with coot (q.v.), 1 the English name of
the Anas nigra of Linnaeus, a bird which with some allied
species has been justifiably placed in a distinct genus, Oedemia
(often misspelt Oidemia) a name coined in reference to the
swollen appearance of the base of the bill. The scoter is also
very generally known around the British coasts as the " black
duck " from the male being, with the exception of a stripe of
orange that runs down the ridge of the bill, wholly of that
colour. In the representative American form, Oe. americana,
the protuberance at the base of the bill, black in the European
bird, is orange as well. Of all ducks the scoter has the most
marine habits, keeping the sea in all weathers, and rarely re-
sorting to land except for the purpose of breeding. Even in
summer small flocks of scoters may generally be seen in the
tideway at the mouth of any of the larger British rivers or in
mid-channel, while in autumn and winter these flocks are so
increased as to number thousands of individuals, and the water
often looks black with them. A second species, the velvet-
duck, Oe. fusca, of much larger size, distinguished by a white
spot under each eye and a white bar on each wing, is far less
abundant than the former, but examples of it are occasionally
to be seen in company with the commoner one, and it too has
its American counterpart, Oe. velvelina; while a third, only
known as a straggler to Europe, the surf -duck, Oe. perspicillata,
with a white patch on the crown and another on the nape, and
a curiously particoloured bill, is a not uncommon bird in North
American waters. All the species of Oedemia, like most other
sea-ducks, have their true home in arctic or subarctic countries,
but the scoter itself is said to breed occasionally in Scotland
(Zoologist, s.s. p. 1867). The females display little of the deep
sable hue that characterizes their partners, but are attired in
soot-colour, varied, especially beneath, with brownish white.
The flesh of all these birds has an exceedingly strong taste, and,
after much controversy, was allowed by the authorities to
rank as fish in the ecclesiastical dietary (cf. Graindorge, Traite
de I'origine des macreuses, Caen, 1680; and Correspondence of
John Ray, Ray Soc. ed., p. 148). (A. N.)
SCOTIA (Gr. cr/cona, shadow or darkness), in architecture,
a concave moulding most commonly used in bases, which pro-
jects a deep shadow on itself, and is thereby a most effective
moulding under the eye, as in a base. (See MOULDING.)
1 In the former case the derivation seems to be from the O. Fr.
Escoute, and that from the Latin auscultate, but in the latter from
the Dutch Koet, which is said to be of Celtic extraction cwtiar.
The Fr. macreuse, possibly from Lat. macer, indicating a bird that
may be eaten in Lent or on the fast days of the Roman Church, is
of double signification, meaning in the south of France a coot and
in the north a scoter. By the wild-fowlers of parts of North America
scoters are commonly called coots.
412
SCOTLAND
[GEOGRAPHY
SCOTLAND, the name given in modern times to that portion
of Great Britain which lies north of the English boundary;
it also comprises the Outer and Inner Hebrides and other islands
off the west coast, and the Orkney and Shetland islands off the
north coast. With England lying to the south, it is thus bounded
on the N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the E. by the
North Sea. It is separated from England by the Solway Firth,
the Sark, Scotsdyke(an old embankment in SS3'N., connecting
the Sark with the Esk), the Esk (for one mile), the Liddel, the
Kershope, the Cheviot Hills, the Tweed and a small area known
as the " liberties " of Berwick. The mainland lies between 58
40' 30* (at Dunnet Head in Caithness) and 54 38' N. (Mull
of Galloway in Wigtownshire), and i 45' 32* (Buchan Ness in
Aberdeenshire) and 6 14' W. (Ardnamurchan Point in Argyll-
shire). Including the islands, however, the extreme latitude
north is 60 51' 30' (Out Stack in the Shetlands) and the extreme
longitude west 8 35' 30" (St Kilda). The greatest length from
Cape Wrath in Sutherland to the Mull of Galloway is 274 m.,
and the greatest breadth from Buchan Ness to Applecross in
the shire of Ross and Cromarty 154 m.,but from Bonar Bridge
at the head of Dornoch Firth to the head of Loch Broom it is
only 26 m. wide, and 30 m. from Grangemouth on the Forth
to Bowling on the Clyde. The coast-line is estimated at 230x3 m.,
the arms of the sea being so numerous and in several cases
penetrating so far inland that few places are beyond 40 m. from
salt water. The total area is 19,069,500 acres or 29,796 sq. m.,
exclusive of inland waters (about 608 sq. m.), the foreshore
(about 498 sq. m.) and tidal water (about 608 sq. m.).
The name Scotland for this geographical area of northern
Britain (the Caledonia of the ancients a name still poetically
used for Scotland) originated in the nth century, when (from
the tribe of Scots) part of it was called Scotia (a name previously
applied to what is now Ireland); and the name of Scotland
became established in the izth and I3th centuries. The name
of Britain or North Britain is still firmly associated with Scot-
land; thus English letters are generally addressed, e.g. "Edin-
burgh, N.B.," i.e. North Britain; and Scottish people have long
objected to the conventional use south of the Tweed of the word
" English," when it really means (as they correctly, but some-
times rather pedantically, insist) " British."
I. GEOGRAPHY
Physically, Scotland is divided into three geographical regions
the " Highlands " (subdivided by Glen More into the North-
Western and South-Eastern Highlands); the Central Plain or
" Lowlands " (a tract of south-westerly to north-easterly trend,
between a line drawn roughly from Girvan to Dunbar and a
line drawn from Dumbarton to Stonehaven); and the Southern
Uplands.
The Highlands. Nearly all this region is lofty ground, deeply
trenched with valleys and sea lochs. The only considerable low-
lying area embraces the eastern part of Aberdeenshire and the
northern parts of Banff, Elgin and Nairn tracts which, ethnologic-
ally, do not fall within Highland territory. Along both sides of the
Morav Firth a strip of level land lies between the foot of the hills
and the sea, while the county of Caithness, occupying a wide plain,
does not, strictly speaking, belong to the Highlands. Seen from
Strathmore or the Firth of Clyde the Highlands present well-defined
masses of hills abruptly rising from the Lowland plains, and from
any of the western islands their sea front resembles a vast rampart
indented by lochs and rising to a uniform level, which sinking here
and there allows glimpses of still higher summits in the interior.
The Highland hills differ from a mountain chain such as the Alps not
merely in their inferior elevation but in configuration and structure.
They are made up of a succession of more or less parallel confluent
ridges, having in the main a trend from north-east to south-west.
These ridges are separated by longitudinal and furrowed by trans-
verse valleys. The portions of the ridge thus isolated rise into what
are regarded as mountains, though they are really only loftier parts
of the ridge, alone which indeed the geological structure is continued.
It is remarkable now the average level of the summits is maintained.
Viewed from near at hand a mountain may seem to tower above the
surrounding country, but from a distance it will be seen not to rise
much _above the general uniformity of elevation. There are no
gigantic dominant masses obviously due to special terrestrial dis-
turbance. A few apparent exceptions occur along the western
seaboard of Sutherland, in Skye and elsewhere, but examination of
their structure at once explains the reason of their prominence and
confirms the rule. The surface of the Highlands is rugged. The
rocks project in innumerable bosses and crags, which roughen the
sides and crests of the ridges. The shape and colour of these rough-
nesses depend on the nature of the underlying rock. Where it is
hard and jointed, weathering into large quadrangular blocks, the
hills are more especially distinguished for the gnarled bossy character
of their declivities, as may be seen in Ben Ledi and the heights to the
north-east of it. Where, on the other hand, the rock decays with
smaller debris, the hills assume smoother contours, as in the slate
hills running from the Kyles of Bute to Loch Lomond. But, regarded
broadly, the Highland mountains are monuments of erosion, the
relic of an old tableland, the upper surface and former inclinations
of which are shown approximately by the summits of the existing
masses and the direction of the chief water-flows.
The Highlands are separated into two completely disconnected
and in some respects contrasted regions by the depression of the
Great Glen, extending from Loch Linnhe to Inverness, by which the
ancient plateau was severed. In the north-western section the
highest ground is found along the Atlantic coast, mounting steeply
from the sea to an average height of 2000 to 3000 ft. The watershed
consequently keeps close to the western seaboard, and indeed in some
places is not above a mile and a half from the shore. From these
hills which catch the first downpour of the rains from the ocean, the
ground falls eastward. Numerous eminences, however, prolong the
mountainous features to the North Sea and south-eastward to Glen
More. The difference of the general level on the two sides of the .
water-parting is reflected in the length of their streams. On the west
the drainage empties itself into the Atlantic after flowing only a very
few miles, on the east it has to run 30 or 40 m. At the head of Loch
Nevis the western stream is but 3 m. long, while the eastern has
a course of some 18 m. to the Great Glen. Throughout the north-
western region uniformity of features characterizes the scenery,
betokening even at a distance the general monotony of structure.
But the sameness is relieved along the western coast of the shires of
Sutherland and Ross and Cromarty by groups of cones and stacks,
and farther south by the terraced plateaus and abrupt conical hills
of Skye, Rum and Mull.
The south-eastern region of the Highlands, having a more diversi-
fied geological structure, offers greater variety of scenery. Most of
the valleys, lakes and sea lochs run in a south-westerly and north-
easterly direction, a feature strikingly exhibited in west Argyllshire.
But there are also several important transverse valleys, those of the
Garry and Tay being the most conspicuous examples. The water-
shed, too, is somewhat different. It first strikes eastwards round the
head of Loch Laggan and then swings southwards, pursuing a sinuous
course till it leaves the Highlands on the east side of Loch Lomond.
The streams flowing westward, however, are still short, while those
running to the nortn-east, east and south-east have long courses and
drain wide areas. There is a marked contrast between the configura-
tion of the north-eastern district and the other parts of this region.
In that area the Grampians rise into wide flat-topped* heights or
moors often more than 3000, and in a few places exceeding 4000 ft.
in height, and bounded by steep declivities and sometimes by
precipices. Seen from an eminence on their surface, the inference is
irresistible that these plateaus are fragments of the original table-
land, trenched into segments by the formation of the longitudinal
and transverse valleys. Farther to the south-west, in the shires
of Perth, Inverness and Argyll, they give place to the ordinary
hummocky crested ridges' of Highland scenery, which, however, in
Ben Nevis and Aonach Beg reach a height of over 4000 ft.
Besides the principal tracts of low-lying ground in the Highlands
already alluded to, there occur long narrow strips of flat land in the
more important valleys. Most of the straths and glens have a floor
ol detritus which, spread out between the bases of the boundary hills,
has been levelled into meadow land by the rivers and provides almost
the sole arable ground in each district.
The Lowlands of Mid-Scotland, or the Central Plain, constitute a
broad depression with south-westerly to north-easterly trend lying
between the Highland line that runs from the head of the Firth of
Clyde to Stonehaven and the pastoral uplands that stretch from
Girvan to Dunbar. They may be regarded as a long trough of
younger rocks let down by parallel dislocations between the older
masses to the south and north. The lowest of these younger rocks
are the various sedimentary and volcanic members of the Old Red
Sandstone. These are covered by the successive formations of the
Carboniferous system. The total thickness of both these groups of
rock cannot be less than 30,000 ft., and, as most of them bear evidence
of having been deposited in shallow water, they could only have been
accumulated during a prolonged period of depression. The question
arises whether this depression affected only the area of the midland
valley, or extended also to the regions to the north and south;
and so far as the evidence goes there is ground for the inference that,
while the depression had its maximum along the line of the lowlands,
it also involved sbme portion at least of the high grounds on either
side. In other words, the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous
rocks, though chiefly accumulated in the broad lowland valley, crept
also over some part of the hills on either side, where a few outliers
tell of their former extension. The central Lowlands are thus of
great geological antiquity. During and since the deposition of the
rocks that underlie them the tract has been the scene of repeated
GEOGRAPHY]
SCOTLAND
terrestrial disturbances. Long dislocations have sharply denned its
northern and southern margins. By other fractures and unequal
movements of upheaval or depression portions of the older rocks have
been brought up within the bounds of the younger, and areas of the
younger have been enclosed by the older. On the whole, these dis-
turbances have followed the prevalent north-easterly trend, and hence
a general tendency may be observed among the main ridges and
valleys to run in that direction. The chains of the Ochil, Sidlaw,
Pentland, Renfrew, Campsie and Fintry Hills, and the valleys of the
Strathmore, Firth of Tay, and the basin of Midlothian may be cited
as examples. But the dominant cause in the determination of the
topographical prominences and depressions of the district has been
the relative hardness and softness of the rocks. Almost all the
eminences in the Lowlands consist of hard igneous rocks, forming not
only chains of hills such as those just mentioned and others in Ayr-
shire and Lanarkshire, but isolated crags and hills like those on which
stand the castles of Edinburgh and Stirling, and others conspicuous
in the scenery of Fife and the Lothians.
Of the three chief valleys in the central Lowlands two, those of the
Tay and the Forth, descend from the Highlands, and one, that of the
Clyde, from the Southern Uplands. Though on the whole transverse,
these depressions furnish another notable example of that independ-
ence of geological structure already referred to.
The Southern Uplands extend from the North Channel in the south-
west to St Abb's Head in the north-east and form a well-defined belt
of hilly ground, and though much less elevated (their highest point
is 2764 ft. above the sea) than the Highlands, rise with scarcely less
abruptness above the lower tracts that bound them. Their north-
western margin for the most part springs boldly above the fields and
moorlands of the Central Plain, and its boundary for long distances
continues remarkably straight. On the south and south-east their
limits in general are less prominently defined, but are better seen
west and south-west of the Nith from which they extend to the sea
and Loch Ryan, terminating in the extreme south-west in a plateau
of which the loftiest point is little over 1000 ft. above the sea. The
Cheviots do not properly belong to the Uplands, from which they are
separated by Liddesdale and other hollows and on which they abut
abruptly. But though geologically the one set of mountains must
be separated from the other, geographically it is convenient to include
within the Southern Uplands the whole rea between the Central
Plain and the Border. A survey of the Uplands, therefore, presents
in succession from south-west to north-east the Kirkcudbrightshire
and Ayrshire mountain moors, the Lowthers, the Moffat hills, the
Moorfoots and the Lammermuirs. Distinguished especially by the
smoothness of their surface, they may be regarded as a rolling table-
land or moorland, traversed by many valleys conducting the
drainage to the sea. This character is well observed from the heights
of Tweedsmuir. Wide, mossy moors, 2000 ft. or more above the sea,
and sometimes level as a racecourse, spread out on all sides. Their
continuity, however, is interrupted by numerous valleys separating
them into detached flat-topped hills, which are comparatively
seldom marked by precipices of naked rock. Where the rock projects
it more usually appears in Io.w crags and knolls, from which long
trails of grey or purpl: debris descend till they are lost among the
grass. Hence, besides being smooth, the uplands are remarkably
verdant. They form indeed excellent pasture-land, while the alluvial
flats in the valleys and even some of the lower slopes are fitted for
grain and green crops.
This uniformity of aspect is doubtless traceable to the prevalence
of the same kind of rocks and the same geological structure. The
Silurian greywackes and shales that underlie almost the whole of the
Uplands weather generally into small angular debris, and at a
tolerably uniform rate of disintegration. But slight differences may
readily be detected even where no feature interferes noticeably with
the monotony. The bands of massive grit and coarse greywacke,
for example, break up into larger blocks and from their greater
hardness are apt to project above the general surface of the other
softer rocks. Hence their line of trend, which like that of all the other
strata is in a north-easterly direction, may be traced from hill to hill
by their more craggy contours. Only in the higher tracts are there
rugged features recalling the more savage character of Highland
scenery. In the heights of Hartfell (2651 ft.) and Whitecoomb
(2695), whence the Clyde, Tweed, Annan, and Moffat Water descend,
the high moorlands have been scarped into gloomy corries, with crags
and talus-slopes, which form a series of landscapes all the more
striking from the abrupt and unexpected contrast which they offer
to everything around them. In Galloway, also, the highest portions
of the Uplands have acquired a ruggedness and wildness more like
those of the Highlands than any other district in the south of Scot-
land. For this, however, there is an obvious geological reason. In
that region the Silurian rocks have been invaded by large bosses of
granite and have undergone a variable amount of metamorphism
which has in some places altered them into hard crystalline schists.
These various rocky masses, presenting great differences in their
powers of resisting decay, have yielded unequally to disintegration :
the harder portions project in rocky knolls, crags and cliffs, while the
softer parts have been worn down into more flowing outlines. The
highest summit in the south of Scotland Merrick (2764 ft.)-^-consists
of Silurian strata much altered by proximity to the granite, while
the rest of the more prominent heights (all in Kirkcudbrightshire)
Rinns of Kells (2668 ft.), Cairnsmuir of Carsphairn (2612), and
Cairnsmore of Fleet (2331) are formed of granite.
The watershed of the Southern Uplands is of much interest in
relation to their geological history. It runs from the mouth of
Loch Ryan in a sinuous north-easterly direction, keeping near the
northern limit of the region till it reaches the basin of the Nith,
where it quits the Uplands altogether, descends into the lowlands of
Ayrshire, and, after circling round the headwaters of the Nith,
strikes south-eastwards across half the breadth of the Uplands,
then sweeps north and eastwards between the basins of the Clyde,
Tweed and Annan, and then through the moors that surround
the sources of the Ettrick, Teviot and Jed, into the Cheviot Hills.
Here again the longest slope is on the east side, where the Tweed
bears the whole drainage of that side into the sea. Although the
rocks throughout the Southern Uplands have a persistent north-
easterly and south-westerly strike, and though this trend is apparent
in the bands of more rugged hills that mark the outcrop of hard grits
and greywackes, nevertheless geological structure has been much
less effective in determining the lines of ridge and valley than in the
Highlands. On the southern side of the watershed, in Dumfries-
shire and Galloway, the valleys run generally transversely from
north-west to south-east. But in the eastern half of the Uplands
the valleys do not appear to have any relation to the geological
structure of the ground underneath.
Characteristic Features. Though Scotland is pre-eminently a
" land of mountain and of flood," yet its leading physical features
are not the lofty ridges carved out of the primeval plateau valleys
apparently the dominant characteristic but the valleys
which have bfen opened through them by the agencies ot water and
weather, and which are therefore its fundamental topographical
element. The longitudinal valleys, which run in the same general
direction as the ridges that is, north-east and south-west have
had their trend defined by geological structure, such as a line of
dislocation (the Great Glen), or the plications of the rocks (Lochs
Ericht, Tay and Awe, and most of the sea lochs of Argyllshire).
The transverse valleys run north-west or south-east and are for the
most part independent of geological structure. The valley of the
Garry and Tay crosses the strike of all the Highland rocks, traverses
the great fault on the Highland border, and finally breaks through
the chain of the Sidlaw Hills at Perth. The valley of the Clyde crosses
the strike of the Silurian folds in the Southern Uplands, the boundary
fault, and the ridges of the Old Red Sandstone, and pursues its north-
westerly course across the abundant and often powerful dislocations
of the Carboniferous system.
The crumpling of the earth's crust which folded the rocks of the
Highlands and Southern Uplands probably upraised above the sea
a series of longitudinal ridges having a general ncrth-easterly
direction. The earliest rain that fell upon these ridges would run
off them, first in transverse watercourses down each short slope, and
then in longitudinal depressions wherever such had been formed
during the terrestrial disturbance. Afterwards the pathways of
the streams would be gradually deepened and widened into valleys.
Hence the valleys are of higher antiquity than the mountains that
flank them. The mountains in fact have been hewn out of the original
bulk of the land in proportion as the valleys have been excavated.
The denudation would continue so long as the ground stood above
the level of the sea; but there have been prolonged periods of de-
pression, when the ground, instead of being eroded, lay below the
sea-level and was buried sometimes under thousands of feet of
accumulated sediment, which completely filled up and obliterated
the previous drainage-lines. When the land reappeared a new series
of valleys would at once begin to be eroded; and the subsequent
degradation of these overlying sediments might reveal portions of the
older topography, as in the case of the Great Glen, Lauderdale, and
other ancient valleys. But the new drainage-lines have usually little
or no reference to the old ones. Determined by the inequalities of
surface of the overlying mantle of sedimentary material, they would
be wholly independent of the geological structure of the rocks lying
below that mantle. Slowly sinking deeper and deeper into the land,
they might eventually reach the older rocks, but they would keep
in these the lines of valley that they had followed in the overlying
deposits. In process of time the whole of these deposits might be
denuded from the area, and there might even remain no trace of the
younger formations on which the valleys began and which guided their
excavation. This is probably the explanation of the striking independ-
ence of geological structure exhibited by the Tweed and the Nith.
Among the valleys certain prevailing characteristics have been
recognized in their popular names. Straths are broad expanses of low
ground between bounding hills and are usually traversed by one main
stream and its tributaries e.g. Strath Tay, Strath Spey, Strath
Conon. This name, however, has also been applied to wide tracts
of lowland which embrace portions of several valleys, but are
defined by lines of heights on each side; the best example is afforded
by Strathmore the " Great Strath " between the southern margin
of the Highlands and the line of the Sidlaw Hills. This long and wide
depression, though it looks like one great valley, strictly speaking
includes portions of the valleys of the Tay, Isla, North Esk and
South Esk, all of which cross it. Elsewhere in central Scotland such
a wide depression is known as a howe, as in the Howe of Fife between
the Ochil and Lomond Hills. A glen is a narrower and steeper-sided
4-14
SCOTLAND
[GEOGRAPHY
River-
gorges,
valley than a strath, though the names have not always been applied
with discrimination. Most of the Highland valleys are true glens,
Glencoe being the best-known example. The hills rise rapidly on
each side, sometimes in grassy slopes, sometimes in rocky bosses and
precipitous cliffs, while the bottom is occupied by a lake. In the
south of Scotland the larger streams flow in wide open valleys called
dales, as in Clydesdale, Tweeddale, Teviotdale, Liddesdale, Eskdale,
Nithsdale. The strips of alluvial land bordering a river are known
as houghs, and where in estuaries they expand into wide plains they
are termed carses. 'The carses of the Forth extend seawards as far as
Bo' ness and consist chiefly of raised beaches. The Carse of Gowrie
is the strip of low ground intervening between the Firth of Tay and
the Sidlaw Hills. Brae signifies the steep bank of a river, and so
any slope or hill-side.
River-gorges are characteristic features in many of the valleys.
In the Old Red Sandstone they are particularly prominent where
that formation has lain in the pathway of the streams
sweeping down from the Highlands. In the basin of the
Moray Firth some fine examples may be seen on the Nairn
and Findhorn, while on the west side of the Cromarty Firth some of
the small streams descending from the high grounds of the east of
the shire of Ross and Cromarty have cut out defiles in the Con-
glomerates, remarkable for their depth and narrowness. Towards the
south margin of the Highlands notable instances of true canyons in the
Old Red Sandstone are to be seen where the Isla and North Esk enter
that formation. The well-known gorge in which the Falls of Clyde
are situated is the best example in the Lowlands. (For the chief
rivers see the separate articles on them, and also the section on the
physical features in the article on the different shires of Scotland.)
The topography of the country being the result of prolonged
denudation, it is reasonable to infer that the oldest surfaces likely to
T .be preserved are portions of some of the platforms of
mountain eros i n successively established by the wearing down of
the land to the sea-level. Relics of these platforms occur
both in the Highlands and among the Southern Uplands.
Allusion has already been made to the flat-topped moorlands which
in the eastern Grampians reach heights of 3000 to 4000 ft. above the
sea. The most familiar example perhaps is the top of Lochnagar,
where, at the level of 3500 ft., the traveller finds himself on a broad
undulating moor, more than a mile and a half long, sloping gently
towards Glen Muick and terminating on the north in a range of
granite precipices. The top of Ben Macdhui stands upon nearly a
square mile of moor exceeding 4000 ft. in elevation. These mountains
lie within granite areas; but not less striking examples may be found
among the schists. The mountains at the head of Glen Clova and
Glen Isla, for instance, sweep upwards into a broad moor some 3000
ft. above the sea, the more prominent parts of which have received
special names Driesh, Mayar, Tom Buidhe, Tolmount, Cairn na
Glasha. It would hardly be an exaggeration to say that there is
more level ground on the tops of these mountains than in areas of
corresponding size in the valleys below. That these high plateaus
are planes of erosion is shown by their independence of geological
structure, the upturned edges of the vertical and contorted schists
having been abruptly shorn off and the granite having been wasted
and levelled along its exposed surface. Among the Southern Up-
lands exist traces of a similar tableland of erosion. The top of Broad
Law on the confines of Peeblesshire and Selkirkshire, for example, is
a level moor comprising between 300 and 400 acres above the contour
line of 2500 ft. and lying upon the upturned edges of the greatly
denuded Silurian grits and shales. An instructive example of the
similar destruction of a much younger platform is to be found in the
terraced plateaus of Skye, Eigg, Canna, Muck, Mulf and Mprven,
which are portions of what was probably originally a continuous
plain of basalt. Though dating back only to older Tertiary time,
this plain has been so deeply trenched by the forces of denudation
that it has been reduced to mere scattered fragments. Thousands
of feet of basalt have been worn away from many parts of its surface;
deep and wide valleys have been carved out of it ; and so enormously
has it been wasted, that it has been almost entirely stripped from
wide tracts which it formerjy covered and where only scattered
outliers remain to prove that it once existed.
It is curious that broad flat-topped mountains are chiefly to be
found in the eastern parts of the country. Traced westwards, these
forms gradually give place to narrow ridges and crests. No contrast,
for instance, can be greater than that between the wide elevated
moors of the eastern Grampians, and the crested ridges of western
Inverness-shire and Argyllshire Loch Hourn, Glen Nevis, Glencoe
or that between the broad uplands of Peeblesshire and the pre-
cipitous heights of Galloway. Geological structure alone will not
account for these contrasts. Perhaps the cause is to be sought mainly
in differences of rainfall. The western mountains, exposed to the
fierce lash of the Atlantic rains, sustain the heaviest and most constant
precipitation. Their sides are seamed with torrents which tear down
the solid rock and sweep its detritus into the glens and sea lochs. The
eastern heights.on the other hand .experience a smaller rainfall and con-
sequently a diminished rate of erosion. No doubt, too, the preponder-
ance of rainfall in the west has persisted for an enormous period.
Regarding the existing flat-topped heights among the eastern
Grampians as remnants of what was once the general character of the
surface, we can trace every step in the gradual obliteration of the
tableland and in the formation of the most rugged and most indi-
vidualized forms of isolated mountain. In fact, in journeying west-
wards across the tops of the Highland mountains we pass, as it were,
over successive stages in the history of the origin of Highland scenery.
The oldest types of form lie on the east side and the newest on the
west. From the larger fragments of the denuded tableland we
advance to ridges with narrow tops, which pass by degrees into
sharp rugged crests. The ridges, too, are more and more trenched
until they become groups of detached hills or mountains. In the
progress of this erosion full scope has been afforded for the modifica-
tion of form by variation in geological structure. Each ridge and
mountain has been cut into its shape by denudation, but its outlines
have been determined by the nature of the rocks and the manner in
which they have yielded to decay. Every distinct variety of rock
has impressed its own character upon the landscape. Hence, amid
the monotonous succession of ridge beyond ridge and valley after
valley, diversity of detail has resulted from the varying composition
and grouping of the rocks.
The process by which the ancient tablelands have been trenched
into valleys and confluent ridges is most instructively displayed
among the higher mountains, where erosion proceeds at an acceler-
ated pace. The long screes or talus-slopes at the foot of every crag
and cliff bear witness to the continual waste. The headwaters of a
river cut into the slopes of the parent hill. Each valley is conse-
quently lengthened at the expense of the mountain from which it
descends. Where a number of small torrents converge in a steep
mountain recess, they cut out a crescent-shaped hollow or half-
cauldron, which in the Scottish Highlands is known as a corrie. It
is doubtful whether the convergent action of the streams has been
the sole agency in the erosion of these striking cavities, or whether
snow and glacier-ice have had a share in the work. No feature in
Highland scenery is more characteristic than the corries, and in none
can the influence of geological structure be better understood.
Usually the upper part of a corrie is formed by a crescent of naked
rock, from which long trails of debris descend to the bottom of the
hollow. Every distinct variety of rock has its own type of corrie,
the peculiarities being marked both in the details of the upper cliffs
and crags, and in the amount, form and colour of the screes. The
Scottish corries have been occupied by glaciers. Hence their
bottoms are generally ice-worn or strewn over with moraine stuff.
Sometimes a small tarn fills up the bottom, ponded back by a
moraine. It is in such localities that we can best observe the last
relics of the glaciers that once overspread the country. Among these
high grounds also the gradual narrowing of ridges into sharp, narrow,
knife-edged crests and the lowering of these into cols or passes can
be admirably studied. Where two glens begin opposite to each other
on the same ridge, their corries are gradually cut back until only a
sharp crest separates them. This crest, attacked on each front and
along the summit, is lowered with comparative rapidity, until merely
a low col or pass may separate the heads of the two glens. The various
stages in this kind of demolition are best seen where the underlying
rock is of granite or similarly tough material, which at the same time
is apt to be split and splintered by means of its numerous transverse
joints. The granite mountains of Arran furnish excellent illustrations.
Where a rock yields to weather with considerable uniformity in all
directions it is likely to assume conical forms in the progress of denu-
dation. Sometimes this uniformity is attained by a general dis-
integration of the rock into fine debris, which rolls down the slopes in
long screes. In other cases it is secured by the intersection of joints,
whereby a rock, in itself hard and durable, is divided into small
angular blocks, which are separated by the action of the elements
and slide down the declivities. In many instances the beginning of
the formation of a cone may be detected on ridges which have been
deeply trenched by valleys. The smaller isolated portions, attacked
on all sides, have broken up under weather. Layer after layer has
been stripped from their sides, and the flat or rounded top has been
narrowed until it has now become the apex of a cone. The mountain
Schiehallion (3547 ft.) is an instance of a cone not yet freed from its
parent ridge. Occasionally a ridge has been carved into a series of
cones united at their bases, as in the chain of the Pentland Hills.
A further stage in denudation brings us to isolated groups of cones
completely separated from the rest of the rocks among which they
once lay buried. Such groups may be carved out of a continuous
band of rock extending into the regions beyond. The Paps of Jura,
for instance, rise out of a long belt of quartzite which stretches
through the islands of Islay, Jura and Scarba. In many cases,
however, the groups point to the existence of some boss of rock of
greater durability than those in the immediate neighbourhood, as in
the Cuchullins and Red Hills of Skye and the group of granite cones
of Ben Loyal, Sutherland. The most impressive form of solitary cone
is that wherein after vast denudation a thick overlying formation has
been reduced to a single outlier, such as Morven in Caithness, the
two Bens Griam in Sutherland, and still more strikingly, the pyramids
of red sandstone on the western margin of the shires of Sutherland
and Ross and Cromarty. The horizontal stratification of some of
these masses gives them a curiously architectural aspect, further
increased by the effect of the numerous vertical joints by which the
rock is cleft into buttresses and recesses along the fronts of the
precipices and into pinnacles and finials along the summits. Solitary
or grouped pyramids of red sandstone between 3000 and 4000 ft.
GEOGRAPHY]
SCOTLAND
above the sea are mere remnants of a continuous sheet of red sand-
stone that once spread far and wide over the western Highlands.
Stratified rocks when they have not been much disturbed from
their original approximate horizontality weather into escarpments.
Such cliffs may run for many miles across a country, rising one above
another into lofty terraced hills. In Scotland the rocks have been
so dislocated and disturbed as to prevent the formation of continuous
escarpments, and this form of rock-scenery is consequently almost
entirely absent, except locally and for the most part on a compara-
tively small scale. The most extensive Scottish escarpments are
found among the igneous rocks. Where lava has been piled up in
successive nearly horizontal sheets, with occasional layers of tuff or
other softer rock between them, it offers conditions peculiarly favour-
able for the formation of escarpments, as in the wide basalt plateaus
of the Inner Hebrides. The Carboniferous lavas of the Campsieand
Fintry Hills and of the south of Dumfriesshire and Roxburghshire
likewise rise in lines of bold escarpment.
The lakes and water-basins may be classified in four groups, each
with its own peculiar scenery and distinct mode of origin
Lakes. ^ gj gn ] a ) ceSj ( 2 ) ro ck-tarns, (3) moraine-tarns, (4) lakes
of the plains.
1. Glen lakes are those which occupy portions of glens. They are
depressions in the valleys, not due to local heaping up of detritus,
but true rock-basins, often of great depth. Much discussion has
arisen as to their mode of origin, but it is probable they were caused
by the erosive action of ice, since glaciers occupied the glens where
they occur and wore down the rocks along the sides and bottom:
but it is a point of difficulty in this theory whether ice could have
eroded the deepest of the hollows. In any circumstances the lakes
must be of recent geological date. Any such basins belonging to the
time of the folding of the crystalline schists would have been filled
up and effaced long ago. Indeed, so rapid is the infilling by the
torrents which sweep down detritus from the surrounding heights
that even the existing lakes are visibly diminishing. Glen lakes are
almost wholly confined to the western half of the Highlands, where
they form the largest sheets of fresh water. Hardly any lakes are to
be seen east of a line drawn from Inverness to Perth. West of that
line, however, they abound in both the longitudinal and the trans-
verse valleys. The most remarkable line of them is that which fills
up much of the Great Glen, Loch Ness being the largest. Other im-
portant longitudinal lakes are Lochs Tay, Awe, Ericht and Shiel.
The most picturesque glen lakes, however, lie in transverse valleys,
which being cut across the strike of the rocks present greater variety
and, usually, abruptness of outline. Lochs Lomond, Katrine and
Lubnaig in the southern Highlands, and Lochs Maree and More in the
north, are conspicuous examples.
2. Rock-tarns are small lakes lying in rock-basins on the sides of
mountains or the summits of ridges, and on rocky plateaus or plains.
Unlike glen lakes, they have no necessary dependence upon lines of
valley, but are scattered as it were broadcast, and are by far the
most abundant of the Scottish lakes. Dispersed over all parts of the
western Highlands, they are most numerous in the north-west,
especially in the Outer Hebrides and in the west of the shires of Ross
and Cromarty and Sutherland, where the surface of the Archean
gneiss is so thickly sprinkled with them that many tracts consist
nearly as much of water as of land. They almost invariably lie on
strongly ice-worn platforms of rock, and are obviously hollows
produced by the gouging action of the sheets of land-ice by which
the general glaciation of the country was affected. In the Southern
Uplands, owing to the greater softness and uniformity of texture of
the rocks, rock-tarns are comparatively infrequent, except in
Galloway, where the protrusion of granite and its associated meta-
morphism have reproduced Highland conditions of rock-structure.
In the rocky hill-ranges of the Central Plain rock-tarns occasionally
make their appearance.
3. Moraine-tarns small sheets of water ponded back by some
of the last moraines shed by the retreating glaciers are confined to
the more mountainous tracts. Among the Southern Uplands the
best-known and one of the most picturesque is the wild and lonely
Loch Skene, lying in a recess of Whitecoomb at the head of Moffat
Water. Others are sprinkled over the higher parts of the valleys in
Galloway. None occurs in the Central Plain. In the Highlands they
may be counted by hundreds, nestling in the bottoms of the corries.
In the north-western counties, where the glaciers continued longest
to descend to the sea-level, lakes retained by moraine-barriers may
be found very little above the sea.
4. The Lakes of the Plains lie in hollows of the glacial detritus
which is strewn so thickly over the lower grounds. As these hollows
were caused by original irregular deposition rather than by erosion,
they have no intimate relation to the present drainage-lines. The
lakes vary in size from mere pools to sheets of water several square
miles in area. As a rule they are shallow in proportion to their
extent and surface. They were once more numerous than they are
now, but some have disappeared through natural causes and others
have been drained. The largest sheets of fresh water in the Low-
lands are lakes of the plains as Loch Leven and the Lake of Menteith.
The eastern and western seaboards present a singular contrast.
The eastern is indented by a series of broad arms of the sea the
firths of Forth and Tay, Moray and Dornoch firths but is otherwise
relatively unbroken, The land slopes gently to the sea or to the
edge of cliffs that nave been cut back by the waves. The shores are
for the most part low, with few islands in front of them, and culti-
vation comes down almost to the tide-line. The western .,
side, on the contrary, is from end to end intersected with
long narrow sea lochs or fjords. The land shelves down
rapidly into the sea and is fronted by chains and groups of islands.
The explanation of this contrast must be sought in geological
structure. The west side, as we have seen, has been more deeply
eroded than the eastern. The glens are more numerous there and on
the whole deeper and narrower. Many of them are prolonged under
the sea; in other words, the narrow deep fjords are seaward con-
tinuations of the glens. The presence of the sea in these fjords is an
accident. If they could be raised out of the sea they would become
glens, with lakes filling their deeper portions. That this has been
their history hardly admits of question. They are submerged land-
valleys, and as they run down the whole western coast they show
that this side has subsided to a considerable depth beneath its former
level. The Scottish sea lochs must be considered in connexion with
those of western Ireland and Norway. The whole of this north-
western coast-line of Europe bears witness to recent submergence.
The bed of the North Sea, which at no distant date in geological
history was a land surface across which plants and animals migrated
freely into Great Britain, sank beneath the sea-level, while the
Atlantic advanced upon the western margin of the continent and
filled the seaward ends of what had previously been valleys open to
the sun. In this view the Outer and Inner Hebrides were formerly
one with themselves and the mainland, and the western isles therefore
are truly grouped with the Highland province of Scotland. Nearly
the whole coast-line is rocky. On the east indeed, the shores of the
estuaries are generally low, but the land between the mouths of these
inlets is more or less precipitous. On the west the coast is mostly
either a steep rocky declivity or a sea-wall, though strips of lower
ground are found in the bays. The cliffs vary in character according
to the nature of the rock. At Cape Wrath, precipices 300 ft. high
have been cut out of the Archean gneiss. The varying texture of
this rock, its irregular foliation and jointing, and its ramifying veins
of pegmatite give it very unequal powers of resistance. Here it
projects in irregular bastions and buttresses, there retires into deep
recesses and tunnels, but shows everywhere a ruggedness of aspect
eminently characteristic. In striking contrast to these precipices are
those of the Cambrian red sandstone a few miles to the east. Vast
vertical walls of rock shoot up to a height of 600 ft., cut by their
perpendicular joints into quadrangular piers and projections, some
of which stand out alone as cathedral-like islets in front of the main
cliff. The sombre colouring is relieved by vegetation along the edges
of the nearly flat beds which project like great cornices and serve as
nesting-places for sea-fowl. On the west the most notable cliffs
south of those of Cape Wrath and the Cambrian sandstones of
Sutherland are to be found among the basaltic islands, particularly in
Skye, where a magnificent range of precipices rising to 1000 ft.
bounds the western coast-line. However, the highest cliffs are found
among the Shetland and Orkney Islands. The sea-wall of Foula, in
Shetland, and the western front of Hoy, in Orkney, rise like walls to
heights of noo or 1200 ft. Caithness is one wide moor, terminating
almost everywhere seaward in a range of precipices of Old Red
Sandstone. Along the eastern coast most of the cliffs are formed of
rocks belonging to this formation. Beginning at Stonehaven, an
almost unbroken line of precipice varying up to 200 ft. in height runs
to the mouth of the estuary of the Tay. On the east the Southern
Uplands plunge abruptly into the sea near St Abb's Head in a noble
range of precipices 300 to 500 ft. in height, and on the west terminate
in a long broken line of sea-wall, which begins at the mouth of Loch
Ryan, extends to the Mull of Galloway, and reappears again in the
southern headlands of Wigtown and Kirkcudbright. Among the
most picturesque features of Scottish sea-cliffs are the numerous
stacks or columns of rock which during the demolition and cutting-
back of the precipices have been isolated and left standing amidst
the waves. These remnants attain their most colossal size and height
on the cliffs of Old Red Sandstone. Thus the Old Man of Hoy in
Orkney is a huge column of yellow sandstone between 400 and
500 ft. high, forming a conspicuous landmark in the north. The coast
of Caithness abounds in outstanding pillars and obelisks of flagstone.
The low shores on the west coast are frequently occupied by sand-
dunes, as on the western margin of North and South Uist, and in
many bays from the north of Sutherland to the coast of Ayrshire.
They are more abundant on the east coast, however, especially on the
shores of Aberdeenshire, between the mouths of the two Esks in
Forfarshire, on both sides of the mouth of the Firth of Tay, and at
various places on the Firth of Forth. Raised sea-beaches likewise
play a part in the coast scenery. These alluvial terraces form a strip
of low fertile land between the edge of the sea and the rising ground
of the interior, and among the western fjords sometimes supply the
only arable soil in their neighbourhood, their flat green surfaces
presenting a strong contrast to the brown and barren moors that rise
from them. Most of the seaport towns stand upon platforms of
raised beach. Considerable deposits of mud, silt and sand are ac-
cumulating in many of the estuaries. In the Tay, Forth and Clyde,
where important harbours are situated, great expense is involved in
constantly dredging to remove the sediment continually brought
down from the land and carried backwards and forwards by the tides.
416
SCOTLAND
[GEOLOGY
While no islands except mere solitary rocks like May Island, the
Bass Rock and Inchkeith diversify the eastern seaboard, the western
presents a vast number, varying from such extensive tracts as Skye
to the smallest stack or skerry. Looked at in the broadest way, these
numerous islands may be regarded as belonging to two groups or
series, the Outer and the Inner Hebrides. In the Outer Hebrides
most of the ground is low, rocky and plentifully dotted over with
lakes; but it rises into mountainous heights in Harris, some of the
summits attaining elevations of 2600 ft. The general trend of this
long belt of islands is north-north-east. The Inner Hebrides form a
much less definite group. They may be regarded as beginning with
the Shiant Isles in the Minch and stretching to the southern head-
lands of Islay, and their irregularity has no doubt been chiefly brought
about by the remarkable diversity of geological structure. Archean
?ieiss, Cambrian sandstone, Silurian quartzite, limestone and schist,
irassic sandstone and limestone. Cretaceous sandstone, and
ertiary basalts, gabbros, and granitic rocks all enter into the com-
position of the islands.
Influence of Topography. The influence of the topography of the
country on the history of its inhabitants has been all-important.
How powerfully the configuratipn affects the climate is shown in the
remarkable difference between the rainfall of the mountainous west
and of the lowland east. This difference has necessarily modified
the character and employment of the people, leading to the culti-
vation of the soil on the one side and the raising of sheep and cattle
on the other. The fertile low grounds on the east have offered
facilities for the invasions of Romans, Norsemen and English, while
the mountain fastnesses of the interior and the west have served as
secure retreats for the older Celtic population. While, therefore,
Teutonic people have spread over the one area, the earlier race has to
this day maintained its ground in the other. Not only external con-
figuration but geological structure also has profoundly influenced the
progress of the inhabitants. In the Highlands no mineral wealth has
been discovered to stimulate the industry of the natives or to attract
labour and capital. These tracts remain still, as of old, sparsely
inhabited and given over to the breeding of stock and the pursuit
of game. In the Lowlands, on the other hand, rich stores of coal,
iron, lime and other minerals have been found. The coal-fields have
gradually drawn to them an ever-increasing share of the population.
Villages and towns have suddenly developed and rapidly increased
in size. Manufactures and shipbuilding have grown and commerce
has advanced with accelerated pace. Other influences have of course
contributed largely to the development of the country, but among
them all the chief place must be assigned to that fortunate geological
structure which, amid the revolutions of the past, has preserved in
the centre of Scotland those fields of coal and ironstone which are the
foundations of the national industry.
Geology.
Archean Rocks. The oldest rocks of Scotland and of the British
Isles are known, from their antiquity, as Archean, and consist chiefly
of gneiss (called Fundamental, as lying at the foundation of the
geoTogica_l structure of the country, and Lewisian and Hebridean,
because it is well developed in the island of Harris and the Outer
Hebrides), which varies from a coarsely crystalline granitoid mass
to fine schist. The coarse varieties are most abundant, intermingled
with bands of hornblende-rock, hornblende-schist, pegmatite, eucrite,
mica-schist, sericite-schist and other schistose accompaniments.
In a few places limestone has been observed. No trace of any
organism has ever been detected in any of these rocks. Over wide
areas, particularly on the mainland, the bands of gneiss have a
general north-west trend and undulate in frequent plications with
variable inclination to north-east and south-west. The largest tract
of Archean rock is that which forms almost the whole of the Outer
Hebrides, from Barra Head to the Butt of Lewis. Other areas more
or less widely separated from each other run down the western parts
of the shires of Sutherland and Ross and Cromarty, and are probably
continued at least as far as the island of Rum.
Eastern or Younger Schists. The central, southern and eastern
Highlands are occupied by metamorphosed sedimentary and igneous
rocks, to which has been provisionally assigned the name of Dalradian,
from the old Celtic kingdom of Dalriada. Their true stratigraphical
position has not yet been ascertained, and it may appear that more
than one group of rocks is included in the series. Eastward of the
Archean gneiss in the west of Sutherland the effect of enormous
underground pressure has been to upraise masses of the ancient gneiss
and Torridonian sandstone and thrust them westward over the
younger rocks. It is not possible to say what was the original
character of many of the disrupted materials, for they have been
rearranged and re-crystallized into granulitic, flaggy gneisses and
schists (Moine schists). They extend from the north-east of Suther-
land as far south as the Sound of Mull. To the east of the dislocation
of the Great Glen these puzzling rocks may also be met with, though
in that tract most of the surface comprises sedimentary and igneous
rocks, the metamorphism of which has varied much. Immense
sheets of dolerite, gabbro, or allied basic rocks indicate eruptive
materials intruded as sills or poured out as lavas contemporaneously
with the sedimentary formations among which they he. On the
other hand, there occur bands of conglomerate, pebbly grit, quartzite,
graphitic shale and limestone in a certain ordered sequence and over
a wide area. Traces of annelids have been detected in some of the
quartzites, and some of the less changed parts of the limestones may
be searched for fossils. This great series of metamorphic rocks, the
geological age of which is still unsettled, has had a powerful effect on
the scenery, especially along the Highland line. Where a thick group
of coarse hard grits intercalated in the sedimentary rocks crops out
it rises into a chain of lofty rugged hills, of which Ben Ledi and Ben
Vorlich are examples. The slate hills, weathering more readily,
__ Recent & Pleistocene
i 1 Cretaceous
Coal Measures, Carboniferous
Millstone Grit Serifs
:- j Lower Carboniferous
Old Red Sandstone A Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
J Cambrian
Mctamorphic Group
Volcanic Rochs
Basic Intrusive Rocks
Granite & Acid Intrusive Rocks
Scale. 1:4.600.000
English Miles
lo ao 30 40 50
assume gentle slopes and rounded ridges, as in the high land from
Holy Loch to the Kyles of Bute. The quartzites rise in conical hills,
such as those of Jura and Islay. And to the soil created by the decay
of the limestones is due a greener verdure than that of the surround-
ing moors.
Torridonian Sandstone. Above the Archean gneiss lies a series of
red and chocolate-coloured sandstone (Torridon sandstone), which
form a number of detached areas from Cape Wrath down the sea-
board of the shires of Sutherland and Ross and Cromarty, across
Skye, and as far as the island of Rum. They rise into prominent
Eyramidal mountains, which, as the stratification is usually almost
orizontal, present in their terraced sides a singular contrast to the
neighbouring heights, composed of highly plicated crystalline schists.
In the Torridon district they can be seen towering bed above bed to
a height of about 4000 ft., but they must be at least 10,000 ft. thick.
They are not met with anywhere else in Scotland. Traces of annelids
and probably other organisms have been found in the bands of shale
occurring in the south-west of the shire of Ross and Cromarty, in the
isle of Raasay, and at Cailleach Head, and are the oldest relics of
animal life yet found in Great Britain.
Cambrian. In the north-western Highlands masses of white
quartzite, resting unconformably in Torridonian sandstone, run from
Loch Eriboll to Skye, forming in places great conical hills and some-
GEOLOGY]
times capping isolated mountains of red Torridpn sandstone. They
constitute the lowest group of the most interesting series of strata in
the Highlands, and yield a large number of fossils. In descending
order they embrace the following subdivisions, whose thickness in
the district of Durness is estimated at about 2000 ft. : (e) limestones,
dolomites and cherts, with numerous organic remains; (d) grit and
quartzite, with Saltarclla and Olenellus (Serpulite Grit) ; (c) calcare-
ous shales and dolomites, with many annelid casts and sometimes
Olenellus (Fucoid Beds) ; (6) Upper Quartzite, often crowded with
annelid pipes (Pipe Rock Quartzite) ; (a) Lower Quartzite their
original upper limit can nowhere be seen, for they have been over-
ridden by the Eastern Schists in those gigantic underground dis-
turbances already referred to, by which these rocks, the Archean
gneiss and Torridonian sandstone, were crumpled, inverted, dis-
located and thrust over each other. The quartzites themselves have
also been subjected to extraordinary horizontal displacement,
amounting in places to not less than 10 m. The rocks overlying them
to the east of the line of disturbance in the shires of Sutherland and
Ross and Cromarty are fine flaggy schists. The Cambrian system
including the Upper (Durness-Eriboll Limestone) and the Lower
(Serpulite grit, Fucoid Beds, Quartzite) forms a narrow band
which can be traced for 100 m. from the north coast of Sutherland to
Skye. Rocks of Cambrian age have not been identified elsewhere in
Scotland, though it may ultimately be shown that the quartzites and
limestones of the Central Highlands are equivalents of those of the
north-west coast.
Ordovician and Silurian. In the Southern Uplands a great de-
velopment of Ordoviciar and Silurian rocks is found. In that belt
they consist mostly of grcywacke, grit, shale and other sedimentary
rocks, but in the southwest of Ayrshire they include some thick
lenticular bands of limestone. They have been thrown into many
folds, the long axes of which run in a general north-easterly direction.
It is this structure which has determined the trend of the southern
Uplands. The plications of the Highlands and the chief dislocations
of the country have followed the same general direction, and hence
the parallelism and north-easterly trend of the main topographical
features. Abundant fossils (grapholites principally) in certain parts
of these rocks have shown that representatives of both the Ordovician
and Upper divisions are present. By far the larger part of the Up-
lands belongs to the former. The Upper Silurian shales and sand-
stones appear only along the northern and southern margins. The
coast on both sides of the country shows good sections of the rocks,
the Berwickshire cliffs being particularly fine. Those of Ayrshire and
Galloway are lower and more accessible, and permit of study of the
plication of the strata. Among the best localities for fossils are
Mpffat Water, in Dumfriesshire, for graptolites, and the Pentlands, in
Midlothian. Balmae, on the southern shore of Kirkcudbrightshire,
the coast south of Girvan and the limestone quarries of the Stinchar
and Girvan valleys, in Ayrshire, for shells, trilobites, corals, &c.
Old Red Sandstone. Scotland is the typical European region for
the deposits classed as Old Red Sandstone. These rocks are grouped
in two divisions, Lower and Upper, both of which appear to have
been deposited in lakes. The Lower, with its abundant intercalated
lavas and tuffs, extends continuously as a broad belt along the
northern margin of the Central Plain, reappears in detached tracts
along the southern border, is found again on the south side of the
Uplands in Berwickshire and the Cheviot Hills, occupies a tract of
Lome (Oban and the vicinity) in Argyllshire, and on the north side of
the Highlands underlies most of the low ground on both sides of
the Moray Firth, stretches across Caithness and through nearly the
whole ol the Orkney Islands, and is prolonged into Shetland. The
Upper Old Red Sandstone covers a more restricted space in most
of the areas just mentioned, its chief development being on the
flanks of the north-eastern part of the Southern Uplands, where it
spreads out over the Lammermuir Hills and the valleys of Berwick-
shire and Roxburghshire. The Lower Old Red Sandstone is rich in
remains of plants and fishes, notably in the flagstones of Caithness,
Orkney and Forfarshire. The volcanic rocks of this division form
ranges of hills in the Lowlands, such as the Pentlands, Ochils and
Sidlaws. They have in some places a thickness of 7000 ft. The lavas
are usually porphyrites, which occur in sheets, with intercalated
bands of volcanic tuff that are sometimes strongly felsitic. One of the
vents by which such materials were ejected occurs in the Braid Hills
on the south side of Edinburgh. Fossils are less common in the Upper
Old Red Sandstone, though they are foundparticularly fishes in
large numbers in certain spots, as at Dura Den, near Cupar-Fife.
Traces of contemporaneous volcanic action exist in the Orcadian
island of Hoy.
Carboniferous. The areas occupied by Carboniferous rocks are
almost entirely restricted to the Central Plain or Lowlands, but they
are also found skirting the Southern Uplands from the mouth of the
Tweed to that of the Nith. In the basins of the Forth and Clyde the
following subdivisions are well marked : (5) Upper Red Sandstone
series (red and grey sandstones, fireclays, shales, marls); (4) Coal
Measures (white and grey sandstones, dark shales, fireclays, coal
seams, ironstones) ; (3) Millstone Grit (massive sandstones and grits,
with fireclays, thin limestones and coal) ; (2) Carboniferous Lime-
stone series (c) sandstones and shales, with three or more seams of
limestone; (b) sandstones, shales, coals and ironstones, but with no
limestone bands; (a) sandstones, shales, fireclays, coals and iron-
XXIV. 14
SCOTLAND
stones, with thin limestones towards the top and the Hurlet (Renfrew-
shire) limestone at the bottom; (l) Calciferous Sandstone series
(b) Upper or Cement Stone group, consisting of white and grey
sandstones (of which the city of Edinburgh was built), black shales,
thin limestones (Burdiehouse, near Edinburgh), and occasional coal
seams; (a) Lower Red Sandstone group, with reddish and greenish
marls and shales, passing down with the Upper Old Red Sandstone.
The coal-fields contain two main groups of seams, the lower in the
middle section of the Carboniferous Limestone, and the upper in the
Coal Measures. The thin seams of the Calciferous Sandstone are not
workable, but the bituminous shales in the Firth of Forth basin are
largely worked for the manufacture of mineral oil. The plant-life
of the Carboniferous was exceedingly luxuriant and varied, and the
system is rich also in fossils of fishes, crustaceans, mollusca, insects
and other forms of animal life. There was great volcanic activity
during the deposition of the Calciferous Sandstone, Carboniferous
Limestone and Millstone Grit series. The two leading types of
volcanic areas are the plateaus, in which sheets of porphyrites, basalts
and even trachytes were emitted, sometimes with wide discharge of
volcanic ashes, and the puys, or isolated vents, or scattered groups of
vents, which discharged comparatively a small amount of lava and
ashes. The Campsie, Kilpatrick and Dumbarton hills, the high
ground from Greenock to Ardrossan, and the Carleton Hills in East
Lothian are examples of the plateaus, while Arthur's Seat in
Edinburgh and the Binn of Burntisland illustrate the puys. Most
of the hills and crags in the Carboniferous area are volcanic, and many
of them such as the castle rocks of Edinburgh and Stirling, Binny
Craig in Linlithgowshire, North Berwick Law and the Bass Rock
mark the sites of actual events of eruption.
Permian. Rocks assignable to the Permian system occupy only
a few small areas in Scotland. They fill up the valley of the Nith for
a few miles north of Dumfries, and, reappearing again in the same
valley a little farther north, run up the narrow valley of the Carron to
the Lowther Hills. Other detached tracts cover a considerable space
in Annandale, one of them ascending the deep defile, known as the
Devil's Beef Tub, at the head of that valley. Another isolated patch
occurs among the Lead Hills; and lastly, a considerable space in the
heart of the Ayrshire coal-field is occupied by Permian rocks.
Throughout these separate basins the prevailing rock is a red sand-
stone, varied in the narrow valleys with intercalated masses of
breccia. There can be no doubt that the valleys in which these
patches of red rocks lie already existed in Permian time. They seem
then to have been occupied by small lakes or inlets, not unlike
fjords. Numerous amphibian tracks have been found in the red
sandstone of Annandale and also near Dumfries, but no other traces
of the life of the time. One of the most interesting features of the
Scottish development of the Permian system is the occurrence of
intercalated bands of contemporaneously erupted volcanic rocks in
the Carron, Nithsdale and Ayrshire. The actual vents which were
the sites of the small volcanoes still remain distinct, and the erupted
lavas form high ground in the middle of Ayrshire.
Triassic. The Triassic system is only feebly represented. The
largest tract occurs in the south of Dumfriesshire between Annan and
the head of the Solway Firth. To this division are assigned the
yellow sandstones of Elgin, which have yielded crocodilian and other
reptilian remains, the discovery of which led to the rocks being
separated from the Upper Old Red Sandstone, to which they had
previously been thought to belong. There occur also below the Lias
on some parts of the west coast unfossiliferous red sandstones, con-
glomerates and breccias, presenting lithological resemblance to the
Rhaetic group of England. Such strata are well seen in the isle of
Raasay and near Heast in Skye. Red sandstones and conglomerates,
probably of the same age, attain a thickness of several hundred feet
at Gruinard Bay on the west coast of the county of Ross and
Cromarty. On the east side of Scotland, where so many fragments
of the Secondary rocks occur as boulders in the glacial deposits, a
large mass of strata was formerly exposed at Linksfield to the north
of Elgin, containing fossils which appear to show it to belong to the
Rhaetic beds at the top of the Trias. But it was not in place, and was
probably a mass transported by ice. Rhaetic strata no doubt exist
in situ at no great distance under the North Sea.
Jurassic. The Jurassic system comprising, in descending order,
the subdivisions of Upper Oolites (Portlandian Kimmeridge Clay),
Middle Oolites (coal limestones; Oxford clay), Lower Oolites (Great
Oolite series; Inferior Oolite series), Lias (Upper, Middle, Lower)
is well represented on both sides of the Highlands. Along the east
coast of Sutherland good sections are exposed showing the succession
of strata. Among these the Lower and Middle Lias can be identified
by their fossils. The Lower Oolite is distinguished by the occurrence
in it of some coal-seams, one of which, 3^ ft. in thickness, has been
worked at Brora. The Middle Oolite consists mostly of sandstones
with bands of shale and limestones, and includes fossils which indicate
the English horizons from the Kellaways Rock up to the Coral Rag.
The lower part of the Kimmeridge Clay is probably represented by
sandstones and conglomerates, forming the highest beds of the series
in Sutherland. On the west side of the Highlands Jurassic rocks are
found in many detached areas from the Shiant Isles to the southern
shores of Mull. Over much of this region they owe their preservation
largely to the mass of lavas poured over them in Tertiary time.
They have been uncovered, indeed, only at a comparatively recent
5
4 1 8
SCOTLAND
[CLIMATE
geological date. They comprise a consecutive series of deposits from
the bottom of the Lias up to the Oxford Clay. The Lower, Middle
and Upper Lias consist chiefly of shales and shelly limestones, with
some sandstones, well seen along the shores of Broadford Bay in
Skye and in some of the adjacent islands. The Lower Oolites are made
up of sandstones and shales with some limestones, and are overlaid
by several hundred feet of an estuarine series of deposits consisting
chiefly of thick white sandstones, below and above which lie shales
and shelly limestones. These rocks form a prominent feature under-
neath the basalt terraces of the east side of Skye, Raasay and Eigg.
They form the highest members of the Jurassic series, representing
?robably some part of the Oxford Clay. The next Secondary rocks
Cretaceous) succeed them unconformably.
Cretaceous. Rocks belonging to the Cretaceous system at one
time covered considerable areas on both sides of the Highlands, but
they have been entirely stripped off the eastern side, while on the
western they have been reduced to a few fragmentary patches,
which have survived because of the overlying sheets of basalt that
have protected them. Some greenish sandstones containing recog-
nizable and characteristic fossils are the equivalents of the Upper
Greensand of the south of England. These rocks are found on the
south and west coasts of Mull and on the west coast of Argyllshire.
They are covered by white sandstones and these by white chalk and
marly beds, which represent the Upper Chalk of England. Their
existence under the basalt outlier of Ben ladain in Moryen, at a
height of 1600 ft. above the sea, shows notably how extensively they
have been denuded, but also over how large a portion of the Western
Highland seaboard they may have spread. They are a prolongation
of the Cretaceous deposits of Antrim (Ireland). Enormous numbers
of flints and also less abundant fragments of chalk are found in
glacial deposits bordering the Moray Firth. These transported relics
show that the Chalk must once have been in place at no great distance,
if indeed it did not actually occupy part of Aberdeenshire and the
neighbouring counties.
Older Tertiary. Above the highest Secondary rocks on the west
coast come terraced plateaus of basalt, which spread out over wide
areas in Skye, Eigg, Mull and Morven, and form most of the smaller
islets of the chain of the Inner Hebrides. These plateaus are com-
posed of nearly horizontal sheets of basalt columnar, amorphous or
amygdaloidal which, in Ben More, in Mull, attain a thickness of
more than 3000 ft. They are prolonged southwards into Antrim,
where similar basalts overlying Secondary strata cover a large
territory. Occasional beds of tuff are intercalated among these
lavas, and likewise seams of fine clay or shale which have preserved
the remains of numerous land-plants. The presence of these fossils
indicates that the eruptions were subaerial, and a comparison of them
with those elsewhere found among Older Tertiary strata shows that
they probably belong to the Oligocene stage of the Tertiary series of
formations, and therefore that the basalt eruptions took place in
early Tertiary time. The volcanic episode to which these plateaus
owe their ongin was one of the most important in the geological
history of Great Britain. It appears to have resembled in its main
features those remarkable outpourings of basalt which have deluged
so many thousand square miles of the western area of the United
States. The eruptions were connected with innumerable fissures up
which the basalt rose and from numerous points on which it flowed
out at the surface. These fissures with the basalt that solidified in
them now form the vast assemblage of dykes which cross Scotland,
the north of England and the north of Ireland. That the volcanic
period was a prolonged one is shown by the great denudation of the
plateaus before the last eruptions took place. In the Isle of Eigg, for
example, the basalts had already been deeply eroded by river-action
and into the river-course a current of glassy lava (pitch-stone)
flowed. Denudation has continued active ever since, and now,
owing to greater hardness and consequent power of resistance, the
glassy lava stands up as the prominent and picturesque ridge of
the Scuir, while the basalts which formerly rose high above it have
been worn down into terraced declivities that slope away from it to
the sea. A remarkable feature in the volcanic phenomena was the
disruption of the basaltic plateaus by large bosses of gabbro and of
various granitoid rocks. These intrusive masses now tower into
conspicuous groups of hills the Cuillins in Skye, the mountains of
Rum and Mull, and the rugged heights of Ardnamurchan. ,
Post-Tertiary. Under the Post-Tertiary division come the records
of the Ice Age, when Scotland was buried under sheets of ice which
ground down, striated and polished the harder rocks over the whole
country, and left behind them the widespread accumulation of clay,
gravel and sand known as Glacial Deposits. The Till or Boulder
Clay, the most universal kind of Drift which covers much of the
Lowlands to a depth sometimes of 100 ft., and along the flanks of hills
reaches a height of 2000 ft. or more was pushed along by ice
radiating from different centres, evidence of which is to be seen in
the direction of the striae on the rocky surface of the country as well
as in the dispersion of boulders and stones from recognizable districts.
Thus remains of Highland schists have been borne across the Central
Plain and deposited on the northern margin of the Southern Uplands.
Above the Boulder Clay are found sands and gravels, along with
perched boulders which, by their source and position, indicate the
direction and thickness of the ice that carried them. Moraines of
the last of the glaciers are numerous throughout the Highlands.
Recent. The youngest formations are the raised beaches con-
sisting sometimes of ledges cut in the rock, as on Lismore and other
parts of Loch Linnhe, and sometimes of heaped-up beds of sand and
gravel river terraces, lake deposits, peat-mosses, tracts of blown
sand notably seen in the dunes of Culbin, Rattray Head, Aberdeen,
Montrose and Tents Muir on the east coast, and at Stevenston, Troon,
Ayr Glenluce and along North and South Uist on the west. These are
related to the present configuration of the land and contain remains
of plants and animals still living on its surface. (A. GE. ; J. A. M.)
Climate
In considering the climate of Scotland the first place must be
assigned to the temperature of various districts during the months
of the year "since this, and not the mean temperature of the whole
year, gives the chief characteristics of climate. Thus, while the
annual temperatures of the west and east coasts are nearly equal,
the summer and winter temperatures are very different. At Portree
(on the east coast of Skye) the mean temperatures of January and
July are 30, and 56-8 F., whereas at Perth they are 37-5 and 59-0.
The prominent feature of the isotherms of the winter months is their
north and south direction, thus pointing not to the sun but to the
warm waters of the Atlantic as the more powerful influence in
determining the climate at this season through the agency of the
prevailing westerly winds. In exceptionally cold seasons the ocean
protects all places in its more immediate neighbourhood against the
severe frosts which occur in inland situations. While this influence
of the ocean is felt at all seasons, it is most strikingly seen in winter
and is more decided in proportion as the locality is surrounded by the
warm waters of the Atlantic. The influence of the North Sea is
similarly apparent, but in a less degree. Along the whole of the
eastern coast, from the Pentland Firth southwards, temperature is
higher than what is found a little inland. In summer, everywhere,
latitude for latitude, temperature is lower in the west than in the
east and inland situations, but in winter the inland climates are the
colder. The course of the isothermal lines in summer is very in-
structive. Thus the line of 59 passes from the Solway directly
northwards to the north of Perthshire and thence curves round east-
ward to near Stonehaven. From Teviotdale to the Grampians
temperature falls only one degree; but for the same distance farther
northwards it falls three degrees. The isothermal of 56 marks off the
districts where the finer cereals can be successfully raised. This
distribution of the temperature shows that the influence of the
Atlantic in moderating the heat of summer is very great and is felt
a long way into the interior of the country. On the other hand, the
high lands of western districts by robbing the westerly winds of their
moisture, and thus clearing the skies of eastern districts, exercise an
equally striking effect in the opposite direction in raising the
temperature.
There is nearly twice as much wind from the south-west as from
the north-east, but the proportions vary greatly in different months.
The south-west prevails from July to October, and again from
December to February; accordingly in these months the rainfall is
heaviest. These are the summer and winter portions of the year,
and an important result of the prevalence of these winds, with their
accompanying rains, which are coincident with the annual extremes
of temperature, is to imprint a more strictly insular character on the
climate, by moderating the heat of summer and the cold of winter.
The north-east winds acquire their greatest frequency from March to
June and in November, which are accordingly the driest portions of
the year.
The mountainous regions are mostly massed in the west and lie
generally north and south, or approximately facing the rain-bringing
winds from the Atlantic. Thus the climates of the west are essenti-
ally wet. On the other hand, the climates of the east are dry, because
the surface is lower and more level; and the breezes borne thither
from the west, being robbed of most of their superabundant moisture
in crossing the western hills, are drier and precipitate a greatly
diminished rainfalj. It thus happens that the driest climates in the
east are those which have to south-westwards the broadest extent
of mountainous ground, and that the wettest eastern climates are
those which are least protected by high lands on the west. The
breakdown of the watershed between the Firths of Clyde and Forth
exposes southern Perthshire, the counties of Clackmannan and
Kinross, and nearly the whole of Fife to the clouds and rains of the
west, and their climates are consequently wetter than those of any
others of the eastern slopes of the country. The driest cllmatel
of the east are in Tweeddale about Kelso and Jedburgh, the low
grounds of East Lothian, and those on the Moray Firth from Elgin
round to Dornoch. In these districts the annual rainfall averages
26 in., whereas over extensive breadths in the west it exceeds 100 in.,
in Glencroe being nearly 130 in., and on the top of Ben Nevis it may
reach 150 in.
II. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS, &c.
Population. At the end of the i sth century it is conjectured
that the population of Scotland did not exceed 500,000
Edinburgh having about 20,000 inhabitants, Perth about 9000,
and Aberdeen, Dundee and St Andrews about 4000 each,
the Union with England (1707) the population is supposed to
POPULATION]
SCOTLAND
419
have grown to 1,000,000. In 1755, according to the returns
furnished by the clergy to the Rev. Dr Alexander Webster
(1707-1784), minister of the Tron Kirk, Edinburgh who had
been commissioned by Lord President Dundas to prepare a
census for government, it was 1,265,380. At the first govern-
ment census (1801) it had reached 1,608,420. The increase at
succeeding decades has been continuous though fluctuating
in amount, and in 1901 the population amounted to 4,472,103
(females, 2,298,348). In 1902 the Registrar- General for Scotland
calculated that if the rate of increase (11-09%) manifest during
1891-1901 were uniformly maintained, the population would
double itself in the course of about 66 years.
TABLE I. Area and Population of Civil Counties in 1891 and 1901.
Civil Counties.
Area in
Acres.
Population.
Pop. per
sq. m.
1901.
1891.
1901.
I. Northern.
i. Shetland
2. Orkney
3. Caithness .
4. Sutherland
II. North-Western.
5. Ross and
Cromarty
6. Inverness .
III. North-Eastern.
7. Nairn .
8. Elgin (or
Mo/ay) .
9. Banff . . .
10. Aberdeen .
u. Kincardine
IV. East Midland.
12. Forfar .
13. Perth . . .
14. Fife
15. Kinross
ID. Clackmannan .
V. West Midland.
17. Stirling
18. Dumbarton
19. Argyll . . .
20. Bute
VI. South-Western.
21. Renfrew
22. Ayr
23. Lanark . .
VII. South-Eastern.
24. Linlithgow
25. Edinburgh
26. Haddington
27. Berwick
28. Peebles . .
29. Selkirk
VIII. Southern.
30. Roxburgh .
31. Dumfries .
32. Kirkcudbright
33. Wigtown .
352,889
240,476
438,878
1,297,849
28,711
30,453
37,177
21,896
28,166
28,699
33.870
2 1 ,440
Si
76
49
ii
2,330,092
118,237
"2,175
31
i,976,707
2,695,037
78,727
90,121
76,450
9O,IO4
25
21
4,671,744
168,848
166,554
23
103,429
305,"9
403,364
1,261,887
243,974
9,155
43,471
61,684
284,036
35,492
9,291
44,800
61,488
304,439
40,923
57
94
98
154
107
2,317,773
433,838
460,941
127
559-171
1,595,774
322,844
52,410
34,927
277,735
122,185
190,365
6,673
33,140
284,082
123,283
218,840
6,981
32,029
325
49
434
85
587
2,565,126
630,098
665,215
1 66
288,842
157.433
1,990,471
139,658
118,021
98,014
74,o85
18,404
142,291
113.865
73,642
18,787
315
463
24
86
2,576,404
308,524
348,585
87
153,332
724,523
562,821
230,812
226,386
1,105,899
268,980
254,468
1,339-327
1123
225
1523
1,440,676
1,563,097
1,862,775
827
76,861
234,339
171,011
292,577
222,599
170,762
52,808
434,276
37-377
32,290
14,750
27,712
65,708
488,796
38,665
30,824
15,066
23,356
547
1335
145
67
43
88
1,168,149
599,213
662,415
363
426,060
686,302
575,565
311,609
53,500
74,245
39,985
36,062
48,804
72,571
39,383
32,685
73
68
44
67
Grand Total
1,999,536
203,792
193,443
62
SCOTLAND
19,069,500
4,025,647
4,472,103
150
In 1901 there were 150 persons to each square mile, and 4-3 acres
(excluding inland waters, tidal rivers and foreshore) to each person.
The distribution of population is illustrated in the preceding table,
which gives the names and areas of the counties and other particulars.
In the northern, north-western and southern divisions the popula-
tion declined during the decade, the fifteen counties thus affected
being, in the order of decrease, beginning with the shire in which it
was smallest, Inverness, Banff, Argyll, Kirkcudbright, Shetland,
Sutherland, Dumfries, Ross and Cromarty, Clackmannan, Berwick,
Orkney, Roxburgh, Caithness, Wigtown and Selkirk. It will thus
be seen that the far north and far south alike decreased in population,
the decline being largely due to physical conditions, though it need
not be supposed that the limit of population was reached in either
area. The most sparsely inhabited county was Sutherland, the most
densely Lanark. The counties in which there was the largest increase
in the decennial period with Linlithgow first, followed by Lanark,
Stirling, Renfrew, Dumbarton and thirteen others principally
belonged to the Central Plain, or Lowlands, in which, broadly stated,
industries and manufactures, trade, commerce and agriculture and
educational facilities have attained their highest development. In
every county the population increased between 1801 and 1841, the
increase being more than 10 % in each county with the exception of
Argyll, Perth and Sutherland. After 1 84 1 , however, the population in
several Highland shires in which the clearance of crofters to make
way for deer was one of the most strongly-felt grievances among the
Celtic part of the people in the islands, and in some of the southern
counties, diminished. The next table affords a comparison of the
numbers of the population as grouped in towns, villages and rural
districts, and in the mainland and islands.
TABLE II. Population in Towns, Villages and Rural Districts,
Mainland and Islands, 1891 and 1901.
Groups.
Population.
Percentage of Pop. in
each to total Pop.
1891.
1901.
1891.
1901.
Towns l . . .
Villages *
Rural districts .
2,631,298
465,836
928,513
3,120,241
466,053
885,809
65-37
ii-57
23-06
69-77
10-42
19-81
Total
4,025,647
4,472,103
100-00
IOO-OO
Mainland
Islands .
3,865,748
159,899
4.316,551
155.552
96-03
3-97
96-52
3-48
Total
4,025,647
4.472,103
IOO-OO
100-00
1 Villages have populations of from 300 to 2000; towns from 2000
upwards.
Table III. gives the population of towns with more than 30,000
inhabitants.
TABLE III. Population in chief Towns in 1881, 1891 and IQOI.
Town.
1881.
1891.
1901.
Glasgow ....
Edinburgh ....
Dundee ....
Aberdeen ....
Paisley
Leith
Govan
551.415
228,357
140,239
105,189
55,638
59,485
50,492
565,839 (f enlarged
area, 658,198)
261,225 (of enlarged
area)
153,330
121,623
166,425
67,700
63,625
760,468
316,523
. 160,878
153.503
79.354
76,668
76,350
Greenock ....
Partick
Coatbridge ....
Kilmarnock
Kirkcaldy ....
Perth .....
Hamilton ....
Motherwell
66,704
27,410
24,812
23,901
23,632
28,980
18,517
12,904
63,423
36,538
30,034
28,447
27,151
29,899
24,859
18,726
67,672
54,28i
36,991
34,165
34,o63
32,886
32,775
30,418
The burghs in which the largest proportion of Scottish-born
persons lived in 1901 were Kirkcaldy (with 95-997 in every looof its
inhabitants), Aberdeen (with 94-997), Perth (with 94-442) and
Kilmarnock (with 94-046). The largest proportion of English-born
were found in Edinburgh (with 5-438%) and Leith (with 4-481).
Irish-born were most in evidence in Coatbridge (with 15-158 in every
100), Partick (with 12-05) and Govan (with 11-51). Welsh nation-
ality was most marked in Motherwell (with 0-250%). Those of
British-Colonial birth were most numerous in Edinburgh (with
0-933%), an d foreigners in Glasgow (with 0-890), Leith (with 0-741)
and Hamilton (with 0-720). In addition to the 17,654 resident for-
eigners there were 4973 foreigners casually in Scotland at the taking
of the census in 1901 (1839 men and women on board foreign and
British vessels), raising the total of foreigners actually enumerated
420
SCOTLAND
[VITAL STATISTICS
to 22,627 (males 14,448), of whom 10,373 were of Russian
nationality, 4051 of Italian, and 3232 of German.
Table IV. shows the nationalities of the people in 1891 and 1901.
TABLE IV. Illustrating Nationalities in 1891 and, igoi.
Scotland, 1891.
Scotland, 1901.
Where Born.
Number.
Percentage
of Pop.
Number.
Percentage
of Pop.
Scotland .
3,698,700
91-63
4,085,755
91-361
Ireland
184,807
4-84
205,064
4-585
England
108,736
2-70
131,350
2-937
Wales . . .
2,309
0-06
2,673
0-060
Isle of Man and ]
the Channel >-
927
O-O2
1,058
0-024
Islands
British Colonies .
13,607
0-39
15.907
0-355
British born"!
abroad, byl
naturalization
8,051
O-2O
12,642
0-283
and at sea
Foreigners
8,510
0-21
17,654
0-395
Total
4,025,647
100
4,472,103
100
Table V. gives the number of persons, exclusive of children under
three years of age, who spoke Gaelic only, and Gaelic and English,
with their percentages to the population in 1901. The counties in
which the highest percentages obtained of persons speaking Gaelic
only were Ross and Cromarty with 15-92% (12,171 persons) and
Inverness with 13-01% (11,722 persons). But in no fewer than
eighteen counties the proportion of Gaelic-speaking persons was
under I %.
TABLE VI. Births, Deaths, Marriages and Illegitimate Births,
i86i-iQoo.
1861-1870
(inclusive).
1871-1880
(inclusive).
1881-1890
(inclusive).
1891-1900
(inclusive).
Births
Deaths . .
Marriages
1,120,791
706,195
224,222
1,232,311
763,948
253,550
1,251,930
743,582
259,388
1,280,044
781,860
298,664
Illegitimate
births . .
IIO,o6l
108,260
102,128
90,981
The counties in which the highest percentages of illegitimate births
were found were Wigtown, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright and Peebles in
the south ; Elgin, Banff and Aberdeen in the north-east, and Caith-
ness in the north ; the shires showing the lowest percentages were
Clackmannan, Dumbarton and Shetland.
TABLE VII. Birth, Death and Marriage Ratio, 1861-1900, and
Percentages of Illegitimacy to total Births.
Rate.
1861-1870
(inclusive).
1871-1880
(inclusive).
1881-1890
(inclusive).
1891-1900
(inclusive).
Birth
Death . .
Marriage
3-48
0-19
0-69
3-47
2-15
0-71
3-22
1-91
0-66
3-oi
1-84
0-70
Percentages ~i
of illegiti-
mate births 1-
to total
births
9-81
8-79
8-15
7-ii
TABLE V. Showing Number of Persons aged three years and upwards speaking
Gaelic only and Gaelic and English in 1001.
Area.
Population.
Gaelic only.
Percentage.
Gaelic and
English.
Percentage.
Scotland ....
4.472.103
28,106
0-63
202-700
4-53
Northern portion
Southern portion
1,753.470
2,718,633
27.854
252
1-59
O-OI
160,915
41.785
9-18
i-54
Northern division .
North-western
North-eastern
East-midland
West-midland
South-western
South-eastern
Southern
"2.175
166,554
460,941
665,215
348,585
1,862,775
662,415
193,443
489
23.893
20
95
3,357
162
89
i
o-43
H-34
O-OI
O-OI
0-96
O-OI
O-OI
o-oo
17,084
82,573
5,125
13,818
42.3'5
34,289
7,002
494
15-23
49-58
I'M
2-06
12-14
1-84
I -06
O-26
Vital Statistics. In Table VI. is shown the number of births,
deaths, marriages and illegitimate births for the decades ending
1870, 1880, 1890 and 1900.
Table VII. gives the percentages to the population of the births,
deaths and marriages in the four decades specified, along with the
ratio of illegitimacy to the total number of births in the same periods.
Occupations of the People. Table VI 1 1 . divides
the people according to occupations. The most
noteworthy feature in this connexion is the
great diminution that took place within the
intercensal period (1891-1901) in the unpro-
ductive class, which to some extent accounts
for the increase in the number of the industrial
and commercial classes.
Poor Relief. Before the Reformation, relief
of the poor had been the duty of the Church,
for early legislation aimed at suppressing
rather than aiding poverty. Those, indeed,
who were absolutely dependent on alms
might receive a licence to beg within the
bounds of their own parish, but the able-
bodied poor were severely dealt with. The
act of 1579 directed the magistrates in towns
and the justices in rural parishes to propose
a register of the aged and impotent poor and to levy a tax on
the inhabitants of every parish for their support. One con-
sequence of the denial of relief to the able-bodied was that the
workhouse, so familiar in the English poor-law system, was not
established in Scotland, though almshouses are found in many
TABLE VIII. Occupation of the People in 1801 and 1001.
Occupations.
Number engaged in each Class of Occupation.
Percentage engaged in each Class
of Occupation.
1891.
1901.
1891.
1901.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Males.
Females.
Total.
Males.
Females.
Males.
Females.
Total occupied and ~|
unoccupied (aged 1
10 years and up- f
wards)
1,446,209
1,599.453
3,045,662
1,656,081
1,790,242
3,446,323
IOO-OO
IOO-OO
100-00
IOO-00
Engaged in occu-
pations
Retired or unoccu-
pied ....
1,203,909
242,300
543.828
1,055,625
1,747,737
1-297,925
1,391,188
264,893
591,624
1,198,618
1,982,812
1,463,5"
83-25
16-75
34-00
66-00
84-00
16-00
33-05
66-95
Classes.
I. Professional .
2. Domestic
3. Commercial .
4. Agriculture and
Fishing .
5. Industrial
6. Unoccupied and
non-productive
59,053
29,163
174.558
205,827
735,308
242,300
23,051
190,057
10,276
30,018
290,426
1,055,625
82,104
219,220
184,834
235,845
1.025,734
1,297,925
67,827
26,755
221,579
196,581
878,446
264,893
33,234
174,475
24,136
40,730
319,049
1,198,618
101,061
201,230
245,715
237,3"
1,197,495
1,463,5"
4-08
2 -O2
12-07
I4-23
50-85
if'- 75
1-44
1 1 -88
0-64
1-88
18-16
66-00
4-10
1-61
I3-38
11-87
53-04
16-00
1-86
9-75
1-35
2-27
17-82
66-95
EDUCATION]
SCOTLAND
421
towns, and poorhouses, where those indigent who are alone in
the world without any one to care for them find food and shelter,
began to be general in the ipth century. Hence arises the
prevalence of out-relief, one of the distinctive features of the
Scottish poor law. The act of 1579, however, proved largely
inoperative. The provision of relief passed from the justices
to the ministers and kirk-sessions, who by an edict of the Privy
Council, in 1692, were required to draw up a list of the poor
twice a year, and rates were levied only when collections in the
church " plates " were insufficient. For 150 years nothing was
done to systematize poor relief, and even in 1842 about half of
the parishes were yet unassessed to the poor. The total in-
adequacy of the voluntary system to cope with genuine distress,
in respect both of contributions and the dispensing of alms,
led in 1845 to the passing of an act which made the parish the
poor-relief area, substituted the parochial board for the kirk-
session where recourse was had to a rate, made the appointment
of inspectors of the poor and medical officers compulsory, and
set up a system of central administrative control known as the
Board of Supervision for the Relief of the Poor, with headquarters
in Edinburgh. The act did not provide for compulsory assess-
ment, but this was virtually accomplished by the vigilance of
the Board, which demanded of local authorities increased care
and more liberal relief, with the result that in 1894 only 46 out
of 848 parishes remained unassessed. In this year a change in
the governing body was affected, the Local Government Board
for Scotland being constituted and replacing the Board of Super-
vision, while the parochial boards made way for parish councils.
As the authorities cannot give relief to those able to work, there
are no casual wards in Scotland, vagrants having to pay for their
night's lodging, or find it in the police station or elsewhere.
Every parish has to support its own poor, that is, natives or
those who have acquired a settlement by living in it for five years,
but relief is given in the parish in which it is applied for, the
cost being recovered from the parish of birth or settlement
afterwards. For the sick poor the larger towns provide hospitals
and dispensaries, besides medical attendance at the homes of
the poor, while in rural districts there are cottage hospitals,
village sick-rooms, and sick wards in the poorhouses. The
mentally afflicted are sent to the asylum if they are dangerous,
or kept in the licensed wards of poorhouses, or, if they are harm-
less or imbecile, boarded out. The expense of pauper lunacy
is only partially borne by the parish. The district lunacy
board (practically a joint-committee of the county and burgh
councils), aided by a parliamentary grant, is charged with the
provision and upkeep of the asylums, the poor-law authorities
only defraying the maintenance of their own patients. Orphan
or deserted children, or the children of paupers, are boarded out
and reared like ordinary children, attending the public schools
and growing up without the " pauper taint."
Police. It was not till the middle of the igth century that a
regular police force was established in Scotland. Till then
dwellers in rural districts had practically to provide for their
own safety as best they could, while some towns maintained
a paid watch and others enrolled volunteer constables, every
citizen being expected to take his turn in patrolling the streets
to protect person and property. At first an adoptive act was
introduced, under which the Commissioners of Supply, who then
managed county business resident landowners in possession
of landed estate to the annual value of 100 were empowered to
raise a police force in the counties; but the want of common policy
and initiative led in 1857 to the compulsory institution of a
police force throughout the country. Burghs having a popula-
tion of more 'than 7000 might furnish their own police, and
smaller burghs were policed as part of the county to which they
belonged by the standing joint-committee (composed equally
of Commissioners of Supply and members of the county council) ,
but no new police burgh the population of which was under
20,000 was to be free to police itself. All the constabulary
forces, excepting the Orkney and Shetland police, are annually
inspected as to efficiency and reported on to the Secretary of
State for Scotland.
Education, (a) Elementary Schools. The system of schools
which prevailed till the Education Act of 1872 dated from 1696,
when the Act for Settling of Schools was passed one of the
last but not the least of the achievements of the Scots Parlia-
ment providing for the maintenance of a school in every parish
by the kirk-session and heritors, with power to the Commissioners
of Supply to appoint a schoolmaster in case the primary
authorities made default. The schoolmaster held his office for
life, co-education was the rule from the first, and the school was
undenominational. The various religious secessions in Scotland
led to the founding of a large number of sectarian and sub-
scription schools, and at the Disruption in 1843 the Free Church
made provision for the secular as well as the religious instruction
of the children of its members. The Education Act of 1872
abolished the old management of the parish schools and provided
for the creation of districts (burgh, parish or group of parishes)
under the control of school boards, of which there are 972 in
Scotland, elected every three years by the ratepayers, male and
female. Since that date the most important changes effected
in the elementary education system were the abolition, in 1886,
of individual inspection of the lower standards afterwards
extended to the whole of the standards, the inspectors applying
a collective test, the " block-grant " system, to the efficiency
of a school and the abolition of school fees (1889) for the com-
pulsory standards, the less being made up principally by a
parliamentary grant, and partly by a proportion, earmarked
for the purpose, of the proceeds of the Local Taxation (Customs
and Excise) Act 1890, and the Education and Local Taxation
Account (Scotland) Act 1892. The capitation grant in relief of
fees is at the rate of 125., of which los. is furnished by the
parliamentary grant and 23. by the other sources. King's
Scholars, trained at one of the training colleges, and King's
Students who attend one of the universities, form the chief source
of supply of certificated teachers.
(b) Secondary Schools. Records of the existence of schools
in the chief towns occur as early as the i3th century. They
were under the supervision of the chancellor of each diocese,
and were mainly devoted to studies preparatory for the Church.
Before the Reformation schools for general education were
attached to many religious houses, and in 1496 the first Scottish
act was passed requiring substantial householders to send their
eldest sons to school from the time they were eight or nine years
old until they were " competentlie founded and have perfite
Latin." In 1560 John Knox propounded in his First Book oj
Discipline a comprehensive scheme of education from elementary
to university, but neither this proposal nor an act passed by the
privy council in 1616 for the establishment of a school in every
parish was carried into effect. In several burghs grammar
schools have existed from a very early date, and some of them,
such as the Royal High School of Edinburgh and the High School
of Glasgow, reached a high standard of proficiency. They were
largely supported by the town councils, who erected the buildings,
kept them in repair, and usually paid the rector's salary. By the
act of 1872 their management was transferred to the school
boards, and they may be conveniently classified into higher-class
public schools, such as the old grammar schools and the liberally
endowed schools of the Merchant Company in Edinburgh, and
higher grade schools, with a few years' preparatory course for
the universities, while some of the ordinary schools have earned
the grant for higher education. In 1885 the Scottish Education
Department, of which the secretary for Scotland is the virtual
head, was reorganized. It was separated from the English
Department, and undertook the inspection of higher class schools
(public, endowed and voluntary), and two years later instituted
a leaving certificate examination, the pass of which is accepted
for most of the university and professional authorities in lieu of
their preliminary examinations. In 1898 the functions of the
Science and Art Department, as far as Scotland is concerned,
were transferred to the Department, which makes substantial
grants for instruction hi those subjects for which science and art
grants were formerly paid. A Technical Schools Act, passed in
1887, was applied by a few local authorities; but in 1890 funds
422
SCOTLAND
[AGRICULTURE
were by chance made available from an unexpected source, and
devoted to the purposes of technical and secondary education.
Parliament had introduced a measure of public-house reform
along with a scheme for compensating such houses as lost their
licence. This feature was so stoutly opposed that the bill did
not pass, although the chancellor of the exchequer had provided
the necessary funds. Government proposed to distribute this
money among local authorities and expend the balance in relief
rates, but a clause was inserted in this bill giving burgh and
county councils the option of spending the balance on technical
education as well as in relief of rates. Advantage was largely
taken of this power, and the grant came to be succinctly described
as the " Residue " grant (97,000 a year). The Department
established in each county a body known as the secondary edu-
cation committee, chosen by the county council and the chair-
men of the school boards, which is charged with the expenditure
of its share of the grant. The committee exists also in a few of
the largest burghs, the members being in this case appointed by
the town council, school board, and sometimes the trustees of
educational endowments. In virtue of a Continuation Class code,
technical and specialized education is given in day and, chiefly,
evening classes in various centres, the principal being the
Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh; the Edinburgh and East of
Scotland College of Agriculture; the Glasgow and West of Scot-
land Technical College; the Glasgow School of Art; the Glasgow
Athenaeum Commercial College; the West of Scotland Agri-
cultural College; the Dundee Technical Institute; Gray's School
of Art, Aberdeen; the Edinburgh Royal Institution School of
Art, and the Edinburgh School of Applied Art; but well-
equipped classes are held in most of the large towns, and several
county councils maintain organizers of technical instruction.
As regards agricultural education, the county is found to be in
most cases too small an area for efficient organization, and
consequently several counties combine to support, for instance,
the East of Scotland Agricultural College a corporation con-
sisting of the agricultural department in, the University, the
Heriot-Watt College and the Veterinary College in Edinburgh,
the West of Scotland Agricultural College, Glasgow, and
the agricultural department in Aberdeen University. The
leading public schools on the English model are Trinity College,
Glenalmond, Perthshire; Loretto School, Musselburgh, and
Fettes College, Merchiston Castle and the Academy in Edinburgh.
(c) Universities and Colleges. There are four universities in
Scotland, namely (in the order of foundation), St Andrews (1411),
Glasgow (1450), Aberdeen (1494) and Edinburgh (1582), in
which are the customary faculties of arts, divinity, law, medicine
and science. In 1901 Mr Andrew Carnegie gave 2,000,000 to
the universities. The administration of the fund was handed
over to a body of trustees, who devote the annual income
(100,000) partly to the payment of students' fees and partly to
buildings, apparatus, professorships and research. The court
of each university is the supreme authority in regard to finance,
discipline, and the regulation of the duties of professors and
lecturers. The universities are empowered to affiliate other
academical institutions, and women students are admitted on an
equal footing with men. Under the act of 1899 the University
College of Dundee was incorporated with St Andrews University,
and Queen Margaret College became a part of the university of
Glasgow, the buildings and endowments, used for women
students exclusively, being handed over to the University Court.
St Mungo's College, Glasgow, incorporated in 1889 under a
Board of Trade licence, has medicinal and law faculties, and
Anderson's College Medical School, Glasgow, was instituted in
1887. These are on the same basis as the extra-mural medical
schools in Edinburgh, their medical curricula qualifying for
licence only and not for Scottish university degrees. The United
Free Church maintains colleges at Aberdeen, Edinburgh and
Glasgow, and there is a Roman Catholic college at Blairs near
Aberdeen, besides a monastery and college at Fort Augustus.
The Church of Scotland and the United Free Church each possess
their training colleges for teachers, the Episcopal Church supports
one and the Roman Catholic Church one. The Edinburgh Museum
of Science and Art has been transferred to the Scottish Education
Department.
Agriculture. Though Scotland is a country of great estates,
this circumstance possesses less significance from the agricultural
than from the historical standpoint. The excessive size of the
properties may to some extent be accounted for by the fact
that most of the surface is so mountainous and unproductive
as to be unsuitable for division into smaller estates, but two
other causes have also co-operated, namely, first, the wide
territorial authority of such Lowland families as the Scotts and
Douglases, and such Highland clans as the Campbells of Argyll
and Breadalbane, and the Murrays of Athol and the duke of
Sutherland; and secondly, the stricter law of entail introduced
in 1685. Thus the largest estates remain in the hands of the old
hereditary families. The almost absolute power formerly wielded
by the landlords, who within their own territories were lords of
regality, hindered independent agricultural enterprise, and it
was not till after the abolition of hereditable jurisdictions in
1748 that agriculture made real progress. The Society of
Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture, founded in 1723,
ceased to exist after the rebellion of 1745, and the introduction
of new and improved methods, where not the result of private
energy and sagacity, was chiefly due to the Highland and
Agricultural Society, established in 1784. Further stimulus was
also supplied by the high prices that obtained during the Napo-
leonic wars, and, in spite of periods of severe depression since
then, the science of agriculture has continued to advance. The
system of nineteen years' leases had proved distinctly superior
to the system of yearly tenancy so general in England, although
prejudicially affected by customs and conditions which, for a
considerable time, seriously strained therelationsbetweenlandlord
and tenant. But the abolition of the law of hypothec in 1879
under which the landlord had a lien for rent upon the produce
of the land, the cattle and sheep fed on it, and the live stock and
implements used in husbandry the Ground Game Act of 1880.
the several Agricultural Holdings Acts, and the construction of
light railways improved matters and established a better under-
standing. The period of general depression which set in before
1885 was surmounted in Scotland with comparatively little
trouble. A large amount of capital was lost by tenants, and a
few farms were thrown here and there upon the landlords'
hands, but in no district was rent extinguished or were holdings
abandoned. The sub-commissioners who reported to the Royal
Commission on Agriculture in 1895 found nearly everywhere a
demand, sometimes competition for farms, persisting throughout
the crisis. In Banff, Nairn, Elgin and several southern counties
rent reductions varied from 25 to 30%. In Perth, Fife, Forfar
and Aberdeen the average was 30%; but in nearly all the
counties, towards the end at least of the period of depression,
the coexistent demand and competition for farms were observ-
able. In some districts in the west rents fell very little; in
others, especially sheep-farming districts, the fall was very
severe. In Ayrshire the figure varied from 5 to 20%; for
Dumfriesshire 16% was given as a fair average, but here too the
distressed farmer was compelled to admit that if he gave up his
holding there were others ready to take it. Afterwards, owing
to the increased attention given to stock-fattening and dairying,
and to a rise in prices, farming reached a condition of equilibrium,
and the most noticeable residuum of the period of depression
was the large intrusion of the butcher and grazier class into the
farmer class proper. Caitlyiess-shire was declared to be the
greatest sufferer by the period of depression; rents fell in that
county by 30 to 50% on large farms, 20 to 30% on medium,
and i o to 60% on small farms. Nevertheless, the decline in the
value of land was serious. According to the reports of the Inland
Revenue Commissioners, the gross income derived from the
ownership of lands in Scotland was returned in 1879-1880 at
7,769,303. After that year a continuous fall set in, and in
1901-1902 the amount returned was only 5,911,836, a drop in
twenty-five years of 1,857,467. These figures refer to land,
whether cultivated or not, including ornamental grounds,
gardens attached to houses when exceeding one acre in extent,
AGRICULTURE]
SCOTLAND
423
teinds or tithe-rent charge commuted under the Lands Com-
mutation Acts, farm-houses and farm-buildings.
The crofters of the Highlands and islands had their grievances
also. During the first half of the igth century wholesale clear-
ances had been effected in many districts, and the crofters were
compelled either to emigrate or to crowd into areas already
congested, where, eking out a precarious living by following the
fisheries, they led a hard and miserable existence. At last after
agitation and discontent had become rife, government appointed
a royal commission to inquire into the whole question in 1883.
It reported next year, and in 1886 the Crofters' Holdings Act
was passed. Amending statutes of succeeding years added to
the commissioners' powers of fixing fair rents and cancelling
arrears, the power of enlarging crofts and common grazings.
Since then political agitation has practically died out, though the
material condition of the class has not markedly improved,
except where, with government aid, crofter fishermen' have been
enabled to buy better boats; but in some districts, even in the
island of Lewis, substantial houses have been built. After the
passing of the act (1886) the Crofters' Commission in 15 years
considered applications for rent and revaluation of holdings
which amounted to 82,790, and fixed the fair rent at 61,233,
or an annual reduction of 21,557; of arrears of rent amount-
ing to 184,962 they cancelled 124,180, and also assigned
48,949 acres in enlargement of holdings. Under the Congested
Districts (Scotland) Act of 1897, 35,000 a year was devoted
within certain districts of Argyll, Inverness, Ross and Cromarty,
Sutherland, Caithness, Orkney and Shetland, to assisting migra-
tion, improving the breeds of live stock, building piers and boat-
slips, making roads and bridges, developing home industries, &c.
TABLE IX. Classification of Holdings above I Acre.
TABLE X. Acreage under Cultivation continued.
Total Area, including Inland Water, but excluding Foreshore
and Tidal Water, 19,458,728 Acres.
Crops.
Average
1871-1875.
1905-
Acres.
Acres.
Potatoes
Turnips and Swedes ....
Mangold .
Cabbage, Kohl-Rabi and Rape
Vetches or Tares )
Other Crops j
Total ....
Clover, Sainfoin and Grasses under
Rotation
For Hay
Not for Hay .
167,880
503,709
1,748
4,656
15,828
144,265
445,306
2,389
14-725
1 8.557
< 2,699
693,821
617,941
427,686
1,130,591
Total ....
Flax
1,338,106
1,558,277
7 f
21,669
4
6,493
6,943
Small Fruit
Bare Fallow
Years.
i to 5 Acres.
5 to 50 Acres.
50 to 300 Acres.
Above 300 Acres.
No.
Acres.
No.
Acres.
No.
Acres.
No.
Acres.
1895
1903
19 5
20,150
19,560
18,685
65,891
63,961
33,921
34,018
34,673
608,390
610,669
22,802
23,075
23,055
2,935,184
2,970,325
2766
2730
2718
1,284,461
1,268,843
In Table IX. will be found a classification of the holdings in 1895,
1903 and 1905. The figures show that the holdings under 50 acres
constituted fully two-thirds of the total holdings and that, though no
very decided alteration in the size of farms was in progress, the
larger portion of the cultivated land was held in farms of between
50 and 300 acres. The average holding in 1905 was 61-7 acres.
Table X. shows the total area, the cultivated area and the area
under grain crops, green crops, grasses and miscellaneous crops.
Comparison between 1905 and the average for 1871-1875 clearly
demonstrates the change which Scottish agriculture had undergone.
Though practically the same amount of land was brought under the
TABLE X. Acreage under Cultivation.
Total Area, including Inland Water, but excluding Foreshore
and Tidal Water, 19,458,728 Acres.
Crops.
Average
1871-1875.
1905-
Acres.
Acres.
Total area under Crops and Grasses.*
Permanent Pasture
For Hay
Not for Hay
Total ....
Arable Land
Grain Crops
Wheat
Barley or Bere ....
Oats
Rye
Beans ....
Peas
4,560,825
4,880,985
148,342
1,302,384
1,084,983
1,450,726
3475,842
3,430,259
122,513
252,105
1,007,339
10,480
26,746
2,332
48,641
212,134
962,972
5,598
10,346
910
Total ....
1,421,515
1,240,601
* Not including mountain and heath land.
t Not separately distinguished.
plough, there was a considerable fall in the acreage under grain and
green crops, but this was rather more than balanced by the increased
area under grass, showing that the tendency towards the raising
of live stock has become more widespread and more pronounced.
Only a little more than one-fourth of the area of Scotland is cultivated,
while in England only one-fourth is left un-
cultivated; but it should be borne in mind
that " permanent pasture " does not include
the mountainous districts, which not only
form so large a proportion of the surface but
also, in their heaths and natural grasses,
supply a scanty herbage for sheep and cattle,
9,104,388 acres being used for grazing in
1905. Oats remain the staple grain crop,
and barley, though fluctuating from year to
year, is steadied by the demands of the distillers. Wheat showed a
marked decline in most years from 1893 to 1904. Table XL, how-
ever, shows that in most cases, even when the acreage occupied by
crops is smaller, the estimated yield to the acre shows a distinct
improvement, the result of enhanced skill and industry, and the
TABLE XL Showing Yield of Chief Crops to the Acre.
Crops.
Estimate Total Produce.
Average
Yield to
the Acre.
Average
Yield to
the Acre.
1885.
1905-
1885.
1905-
Wheat Bushels
Barley
Oats
Beans ,,
Peas
Potatoes Tons
Turnips and
Swedes Tons
1,893,501
8,245,820
33,407,127
709,577
37,464
803,523
6,496,189
2,065,381
8,004,446
35,277,807
364,818
17,108
979,54'
. , 7,162,794
34-33
3472
31-93
30-67
21-41
5-39
15-39
42-46
37-73
36-63
36-76
27-16
6-97
16-08
adoption of more scientific methods. In 1905 the yield of hay from
clover, sainfoin and rotation grasses amounted to 666,985 tons,
or 31-19 cwts. to the acre, and from permanent pasture 209,908
tons, or 28-46 cwts. to the acre, or 876,893 tons of all kinds of hay
from 575,220 acres.
Table XII. shows the number of live stock in 1905, with the
average for the period 1871-1875, and illustrates the extent to which
farmers have turned their attention to stock in preference to crops.
The cattle stock has risen steadily, and a regular increase in the
number under 2 years points to the healthy state of the breeding
industry. The breeds include the Ayrshire, noted milkers and
specially adapted for dairy farms (which prevail in the south-west),
which in this respect have largely supplanted the Galloway in their
native district; the polled Angus or Aberdeen, fair milkers, but
valuable for their beef-making qualities, and on this account, as well
as their hardihood, in great favour in the north-east, where cattle-
feeding has been carried to perfection; and the West Highland or
Kyl'oe breed, a picturesque breed with long horns, shaggy coats and
decided colours black, red, dun, cream and brindle that thrives
well on wild and healthy pasture. The special breeds of sheep are
424
SCOTLAND
[COMMUNICATIONS
the fine-woolled of Shetland, the blackfaced of the Highlands, the
Cheviots, natives of the hills from which they are named, a favourite
breed in the south, though Border Leicesters and other English
TABLE XII. Illustrating Increase of Live Stock.
Stock.
Average
1871-1875.
I905-
Horses
Used for agricultural purposes, in-
cluding mares kept for breeding .
Unbroken . . . . .
Total
Cattle-
Cows and heifers in milk or in calf .
Other cattle, 2 years and above
Other cattle, under 2 years
Total
Sheep
Ewes kept for breeding
Other sheep, I year and above
Other sheep, under I year.
Total
Pigs
156,520
49,668
178,652
206,188
392-252
267,920
467,165
437,138
276,33
513-827
1-127,337
1,227,295
4,735-008
2,426,114
2,918,544
1,383,200
2,722,467
7,161,122
7,024,211
166,148
130,214
breeds, as well as a variety of crosses, are kept for winter feeding on
lowland farms. The principal breeds of horses are the Shetland and
Highland ponies, and the Clydesdale draught.
Orchards and Forests. The acreage devoted to orchards rose from
1562 in 1880 to 2482 in 1905. The chief areas for tree and small fruit
are Clydesdale and the Carse of Cowrie, but there are also productive
orchards in the shires of Haddington, Stirling, Ayr and Roxburgh,
while market-gardening has developed in the neighbourhood of the
larger towns. In 1812 woods and plantations occupied 907,695
acres, of which 501 ,469 acres were natural woods and 406,226 planted.
Within sixty years this area had declined to 734,490 acres, but with
renewed attention to forestry and encouragement of planting the
area had grown in 1895 to 878,675 acres; by 1905, however, the
acreage was practically unchanged. Inverness, Aberdeen and Perth
are naturally the best wooded shires. The modern plantations consist
mostly of Scots fir with a sprinkling of larch.
Deer Forests and Game, &c. Deer forests in 1900 covered 2,287,297
acres, an increase of 575,405 acres since 1 883. The red deer is peculiar
to the Highlands, but the fallow deer is not uncommon in the hill
country of the south-western Lowlands. The grouse moors occupy
an extensive area and are widely distributed. Ptarmigan and black-
cock are found in many districts, partridges and pheasants are care-
fully preserved, and the capercailzie, once extirpated, has been
restored to some of the Highland forests. Hares and rabbits, the
latter especially, are abundant. Fox-hunting is fashionable in most
of the southern shires, but otter-hunting is practically extinct.
The bear, wolf and beaver, once common, have long ceased to be, the
last wolf having been killed, it is said, in 1680 by Sir Ewen Cameron
of Lochiel. The wild cat may yet be found in the Highlands, and the
polecat, ermine and pine marten still exist, the golden eagle and the
white-tailed eagle haunt the wilder and more remote mountainous
districts, while the other large birds of prey, like the osprey and kite,
are becoming scarce. The islands, rocks and cliffs and some inland
lochs are frequented in multitudes by a great variety of water-fowl.
Fisheries. The Scottish seaboard is divided for administrative
purposes into twenty-seven fishery districts, namely, on the east
coast, Eyemouth, Leith, Anstruther, Montrose, Stonehaven, Aber-
deen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Banff, Buckie, Findhorn, Cromarty,
Helmsdale, Lybster, Wick (15); on the north, Orkney, Shetland
(2) ; on the west, Stornoway, Barra, Loch Broom, Loch Carron and
Skye, Fort William, Campbeltown, Inverary, Rothesay, Greenock,
Ballantrae (10). The whole of the fisheries are controlled by the
Fishery Board for Scotland, which was established in 1882 in suc-
cession to the former Board of White Herring Fishery. In 1903 the
number of fishermen directly employed in fishing was 36,162, there
were 17,496 engaged in curing and preserving the fish landed, while
32,201 were employed in subsidiary industries on shore, making a
total of 85,859 persons engaged in the fisheries and dependent
industries. In 1905 the herring fishery yielded 5,342,777 cwts.
(1,343,080); in 1909, 4,541,297 cwts. The most prolific districts
are Shetland in the north, Fraserburgh, Peterhead, Wick, Aberdeen
and Anstruther in the east, and Stornoway in the west. The principal
herring market is continental Europe, Germany and Russia being
the largest consumers, and there has been a growing exportation to
the United States. In 1905 the total eaten of fish of all kinds
(excepting shell-fish) amounted to 7,856,310 cwts., and in 1907 (the
highest recorded to 1910), 9,018,154 cwts. (3,149,127). The annual
value of the shell-fish (lobsters, crabs, oysters, mussels, clams,
periwinkles, cockles, shrimps) is about 73,000. The weight of salmon
carried by Scottish railways and steamers in 1894 was 2437 tons, and
in 1903 it was 2047 tons. In 1894 the number of boxes of Scottish
salmon delivered at Billingsgate market in London was 15,489, and
in 1903 it was 15,103, being more than hal/ of the salmon received
then from all parts of Europe, including Irish and English consign-
ments. In 1903 the Tay rentals came to 22,902, the highest then
recorded. The other considerable rentals were the Dee 18,392,
Tweed 15,389 and Spey 8146.
Roads. In the i2th century an act was passed providing
that the highways between market-towns should be at least
20 ft. broad. Over the principal rivers at this early period there
were bridges near the most populous places, as over the Dee near
Aberdeen, the Esk at Brechin, the Tay at Perth and the Forth
near Stirling. Until the i6th century, however, traffic between
distant places was carried on chiefly by pack-horses. The first
stage-coach in Scotland was that which ran between Edinburgh
and Leith in 1610. In 1658 there was a fortnightly stage-coach
between Edinburgh and London, but afterwards it would appear
to have been discontinued for many years. Separate acts en-
joining the justices of the peace, and afterwards along with
them the commissioners of supply, to take measures for the
maintenance of roads were passed in 1617, 1669, 1676 and
1686. These provisions had reference chiefly to what afterwards
came to be known as " statute labour roads," intended primarily
to supply a means of communication within the several parishes.
They were kept in repair by the tenants and cotters, and, when
their labour was not sufficient, by the landlords, who were re-
quired to " stent " (assess) themselves, customs also being
sometimes levied at bridges, ferries and causeways. By separate
local acts the " statute labour " was in many cases replaced by
a payment called " conversion money," and the General Roads
Act of 1845 made the alteration universal. The Roads and
Bridges (Scotland) Act of 1878 entrusted the control of the roads
to royal and police burghs and in the counties to road trustees,
from whom it was transferred by the Local Government Act of
1889 to county councils, the management, however, being in the
hands of district committees. The Highlands had good military
roads earlier than the rest of the country. The project, begun in
1725 under the direction of General George Wade, took ten years
to complete, and the roads were afterwards kept in repair by an
annual parliamentary grant. In the Lowlands the main roads
were constructed under the Turnpike Acts, the earliest of which
was obtained in 1750. Originally they were maintained by
tolls, but this method, after several counties had obtained
separate acts for its abolition, was superseded in 1883 by the act
of 1878.
Canals. There are four canals in Scotland, the Caledonian,
the Crinan, the Forth and Clyde and the Union, of which the
Caledonian and Crinan are national property (see CALEDONIAN
CANAL). The Forth and Clyde Navigation runs from Bowling
on the Clyde, through the north-western part of Glasgow and
through Kirkintilloch and Falkirk to Grangemouth on the Forth,
a distance of 35 m. There is also a branch, 2\ m. long, from
Stockingfield to Port Dundas in the city of Glasgow, which is
continued for the distance of i m. to form a junction with the
Monkland canal. This last has a length of 1 2 J m., and runs from
the north-east of Glasgow through Coatbridge to Woodhall
in the parish of Old Monkland. It was begun in 1761 and opened
for traffic in 1792. The Forth and Clyde canal was authorized
in 1767 and opened from sea to sea in 1790. In 1846 its pro-
prietors bought the Monkland canal, and in 1867 the combined
undertaking passed into the hands of the Caledonian Railway
Company. The Union canal, 31$ m. long, starts from Port
Downie, on the Forth and Clyde canal near Falkirk, and runs
to Port Hopetoun in Edinburgh. Begun in 1818 it was com-
pleted in 1822, and in 1849 was vested in the Edinburgh and
Glasgow Railway Company, which in turn was absorbed by the
North British Railway Company in 1865. The Forth and Clyde
canal has a revenue of about 120,000 a year, including receipts
from the docks at Grangemouth, and the expenditure on manage-
ment and maintenance is about 40,000. The Union canal
earns between 2000 and 3000, and its expenditure is but little
MINING!
SCOTLAND
425
less than its revenue. Three other canals formerly existed in
Scotland. The Aberdeen canal, i8| m. long, running up the
Don valley from Aberdeen to Inverurie was opened in 1807,
but did not prove profitable and was ultimately sold to the Great
North of Scotland Railway Company, by which it was abandoned.
The Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone canal, n m. long, was
opened in 1811 and was bought in 1869 by the Glasgow and
South-Western railway, which in 1881 obtained statutory powers
to abandon it as a canal and use its site, so far as necessary,
for a railway line. The Forth and Cart Junction canal was only
half a mile long. It ran from the Forth and Clyde canal to
the Clyde, opposite the river Cart, and was intended to allow
vessels to pass direct from the east coast up that river to Paisley.
The Caledonian railway, which acquired it together with the
Forth and Clyde canal in 1867, obtained powers to abandon
it in 1893.
Railways. The first railway in Scotland for which an act of
parliament was obtained was that between Kilmarnock and
Troon (9! m.), opened in 1812, and worked by horses. A
similar railway, of which the chief source of profit was the
passenger traffic, was opened between Edinburgh and Dalkeith
in 1831, branches being afterwards extended to Leith and Mussel-
burgh. By 1840 the length of the railway lines for which bills
were passed was 191^ m., the capital being 3,122,133. The
chief companies are the Caledonian, formed in 1845; the North
British, of the same date; the Glasgow and South-Western,
formed by amalgamation in 1850; the Highland, formed by
amalgamation in 1865; and the Great North of Scotland,
1846.
Table XIII. shows the advance in mileage, goods and passenger
traffic and receipts, from both sources, since 1857.
TABLE XIII. Illustrating Growth of Railway Business.
Year.
Mileage.
Passengers.
Passenger
Traffic
Receipts.
Goods
Traffic
Receipts.
Total.
1857
1874
1884
1888
1900
1905
1243
2700
2999
3<>97
3485
3804
14.733.503
38,220,892
54,305,074
68,413,349
122,201,102
115,580,000
916,697
2,350,593
2,931,737
3,163,195
4,715,592
5,014,452
i,584,78l
3,884,424
4,426,023
4,564,627
6,431,693
6,803,286
2,501,478
6,235,017
7,357,760
7,727,822
11,147,285
11,817,738
The total capital of all the Scots companies in 1888 was i 14,120,119;
by 1910 it exceeded 185,000,000. Since the passing of the Light
Railways Act 1896, the Board of Trade has sanctioned several light
railways. By 1910 the total railway mileage was 3844.
Mining Industry. Coal and iron, generally found in con-
venient proximity to each other, are the chief sources of the
mineral wealth of Scotland. The principal coalfields are Lanark-
shire, which yields nearly half of the total output, Fifeshire,
Ayrshire, Stirlingshire and Midlothian, but coal is also mined
in the counties (usually reckoned as forming part of one or other
of the main fields) of Linlithgow, Haddington, Dumbarton,
Clackmannan, Kinross, Dumfries, Renfrew, Argyll and Peebles,
while a small quantity is obtained from the Oolite at Brora
in Sutherlandshire. The earliest records concerning coalpits
appear to be the charters granted, towards the end of the i2th
century, to William Oldbridge of Carriden in Linlithgowshire,
and in 1291 to the abbot and convent of Dunfermline conferring
the privilege of digging coal in the lands of Pittencrieff. The
monks of Newbattle Abbey also dug coal at an early date from
surface pits on the banks of the Esk. Aeneas Sylvius (Pope
Pius II.), who visited Scotland in the isth century, refers to
the fact that the poor received at church doors a species of stone
which they burned instead of wood; and although the value of
coal for smith's and artificer's work was early recognized it was
not used for domestic purposes till about the close of the i6th
century. In 1606 an act was passed binding colliers to perpetual
service at the works where they were employed, and they were not
fully emancipated till 1 799. An act was passed in 1843 forbidding
the employment of children of tender years and women in under-
ground mines. In 1905 there were 492 coal and iron mines in
operation, employing 109,939 hands (89,516 below ground and
20,423 above). The total output in that year amounted to
35,839,297 tons, valued at 10,369,433. The total quantity
worked up to the end of 1898 was 1,514,062 tons, the quantity
then remaining to work being estimated at 4,634,785,000 tons.
The quantity of coal exported in 1905 from the principal
Scottish ports was 7,863,511 tons, and the quantity shipped coast-
wise to ports of the United Kingdom amounts annually to about
2j million tons in addition.
The rise of the iron industry dates from the establishment
of the Carron ironworks near Falkirk in 1760, but it was the
introduction of railways that gave the production of pig-iron
its greatest impetus. In 1796 the quantity produced was 18,640
tons, which had only doubled in thirty-four years (37,500 tons
in 1830). In 1840 this had grown to 241,000 tons, in 1845 to
475,000 tons and in 1865 to 1,164,000 tons, almost the height
of its prosperity, for in 1905 the product of 101 blast furnaces
only amounted to 1,375,125 tons, and in the interval there were
years when the output was below one million tons. More than
one-third of the iron ore (that chiefly worked being Black Band
Ironstone) comes from mines which also yield coal. The iron-
producing counties in the order of their output are Ayr,
Lanark, Renfrew, Linlithgow, Dumbarton, Fife, Midlothian and
Stirling, the first three being the most productive. In 1905
the quantity of ore raised was 832,388 tons, valued at 320,875
and yielding 249,716 tons of metal. The imports of ore in that
year amounted to 1,862,444 tons of the value of 1,420,379.
The oil shale industry is wholly modern and has attained to
considerable magnitude since it was established (in 1851 and
following years). Linlithgowshire yields nearly three-fourths
of the total output, Midlothian produces nearly one-fourth,
a small quantity is obtained from Lanarkshire, and there is an
infinitesimal supply from Sutherland. The mineral is chiefly
obtained from seams in the Calciferous Sandstone at the base of
the Carboniferous rocks.
Fire-clay is produced in Lanarkshire, which yields nearly half of
the total output, and Ayrshire and, less extensively, in Stirlingshire,
Fifeshire, Renfrewshire, Midlothian and a few other shires. With
the exception of the counties of Orkney, Shetland, Caithness, Suther-
land and Inverness, granite is quarried in every shire in Scotland,
but the industry predominates in Aberdeenshire, and is of consider-
able importance in Kirkcudbrightshire; limestone is quarried in
half of the counties, but especially in Midlothian and Fife; large
quantities of paving-stones are exported from Caithness and Forfar-
shire, and there are extensive slate quarries at Ballachulish and other
places in Argyllshire, which furnishes three-fourths of the total
supply. Sandstone, of which the total production in 1905 was
1,142,135 tons valued at 320,761, is quarried in nearly every county,
but the industry flourishes particularly in the shires of Lanark,
Dumfries, Ayr and Forfar. Lead ore occurs at Wanlockhead in
Dumfriesshire and Leadhills in Lanarkshire. In 1905 there were
produced 2774 tons of dressed lead ore, of the value of 25,823,
yielding 2167 tons of lead in smelting and 1 1,409 oz. of silver. Gold
has been found in the county of Ross and Cromarty. A small
quantity of zinc is mined in Dumfriesshire and of barytes at Loch-
winnoch in Renfrewshire. The precious metals were once worked at
Abington in Lanarkshire and in the Ochils, and lead was mined at
Tyndrum in Perthshire. In 1905 there were 66 mines apart from
coal and iron, employing altogether 5329 hands, and 1127 quarries
employing 7390 persons inside the quarries and 4797 persons outside,
or 12,187 ' n all. Alumina is treated at works near Foyers in the
shire of Inverness, where abundant water power enables electricity
to be generated cheaply. The Foyers installation is the largest
water-power plant in the United Kingdom.
Iron and Steel. In 1901 the number of persons engaged in working
of the raw material was 23,263, of whom 8258 were employed in steel
smelting and founding, 7781 at blast furnaces in the manufacture of
pig-iron, and 7224 at puddling furnaces and rolling mills. All the
great iron foundries and engineering works are situated in the
Central Plain or Lowlands, in close proximity to the shipbuilding
yards and coalfields, especially in the lov/er and part of the middle
wards of Lanarkshire, in certain districts of Ayrshire and Renfrew-
shire, at and near Dumbarton, in south Stirlingshire and in some
parts of East and Mid Lothian and Fife. In 1901 the number of
persons employed in engineering and machine-making including
24,122 ironfounders, 24,944 blacksmiths, 26,567 fitters, turners and
erectors, 9767 boiler-makers and 18,618 undefined amounted to
118,736. In miscellaneous metal trades, embracing tinplate goods,
wire workers, makers of stoves, grates, ranges and fire-arms, makers
of bolts, nuts, rivets, screws and staples, and those occupied in several
subsidiary trades, the number of operatives in 1901 amounted to
13,209. In the same year there were 7279 persons employed in the
426
SCOTLAND
[MANUFACTURES
making of cycles, motor cars, railway coaches and waggons and
carriages and other vehicles. In the whole group of industries con-
nected with the working in metals and the manufacture of machinery,
implements and conveyances the total number of persons employed
amounted in 1901 to 205,830.
Manufactures, (a) Wool and Worsted. Although a company
of wool weavers was incorporated by the town council of
Edinburgh in 1475, the cloth worn by the wealthier classes down
to the beginning of the lyth century was of English or French
manufacture, the lower classes wearing " coarse cloth made at
home," a custom still prevalent in the remoter districts of the
Highlands. In 1601 seven Flemings were brought to Edinburgh
to teach the manufacture of serges and broadcloth, and eight
years later a company of Flemings was established in the
Canongate (Edinburgh) for the manufacture of cloth under the
protection of the king; but, notwithstanding also the establish-
ment in 1681 of an English company for the manufacture of
woollen fabrics near Haddington, the industry for long made
little progress. In fact its importance dates from the introduction
of machinery in the igth century. The most important branch
of the trade, that of tweeds, first began to attract attention
shortly after 1830; though still having its principal seat in the
district from which it. takes its name, including Galashiels,
Hawick, Innerleithen and Selkirk, it has extended to other
towns, especially Aberdeen, Elgin, Inverness, StirEng, Bannock-
burn, Dumfries and Paisley. Carpet manufacture has had its
principal seat in Kilmarnock since 1817, but is also carried on
in Aberdeen, Ayr, Bannockburn, Glasgow, Paisley and else-
where. Tartans are largely manufactured in Tillicoultry,
Bannockburn and Kilmarnock, and shawls and plaids in several
towns. Fingering and many other kinds of woollen yarns are
manufactured at Alloa, the headquarters of the industry. In
1901 the number of operatives in the woollen industry (including
combers and sorters, spinners, weavers and workers in other
processes) amounted to 24,906. In 1850 the employed numbered
10,210.
(6) Flax, Hemp and Jute. The manufacture of doth from
flax is of very ancient date, and towards the close of the i6th
century Scottish linen cloths were largely exported to foreign
countries, as well as to England. Regulations in regard to the
manufacture were passed in 1641 and 1661. In a petition
presented to the privy council in 1684, complaining of the severe
treatment of Scotsmen selling linen in England, it was stated
that 1 2,000 persons were engaged in the manufacture. Through
the intercession of the secretary of state with the king these
restrictions were removed. Further to encourage the trade it
was enacted in 1686 that the bodies of all persons, excepting
poor tenants and cotters, should be buried in plain linen only,
spun and made within the kingdom. The act was renewed
in 1693 and 1695, and in the former year another act was passed
prohibiting the export of lint and permitting its import free of
duty. At the time of the Union the annual amount of linen
cloth manufactured in Scotland is supposed to have been about
1,500,000 yards. The Union gave a considerable impetus to
the manufacture, as did also the establishment of the Board of
Manufactures in 1727, which applied an annual sum of 2650
to its encouragement, and in 1729 established a colony of French
Protestants in Edinburgh, on the site of the present Picardy
Place, to teach the spinning and weaving of cambric. From
the ist of November 1727 to the ist of 'November 1728 the
amount of linen cloth stamped was 2,183,978 yds., valued at
103,312, but for the year ending the ist of November 1822,
when the regulations as to the inspection and stamping of linen
ceased, it had increased to 36,268,530 yds., valued at 1,396,296.
The counties in which the manufacture is now most largely
carried on are Forfar, Perth, Fife and Aberdeen, but Renfrew,
Lanark, Edinburgh and Ayr are also extensively associated
with it. Dundee is the principal seat of the coarser fabrics,
Dunfermline of the table and other finer linens, while Paisley
is widely known for its sewing threads. The allied industry
of jute is the staple industry of Dundee. In 1890 the number
employed in the linen industry was 34,222, which had declined
in 1901 to 23,570. In 1890 the operatives in the jute and hemp
industry numbered 39,885, and in 1901 they were (including
workers in canvas, sacking, sailcloth, rope, twine, mats, cocoa
fibre) 46,550-
(c) Cotton. The first cotton mill was built at Rothesay by
an English company in 1779, though Penicuik also lays claim
to priority. The Rothesay mill was soon afterwards acquired
by David Dale, who was the agent for Sir Richard Arkwright,
and had the invaluable aid of his counsel and advice. Dale
also established cotton factories in 1785 at New Lanark, after-
wards so closely associated with the socialistic schemes of his
son-in-law, Robert Owen. The counties of Lanark and Renfrew
are now the principal seats of the industry. The great majority
of the cotton factories are concentrated in Glasgow, Paisley
and the neighbouring towns, but the industry extends in other
districts of the west and is also represented in the counties of
Aberdeen, Perth and Stirling. As compared with England,
however, the manufacture has stagnated. The number of
hands employed in 1850 was 34,325, in 1875 it was 35,652 and
in 1901 (including bleachers, dyers, printers, calenderers, &c.)
it was 34,057.
(d) Silk and other Textiles. The principal seats of the silk
manufacture are Paisley and Glasgow. In 1885 the number
employed amounted to 600 and in 1901 to 2424. The weaving
of lace curtains has made considerable progress, in 1878 only
45 hands being employed against 2875 in 1901. Hosiery manu-
factures, a characteristic Border industry, with its chief seat
at Hawick, employed 11,957 hands in 1901. The total number
of persons working in textile fabrics in 1901, exclusive of 21,849
drapers, mercers and other dealers, but including 43,040 employed
in mixed or unspecified materials (hosiery, lace, carpets, rugs,
fancy goods, &c., besides a large number of " undefined " factory
hands and weavers), amounted to 174,547 persons.
(e) Whisky and Beer. Scotland claims a distinctive manu-
facture in whisky. Though distillation was originally introduced
from England, by 1771 large quantities of spirits were already
being consigned to the English market. The legal manufacture
of whisky was greatly checked in the earlier part of the igth
century by occasional advances in the duty, but after the reduc-
tion of as. 4Jd. per proof gallon in 1823 the duty amounted
in 1904 to us. per proof gallon the number of licensed distillers
rapidly increased, to the discouragement of smuggling and
illicit distillation. In 1824 the number of gallons made amounted
to 5,108,373; by 1855 this had more than doubled; in 1884
it was 20,164,962; in 1900 it reached 31,798,465; and in 1904
it had receded to 27,110,977. More than four-fifths of the
distilleries at work in the United Kingdom are situated in
Scotland. The leading distilling counties are, Argyll, Banff,
Elgin, Inverness and Aberdeen, Perth and Ross and Cromarty,
while the industry is found in seventeen other shires. In 1893-
1894 the total net duty received for home-made spirits amounted
to 5,461,198 and in 1903-1904 to 7,276,125. The production
has attained to colossal dimensions. In 1893-1894 the quantity
of proof gallons in bond was 61,275,754, and in 1903-1904 it
amounted to 121,397,951, the production having practically
doubled itself within ten years. Ale was a common beverage
as early as the 1 2th century, one or more breweries being attached
to every religious house and barony. So general was its use even
in the beginning of the i8th century that the threatened imposi-
tion of a tax on malt in 1725 provoked serious riots in Glasgow
and clamour for repeal of the Union; and sixty years afterwards
Robert Burns in certain poems voiced the popular sentiment
concerning the " curst restrictions " proposed by the Excise
on beer and whisky. Though ale has been superseded by whisky
as the national beverage, brewing is extensively carried on in
Edinburgh, whose ales are in high repute, Leith, Alloa and else-
where. In 1885 the number of barrels of beer, duty-paid,
amounted to 1,237,323; in 1893-1894 to 1,733,407; and in
1903-1904101,877,978. In 1893-1894 the duty (6s. 3d. the
barrel) yielded 473,311 and in 1903-1904 (73. 9d. the barrel)
649,080. After 1893-1894, when the numberof brewers licensed
to brew for sale numbered 149, there was a steady fall to 117
COMMERCE]
SCOTLAND
427
in 1903-1904, alleged by the Inland Revenue Commissioners
to be due to the disappearance of the small brewer. The practice
of private brewing exhibits a still greater decline from 272 to
84 in the years named. Notwithstanding the enormous turnover
and output and the large capital invested, neither distilling nor
brewing gives employment to many hands, the figures for 1901
being 1330 maltsters, 2052 brewers and 1970 distillers.
(f) Miscellaneous. Paper, stationery and printing are in-
dustries in which Scotland has always occupied a foremost
position. A paper mill was erected in 1675 at Dairy on the
Water of Leith in which French operatives were employed to give
TABLE XIV. Showing Registered
regarding the number and tonnage of shipping are, however,
lacking till the i8th century. From two reports printed by the
Scottish Burgh Record Society in 1881, it appears that the
number of vessels belonging to the principal ports Leith,
Dundee, Glasgow, Kirkcaldy and Montrose in 1656 was 58,
the tonnage being 3140, and that by 1692 they had increased to
97 of 5905 tons. These figures only represent a portion of the
total shipping of the kingdom. At the time of the Union in
1707 the number of vessels was 215 of 14,485 tons.
Table XIV. gives the figures of the registered tonnage in port in
1850 and later specified years, which are interesting as showing how,
Tonnage in Port in Specified Years.
Sailing vessels
Steam vessels .
Total . .
1850.
1860.
1870.
1884.
1900.
1905-
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
3432
169
491-395
30,827
3172
3H
552.212
71-579
2715
582
727,942
209,142
2065
1403
827,295
866,780
1104
1980
709,430
1,528,032
918
233
578,340
3,139,558
3601
522,222
3486
623,791
3297
937-084
3468
1,694,075
3084
2,237,462
3248
3,717,898
instruction, with the result, in the words of the proprietors, that
" grey and blue paper was produced much finer than ever was
done before in the kingdom." Midlothian has never lost the
lead then secured. The paper mills at Penicuik and elsewhere in
the vale of the Esk and around Edinburgh are flourishing
concerns, and the industry is also vigorously conducted near
Aberdeen. Stationery is largely manufactured at Glasgow,
Aberdeen and Edinburgh. In 1901 the number of persons
employed in the paper and stationery industries amounted to
while sailing vessels declined during the half century to one-third
of their number in 1850, steam vessels increased thirteenfold. It is
true that the tonnage of the 918 sailing vessels of 1905 was con-
siderably in excess of that of the 3432 sailing vessels of 1850, but even
so it was a declining figure from a higher tonnage of the middle of the
period. On the other hand, during fifty-five years the tonnage of
steamers had grown to be a hundred times as large as it was in
1850. Table XV. illustrates the development that took place in the
shipping trade with foreign countries and British possessions, as
well as the expansion of the coasting trade, in 1855-1905, certain
years being taken as types.
19,602. Ever since it was established by
Andrew Myllar and Walter Chepman, early in
the i6th century, the Edinburgh press has been
renowned for the beauty and excellence of its
typography, a large proportion of the books
issued by London publishers emanating from
the printing works of the Scottish capital.
Printing is also extensively carried on in Glasgow
and Aberdeen, and Cupar once en joyed consider-
able repute for its press. The number of persons
engaged in the production of books and other
printed matter (including lithographers, copper, steel plate and
" process " printers, bookbinders, publishers, booksellers and
distributors) amounted in 1901 to 24, 139. The first sugar refinery
was erected in 1765 at Greenock, which, despite periodical
vicissitudes, has remained the principal seat of the industry,
which is also carried on at Leith, Glasgow and Dundee. The
making of preserves and confectionery flourishes in Dundee,
Aberdeen, Paisley and Edinburgh. Kirkcaldy is the seat of the
oil floor-cloth and linoleum industries, the latter introduced in
1877. The headquarters of the chemicals manufacture are
situated in Glasgow and the vicinity, while explosives are chiefly
manufactured at Stevenston and elsewhere in Ayrshire, and at
certain places on the Argyll coast. Among occupations providing
employment for large numbers were trades in connexion with
building and works of construction (136,639 persons in 1901),
and furniture and timber (39,000), while the conveyance of
passengers, parcels and messages employed 163,102 (railway,
43,037; roads, 53,813; sea, rivers and canals, 20,451; docks,
harbours and lighthouses, 10,659; and storage, porterage and
messages, 35,142).
Commerce and Shipping. That Scotland had a considerable
trade with foreign countries at a very early period may be
inferred from the importation of rich dresses by Malcolm III.
(d. 1093), and the enjoyment of Oriental luxuries by Alexander I.
(d. 1124). His successor, David I., receives the special praise of
Fordun for enriching " the ports of his kingdom with foreign
merchandise." In the i3th century the Scots had acquired a
considerable celebrity in shipbuilding; and a powerful French
baron had a ship specially built at Inverness in 1249 to convey
him and his vassals to the Holy Land. The principal shipowners
at this period were the clergy, who embarked the wealth of their
religious houses in commercial enterprises. Definite statements
TABLE XV. Foreign and Colonial and Coastwise Trade: Tonnage of Vessels.
Year.
Coastwise.
Colonial and Foreign.
Total.
Entered.
Cleared.
Entered.
Cleared.
Entered.
Cleared.
1855
1880
1889
1898
1900
'90S
1,963,552
6,628,853
7,188,763
9,256,233
7,213,574
9,928,674
2,057,936
5,691,136
6,998,516
8,937,481
6,791,959
9,500,160
668,078
2,700,915
3,931,010
5,510,927
5,657,200
6,268,745
840,150
3,001,897
4,412,607
6,296,555
6,602,545
7,478,579
2,631,630
9,329,768
ii."9,773
14,767,160
12,870,774
16,197,419
2,898,086
8,693,033
11,411,123
'5,234,036
13,394,504
16,978,739
Table XVI. exhibits the growth of the foreign and colonial trade
at specified, dates since 1755, showing how it advanced by leaps and
bounds during the latter part of the igth century. Though the value
of imports into Scotland is less than one-eleventh of that into England,
this does not represent the due proportion of foreign wares used and
TABLE XVI. Showing Growth of Foreign and Colonial Trade
since 1753.
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
1755
1790
1795
1800
1815
1825
1851
464,411
1,688,337
1,268,520
2,212,790
3,447,853
4,994,304
8,921,108
535,576
1,235,405
976,791
2,340,069
6,997,709
5,842,296
5,016,116
1874
1880
1884
1889
1898
1900
1903
31,012,750
34,997,652
30,600,258
36,771,016
36,224,982
38,691,245
40,396,280
17,912,932
18,243,078
20,322,355
22,310,006
23,643,143
32,166,561
32,301,198
consumed in Scotland, for the obvious reason that large quantities
of goods are brought into the country by rail, nearly all the tea, for
example, consumed in Great Britain being imported into London,
while several ports have almost a monopoly of certain other im-
ports. Foreign and colonial merchandise transhipped was valued at
989,289 in 1889 and at 746,246 in 1903. The customs revenue rose
from 1,965,080 in 1894 to 3,399,141 in 1903. Judged by the
combined value of their imports and exports the chief ports are
as shown in the first section of Table XVII. Their status is modi-
fied by the movements of shipping, and for purposes of comparison
the entrance and clearance tonnage of the trade with British colonies
and foreign countries and of the coastwise traffic are exhibited in the
second and third sections of the same table. The favourable
position occupied by Greenock in the third section is due to its
preponderating share of the traffic with the west coast and the
islands. Its share of the Irish and coasting trade likewise accounts
for the position of Ardrossan in the same section. It should be
added that on the figures of import and export value in 1909,
Aberdeen had changed places with Methil, and Burntisland with
Granton. The figure for Glasgow in that year was 41,238,867.
428
SCOTLAND
TABLE XVII. Chief Ports (1905).
Port.
Order.
Imports
and
Exports.
fi
Order.
Colonial
and
Foreign
Tonnage
In and Out.
Order.
Coastwise
Tonnage
In and Out.
Glasgow
Leith
Grangemouth
Dundee .
Greenock
Methil .
Aberdeen
Granton
Burntisland
Ardrossan .
I
2
3
4
I
8
9
10
38,291,762
17,975,978
6,273,317
5,657,583
2,046,457
1,127,931
1,035,233
933.4 80
846,741
651,124
i
2
4
7
10
9
5
6
4,472,071
2,210,015
1,425,978
320,103
202,336
1,716,355
217,410
202,901
1,305,945
3 2 6,356
I
4
6
7
2
8
3
10
9
5
4.257,957
1,410,160
859,177
807,159
3,348,928
542,244
1,613,966
230,458
294,261
1,094,439
Shipbuilding. Many of the most important improvements
in the construction of ships, especially steam vessels, are due to the
enterprise and skill of the Clyde shipbuilders, who, from the time
of Robert Napier of Shandon (1791-1876), who built and engined
the first steamers for the Cunard Company, formed in 1840,
have enjoyed an unrivalled reputation for the construction of
leviathan liners, both as regards mechanical appliances and the
beauty and convenience of the internal arrangements. The
principal Clyde yards are situated in the Glasgow district (Govan,
Partick, Fairfield, Clydebank, Renfrew), Dumbarton, Port
Glasgow and Greenock. At several of the ports on the lower
firth, as at Ardrossan and Fairlie, famous for its yachts, the
industry is also carried on. On the east coast the leading yards
are at Leith, Kirkcaldy, Grangemouth, Dundee, Peterhead and
Aberdeen, which, in the days of sailing ships, was renowned for
its clippers built for the tea trade. There are yards also at
Inverness.
Postal Service. Towards the end of the i6th century the
practice arose of regular communication by letter between the
magistrates of the larger towns and the seat of government in
Edinburgh. After the accession of James VI. to the throne of
England the necessity for an ordered method of intercourse
between the Scottish capital and London became urgent, but
the plans adopted involved extraordinary delay, for it not
infrequently happened that there was an interval of two months
between the despatch of a letter and the receipt of a reply.
Such a leisurely fashion of transacting business soon grew
intolerable, and in 1635 a system of relays was instituted which
enabled the journey between the two cities to be accomplished
in three days, the charge for a letter being 8d. The service was
reorganized in 1662, and in 1711 the postal establishments of
the United Kingdom, hitherto conducted independently in each
country, were consolidated into one. When this reform was
effected the cost of a letter to London was reduced to 6d. Three
years before this date a local penny post had been provided in
Edinburgh by private enterprise, carried on by a staff of seven
persons, and after the success of this effort had been demon-
strated the concern was taken over by the post office. Subse-
quently postal business stagnated, mainly owing to the greatly
increased charges (the postage of a letter from London to Edin-
burgh is stated to have cost is. 4^d.), until the system of uniform
penny postage came into operation. The telephones are mainly
conducted by the post office and the National Telephone Com-
pany, but the corporation of Glasgow has a municipal service.
Religion. The bulk of the population is Presbyterian, this
form of Church government having generally obtained, in spite
of persecution and other vicissitudes, since the Reformation. It
is accepted equally by the Established Church, the United Free,
the Free and other smaller Presbyterian bodies, the principal
point distinguishing the first-named from the rest being that it
accepts the headship of the sovereign. The Episcopal Church of
Scotland, which is in communion with the Church of England,
claims to represent the ancient Catholic Church of the country.
See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF; also FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND;
UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH; PRESBYTERIANISM; and SCOT-
LAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF.
[GOVERNMENT
Parliamentary Government. By the Act of Union
in 1707 Scotland ceased to have a separate parlia-
ment, and its government was assimilated to that
of England. In the parliament of Great Britain its
representation was fixed at sixteen peers elected in
Holyrood Palace by the peers of Scotland at each
new parliament in the House of Lords, and at
forty-five members in the House of Commons, the
counties returning thirty and the burghs fifteen.
The power of the sovereign to create new Scottish
peerages lapsed at the Union, and consequently
their number is a diminishing quantity. By the
Reform Act of 1832 the number of Scottish repre-
sentatives in the Commons was raised to fifty-three,
the counties under a slightly altered arrangement
returning thirty members as before, and the burghs,
reinforced by the erection of various towns into parliamentary
burghs, twenty-three; the second Reform Act (1867) increased
the number to sixty, the universities obtaining representation by
two members, while two additional members were assigned to
the counties and three to the burghs; by the Redistribution of
Seats Act in 1885 an addition of seven members was made to the
representation of the counties and five to that of the burghs,
the total representation being raised to seventy-two. The
management of Scottish business in parliament has since 1885
been under the charge of the secretary for Scotland. 1
Law. At the Union Scotland retained its old system of law and
legal administration, a system modelled on that of France ; but since
the Union the laws of Engjand and Scotland have been on many
points assimilated, the criminal law of the two countries being now
practically identical, although the methods of procedure are in many
respects different. The Court of Session, as the supreme court in
civil causes is called, which is held at Edinburgh, dates from 1532,
and was formed on the model of the parlement of Paris. Since the
Union it has undergone certain modifications. It consists of thirteen
judges, acting in an Inner and an Outer House. The Inner House
has two divisions, with four judges each, the first being presided
over by the lord president of the whole court, and the second by
the lord justice clerk. In the Outer House five judges, called lords
ordinary, sit in separate courts. Appeals may be made from the
lords ordinary to either of the divisions of the Inner House, and, if
the occasion demands, the opinion of all the judges of the Court of
Session may be called for; but whether this be done or not the de-
cision is regarded as a decision of the Court of Session. Appeals may
be made from the Court of Session to the House of Lords. The lord
justice general (lord president), the lord justice clerk and the other
judges of the Court of Session form the High Court of Justiciary,
instituted in 1672, for criminal cases, which sits at Edinburgh for the
trial of cases from the three Lothians and of cases referred from the
circuit courts. The latter meet for the south at Jedburgh, Dumfries
and Ayr; for the west at Glasgow, Inveraray and Stirling; and for
the north at Perth, Aberdeen, Dundee and Inverness. The law agents
who undertake cases to be decided before the supreme courts are
cither solicitors before the supreme courts (S.S.C.) or writers to the
signet (W.S.), the latter of whom possess certain special privileges.
The lawyer authorized to plead before the supreme courts is termed
an advocate. The principal law officer of the crown is the lord
advocate, who is assisted by the solicitor-general and by advocates-
depute. The practical administration of the law in a county is
under the control of the sheriff-depute, who combines with his
judicial duties certain administrative 'functions. The office, which
once implied a much less restricted authority than at present, is as
old as the reign of Alexander I. (d. 1 124), when the greater part of the
kingdom was divided into twenty-five sheriffdoms. In the latter
part of the I3th century they numbered thirty-four, but now there
are only fifteen sheriffs in all, who, excepting the sheriff for Lanark-
shire, need not reside in the counties to which they are appointed and
are not prohibited from private practice. They arc assisted by
sheriffs-substitute upon whom the bulk of the work falls, who must
be residential and are debarred from private practice. At one time
the functions of the sheriff-principal were confined to one county,
but by an act passed in 1855 it was arranged that as sheriffdoms fell
vacant certain counties should be grouped under the control of one
sheriff-principal. Thus Aberdeen, Kincardine and Banff form one
group, and the three Lothians with Peebles another. The public
prosecutor for counties is the procurator-fiscal, who takes the
1 A separate secretary of state for Scotland was in existence after
the Union, but this office was abolished in 1746. From 1782 to 188
the secretary of state for the home department was responsible for
the conduct of Scottish business, being advised in these matters by
the lord advocate. The secretary for Scotland is not one of the
principal secretaries of state.
HISTORY]
SCOTLAND
429
initiative in regard to suspected cases of sudden death, although in
this respect the law of Scotland is less strict than that of England.
Justices of the peace, who are unpaid and require no special qualifica-
tion, but as they are recommended by the lord-lieutenant, are
generally persons of position in the county, once exercised a wider
subordinate jurisdiction than now devolves upon them, their chief
administrative function being to act along with certain members of
the county councils, as the licensing authority for public-houses in
the county and in police burghs, and as a court of appeal from the
decisions of the bailies in royal and parliamentary burghs.
Local Government. The largest administrative unit is that of the
county, but the areas of counties may be adapted to meet various
public or political requirements. They may be altered for the
purposes of the registrar-general, and for police purposes part of the
area of one county may be brought into the area of another. For
parliamentary purposes some counties have been united, as Clack-
mannan and Kinross, Elgin and Nairn, Orkney and Shetland, and
Peebles and Selkirk, and others divided, as Aberdeen, Ayr, Lanark,
Perth and Renfrew, while others retain in certain respects their
old subdivision, Lanarkshire for assessment purposes being still
partitioned into the upper, middle and lower wards. Originally the
counties were synonymous either with sheriffdoms or stewartries.
Stewartries ceased with the abolition of hereditary jurisdictions in
1748, though Kirkcudbrightshire still bears the designation. The
counties are thirty-three in number, Ross and Cromarty constituting
one, while Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee are each a
county of a city. The highest county dignitary is the lord-lieutenant,
the office dating from 1782. Nominated by the crown, he holds
office aut vitam aut culpam, represents the crown in military matters,
recommends for commissions of the peace, holds the position of high
sheriff, and is a member of the standing joint committee. The office,
however, is little more than honorary. In olden times there were
three classes of burgh. Those created by charter directly from the
crown were styled royal burghs: they number seventy in all, of
which no fewer than seventeen belong to Fifeshire. Those holding
their charters from a feudal superior and not from the crown were
called burghs of regality, their magistrates and council being usually
appointed by the overlord or his representative. Being small and
unimportant, these burghs were not affected by the act of 1833, but
in 1892 were required to adopt the constitution of police burghs.
Towns that received their charters from bishops were burghs of
barony, their magistrates and council being appointed by the
superior. When the bishop's jurisdiction was abolished, the burghs
as a rule assumed the position of royal burghs. Police burghs are
wholly modern, dating from the middle of the igth century. They
were called into existence by the rapid growth of certain districts
caused by the development of the coal and iron fields. The principle
on which they are established may be briefly stated thus: towns
with a minimum population of 800 can, on a poll demanded by the
ratepayers showing a majority in favour of it, acquire the status of a
police burgh subject to representations from neighbouring burghs,
a proviso devised to check the growth of " parasitic " burghs in the
immediate vicinity of a great centre of population and industry,
enjoying all the public improvements initiated by their powerful
neighbour and yet contributing nothing towards the cost and upkeep
of them. It should be noted that, according to Scottish usage,
" police " includes drainage, the suppression of nuisances, paving,
lighting and cleansing, in addition to the provision of a constabulary
force, and that in point of fact, paradoxical as it appears, the bulk
of the police burghs do not manage their police. Royal burghs
derive part of their income from ancient corporate property known
as " the Common Good " and consisting mostly of land and houses.
It is devoted to objects for which the rates are not applicable.
Glasgow, for example, might found a chair in the University from
the Common Good but not from the rates, and Edinburgh maintains
from the same source the city observatory and defrays part of the
cost of the time-gun. Only Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, Greenock,
Aberdeen and Paisley have private and local acts, conferring powers
exceeding the general law, to deal with, e.g. overcrowding, the ob-
noxious display of advertisements, the compulsory acquisition of
land for gas, water or electric-power enterprises, all the other burghs
being governed by Public General Acts. This is in marked contrast
with the practice in England, where almost every large borough
has its own private act. The corporation of the burghs consists
of the provost (or lord provost, in the cases of Edinburgh, Glasgow,
Aberdeen and Dundee), bailies and councillors, with certain per-
manent officials, of whom the town clerk is the most important.
The course of reform may now be concisely summarized. In 1833
Scottish burghs were for the first time entitled to be governed by
directly-elected bodies, and at various times since that date fuller
powers of legal self-government were granted in different directions.
In 1845 parochial boards were created for relief of the poor, their
powers being afterwards extended to deal with the statutes concern-
ing burial-grounds, the registration of births, deaths and marriages,
vaccination, public health, public libraries and other matters. In
1872 school boards were set up throughout the country; county
councils followed in 1889 and parish councils in 1894. These reforms
profoundly modified and in some cases abolished older organizations
which had grown inadequate to modern wants. The Commissioners
of Supply, originally appointed to apportion and collect the national
revenue and afterwards entrusted with the regulation of the land
tax, the control of the county police, the raising of the militia, and
the levying of rates for county expenditure, were practically super-
seded by the county councils, which are also the local authority
under the Contagious Diseases (Animals) and the Public Health
Acts in all parishes (burghs and police burghs excepted), perform the
administrative duties formerly entrusted to the justices of the peace,
and may also enforce the Rivers Pollution Act each within its own
jurisdiction. The county councils are strengthened by certain special
committees, such as the secondary education committee, whose duties
have already been defined, and the standing joint committee one
half appointed by the county council, the other half by the Com-
missioners of Supply which manages the county police and whose
consent in writing must be obtained before the county council can
undertake any work involving capital outlay. All but the smallest
counties are subdivided into districts, and the Road Acts and Public
Health Acts are administered in these areas by district committees,
composed of members of the county council for the district and one
representative of each parish council within the area. The act of
1894, as we have seen, not only established the Local Government
Board, consisting of the secretary for Scotland, the solicitor-general,
the under-secretary and three appointed members a vice-president,
a lawyer and a medical officer of public health but also replaced the
parochial boards by parish councils, empowered to deal among other
things with poor relief, lunacy, vaccination, libraries, baths, recrea-
tion grounds, disused churchyards, rights of way, parochial endow-
ments, and the formation of special lighting and scavenging districts.
(J. A. M.)
III. POLITICAL HISTORY.
Scotland, to political observers of the middle of the i6th
century, seemed destined by nature to form one homogeneous
kingdom with England. The outward frontiers of both were
the sea; no difficult physical barriers divided the two territories;
the majority of Scots spoke an intelligible form of English,
differing from northern English more in spelling and pronuncia-
tion than in idiom and vocabulary; and after the Reformation
the State religion in both countries was Protestant. Yet, in
spite of these causes making for union, and in spite of the mani-
fest advantages of union, it was by a mere dynastic accident
that, in the defect of nearer heirs to the English throne, the
crowns of both kingdoms were worn by James VI. (1603), while
more than a century of unrest and war had to elapse before the
union of England and Scotland into one kingdom in 1 707. Even
later there broke forth civil wars that, apart from dynastic
sentiment, had no political aim except " to break the Union."
Thus for seven hundred years the division of the isle of Britain
was a constant cause of weakness and public distress. Nothing
did more to bring the two peoples together than religion, after
the Reformation, yet, by an unhappy turn of affairs, and
mainly thanks to one man, John Knox, few causes were more
potent than religious differences in delaying that complete union
which nature herself seemed to desire.
The historical causes which kept the nations separate were
mainly racial, though, from a very early period, the majority of
the people of Scotland were, if not purely English by
blood, anglicized in language and, to a great extent, conditions
in institutions. All questions of race are dim, for
such a thing as a European people of pure unmixed blood is
probably unknown in experience. In A.D. 78-82 Agricola,
carrying the Eagles of Rome beyond the line of the historical
border, encountered tribes and confederations of tribes which,
probably, spoke, some in Gaelic, some in Brythonic varieties of
the Celtic language. That the language had been imposed, in
a remote age, by Celtic-speaking invaders, on a prior non-Celtic-
speaking population, is probable enough, but is not demonstrated.
There exist in Scotland a few inscriptions on stones, in Ogam,
which yield no sense in any known Indo-European language.
There are also traces of the persistence of descent in the female
line, especially in the case of the Pictish royal family, but such
survivals of savage institutions, or such a modification of male
descent for the purpose of ensuring the purity of the royal blood,
yield no firm ground for a decision as to whether the Picts were
" Aryans " or " non-Aryans."
It is unnecessary here to discuss the Pictish problem (see
CELT). That their rivals, the Scots,, were a Gaelic-speaking
people is certain. That the Picts were Teutons (Pinkerton) is
no longer believed. That they were non-Aryan, the theory of
430
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
Sir Jehu Rhyi, teem* improbable, lot the non-English place-
name* at Scotland are either Gaelic or Brytbonk (more or lew
Welsh), and the name* of Pictish kings are either common to
Gaelk and Welsh (or Cymric, or Brytbonk), or are Welsh in
their phonetics. Mr Skene held that the Pica were a Gaehc-
ipeaking people, but the weight of philological authority is
with Mr Whitley Stokes, who says that Pictish phonetics, "so
far as we can ascertain them, resemble those of Welsh rather
than of Irish " (see Zimmer, Dot MvUenechl dor Pikten; Rby*,
Royal Commiition't Report on Land in Wales, Celtic Britain,
Rhind Lectwet; Skene's Celtic Scotland; J. G. Frazer, Letturet
on the Early Hittory of the Kinphip, p. 247; Macbain's edition,
1902, of Skene's Hitfdanderi of Scotland).
The Roman occupation has left not many material relics in
Scotland, and save for letting a glimmer of Christianity into the
south-west, did nothing which permanently affected the in-
stitutions of the partially subjugated peoples. In AJ>. 81-82
Agrkola garrisoned the Roman frontier between Forth and
Clyde, and in 84 he fought and won a great battle farther north,
probably on the Une of the Tay, His enemies were men of the
early iron age, and used the chariot in war. They fought with
courage, but were no match for Roman discipline; it was,
however, impoisible to follow them into their mountain fort-
resses, nor were the difficulties of pursuit thoroughly overcome
till after the battle of CuOoden in 1746. The most important
Roman stations which have hitherto been excavated are those
of Bfarenswark, on the north side of Sohray Firth; Ardocfa,
near the historical battlefield of Sheriffmuir (1715); and New-
stead, a she first occupied by Agrkola, under the Efldon hills.
Roman roads extended, with camps, as far as the Moray Firth.
It is not till A.D. 300 that we read of " the Caledonians and other
Picts "; in the 4th century they frequently harried the Romans
up to the wall of Hadrian, between Tyne and Sohray. About
the end of the century the southern Picts of GaOoway,and tribes
farther north, were partially converted by St Ninian, from the
Candida cata of Whithern. The Scots, from Ireland, also now
come into view, the name of Scotland being derived from that of
a people really Irish in origin, who spoke a Gaelk (see CELTIC)
akin to that of the Caledonians, and were in a similar stage
of higher barbarism. The Scots made raids, but, as yet, no
national settlement.
The withdrawal of the Romans from Britain (410) left the
northern part of the island as a prey to be fought for by warlike
tribes, of whom the most notable were the Picts in the north,
the Scots or Dalriads from Ireland in the west (Argyll), the
Cymric or Welsh peoples in the south-west and between Forth
and Tay, and the Teutonk invader*, Angles or English, in the
south-east.
If the Picts had been able to win and hold Scotland as far
south as the historic border, the fortunes of the country would
probably have been more or less like those of Ireland. After
the Norman Conquest, England would have subjugated the
Celts and held Scotland by a tenure less precarious and disputed
than they possessed in the western island. Scotland would have
been, at most, a larger Wales. But in the struggle for existence
it chanced that the early English invaders secured a kingdom,
Bernicia, whkh stretched from the Humber into Lothian, or
farther north, as the fortune of battle might at various times
determine; and thus, from the centre to the south-east of
what is now Scotland, the people had come to be anglicized in
speech before the Norman Conquest, though Gaelk survived
much later in Galloway. The English domain comprised,
roughly speaking, the modern counties of Selkirkshire, Peebles-
shire, Berwickshire, Roxburghshire and most of the Lothians,
while south of Tweed it contained Northumberland, Durham
and Yorkshire to the Humber. In later days the Ceitk kings
of northern and western Scotland succeeded in holding, on vague
conditions of homage to the English crown, the English-speaking
region of historic Scotland. That region was the most fertile,
had the best husbandry, and possessed the most civilized popu-
lation, a people essentially English in language and institutions,
but indomitably attached to the Celtic dynasties of the western
and northern part of the island. It was the English-speaking
south-east part of Scotland, gradually extended so as to comprise
Fife and the south-west (Lanarkshire, Dumfriesshire, Stirling-
shire, Dumbartonshire, Ayrshire and Renfrewshire), whkh
learned to adopt the ideas of western Europe in matters political,
municipal and ecdesiastkal, while it never would submit to the
domination of the English crown. This English element, in a
nation ruled by a Critic dynasty, prevented Scotland from
becoming, like Wales, a province of England.
On the west of the northern pan of the English kingdom of
Bernicia, severed from that by the Forest of Ettrick, and perhaps
by the mysterious work of whkh traces remain in the " CatnuL"
was the Brytbon or Welsh kingdom of Strathclyde, whkh then
induded the territory and population, later anglicized, of Renfrew-
shire, Ayrshire, Lanarkshire, Dumfriesshire, and, south of the
historic border, Cumberland and Westmoreland to the Derwent.
Strathclyde was essentially Webh, and it may be noted that this
region, centuries later, was the centre of the recalcitrant Cove-
nanters, a people enthusiastically religions in their own way.
Later, this region was the hotbed or " revivals " and the cradle
of Irvingjsm, Whether the influence of Cymric blood may be
traced in these characteristics is a dubious question.
While southern Scotland was thus English and Cymric, the
north, from Cape Wrath to Lochaber, in the west, and to the
Firth of Tay, on the east, was Pktland; and the vernacular
spoken there was the Gaelk. The west, south of Locfaaber to
the Mull of Kintyre, with the isles of Bute, Islay, Arran and Jura,
was the realm of the Dabiadk kings, Scots from Ireland (503):
here, too, Gaelk was spoken, as among the " Southern Picts *
of the kingdom of Galloway. Such, roughly speaking, were UK
divisions of the country whkh arose as results of the obscure
wan of the 5th, 6th and 7th centuries.
As regards Christianity in these regions, Protestantism,
Presbyterianism and patriotism find here a battle-ground. The
mission of St Ninian (307) was that of a native of the
Roman province of Britain, and the church which
he founded would bear the same relation to Rome
as did the church in Britain. There are material relics of Us
church, bearing the Christian monogram, and there are stones
with Latin epitaphs; these objects are wholly unlike the Irish
crosses and inscriptions of the Gaelk church. If Bede is right
in saying that Ninian was trained in Rome, then the early
Christianity of Scotland was Roman.
In 431 the contemporary Ckronica of Prosper of Aquitaine
record that Palladius was ordained by Pope Celestine as the first
bishop " to the believing Scots," that is, to the Irish. If there
were " believing Scots " in Ireland before the first bishop was
ordained, their ecdesiastkal constitution cannot have been
episcopal. Fordun, in the I4th century, supposed that the
clergy, before Palladius, were presbyters or monks. As Hector
Boece, "that pillar of falsehood," dubbed these presbyters
"Cnldees," "the pure Culdee," a blameless presbyteriaa,
almost prehistoric, has been claimed as the ancestor of Scottish
presbyterianism; and episcopacy has been regarded as a deplor-
able innovation. The Irish church has paid more reverence to
St Patricius than to Palladius (373-463), and the church of St
Patricius, himself a figure as important as obscure, certainly
abounded in bishops; according to Angus the Culdee there were
1071, but these cannot have been bishops with territorial sees,
and the heads of monasteries were more potent personages.
The Dabiadk settlers in Argyll and the Isles, the (Irish)
Scots, were Christians in the Irish manner. Their defeat by the
Picts, hi 560, induced the Irish St Columba to endeavour to
convert the conquering Picts. In 563-565 he founded his m'lmkm
and monastery in the isle of lona, and journeying to Inverness
he converted the king of the Picts. About the same date f 573),
the king of Cymric Strathdyde summoned, from exile in Wales,
St Kentigem, the patron saint of Glasgow, who restored a Chris-
tianity almost or quite submerged in paganism, Celtic and Engfish.
The pagan English of Deira (603) routed under jthdfrith the
Christian Scots of Argyll between Liddesdale and North Tyne;
and pagan English for more than a century held unopposed the
HISTORY]
SCOTLAND
region from Forth to Humber. In 617 jEthelfrith fdl in battle
with the English of East Anglia, and his sons, Eanfrid and Oswald,
fled to the North. Eanfrid, by his marriage with a Pictish
princess, became the father of the Pictish king Talorcan, while
Oswald was baptized into the Columban church at lona. In a
season of war and turmoil Oswald won the crown of the north-
east English kingdom, stretching to the Forth, with its capital
at Eadwinsburgh (? Edinburgh, a dubious etymology), and in
that kingdom St Aidan, from lona, erected the Columban
churches under the auspices of Oswald, whose brother Oswin
dominated Strathclyde and Pictland up to the Grampians;
the English element, for the time, extending itself and anglicizing
more and more of the Scotland that was to be.
Thus the Dalriadic Scots had handed on the gift of Irish
Christianity, with such literature as accompanied it in the shape
of Latin, and reading and writing, to the northern English from
Forth to Humber. The ecclesiastical constitution thus intro-
duced was one of missionary monastic stations, settled in fortified
villages. The Celtic church, unluckily, differed from the Roman
on the question of the method of calculating the date of Easter,
the form of the tonsure, and other usages, one of them apparently
relating to a detail in the celebration of the Holy Communion.
From a letter to Pope Boniface IV. of an Irish saint Columbanus,
who led twelve Irish monks into Gaul and Burgundy, the Celtic
church appears to have denied that the papal jurisdiction
extended beyond the limits of the Roman empire. Consequently
Rome would have no jurisdiction in the affairs of the Irish church
established in Scotland and the north of England. The results
would be the severance of these regions from the main current
of western ecclesiastical ideas. Conceivably these sentiments of
Columbanus never wholly died out in the Scottish kingdom
of later history, whose kings were always apt to treat Rome
in a cavalier manner, laughing at interdicts and excommunica-
tions. A papal legate, in Bruce's time, was no more safe, if
his errand was undesirable, than under John Knox, when Mary
Stuart wore the crown. " All the world errs, Rome and Jerusalem
err, only the Scoti and the Britones are in the right " is quoted
as the opinion of the Scoti and Britones in 634. It appears that
Scotland was naturally Protestant against Rome as soon as
she was Christian.
Meanwhile Rome was too strong, and in 664, in a synod held
at Whitby, St Wilfrid procured the acceptance of Roman as
against Celtic doctrine in the questions then at issue. The
English Christians overcame the Celtic divines of lona, and in
710 even in Pictland they came into the customs of western
Christianity. The church of the Celtic tribe thus yielded to the
church of the Roman empire.
There followed an age of war in which the northern English
were routed at Nectan's mere, in Forfarshire, and driven south
of Forth. In the quarrels of Picts and of Scots of
Pfct7am/ Argyll, the Pictish king, Angus MacFergus (ob. 761),
Scots. was victorious while in his prime, and then consolidated
Pictland; but (802-839) the Scandinavian sea-rovers
began to hold large territories in Scotland.weakened the Picts, and
made easy their conquest by Kenneth MacAlpine of Kintyre, the
king of the Dalriad Scots of Argyll. In 860 this Scot became king
of the Picts. Old legends represent him as having exterminated
the Picts to the last man; and the Picts become, in popular
tradition, a mythical folk, hardly human, to whom great feats,
including the building of Glasgow cathedral, are attributed,
as the walls of Tiryns and Mycenae in Greece were traditionally
assigned to the energy of the Cyclopes. In 1814 Sir Walter
Scott met a dwarfish traveller in the Orkneys, whom the natives
regarded as a " Pecht " or Pict.
There was, of course, in fact, no extermination of the Picts,
there was merely a change of dynasty, and alliance between Picts
and Scots, and that change was probably made in accordance
with Pictish customs of succession. Kenneth MacAlpine, though
son of a Scottish father, was probably, though not certainly,
a Pict on the mother's side, and in Pictland the crown was in-
herited in the female line. The consequence was that what
had been Pictland came to be styled Scotland. The king of
Alban was a Scot in the paternal line. His conquest was not
achieved at a blow, but his language, Gaelic, prevailed. Hence-
forth, despite the incursions of the Scandinavians, and partly
because of them, the ecclesiastical and royal centres of life are
moved to the south and the east, though the king of Alban
(Ardrigh) is not always master of his Ri, or subordinate princes
of the seyen provinces (Mortuatk). His position is rather that
of an overlord, or Bretwalda, like Agamemnon's among the
Achaean anaktts. He allies himself with Cymric Strathclyde,
and by constant raids, and thanks to English weakness caused
by Danish invasions, he extends his power over English Lothian.
A marriage of the daughter of Kenneth MacAlpine with the
Welsh prince of Strathclyde gives Scotland a footing in that
region; in short, Scotland slowly advances towards and even
across the historic border.
Through this contact with and actual tenure of English lands
arose the various so-called " submissions " of kings of Scotland
to the English crown. Thus (924) the English Chronicle &,.
asserts that Const antine. king of Scotland, " chose onions
Edward King to father and lord." It is impossible ***
here to analyse the disputes as to whether, in Freeman's
words, " from this time to the i4th century " (he means, to
Bannockbum) " the vassalage of Scotland was an essential part
of the public law of the Isle of Britain." In fact this vassalage
was claimed at intervals by the English kings, and was admitted
by Scottish kings for their lands in England; but as regards
Scotland, was resisted in arms whenever opportunity arose.
Each submission " held not long," and the practical result was
that (945) Malcolm acquired northern Strathclyde, " Cumberland,
Galloway (?) and other districts," while another Malcolm (1018)
took Lothian, the northern part of Northumbria, after winning a
great battle at Carham on the Tweed.
The Celts, Scoto-Picts, of Alban, had thus annexed a great
English-speaking region, which remained loyal to their dynasty,
the more loyal from abhorrence of the Norman conquerors.
The English or anglicized element in Scotland was never sub-
jugated by England, save during the few years of the Cromwellian
Commonwealth, and was supported (with occasional defections,
and troubles caused by dynastic Celtic risings) by the Celtic
element in the kingdom during the long struggle for national
independence. Scotland, in short, was too English to be con-
quered by England. Poor, distracted, threatened on occasion
by the Celts on her flank and rear, anglicized Scotland preferred
her poverty with independence, to the prosperity and peace
which England would have given, if unresisted, but never could
impose by war. Her independence, her resistance, curbed the
conquering ambitions of England abroad; and it went for
something in securing the independence of France, and the
success of Protestantism, where it succeeded.
A sturdy and stoical temper was developed in the nation,
which later helped parliamentary England in the struggle against
the crown (1643-1648). Habits of foreign adventure and of
thrift were evolved, which were of advantage to the empire when,
too long after the union of 1707, Scottish men were admitted to
participate in its privileges and in its administration. Such
were the consequences, in the sequel, of what seemed a disastrous
event, the absorption, by a Celtic kingdom, of a large and fertile
region of northern England.
The English element in the realm of Malcolm II. (1005-1034)
was the conducting medium of western ideas which naturally
appealed to the interests and the ambitions of that
prince. On looking at the genealogical tree of the
dynasty of Kenneth MacAlpine, we see that from the it
date of his death (859) to the accession of Duncan on
the death of Malcolm II. (1034) no monarch is succeeded by his
own son or grandson. The same peculiarity appears in the list
of the ancient kings of Rome, but these are entangled in mytho-
logy. In the dynasty of Kenneth the succession to the crown
alternated thus: he was succeeded by his brother Donald, who
was followed by his nephew, Kenneth's son, Constantine;
Constantine's brother, Aodh, followed; and henceforth till 957.
the kings were alternately chosen from the houses of Constantine
432
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
and Aodh. It was the custom to appoint the successor to the
king, his "Tanist," at the same time as the king himself.
Malcolm II. succeeded his own cousin, and, in accordance with
the native system of royal inheritance, should have been followed
by the unnamed grandson of his own predecessor, Kenneth III.
But Malcolm is accused of putting his legitimate successor out
of the way, and thus securing the succession of his own grandson,
Duncan, a son of his daughter, Bethoc, and her husband Crinan.
protector of the abbey (or lay abbot) of Dunkeld. Malcolm thus
set the example of advance to the western system of royal
successions, while in Crinan's lay tenure of the abbacy of
Dunkeld we see the habit of appropriating ecclesiastical revenues
which again became so common about a century before the
Reformation.
The innovation of Malcolm II. brought no peace but a sword.
Boedhe, son of Kenneth III., left a daughter, Gruach, who
inherited the claims of the unnamed son of Boedhe slain by order
of Malcolm. Gruach married Gilcomgain, and had issue male,
Lulach. After the death of Gilcomgain, Gruach wedded
Macbeth, Mormaor (or earl in later style) of the province or sub-
kingdom of Moray; Macbeth slew Duncan, and ruled as pro-
tector of the legitimate claims of Lulach. From Lulach descended
a line of Celtic prttendanls, and for a century the dynasty violently
founded by Malcolm II. was opposed by claimants of the blood
of Lulach, representing the Celtic customs adverse to the English
and Norman ideas of the family in possession of the throne.
Thus Celtic principles, as opposed to the western principles of
chartered feudalism, did not perish in Scotland without a long
and severe struggle.
Meanwhile the dynasty of Malcolm II. was brought into close
connexion with the English crown, and relied on English sup port,
both before and after the Norman Conquest. The
genius of Shakespeare, in his Macbeth, based on
Canmore. '
legendary materials borrowed by Hollmshed from
Hector Boece, and on the dynastic myth of the descent of the
Stuart kings from Banquo, has clouded the actual facts of history.
To the Celts of Scotland, or at least to those of the great sub-
kingship or province of Moray, Duncan, not Macbeth, was the
usurper. Duncan left sons, Malcolm, called Canmore (great
head), and Donald Ban; and in 1054 Siward, earl of North-
umbria, defeated Macbeth, whether acting under the order of
Edward the Confessor in favour of the claims of Malcolm Can-
more, or merely to punish Macbeth for sheltering Norman
fugitives from the Confessor's court. The latter casus belli is
the more probable, though the chronicler, Florence of Worcester,
asserts the protection of the sons of Duncan by England. Siward
did not dethrone Macbeth, who was defeated and slain by
Malcolm in 1057; Lulach fell obscurely in 1058, leaving claimants
to his rights, though these did not trouble much the crowned king,
Malcolm Canmore. His long reign (1058-1093), and his second
marriage (1068) with Margaret, sister of Edgar ^theling, of the
ancient English royal blood dispossessed by the Norman
Conqueror intensified the sway of English ideas in Scotland,
and increased the prepotency of the English element in political,
social and ecclesiastical affairs. The anarchic state of North-
umberland and Cumberland after the Norman Conquest, which
did not soon assimilate them, was Malcolm's opportunity. He
held Cumberland (1070), and supported the claims of his brother-
in-law, the ^Etheling, while his relationship with Gospatric, earl
of Northumbria, who retired into Scotland, gave him pre-
texts for invading the north-east of England. William the
Conqueror's earl of Northumberland, Robert de Comines, was
slain at Durham in 1069, and the houses of Gospatric (earls of
Dunbar and March) and of de Comines (the Comyns of Badenoch)
were long puissant in Scottish history.
In 1072 William marched north and took a disputed homage
of Malcolm at Abernethy, receiving as hostage the king's eldest
son (by his first wife, Ingebiorge), named Duncan. As to the
nature of Malcolm's homage, whether for Scotland (Freeman),
or for manors and a subsidy in England(Robertson), historians
disagree. Malcolm subdued " the King of Moray, "son of Lulach,
who died in far Lochaber, though his family's claims to the
crown of Scotland did not lapse. In 1091 William Rufus renewed
the treaty of Abernethy with Malcolm and fortified Carlisle,
thereby cutting Malcolm off from Cumberland; Malcolm was
summoned to meet Rufus at Gloucester; he went, but declined
to accept the jurisdiction of the Anglo-Norman peers, or to "do
right" to Rufus, except on the frontier of the two realms,
wherever he may have supposed that frontier to be. He was
an independent king, no vassal of England; as such (1093) he
invaded Northumberland, and was slain at Alnwick. His wife,
St Margaret, did not survive her sorrow; she died in the castle
of Edinburgh. Her reforms in church matters had apparently
made her unpopular with the Celts, but under cover of a mist her
body was conveyed to and buried at Dunfermline.
Margaret, in fact, completed the reduction of the Celtic church
in Scotland to conformity with western Christendom, and some
recent presbyterian writers have not forgiven her. Beautiful,
charitable and pious, she mollified the fierce manners of her
husband, who, according to her director and biographer, Turgot,
acted as interpreter between her and the Gaelic-speaking ecclesi-
astics at their conferences. Certain obscure religious usages,
as regards Lent, the Communion, the non-observance of Sunday,
non-communicating at Easter, and the Forbidden Degrees in
marriage, were brought into conformity with western Christen-
dom. The last Celtic " bishop of Alban " died at this time;
and when the dynasty of Malcolm Canmore was established
after an interval of turmoil, English ecclesiastics began to oust
the Celtic Culdees from St Andrews.
Malcolm would have been succeeded by his eldest son by
Margaret, Edward, but he fell beside his father at Alnwick,
and the succession was disputed bet ween Duncan, son of Malcolm
by his first wife; Edmund, eldest surviving son of Malcolm and
Margaret; and Donald Ban, brother of Malcolm. The Celts
(apart from the claimant of the blood of Lulach and the house
of Moray) placed Donald Ban on the throne; England supported
Duncan (by primogeniture Malcolm's heir, and a hostage in
England); there was division of the kingdom till Duncan was
slain, and Edgar, son of Malcolm and Margaret, was restored
by Edgar jEtheling. He put out the eyes of his uncle, Donald
Ban, and in unsaintly ways established the dynasty of the
English St Margaret and of the Celtic Malcolm. In 1 103 Edgar's
sister, Eadgyth (Matilda), married Henry I.; the dynasty of
Scotland now shows, by the names of its members, that the
English element in it was predominant. After Donald Ban no
Scottish sovereign bears a Gaelic Christian name save Malcolm
the Maiden; and perhaps no later king knew Gaelic.
Edgar, before his death, established his brother, Alexander I.,
as king of Scotland, north of Forth and Clyde, with Edinburgh,
which looks as if he considered Forth and Clyde the
frontier of what was legally Scotland; while his
younger brother, David, as earl, ruled Lothian and
Cumbria. The reign of Alexander I. is marked by war with
the northern Celts, and by the introduction of English bishops of
St Andrews, while the claims of the see of York to superiority
over the Scottish church were cleverly evaded at Glasgow
(David's bishopric), as well as at St Andrews, where English
Augustinian canons were now established, to the prejudice of
the Celtic Culdees. We observe that the chief peers of Alex-
ander, who signed the charter of his monastery at Scone, are
Celts Heth,earl of Moray (husband of the daughter of Lulach),
Malise of Strathearn, Dufagan of Fife, and Rory. After the death
of Alexander I. (1124) his successor, David I., is attended by
men of Norman names, Moreville, Umfraville, Somerville,
Bruce, FitzAlan (the ancestor of the Stewards of Scotland, and
himself of an ancient Breton house), and so on.
David, educated in England by Normans, was the maker of a
Scotland whereof the anglicized part at least was now ruled by
Anglo-Norman feudalism and Anglo-Norman municipal Dav i d /
laws in the burghs. Marrying Matilda, widow of
Simon de St Liz and heiress of Waltheof, David received the
earldom of Huntingdon and supposed himself to have claims
over Northumberland, a cause of war for three generations.
With Anglo-Norman aid he repelled a Celtic rising the right of
Alex-
ander I.
HISTORY]
SCOTLAND
433
the claimants to represent the blood of Lulach is exquisitely com-
plex and obscure in this case but in the end David annexed to
the crown the great old sub-kingdom or province of Moray, and
made grants therein to English, Norman and Scottish followers.
Some of the most eminent of his southern allies could not
stand by David when, in the reign of Stephen and in fidelity to
the cause of his niece, the empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I.,
he invaded England. The towns of Northumberland and
Cumberland opened their gates, but he and Stephen met in
conference at Durham, and David's son Henry, prince of Scot-
land, received the Honour of Huntingdon, Carlisle, Doncaster
"and all that pertains to them " (1135). Stephen's relations
with Henry became unfriendly, and in January 1 138, in pursuance
of Henry's claim to Northumberland, David again invaded. A
holy war against him was proclaimed by the archbishop of
York, and on the 22nd of August 1138 Bruce, Baliol, and others
of David's southern allies renounced fealty to him, and he was
defeated at the battle of the Standard, near Northallerton.
David regained the shelter of Carlisle, a legate from Rome made
peace, and Prince Henry received the investiture of Northumber-
land, without the strong fortresses of Bamborough and Newcastle.
The anarchic weakness of the reign of Stephen enabled David
to secure his hold of northern England to the Till, but the death
of his gallant and gentle son Henry, in June 1152, left the suc-
cession to his son, Malcolm the Maiden, then a child of ten, and
David's death (24th of May 1153) exposed Scotland to the
dangers of a royal minority.
David was, if any man was, the maker of Scotland. The
bishoprics erected by him, and his many Lowland abbeys,
Social Holyrood, Melrose, Dryburgh, Kelso, Jedburgh and
and others, confirmed the freedom of the Scottish church
political f rom tne c i a ; ms O f the see of York, encouraged the
improvement of agriculture and endowed the country
with beautiful examples of architecture. His charters to land :
owners and burghs (charters not being novel in Scotland, but
now more lavishly conferred) substituted written documents for
the unwritten customs of Celtic tenure, and converted the
under kings of provinces into earls of the king, while vice-comites,
or sheriffs, administered local justice in the king's name, though
Celtic custom still prevailed, under a thin veneer of law, in the
Celtic regions, as in Galloway. Where Anglo-Normans obtained
lands in Moray and Renfrewshire, there seems to have been no
displacement of the population: though a FitzAlan was dominant
in Renfrewshire, the " good men," or gentry, still bore Gaelic
names, till territorial names " of " this or that place came
into use. In Lothian the place-names recorded in charters were
already, for the most part, English. Beneath the freeholders
and noblesse were free tenants, farmers paying rents, mainly in
kind, and in services of labour and of war. Below these were
the nativi, attached to the land, and changing masters when
the land changed hands. These nativi were gradually emanci-
pated, partly through the influence of the church, partly for
economic reasons, partly through the rule that any vilein
became free after a year's residence in a burgh.
Thus Scotland never saw a jacquerie or servile rising. The
burghs were not actually the creations of David and William the
Lion, but the rights, duties and privileges which had gradually
developed in the towns were in the time of these kings codified
and confirmed by charters; the towns had magistrates of their
own election, courts, and legalized open markets. The greater
burghers had a union, and made laws and regulations for muni-
cipal affairs. In addition to royal burghs, there were burghs
of nobles and of bishops, and the provostship was apt to become,
by custom, almost hereditary in a local noble family, which
protected the burgesses.
The germ of a parliament existed in the crown vassals and the
royal officials chancellor, steward, constable, marischal and the
rest with bishops, priors, earls, barons and other probi homines.
The term iota communitas, " the whole community," appears to
denote all freeholders of gentle birth, who might be present at
any important assembly for the discussion of national affairs.
Burgesses do not yet receive mention as present on such occasions.
Scotland was as yet, and in fact remained, destitute of con-
stitutional history as it appears in England. There was, technic-
ally speaking, no taxation. The king " lived on his own," on
rent of crown lands, feudal fines and aids, wardships, marriages,
and the revenues of vacant bishoprics. Opposition used the
mechanism of conspiracies; and changes of administration were
effected by the seizure of the king's person, especially during the
many royal minorities.
In the matter of justice, royal succeeded to tribal authority.
Offences were no longer against the individual and his kin, but
against the king's peace, or against the peace of subordinate
holders of courts earls, thanes, barons, bishops and abbots.
Compurgation, the ordeal, and trial by battle began to yield to
Visnet, Jugement del Pais, the " good men of the country,"
giving their verdict, while sentence was passed by the judge,
sheriff, alderman or bailiff. " The Four Pleas of the Crown,"
murder, arson, rape and robbery, were relegated to the king's
court, under Alexander II. ruled by four grand justiciaries.
While Roman law became the foundation of justice, a learned
clerk was needed as assessor and developed into the Lord Justice
Clerk. The vice-comes, or sheriff, as the king's direct representa-
tive, was the centre of justice for shires, and his judicature
tended to encroach on that of noble holders of courts. Royal
authority, sheriffs, juries and witnesses gradually superseded
ordeal, compurgation, and trial by battle, though even barons
long retained the right of " pit and gallows."
In the matter of education, the monasteries had their schools,
as had the parish churches, and there were high schools in
the burghs, and " song-schools." From the time of David to
the death of Alexander III. Scotland was relatively peaceful,
prosperous, and, in the south, anglicized, and was now in the
general movement of western civilization.
Malcolm the Maiden, before his early death in 1165, had put
down the menacing power of Somerled, lord of the Isles, a chief
apparently of mixed Celtic and Scandinavian blood, the founder
of the great clan of Macdonald, whose chiefs, the lords of the Isles,
were almost royal; Malcolm also subdued the Celts of Galloway,
sometimes called Picts, but at this time Gaelic in speech.
Malcolm's brother, William the Lion (1165-1214), initiated
the French alliance, fondly ascribed to the time of Charlemagne.
William's desire was to seize Northumberland; in
1173 he was allied with Henry, the rebellious son of the Lion.
Henry II. , himself in alliance with France. The capture
of William at Alnwick, in July 1174, permitted a Celtic revolt
in Galloway, and necessitated the Treaty of Falaise, by which for
fifteen years Scotland was absolutely a fief of England, though
the clergy maintained their independence of the see of York,
which was recognized by Pope Clement III. in 1 188. In a quarrel
of church and state the legate had been authorized to lay an
interdict on Scotland; William and the country merely disre-
garded it; and in 1191 a new pope absolved the Scottish king.
The Celtic risings now were made in defence of the royal claims
of a descendant of Duncan, son of Malcolm Canmore; there were
also MacHeth claimants to the old rights of Lulach; Galloway
and the Celtic north were ceaselessly agitated.
After the death of Henry II. in 1189, Richard I. sold back to
Scotland all that his father had gained by the Treaty of Falaise,
and William only became Richard's man for all the lands for
which his predecessors had been liegemen to the English kings,
a vague phrase but implying that the king of Scotland was not
liegeman for Scotland. To John, William did homage (1200)
salvo jure suo. In 1209 he promised to purchase John's goodwill
with 15,000 merks, and gave hostages. Peace was preserved
till William died in 1214.
In the reign of his successor, Alexander II., the risings of Celtic
claimants died out; he converted Argyll into a sheriff dom,
and (1237) resigned the claims to Northumberland,
in exchange for lands in the northern English counties
with a rental of 200 yearly. His death in 1249 left
the crown to his son, Alexander III., a child of eight, in whose
minority began the practice by which parties among the nobility
seized the person of the sovereign. At the age of ten, Alexander,
434
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
at York, wedded a child bride, Margaret, daughter of Henry III.
His boyhood was distracted by vague party strifes, but Henry
did not attempt to administer his country. In 1261 his queen
bore, at Windsor, a daughter, Margaret, who later, marrying
Eric, king of Norway, became the mother of " The Maid of
Norway," heiress of Alexander III.; the girl whose early death
left the succession disputed, and opened the flood-gates of strife.
Alexander (1260) won the western isles and the Isle of Man from
Norway, paying 4000 merks, and promising a yearly rent of
too merks. In 1279 Alexander did homage to Edward I. at
Westminster, salvo jure suo, and through the lips of Bruce, earl
of Carrick. The homage was vague, " for the lands which he
holds of the king of England," or according to the Scottish
version, " saving my own kingdom." On the death of
Alexander's daughter, Margaret of Norway (1283), and of his
son, the prince of Scotland, without issue, the estates, at Scone,
recognized Margaret's infant daughter as rightful successor.
At this assembly were Bruce, earl of Annandale; Robert de
Brus, earl of Carrick (later king) , his son ; Comyn, earl of Buchan ;
John Baliol; and James the Steward of Scotland, of the house
of FitzAlan. On the igth of March 1286 Alexander died,
in consequence of a slip made by his horse on a cliff near
Kinghorn during a night ride. His death was the great calamity
of Scotland, and is lamented in a famous fragment of early
Scottish verse. The golden age of " The Kings of Peace " was
ended.
The first step of the Scottish noblesse (mainly men of Norman
names), after Alexander's death, was to send a secret verbal
message to Edward of England. Six custodians of
tne rea l m were then appointed, including the bishop
parties. of Glasgow (Wishart) and the bishop of St Andrews
(Frazer). Presently the nobles formed two hostile
parties, that of the Bruces and that of Baliol. The Bruce party
took up arms, and from the terms of their " band," or agreement,
obviously contemplated resistance to the rights of the Maid of
Norway, while declaring their fealty to Edward. In 1286-1289
Scotland was on the verge of civil war. Edward procured a papal
dispensation for the marriage of the Maid of Norway to his son
Edward; the Scots were glad to consent, and preliminaries
were adjusted by the Treaty of Birgham (i8th of July 1290).
All possible care was taken by the Scots to guard their national
independence, but Edward succeeded in inserting his favourite
clause, " saving always the rights of the King of England, which
belonged, or ought to belong, to him." As the Bruce faction
had asserted their fealty to Edward, the carefully patriotic
attitude of the Scots may be ascribed to the two bishops, who
did not consistently live on this level. In August Edward
ventured a claim to the castles of Scotland, which was not
admitted. By the igth of August it was known that the child
queen had arrived in the Orkneys. An assembly was being held
at Scone; the Bruces did not appear, but, by the 7th of October,
they arrived in arms, on a rumour of the queen's death. The
bishop of St Andrews tells Edward of these events, and urges
him to come to the border, to preserve peace. The bishop of
St Andrews was for Baliol, he of Glasgow was for Bruce; and
the Baliol party, the seven earls complain, was ravaging Moray.
These seven earls appear to represent the old rulers of the seven
provinces of Pictland, and asserted ancient claims to elect a
king. The Bruces placed themselves under Edward's protection.
In March 1291 he ordered search to be made for documents
bearing on his claims in the English clerical libraries, and
summoned his northern feudal levies to meet him at Norham
on Tweed, fully armed, in June. Hither he called the repre-
sentatives of Scotland for the loth of May; on the 2nd of June
the eight claimants of the crown acknowledged him as Lord
Paramount, despite a written protest of the communitas of
Scotland; obscurely mentioned, and not easily to be under-
stood. Edward took homage from all, including burgesses even,
at Perth; his decision on the claims was deferred to the 2nd of
June 1292 at Berwick.
The choice lay between descendants in the female line of
David of Huntingdon, younger brother of William the Lion.
John Baliol was great-grandson of this David, through his eldest
daughter; Bruce the old was grandson of David through his
second daughter, and pleaded that, by Scottish
custom, he was David's heir. He also pleaded a Baliol
selection of himself as successor by Alexander II., owned.
before the birth of Alexander III., but of this he had no
documentary evidence. On the i7th of November 1292 Edward
decided, against Scottish custom (if such custom really existed),
in favour of Baliol, who did fealty, and, amidst cries of dissent,
was crowned at Scone on the 26th of December.
Edward instantly began to summon John to his courts, even
on such puny matters as a wine-merchant's disputed bill. He
appeared to aim at driving Baliol into rebellion and
annexing his kingdom. In 1293 Edward refused to '^Jby"'
obey a similar summons from the king of France, and England.
in 1294 was fighting in Gascony. Baliol declined to
follow his standard and negotiated for a French alliance. Edward
ordered Baliol's English property to be confiscated; Baliol
renounced his fealty, and English merchants were massacred
at Berwick. The Comyns failed in an attack on Carlisle, and
(3oth of March 1296) Edward took Berwick, seized William
Douglas (father of the Good Lord James), and massacred the
male populace. A disorderly levy of Scots, appearing on the
hills above Dunbar, left their strong position (like Leslie later)
and were defeated with heavy loss. Robert Bruce was now of
Edward's party; the nobles in a mass surrendered and Edward
was unopposed. He seized the Black Rood, the coronation stone
of Scone, St Margaret's fragment of the True Cross, and many
documents; then he marched north as far as Elgin. The
Ragman's Roll contains sworn submissions of all probi homines
outside of the western thoroughly Celtic region; and, in October
1296, Edward returned to England, with Baliol his prisoner,
leaving Scotland in the hands of the earl of Surrey as guardian,
Cressingham as treasurer, and Ormsby as justiciary.
Agitation at once broke out, and, when Edward went abroad
in June 1297, he left orders for suppression of assemblies (con-
venliculae). Now Sir William Wallace came to the Wallace.
front, a younger son of Sir Malcolm Wallace of Elderslie,
near Paisley. The family probably came from England with
the Fitz Alans, the hereditary Stewards of Scotland. The English
chroniclers call Wallace latro, " a brigand," and he probably
was a leader of broken men, discontented with English rule.
Sir Thomas Gray, son of an English gentleman wounded in a
rising at Lanark in May 1297, says that Wallace was chosen
leader " by the commune of Scotland," and began operations by
slaying Heselrig, sheriff of Clydesdale, at Lanark. The Lanercost
contemporary chronicler writes that the bishop of Glasgow and
the Steward began the broil, and called in Wallace as the leading
brigand in the country-side. Wallace, in fact, was a gentleman
of good education. Percy and Clifford led the English forces to
suppress him, and (7th July) made terms with the bishop, the
Steward and Robert Bruce, who submitted; but Wallace held
out in Ettrick Forest. Sir William Douglas was kept a prisoner
for life, but Andrew Murray was out in Moray, with a large
following. The nobles who had submitted made delays in pro-
viding hostages, and Warenne marched from Berwick against
Wallace, who, by September 1297, was north of Tay.
On hearing of Warenne's advance, Wallace occupied the Abbey
Craig at Stirling, commanding the narrow bridge over the Forth;
the Steward and Lennox attempted pacific negotiations; a
brawl occurred; and next day (nth of September) the English
crossed Stirling bridge, marched back again, recrossed, and were
attacked in deploying from the bridge. The general, Warenne,
was old and feeble, Cressingham was hasty and confident;
counsels were confused, the manner of attack was rash, and
the rout was sanguinary. Cressingham was slain, and Warenne
fled to Berwick. Pursuing his victory, Wallace ravaged Cum-
berland, most English writers say with savage ferocity; but
Hemingburgh represents Wallace as courteous on one occasion,
and as confessing that his men were out of hand.
By the zgth of March 1298 Wallace appears, in a charter
granted by himself, as guardian of the kingdom, and, with
HISTORY]
SCOTLAND
435
Andrew Murray, as army leader in the name of King John that
is, the captive Baliol. By June 1298 Robert Bruce is active in
the service of Edward, in Galloway. Edward was moving on
Scotland, and on the 22nd of July he found Wallace in force, and
in a strong position, guarded by a morass, at Falkirk. The
Scottish horsemen fled from the English cavalry, but the archers
of Ettrick fought and died round Sir John Stewart of Bonhill,
brother of the Steward. The schiltrons, or squares of Scottish
spearmen, were unbroken by Edward's cavalry, till their ranks
were thinned by the English bowmen and could no longer keep
out the charging horse. Wallace had made the error of risking
a general engagement in place of retiring into the hills; to do
this had, it is said, been his purpose, but Edward surprised him,
and Wallace disappears from the leadership, while the wavering
Robert Bruce appears in command, with the new bishop of St
Andrews, Lamberton; Lord Soulis; and the younger Comyn,
" the Red Comyn " of Badenoch. For want of supplies, Edward
returned to England through Annandale, burning Bruce's castle
of Lochmaben. Stirling still held out for England. There is
certain evidence of fierce dissensions in some way connected with
Wallace, among the Scottish leaders (August 1299). Wallace
was going to France; the Scottish leaders were reconciled to each
other, and took the castle of Stirling, which they entrusted to Sir
William Oliphant. The Scottish cause seemed stronger than
ever, under Bruce, the Steward, the Red Comyn and Lamberton,
but in June 1300 Edward mustered a splendid array, and took
Carlaverock castle, but, on the arrival of the archbishop of
Canterbury with a letter from the pope approving of the Scottish
cause, he granted a truce till Whitsuntide 1301. The barons of
England angrily refused to submit to the papal interference,
but nothing decisive was attempted by Edward, though Bruce
had again entered his service. By 1303 France (which doubtless
had moved the pope to his action) deserted the Scots in the Treaty
of Amiens, and Edward, with little opposition, overran Scotland
in 1303.
On the gth of February 1304 Comyn with his companions
submitted; they hunted Wallace, who had returned from the
continent, and on the 24th of July the brave Oliphant surrendered
Stirling on terms of a degrading nature. Among his officers we
see the names of Napier, Ramsay, Haliburton and Polwarth.
The noblest names of Scotland now took part in the pursuit
of Wallace, who, as great in diplomacy as in war, had visited
Rome (he had a safe-conduct of Philip of France to that end),
and had at least secured a respite for his country. It seems
probable that Wallace remained consistently loyal to Baliol,
and hostile to the party of the wavering Bruce. He was taken
near Glasgow, in his own country, and handed over to England
by Sir John Menteith, sheriff of Dumbartonshire. Menteith
certainly received the blood-money, 100 yearly in land, and
Wallace, like Montrose, was hanged, disembowelled and quartered
(at London, August 1305). Tradition attributes to Wallace
strength equal to his courage. His diplomacy in France proves
him to have been a man of education, and his honour is un-
impeached; he never wavered, he never was liegeman of Edward,
while bishops, nobles, and, above all, Bruce, perjured themselves
and turned their coats again and again. The martyr of an
impossible loyalty, Wallace shares the illustrious immortality of
the great Montrose, and is by far the most popular hero of his
country's history. His victory at Stirling lit a fire which was
never quenched, and began the long and cruel wars of inde-
pendence on which Scotland now entered.
For an hour there seemed as if there might be no raising of the
fallen standard of St Andrew. Edward had not yet alienated
Bruce l ^ e countr y by cruelty, save in the case of Wallace
and the massacre of Berwick. He aimed at a union
of the two countries, and Scottish representatives were chosen
to sit in the English parliament. The laws of David I. were to
be revised. Eight justices were appointed, the sheriffs were
mainly Scots of the kingdom; the bishop of St Andrews was one
of the Scottish representatives. The country was being re-
organized, ruined churches and bridges were being rebuilt.
The " commons," the populace, were eager for peace; nobles
like Bruce were Edward's men. Bruce had been actively en-
gaged in the siege of Stirling, and had succeeded his father as
earl of Annandale. Yet, during the siege of Stirling (nth of
June 1304), Bruce had entered into a secret band with Lamberton,
bishop of St Andrews, for mutual aid. Early in February 1306
he stabbed the Red Comyn before the high altar, in the church
of the Franciscans at Dumfries: Comyn's uncle was also slain,
and Bruce, from his castle of Lochmaben, summoned his party
to arms; he was supported by the bishops of St Andrews and
Glasgow, and by Sir James of Douglas, and was promptly
crowned by the countess of Buchan, representing the clan
MacDuff, at Scone.
The cause of the slaying of Comyn is unknown; the two men
had long been at odds, but the evidence does not confirm the
story that Comyn had betrayed Bruce to Edward. It is more
probable that Comyn merely refused to be drawn by Bruce into
a rising, and that the deed was unpremeditated. Be that as it
may, Bruce had now no place of repentance for a sacrilegious
homicide; he could not turn his tabard again; he was outlawed,
forfeited and excommunicated. He had against him, not merely
England, but the kith and kin of Comyn, including the potent
clan of MacDowall or MacDougall in Galloway and Lome;
on his own side he had his kinship, broken men, and the
clergy of Scotland. Heedless of the excommunication they
backed him, and the preaching friars proclaimed his to be a
holy war.
Bruce was warring in Galloway when, in May 1306, Aymer de
Valence led an English force to Perth. Bruce followed, and
was defeated in Methven wood; the prisoners of rank, his
brother Nigel, and Atholl, with others, were hanged, and his
two bishops were presently secured. "All the Commons went
him fra," says Barbour, the poet chronicler. His queen, with
Lady Buchan and his sister, were imprisoned; and his castles
were held against him. He took to the heather, making for the
western seas, hewing his way through the MacDougals at Tyn-
drum and marching over the mountains to Loch Lomond,
which he crossed in a canoe. Sir Nial Campbell of Lochow,
founder of the house of Argyll, secured shipping for him, and
he reached a castle of Macdonald of Islay (Angus Og), his ally, at
Dunaverty in Kintyre. He was driven to an isle off the Irish
coast; he thence joined Douglas in Arran, and by a sudden
camisade he butchered the English cantoned under his own castle
of Turnberry in Carrick. Two of his brothers were taken in
Galloway and hanged at Carlisle, while King Edward, a dying
man, lay with a great army at Carlisle, or at the neighbouring
abbey of Lanercost. Aymer de Valence, Butetourte, Clifford,
and Mowbray were sent to net and " drive " the inner wilds of
Galloway, where Bruce lurked in the forests and caves of Loch
Trool and Loch Dungeon. Now he evaded them, now he and
his valiant brother Edward surprised and cut them up in detail,
doing miracula, says a contemporary English chronicler.
Douglas, an excellent guerilla leader, captured his own castle
and butchered the English garrison. By the isth of May 1307
a writer of a letter from Forfar says that if Edward dies his
cause in Scotland is lost. Bruce slipped into Ayrshire and
defeated de Valence at Loudon Hill ; so Edward, a dying man,
began to move against him with his whole force. He died (yth
of July 1307) at Burgh-on-Sands, leaving his incompetent son
to ruin himself by his own follies, while ferocious hangings and
dragging of men to death at horses' heels roused the Scottish
Commons, and the men of Ettrick and Tweeddale, renouncing
their new lord, de Valence, came over to the wandering knight
who stood for Scotland.
In the winter of 1307 and in 1308 Bruce ruined Buchan, a
Comyn territory, and won the castles of Aberdeen and Forfar,
while Edward Bruce cleared the English out of Galloway. In
the summer of 1309 Bruce fell on the MacDougals, on the right
side of the Awe, where it rushes from Lock Awe at the pass of
Brander, and, aided by a rear attack led by Douglas, seized the
bridge and massacred the enemy. He then took the old royal
castle of Dunstaffnage and drove the chief, John of Lome, into
England; Menteith, the captor of Wallace, changed sides, and
43 6
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
Edward, after a feeble invasion in 1310, retreated from a land
laid desolate by the Scots.
In 1311 Bruce carried the war into England, seconded by the
most audacious if the least skilled of his captains, his daring
brother Edward. For two years the north of England, as far
south as Durham and Chester, was the prey of the Scots, and
some English counties secured themselves by paying an in-
demnity. The castles of Carlisle and Berwick, however, repelled
the assailants, but Perth was surprised, in January 1313, Bruce
himself leading the advance. Randolph, earl of Murray, took
the chief hold in the country, Edinburgh castle, by scaling the
precipitous rock to the north, while a feigned attack was being
made on the accessible southern front. In short almost every
castle held by the English was captured, and the fortifications
were destroyed.
In the spring of 1313 Edward Bruce invested Stirling castle,
the key of Scotland; on midsummer day he accepted a pact
for the surrender of the place if not relieved within a year.
This was a heedless piece of chivalry on Edward's part. It
gave the English king, less opposed by his nobles since his
favourite, Gaveston, was slain, time to muster a large army,
which Bruce must meet, if at all, in the open field. Edward II.
not only summoned English but Irish levies, and knights of
Hainault, Bretagne, Gascony and Aquitaine crowded to his
standard. The estimates of numbers by the old writers are
usually much exaggerated; modern authorities reckon King
Edward's army at 50,000 of whom 10,000 were cavalry. Old
accounts put the infantry at 100,000, the horsemen at 40,000.
Bruce had but five hundred horse, under Keith the Marischal;
Douglas led the levies of his own district and Ettrick Forest;
Randolph commanded the men of Moray; Walter Steward,
those of the south-western shires; and Angus Og brought to
the Scottish standard the light-footed men of the Isles, and,
probably, of Lochaber, Moidart, and the western coast in general.
Bruce commanded the people of Carrick and probably of his
old earldom, Annandale.
Moving out from the Torwood forest, Bruce arrayed his force
so as to guard either the Roman road through St Ninians, or
the way through the Carse, which was then studded
w ^ mars jj es an( j srna n lakes. The former route
appeared to be chosen by the English, and Bruce
stationed his army in a position where it was defended by a
cleugh, or ravine of the Bannockburn, and by two morasses
between which was a practicable but narrow neck of firm land.
Randolph, on Bruce's left, was to guard against a rush of English
cavalry to relieve Stirling castle. The Macdonald tradition is
that their clan was on the right wing, under Angus Og; the old
accounts place them with Bruce's reserves. Three hundred
English horsemen appear to have stolen round Randolph's
flank unseen by him, and Bruce is said to have warned him that
" a rose had fallen from his chaplet." Randolph advanced with
his footmen against the English horse, who unwarily accepted
his challenge and were defeated by his spearmen. While
Edward's army paused, Bruce, mounted on a palfrey, was
attacked by Sir Henry Bohun. Bruce evaded his spear and
slew him with an axe stroke; the axe shaft broke in his hand.
The omens were evil for England; and her forces bivouacked,
reserving the general attack for the following day. Bruce is
said to have proposed retreat and a guerilla war, but his council
were for fighting.
In the general engagement, next day, the English cavalry
could not break the " impenetrable wood " of the Scottish
spearmen, who, however, were galled by the arrows of the
English bowmen, which had broken their formation at Falkirk.
Bruce bade Keith, with his five hundred horse, charge the archers
in Sank: apparently they were unprotected by pikes; they
were broken, and the great peril passed away. The Scottish
archers charged with axe in hand, and the Scottish right front
was protected by a mass of fallen English horses and fighting
men; the rear ranks of the English, clogged and crowded,
could not reach the foe, and the line of Scottish spears pressed
steadily and slowly forward. Now a panic was caused by a
Bannock-
rush of camp followers from the "gillie's hill": the English
wavered; Bruce commanded an advance of his whole line:
the English rout was general, and, had Bruce possessed cavalry,
few would have escaped. The Bannockburn was choked with
the fallen, and it was only by hard spurring that Edward and
his guards reached Dunbar, whence he sailed to Berwick. An
immense booty and many ransoms rewarded the Scots, whose
victory was one of the decisive battles of the world. It was
won by the generalship of Bruce and his captains; by the excel-
lence of his position, by the steadiness of his men, and, obviously,
by the reckless fury of the English cavalry, and by the folly which
left their archers open to defeat by the Marischal's handful of
horse (24th of June 1314).
Bruce now swept the country, but Carlisle he could not take.
He married his daughter, Marjory, to the Steward, and from this
union came the Stewart (Stuart) dynasty. The invasion of
Ireland by Edward Bruce failed (1315-1318), and Edward fell
in battle: after which (1318) parliament settled the crown in
the Steward's line, failing male descendants of Robert Bruce.
He disdained the pope's efforts to make peace with England,
except on terms of absolute independence for his country. He
took and held Berwick, and (i4th of October 1322) defeated
Edward with heavy loss near Byland Abbey in Yorkshire,
where the highlanders scaled a cliff and drove the English from
a formidable position. A thirteen years' truce was arranged
in 1323: the pope removed his excommunication from Bruce,
and acknowledged him as king: a son, David, was born to him
in 1324.
The murder of Edward II. (1327) was followed by successful
Scottish raids in the north, and in May 1328 the Treaty of
Northampton sealed the triumph of Scotland. David
Bruce was to marry Joanna of England: Bruce was ? ru ' : f
i r r r r i i i death and
recognized as king: former owners of forfeited lands, wor k.
with three exceptions, were not to be restored. This
led, after Bruce's death, to an invasion by the disinherited
English ci-devant lords of lands in Scotland, and to a long war
from which Scotland was only " saved as by fire." Bruce died,
outworn by war and hardships, on the 7th of June 1329: his
body was buried in Dunfermline abbey; his heart, which
Douglas was bearing to the Holy Land, was brought home again,
after Douglas's chivalrous death in battle with the Moors in
Spain.
Bruce, previously so shifty, had never wavered or turned
back since he smote the Red Comyn at Dumfries. In face of
obstacles apparently insurmountable he had made a nation,
consolidating all the forces which Wallace had stirred into life.
There is, perhaps, nothing in the history of medieval Europe
which so closely resembles a voice from ancient Greece as the
reply of the nobles and the whole communitas of Scotland to the
pope (parliament of Aberbrothock, 6th of April 1320). They
will be liegemen of Bruce only so long as he resists England.
As long as a hundred Scots are left alive, they will continue the
war for freedom, " which no good man loses save with his life."
They show that the barbarities of Edward I. (which he regarded
as reprisals) have made it eternally impossible for Scotland
to yield to an English king. Their excommunication by Rome
does not trouble them at all. They are free from Rome, from
England, from all alien powers. Henceforth, through good and
evil fortune, this was the spirit of the nation.
The most important point in constitutional history was the
action of a parliament at Cambuskenneth, near Stirling, in 1326.
The representatives of the burghs were present : they made a
grant of all tenths to the king during his life; while they coven-
anted with him that he should collect no other taxes and should
exercise the privileges of prisiae et cariagia with moderation.
The long wars had been adverse to commerce, for which ransoms
and the booty of Bannockburn made inadequate compensation.
But the great abbey church of St Andrews was, none the less,
completed, to stand for some two hundred and forty years, and
was dedicated in the presence of Bruce.
The brilliant and sustained effort which made Scotland in-
dependent was almost paralysed by the deaths of Bruce and
HISTORY]
SCOTLAND
437
David II.
Struggle
with
Edward
Ballot.
the Good Sir James of Douglas, during the minority of David II.
(crowned, 24th of November 1331). The disinherited lords,
deprived of their lands by Bruce, were headed by
Edward Baliol, claiming the crown of Scotland as heir
of John Baliol, and secretly backed by England. Ran-
dolph died in July 1332, and in August Edward Baliol,
with the disinherited lord of Liddesdale, and Beaumont,
the disinherited earl of Buchan, and the English claimant of
the earldom of Atholl, landed a filibustering force in Forfarshire.
They were opposed by the new regent of Scotland, the earl of
Mar, who was routed with heavy loss and was slain, at Dupplin,
on the 1 2th of August 1332. The English owed the victory to
their archers, whose shafts rolled up a courageous charge by the
Scots. Edward Baliol was enabled to seize and fortify Perth
and was crowned at Scone, as Edward I. of Scotland (24th of
September). On the 23rd of November, at Roxburgh, Baliol
acknowledged Edward III. as his liege lord and promised to
surrender Berwick and large lands in southern Scotland. The
hands on the clock were then put back to the time of the reign
of John Baliol. But the earl of Murray, son of Randolph, and
Archibald, youngest brother of the Goo3 Lord James of Douglas,
surprised Baliol at Annan and drove him, half clad, into England.
The struggle was now (1333) for Berwick, which was besieged
by Edward III. Archibald Douglas tried to relieve it, just as
Relations Edward II. strove to relieve Stirling, and found his
with Bannockburn on Halidon hill (igth of July 1333),
Edward where he was routed and slain, with many of the
leaders of the Scots. Scotland was never again to
hold Berwick for any length of time: meanwhile a few castles
stood out, but the child king was sent over to France for safe
keeping. A parliament held by Baliol at Edinburgh (February
1334) ratified the promises made by him to England at Rox-
burgh: the disinherited lords were in power and many patriots
turned their coats. At Newcastle on the i2th of July Baliol
surrendered to Edward III. the southern shires of Scotland
with their castles: he had already done homage for the whole
of Scotland; and Edward III. would have succeeded where
Edward I. failed, had not the partisans of Baliol come to deadly
feud over matters of their private interests and ambitions.
Some took part with Sir Andrew Murray, son of a companion
of Wallace, and with the Steward, who contrived to occupy
the castle of Dunbarton, the key of western Scotland. These
two men, with Campbell of Loch Awe, and Randolph's son,
the earl of Moray, held up the national standard and were
joined by the English claimant of the earldom of Atholl.
Randolph's daughter, too, the famous Black Agnes of Dunbar,
brought over her wavering husband, the earl of March, to the
side of the patriots, and there was a war of partisans, while
Edward III. again and again invaded and desolated southern
Scotland. In 1335-1336 the English party prevailed, and
patriots began to come into the English peace: Atholl again
changed his side, but the sister of Bruce held out in Kildrummie
castle. Andrew Murray, March and a Douglas, the Black
Knight of Liddesdale, went to her relief and slew Atholl: Edward
III. (1336) again waged a victorious summer campaign, from
Perth as his base, and again found Scottish resistance revive in
winter. His rupture with France in October 1337, caused by his
claims to the French crown, tended to withdraw his attention
from Scotland, where, though the staunch Sir Andrew Murray
died, Black Agnes drove the English besiegers from Dunbar
(1338), while the Knight of Liddesdale recovered Perth. By
1342 Roxburgh, Stirling and Edinburgh castles were again in
Scottish hands, though the Knight of Liddesdale captured and
starved to death, in Hermitage castle, his gallant companion in
arms, Sir Alexander Ramsay, who had relieved the garrison of
Dunbar. With this Douglas, Knight of Liddesdale, a ruffian
and a traitor, may be said to begin the long struggle between
his too powerful house and the crown.
King David, a lad of eighteen, had returned from France and
had removed this Douglas from the sheriffdom of Teviotdale,
superseding him by Alexander Ramsay. Douglas revenged
himself on Ramsay, as we have seen, and though David was
obliged to overlook the crime, the Knight of Liddesdale hence-
forth was not to be trusted as loyal against England. It is
probable that he was intriguing for Baliol's restoration,
and he certainly was securing the favour of Edward III. C aptivHy.
An ill-kept truce of three years ended in October
1346, when David attempted to lead the whole force of his
realm, including the levies of John, Lord of the Isles, and of the
western Celts in general, against England. As the Celts marched
south the earl of Ross slew Ronald Macdonald, whose inheritance
was claimed by John of the Isles. As a result, the Islesmen
went home: David, however, crossed the border, plundering
and burning the marches. Near Durham he came into touch
with English levies under Henry Percy and the archbishop of
York. David was a knight of the French school of late chivalry :
he was not a general like Bruce or Randolph. In this affair of
Neville's Cross (i;th of October 1346) he copied the mistakes
of Edward II. at Bannockburn; his crowded division was broken
by the English archers, and the king himself was wounded and
captured. Moray, the last male representative of Randolph,
with the Constable and Earl Marischal of Scotland, was slain;
the Steward made his escape: and, henceforth, the childless
David regarded his heir, the Steward, with jealousy and suspicion.
The Steward, during the king's captivity, was regent, and the
Douglas of Liddesdale (the son of Archibald and nephew of the
Good Lord James) drove the English out of Douglasdale,
Teviotdale and the forest of Ettrick. A truce till 1354 was
arranged between England, France and Scotland, while the
country strove to raise the royal ransom, and David, who
preferred English ways to those of his own kingdom, acknow-
ledged Edward III. as his paramount. It became David's
policy to secure his own life interest on Scotland, while the
crown, on his decease, should go to one of the English royal
family. The more loyal William Douglas, in 1353, slew his
kinsman, the shifty Knight of Liddesdale, on the braes of
Yarrow, and a fragment of one of the oldest Scottish ballads
deplores his fall.
In July 1354 an arrangement as to David's ransom was made:
his price was 90,000 merks sterling (for the coinage of Scotland
was already beginning to be debased). Negotiations David's
were interrupted by the arrival of French reinforce- agreement
ments in men and gold: Berwick was recaptured, only "**
to be recovered by England in 1356. In the same year
Edward Baliol, after handing over his crown and the royalty of
Scotland to Edward III., retired from active life, and Edward
wasted the south in the raid of " The Burned Candlemas." In
October 1357 David was permitted to return to Scotland, giving
hostages and promising 100,000 merks in ten yearly payments.
The country, crushed by inevitable taxation, was discontented,
and not reconciled by Edward's grant of commercial privileges.
In May 1363 David put down a rising headed by the Steward,
and then, in October, went to London, where he and the earl of
Douglas made arrangements by which the countries were to be
united under Edward III. if David died childless. Scotland
was to be forgiven the ransom, receive the Stone of Scone and
retain its independent title as a kingdom: her parliaments
were to be held within her own borders; her governors and
magistrates were to be Scots, freedom of trade was guaranteed,
and the earl of Douglas was to be restored to his English estates,
or to an equivalent.
This scheme would have saved Scotland from centuries of war
and from a Stewart dynasty: there would have been a union of
the crowns, as under James VI.; or (by an alternative
plan of November, December 1363) a son of the king
of England, not Edward III. himself, would succeed Scotland.
to David. In March 1364 David laid the projects
before a parliament at Scone, which firmly refused its assent.
Possibly David had, as one motive for his scheme, the very
dubious legitimacy of the children of the Steward, a probable
cause of civil war and a disputed succession. He had also
private reasons for disliking the Steward, who was on bad terms
with the widow, Margaret Logic (by birth a Drummond), whom
David had married on the death of his first wife. The country,
438
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
resolved to stand by the Steward and the blood of Bruce, pre-
ferred the heavy taxation and the turbulence inevitable under
such a king as David to union under an English prince. On
the 20th of June 1365 Edward granted a four years' truce, with
the ransom to be paid in yearly instalments of 4000. But
the necessary taxation was resisted by various nobles, including
John of the Isles (1368), who had married a daughter of the
Steward. John was in arms, divisions and distress were every-
where, a famine prevailed, and Scotland had to face the prospect
of yielding to Edward, when, in 1369, that prince proclaimed
himself king of France, and, having his hands full of war, made
a fourteen years' truce with his northern neighbour.
David was now free to subdue John of the Isles, to repudiate
all his own debts contracted before 1368, and to make prepara-
tions for a crusade. From this crowning folly death delivered
him on the 22nd of February 1371. The whole of his ransom
was never paid, and his absurdities and misfortunes gave the
Estates opportunity to strengthen their constitutional position.
They established the rule that no official should put in execution
any royal warrant " against the statutes and common form of
law." The reign also saw the introduction of the committees,
" elected by the Commons and the other Estates," which did
the actual business of parliament, thus saving time and expense
to the members. But these committees, later known as the Lords
of the Articles, were to exercise almost the full powers of parlia-
ment in accordance with the desires of the crown, or of the
dominant faction, and they were among the grievances abolished
after the revolution of 1688-1689. The whole reign was a
period of wasteful turmoil, of party strife, of treachery, of
reaction. But the promise of peace and prosperity in exchange
for absolute independence was rejected with all the old resolution ;
and the freedom which a Bruce desired to sell was retained by
the first of the Stewart line, Robert II.; for Mr Froude erred
in alleging that James I. was the first Stewart king of Scotland.
Robert II., the grandson of Robert Bruce, had lived hard, and
when he came to the throne, was weary of fighting and of politics.
Nothing proves more clearly the firm adherence of the
S(urt nation to the blood of Bruce, and the parliamentary
Roberta settlement of the crown in his female line, than the
undisputed acceptance of the Steward's children as
heirs to the throne. Several of them had been born to Robert's
mistress, Elizabeth Mure of Rowallan, before a papal dispensa-
tion permitted, in 1349, a marriage which the canon law seemed
to render impossible. The pope might have said, like a later
pontiff on another day, " remittimus irremissibile." By a second
marriage, undeniably legal, Robert had a family whose claims
were not permitted to give trouble at his accession, though the
earl of Douglas, the fellow conspirator of David II., would have
caused difficulties if he had possessed the power. His eldest son,
the earl who fell at Otterburn, was married to Robert's daughter,
Isabella, but by her had no issue. The new prince of Scotland,
John (an unlucky name, later changed to Robert), was afainiant:
the king's second son, Robert, earl of Fife (later first duke of
Albany), was a man of energy and ambition, while the character
of the third, Alexander, is expressed in his sobriquet, " The Wolf
of Badenoch."
When the new reign opened, Edward III. made no secret of
his claims to be king of Scotland, and the southern regions were
still in English hands. From 1372 to 1383 Scotland was in truce
with England; and Robert II. had no desire to aid France and
accept from Rome a dispensation from the oaths of truce. The
southern nobles, under the Douglases and March, kept up a semi-
public feud with the Percy on the border, after the accession of
Richard II., still a child, and piece by piece Scottish territory
was recovered, mainly in Teviotdale and Liddesdale. In 1380
and 1381, Lancaster, uncle of Richard II., arranged truces, but
difficulties were caused by the late proclamation, in Scotland, of
a truce made with her ally, France, on the 26th of January 1384.
With the tidings of this truce arrived, in April, a body of French
knights who desired to enjoy fighting, and though dates are
obscure they seem to have caused, by a raid in April, a retaliatory
foray by the Percies in May or June. The king smoothed matters
Robert 111.
over, but in 1385 a great band of French knights landed in
Scotland, forced the king's hand, and penetrated England as far
as Morpeth. Here they might have had fighting enough, as
Lancaster led a force against them, while Richard II. followed
with a large army. But Douglas, to the disgust of the French,
refused battle, and allowed the English to do what mischief
could be done in a thrice stripped country. The French deemed
the Scots shabby, poor and avaricious: their grooms wereiilled
by the peasantry when they went foraging: the nobles were
churlish and inhospitable.
In August 1388 Douglas led the famous raid as far as Alnwick
castle, which culminated in the battle of Otterburn, fought by
moonlight. Here Douglas fell in the thickest of the melee, but
his death was concealed and Henry Percy, with many other
English knights, were captured and held to heavy ransom
(iSth of August 1388). These battles were fought in the spirit
of chivalry, and were followed, in 1389, by a three years' truce.
The second son of King Robert, Albany, was appointed
governor, his father being in ill-health and dying in 1390. He
was succeeded (i4th of August 1390) by his son
Robert III., whose own health was so bad that, in
the previous year, his brother Albany had been preferred
before him as governor. The reign of a weakling was full of
anarchy, complicated by the feud between his eldest son, the
wayward duke of Rothesay, and his ambitious brother, now
duke of Albany. These two are the first dukes in Scotland.
There was peace with England till the death of Richard II. in
1399, and till the parliament of January 1399 Albany still
undertook the duties of the king.
Here commenced the tragedy of the Stuarts and of Scotland.
For nearly two centuries each reign began with a long royal
minority, increasing the power and multiplying the
feuds of the nobles. The remainder of each reign was,
therefore, a struggle to re-establish the central power, a
struggle in which cruel deeds were done on all sides. Meanwhile,
now England, now France, secured the alliance of the men in
power, or out of power, and threatened the independence of the
kingdom. The cause of the miseries of these two unhappy
centuries was beyond human control: no Stuart sovereign, after
Robert II., escaped from the inevitable evils of a long minority,
while Robert II. himself was as weak as any child. Under his
nominal rule, the Celts of the north and west, in 1385, became
troublesome, while Robert's son, the Wolf of Badenoch, who was
justiciary, with his own wild sons, rather fanned than extin-
guished the flames. They slew the sheriff of Angus (1391-1392)
in a battle, and then two clan-confederacies, quarrelling among
themselves, put their cause to the ordeal of fight, in the famous
combat of thirty against thirty, on the Inch of Perth (see Scott's
Fair Maid of Perth). Though we know the cost of fencing the
lists, from entries in the treasury accounts, we are ignorant of
the cause of the quarrel, and even of the clans engaged. The
names are diversely given, but probably the combat was only one
incident in the long wars of the Camerons with the great Clan
Chattan confederacy. In 1397, at Stirling, the Estates denounced
the anarchy " through all the kingdom," and, in 1398-1399, were
full of grievances arising from universal misgovernment. By
this parliament, David, prince of Scotland and duke of Rothesay,
was made regent for three years; with his uncle, duke of Albany,
as his coadjutor. Peace between Albany and the wayward
Rothesay was impossible, and Rothesay, by breaking troth with
the daughter of the earl of March, and marrying a daughter of
the third earl of Douglas, added a fresh feud to the general
confusion.
Meanwhile Scotland, to vex Henry IV., adopted the cause
of the " Mammet," the pretender to be Richard II. This
enigmatic personage appeared in Islay, and rather had his
pretences thrust on him than assumed them; he was half-witted.
Meanwhile the insult to March caused him to seek alliance with
Henry IV., who v crossed the border the last English king to do
so and appeared before Edinburgh castle. Rothesay held it in
his contempt, and, as Albany declined a battle in the open,
Henry returned with nothing gained.
HISTORY]
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439
In 1400 Albany, and the 4th earl of Douglas (brother-in-law
of the duke of Rothesay), confessed before the Estates that they
had arrested the prince, and were cleared of the guilt of his sub-
sequent death. They kept him, first in the castle of St Andrews,
and then at Falkland, where he perished; some said of dysentery,
others, of starvation.
Restored to the regency, Albany permitted his son, Murdoch,
with Douglas, to retort on a successful raid by Percy and the
traitor March. They were defeated by English archery, as usual,
at Homildon hill: Murdoch and Douglas were captured. Percy,
dissatisfied with Henry's treatment of him in the matter of
ransoms, led an army into Scotland which was to have trysted at
Cocklaw with Albany and the whole forces of the realm, and
invaded England. But Douglas and Percy left Cocklaw before
Albany came up, and hurried to join hands with the Welsh rebel,
Glendower. The hostile forces met at Shrewsbury, and Shake-
speare has made the result immortal. Percy was slain; Douglas
was the prisoner of England.
The young prince of Scotland, the first James, was on his way
to seek safety in France, during an interval of truce, but was
captured on the high seas by English cruisers. (The
dates are obscure, but James was in the Tower by
February-March 1405-1406.) His father's death followed
(4th of April 1406). Albany sent, within a year, envoys to
plead for his release; and again, in 1409, but vainly. An
interval of peace occurred, among a series of border battles, and
the heresy of Lollardy was attacked by the clergy; Resby, who
had been a priest in England, was burned in 1407 at Perth.
The embers of Lollardy, not extinguished by the new central
fountain of learning, the university of St Andrews, smouldered
in the west till the Reformation.
" The wicked blood of the Isles," the Macdonalds, descendants
of island kings, now made alliance with England; Donald,
eldest son of the Lord of the Isles, having an unsatisfied claim on
the earldom of Ross, which Albany strove to keep in his own
family. The greatest of highland hosts met at Ardtornish castle,
now a ruin on the sound of Mull: they marched inland and north,
defeated the Mackays of Sutherland and were promised the
plunder of Aberdeen. The earl of Mar, with a small force of
heavily-armoured lowland cavaliers, stopped and scattered the
plaided Gael at Harlaw (1411). The knights lost heavily, but
Donald did not plunder Aberdeen (see Elspeth's ballad of
Harlaw, in The Antiquary). Next year Albany received the
submission of Donald at Lochgilp in Knapdale, and the Celts
were, for the moment, useless to their allies of England.
Time went on: Albany's son, Murdoch, was set free, but in
1410 the captive King James much resented Albany's neglect
of himself. His letter is written in Scots. Albany died in 1420;
his regency, with that of his son Murdoch, produced the anarchy
which James, when free, combated at the cost of his life. Mean-
while France demanded and received auxiliaries from Scotland,
who fought gloriously for French freedom. Their great victory,
where the duke of Clarence fell, was at Bauge Bridge (1421),
where the Stewarts and Kennedys, under Sir Hugh, were specially
distinguished. In 1424 the Scots, with the earl of Buchan and
the earl of Douglas, were almost exterminated at Verneuil,
some five months after King James, already affianced to the
Lady Jane Beaufort, was released. He never paid his ransom,
and his noble hostages lived and died south of Tweed: one cause
of his unpopularity.
Tradition tells that James vowed " to make the key keep the
castle, and the bush keep the cow," even though he " lived a
dog's life " in the endeavour. His reign was a struggle against
anarchy and in the cause of the poor and weak. He instantly
arrested Murdoch, son of Albany, and Fleming of Cumbernauld,
met parliament, dismissed it, retaining a committee (" the Lords
of the Articles "), and took measures with landlords, who must
display their charters ; appointed an inquest into lay and clerical
property; and imposed taxes to defray his ransom. The money
could not be collected, and the edicts against private wars and
the maintenance of armed retainers were hard to enforce. James
next arrested Lennox and that Sir Robert Graham whose feud
proved fatal to the king. In March 1425 he met his second
parliament, relying on a council of barons with no great earl
but Mar. He next arrested Albany's secretary and the Lord
Montgomery: the story, accepted by our historians, that he
also seized twenty-six notables, has been finally disproved by
Sir James Ramsay. No Scottish king ever embarked on such a
coup d'itat as the arrest of " the whole Scottish House of Lords,"
and Knox, who attributes a much larger design to James V.,
must have been deceived by rumour. Albany (Murdoch), his
son, and Lennox, were tried and executed: Albany's son,
James, in revenge burned Dumbarton. The king appears to
have been avenging his private wrongs, or destroying the three
nobles pour encourager les autres. Parliament now insisted on
inquisition for heretics: an act was passed (which never took
effect) against " bands " or private leagues among the nobles:
the Covenant was called " the great band," by cavaliers in days
to come. More important was the establishment of a new court
of justice, the court of Session, to sit thrice in the year. Yeomen
were bidden to practise archery, to which they much preferred
football and golf.
The Highlanders were next handled as the lowlanders had
been; a parliament was held at Inverness and a number of
chiefs who attended were seized, imprisoned or executed. The
Lord of the Isles, when released, burned Inverness (1429), but,
being pursued, he was deserted by Clan Chattan and Clan
Cameron (probably the clans represented on the ordeal of battle
on the Inch of Perth). The Lord of the Isles made submission,
but Donald Balloch, his cousin, defeated Mar near Inverlochy,
later fled to Ireland, and was reported dead, though he lived to
give trouble. James was unjustly repressing highland anarchy:
from the highlands came his bane.
James now granted his daughter, a child, to the Dauphin,
later Louis XL; but, as Jeanne d'Arc said, " the daughter of the
king of Scotland could not save Orleans," then (1428-1429)
besieged in a desultory manner by the English. In February
1429 the Scots under the oriflamme were cut to pieces in " The
Battle of the Herrings " at Rouvray. Thesurviving Scots fought
under Jeanne d'Arc till her last success, at Lagny, under Sir
Hugh Kennedy of Ardstinchar in Ayrshire, but James (May,
June 1429) made a treaty of peace with Cardinal Beaufort, which
enabled Beaufort to send large reinforcements into Paris, where
the Maid, deserted by Charles VII., failed a few months later.
In October 1430 was born the prince destined to be James II.
The king and the Estates were curtailing the judicial privileges
and jurisdiction of the clergy; and the anti-pope, Peter de Luna,
quarrelled with the country on this ground. Scotland then
deserted his cause for that of Martin V., but quarrels between
church and state did not cease, and a legate arrived to settle
the dispute a few days before the king's murder. James had
already threatened the Benedictines and Augustines for " im-
pudently abandoning religious conduct," and had founded the
Carthusian monastery in Perth, that the Carthusians might offer
a better example. A reformation by the state seemed at hand,
but the religious orders fell deeper in odium and contempt during
the next hundred and thirty years. Doctrine, too, was en-
dangered by heretics, one of whom, a Hussite named Paul
Crawar, was burned at Perth in 1433.
In 1427 James seized, as a male fee, the earldom of Strathearn,
gave the earl by female descent the title of Menteith, and sent
him to England as a hostage for his ransom. He was nephew of
the Sir Robert Graham whom James had arrested at the begin-
ning of his reign: Graham's anger was thus rekindled. The
earls of Mar and March also lost their lands, on one pretext or
another: James's policy was plainly to break the power of the
nobles.
The English translation (1440) of a lost contemporary Latin
history of the events avers that Sir Robert Graham rose in
parliament, denounced James as a tyrant and called
on the barons to seize their king: Graham was taken,
was banished from court, was confiscated and fled to
the Atholl hills. He thence intrigued with the old earl of Atholl
(heir to the crown if the ancestors of James by Robert II.
440
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
and Elizabeth 'Muir were illegitimate), and he drew into the
conspiracy the king's chamberlain, Atholl's grandson. By his
aid 300 highlanders were brought into the monastery of the
Black Friars in Perth, where the king was keeping the Christmas
of 1436, and there they slew James, who had fled into a vault.
The conspirators were seized and tortured to death with unheard-
of cruelties, but' lawlessness had won the battle. James had
failed, practically, even in his effort (1427-1428) to anglicize
parliament, by introducing the representative system; two
" wise men " were to be chosen by each sheriffdom, and two
Houses were to take the place of the one House in which all
Estates were wont to meet. But constituents were averse to paying
their members, no Speaker was elected, the reform never came
into being. Till the Union, all estates sat in one room during
parliament. The court of session was the most valuable and
permanent* of James's innovations, and his poem " The King's
Quhair " attests his real genius. He had attempted to reform
the country too hurriedly; and treachery, by all accounts, was
one of his methods. He left a child as king, and the old round
of anarchy began again; oppression, murder, feud, faction and
private war. History repeats itself, and the evil practices were
checked, not by the Reformation, but by the increased resources
and entire safety enjoyed by James VI. when he succeeded to
the crown of England.
Space forbids a record of the faction fights in the reign of
James II. Coming to the crown at the age of seven, he was
Jama ii use< ^ ^ e tne Great Seal, as a sanction of authority
and passed from one party to another of the nobles,
as each chanced to be the more dexterous or powerful (crowned
25th of March 1437). The Crichtons and Livingstones held the
king till the earl of Douglas died, being succeeded by his son,
a boy. The queen-mother married Sir James Stewart of Lome,
and their sons, Buchan and Atholl, mixed in the confused
intrigues of the reign of James III., but the queen was treated
with scant courtesy by the rival parties. From them the young
earl Douglas and due de Touraine, the most powerful man in
Scotland, stood apart, sullenly watching an unprecedented state
of anarchy. Livingstone and Crichton, previously foes, invited
him and his brother to dine with the child king in Edinburgh
castle, and there served to him " the black dinner " bewailed
in a fragment of an early ballad. The two young nobles, after
a mock trial, were decapitated (November 1440).
Douglas was succeeded in his earldom by his grandfather,
Sir James the Gross, an unwieldy veteran. On his death in
1443, his son, William, a lad of eighteen, became earl, and waged
private war on Crichton, while he allied himself with Livingstone.
Crichton lost the chancellorship: and the keys were given to
Kennedy, bishop of St Andrews and founder of St Salvator's
college in that university. Involved in secular feuds with
Douglas, Livingstone and the earl of Crawford, Kennedy
destroyed Crawford with a spiritual weapon, his Curse (23rd of
January 1445-1446).
On the 3rd of July 1449 James married Marie of Gueldres,
seized and imprisoned the Livingstones, and generally asserted
royal power. He relied on Douglas, who (1450) was his constant
companion, till the earl visited Rome (November i45o-April
1451). In June 1451 he resigned his lands, in which he was at
once reinstated. It appears, however, that he was, or was
suspected of being, in treasonable alliance with the new earl
of Crawford and the ever-turbulent Celtic lord of the Isles. It
is certain, from documents, that Douglas was always in the
royal entourage from June 1451 to January 1452, so that stories
of insults and crimes committed by him at this period seem
legendary. Nevertheless, on the 22nd of February 1452, James,
who had invited Douglas, under safe-conduct, to visit him at
Stirling, there dirked his guest with his own hand. The king
was exonerated by parliament, on the score of Douglas's con-
temptuous treatment of his safe-conduct, and because of his
oppressions, conspiracies and refusal to aid the king against
rebels, such as the new " Tiger Earl " of Crawford.
The brother of the slain Douglas defied his king, then made
his submission, and visited London, where he probably intrigued
with the English government against his sovereign and country.
In 1455 James made serious war against the " Black Douglases "
of the south; his army being led by the " Red Douglas," the
earl of Angus. The royal cause was successful, and the Black
Douglas was attainted (ioth of June 1455). He fled south and
became the pensioner and ally of Edward IV., who reasserted
the traditional claim to sovereignty over Scotland " his rebels
of Scotland!"
From 1457 to 1459 a truce was made between Scotland and
the Lancastrian party, then in power, but in July 1460, Henry
VI. was defeated and taken, and his wife and son sought James's
hospitality. Roxburgh castle was in English hands; James
besieged it, and on the 3rd of August 1460 was slain by the
bursting of one of his own huge siege guns. The castle was taken,
but the second James died at the age of thirty, leaving a child
to succeed him in his heritage of woe. James II. had overcome
his nobles, but left a legacy of feuds to the coming reign.
The period of James III. is filled with the recurrent strife of
the nobles among themselves and against law and order. Slowly
and obscurely the Renaissance comes to Scotland; j ames ///.
its presence is indicated by the artistic tastes of the
king, and, later, by the sweet and mournful poetry of
Henryson. But the Renaissance, like the religious revivals
initiated in Italy, arrived in Scotland weak and weary; hence
the church did not share in the new enthusiasms of the faith
of St Francis, and art was trampled on by the magnates who
hated poetry and painting.
In politics, the queen-mother, who had the private guardian-
ship of her boys, the king and the dukes of Albany and Ross,
turned from the Lancastrian to the Yorkist side, while Kennedy
and his party (Lancastrians) were accused of endangering
Scotland to please France. This was the beginning of that
movement away from the Ancient League to partisanship
with England, which culminated in the success of the Protestant
allies of England at the Reformation. This, then, is an important
moment in the long and weary march to union with England.
In 1461 Henry VI. was driven to take sad shelter with Kennedy
at St Andrews. In June 1461 Edward IV. was crowned, and
at once made pact and alliance with the banished Douglas and
the Celts of the west Highlands and the isles. From Ardtornish
castle, John, lord of the Isles, sent ambassadors to Westminster,
where (1462) a treaty was made for an English alliance and the
partition of Scotland between Douglas and the Celts. A marriage
between the mother of James III. and Edward IV. was spoken
of, but Kennedy would not meet the Engh'sh, and in March
1463 the English treaty with Douglas and the Celts was ratified.
Douglas invaded Scotland, in advance of an English army, but
was defeated by an army under Bishop Kennedy. When France
went over to the Yorkists, Kennedy, accepting an English
pension, made a long truce between Scotland and England
(October 1464). Peace might have been assured, but Kennedy
died in 1466. His tomb in his college chapel of St Salvator's
at St Andrews," his college and his bridge over the river
Eden, have survived as monuments of a good and great man;
they passed unscathed through the ruin wrought by the
reformers.
On his death the nobles, notably Fleming, Livingstone,
Crawford, Hamilton and Boyd, made a band for securing power
and place. Boyd, with some borderers, Hepburn and Ker of
Cessford, seized the boy king, and Boyd had himself made
governor, his son marrying the princess Mary, sister of James.
In July 1469 James, then about eighteen, married Margaret,
daughter of King Christian of Norway, who pledged the Orkney
and Shetland Isles for her dowry, which remains unpaid. The
enemies of the Boyds instantly overthrew them, and the Hamil-
tons, a race of English origin, arose on their ruins to their perilous
place of possible heirs to the crown. The princess Mary was
divorced from her Boyd husband and married Lord Hamilton.
Their descendants were again and again kept from the royal
succession only by the existence of a Stuart child, Mary, queen
of Scots, or James VI. This fact, with the consequent feud of
the Stewarts of Lennox, themselves claimants, governs the
HISTORY]
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44
dynastic intrigues during more than two centuries and gave
impetus to the Reformation. Never was marriage so fruitful in
tragedies as the wedding of Lord Hamilton and the princess
Mary.
There followed ecclesiastical feuds, centring round Patrick
Graham, the new bishop of St Andrews. These, to the present
day, have been misunderstood (see The Archbishops of St Andrews,
by Herkless and Hannay, for details). It is not possible here to
unravel the problem, but documents at St Andrews, now printed,
demonstrate the error of the historians who regard Graham as
a holy man, persecuted because he was half a premature Protest-
ant. At Rome he procured, without royal or national assent,
the archbishopric for St Andrews; he became insane and was
succeeded by the learned Schevez. Glasgow also became an
archbishopric.
James now followed a policy in which Louis XI. succeeded,
but he himself failed utterly. He surrounded himself with men
of low birth, such as Ireland, a scholar and diplomatist; Rogers,
a great musician; and Cochrane, apparently an architect or
sculptor he is styled a mason or stone-cutter. This aroused
the wrath of the nobles and the two princes of the blood, Albany
and Mar. Mar was arrested on a charge of magic, and died,
whether murdered or from natural causes is uncertain, while his
accomplices are said to have been the protomartyrs of witch-
craft, scarcely heard of in Scotland till the reformers began to
burn old women. Albany was arrested for treason, escaped to
France, and was under sentence of forfeiture.
Relations with England were now unfriendly, and parliament,
in March 1482, denounced Edward IV. as " the reiver, Edward."
By May the Douglases brought Albany from France to England,
where he swore fealty to Edward, and was to be given the Scottish
crown. The duke of Gloucester (later Richard III.) marched
north and took Berwick, while the earl of Angus, with other
nobles, hanged Cochrane and other favourites of James over
Lauder bridge. The domestic mutiny and the English war ended
in a compromise, Albany being restored to office and estates.
He took Edinburgh castle, in which James was interned, and
he was made lieutenant-general. Yet, aided by Angus, he
continued to intrigue with Edward for the gift of the Scottish
crown. By March 1483 he was reduced, we know not how; he
laid down his office, and was forbidden to approach the court.
On the death of Edward IV. he lost his chief supporter (gth of
April 1483), and was forfeited while absent in England. He
and Douglas entered Scotland with a small force (22nd of July
1484), and were defeated at Lochmaben: Albany escaped, went
to France, and was slain in a tournament, leaving issue, but
Douglas was captured and interned till his death in the monastery
of Lindores.
Our information for this period is so scanty that we do not
know how James reached his new position, how he overcame
Albany and his other rebels. At peace with England, and
allied with France, he quarrelled with the church, and it was
decreed that the clergy who obtained benefices from Rome were
guilty of treason. He planned a set of royal marriages with
England, and this was the ground of his subjects' charge against
him of servility to England. " James IV. and James V. are
constantly upbraided for not doing the very things which
James III. is execrated for having done," namely, securing peace
and amity with their powerful neighbour. James III. " died in
his enemies' day," and such accounts as we have of him are
written by the partisans of his unruly nobles, Argyll, Lennox
and Angus.
They secured the crown prince, James, now aged fifteen, their
motive being that under James III. the guilt of their murders
and rebellion still hung over their heads. The Estates refused to
give them an amnesty for seven years; and the arch rebel,
Angus Bell the Cat, with Argyll, the young prince, Lennox and
other malcontents, declared that he was deposed, and proclaimed
his son as his successor and Argyll as chancellor. Doing what
they falsely accused James of having done, they sent, or obtained
from England leave to send, members of their party to intrigue
with Henry VII. (ist of May 1488). After a half reconciliation,
James marched in force to Stirling, the key of the north, but
the treacherous commander of the castle, Shaw of Sauchie, held
the castle against him. James and his leaders, Atholl and
Huntly, with their Stewarts and Gordons, and the levies of
burgesses, and the mounted gentry of Fife, encountered the wild
border spearmen of Hepburn and Home and the Galloway men,
the whole being led by Angus and the rebel prince at Sauchie
burn, near Bannockburn. How it chanced we know not;
James's horse seems to have run away and thrown him (he was
a bad horseman), and the story goes that he was taken into a
cottage and stabbed by a priest. In fact, as his rebels put it,
" he happinit to be slain " at Beaton's mill. He was accused of
having accumulated great treasures. They were never found, or,
if found, never accounted for by the finders.
His real history remains unknown; we have only Ferrerius,
who is vague, and the late and slanderous gossip of the writers
of the Reformation. We know that James was clement; that
the middle and lower classes stood by him ; that he was a great
a/nateur in the arts; that he was betrayed again and again by
those of his own house, finally by his own son. A hideous tale
is told by Buchanan against his private morals, but it is certainly
inaccurate in detail, and is uncorroborated, while it appears to
turn on a confusion between an alleged royal mistress, " the
Daisy," and Margaret (Daisy), the king's own sister. It is clear
to any reader of Ferrerius, Lesley and Buchanan that they all
drew from a common source, now unknown, and this source may
well have been a chronicle inspired by James's enemies. James
III. of Scotland has been almost as much the butt of slanderous
charges as the Jacobite James III. of England and VIII. of
Scotland, " The Old Pretender."
With James IV. we enter on the modern history of Scotland.
The king escaped the evils of a long minority, was a " free king "
and managed his own policy. He was tall, handsome, James lv
strong and recklessly brave. He inherited his father's
love of art and of nascent science; but this fault was forgiven
him, as his manners were popular, his horsemanship good, and
his bearing frank and free. The early Tudor policy of Henry VII.
was not to make open war on Scotland, but to intrigue secretly,
especially with the treacherous Douglas, earl of Angus, and with
Ramsay, earl of Bothwell under James III., but soon dispossessed.
They schemed to kidnap the king as vainly as Henry VIII. later
planned to kidnap many of his foreign opponents. Under James
IV. the houses of Hepburn of Hailes, ancestor of Queen Mary's
Bothwell; of the Huntly Gordons; and of the Kers of Fernie-
hirst and Cessford, rose into new importance; while the Huntlys
and Argylls were entrusted with the maintenance of order among
the fighting clans of the west and north. They aggrandized
themselves at the expense of the Macleans, Macdonalds, Camerons
and Clan Chattan, but their sway was far from being peaceful
and orderly.
The king, reckless as he was, had more than his share of the
Stuart melancholy. His parricidal rebellion lay heavy on his
conscience; he practised asceticism at intervals, and dreamed
of eastern pilgrimages. But he also fostered a navy, under Sir
Andrew Wood, who swept the seas of the English pirates.
James threw Scotland into the whirlpool of European politics,
dealing with Spanish envoys and with the duchess of Burgundy,
the patroness of the mysterious Perkin Warbeck, who claimed
to be Richard, duke of York, son of Edward IV. Meanwhile,
to balance the power of the primate, James purchased from
Innocent VIII. an archbishopic for the bishop of Glasgow
(1492), who laid information against the heretics of Kyle in
Ayrshire. They had evolved or inherited anti-papal heresies
much like those of the reformers of 1559, but James turned their
trial into a jest. He made a secret treaty to defend France if
she were attacked by England, but meanwhile a five years'
truce was concluded (1491). In the following year James was
in correspondence with Perkin, then in Ireland; in 1495 he
received that pretendant, married him to a daughter of Huntly,
and in 1496 raided northern England in his company, all this
in contempt of the offered hand of a Tudor princess. In the
autumn of 1497 an attempted raid by James ended in a seven
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[HISTORY
years' truce fostered by the Spanish envoy, Ayala, who has
left a flourishing description of the king and his country. Mean-
while Perkin had failed in Cornwall and been captured. Henry
VII. kept offering the hand of his daughter Margaret, who was
married to James at Holyrood in August 1503. From this
wedding, disturbed by quarrels over the queen's jewels and
dowry, was to result the union of the crowns on the head of
Margaret's great-grandson, James VI., after a century of tragedies
and turmoil.
In 1 507 the pope failed to draw James into the league formed
to check French aggression in Italy. A murder on the borders
poisoned Scottish relations with England, and the death of
Henry VII. (1509) left James face to face with his blustering
brother-in-law, Henry VIII. The Holy League of 1511, against
France, found James committed to the cause of the old French
alliance. He strengthened his fleet, but his admiral, Sir Andrew
Barton, fell in a fight with English privateers equipped by the
earl of Surrey and commanded by his sons (1511). Border
homicides added their element of international irritation, and
James renewed the ancient league with France. In 1513 Dr
West, an envoy of Henry VIII., found James in the state of
" a fey man," doomed, distracted, agitated and boastful. In
May came the letter and ring of the French queen ordering
James, as her knight, to strike a blow on English ground. He
wrote to Henry none the less (24th May) with peaceful proposals,
but oh the 3Oth of June Henry invaded France.
Strange portents and warning phantasms did not check
James: he sent forth a fleet of thirteen ships and 3000 men,
which faded into nothingness: he declared war on
Hodden. Henry; and on the 22nd of August he crossed the
border with all his force, including the Highlanders
and islesmen. After securing his flank and rear by taking
Norham, Wark and Eitel castles, he awaited the approach of
Surrey's army at Ford castle, behind which lies Flodden Edge,
a strong position, which he presently occupied. Surrey, who
was ill-provisioned, challenged him to fight on the open field
of Wooler Haugh. James declined to commit this chivalrous
folly; but, for lack of scouts, permitted Surrey to out-manceuvre
him and pass, concealed by a range of hills, across his front,
to a position north of Flodden, on his lines of communication.
Next day, gth of September, Surrey crossed the Till, unobserved ,
by Twizel bridge and Millford,and moved south against Branxton
hill, the middle of three ridges on the Flodden slope. The ground
was difficult from heavy rains, the English troops were weary and
hungry, but James had lost touch of Surrey and knew nothing
of his movements till his troops appeared on his rear towards
evening. In place of remaining in his position, James burned
his camp and hurried his men down hill to the plateau of Branxton
ridge. Home and Huntly, on the Scottish left, charged Edmund
Howard's force; the Tynemouth men, under Dacre, did not
support Howard, at first, but Dacre checked Home (whose
later conduct is obscure) and drove off the Gordons. The Percys
broke Errol's force; Rothes and Crawford fell, and the king
led the centre, through heavy artillery fire, against Surrey.
With Herries and Maxwell he shook the English centre, but
while Stanley and the men of Cheshire drove the highlanders
of Lennox and Argyll in flight (their leaders had already fallen),
the admiral and Dacre fell on the flank of James's command,
which Surrey, too wise to pursue the fleet highlanders, surrounded
with his whole force. The Scottish centre fought like Paladins,
and James, breaking out in their front, hewed his way to within
a lance's length of Surrey, as that leader himself avers. There
fell the king, riddled with arrows, his left hand hanging helpless,
his neck deeply gashed by a bill-stroke. His peers surrounded
his body, and night fell on " the dark impenetrable wood " of
the Scottish spears. At dawn the survivors had retreated, only
the light Border horse of Home hung about the field. The bishop
of Durham accuses them of plundering both sides. (That Home's
Borderers had but slight loss is argued by Colonel the Hon.
FitzWiUiam Elliot, in The Trustworthiness of Border Ballads,
pp. 136-138.) Among the dead were thirteen earls, and James's
son, the archbishop of St Andrews. The king's death assured
Social
progress.
the victory, which Surrey had not the strength to pursue, though
the townsmen of Edinburgh built their famous Flodden Wall to
resist him if he approached.
England never won a victory more creditable to the fighting
and marching powers of her sons than at the battle of Flodden.
The headlong recklessness of James, remarked on by Ayala,
gave the opportunity, but he nobly expiated his fault. The
Scots had so handled their enemies that they could not or dared
not pursue their advantage; on the other hand, it was long
indeed before the memory of Flodden ceased to haunt the Scots
and deter them from invading England in force.
Though Ayala's well-known letter certainly flatters the material
progress of Scotland, the country had assuredly made great
advances. While England was tuneless, with Dunbar
and the other " Makers " Scotland was " a nest of
singing birds." The good Bishop Elphinstone founded
the university of Aberdeen in 1495; and in 1496 parliament
decreed compulsory education, and Latin, for sons of barons
and freeholders. Prior Hepburn founded a new college, that of
St Leonard's, in the university of St Andrews, and Scotland
owes only one university, that of Edinburgh, to the learned
enthusiasm of her reformed sons. Printing was introduced
in 1507, and the march of education among the laity increased
the general contempt for the too common ignorance that pre-
vailed among the clergy. The greater benefices were being
conferred on young men of high birth but of little learning.
The college of Surgeons was founded by the municipality of
Edinburgh (1505), and in 1506 obtained the title of " Royal."
The stimulus given to shipbuilding encouraged commerce,
and freedom from war fostered the middle class, which was soon
to make its influence felt in the Reformation. The burgesses,
of course, had long been a relatively rich and powerful body:
it is a fond delusion to suppose that they sprang into being
under John Knox, though their attachment to his principles
made them prominent among his disciples, while Flodden
probably began to deter them from the ancient attachment
to France. Protestantism, and the disasters of James V., with
the regency of his widow, were to convert the majority of Scots
to the English party.
The long minority of James V. was fatal to the Stuart dynasty.
The intrigues of Henry VIII., the ambition of Angus, who
married the king's mother (Margaret, sister of Henry
VIII.); the counter intrigues of Albany, a resident in
France, and son of the rebellious Albany, brother of James III.;
the constantly veering policy and affections of the queen-mother;
and the gold of England, filled fourteen years with distractions,
murders, treasons and conspiracies. Already Henry VIII. was
trying to kidnap the child king, who found, as he grew up, that
his stepfather, Angus, was his master and was the paid servant
of Henry. The nobles were now of the English, now of the
French party; none could be trusted to be loyal except the
clergy, and they were factious and warlike. The result was that
James threw off the yoke of his stepfather, Angus; drove him
and his astute and treacherous brother, Sir George Douglas, into
England (thereby raising up, like Bruce, a fatal party of lords
disinherited), and while he was alienated from Henry and his
Reformation, threw himself into the arms of France, of the
clergy and of Rome.
Meanwhile the many noble and dissatisfied pensioners of
England adopted Protestantism, which also made its way among
the barons, burgesses and clergy, so that, for political reasons,
James at last could not but be hostile to the new creed; he
bequeathed this anti-protestantism, with the French alliance,
through his wife, Mary of Guise, and the influence of the house of
Lorraine, to his unhappy daughter, Mary Stuart. The country,
ever jealous of its independence, found at last that France
threatened her freedom even more than did England, the ap-
parent enemy; and thus, partly from Protestantism, partly
from patriotism, the English party in Scotland proved victorious,
and the Reformation was accomplished. Had Henry been
honourable and gentle, had his sister not shared his vehement
passions, James and Henry, nephew and uncle, might have been
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443
united in peace; and the Scottish Reformation might have
harmoniously blended with that of England.
It is impossible here fully to unfold the tortuous intrigues
which darkened the minority of James. Who was to govern the
young prince and the country? His wavering, intriguing mother,
Margaret Tudor, or her sometimes friend, sometimes foe, Albany,
arrived from France; or her discarded husband, Angus, the paid
tool of Henry VIII.? By June 1528 the young king settled the
question. He had complained to Henry of the captivity in
which he was held by his hated stepfather, Angus. In June
Angus had prepared forces to punish the Border raiders, and
James, rightly or wrongly, seems to have suspected that he was
to be handed over bodily to his royal uncle. On the 27th of May
he was with Angus in the castle of Edinburgh; on the 3Oth of
May, by a bold and dexterous ride, he was with his mother in the
castle of Stirling, with Archbishop Beaton, Argyll and Maxwell.
In July he mastered Edinburgh, and bade Angus and his brother,
Sir George Douglas, place themselves in ward north of Tay.
This he announced to Henry, the paymaster of the Douglases,
and the breach between the two kings was never healed. A war
broke out between the Douglases and James, but a five years'
peace, not including the restoration of Angus, was concluded in
December 1528. Angus prolonged his outrages on the Scottish
border till 1529, when he entered England as a subsidized
mischief-maker against Scotland. Not till James's death did
the Douglases return to their own country. Meanwhile James
visited the Border, hanged some brigand lairds, and reduced such
English partisans as the Kers, Rutherfords, Stewarts of Traquair,
Veitches and Turnbulls. Johnny Armstrong of Gilnockie, famed
in ballad and legend, was hanged, with forty of his clan, at
Carlanrigg, in Teviotdale. The tale of royal treachery in his
capture is popular; the best authorities for it seem to be the
synoptic versions of a ballad and of the fabulous chronicler,
Pitscottie.
When James V. became " a free King " the main problems
before him were his relations with Henry VIII. and with the
nascent Reformation. From 1535 Henry was anxious that
James should meet him in England. Henry was notoriously
treacherous; to kidnap was his ideal in diplomacy. His pen-
sioner Angus (1531) was to have aided Bothwell in crowning
Henry in Edinburgh. In 1 53 5 Henry sent Dr Barlowe to convert
James to his own religious ideas, Erastian, anti-papal, the
seizure of the wealth of the church. James (1536) was willing
enough to meet Henry in England, but his council, especially
the clerical members, were opposed to the tryst. James desired
to wed none but his mistress, Margaret Erskine, the mother of
the Regent Moray. As Henry had once declared that he could
only meet a Scottish king, in England, as a vassal, James's council
had good reason for their attitude. Had they consented, had
James married Henry's daughter, Mary (called " The Bloody "),
it is not plain that advantage would have come of the alliance.
In 1536 James sailed to France, and (ist of Jan. 1537)
married Madeleine, daughter of Francis I. The die was cast;
he was committed to France and to the ancient faith. This was
the cardinal misfortune of the Stuarts, but who could trust
Henry, and who could join in the fiery persecutions of the
new pope-king ? In James's absence, Scottish heretics fled to
England, while Henry's heretics fled to Scotland. Madeleine
died on the 7th of July 1537. " Lady Claim's," as she was called,
a Douglas lady, widow of Lord Glamis, was burned for abetting
her brother Angus and devising the king's death by poison. The
truth of this matter is obscure; our early historians of this age,
Protestants like Knox and Pitscottie, with Buchanan and the
Catholic Lesley, are seldom to be trusted without documentary
corroboration.
In 1 538 James married a lady whom Henry desired to add to
his list of wives, Mary of Guise, at this moment a young widow,
Madame de Longueville. Mary shines like a good deed in a
naughty world; but she was a Catholic, was of the house of
Lorraine, and in diplomacy was almost as other diplomatists.
In 1539 David Beaton, the Cardinal, now aged forty-five,
succeeded his uncle, James Beaton, as primate of Scotland.
He had been educated in Scotland and Paris, held the rich abbey
of Arbroath, and for some twenty years at least lived openly
with Mariotte Ogilvy, of the house of Airlie. He was a practised
diplomatist, and necessarily of the French and Catholic party.
His wealth, astuteness, experience and tenacity of purpose, were
to baffle Henry's attacks on Scottish independence, till the
daggers of pietistic cut-throats closed the long debate. Beaton
was cruel: he had no more scruples than Henry about burning
men for their beliefs. But the martyrs were few, compared with
the numbers of people whom the reformed kirk burned for
witchcraft. Some twelve martyrs at least perished in 1 530-1 540,
and George Buchanan, whose satires on the Franciscans delighted
the king, escaped to France, in circumstances which he described
diversely on different occasions, as was his habit.
In May 1540 James visited the highlands, and later reduced
the Macdonalds and annexed the lordship of the Isles to the
crown. In 1541 he lost two infant sons, and the mysterious
affair of the death of that aesthetic ruffian, Sir James Hamilton
of Finnart, was supposed to lie heavy on his mind. There were
disputes with Henry, who demanded the extradition of fugitive
friars, which James refused. In 1541 he disappointed Henry,
not meeting him at York, and this course, advised by his council
and Francis I., rankled deeply, while Angus was making a large
English raid on the Border in time of peace. The English fared
ill, and Henry horrified his council by his usual proposal to
kidnap the king of Scotland. Henry's men marauded on the
Border, but a force which James summoned to Fala Moor
(3ist of October 1542) contained but one lord who would march
with him Napier of Merchistoun. About this date occurs the
legend of a list of hundreds of heretics, whom the clergy asked
James to proscribe. No king of Scotland could dream of execut-
ing such a coup d'etat; the authority for it is that mythopoeic
earl of Arran who later became regent, and told the fable to
Henry's agent, Sir Ralph Sadleyr.
Presently ensued the Scottish raid of Solway Moss and the
capture of many of the Scottish nobles. The facts may be found
in contemporary English despatches printed in the Hamilton
papers. The fables are to be read in Knox's History of the
Reformation in Scotland, and in Froude. The secret of the raid
was sold by the brother of Angus, Sir George Douglas, and by
other traitors. England was prepared, and on the 23rd of
November routed and drove into Solway Moss a demoralized
multitude of farm-burning Scots. The guns and some 1 200 men
were taken; many men were drowned. James retired heart-
broken from the Border to Edinburgh, where he executed busi-
ness. He then dwelt for a week at Linlithgow with the queen,
who was about to give birth to a child. Next he bore " the
pageant of his bleeding heart " to Falkland, where he heard of
the birth (8th of December) of his daughter, Mary Stuart.
Uncomforted, he died on the i4th (i 5th?) of December. Accounts
differ as to the date. Sheer grief and shame, and, it is said,
sorrow for the failure in war of his favourite, Oliver Sinclair,
were the apparent causes of his death. Knox appears to in-
sinuate that a rumour declared Mary of Guise and the cardinal
guilty of poisoning James, but an attempt had been made to
put another sense on the words of this historian, who frequently
hints that Mary was the mistress of the cardinal (Knox, vol. i.
p. 92).
Again Scotland had to endure a long royal minority. The
distraction of Scotland promised to Henry VIII. a good chance
of annexing the kingdom, whether by the marriage of
Edward, prince of Wales, to the infant queen, Mary, Mary,
or by acquiring, through treachery, her person and
the castles of the country. Sir George Douglas at
once crossed the border. Angus soon followed, with the lords
captured at Solway Moss, all bound more or less to work Henry's
will. In Scotland the cardinal; Arran, who was next heir to
the throne; Huntly and Murray were proclaimed regents. Knox
and others speak of a will of James V., forged by the cardinal,
but the stories are inconsistent, and rest mainly on the untrust-
worthy evidence of Arran. His legitimacy was rather worse
than dubious, and henceforth he sided with the party most
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[HISTORY
powerful at each crisis. Now the restored Douglases were most
powerful; by the 28th of January 1543 they imprisoned the
cardinal, but their party was already breaking up. In March
a full parliament was held, the Bible in English was allowed
to circulate, and envoys were sent to treat with Henry. But
by the 22nd of March Beaton was a free man, liberated by
Sir George Douglas. Arran's brother, later archbishop of St
Andrews, arrived from France and worked on the wavering
regent, while his rival, Lennox, came also from France, and
failing to oust Arran, became Henry's pensioner in England.
If Arran were illegitimate, Lennox was next heir to the throne,
and the consequent Stewart-Hamilton feud was to ruin Mary
Stuart. Sir George Douglas went to London and negotiated
with Henry for the marriage of Mary and Prince Edward.
But the people were still so averse to England that Beaton's
was the more popular party: they carried Mary to Stirling:
the treaty with Henry was ratified, indeed, but a quarrel was
picked over the arrest by England of six Scottish ships; and
Arran, who had just given orders for the sack of monasteries in
Edinburgh, suddenly (3rd of September) fled to Beaton and was
reconciled to the church, just after he had (28th of August)
proclaimed Beaton an outlaw.
At once the sacking of religious houses in Dundee, Lindores
and Arbroath had begun; the hour of religious revolution had
struck; but the godly were put down when the regent and the
cardinal were so suddenly reconciled. Arran must have per-
ceived that Henry had infuriated the Scots and that the cardinal
might adopt the claims of Lennox and proclaim Arran ille-
gitimate. But Beaton could not keep both Arran, whom he
had now secured, and Lennox, who betrayed him, and made for
England. The cardinal, however, punished the church-sackers
and imprisoned George Douglas, while Hertford in 1544 moved
with a large army against Scotland, and Henry negotiated with
a crew of discontented lairds and a man named Wishart for the
murder or capture of Beaton. Hertford struck at Edinburgh in
May, and in the leader's own words " made a jolly fire "and
did much mischief. The suffering Commons now began to
blame Beaton. Lennox presently married Margaret, Henry's
niece, daughter of his sister, Margaret Tudor, by her husband,
Angus. Their eldest son was the miserable Henry Darnley,
second husband of Mary Stuart. In Scotland arose party
divisions and reunions, the queen mother being in the hands of
the Douglas faction, while Beaton's future murderers backed
him and Arran. Then the Douglases allied themselves with
the cardinal, and Henry VIII. tried to kidnap Angus and his
brother, Sir George. For once true to their country, they helped
Buccleuch to defeat a large English force at Ancram Moor in
February 1545, and Henry, seeking help from Cassilis, revived
the plot to murder Beaton. Cassilis was a Protestant and the
patron of Knox's friend and teacher, George Wishart; Cassilis
would not commit himself formally, and the threads of the plot
are lost, owing to a great gap in the records.
The Douglases continued to play the part of double traitors;
Hertford, in autumn, again devastated the border and burned
religious houses (whether he always burned the abbey churches
is disputed), but Beaton never lost heart and had some successes.
We lose trace of the plot to slay him from the zoth of October
1545 till the end of May 1546, the documents being missing;
but on the 2gth of May 1546 Beaton was cruelly murdered in
his castle of St Andrews. On the ist of March he had caused
George Wishart, a man of austere life and a Protestant propa-
gandist, to be strangled and then burned. To what extent re-
venge for Wishart was the motive of the Kirkcaldys and Leslies
and Melvilles who led the assassins, and how far they were paid
agents of England, is unknown. These men had been alternately
bitter enemies and allies of Beaton ; in 1 543 Kirkcaldy of Grange
and the master of Rothes were offering their venal daggers to
England, through a Scot named Wishart. The details of the
final and successful plot were uncertain the martyr Wishart
cannot be identified with Wishart the would-be murderer but
with Beaton practically expired the chances of the French and
Catholic party in Scotland.
The death of Beaton brought the Douglases into resistance
to Henry VIII., who aided the murderers, now besieged in
Beaton's castle of St Andrews. An armistice was arranged;
the besieged begging for a remission from the pope, and also
asking Henry to request the emperor to move the pope to refuse.
The remission, however, arrived before the 2nd of April 1547,
and was refused by the murderers.
Henry VIII. and Francis II. were now dead. In mid July
French armed galleons approached St Andrews, and the castle
surrendered as soon as artillery was brought to bear on it.
With other captives, John Knox was put aboard a French galley.
In September the Protector Somerset (Hertford) invaded and
utterly routed the Scots at Pinkie near Musselburgh. No result
ensued, except Scottish demands for French aid, and a resolve
to send Mary to France. Ferocious fighting, aided by French
auxiliaries, followed: in 1550 the English abandoned all castles
occupied by them in Scotland. Mary was now in France, the
destined bride of the Dauphin; while Knox, released from the
galleys, preached his doctrines in Berwick and Newcastle, and
was a chaplain of Edward VI., till the crowning of Mary Tudor
drove him to France and Switzerland. Here he adopted, with
political modifications of his own, theextremest form of Calvinism.
A visit of Mary of Guise to France (1550) ended in her acquiring
the regency, which she administered mainly under French
advice. The result was irritation, the nobles looking
towards England as soon as Mary Tudor was succeeded revolution.
by Elizabeth, while Protestantism daily gained ground,
inflamed by a visit from Knox (1555-1556). Invited
again, in 1557, he shrank from the scene of turmoil, but
a " band " of a Protestant tendency was made by nobles, among
them Mary's natural brother James Stewart, later the Regent
Murray (3rd of Dec. 1557). On the 24th of April, Mary wedded
the Dauphin, and about the same date Walter Milne, an aged ex-
priest, was burned as a heretic, the last Protestant martyr
in Scotland. There was image-burning by godly mobs in autumn;
a threat of the social revolution, to begin at Whitsuntide, was
issued on the ist of January 1559, " the Beggars' Warning."
Mary of Guise issued proclamations against preachers and church-
wreckers, backed by a statute of March 1559. The preachers,
mainly ex-friars and tradesmen, persevered, and they were
summoned to stand their trial in April, but Knox arrived in
Perth, where an armed multitude supported their cause. On
the loth of May they were outlawed for non-appearance at
Stirling. Knox accuses Mary of Guise of treachery: the charge
rests mainly on his word.
On the loth of May the brethren wrecked the monasteries
of Perth, after a sermon by Knox,and the revolution was launched,
the six or seven preachers already threatening the backward
members of their party with excommunication. The movement
spread to St Andrews, to Stirling, to Edinburgh, which the
brethren entered, while Mary of Guise withdrew. She was still
too strong for them, and on the 24th of July they signed a com-
pact. They misrepresented its terms, broke them, and accused
the regent of breaking them. Knox and William Kirkcaldy
of Grange had been intriguing with England for aid, and for the
marriage of the earl of Arran (son of the earl of Arran, now also
due de Chatelherault, ex-regent) with Queen Elizabeth. He
escaped from threatened prison in France, by way of Switzerland,
and though Elizabeth never intended to marry him , the Hamiltons
now deserted Mary of Guise for the Anglo-Protestant party.
Maitland of Lethington, the Achitophcl of his day, also deserted
the regent; but in November the reformers were driven by the
regent and her small band of French soldiers from Edinburgh
to Stirling. They were almost in despair, but, heartened by
Knox and Lethington, they resumed negotiations with Elizabeth,
who had already supplied them with money. An English fleet
suddenly appeared, and drove the French to retreat into Leith
from an expedition to the west. In February 1560 a league was
made at Berwick between Elizabeth and " the Congregation."
France was helpless, the tumult of Ambroise alarmed the Guises
for their own lives and power, and the regent, long in bad
health, was dying in Edinburgh castle. On the loth of June
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445
she expired, and hunger forced her French garrison in Leith,
after a gallant and sanguinary defence, to surrender.
After an armistice, treaties of peace were concluded on the
6th of July: the treaty, as far as it touched the rights of Mary
Stuart, was not accepted by her, nor did she give her assent
to the ensuing parliament or convention of Estates. Knox and
the other preachers began to organize the new kirk, under
" superintendents " (not bishops), whose rule was very brief.
The Convention began business in August, crowded by persons
not used to be present, and accepted a Knoxian " Confession of
Faith." On the 24th of August three statutes abolished papal
and prelatical authority and jurisdiction; repealed the old
laws in favour of the church, and punished celebrants and
attendants of the Mass for the first offence by confiscation,
for the second by exile, for the third by death. The preachers
could get the statute passed, but the sense of the laity prevented
the death penalty from being inflicted, except, as far as we
know, in one or two instances. The Book of Discipline and the
Book of Common Order express Knox's ideals, which, as far as
they were noble, as in the matter of education and of provision
for the poor, remained, in part or in whole, " devout imagina-
tions." Not so the Knoxian claims for the power of ministers
to excommunicate, with civil penalties, and generally to " rule
the roast" in secular matters. The nobles and gentry clung to
the wealth of the old church; the preachers, but for congre-
gational offerings, must have starved.
Neglect as well as mob violence left the ecclesiastical buildings
in a ruinous condition, but the authority of the preachers, with
their power of boycotting (excommunication), became a theo-
cracy. The supernatural claims of these pulpiteers to dominance
in matters public or private were the main cause of a century of
war and tumult. The preachers became, what the nobles had
been, the opponents of authority; the Stuarts were to break
them and be broken on them till 1688. In the hands of the
ministers a Calvinism more Calvinistic than Calvin's was the
bitter foe of freedom of life, of conscience, and of religious
tolerance. On the other hand, unlike the corrupt clergy whom
they dispossessed, they were almost invariably men of pure and
holy life; stainless in honour; incorruptible by money; poor
and self-sacrificing; and were not infrequently learned in the
original languages of the scriptures. Many were thought to be
possessed of powers of healing and of prediction; in fact a
belief in their supernormal gifts, like those of Catholic saints,
was part of the basis of their prestige. The lower classes, bullied
by Sabbatarianism and deprived of the old revels, were restive
and hostile; but the educated middle class was with the
preachers; so were many lesser country gentry; and the nobles,
securing the spoils of the church, were acquiescent.
The religious revolution in Scotland, after the work of destruc-
tion had been done, was the most peaceful that occurred in any
European country. On the Catholic side there was as
ret* "t y e ^ no P ower f resistance. Huntly, the Catholic
Scotland. " Cock of the North," had himself been compromised
in the actions of the Congregation. How the Catholics
of the west highlands took the change of creed we do not know,
but they were not fanatically devout and attempted no Pilgrim-
age of Grace. Life went on much as usual, and the country,
with a merely provisional government, was peaceful enough
under the guidance of Moray, Maitland of Lethington, and the
other lay Protestant leaders. They wished, as we saw, to secure
the hand of Elizabeth for the earl of Arran, a match which would
practically have taken away the Scottish crown from Mary
Stuart, unless she were backed by the whole force of France.
But Elizabeth had seen Arran in London and had probably
detected his hysterical folly. He actually became a suitor for
Mary's hand, when the death of her husband the French king
(sth of December 1560) left her a friendless exile. Her kinsmen,
the Guises, fell from power, and were no longer to be feared by
England, so that Elizabeth need not abandon her favourite,
Lord Robert Dudley, in the hope of securing Scotland by her
marriage with Arran. In the spring of 1561, Mary's brother,
Lord James Stewart, lay prior of St Andrews, visited her in the
interest of the Scottish Protestant party, while Lesley, later
bishop of Ross, brought the promises of Huntly. He would
restore the Mass in the North and welcome the queen at Aberdeen
if she would land there, but Mary knew the worth of Huntly's
word, and preferred such trust as might be ventured on the good
faith of her brother. She foiled the attempts of the English
ambassador to make her ratify the treaty of Edinburgh, and,
while Lethington, no worse a prophet than Knox, predicted
" strange tragedies," Mary came home.
Young as she was, she came as no innocent novice to a country
seething with all the perfidious ambitions that a religious revolu-
tion brings to the surface. She was wise with the wisdom of the
Guises, but sincere friends she had none, and with all her trained
fascinations she made few, except in the circle of the Flemings,
Beatons, Livingstones and Seatons. Lethington, who had
deserted her mother, dreaded her arrival; she forgave him,
and for a time, relying on him and her brother, contrived to
secure a measure of tranquillity.
Scotland was, doubtless, in Mary's mind, a mere stepping-
stone to England. There the Catholic party was strong but for
its lack of a leader, and to the English Catholics Mary seemed
their rightful queen. By one way or other by a Spanish
marriage, by the consent of Elizabeth to recognize Mary as her
heir, by the ambitions of her own nobles and the wit of Lething-
ton, ever anxious to unite the island under one sovereign Mary
hoped to wear the three crowns. Catholicism she would restore
if she could, but that was not her first object. It was commonly
thought that, though she would never turn Calvinist, she might
adopt the Anglican doctrine as understood by Elizabeth, if only
she could be recognized as Elizabeth's successor. Till she
became Elizabeth's captive there was always the possible hope
of her conversion, and despite her professions to the pope there
was at least one moment when the pope perceived this possibility.
Meanwhile she only asked freedom of conscience for herself, and
her mass in her own chapel. The bitter fanaticism of Knox on
this point encountered the wiser policy of Lord James and of
Lethington.
Mary had her mass, but the constant and cowardly attacks
on her faith and on her priests embittered her early years of
queenhood in her own country. The politicians hoped that
Elizabeth might convert Mary to her own invisible shade of
Protestantism if the sister sovereigns could but meet, and for
two years the promise of a meeting was held up before Mary.
Meanwhile the needy and reckless Bothwell, a partisan of
Mary of Guise, a Protestant and the foe of England, was accused
by Arran of proposing to him a conspiracy to seize the queen,
but the ensuing madness of Arran left this plot a mystery,
though Bothwell was imprisoned till he escaped in August 1562.
Mary then undertook a journey to the north, which ended in a
battle with the Gordons, the death of Huntly and the execution
of one of his sons. This attack by a Catholic queen on the leader
of the Catholic party has been explained in various ways. But
Mary's heart was in the expedition and in the overthrow of
Huntly; she was in the hands of her brother, to whom she had
secretly given the earldom of Murray, coveted by Huntly, whose
good faith she had never believed in, and whose power was apt
to trouble the state and disturb her friendly relations with Eng-
land. She was deliberately " running the English course," and
she crushed a probable alliance between the great clans of the
Gordons and Hamiltons.
The question of her marriage was all important, and her
chances were not improved by the scandal of Chastelard, whether
he acted as an emissary of the Huguenots, sent to smirch her
character, or merely played the fatuous fool in his own conceit.
He was executed on the 22nd of February 1563 at St Andrews.
Lethington then went to London to watch over Mary's interests,
and either to arrange her marriage with Don Carlos, or to put
pressure on Elizabeth by the fear of that alliance. Now, in
March 1563, Elizabeth first drew before the Scottish queen the
lure of a marriage with her favourite, Lord Robert Dudley, Mary
to be acknowledged as her successor if Elizabeth died without
issue. Later in the year, and after Lethington's diplomatic
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
mission to France, Elizabeth announced that a marriage of Mary
with a Spanish, Imperial or French prince would mean war,
while she still hinted at the Leicester marriage, or perhaps at a
union with young Henry Darnley, son of Lennox. Elizabeth's
real intention was merely " to drive time," to distract Scotland
and to leave her rival isolated. The idea of a Spanish marriage
excited the wrath of Knox, whose interviews with Mary did
nothing but irritate both parties and alienate the politicians
from the more enthusiastic Protestants. The negotiations for
the Leicester marriage were prolonged till March 1565, when
Elizabeth had let slip on Mary Henry Darnley (the young son
of Lennox, who himself had been allowed to return to Scotland),
and at the same time made it clear that she had never been
honest in offering Leicester.
Till the spring of 1565, Mary, despite the insults to her religion
and the provocations to herself, had remained attached to " the
English course " and to the counsels of Moray and
Lethington. Her naturally high temper, wearied of
treacheries and brow-beatings, now at last overcame
her. Darnley was esteemed handsome, though his
portraits give an opposite impression; his native qualities of
cowardice, perfidy, profligacy and overweening arrogance were
at first concealed, and in mid April 1565 Lethington was sent to
London, not to renew the negotiations with Leicester (as had
been designed till the 3ist of March), but to announce Mary's
intended wedding with her cousin. Thus the cunning of Eliza-
beth and Cecil had its reward. Darnley being a Catholic, as
far as he was anything, the jealous fears of the Brethren under
Knox reached a passionate height. The Hamiltons saw their
Stuart enemies in power and favour. Murray knew that his
day of influence was over, and encouraged by the promises of
Elizabeth, who was remonstrating violently against the match
into which she had partly beguiled and partly forced Mary, he
assumed a hostile attitude and was outlawed (6th of August
1565). A week earlier Mary, without waiting for the necessary
papal dispensation (Pollen, Papal Negotiations with M ary Stuart) ,
had publicly married Darnley, who bore the title of king, but
never received the crown matrimonial.
Mary now promised restoration to Huntly's son, Lord George;
she recalled Bothwell, who had a considerable military reputa-
tion, from exile in France; and she pursued Murray with his
allies through the south of Scotland to Dumfries, whence she
drove him over the English border in October. Here Elizabeth
rebuked and disavowed him, and Mary's triumph seemed
complete. Her valour, energy and victory over Elizabeth were
undeniable, but she was now in the worst of hands, and her career
took its fatal ply. Lethington had not left her, but he was over-
looked; Lennox and the impracticable Darnley were neglected;
and the dangerous earl of Morton, a Douglas, had to tremble for
his lands and office as chancellor, while Mary rested on her
foreign secretary, the upstart David Riccio; on Sir James
Balfour, noted for falseness even in that age; and on Bothwell.
As early as September 1565 gossips were busy over the
indiscretion of Riccio's favour: Darnley had forfeited the good
opinion of his wife; was angry because the Hamiltons were not
wholly sacrificed to the ancient feud of Lennox and his clan;
and Knox's party looked forward with horror to the parliament
of March 1566, when Mary certainly meant "to do something
tending to some good anent restoring the ancient religion."
She was also supposed to have signed a Catholic league, which
only existed in devout imaginations, but in February 1560 she
sent the bishop of Dunblane to crave a large subsidy from the
pope. Quite ignorant as to the real state of affairs, he raised
the money and sent a nuncio, who never risked himself in Scot-
land, but made the extraordinary proposal later, that Mary
should execute or at least " discourt " her chief advisers.
Meanwhile the clouds of hatred gathered over the queen.
Lethington (sth of February 1566), wrote to Cecil saying that
" we must chop at the very root," and Randolph, Elizabeth's
ambassador, heard that measures against Mary's own person
were being taken. Randolph was dismissed for supplying
Murray with English gold; from Berwick he and Bedford
Riccio's
murder.
reported to Cecil the progress of the conspiracy. While Mary
was arranging a marriage between Bothwell and the late Huntly's
daughter, Lady Jane Gordon, Darnley intrigued with Lord
Ruthven and George Douglas, a bastard kinsman of Morton,
for the murder of Riccio, and for his own acquisition of the
crown matrimonial. Morton and Lindsay were brought into the
plot, while Murray, in England, also signed. He was to return
to Edinburgh as soon as the deed of slaughter was done, and
before parliament could proceed to his forfeiture.
Mary, according to Ruthven's published account, had herself
unconstitutionally named the executive committee of parlia-
ment, the Lords of the Articles, who were usually
elected in various ways by the Estates themselves.
While Mary was at supper, on the pth of March,
Darnley, with Ruthven, George Douglas and others, entered the
boudoir in Holyrood, by his private stair, while Morton and his
accomplices, mainly Douglases, burst in by way of the great
staircase. There had been an intention of holding some mock
trial of Riccio, but the fury of the crowd overcame them:
Riccio was dragged from Mary's table and fell under more than
fifty dagger wounds. While Mary, Darnley and Ruthven
exchanged threats and taunts, Bothwell and Huntly escaped
from the palace, but next day, Mary contrived to send letters to
them and Atholl. On the following evening Murray arrived,
and now even Murray was welcome to his sister. Darnley had
taken on him (his one act of kingly power) to dismiss the parlia-
ment, but he now found himself the mere tool of his accomplices.
He denied he never ceased to deny his share in the guilt,
and Mary worked on his vanity and his fears, and moulded his
" heart of wax " to her will. On his assurances the lords,
expecting an amnesty, withdrew their guards from the palace
and next day found that the bird had flown to the strong castle
of Dunbar. Hence Mary summoned the forces of the country,
under Bothwell and Huntly; she forgave Murray; the murderers
had no aid from the Protestants of Edinburgh, who as before
failed them in their need. Knox himself fled to Kyle, though
there is no evidence that he was privy to a deed which he calls
" worthy of all praise," and Morton and Ruthven spurred to
Berwick, while Lethington skulked in Atholl. His possessions
were handed over to Bothwell. Darnley betrayed some obscu
accomplices. He was now equally detested by Murray, by the
new exiles and by the queen, while she reconciled Murray and
Bothwell. She tried to assuage all feuds; in an inventory of
her jewels she left many of them to Darnley, in case she and her
child did not survive its birth. The infant, James, was born in
the castle on the ipth of June.
On Mary's recovery, her aversion to Darnley, and her con-
fidence in Bothwell, were unconcealed; and, early in September,
she admitted Lethington to her presence. She had learned that
Darnley meant to leave the country: she met him before her
Privy Council, who sided with her; he withdrew, and the lords,
including Murray, early in October signed a " band " disclaiming
all obedience to him. On the 7th or pth of October, Mary went
to Jedburgh on the affairs of Border justice, and a week later
she rode with Murray to Hermitage castle, where for severa
days Bothwell had lain, wounded nearly to death by Eliot,
border reiver. On her return she fell into an almost fatal illne
and prepared for her end with great courage and piety; Darnley
now visited her, but was ill-received, while Bothwell was born
to Jedburgh from Hermitage in a litter. While Buchar
represents the pair as indulging in a guilty passion, the Frenc
ambassador, du Croc, avers that Mary was never in better reput
with her subjects. On the 24th of November Mary was at
Craigmillar castle, near Edinburgh, where undoubtedly she held
a conference with her chief advisers that boded no good to
Darnley; and there were rumours of Darnley's design to seiz
the infant prince and rule in his name. The evidence on
these points is disputable, but now, or not long after, Huntly,
Bothwell, Lethington and Argyll signed a " band " for Darnley'
murder.
Meanwhile, in December, Mary held the feasts for the baptisr
of her son by Catholic rites at Stirling (i7th of December), wh"
HISTORY]
SCOTLAND
447
Darnley stood aloof, in fear and anger. A week later, moved
by Bedford, representing Elizabeth, and by Bothwell and her
other advisers, Mary pardoned Morton and his
accomplices. She also restored Archbishop Hamilton
to his consistorial jurisdiction, but withdrew her act,
in face of presbyterian opposition. Darnley had retired to his
father's house at Glasgow, where he fell ill of small-pox, and, on
the i4th of January 1567 Mary, from Holyrood, offered to visit
him, though he had replied by a verbal insult to a former offer
of a visit from Stirling. About this week must have occurred
the interview in the garden at the Douglas's house of Whittinge-
hame, between Morton, Bothwell and Lethington, when Morton
refused to be active in Darnley's murder, unless he had a written
warrant from the queen. This he did not obtain. On the zoth
of January 1567 Mary left Edinburgh for Glasgow, her purpose
being to bring Darnley back to Craigmillar. At this time (the
22nd-25th of January), she must have written the two first
Casket Letters to Bothwell. Letter II. (really Letter I.) leaves
no doubt, if we accept it, as to her murderous design (see CASKET
LETTERS). What followed must be read in Mary's biography:
the end was the murder of Darnley in the house at Kirk o' Field,
after the midnight of Sunday, the Qth of February.
Public and conspicuous as was the crime, the house being
blown up with gunpowder, no secret has been better kept than
the details. The facts of Mary's lawless marriage
Marriage w j t jj u o thwell, her capture at Carberry Hill, her
ItothweiL confinement in Loch Leven Castle, her escape, her
defeat at Langside, and her fatal flight to an English
prison, with the proceedings of the English Commissions, which
uttered no verdict, must be read in her biography (see MARY
STUART).
Scotland was now ruled by her brother, the Regent Murray,
in the name of her infant son, James VI. Murray arrested
James VI.: Lethington, as accused of Darnley's murder, and
internal Lethington was now lodged under ward in Edinburgh,
Coateo- but Kirkcaldy of Grange released him and gave him
shelter in Edinburgh castle, which he commanded
(23rd of October). Lethington was to be tried, but his armed
friends mustered in great numbers, and, secure in the castle,
he and Kirkcaldy upheld the cause of Mary. Lethington's
motive is obvious; in Mary's success lay his chance of safety:
how he won over Kirkcaldy is unknown. The rebellion in the
north of England failed, Northumberland was driven across the
border, and it was Murray's idea to barter him for Mary, in the
beginning of January 1570. But on the 23rd of January, Murray
was shot dead, in the street of Linlithgow, by a Hamilton, with
the approval and aid of Archbishop Hamilton and other heads of
the house.
The contending parties, queen's men and king's men, now
made approaches to each other; neither had a share in the
Hamiltons' crime. But Randolph, sent to Edinburgh for the
purpose, kept them apart; Elizabeth despatched Sussex to
ravage the Scottish border, in revenge for a raid by Buccleuch,
and in May Lennox entered Scotland with an English force and
soon was appointed regent (i7th of July). This meant a war
of Stuarts against Hamiltons, and, generally, of " Queen's
men" against " King's men." Truces and empty negotiations
merely protracted disorder. On the 2nd of April 1571 Mary's
party lost Dumbaiton castle, which Crawford of Jordanhill took
by a daring night surprise; and Archbishop Hamilton, a prisoner,
was hanged without trial. In May the Hamiltons entered
Edinburgh, and later Lennox, in a parliament held at Leith,
secured the forfeiture of Lethington. As the year passed by,
Argyll, Cassilis, Eglintoun and Boyd went over to Lennox's
party, and in an otherwise futile raid of Kirkcaldy's men on
Stirling, Lennox was captured and was shot by a man named
Calder. In England the Ridolphi-Norfolk plot was discovered,
and at the end of 1571 Buchanan's " Detection" of Mary, with
translations of the Casket Letters, was published. Though
Mar was now regent, Morton was the man of action. In
February 1572 he forced on the kirk an order of bishops,
" Tulchan bishops," filters through which the remaining
Crown
and Kirk.
wealth of the church trickled into the coffers of the state, or
of the regent.
This was the beginning of the sorrows of more than a century.
The kirk Presbyterian was founded on the Genevan model, and
was intended to be a theocracy. She had claimed,
since the riots at Perth in 1559, the Power of the Keys,
with the power of excommunicating even the king, a
sentence practically equivalent to outlawry. These pretensions
were incompatible with the freedom of thestateandof individuals.
It became the policy of the crown to check the preachers by
means of the order of bishops, first reintroduced by Morton, and
worthy of their origin. The kirk was robbed afresh, benefices
were given to such villainous cadets of great families as Archibald
Douglas, an agent in Darnley's murder; and though, under
the scholarly but fierce Andrew Melville, the kirk purified herself
afresh and successfully opposed the bishops, James VI.
dominated her again, when he came to the English crown, and
the result was the long war between claims equally exorbitant
and intolerable, those of the crown and the kirk.
The death of Mar (28th of October 1572) left power in the
stronger hands of Morton, and the death of Knox (24th of
November) put the kirk for a while at the mercy of the new
regent. Meanwhile Mary's party dwindled away; at a meeting
in Perth (23rd of February 1573) her thanes fled from her, and
Elizabeth at last reinforced Mary's enemies with men and artillery.
On the 28th of May Edinburgh castle surrendered at discretion.
Lethington, the heart of the long resistance, died, a paralytic,
in prison, and Morton resisted the generous efforts made to save
the gallant Kirkcaldy. Knox had prophesied that he would be
hanged, and hanged he was.
Despite the ferocity of partisans in " the Douglas wars," an
English envoy reported that the power of the country gentry
and the boroughs had increased, while that of the great wavering
nobles, Hamilton, Huntly and others, was diminishing. The
" navy was so augmented as it is a thing almost incredible,"
but none the less 100 sterling was worth as much, Drury wrote
from Berwick, as 1000 Scots.
In 1575, at the General Assembly, Andrew Melville, now a man
of thirty, and, with Buchanan, the foremost scholar of Scotland,
especially in Greek, caused the lawfulness of bishops to be mooted.
Thenceforward Scotland was engaged in a kind of " bishops'
war." Meanwhile Morton found the old Marian party-feud
reviving, and in 1577, knowing his own guilt in Darnley's murder,
he attempted to win the alliance of Mary for his own security.
In March 1578, a coalition of his public and private foes caused
Morton to resign the regency, while the young earl of Mar
became custodian of the boy king. On the 28th of May, Morton
allied himself with Mar, who commanded Stirling castle, and
after negotiations recovered power. Atholl was his chief
opponent, but in April 1579 he died suddenly, after dining with
Morton; poison was suspected. Morton, with Angus, attacked
the Hamiltons, whose chiefs fled the country, accompanied by the
worst of traitors, Sir James Balfour. Knowing all the secrets of
Darnley's murder, Balfour revenged himself by raking up
Morton's foreknowledge of the deed; and here he was helped
by the influence exercised over the young king by his cousin
Esme Stuart d'Aubigny (a son of Darnley's paternal uncle,
John), who came to Scotland from France in September 1579.
D'Aubigny allied himself with Knox's brother-in-law, James
Stewart of the house of Ochiltree, captain of the King's Guards,
an able, handsome, learned, but rapacious man. The Hamiltons,
now in English exile, were forfeited; d'Aubigny received the
earldom of Lennox; and, as after Darnley's death, placards,
were posted urging the trial of Morton for that crime. As against
the new Lennox, Morton was deemed a friend by the preachers,
though Lennox professed to be reconciled to the kirk. Through-
out 1580 Elizabeth encouraged Morton, with her wonted fickle
treachery. In October she recalled her ambassador, and left
Morton to his fate. Sir James Balfour secretly returned from
France with his information, and Morton was accused and
arrested on the last day of 1580. Elizabeth sent old Randolph
to threaten and plead, but Lennox and James Stewart were too
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
Death of
Mary.
powerful. Morton was tried on the ist of June 1581, was found
guilty, and, with one Binning, who had accompanied Archibald
Douglas to the scene of Darnley's murder, was executed. His title
went to the Douglases of Lochleven. James Stewart received
the Hamilton earldom of Arran, and under him and Lennox
the young king began his long strife with the kirk and his half-
hearted dealings with the Catholics and his mother.
It is impossible here to follow the course of the strife, in which
the godly were led by the earls of Cowrie and Angus. Cowrie
seized James, and power, at Ruthven (August 1582), a step
approved of by the preachers. In June 1583, James escaped to
St Andrews and was surrounded by his party. In November
he made the son of Lennox, who had died in France, a duke;
Arran was again in power, and Melville with other preachers fled
to England in 1584, after the execution of Cowrie for high
treason. The king and council were proclaimed judges in all
cases; preachers were to submit to their judicature when accused
of political offences, a standing cause of strife.
No longer needing Catholic assistance, James threw over his
mother, with whom he had been intriguing, and sent the beautiful
Master of Gray to betray Mary's secrets to Elizabeth. At the
end of 1585, all James's exiled foes, Douglases, Hamiltons and
others, returned across the border in force, caught the king at
Stirling, drove Arran into hiding, restored the Cowrie family,
and became the new administration. In 1586, the Babington
plot was arranged, and discovered by those who had allowed
it to be arranged. James practically did nothing to rescue his
mother: one of his representatives in England was that Archi-
bald Douglas who helped to slay his father.
The execution of Mary on the 8th of February left James " a
free king " as far as his mother's claim to the throne was con-
cerned, and he had his pension of 3000 or 4000 from
Elizabeth. Thus war between the two countries was
avoided. Thenceforth, till James came to the throne
of England, the history of Scotland was but a series of inchoate
revolutions, intrigues that led to nothing definite and skirmishes
in the war of kirk and state. The king had to do with preachers
who practically held the doctrines of Becket as to priestly
pretensions. James was " Christ's silly vassal," so Andrew
Melville told him, and " Christ" in practice meant the preachers
who possessed the power of the keys, the power to bind and loose
on earth and in heaven. The strange thing is that while Eliza-
beth warned James against the pretensions of men who " would
have no king but a presbytery," whenever he was at odds with
the ministers and with the nobles who kept trying to seize his
person with the approval of the ministers, Elizabeth secretly or
openly backed the kirk.
The kirk was strong enough to compel James to march, more
than once, against the Catholic earls, Huntly, Errol, Angus and
others. They, again, constantly intrigued with Spain, and there
were moments when James, driven desperate by the preachers,
listened to their projects. He was anti-papal by conviction,
yet hoped for help from Rome, and was so far implicated in
the adventures of his Catholic subjects that, in the interest of
his own character, he had to advance against them and drive
them into exile. In 1390 he married Anne of Denmark: in
1592 his character suffered through the murder, by Huntly, of
" the bonny earl o' Murray," suspected of favouring the mad-
cap Francis Stewart, earl of Bothwell (nephew of Queen Mary's
Bothwell), a man who made it his business to kidnap the king,
and who presently, by the help of Cowrie's widow, seized him in
Holyrood. In 1 592 parliament " ratified the liberty of the true
kirk," leaving little liberty for king and state, since, in the phrase
of one preacher, " the king might be excommunicated in case of
contumacy and disobedience to the will of God," as interpreted
by the ministers. In the following year (23rd of July 1593)
Bothwell, much favoured by the preachers, made his capture of
James, but had net the power to hold him long, and a later
revolutionary attempt in the same year, by Atholl and the young
earl of Cowrie, was a failure.
Gowrie went abroad and passed some time at the university of
Padua; to him the eyes of the preachers were hopefully turned
after 1596. As Bothwell had become a Catholic, they excom-
municated him in 1595: in 1596 James resolved to recall the
exiled Catholic peers; the commissioners of the General Assembly,
alarmed and infuriated, met in Edinburgh, ordered a day of
humiliation, decided to excommunicate the Catholic earls and
established a kind of revolutionary committee of public safety.
James insisted on his own authority; insisted that a secular
court had a right to try a virulent preacher who declined the
secular jurisdiction when accused of having denounced Queen
Elizabeth as an atheist. The quarrel waxed: the gatherings
summoned by the preachers were declared to be seditious; a
meeting in a church ended in a threatening riot that raged round
the Tolbooth, where James was sitting, and on the following day
he with his Court withdrew to Linlithgow (i8th of December
1596). The Court of Session was also to be removed, and the
burgesses', fearing loss of trade, laid down their arms. The
leader of the clerical agitation, Mr Bruce, with a wild preacher
named Balcanquhal, fled to England, and James returned in
triumph to his capital on the ist of January 1597. He followed
up his victory; a General Assembly at Perth was obedient to his
will: the preachers were forbidden to criticize, from the pulpit,
acts of parliament or of the privy council; they were forbidden
to call conventions without the royal person or authority and
to attack individuals in their sermons.
In the great towns, moreover, ministers might not be appointed
to charges without the king's consent, and in this course James
advanced, with but slight opposition, till he put the preachers
under his feet. In a long series of crafty movements James
managed to reintroduce episcopacy (1598-1600) by the aid of
packed General Assemblies, later declared void by the Covenanters
(1638). He increased Presbyterian emotion by the suspicion
that he was intriguing with Catholic powers, and by his book
on the rights and duties of a king (Basilicon Doron), which fell
into the hands of Andrew Melville. Some cryptic correspondence
with the pope, whether actually by James or by Elphinstone,
one of his ministers, came apparently to the knowledge of the
English court; his secret relations with the earl of Essex were,
if not known, suspected; the young earl of Gowrie, returned
from a residence on the continent, was too effusively welcomed
by Elizabeth in May 1600; and James made a tactless speech
when asking parliament for money towards his " honourable
entering to the crown of England after the death of the queen."
He was in deep poverty, the Estates were chary of supplies,
plotters in Scotland had been offering to Cecil to kidnap the king
(1598), and his relations both with the English government and
with his own subdued but struggling preachers were bitterly
unfriendly.
It is not known whether the mysterious events that culminated
in the slaying of the earl of Gowrie and his brother, by John
Ramsay, in their own house in Perth, on the sth of
August 1600, had any connexion with James's attitude
to England and the kirk. The most probable ex-
planation is that Gowrie laid, with the utmost secrecy,
a plot to lure James to Perth, kidnap him there, transport him
to Fastcastle, a fortress of the profligate and intriguing Logan of
Restalrig, on the Berwickshire coast, and then raise the Presby-
terian party. If we could accept the evidence of a letter attri-
buted to Logan and produced in 1608, this theory would be valid.
But the letter has been proved beyond question to be a forgery,
though it may very well be a forged copy of a genuine original
(see The Gowrie Conspiracy Confessions of George Sprot, by
A. Lang, Roxburghe Club, London, 1902). Certainly no plot
was laid by James to entrap the Ruthvens, and the only question
is, was the brawl in which they fell accidental, or had a plot
hatched in deep secrecy been frustrated by unexpected circum-
stances? (In James VI. and the Gowrie Conspiracy the writer
argues in favour of the latter solution.) In any case the sceptic-
ism of the Edinburgh ministers, especially of Bruce, encouraged
the tendency of the people to think the worst, and led to the
banishment, followed by other restrictions and sufferings, of
Bruce himself. The house of Gowrie, so long hostile to Mary
Stuart and James, was forfeited and ruined. Charles I. was
HISTORY]
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449
born just after the trial of the deadRuthvens (igthof November
1600), and his mother was, as ususal, opposed to the king's recent
proceedings.
In 1602 Cecil was engaged in dark plots against James; the
rising of Essex (of which James probably was expectant) had
failed; but by the end of the year Cecil had entered
J bomes into a secret understanding with James to favour his
king of claims to the English succession. Elizabeth's last
Bagiaad. i et ter to the king was of the sth of January 1603;
she died in the earliest hour of the ist of April, and James, late
on the 3rd of April, had the news from Carey. He entered
London on the 6th of May, whence he henceforth, as he said,
governed Scotland " by the pen." Entirely safe from the usual
turbulent movements of Scottish opposition, and but ill ac-
quainted with Scottish opinion, he could dictate measures which
were oppressive to the preachers and unwelcome to the majority
of the laity. He kept the kirk for two or three years without a
General Assembly, to which they had a legal right, and (with at
least a shadow of legal right) he proclaimed unlawful the assembly
of Aberdeen (1605). Though the recalcitrants who held it were
punished, James's own officials saw that he had gone too far.
His bishops were already becoming odious to his nobles; his
prorogation of General Assemblies continued, and the brothers
Melville, called to England, were treated with unconstitutional
harshness. Andrew, who behaved with injudicious violence,
was banished to France, James to Newcastle; other preachers
were confined to their parishes; and by a mixture of chicanery
(as at the pseudo assembly of Linlithgow) and of violence, the
king established his tottering episcopacy, and sowed the dragon's
teeth of civil war. Catholics were equally or more severely
persecuted; and though the Borderers were brought into
tranquillity, it was by measures of indiscriminate severity.
A scheme for complete union of England and Scotland, pro-
moted by James and by Francis Bacon, was unwelcome to and
rejected by the two jealous countries (1604-1606). But Post-
nati, subjects born in Scotland after James's accession to the
English throne, were allowed to purchase and hold real property,
and " to bring real actions for the same, " in England (1608).
In 1610 James had three Scottish bishops consecrated by three
English, bishops, ensuring for the northern country apostolic
succession; and justices of the peace were created in Scotland.
The "plantation" of Ulster by Scottish colonists was begun
and flourished. Catholics were more and more persecuted,
and in 1615 Father Ogilvie was executed, after abominably
cruel treatment in which Spotiswoode, archbishop of Glasgow,
took an unworthy share. In the same year the king's " Courts
of High Commission" were consolidated, and an organ was
actually placed in the royal chapel at Holyrood.
In 1617 James visited his native land: ecclesiastical brawls
at once broke out, and James vigorously pushed, in face of the
disfavour even of his bishops, the acceptance of his famous Five
Articles. They were accepted at Perth, in 1618, but were evaded
wherever evasion was possible. Communicants were to kneel,
not to sit, a thing that had, of all others, been odious to John
Knox; Easter was to be observed, also Christmas, contrary to
earnest consciences; confirmation was introduced; the Com-
munion might be administered to the dying in their houses;
and baptism must be on the first Sunday after the child's birth.
These articles, harmless as they may seem to us, were the last
straw that Scottish loyalty could bear. In 1621, they were
carried in parliament by a fair majority; to the horror and
bitter indignation of all men and women of the old leaven.
Worse, the English liturgy was used in a college chapel of St
Andrews on the i$th of January 1623. James tried to suppress
the general irritation by a proclamation against conventicles,
and a threat to take away the courts of law from Edinburgh,
if people did not go to church on Christmas day. He postponed
the threat till Easter 1625, but, says Calderwood, " The Lord
removed him out of the way fourteen days before the Easter
Communion." He died on the 2yth of March. Encouraged by
safety and adulation in England; grasping at the Tudor ideal
of kingship, determined to reduce to order the kirk from which
xxiv. 1 5
he had suffered so many injuries and insults, he sowed the wind
and his son reaped the whirlwind.
Only the chief moments in the struggle between Charles I.
and the Scots can be touched on in this summary. James VI.
had succeeded in his struggle with the preachers
partly by satisfying the nobles with gifts out of old
church lands. Charles I. reunited the kirk and the nobles by
threatening, or seeming to threaten, to resume or impair these
gifts, and also by his favour towards the universally detested
bishops (1625-1629). Mr S. R. Gardiner speaks of the final
shape of Charles's measure as " a wise and beneficent reform" ;
and he did aim at recovering the " teinds " or tithes, and securing
something like a satisfactory sustenance for ministers. But he
had caused alarm, and he refused all demands for the withdrawal
of the loathed articles of Perth. The younger bishops too were
not " sound " in Calvinism; many were looked on as Arminians.
Protests were uttered in 1633, when Charles entered Edinburgh
and held a parliament. Above all, and most legitimately, the
revival of Genera^ Assemblies, now long discussed, was demanded
vainly.
By 1636, Charles and Laud had decided to introduce a liturgy,
a slightly, but in Scottish apprehensions " idolatrously," modified
version of the Anglican prayer-book. Anglicanism was a limb
of Antichrist; extempore prayers were regarded as inspired:
a liturgy was " a Mass-book." The procedure was purely
despotic, and at the first attempt to use the liturgy in St Giles's
there broke out the famous " Jenny Geddes " riot in the church
(23rd of July 1637). The nobles of the country, the ministers
and lairds, met in Edinburgh and sent a petition against the
liturgy to Charles. In November were formed " The Tables,"
a standing revolutionary committee of all Estates.
Constant meetings hurled protestations against the bishops;
no man was more active than the young Montrose. In February
1638 the Covenant, practically a " band " of the
whole country, enforced on reluctant signers, was
launched. It made Scotland, like Israel," a covenanted
people " for the defence and propagation of the old Presbyterian-
ism of Andrew Melville, and many devotees held that it was for
ever binding on the nation. Legists differ as to whether the
band was legal or not, but revolutions make their own laws,
and the Covenant could not be more illegal than the imposure
of the liturgy. Charles drove on the bishops, who better under-
stood the situation, and he sent the half-hearted Hamilton to
negotiate and threaten in Edinburgh, where the Covenanters
were blockading the castle. But Charles did grant a General
Assembly in Glasgow (2ist of November), where, among unseemly
uproar, the ecclesiastical legislation of James I. was rescinded,
the law and custom of forty years were abolished, conformist
clerics were expelled, and the earl of Argyll appeared as leader
of the extreme party, while Montrose was the general of the
armed Covenanters. In 1639 he was as active in arms in the north
as Hamilton, on the king's side, was dilatory and helpless in the
south. By May the chief clerical leader, Henderson of Leuchars,
was denouncing Royalists as " Amalekites," and by biblical
precedent Amalekites receive no quarter. Prelacy was " Baal
worship," and the kirk thus turned the strife in the direction of
religious ferocity.
While Charles hung irresolute on the eastern border, the
Covenanters, under Alexander Leslie, took heart, occupied
Duns Law, and terrified Charles into negotiations (nth-i8th
June). A hollow pacification was made: the assembly of August
1639 imposed the signing of the Covenant on all Scotsmen. A
parliament (3ist of August) demanded the loss of votes (fourteen)
by bishops, and freedom of debate on bills formed by the Lords
of the Articles, who had practically held all power; while Argyll
carried a bill demanding for each estate the right to select its
own representatives among these lords. Traquhair, as royal
commissioner, prorogued parliament; negotiations with the king
in London had no result; and in 1640 the prorogation was
contemned, and though opposed by Montrose, the parliament
constituted itself, with no royal warrant. War was at hand,
but Montrose formed a party by " the band of Cumbernauld,"
450
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
to suppress the practical dictatorship of his rival and enemy,
Argyll, who, he understood, was to be one of a triumvirate,
and absolute north of Forth. Argyll allowed the committee
of Estates to rule, as before, and bided his time. On the 2oth of
August Montrose was the first of the Covenanting army to cross
the Tweed; Newcastle was seized, and. Charles, unsupported
by England, entered on the course of the Long Parliament and
the slaying of Strafford. In Scotland the secret of the Cumber-
nauld band came out; Montrose, Napier and other friends were
imprisoned on the strength of certain ambiguous messages to
Charles, and on the 27th of July, being called before parliament,
Montrose said " My resolution is to carry with me honour
and fidelity to the grave." Montrose kept his word, while
Hamilton stooped to sign the Covenant. Montrose lay in prison
while Charles I. visited Scotland and met the parliament, per-
turbed by the dim and unintelligible plot called
lidlat."' " The I ncident " (October 1641), which seems to have
aimed at seizing the persons of Argyll, Hamilton
and his brother Lanark. All that is known of Montrose, in this
matter, is that from prison he had written thrice to Charles,
and that Charles had intended to show his third letter to Argyll,
Hamilton and Lanark, on the very day when they, suspecting
a plot, retired into the country (i2th of October). An agitated
inquiry which only found contradictory evidence was disturbed
by the news of the Irish rebellion (28th of October). Charles
heaped honours on his opponents (Argyll was the one marquis of
his name), and hastened to England. The country was governed
by fifty-six members of the Estate and by the dreaded commission
of the General Assembly, for now the kirk dominated Scotland,
denying even the right of petition to the lieges.
The English parliament, at war with the king, demanded aid
from Scotland; it was granted under the conditions of the
Solemn League and Covenant (1643), by which the
Covenanters expected to secure the establishment of
Presbyterianism in England, though the terms of
agreement are dubious. Scotland, however, regarded herself as
bound to war against " Sectaries," and so came into collision
with Cromwell, to her undoing. In January 1644, a Scottish
army crossed Tweed, to aid the parliament, with preachers to
attend the synod of Westminster. Already some 2000 men from
Ireland, mainly of Macdonalds and other clans driven into Ireland
by the Argylls, were being despatched to the west Highland
coast. Lanark, from Oxford, fled to join the Covenanters;
Charles imprisoned Hamilton in Cornwall; Montrose was made
a marquis; Leslie, with a large Scottish force and 4000 horse,
besieged Newcastle. Montrose arrived a day too late for Marston
Moor (2nd of July 1644); Rupert took his contingent; he entered
Scotland in disguise, met the ill-armed Irish levies under Colkitto,
raised the Gordons and Ogilvies, who supplied his cavalry,
raised the fighting Macdonalds, Camerons and Macleans; in
six pitched battles he routed Argyll and all the Covenanting
warriors of Scotland, and then, deserted by Colkitto and the
Gordons, and surprised by Leslie's cavalry withdrawn from
England, was defeated at Philiphaugh near Selkirk, while men
and women of his Irish contingent were shot or hanged months
after the battle.
The clamour of the preachers was now for blood, and gentlemen
taken under promise of quarter were executed by command of
the Estates at St Andrews, for to give quarter was " to violate
the oath of the Covenant " as interpreted by the clergy. It
would have been wiser to put the revenges as reprisals for the
undeniable horrors committed by Montrose's Irish levies. The
surrender of Charles to the Scots, the surrender by the Scots of
Charles to the English, for 200,000 of arrears of pay, with hopes
of another 200,000 (February 1647), were among the conse-
quences of Montrose's defeat. But the surrender of the king
festered in Scottish consciences; for the country was far from
acquiescing in the transaction.
Leslie, by the advice of one Nevoy, a preacher, massacred, on
his return to Scotland, the Macdonalds in Dunaverty castle.
A strife arose between Hamilton, who wished to disband the
Covenanting army, and Argyll, and gradually the struggle was
between Hamilton and the sympathizers with the imprisoned king
and Argyll at the head of (or under the heels of) the more fanatical
preachers and Presbyterians. The Scottish commissioners in
England, with Lauderdale, and with the approval of Hamilton's
faction, signed, at the end of 1647, " The Engagement " with
Charles, and broke away from the tyranny of the preachers.
The Engagers had the majority in parliament, but were frantically
cursed from the pulpits; they and their army mustered for the
deliverance of their king. In August 1648, they crossed the
border, leaving the fanatics to arm in their rear, but Cromwell,
by a rapid march across the fells, caught and utterly routed them
at Preston and on the line of the Ribble, taking captive the
infantry and Hamilton, who was sent to the block.
This was the kirk's proudest triumph; the countrymen of the
preachers had been ruined on " St Covenant's Day." The
preachers, with Lords Loudoun and Eglintoun, Argyll
and Cassilis, armed and raised the godly, and occupied Execu -
Edinburgh. The parliamentary committee capitulated cftarfes /.
with the extremists, who sent friendly messages to
Cromwell, and Argyll met him on the Tweed. Thence Cromwell
sent Lambert with seven regiments to Edinburgh, where he
himself stayed for some time. A parliament in Argyll's and the
preachers' interest met there in January 1649; only sixteen
nobles were present, as against fifty-six in the previous year.
The execution of Charles I. (3oth of January 1649) left the
extreme party in a quandary. How could they keep terms with
" bloody Sectaries " that had slain their king, in face of the
protests of their envoys? They did pass the Act of the Classes,
disabling all " Engagers " from all manner of offices, military
and civil, and dividing the distracted country into two hostile
camps. On the sth of February Charles II. was proclaimed king
in Edinburgh, if he took the two Covenants. This meant war
against England, and war in which the Engagers and Royalists
could not take part. The situation developed into ruin under
the strife of the wilder and the gentler preachers.
Communications with Charles II. at the Hague were opened,
and the Scots accused the English of breach of the Solemn League
and Covenant. Huntly, as a Royalist, was decapitated
at Edinburgh; and the envoys of Charles, thanks to
the advice of Montrose, failed to induce him to stamp
himself a recreant and a hypocrite by signing any covenants.
But Montrose (January 1650) was sent by Charles to " search his
death," as he said, in an expedition to the north of Scotland,
while, in the absence of his stainless servant, Charles actually
signed the treaty of Breda (ist of May). In April Montrose
was abandoned by his royal master, and was defeated at
Carbiesdale, on the south side of the kyle, or estuary, of
Shin and Oykel; he was betrayed, insulted, bullied by the
preachers, and, going to his death like a bridegroom to the altar,
was hanged at Edinburgh, on the 2oth of May. " Great in life,
Montrose was yet greater in his death." He had kept his word,
he had " carried fidelity and honour to the grave " (Gardiner).
His head was set on a spike and his quartered limbs were exposed
in various places.
Charles came to Scotland ; he signed the Covenants, while his
tormentors well and duly knew that the action was a base
hypocrisy, that they had tempted him to perjury.
Cromwell, who now crossed the border, impressed this '
truth, as far as he might, on the preachers, who made Scotland.
Charles sign declarations yet more degrading, to the dis-
credit of his father and mother. Meanwhile David Leslie, with
singularly excellent strategy, foiled and evaded Cromwell in
the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, till the great cavalry leader
was forced to retreat towards England. At Dunbar Leslie held
Cromwell in the hollow of his hand, but his army had been
repeatedly " purged " of all Royalist men of the sword by the
preachers; they are said, and Cromwell believed it, to have
constrained Leslie to leave his impregnable position and attack
on the lower levels. Leslie appears to have intended a surprise,
as at Philiphaugh, but " through our own laziness," he confesses,
the surprise came from Cromwell's side, and few of the Scots
except the mounted gentry escaped from the crushing defeat at
HISTORY]
SCOTLAND
45
iteration
Dunbar (3rd of September). Of the prisoners an unknown
number died of hunger in Durham cathedral, others were sold
to slavery in the colonies.
Cromwell had occupied the country south of the Forth, while
Argyll was Charles's master, extorting hard terms from the
prisoner, who once ran away. The committee of Estates, on
hard terms, gave an indemnity to Royalists whose swords they
needed; many ministers acquiesced (" The Resolutioners "),
the more fanatical dissidents were. called "Remonstrants,"
and now the kirk was rent in twain by the disputes of these two
factions. The Remonstrants, clerical and military (Guthrie and
Strachan), would not support Charles while he was not "under
conviction," and Strachan was excommunicated by the Resolu-
tioners. On the 2oth of July 1651 Lambert defeated the Royal-
ists at Inverkeithing; Forth no longer bridled Cromwell; Leslie
was sure to be outflanked, and, with Charles, he evaded Cromwell,
marched into the heart of England (unaccompanied by Argyll) ,
and was defeated and taken, while Charles made a marvellous
escape at Worcester (3rd of September 1651).
The conquest of Scotland was soon completed; at last she
lay at an English victor's feet; the General Assembly was
turned out into the street by " some rats of Musketeers
an d a troup of horse," and the risings of Glencairn,
Lome (eldest son of Argyll) and others in the high-
lands were easily crushed. Argyll, deserted and detested,
compromised himself by letters to Monk, containing intelligence
as to the movements of the Royalists. While the rival bands
of preachers squabbled, Cromwell, like Edward I., arranged
that Scottish members should sit in Westminster, and, com-
mercially, as in the administration of fair justice, and the peace
of the country, Scotland prospered under English rule. But
Monk withdrew his force to London in January 1660, and
hurrying events brought the joyous Restoration of the 2gth
of May.
The festivities in Scotland were exuberant, but it was im-
possible that tranquillity should be restored. The Remonstrants,
that is, the clerical fanatics to whom toleration was more especi-
ally abominable, are reckoned (Hume Brown) as the majority
of the preachers, but exact statistics cannot be obtained. In
their eyes, as Charles had taken both Covenants, he was bound
to remain a Presbyterian and to establish Presbyterianism in
England, a thing impossible and entailing civil war in the
attempt. Even the representatives of the Resolutioners urged
Charles not to use the Anglican service, though they confided
to Sharp, their agent in London, their opinion that, if the Re-
monstrants (or Protesters) had any hand in affairs, " it cannot
but breed continual distemper and disorders." Suppose that
the kirk was restored by Charles to her position in 1592, with
General Assemblies. With the violent party in a majority,
refusing the jurisdiction of the state, insisting on the establish-
ment .of Presbyterianism in England, excommunicating and
scolding, Scotland would be as much disturbed as in the days
of Andrew Melville. " Neither fair nor other means are likely
to do with them " (the fanatics), says Baillie, principal of
Glasgow University, himself a Covenanter from the beginning.
He wished to banish the Remonstrants to Orkney.
Historians do not usually seem to perceive that Charles was
faced by the old quarrel of church and state, in which " fair
means " were seen to be unavailing, while " unfair means "
only succeeded, after some thirty years, in breaking down the
old Presbyterian spirit so much that, after 1688, the state could
hold her own. Charles, without first summoning the Estates,
named his own privy council and ministers, of whom Lauderdale,
long a Covenanter, came presently to be governor of Scotland.
As Argyll, in face of all warnings, went to court, he was arrested,
and during the session of parliament of January 1661 was tried
for treason, and, on the ground of his letters to Monk, was
convicted and executed, as was the leading Remonstrant preacher,
James Guthrie, accused of holding an illegal conventicle, " tend-
ing'to disturbance, . . . and, if possible, rekindling a civil war."
The history of the country during the Restoration falls natur-
ally into four periods.
I. In the first (1660-1663) the royal commissioner to
parliament was the earl of Middleton, a soldier of fortune who
had been in arms for the Crown as late as 1655, who Four
had been excommunicated by the kirk, and was periods
determined to keep down the preachers. With him during the
were the Cavalier party, anxious to recover their * e * tora "
losses during the civil war. AE were impoverished,
and greed >was the dominant motive of the members of the
privy council, the rulers of the country. Meanwhile, in London,
the earl of Lauderdale, once a fervent Covenanter, was secretary
for Scotland, had the king's ear, and would have restored presby-
tery, at least by way of experiment. The " creature " of Charles,
as he called himself, this burly, violent scholar, buffoon and
bully, was reckoned a patriot. As an " Engager " he had seen
his country conquered by English arms. His policy was to
keep Scotland in good humour by restoring presbytery; to
raise in the country a militia strong enough to support Charles
against the English parliament, and thus, in both countries,
to make the royal prerogative absolute. The first parliament
(1661-1663), under Middleton, was obsequious enough to grant
the king 40,000 annually, to abolish the covenants and to
rescind all but the private legislation of the revolutionary
years (1638-1660). The Lords of the Articles were restored,
mere nominees of government. Middleton, Tarbat and Claren-
don overcame Charles's reluctance to restore episcopacy;
Lauderdale fell into the background; The Rev. James Sharp,
hitherto the agent of the Resolutioners, or milder party among
the preachers, turned his coat, and took the archbishopric of
St Andrews. Episcopacy being restored, some three or four
hundred preachers were driven from their parishes (1663).
" We made a waste," said Archbishop Leighton, " and stocked
it with owls and satyrs," the detested " curates." The Shorter
Catechism was taught; the liturgy was not brought in; the
sole change was in kirk government.
Meanwhile the Cavalier party invented a system of heavily
fining men who had been their opponents in the troubles. Middle-
ton coveted the estates of the earl of Argyll, son of the late
marquis, and on a trumped-up charge of " leasing making "
(he had spoken in a private letter of " the tricks of parliament ")
had him condemned to death. He was saved by the exertions
of Lauderdale, and Tarbat suggested, while Middleton adopted,
a scheme for ostracizing, and making incapable of office, twelve
of their opponents, including Lauderdale. But Lauderdale had
the skill to turn the cards on Middleton, accusing him of tricking
both parliament and king, and of usurping royal prerogative.
Middleton and Tarbat were cashiered, and the able but profligate
earl of Rothes united four or five of the highest offices in his
own person, Lauderdale remaining at court as secretary for
Scotland.
II. We come now to the years from 1664 to 1667. Middleton,
with Archbishop Sharp, misgoverned the country, established
a high court of commission, exiled the fiercest preachers to
Holland, whence they worked endless mischief by agitation and
a war of pamphlets; irritated the Covenanting shires, Fife and
the south-west, by quartering troops on them to exact fines
for Nonconformity, and so caused, during a war with Holland,
the Pentland Rising (November 1666). This unconcerted move-
ment arose out of an act of cruelty by soldiers in the remote
Glenkens, and was unsupported by Holland, with which the
Covenanters had been intriguing. Crushed at Rullion Green
in the Pentlands, by General Dalziel, this movement left the
Presbyterians the more angry, by reason of the cruelty of its
suppression, and the use of torture to extract information from
Mackail, a preacher, and Neilson of Corsack, a laird.
III. Lauderdale again saw his chance; Rothes was deprived
of all offices save the chancellorship; Sharp was " snibbed "
and disgraced, attempts at concession were begun, and the
indulgence of 1669 licensed a number of Presbyterian ministers,
under restrictions. The indulgence accentuated the division
between those who accepted and those who rejected it. Out-
rages on conformist ministers were frequent, and conventicles
were accompanied by armed men. A popular book, Jus Populi
452
SCOTLAND
[HISTORY
Vindicatum (1669), demanded the restoration of the covenants,
which meant civil war, the hanging of the bishops, and even
applauded assassination by men who had " a call," like Phinehas.
In a parliament with Lauderdale as commissioner (1660-1673)
" clanking acts " were passed against nonconformity, but the
laws were too severe to be executed, save spasmodically, and
were followed by A second indulgence (1672). Lauderdale
having married the rapacious countess of Dysart, corruption
was rife; his brother, Haltoun, was an example of reckless
greed; opposition arose to a scheme of union, presently dropped,
and by 1673 the duke of Hamilton and Sir George Mackenzie
led an organized political opposition. Lauderdale's Militia
Act gave Charles a force of 22,000 men, who would " go any-
where " (that is, would invade England), at the king's com-
mand, and in 1673-1675 Lauderdale was attacked in the English
House of Commons. Charles stood by him, but his best allies,
Kincardine and Sir Robert Murray, deserted him, while Sir
George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh came over to his party, became
king's advocate (1677), and till 1686 was the Achitophel and
public prosecutor of the government. After an alleged attempt
to negotiate through Argyll (1678) with the preachers, in view
of the threatening increase of armed conventicles, Lauderdale
resolved on suppression. Without money, and without any-
thing like an adequate regular force, he called out the clansmen
of Atholl, Perth and other nobles, and quartered " the Highland
host " on the disturbed districts. He would either put them
down, or, what he preferred, bring rebellion to a head. The
gentry, who had proclaimed their inability to suppress con-
venticles, were ordered to sign a bond making them responsible
for their tenants, and were bound over to keep the king's peace
by " law burrows," a method common in private life but un-
heard of between monarch and people. After six weeks the
plundering clansmen were withdrawn, and in the spring of
1678, also of 1679, Hamilton with his allies carried their com-
plaints to Charles. Mackenzie, in a controversy at Windsor
(1679), proved to Charles that in Scotland he was as absolute
as the kings of France and Spain, over church, state and all
his subjects, and indeed, by various acts of James VI. and of
his own reign, Charles really was a despot (British Museum,
Additional MSS. 23,244, pp. 20-28).
Meanwhile, armed conventicles abounded, and the extreme
faction openly denounced and separated themselves from the
rapidly growing mass of the Indulged. Early in May 1679
Sharp was hacked to death on Magus Moor near St Andrews.
The murderers rode to the west, joined the company of Robert
Hamilton, defeated Graham of Claverhouse with a small force
of horse at Drumclog, occupied Glasgow, and proved the total
inability of the regular forces to cope with a rising. Charles
might have been unable, in the frenzy of the popish plot of
Titus Gates, to send forces from England, but as he chose the
popular Protestant, the duke of Monmouth, to command them,
he was allowed to despatch some regiments. The rebels, who
were in two hostile parties, Indulged and Separatists, failed to
hold Bothwell Bridge, and were easily routed. The duke of
York was sent, in honourable banishment, to Scotland, and
in the parliament of 1681 was royal commissioner.
IV. Here begins the fourth period (1680-1688), the domina-
tion of the duke, Queensberry, Perth, and his brother, Drum-
mond of Lund in (earl of Melfort). Lauderdale was out of favour,
and died. Now " by concession " (a third indulgence) " and
repression, the once mighty force of Scottish Presbyterianism
had at length been broken " (Hume Brown). By " Presby-
terianism " we are here to understand, not the Presbyterian
form of church government the kirk whose motto is Nee
tamen consumebalur but the pretensions of preachers to domi-
nate the state by the mythical " power of the keys," by excom-
munication with civil penalties and by the fiercest reh'gious
intolerance. Presbyterianism can exist and nourish without
these survivals of the proudest pretensions of Romanism. To
quote Dr Hume Brown again, " When the absolutism of the
Stuarts was succeeded by a more rational government (1689),
the example of the Indulged ministers, who composed the great
mass of the Presbyterian clergy, was of the most potent effect
in substituting the idea of toleration for that of the religious
absolutism of Knox and Melville." Save for the fact that the
ministers were as intolerant as ever of Nonconformists,
Catholics and heretics, this is a just view, but Charles II. had
to deal with a kirk in which the Remonstrants, the more fanatical
ministers, were potent, whether the majority or not, while, after
1689, government found " the once mighty force of Presby-
terianism broken." It was broken by the two last Stuart kings,
who employed methods the most brutal and repulsive for the
crushing of consciences trained in the theocratic ideas of Knox
and Melville. The memory of the courage and devotion with
which men, women and even children faced torture, death and
ruin for an ideal impossible and undesirable is dear to the
Scottish people.
On the side of the extremists, Cameron was happy enough
to die in fair fight at Airs Moss (22nd of July 1680), after publicly
disowning the king for his breach of the Covenant. Cargill
next excommunicated the king, Dalziel and Mackenzie, and his
followers separated themselves from " the ordinances dispensed
by any Presbyterian minister." The followers of these two
men, and of their successor, Renwick, who later was hanged,
became the armed and organized " Societies," a large force
of yeomen and farmers in south-western Scotland, usually styled
Cameronians. After the Revolution, the government left them
alone, and could afford to do so.
In 1681, parliament, under the duke of York as commissioner,
passed a test act so drafted that no human being could honestly
and logically take the test. The earl of Argyll, son of the marquis,
added a qualifying clause; he would take the test, " as far as
it was consistent with itself." By the influence of his countless
creditors, who desired to be paid out of his estates, and in
revenge for his seizure, on claims for debts, of the whole estates
of clan Maclean (1674-1680), he was tried and was actually
found guilty of treason. He escaped, but was condemned on
the old charge after his later invasion of Scotland (1685).
In 1684, while Perth, and his brother, Melfort, who went
over to Rome, were in power, Renwick emitted an " Apolo-
getical Declaration," in which the active enemies of his sect
were threatened with secret trials and with assassination
(October), and a " curate," with some soldiers, was murdered.
This, coming on the head of the Rye House murder plot (of which
the Rev. Mr Carstairs, the agent of Argyll, and probably Argyll
himself, then in Holland, were not ignorant), caused the govern-
ment to demand, at the hands of the military, from all and
sundry, an " Abjuration " of Renwick's anarchist utterances.
Recusants were shot. The test was carefully framed so as to
include no disavowal of religious principles, and was " univer-
sally unscrupled, even by the generality of great professors and
ministers too," says Sheilds, an advanced extremist. However,
the peasantry found, in the abjuration, matter contrary to their
consciences, and while some recusants were shot out of hand,
a girl named Margaret Wilson, with an old woman, Margaret
MacLauchlan, were tied to stakes and drowned by the in-
coming tide, near Wigtown (i3th of May 1685). How the
penalty came to be inflicted, as the pair had what Wodrow calls
" a material pardon," while there is no record of the withdrawal
of the reprieve, remains a mystery. The guilt appears to attach
to the local authorities at Wigtown.
In this cruel affair, Claverhouse, who caused to be shot the
celebrated John Brown, " the Christian carrier," had no hand.
To quote Dr Hume Brown, Claverhouse " kept strictly within
the limits of his commission, and he carried out his orders with
the distinct aim of saving blood in the end. To those who he
thought had been led astray, it was his policy not to be un-
merciful; for, in his own words, ' it renders three desperate
where it gains one.' On the other hand, in the case of the
obdurate, he showed a relentless precision, which gained for
him his evil name, ' The Bloody Clavers,' the commissioned
servant of the powers of darkness." As constable of Dundee
he secured the commutation of the death penalty on minor
offenders under his jurisdiction, and his expressed maxim was
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453
" in the greatest crimes it is thought wisest to pardon the
multitude and punish the ringleaders." It is no exaggeration
to say that, of the governors of Scotland under the Restoration,
Claverhouse was the ablest, the most honourable, the least
rapacious and even the most clement. But " Bluidy Claver-
house " will continue to enjoy his traditional reputation in
popular tracts and popular histories.
Charles II. had died on the 2nd of February 1685, and there
were in Scotland some who wept for him. The year of his
death was, par excellence, " The Killing Time," thanks to Ren-
wick and his associates and the Rye House plotters. Now, too,
came the attempts of Monmouth and of Argyll, who, owing to
divided counsels in his camp, and want of support either from
his clan or from the southern malcontents, failed in his invasion
of Scotland, was taken, and was executed, suffering like his
father with great courage and dignity. Many recusants were
penned up, starved and cruelly treated, even tortured when
they attempted escape, in the vaults of Dunottar Castle.
In 1686 James claimed and used the dispensing power as to
penal laws against Catholics, in face of the opposition of two of the
Scottish bishops (who were ejected from their sees)
erf/ess" " an d f parliament. Mackenzie, for his opposition, lost
office. The privy council was opened to Catholics, but
on the landing of William III. the populace, in 1688, wrecked the
chapel of Holyrood and began to " rabble " conformist ministers,
or " curates." Of the guard that defended Holyrood " the gentle-
men and the rabble, when they saw all danger over, killed some
and put the rest in prison, where many of them died of their
wounds and hunger," a parallel to the Dunottar cruelties not
usually mentioned by historians (" Balcarres Memoirs "). A
Convention of Estates, without a royal commissioner, met at
Edinburgh on the I4th of March 1689, and it is curious that
Williamites and Jacobites were not unequally represented. For
president, Hamilton, who had been in opposition from 1673 to
1682, was preferred to Atholl by a small majority, but it soon
appeared that William's friends were in the ascendant.
Claverhouse, now Viscount Dundee, despairing of his party,
and under apprehension of an attack in arms, rode northward
with a handful of horse, and began to play the part of
craakJe. Montrose, while the Convention offered the crown
to William and Mary, adding the claim of right to de-
throne a king who had infringed the laws. In May, William,
in London, took the coronation oath, but firmly refused to accept,
except in some sense of his own not easily understood, the clause,
" to be careful to root out all heretics." The castle of Edinburgh
was surrendered by Gordon, and Balcarres was put in that prison
where, according to legend, he was visited by the wraith of
Dundee, on the night of the battle of Killiecrankie. While
Dundee was raising the clans and outmanoeuvring Mackay,
a party in parliament was agitating for constitutional reforms,
and especially for freedom from the Lords of the Articles.
William opposed, and party war was furious, when news came of
Dundee's complete victory at Killiecrankie. The terror of the
Whigs turned to joy when they heard that Dundee himself had
fallen in the arms of victory. Two murderers had been sent
by the earl of Nottingham to " seize," that is to despatch,
Dundee. They left London for Mackay's camp on the igth of
July. On the 27th of July Dundee was shot, and on the 2ist of
October Nottingham wrote that his emissaries " had done very
good service to the King " (State Papers, " Domestic," July I7th,
i8th, igth, October 2ist, 1689). Henceforth, for lack of a
commander of Dundee's genius, there was no real danger from
the clans, and absolutely no chance of a rising of the lowland
Jacobites in their support. At Dunkeld the newly raised
Cameronian regiment successfully repulsed the highlanders, ill led
by General Cannon as they were. They were never again
dangerous at this period, were scattered by Livingstone in a
surprise at Cromdale haughs, and government began to attempt
to buy from chiefs the peace of the clans.
Meanwhile complex intrigues occurred, and were betrayed,
between " the Club " (the advanced constitutionalists) and the
Jacobites. In 1690 an act restored the kirk to the legal position
of 1592, under sixty of the surviving ministers deprived in 1661.
An act abolished civil penalties upon sentences of excommunica-
tion, and thus broke the terrible weapon which the preachers had
wielded so long. Nothing was said about the eternally binding
Covenant, which continued to be the fetish of the Cameronians
and of later seceders. The General Assemblies, henceforth, under
the influence of the diplomatic Carstairs (who had been cruelly
tortured in 1684, to extract information about the Rye House
Plot), did little to thwart government, though many " placed
ministers " were, at heart, attached to the ancient claims of
Knox and Melville. Laws as to patronage, an inflammatory
question, were made, abolished and remade, causing, from about
1730 onwards, passions which exploded in the great Disruption
of 1842. The dealings with the clans culminated in the massacre
of the Maclans of Glencoe (i3th February 1692).
Through military inefficiency the hill passes were not ' W * SMO *
stopped, and the murders of a peaceful and hospitable aieacoe.
population were relatively few. That Dalrymple
arranged for actual extermination of the males of the clan is
certain, but there is no proof that he knew of the modus operandi,
the betrayal of hospitality, " murder under trust." It is con-
ceivable that William signed the orders under the impression that
a " punitive expedition " of the ordinary sort was alone intended,
but remonstrance from the Estates brought no punishment on
any man except the dismissal, later, of Dalrymple (Viscount
Stair) from office.
In 1693-1694 the kirk was much irritated by William's de-
mands for oaths of allegiance to himself, without the consent
of the ecclesiastical courts. William gave way, but similar
Hanoverian demands later caused great searchings of heart and
divisions among the preachers. The Episcopal party among the
ministers was excluded from a share in church government and
tended to dwindle; the bishops had no territorial sees; and
gradually Episcopalians came to be Jacobites, professing a
strange loyalty to James, who had treated them so unjustly,
and later to his son, " James VIII.," the Chevalier de St George
(b. June 10, 1688).
Since the Cromwellian occupation the interest of Scottish
men had slowly shifted from religion to commerce; but a tariff
war between England and Scotland had checked
manufacturing and other enterprises. One William
Paterson, instrumental in founding the Bank of
England, conceived the plan of a Scottish East India Company,
which, in 1695, obtained a patent by act of parliament. William
complained, later, that he had no notice of the terms of that
patent till after it was passed (he was fighting under Namur at
the time), and the act not unnaturally aroused the jealousy of
the rival English companies. It committed William to conditions
which might readily produce a great naval war with Spain, for
Paterson's real design was to establish an entrep&t in Panama,
at Darien, within the undeniable sphere of Spanish influence.
The Scots invested very largely, for them, but their expeditions
were ill-found and worse managed; the Spaniards seized one of
their vessels with its crew; the colonists deserted the colony; a
fresh expedition was expelled by Spain, and William refused to
take up the Scottish quarrel (1695-1700). The losses and the
apparent injustice caused a frenzy of excitement in Scotland,
and William could only express his regret and his desire for an
incorporating Union of the two kingdoms. He died on the 7th
of March, when the project of Union was to be debated by the
English parliament. Under William, Scotland was a constitu-
tional country; the absolute despotism enjoyed by Charles II.
ceased to be; a free debating parliament existed, and torture
was inflicted only by decree of king and parliament. It was
abolished two years after the Union of 1707.
Anne, from the beginning of her reign, advocated union,
which, with the question of the succession, was the subject of
constant and furious debates in the Scots parliament,
till, on the 4th of March 1707, the act received the
royal assent. Scotland was to have forty-five members
and sixteen elected peers at Westminster; the holders of Darien
stock were compensated; as a balance to equality of taxation a
Darien
Scheme.
The
Union.
454
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[HISTORY
pecuniary equivalent was to be paid, the kirk and Scottish courts
of justice were safeguarded (final appeal being to the British
House of Lords), and Scots shared English facilities and privileges
of trade, in name, for many years passed before Scotland really
began to enjoy the benefits. Mar, Queensberry, Stair (of Glencoe)
and Argyll (Red John of the Battles) were the leading statesmen
of the Unionist party; being opposed by Hamilton, Atholl and
Lockhart of Carnwath as Jacobites; by Fletcher of Saltoun as
an independent patriot; by popular sentiment, by mob violence,
and by many of the preachers, though not by the General
Assembly. Every sentimental consideration was against a
union with a prelatic kingdom, " an auld enemy," which drove
a hard bargain by threats of excluding Scottish commodities.
The negotiations were constantly disturbed by Jacobite intrigues
with France in favour of James VIII.; by Scottish adherence
to the Act of Security, which might give Scotland a king other
than a Hanoverian in succession to Anne; and by the hanging
of an Englishman, Captain Green, for piracy on a lost Scottish
vessel (1705). The final debates of 1706 were conducted under
apprehensions of an invasion of Edinburgh by highlanders and
wild western fanatics of the Covenant; but the astuteness of
Harley's agent in Edinburgh, de Foe, the resolution of Argyll
and the tact of Queensberry, who easily terrified the duke of
Hamilton, carried the measure into haven. The Union was at
first rich in causes of friction, and in nothing else; even as late
as 1745 it was most unpopular, but Scotland had no choice.
The nation would never accept a Catholic king, a Stuart, nor
revert, as against England, to the ancient French alliance.
The religious objection was insuperable; opportunities of com-
mercial development were indispensable ; war with England
was not to be contemplated by the common sense of the country;
and thus, as de Foe wrote, " The Union was merely formed by
the nature of things." In Lockhart's words, the 3Oth of April
1707 " was the last day that Scotland was Scotland. I may
lament and weep," he adds " but truly I have had admirable
sport," with his greyhounds.
Friction about matters of trade was the instant sequel of the
Union: so much ill-feeling was provoked that, in the general
opinion, had King James VIII. landed alone when
brought to the Scottish coast by Forbin's fleet in
March 1708, he would have carried Scotland with him.
But Forbin was chased away from the Firth of Forth by a fleet
under Sir George Byng; he refused to allow the young ad-
venturer to land farther north, and the Jacobites doubted that
France was never serious in the enterprise. The Jacobites also,
through mistrust of each other none could trust Hamilton
and finally through the intoxication of a pilot who failed to
reach Forbin, led to the imbecile fiasco. In the English parlia-
ment the Jacobites managed to secure a measure of toleration
for the Episcopal clergy, after one of them, Mr Greenshields,
had long lain in prison for his use of the liturgy (1711). The
kirk was incensed by the growth of Episcopalianism and of
Popery, the restoration of patronage, and the pressure to accept
an oath abjuring James, which divided a church that was abso-
lutely anti-Jacobite. Repeal of the Union was actually mooted
in 1712, and even Argyll was restive. The fatal duel in which
Hamilton was slain by Mohun, when on the eve of going as
ambassador to France, with the interests of James in his eye,
was a blow to the Jacobites; as were the death of Anne, the fall
of Bolingbroke and the unopposed succession of -George I.
(August 1714). Their king over the water had, in a manly and
magnanimous letter to his adherents, refused to change his creed,
and when Bolingbroke fled from England his evangelical efforts
at proselytizing James were fruitless. Berwick and Bolingbroke
were his ministers, but Berwick would not accompany him to
Scotland, and Bolingbroke did not provide the necessary muni-
tions of war. Through a series of confusions and blunders, Mar
prematurely raised on the i6th of September 1715 the standard
of King James, and though in command of a much larger army
than ever followed Montrose, was baffled by Argyll, who held
Stirling with a very small force. Mar never crossed the Forth,
and the command of Mackintosh, who did, was captured, with
Jacobite
failures.
his Northumbrian cavaliers, at Preston, on the very day (i2th
of November) when Argyll foiled Mar in the confused battle of
Sheriffmuir. Mar's highlanders began to desert; his council was
a confusion of opinions and discontents, and when, after many
dangers and in the worst of health, James joined the Jacobites
at Perth, it was only to discourage his friends by his gloom, and
to share their wintry flight before Argyll to Montrose. Thence
he furtively sailed with Mar to France, a broken man, leaving
his army to shift for themselves. Many of his noble supporters
escaped, he did his best to provide them with ships, others were
executed, while the great Whig, Forbes of Culloden, protested
against the bad policy of the repressive measures. Argyll, who
had saved the country, was regarded as lukewarm, and lost the
royal favour, while James, at Avignon, intrigued with Charles
XII. of Sweden and with Argyll and his brother, the earl of Islay,
till he was driven from France to take refuge in Italy. Spain
backed him in 1719, but the death of Charles XII., and the utter
failure of a Spanish expedition to Scotland in 1719, when the
Jacobites were scattered, and the Spaniards taken, in a fight at
Glensheil, ruined what had seemed a fair chance of success.
Returning from Spain, James married Maria Clementina
Sobieska, daughter of Prince James Sobieski, a pretty bride
whom Charles Wogan rescued from durance in Innsbruck, an
adventure of romantic gallantry. The marriage was unhappy;
James was eternally occupied with the business of his cause
and the feuds of his adherents; Clementina lost her gaiety and
became causelessly jealous; and her retreat to a convent in
1725 was a greater blow to the cause than the failure of Atter-
bury's plot (1720), the alleged treason of Mar and the splits
in the Jacobite party. Clementina, however, was the mother of
two sons, Charles Edward, the hope of his party, and Henry.
The cause slumbered, till in 1742-1743 the outbreak of wars with
France and Spain gave Prince Charles a chance of showing his
mettle. The Jacobites surrounding James in Rome never
ceased to weave at the endless tissue of their plot, but in Scotland
nothing more substantial than the drinking of loyal healths was
done, between the flight of Lockhart of Carnwath, the manager
of the party, and the years of 1737-1744. The old Jacobites
were dying out ; James never had a minister who was not baited
by three-fourths of the party, and denounced as a favourite at
best, at worst a traitor; and the Cause would have sunk into
ashes but for the promise of his eldest son, Prince Charles.
In Scotland the kirk, as ever, was militant, but it could no
longer wage war on kings and their ministers, nor attempt to
direct foreign and domestic policy. The preachers thus
fell into parties, which attacked each other in a Parties
brotherly way. The grounds of strife were the spread
of " liberal " religious ideas; on one side heretical and
anti-Calvinistic doctrines, and on the other a tendency to stretch
Calvinistic principles till they were scarcely to be distinguished
from Antinomianism. A Glasgow professor, the Rev. Mr Simson,
was attacked for Arminianism and Socinianism as early as 1717;
and the battle raged between the more severe Presbyterians
who still hankered after the Covenant, approved of an old work
The Marrow of Modern Divinity (1646), and were especially con-
vinced that preachers must be elected by the people and the
Moderates, who saw that the Covenant was an anachronism,
thought conduct more important than Calvinistic convictions,
and supported in the General Assembly the candidates selected
by patrons, as against those chosen by the popular voice. The
Marrow was discouraged as verging on Antinomianism (1720);
and in 1722 its protesting admirers were rebuked by the Assembly.
The Marrow men put in protests, and were clearly on the way
to secession from the kirk. The oath of abjuration of James was
another cause of division, at least till it was watered down in
1719; and by 1726 a revival of the charges of heresy against
Simson, with the increase of agitation against the majority of the
Assembly who supported patrons, lighted a flame which burned
the slight bonds that kept the extremists in union with the
kirk.
In 1732 their leaders were the brothers Erskine, one of whom,
Ebenezer, preached a sermon accusing professed Presbyterians
HISTORY]
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455
as guilty of "an attempt to jostle Christ out of his church."
For this and other severe censures of his brethren, Mr Erskine
would not apologize: he had " delivered the utterance given to
him by the Lord ": his was the very attitude of the preachers
who thundered against James VI. Mr Erskine was rebuked in
the Assembly of 1733; he protested with three friends: they
were deprived of their charges; they vowed that they were
" the True Presbyterian Covenanted Church of Scotland," and
had the power of the keys. They constituted themselves a
presbytery, and maintained that the covenants were perpetually
binding. The Assembly went as far as was possible in offers of
reconciliation, but the seceders were irreconcilable, and were
deposed in 1740. In 1744 they made the " Taking of the Cove-
nants " a term of ministerial and Christian communion. It is
impossible here to follow the schisms which split the seceding
body within itself: the Erskines themselves were handed over
to Satan; their very families adopted opposite factions: there
were " Burghers " and " Anti-Burghers," " New Lights " and
"Old Lights"; besides the sects which in the ipth century
merged in United Presbyterians, and merged themselves later
with the Free Church of the Disruption, itself the parent of a
small protesting body, popularly styled " The Wee Frees " (see
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF). The whole movement, intended as
a return to the kirk of Knox and Melville and the Covenanters,
was a not unneeded protest against the sleepy " moderation,"
and want of spiritual enthusiasm, which invaded the established
kirk in the latter part of the i8th century, a period in which
she possessed such distinguished writers as John Home, author
of the drama of Douglas, Robertson, the historian, and Dr
Carlyle, whose amusing autobiography draws a perfect portrait
of an amiable and highly educated " Moderate " and man of
the world. Naturally the opposite party, whether seceders, or
" High Flyers," as they were called, within the church, had most
influence with the populace, so that " the Trew Universal Kirk "
of Scotland was broken into several communions, differing but
slightly in accepted doctrines, and not at all in mode of worship.
Their tendency has been centripetal, and all the " Free Churches "
are agreed in their views concerning the prolonged existence of
" the Auld Kirk." The Episcopalians, in this period, were
nearly as much perturbed as the Presbyterians, by questions
as to the election of bishops in relation to their exiled king, and
by the introduction of ritualism in the shape of " the usages."
They passed through much persecution, in consequence of the
rising of 1745, but, after the death of their King Charles, they
became as loyal as any other religious body, managing their
own affairs with no more turmoil than is caused by the co-
existence of the Anglican and the Laudian prayer-books, with
their different forms of the communion service.
As to civil matters, the country was troubled by riots against
the Malt Tax, but the clans submitted to a very superficial
disarmament; companies of highlanders were em-
laadcfaas pl ve d to preserve order and check cattle- raiding;
' and one of these, " The Black Watch " (the Forty-
Second), greatly distinguished itself at the battle of Fontenoy.
Wade drove his military roads through the highlands, and,'
poor as the country still was, the city of Glasgow throve on the
tobacco and sugar trade with America and the West Indies.
Yet Duncan Forbes of Culloden, president of the Court of Session,
after the outbreak of the war with Spain, reported amazing
scarcity of money in the country, and strenuously advised
legislative checks on the taste for tea, which naturally diminished
the profits of the excise on more generous beverages. The fact
is that as English companies for foreign trade had long been in
chartered existence, Scotsmen and Scottish capital had no
profitable outlets, while agriculture was conducted on slovenly
medieval or prehistoric methods; and only the linen trade of
the country was really flourishing. Thus, except in the case of
the west coast trade with the colonies, Scotland had reaped little
commercial benefit from the Union, and the loss of business
caused by the abolition of the parliament, and the rush of noble
families to London, was severely felt in Edinburgh. Yet there
existed no dangerous political dissatisfaction. Though the chief
religions of the highlanders, the Episcopalian and Catholic
forms, were depressed by persecution, and priests were few,
the clans had long been accustomed to lack of religious functions
and did not feel the want. But the hereditable jurisdictions and
feudal powers, as of calling out tenants by the fiery cross and
punishing the peaceful by burning their cottages, had never been
abolished; the chief's will was law, and if the chiefs headed a
rising, their clansmen would follow them, willingly or " forced
out." They formed a remarkable militia, trained to the use of
arms; wonderfully mobile and rapid on the march and daunt -
lessly courageous.
The years 1737-1739 saw the germs of civil war beginning to
take active life. Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, an aged intriguer,
conceived discontent against the government for the
loss of his independent company, and began to intrigue
with France and with James in Rome. In the same
year a young Tweedside laird, Murray of Broughton,
visited Rome, fell in love with Prince Charles, then a handsome,
wayward, stalwart and ambitious lad, with " a body made for
war," and, returning home, Murray practically succeeded to the
duties once performed by Lockhart of Carnwath, as Jacobite
agent and organizer.
In 1738 the waning power of Walpole and the approaching
war with Spain caused Forbes of Culloden to propose the raising
of four or five highland regiments for foreign service. Walpole,
urged by Lord Islay, brother of Argyll, is said to have approved,
but nothing was done. The declaration of war with Spain and
the certainty of war with France promised to the Jacobites
good fishing in turbid waters; and they entertained futile hopes
of enlisting Argyll with his potent clan. Walpole entered into
communication with James, who saw through the manosuvre,
and in 1741 a Jacobite association was formed, which included
Lovat and Lochiel. Their agent was Drummond (Macgregor
really) of Balhaldie, who in 1741-1743 dealt with the English
Jacobites, and persuaded France that they were powerful and
eager. In fact the Scots were feebly organized, and the English
Jacobites were not organized at all. Says Murray, " there was
not the least ground for encouragement," but, thanks to Balhaldie,
Louis XV. began to mobilize an invading force in November
1743. Balhaldie carried to James in Rome an invitation for
Prince Charles to go to France, a verbal invitation, which James
reluctantly accepted. Cardinal Tencin was not in the secret,
and by the time Charles made his way to Paris in January 1744,
James clearly perceived the duplicity of France. The Scottish
Jacobites were left in ignorance of the French attempt to land
in the mouth of the Thames (February-March 1744), an effort
frustrated by a disastrous tempest, and by the slackness of the
English conspirators.
Prince Charles was left in neglect and obscurity; till, un-
checked by Murray, relying on hasty Jacobite promises brought
by him, arid encouraged by the French victory of Fontenoy, he
started with seven companions for the west highland coast on the
2ist of July 1745. His landing at Borradale on the 5th of August
brought a few enthusiastic Macdonalds about him; from a sense
of honour Lochiel joined with the Camerons. Keppoch and
Clanranald would not desert a prince with a reward of 30,000
on his head, but Macleod and Sleat held aloof; and Lovat
wrecked the adventure by his doubts and delays. None the less
a small ill-armed force of some 2000 men marched south; Cope
did not oppose them, but evaded them and went to Inverness,
leaving open the road to Edinburgh. At Perth Charles was
joined by a skilled soldier, Lord George Murray, brother of the
Whig duke of Atholl, a pardoned veteran who had been out in
1715 and 1719.
But Lord George's previous dealings with Cope inspired in
Charles a distrust which was to prove fatal. Charles entered
Edinburgh unopposed on the i6th of September, made his
quarters in Holyrood, and on the 2ist of September routed
Cope at Prestonpans. But he had not the force to invade
England, or to take the castle, and waited, collecting recruits
and money, and encouraged by empty promises from France, till,
as he wrote to James (26th of October), " I shall have one decisive
45 6
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[HISTORY
stroke for 't, but unless the French land, perhaps none. As
matters stand, I must either conquer or perish in a little."
His English adherents did not come in, and, after marching to
Derby, his council insisted that enough had been done for honour,
that Wade was on their flank and rear, the duke of Cumberland
in their front, and an army was gathered to defend London.
A broken-hearted man, Charles was compelled to acquiesce in
retreat (sth of December). If the chiefs had possessed informa-
tion now accessible to us, they might not have made " the great
refusal," but with only the intelligence which they possessed
they could not have followed their audacious prince to the south.
Their force was not more than 5000 men; and they were wholly
unskilled in the use of the guns which they had captured at
Prestonpans. The retreat was admirably conducted; Lord
George and Cluny fought a gallant and successful rear guard at
Clifton; they escaped from Cumberland across the border, but
Charles, against advice, left a doomed garrison in Carlisle.
After a stay to re-fit at Glasgow, Charles moved to besiege
Stirling castle, and to join a force from the north, almost as
numerous as that with which he had invaded the heart of
England.
Cumberland had returned to London, but Hawley marched
from Edinburgh with an army which Charles drove to the winds
Culloden on Falkuk Moor. Hawley's guns were never in action,
the Macdonalds charged and scattered his cavalry
on the right wing, but pursued too far, and as the pipers
had gone in sword in hand, they could not be recalled. On the
left the prince's men could not load their pieces, their powder
being ruined by the tempestuous rain. They were checked by
two steady regiments; many fled, all was darkness and confusion,
but, on returning into Falkirk, Charles found that Hawley had
decamped in a disgraceful rout. He could not pursue; the
whereabouts of his right was unknown, and after the battle his
best officers felt rather dismayed than encouraged by the con-
spicuous lack of discipline. In place of advancing on Edinburgh,
they dallied round Stirling castle in futile siege, and, on the news
of Cumberland's advance, alarmed by desertions which they
appear to have greatly exaggerated, the chiefs compelled Charles
to a fresh retreat. His expostulations perhaps prove him to have
been " the best general in his army," but he was dragged north-
wards to Inverness, and with depleted ranks of starving men,
outworn by the fatigue of a long night's march to surprise
Cumberland at Nairn, he stood on Culloden Moor in defence
of Inverness, his base and only source of supplies (i6th of April
1746). Charles had some 5000 men, Cumberland had nearly
oooo and eighteen well-served guns. Here for the first time
the Highlanders were under heavy fire of grape and roundshot, to
which they could not reply, and though the right wing and centre,
Camerons, Atholl men, Macleans, Clan Chattan, Appin Stewarts,
under Lord George and Lochiel, fought with even more than their
usual gallantry and resolution, the Macdonalds on the left,
discouraged by the death of Keppoch, Scotus and other officers
in the advance, never came to the shock. Though outflanked,
enfiladed and met by heavy musketry fire in front, the right
wing broke Barrel's regiment and passed the guns, but the attack
was checked by the bayonets of the second line and a rapid retreat
became general. Charles did not leave the field till all was
lost; so much seems clear from Yorke's evidence; but the
price on his head, and probably suspicions urged by some of his
Irish officers, induced him to desert his army and hurry secretly
to the west coast and the western isles. He was rewarded by five
or six months of dangerous and distressful wanderings, and
would certainly have been taken at one juncture but for the
courageous and wise assistance of Flora Macdonald, while on all
hands the highlanders displayed the most devoted loyalty.
Into the ferocious conduct displayed by Cumberland after
the victory, and in the suppression of the clans, we need not
enter; nor is the list of executions of rebels alluring. The spirit
of the clans remained true indeed, but their prince became
" a broken man ": his clemency, and courage, and all that had
endeared him to his people, perished under the disgusts and vices
engendered by many years of a secret fugitive existence, after he
was driven from France in 1749 (see A. Lang's Pickle, the
Spy, and Life of Prince Charles).
As far as the rising had a political aim and reason for existence,
apart from mere dynastic sentiment, that aim was " to break the
Union "; in the prince's words, " to make Scotland
once more a free and happy people." But the vast
majority of Scots, though not in love with the Union,
preferred it to the rule of a Catholic king Charles probably,
for James had every desire to abdicate. The failure of Charles
had, in fact, the result of assimilating Scotland much more
closely to England. A disarming act, and the prohibition of the
highland dress, did not indeed break, but it transferred to other
fields the military spirit of the clans. The chiefs first raised the
highland regiments which have covered themselves with glory
from Ticonderoga to Dargai and Elandslaagte. The reward
which many of the clansmen of the Peninsula and Waterloo re-
ceived may be appreciated by those who read the introduction
to Scott's Legend ofMontrose. They returned to glens desolate of
men, deserted, first, by the voluntary emigrations of the clans,
and later by forced emigrations in the interests of sheep farms
and deer forests. The abolition of hereditable jurisdictions and
of the claims of feudal superiors to military service, after Culloden,
broke the bond between chiefs and clans, and introduced
new social and economical conditions, bequeathing the Land
Question to the 2oth century. The " planting " of ministers
in the highlands, which had since the Reformation been almost
destitute of religious instruction, bred a populace singularly
strict in the matter of " Sabbath observance," and, except in
districts still Catholic or Episcopalian, eager supporters of the
Free churches. In outlying places the old popular beliefs linger;
second sight is common in some glens; and the interesting poetical
traditions, like Jacobite sentiment, survive in the memories of the
people, despite cheap newspapers and modern education.
With the failure of the last armed attempt to " break the
Union," Scottish history is merged in that of Great Britain;
it was a British force that routed the Jacobites at Culloden.
After 1745 the men of letters of the country continued with
intense eagerness the movement initiated by John Knox, when he
wrote in English, not in the old Scots that he learned at his
mother's knee. Hutchinson, David Hume, Home and Robertson
were assiduous in avoiding Scotticisms as far as they might;
even Burns, who summed up the popular past of Scotland in his
vernacular poetry, as a rule wrote English in his letters, and when
he wrote English verse he often followed the artificial style of the
i8th century. The later famous men of letters, Scott, Carlyle
and R. L. Stevenson, appealed as much to English readers as to
their countrymen, patriotic as each of them was in his own way.
As early as 1730-1740, the great English public schools and
universities began to attract the Scottish youths of the wealthier
classes, and now good Scots is seldom heard in conversation and
is not always written in popular Scottish novels. Scotland
and England, however, will always remain pleasantly distinct
by virtue of their historical past and inherited traditions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best general History of Scotland is that
by Patrick Fraser-Tytler (1841-1843). It ends, however, with the
Union of the crowns in 1603, and though it is based on thorough
research in MSS., many documents now available, such as the
despatches of Spanish ambassadors to England, were not accessible
to tne learned author. The History by John Hill Burton (Edinburgh,
1867-1870) ends with the Jacobite Rising of 1746. It is of unequal
merit, being best in places where the author was most imtcrestcd,
especially in points of the development of law. Here the works
of Cosmo Innes are valuable, Lectures on Scotch legal antiquities
(Edinburgh, 1872); and Scotland in the middle ages (Edinburgh,
1860). Burton's anti-Celticism, and scepticism as to archaeology,
make his work inadequate in the earlier parts. On the Celtic
beginnings the best books are E. W. Robertson's Scotland under her
Early Kings (Edinburgh, 1862) and W. F. Skene's Celtic Scotland
(Edinburgh, 1876-1880), with his Highlanders of Scotland in the
edition edited by A. Macbain (Stirling, 1902); other views are
maintained in Rhys's Celtic Britain (1884). David Stewart of
Garth's Sketches of the Highlanders (Edinburgh, 1822) is interesting,
though the author leans too much on tradition ; and Dr Gregory s
History of the Highlands (1881) is excellent, but closes with the Union
of the crowns. Scott's Tales of a Grandfather is, of course, full of
interest, but is inevitably somewhat behind the mark of later years
LITERATURE]
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457
of research. The Foreign Calendars of State Papers, especially
J. Bain's Calendars (Edinburgh, 1881-1888), are useful indices, but
not infrequently need to be checked by the manuscripts.
There is. much new information among the documents published
by the Historical Manuscripts Commission, by the Scottish History
Society, and the Register of the Privy Council, edited by Professors
Masson and Hume Brown. The volumes of the book clubs, Banna-
tyne, Maitland, Abbotsford and Spalding, are full of matter; also
those of the Early Scottish Texts Society and the Wodrow Society,
with the works of Knox, Calderwood and the History of the Sufferings
by Wodrow (edited by the Rev. Robert Burns, 1837-1838). Knox,
like Bishop Burnet, needs to be read critically and in the light of
contemporary documents; especially those in the Hamilton Papers,
The Border Papers and English State Papers (Foreign). The most
recent general Histories of Scotland are those of P. Hume Brown
(Cambridge, 1899), and on a larger scale, but ending at 1746, of A.
Lang (Edinburgh, 1900-1907). Mathieson's works deal with the
period of the Covenant and Civil War, and, like Mackinnon's, with
the Union; while Sir H. Craik's A Century of Scottish History
(Edinburgh, 1901) gives a full account of the disruption of the Kirk.
Many important manuscripts in muniment rooms are still un-
calendared; those of the French Foreign Office are imperfect in
places, and have been little consulted; and a complete calendar of
the treasures of the Advocate's Library was only recently begun.
Among monographs, Six Saints of the Covenant and The Life of
Mary Stuart (up to 1568), by D. Hay Fleming; the Life of Knox,
by P. Hume Brown, and John Knox and the Reformation, by A. Lang;
Miss Shield's King over the Water and Martin Haile's James Francis
Stuart (the old Chevalier); Omond's Lord Advocates of Scotland;
Willcock's The Great Marquess (of Argyll); Napier's Lives of
Montrose and Dundee; Clarke and Foxcroft's Life of Bishop Burnet;
Sir Herbert Maxwell's Robert Bruce and Book of Douglas, with all
Sir W. Eraser's family histories, and Patrick's Statutes of the Scottish
Church, may on various points prove serviceable. For Scottish
constitutional history, what there is of it, Sanford Terry's Scottish
Parliaments may be recommended. (A. L.)
IV. SCOTTISH LITERATURE
" Scottish Literature " is taken here in the familiar sense of
the Teutonic vernacular of Scotland, not in the more compre-
hensive sense of the literature of Scotland or of writings by men
of Scottish birth, whether in Gaelic (see CELT) or Latin or
Northern English. The difference between the two definitions,
however, is of small practical concern. The Scottish-Gaelic
literature, which is separately dealt with (see CELT: Literature)
is, by comparison, of minor importance; and the Latin, though
it has a range and influence in Scotland to which it is difficult
to find a parallel in the history of the literatures of Europe, is
(perhaps for the very reason of its persistency and extent) so
bound up with the vernacular that it may be conveniently treated
with that literature. It is true that down to the isth century
there were many Teutonic Scots who had difficulty in expressing
themselves in " Ynglis," and that, at a later date, the literary
vocabulary was strongly influenced by the Latin habit of Scottish
culture; but the difficulty was generally academic, arising from
a scholarly sensitiveness to style in the use of a medium which
had no literary traditions; perhaps also from medieval and
humanistic contempt of the vulgar tongue; in some cases from
the cosmopolitan circumstance of the Scot and the special
nature of his appeal to the learned world. The widespread
use of Latin was, however, seldom or never antagonistic to
the preservation of national sentiment. That it was used for
other than literary purposes strengthened that sentiment in a
way which mere scholarly or literary interest could not have
done. The Scottish timbre is rarely wanting, even in places where
scholastic or classical custom might have claimed, as in other
literatures, an exclusive privilege. And to say this implies no
disrespect to the quality of early Scottish Latinity.
In a survey of the vernacular literature of Scotland it is advan-
tageous to keep in mind that there are two main streams or
threads running throughout, the one literary in the higher sense,
expressing itself in " schools " of a more artificial or academic
type; the other popular, also in the better sense of that term,
more native, more rooted in national tradition, more persistent
and conversely less bookish in fashion. The former is represented
by the group known as the Scottish Chaucerians, by the xyth-
century Court poets, by the " English " writings of literary
Edinburgh of the i8th century; the latter by the domestic and
" rustic " muse from Christis Kirk on the Grene to the work of
the i8th century revival begun in Ramsay. There is, of course,
frequent interaction between these two movements, but recog-
nition of their separate development is necessary to the under-
standing of such contemporary contrasts as the Thrissil and the
Rois and Peblis to the Play, Drummond and Montgomerie,
Ramsay and Hume. In our own day, when the literary medium
of Scotland is identical with that of England, the term Scottish
literature has been reserved for certain dialectal revivals, more
or less bookish in origin, and often as artificial and as unrelated
to existing conditions as the most " aureate " and Chaucerian
" Ynglis " of the isth century was to the popular speech of that
time.
This sketch is concerned only with the general process of
Scottish literature. An estimate of the writings of individual
authors will be found in separate articles, to which the reader is,
in each case, referred.
I. Early Period (from the beginnings to the earlier decades
of the isth century). The literary remains of this period
written in the vernacular, which is hi its main characteristics
" Northern English," are in the familiar medieval kinds of
romance and rhymed chronicle. After the Wars of Independence
a national or Scottish sentiment is discernible, but it does not
colour the literature of this age as it does that of later periods
when political and social conditions had suffered serious change.
The earliest extant verse has been associated with Thomas of
Ercildoune (q.v.), called The Rhymer, but the problem of the
Scot's share in reworking the Tristrem saga is in some important
points undetermined. Uncertainty also hangs round the later
Huchown (q.v.), who continues in the i4th century the traditions
of medieval romance. Contemporary with the work of the latter
are a few anonymous fragments such as the verses on the death
of Alexander II., first quoted by Wyntoun in the isth century,
and the snatches on the " Maydens of Englelonde " and " Long
beerdys," quoted by Fabyan. The type of alliterative romance
shown in the work ascribed to Huchown continued to be popular
throughout the period (e.g. The Knightly Tale of Golagros and
Gawane), and lingered on in the next in The Buke of the Hovilat
by Holland (q.v.), the anonymous Rauf CoiQear of the third
quarter of the 1 5th century, and in occasional pieces of burlesque
by the " Chaucerian " makars.
Independent of this group of alliterative romances is the not
less important body of historical verse associated with the names
of John Barbour (q.v.), Andrew of Wyntoun (q.v.), and, in the
middle period, Harry the Minstrel (q.v.). Barbour has been
called the Father of Scottish Poetry, apparently for no other
reason than that he is the oldest writer who has held place in
popular esteem. Though his work shows some of the qualities
of a poet, which are entirely lacking in the annalistic verse of
Wyntoun, he is without literary influence. Later political fervour
has grouped him with the author of the Wallace, and treated
the unequal pair as the singers of a militant patriotism. That
association is not only unjust to Barbour's literary claims, but
a misinterpretation of the general terms of his political appeal.
The " Scottish prejudice " which Burns tells us was " poured "
into his veins from the Wallace is not obvious to the dispassionate
reader of the Brits.
II. Middle Period (extending, roughly, throughout the isth
and 1 6th centuries). To this period belongs the important group
of Middle Scots " makars " or poets who, in the traditional
phrase of the literary historians, made their age " the Golden
Age of Scottish Poetry "; it is in the writings of this time
that we find the practice of the artificial literary dialect known
as Middle Scots; but there is also in this period the first clear
indications of other literary types of great prospective interest
in the historical development of the literature of Scotland.
The prevailing influence in the writers of greater account is
Chaucerian. These writers, to whom the name of " The Scottish
Chaucerians " has been given, broke with the manner of 14th-
century verse, and carried over from the south much of the
verbal habit and not a little of the literary sentiment of the
master-poet. In both respects they are always superior to
Lydgate, Occleve and other southern contemporaries; and not
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[LITERATURE
rarely they approach Chaucer in sheer accomplishment. The
first example of this new style is the Kingis Quair of James I.
(q.v.), a dream-poem written in Troilus verse, and reminiscent
of Chaucer's translation of the Romance of the Rose. The
indebtedness to Chaucer, even when full allowance is made for
the young poet's individuality, is direct and clear. The language,
like that of the later Lancelot of the Laik and the Quare of Jelousy,
represents no spoken dialect. Whether it is to be explained by
the deliberate adoption of southern literary forms by the author,
which his enthusiasm for Chaucer and the circumstances of his
sojourn in England made inevitable, or whether the single text
which is extant is a Scottish scribe's rendering of a text purely
southern in character, is a nice academic question. The balance
of evidence, and the presumption is strongly in favour of the
former, which is the traditional view. When the linguistic
forms of the other pieces in the Selden MS., presumably by the
same scribe, have been carefully examined and compared, it
should not be difficult to reach a final settlement.
The later Scots Chaucerian type is less directly derivative
in its treatment of allegory and in its tricks of style, and less
southern in its linguistic forms; but, though it is more original
and natural, it nevertheless retains much of the Chaucerian habit.
The greater poets who represent this type are Robert Henry son,
William Dunbar, Gavin Douglas, and, to a large extent, Sir David
Lyndsay whose united genius has given high literary reputation
to the so-called Golden Age. General opinion has exaggerated
the importance of the minor writers who shared in this poetical
outburst. There is, of course, some historical significance in
the drawing up of such lists as we have in Dunbar's Lament for
the Makaris, or in Douglas's Police of Honour, or in Lyndsay's
Testament of the Papyngo, but it is at the same time clear that
their critical importance has been exaggerated. Several of the
writers named belong to an earlier period; of many of the others
we know little or nothing; and of the best known, such as Walter
Kennedy (q.v.) and Quintyn Schaw, it would be hard to say that
they are not as uniformly dull as any of Occleve's southern
contemporaries.
The greater portion of this Middle Scots " Chaucerian "
literature is courtly in character, in the literary sense, that it
continues and echoes the sentiment and method of the verse
of the cours d' amour type; and in the personal sense, that it was
directly associated with the Scottish court and conditioned by it.
All the greater writers, with the exception of Robert Henryson,
were well born and connected with the Household, or in high
office. Hence what is not strictly allegorical after the fashion of
the Romaunt of the Rose or Chaucer's exercises in that kind, is
for the most part occasional, dealing with courtiers' sorrow and
fun, with the conventional plaints on the vanity of the world and
with pious ejaculation. Even Henryson, perhaps the most
original of these poets, is in his most original pieces strongly
" Chaucerian " in method, notably in his remarkable series of
Fables, and his Testament of Cresseid, a continuation of the story
left untold by Chaucer. In his Robene and Makyne, on the
other hand, he breaks away, and follows, if he follows anything,
the tradition of the paslourelles. Dunbar often, and at times
deliberately, recalls the older verse-habit, even in his vigorous
shorter poems; and Douglas, in his Police of Honour and King
Hart, and even in his translation of Virgil, is unequivocally
medieval. Still later, amid the satire and Reformation heat of
Lyndsay we have the old manner persisting in the Testaments
and in the tale of Squyer Meldrum.
There are, as might be expected, points of contact between the
work of the greater makars and the more native and " popular "
material. It is remarkable that each of these poets has left
one example of the old manner, shown in the alliterative romance-
poem; but the fact that in each case their purpose is strongly
burlesque is significant of the change in literary outlook.
The non-Chaucerian verse of this period is represented by (a)
alliterative romance-poems and (6) verse of a rustic, domestic
and " popular " character Of the historical romance-poem
there is little or nothing beyond Henry the Minstrel's Wallace
(supra). The outstanding type is shown in such pieces as
Holland's (q.v.) Buke of the Howlat, and in the anonymous poems
Golagros and Gawane, The Awntyrs of Arthur at the Terne Wathe-
lyne, Rauf Coil^ear and The Pistill of Susan. These, however,
were already outworn forms, lingering on in a period which had
chosen other ideals.
Strong as the Chaucerian influence was, it was too artificial to
change the native habit of Scots verse; and though it helps
to explain much in the later history of Scots literature, it offers
no key to the main process of that literature in succeeding
centuries. Our knowledge of this non-Chaucerian material,
as of the Chaucerian, is chiefly derived from the MS. collec-
tions of Asloan, Bannatyne (q.v.) and Maitland (q.v.), supple-
mented by the references to " fugitive " and " popular "
literature in Dunbar, Douglas, Lyndsay and, in especial, the
prose Complaynt of Scotlande. Classification of this literature by
traditional subdivision into genres is difficult, and, at the best,
unprofitable. The historical student will be mainly interested
in discovering anticipations of the later style and purpose of
Ramsay, Fergusson and Burns, and in finding therein early
evidence of what has been too often treated as the characteristics
of later Scotticism. It would not be difficult to show that the
reaction in the i8th century against literary and class affectation
however editorial and bookish it was in the choice of subjects
and forms was in reality a re-expression of the old themes
in the old ways, which had never been forgotten, even when
Middle Scots, Jacobean and early 18th-century verse-fashions
were strongest. It is impossible here to do more than to point
out the leading elements and to name the leading examples.
These elements are, briefly stated, (i) a strong partiality for
subjects dealing with humble life, in country and town, with the
fun of taverns and village greens, with that domestic life in the
rough which goes to the making of the earlier farces in English and
French; (2) a whimsical, elfin kind of wit, delighting in extra-
vagance and topsy-turviness; (3) a frank interest in the pleasures
of good company and good drink. The reading of 1 5th- and 16th-
century verse in the light of these will bring home the critical
error of treating such poems as Burns's Cottar's Saturday Night,
the Address to the Deil, and Scotch Drink as entirely expressions
of the later poet's personal predilection. Of the more serious, or
" ethical " or " theological " mood which counts for so much
in the modern estimate of Scottish literature, there is but little
evidence in the popular verse of the middle period. Even in the
deliberately religious and moral work of the more academic poets
this seriousness is never more exclusive or oppressive than it is
in any other literature of the time. If it becomes an obsession of
many of the post-Reformation writers, it becomes so by the
force majeure of special circumstances rather than in the exercise
of an old-established habit.
Outstanding examples of this rustic style are Pellis to the
Play and Chrislis Kirk on the Grene, ascribed by some to James
V. (q.v.), Sym and his Brudir, a satirical tale of two palmers,
The Wyf of Auchtirmuchly, and the Wowing of Jok and Jynny.
The more imaginative, elfin quality, familiar in Dunbar's
Ballad of Kynd Kitlok and his Interlude of the Droichis Part
appears in such pieces as Gyre Carting (the mother-witch), King
Berdok, and Lichtounis Dreme. The convivial verse, at its best
in Dunbar's Testament of Mr Andrew Kennedy, may be studied in
Quhy sould nocht Allane honorit be, one of the many eulogies of
John Barleycorn anticipatory of Burns's well-known piece.
In the collections there are few examples of the simple fabliau,
the best being the Thrie Priestis of Peblis and The Dumb Wyf,
or of the social variety of the same as shown in Rauf Coil^ear
and John the Reeve. For the latter Sir David Lyndsay remains
the chief exponent. Of historical and patriotic verse there are
few specimens, but some of the lyrics and love-songs, more or less
medieval in timbre and form, are of importance. Of these, Tayis
Bank and The Murning Maiden are perhaps the best.
Vernacular prose was, as might be expected, and especially in
Scotland, late in its appearance. The main work continued to
be done in Latin, and to better purpose by Hector Boece (q.v.),
John Major (q.v.) and George Buchanan (q.v.) than by the earlier
annalists Fordun (q.v.) and Bower (q.v.). It is not till the middle
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459
of the i sth century that we encounter any works seriously
undertaken in the vulgar: before that time there is nothing
but an occasional letter (e.g. that of the earl of March to Henry
IV.), a few laws, and one or two scraps in the Asloan and other
MSS., all of the plainest and without any effort towards style.
Nor can it be said that the first works of a more extensive and
deliberate character show any consciousness of pure art as we
find it in contemporary writings in England, though the fact that
they are translations has some prospective significance. The
earliest books are Sir Gilbert Haye's Buke of the Law of
Arms, Buke of the Order of Knighthood, and Government of
Princes, preserved in a single MS. at Abbotsford. The dull
treatise of John of Ireland (q.v.) lays claim to originality of a
kind. The author's confession that, being " thretty 5eris nurist
in Fraunce, and in the noble study of Paris in Latin toung,"
he " knew nocht the gret eloquens of Chauceir," and again that
he had written another work in Latin, " the tounge that I knaw
better," is valuable testimony to the difficulties in the way of
a struggling Scots prose. Other preliminary efforts are the
Portuus of Nobilnes in the Asloan MS.; the Spectakle of Luf,
translated by G. Mill (1492); and the Schorl Memoriale of the
Scottis Corniklis, an account of the reign of James II. In the
early i6th century the use of the vernacular is extended, chiefly
in the treatment of historical and polemical subjects, as in
Murdoch Nisbet's version of Purvey (in MS. till 1901), a com-
promise between northern and southern usage; Gau's (q.v.)
Richt Vay, translated from Christiern Pedersen; Bellenden's
(q.v.) translation of Livy and Scottish History; the Complaynt of
Scotlande, largely a mosaic of translation from the French;
Ninian Winzet's (q.v.) Tractates; Lesley's (q.v.) History of
Scotland; Knox's (q.v.) History; Buchanan's (q.v.) Chamaeleon;
Lindesay of Pitscottie's (q.v.) History; and the tracts of Nicol
Burne and other exiled Catholics. In these works, and especially
in Knox, the language is strongly southern. The Scriptures,
which had an important bearing on the literary style, as on other
matters, were, with the exception of Nisbet's version, which does
not appear to have widely circulated, accepted in the southern
text. It was not till the publication of Bassandyne's Bible
in 1576-1579 that a Scottish version was used officially. Lynd-
say in the midst of passages in Scots quotes directly from the
Genevan version. The literary influence of the Bassandyne
was unimportant. Of the prose books named the Complaynt of
Scollande is the most remarkable example of aureate Middle
Scots, the prose analogue of the verse of the " Chaucerians."
This characteristic is by no means strong in Scots prose, even at
this time: the last, and most extravagant, example is the
Raiment of Courtis by Abacuck Bysset, as late as 1622.
So far in our treatment of the Middle Period we have taken
account of the " Chaucerian " and more popular verse and of
the prose. There appear towards the close of the period certain
verse-writers, who, despite points of difference with their Middle
Scots predecessors, belong as much to this period as to the next.
In language they are still Scottish; if they show any southern
affectations, it is (all echoes of the older aureate style notwith-
standing) the affectation of Tudor and Elizabethan English.
This poetry, like that of the early half of the period, is courtly;
its differences are the differences between the atmosphere of the
reigns of the first and fourth Jameses and that of the sixth.
When the sixth James becomes the first of England, a more
thorough transformation is discernible. In the centre of this
group is King James (q.v.) himself, poet and writer of prose;
but he yields in literary competence to Alexander Scott (q.v.)
and Alexander Montgomerie (q.v.). Their interest on the formal
side is retrospective, but it is possible to find even in the persistent
reiteration of medieval sentiment and methods, a fresh feeling for
nature, and a lyrical quality of later timbre. With these may be
named the minors, William Fowler (q.v.), Alexander Arbuthnot
(q.v.) and John Holland (q.v.), the last most strongly influenced
by Douglas and the earlier " makars."
III. The third period begins with the i?th century, with the
union of the English and Scottish crowns, if we seek the aid of
political history for our literary finger-posts. Strict accuracy
would place the date of change earlier than 1600 or 1603, for there
is evidence in the i6th century, even outside the region of
diplomatic and official correspondence, of the intermingling of
the north and south. It is, however, when James is established
on his new throne that we have the clearest signs of the changes
which had been at work and were ultimately to transform the
entire literary habit of his ancient kingdom. The recital of the
names of the Anglo-Scots poets will make this clear: Robert Ker,
earl of Ancram, best known for his Sonnet in Praise of a Solitary
Life; Sir David Murray of Gorthy, who wrote The tragicall
Death of Sophonisba; Sir William Alexander (q.v.), afterwards
earl of Stirling; William Drummond, laird of Hawthornden
(q.v.); Sir Robert Aytoun (q.v.); James Grahame, marquess of
Montrose; Patrick Hannay; and the covenanting Sir William
Mure of Rowallan (q.v.); a group whose " courtly " style might
be assumed, had the literary evidence been less ample than it is.
So, too, in prose. There we have Drummond again, and that
strange genius Sir Thomas Urquhart (q.v.) ; a crowd of polemical
writers, mostly ecclesiastics; all the historians, including
Spotswood and Calderwood. There is small room for the old
vernacular here; and less when we take into account the still
active Latinity, shown in the publication by the poet Arthur
Johnston (q.v.) of the two volumes of Delitiae poelarum Scolorum
hujus aevi illustrium (1637), and in the writings of John Barclay
(q.v.) author of the Argenis, Sir Robert Aytoun (ii.s.), Thomas
Dempster (q.v.), the historian, David Hume of Godscroft, Sir
John Scot of Scotstarvet, best known for his prose Staggering
Slate, Sir Thomas Craig, author of the Jus Feudale, Andrew
Melville and others represented in Johnston's volumes.
There is nothing in Scots to balance this English and Latin
list. The play Philotus, a poor example in a genre rarely
attempted in the north, is indebted to the south for more than
its subject. The interesting philological tractate Of the Ortho-
graphie and Congruitie of the Britan Tongue by Alexander Hume
(not the verse writer, u.s.) is in its language a medley; and
William Lithgow had travelled too widely to retain his native
speech in purity, even in his indifferent verse. Scraps may be
unearthed as mediocre as the Answer to Curat Caddel's Satyre
upon the Whigs, which attempts to revive the mere vulgarity of the
Scots " flyting." The only contributions which redeem these
hundred years and more from the charge of disrespect to the native
muse come from the pen of the Sempills (q.v.). And even here
individual merit must yield to historical interest. We are
attracted to Beltrees and his kinsmen less by their craftsmanship
than by the fact that they supplied the leaders of the vernacular
revival of the i8th century with many subjects and verse-
models, and that by their treatment of these subjects and models,
based on the practice of an earlier day, they complete the evidence
of the continuity of the domestic popular type of Scots verse.
In the i8th century the literary union of the North and South
is complete. The Scot, whatever dialectal habits marked his
speech, wrote the English of Englishmen. The story of his
triumphs belongs to the story of English literature: to it we
leave James Thomson, Adam Smith, David Hume, James Boswell
and Sir Walter Scott. If the work begun by Allan Ramsay,
continued by Fergusson and completed by Burns, were matter
for separate treatment, it would be necessary to show not only
that the editorial zeal which turned these writers to the for-
gotten vernacular and to " popular " themes was inspired by the
general conditions of reaction against the artificiality of the
century; but that it was because these poets were Scots, and
in Scotland, that they chose this line of return to nature and
naturalness, and did honour, partly by protest, to the slighted
efforts of the " vulgar " muse. Yet even they did not abjure
the " southern manner," and their work in it is matter of some
critical significance, whatever may be said of its inferiority in
spirit and craftsmanship.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Authorities dealing with individual authors and
their generation are named in the bibliographies appended to the
articles on Scottish writers. Reference may be made here to the
following general works (given in chronological order) : Warton,
History of English Poetry (1774-1781); D. Irving, Scotish Writers
(1839), and History of Scotish Poetry (1861); H. Ward, The English
460
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
Poets (1880-1881), passim; H. Craik, English Prose Selections
(1893-1896), passim; W. J. Courthope, History of English Poetry,
i. and ii. (1895-1897); J. J. Jusserand, Literary History of the
English People, i. and ii. (1895, 1906); T. F. Henderson, Scottish
Vernacular Literature (1898); G. Gregory Smith, The Transition
Period (1900), and Specimens of Middle Scots (1902); Chambers's
Cyclopaedia of English Literature (1901-1903) ; J. H. Millar, A
Literary History of Scotland (1903); The Cambridge History of
English Literature, ii. (1908). (G. G. S.)
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF. The purpose of this article is to
trace the growth of the Scottish " Kirk " as a whole, defining the
views on which it was based and the organization in which they
took form. The controversies within the Church of Scotland
have not arisen out of matters of faith but out of practical
questions of church government and of the relation of church
and state. Holding a church theory to which the rulers of the
country were for a century strongly opposed, Scotland became
the leading exponent of Presbyterianism (q.v.) ; and this note has
been the dominant one in her religious history even in recent
times.
The Scottish Reformation came out of a covenant in which
the barons, inspired by John Knox, then abroad, bound them-
selves in 1557 to oppose the Roman Catholic religion
Scottish an( i to promote the cause of the Reformation. When
""*" parliament, on the 24th of August 1560, passed the
acts abolishing the papal jurisdiction and the mass in
Scotland, it was able, as Knox had been preparing for this
crisis, to sanction a new confession of faith for the Reformed
church. Other documents of the new system were
'. . quickly forthcoming. The First Book of Discipline
e. set forth the whole of the proposed religious and
educational constitution, and this book speaks of " the
order of Geneva which is now in use in some of our churches."
This order, afterwards with some modifications known as John
Knox's Liturgy, and used in the church down to the reign of
Charles I., is a complete directory of worship, with forms of all
the services to be held in the church.
The type of religion found in these documents is that of
Geneva, the unit being the self-governing congregation, and
the great aim of the system the pure preaching of the Word.
The congregation elect the minister; in no other way can he
enter on his functions; but once elected and admitted he is
recognized as a free organ of the divine spirit, not subject in
spiritual things to any earthly authority but that of his fellow-
ministers; the word of God is the supreme authority, and the
spoken word of God the vital element of every religious act.
The word of God is to prevail in all matters, in conduct as well
as doctrine, and in the affairs of government as well as in the
church. The terrible power of excommunication is claimed
for the church; but the council of the realm also is called to
use the power given them by God to put down all religion but
the reformed, and to further the aims and carry out the sentences
of the church. It was a matter of course that saints' days and
church festivals were abolished as having no warrant in Scrip-
ture; Sunday alone remained, as the principal day of preaching.
In towns a week-day was to be set apart for the " exercise "
or public interpretation of Scripture, in which all qualified
persons in the neighbourhood were to take part, as if the whole
country were a school of the Bible.
The First Book of Discipline does not set forth any complete
scheme of church government. Its arrangements are in part
provisional. In addition to the minister, who is its most definite
figure and proved to be the most permanent, it recognizes the
superintendent, the lay elder and the reader. Ten or twelve
superintendents were to be appointed, " a thing most expedient
at this time." They were parish ministers and subject like
their brethren to church courts; their added function was to
plant churches, and place ministers, elders and deacons where
required. This was also the duty of " commissioners " who
were superintendents over smaller territories and for a shorter
term. Whether the superintendents were meant to be per-
manent in the church is not clear. The lay elder was very much
what he is still. The reader was to conduct service when no
minister was available, reading the Scriptures and the Common
Prayer. When there was preaching, it was accompanied by
free prayer; the liturgy was not then called for. Of church
courts the assembly is taken for granted, having existed from
the first; the minor church courts are not yet defined, though
the elements of each of them are present. A noble scheme of
education was sketched for the whole country, but neither
this nor the provision made for ministers' stipends was carried
out, the revenues of the old church, from which the expenses
of both were to be paid, being in the hands of the barons.
The system naturally took time to get into working order.
The old clergy, bishops, abbots and priests were still on the
ground, and were slow to take service in the new church. In
1574 there were 289 ministers and 715 readers; in the district
of the presbytery of Auchterarder, which now has fifteen parishes,
there were then four ministers and sixteen readers. As the
ranks of the clergy slowly filled, questions arose which the
Reformation had not settled, and it was natural that the old
system with which the country was familiar should creep in
again. Presbytery was never much in favour with the crown
this was the case in other countries as well as in Scotland
and when the crown, so weak at the Reformation, gained
strength, encroachments were made on the popular character
of the kirk; while the barons also had obvious reasons for
not wishing the kirk to be too strong. The first parliament
of the Regent Murray (1567), while confirming the establish-
ment of the Reformed church as the only true church of Christ,
settling the Protestant succession, and doing something to secure
the right of stipend to ministers, reintroduced lay patronage,
the superintendent being charged to induct the patron's nominee
an infringement of the reformed system against which the
church never ceased to protest. In 1572 a kind of Episcopacy
was set up in the interest of the nobles, who in order to draw
the income of the episcopal sees had to arrange with men possess-
ing a legal title to them. These " tulchan " l bishops did not
make the episcopal office respected in the country; but their
appointment was not opposed by the church leaders. They
had no episcopal ordination, nor did they exercise any authority
over their brother ministers. Knox was called to preach the
sermon at the admission of one of them, John Douglas, to the
archbishopric of St Andrews, and while he denounced both
patron and presentee for the corrupt bargain they had made,
he did not protest against the office of bishop as contrary to
the constitution of the church.
To this declaration, however, the church soon came. Andrew
Melville (?..) came to Scotland at this time, and became the
leader of the church in place of Knox, who died in 1572. He
brought with him from Geneva, where he had been the colleague
of Beza, a fervent hatred of ecclesiastical tyranny and a clear
grasp of the Presbyterian church system. The Scottish church,
hitherto without a definite constitution, soon espoused under
his able leadership a logical and thorough Presbyterianism,
which was expressed in the Second Book of Discipline, adopted
by the assembly in 1577, and was never afterwards
set aside by the church when acting freely. The g^"*/
assembly of 1575 decided that all ministers were Discipline.
bishops; that of 1578 abolished the name of bishop
as denoting an office in the church, and that of 1580 in spite
of a royal remonstrance abolished Episcopacy, a decree to which
all the bishops except five submitted. The Second Book of
Discipline recognizes four kinds of office in the church, and
no one can lawfully be placed in any of them except by being
called to it by the members. Pastor, bishop and minister are
all titles of the same office, that of those who preach the word
and administer the sacraments, each to a particular congregation.
The doctor is a teacher in school or university; he is an elder
and assists in the work of government. Elders are rulers;
their function also is spiritual, though practical and disciplinary.
The fourth office is that of the deacons, who have to do with
1 " Tulchan," a calf-skin filled with straw, supposed to induce the
cow to give milk freely; hence a term of contempt for one who is
used as a dummy for the advantage of another.
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
461
matters of property and are not members of church courts.
Neither superintendent nor reader now appears; all the functions
of bishops and superintendents are vested in the elderships,
or church courts, and it is urged that the parts which still remain
in Scotland of the old system should be cleared away and the
sole jurisdiction of the kirk, as then constituted, recognized.
The assembly is to have the right to fix its own time of meeting,
and its decision in matters ecclesiastical is not to be subject
to any review. Kirk-sessions and presbyteries are not named,
but the principles are clearly laid down on which these institu-
tions were to rest.
By committing herself to this system the Church of Scotland
established between herself and the Church of England a division
which became more and more apparent and was the
Presby- ca use of much of her subsequent sufferings. It is no
principle, doubt strange that she should have endured so much
not for any great Christian principle, but for a question
of church government. On the other hand, Presby terianism stood
in Scottish history for freedom, and for the rights of the middle
and lower classes against the crown and the aristocracy; and
it might not have been held with such tenacity or proved so
incapable of compromise but for the opposition and persecution
of the three Stuart kings. The history of the Scottish church
for a century after the date of the Book of Discipline is that of
a religious struggle between the people and the crown.
For some years after its inception Presbyterianism carried all
before it. The presbyteries came quickly into existence; that
of Edinburgh dates from 1580. In that year it was found that
there were 924 parishes in Scotland, but not nearly all supplied
with ministers; it was proposed that there should be 50 presby-
teries (in 1910 there are 84) and 400 ministers. A great part of
the country, especially in the north and west, had not yet been
reached by the Reformation. At this time began the long series
of attempts made by James VI. in the direction of curbing
Presbyterian liberty and of the restoration of Episcopacy. In
1584 were passed the acts called the Black Acts, which made it
treason to speak ill of the bishops, declared the king to be supreme
in all causes and over all persons, thus subverting the jurisdiction
of the church, and made all conventions illegal except those
sanctioned by the king. The bishops were to do what had
hitherto been done by the assembly and presbyteries, and no
attacks were to be made at religious meetings on the king or
council. Other acts followed by which the episcopate was
strengthened, though the act of 1587 annexing the temporalities
of the bishops to the crown, while fatal to the old episcopate,
made the prospects of the new more doubtful. In 1588 a change
took place. A Roman Catholic rising threw James into the
arms of the kirk; in 1592 the acts of 1584 were abrogated, the
Second Book of Discipline legalized and Presbytery established.
The church was at the time very powerful, the people generally
sympathizing with her system, and her assemblies being attended
by many of the nobles and the foremost men. Discipline was
strict ; the temper of the church was in accordance with the Old
rather than the New Testament.
Another sudden change took place a few years later, James
falling out of humour with the church on the question of the
restoration of the Roman Catholic lords and angered by the free
criticism of some of the ministers. His Basilicon Doron, pub-
lished in 1599, shows a determination to make the church
episcopal. With this end assemblies, from which Melville was
excluded, and which were otherwise tampered with and terror-
ized, were got to agree that a number of ministers should sit in
parliament, and to surrender the assembly's right of meeting.
On his accession to the throne of England in 1603 James entered
on a new set of attempts to assimilate the Scottish church to
that of England. Melville was brought to London, imprisoned
and sent abroad; other ministers who had acted or spoken too
freely were banished. The powers of the bishops were increased,
and their brethren brought in various ways under subjection to
them, and in 1609 two courts of high commission were set up by
the royal authority with plenary powers to enforce conformity
to the new arrangements. In 1610 three ministers were called
to London to be consecrated as bishops, as if there had till now
been no bishops in Scotland; these on their return consecrated
ten others. In 1612 the act of 1592 which established Presbytery
was rescinded, and Episcopacy became the legal church system
of Scotland.
In all this it was the position and rights of the clergy that
were assailed; and James showed kindness to the church in
seeking to secure that stipends should be paid and that
new churches should be provided where required,
The people had been less interfered with; the change
of church government involved no change in the conduct of
worship. But the articles passed by the packed assembly of
Perth in 1618 touched on the religious habits and postures of
the people, and in this it soon appeared that a crisis had been
reached. These famous articles were: (i) That the communion
should be received kneeling; (2) That it might be administered
in private; (3) That baptism might be in the home; (4) That
children of eight should be taken to the bishop for examination
and his blessing; (5) That Christmas, Good Friday, Easter and
Whitsunday should be observed. These articles were opposed in
parliament and were strongly resented throughout the country.
When Charles became king in 1625 he at once let it be known
that the Articles of Perth were not to be abrogated, and that no
meeting of the assembly was to be allowed. During the first
years of his reign he was occupied in other directions; but when
he came to Scotland in 1633 to be crowned, Laud came with him,
and though like his father he showed himself kind to the clergy
in matters of stipend, and adopted measures which caused many
schools to be built, he also showed that in the matter of worship
the policy of forcing Scotland into uniformity with England was
to be carried through with a high hand. A book of canons and
constitutions of the church which appeared in 1636, instead of
being a digest of acts of assembly, was English in its ideas,
dealt with matters of church furniture, exalted the bishops and
ignored the kirk-session and elders. The liturgy was ordered to
be used, which had not yet appeared, but which proved to be a
version, with somewhat higher doctrine, of the Anglican Common
Prayer. The introduction of this service book in St Giles's
Church, Edinburgh, on the i6th of July 1637, occasioned the
tumult of which Jenny Geddes will always figure as the heroine.
The sentiment was echoed throughout Scotland.
Petitions against the service book and the book of coveaaat.
canons poured in from every quarter; the tables or
committee formed to forward the petition rapidly became a
powerful government at the head of a national movement, the
action of the crown was temporizing, and on the 28th of February
the National Covenant was signed in the famous scene in Grey-
friars church and churchyard. This document consisted of three
parts: (i) A covenant signed by King James and his household
in 1 580, to uphold Presbyterianism and to defend the state against
Romanism; (2) A recital of all the acts of parliament passed in
the reigns of James and Charles in pursuance of the same objects;
and (3) The covenant of nobles, barons, gentlemen, burgesses,
ministers and commons to continue in the reformed religion, to
defend it and resist all contrary errors and corruptions. The
Covenant was no doubt an act of revolt against legal authority,
and can only be justified on the ground that the crown had for
many years acted oppressively and illegally in its attempt to
coerce Scotland into a religious system alien to the country,
and that the subjects were entitled to free themselves from
tyranny. The crown was unable either to check the popular
movement or to come to any compromise with it, and the Glasgow
assembly of 1638, the first free assembly that had met for thirty
years, proceeded to make the church what the Covenant required.
A clean sweep was made of the legislation of the preceding
period; the five articles of Perth, the service book and book of
canons and the court of high commission were all condemned.
The bishops were tried not for being bishops but on exaggerated
charges of false doctrine and loose living; and all were deposed
from the ministry. Many ministers were also deposed on the
charge of Arminianism. It was by an assembly that the second
reformation was effected; but the assembly contained the most
462
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
influential of the nobility and gentry, and was carried on the
crest of a great national movement. The Covenant was accepted
by parliament in 1639.
The succeeding decennium is the culminating period of
Scottish Presbyterianism, when, having successfully resisted the
crown, it not only was supreme in Scotland but exercised a
decisive influence over England. The causes which brought
about this state of affairs are to be sought to a large extent in
the civil history of England. Presbytery was rapidly growing
in that country, and the English parliament sought the alliance
of the assembly, while the Independents, though in the event
Presbytery was as little to their liking as Episcopacy, joined
in the wish to get rid of the episcopal system. In its period of
triumph the Presbyterianism of Scotland displayed its character.
After the injustice and persecution it had suffered it could
scarcely prove moderate or tolerant; it showed a vehement
determination to carry out the truth it had vindicated with
such enthusiasm, to the full extent and wherever possible.
The Covenant, at first a standard of freedom, was immediately
converted into a test and made the instrument of oppression
and persecution. All policy was to be determined by the
Covenant; the king and every official was to be obliged to take
it. The mind of the nation being so preoccupied wit)i the
Covenant, it naturally followed that those who carried their
fanaticism farthest were ready to denounce and to unchurch
those who showed any inclination to moderation and political
sanity, and that the beginnings of schism soon appeared in the
ranks of the Covenanters.
In 1643, when the full legal establishment of Presbytery had
just been consummated, the assembly, asked by the English
West- parliament to arrange a league to be signed in both
minster countries for the furtherance of reformed religion,
con- agreed, but asked that the league should be a religious
teuton. one -pjj e resu it was t ne Solemn League and Covenant.
The league did not mention Presbyterianism; but the assembly
had refused to hear of any recognition of independency; if
religion were thoroughly reformed, they considered the result
must be Presbyterianism in England as in Scotland. In the
Westminster Standards also, which were the fruit of the Scottish
desire for a religious uniformity, Scotland did not obtain by any
means all it desired in its church documents. The Scottish
divines in the Westminster Assembly were only five in number,
while the assembly contained effective parties of Erastians and
Independents. The Confession of Faith contains no approval
of any system of church government, and when she adopted it in
1647 the kirk gave up her old confession in which the principles
at least of true church order are laid down. In accepting in
1645 the Westminster Directory, of Public Worship she tacitly
gave up her own liturgy which had been in use till recently, and
committed herself to a bald and uninviting order of worship, in
which no forms of prayer were allowed to be used. So much
did Scotland for the sake of uniformity accept from England.
The metrical psalms also, which are still sung in Scottish churches,
were adopted at this time; they are based mainly on the version,
which had been approved by the Westminster Assembly, of
Francis Rouse (1579-1659), a member of the English House of
Commons.
The engagement made with Charles, then a prisoner in the
Isle of Wight in 1647, which promised him support on condition
of his sanctioning the Solemn League and Covenant and pledging
himself to set up after three years a church according to the
Confession of Faith, was protested against by the assembly;
and from this came the famous " Act of Classes " by which the
Covenanters disqualified for public office and even for military
service all who had been parties to the engagement. The
rescinding of this act in 1651 led to a serious breach in the ranks
of the Scottish clergy. The Resolutioners, or supporters of the
resolution to rescind that act, were opposed by the Protesters,
the rigid adherents to the strictest interpretation of the Covenant.
The period of the Commonwealth was filled with the strife between
these two parties, its bitterness not lessened by the fact that
the assembly dissolved in 1653 by Cromwell's soldiers was not
allowed to meet again in his protectorate. The Protesters,
who were in favour with the common people, are chargeable with
having brought into Scottish church life the observance of fast-
days, and of the long and excited Communion services which were
kept up for two and a half centuries and may still be witnessed
in the Highlands.
If the mismanagement of Scottish religious affairs under James
and Charles I. is a melancholy story, what took place under
Charles II. is infinitely sadder. A series of blunders struggle
was committed in the attempt to compel Scotland to against
submit to the religion the government prescribed, and Bpisco-
the failure of each measure was followed by more in- P a y-
human severities. Detail is impossible here. From the first
Charles showed himself determined to force Episcopalianism
on Scotland, and not too scrupulous in the choice of methods for
securing his ends. The attempt was nearly successful. In the
greater part of the country little change took place in the religious
services. The service book was not read nor kneeling at com-
munion required, and it made no immediate difference to the
people that the clergy should be under bishops. The inferior
church courts still sat, though not the assembly. At the Restora-
tion it was a question whether the bulk of the population was in
favour of Presbytery or of Episcopacy. But the matter was
handled in such a way in the west of Scotland that an extreme
Covenanting spirit arose, nourished on intolerable grievances,
and that the nation as a whole decided against the system which
had been promoted by such means.
The Rescissory Act of 1661 swept away the legislation of the
preceding twenty years, and so disposed of the Presbyterian
polity of the church. Episcopacy was restored by a letter from
the king on the sth of September 1661. James Sharp (q.v.),
Fairfoul, James Hamilton (1610-1674) and Robert Leighton
(q.v.) were the new bishops; Sharp and Leighton having to be
ordained as deacons, then as priests, before the consecration,
and the party travelling to Scotland in state, though Leighton
left them before crossing the border. An act requiring all
ministers appointed during the period when patronage was
abolished to get presentation from their patrons and institution
from their bishops was applied in the west of Scotland in such a
way that 300 ministers left their manses. Their places were
filled with less competent men whom the people did not wish to
hear, and so conventicles began to be held. The attempts to
suppress these, the harsh measures taken against those who
attended them or connived at them, or refused to give infor-
mation against them, the military violence and the judicial
severities, the confiscations, imprisonments, tortures, expatria-
tions, all make up a dreadful narrative. Indulgences were tried,
and were successful in bringing back about 100 ministers to
their parishes and introducing a new cause of division among
the clergy. On the other hand, the Covenanting spirit rose
higher and higher among the persecuted till the armed risings
took place and the formal rebellion of a handful of desperate
men against the ruler of three kingdoms. The story of Richard
Cameron (q.v.) is one of the highest romantic heroism; his name
was perpetuated in that of the Cameronian body (" first-born
of the Scottish sects "), which, as the Reformed Presbyterian
Church, kept up a separate existence till 1876, when it united
with the Free Church, and in that of the Cameronian regiment,
originally formed from his followers after his death and distin-
guished since in every part of the world. The proclamation of
toleration in 1685 was intended mainly for Roman Catholics and
excluded field preachers.
When William landed in England in 1688, the scene changed
in Scotland. The soldiery was withdrawn from the west,
and the people at once showed their feelings by the
' . , Revolution
rabbling or ejection of the curates who occupied of l68Sf
the manses of the ousted ministers, in which, however,
no lives were lost. William would have decided for Episco-
pacy in Scotland, as the great body of the nobles and gentry
adhered to it, but only on condition that the Episcopalians
agreed to support him and that they had the people with them.
Neither of these conditions was fulfilled. On the 2 2nd of July
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
463
1689 the Convention which declared the throne vacant and
called William and Mary to fill it, declared in its Claim of Right
that prelacy and the superiority of any office in the church
above ministers had been a great and insupportable grievance
to Scotland. Effect was given to this; and in April 1690 the
act was passed on which the establishment of the Church of
Scotland rests, the Westminster Confession being recognized,
the laws in favour of Episcopacy repealed, though the Rescissory
Act remained on the statute book, and the assembly appointed
to meet. The Covenants were not mentioned ; at his coronation
William had refused to be a persecutor, and he desired that
the church should embrace all who were willing to be in it. The
Revolution church contained from the first men of different
views. Its first assembly in 1690 received into the church the
three remaining ministers of the Cameronians, though their
followers refused to come with them. With regard to Episco-
palian ministers, by whom the majority of parishes were served,
there was more difficulty. The Presbyterians were not ready
for union with them, and many of them were put out of their
livings, ostensibly by way of discipline. The king and his
representatives at the assembly pressed hard for their reception,
and in 1693 the " Act for settling the quiet and peace of the
Church " was passed, which provided for their admission on
taking the oaths of allegiance and assurance, subscribing the
Confession of Faith and acknowledging Presbyterian govern-
ment. This act fixed the formula of subscription to be signed
by all ministers.
From this time forward the church, while jealously asserting
her spiritual independence, was on the side of the crown against
the Jacobites, and became more and more an orderly and useful
ally of the state. In 1697 the Barrier Act was passed, which
provides that any act which is to be binding on the church is
to come before the assembly as an overture and to be trans-
mitted to presbyteries for their approval. The difficulties
which threatened to arise about the union were skilfully avoided;
the Act of Security provided that the Confession of Faith and
the Presbyterian government should " continue without any
alteration to the people of this land in all succeeding ages,"
and the first oath taken by Queen Anne at her accession was
to preserve it. The Act of Toleration of 1712 allowed Episco-
palian dissenters to use the English liturgy. This had not
hitherto been done, and the claim of the Episcopalians for this
liberty had been the occasion of a bitter controversy. The same
parliament restored lay patronage in Scotland, an act against
which the church always protested and which was the origin of
great troubles.
Presbytery, being loyal to the house of Hanover, while Episco-
pacy was Jacobite, was now in enjoyment of the royal favour
and was treated as a firm ally of the government.
But while the church as a whole was more peaceful,
more courtly, more inclined to the friendship of the
world than at any former time, it contained two well-
marked parties. The Moderate party, which maintained its
ascendancy till the beginning of the igth century, sought to
make the working of the church in its different parts as syste-
atic and regular as possible, to make the assembly supreme,
i enforce on presbyteries respect for its decisions, and to render
he judicial procedure of the church as exact and formal as that
of the civil courts. The Popular party, regarding the church
less from the side of the government, had less sympathy with
the progressive movements of the age, and desired greater
strictness in discipline. The main subject of dispute arose
at first from the exercise of patronage. Presbyteries in various
parts of the country were still disposed to disregard the presenta-
tions of lay patrons, and to settle the men desired by the people;
but legal decisions had shown that if they acted in this way
their nominee, while legally minister of the parish, could not
claim the stipend. To the risk of such sacrifices the church, led
by the Moderate party, refused to expose herself. By the new
policy inaugurated by Dr William Robertson (1721-1793),
which led to the second secession, the assembly compelled
presbyteries to give effect to presentations, and in a long series
ditti-
of disputed settlements the " call," though still held essential
to a settlement, was less and less regarded, until it was declared
that it was not necessary, and that the church courts were bound
to induct any qualified presentee. The substitution of the word
" concurrence " for " call " about 1764 indicates the subsidiary
and ornamental light in which the assent of the parishioners
was now to be regarded. The church could have given more
weight to the wishes of the people; she professed to regard
patronage as a grievance, and the annual instructions of the
assembly to the commission (the committee representing the
assembly till its next meeting) enjoined that body to take
advantage of any opportunity which might arise for getting
rid of the grievance of patronage, an injunction which was
not discontinued till 1784. It is not likely that any change
in the law could have been obtained at this period, and dis*
regard of the law might have led to an exhausting struggle with
the state, as was actually the case at a later period. Still it
was in the power of the church to give more weight than she
did to the feelings of the people; and her working of the patron-
age system drove large numbers from the Establishment. A
melancholy catalogue of forced settlements marks the annals
of the church from 1749 to 1780, and wherever an unpopular
presentee was settled the people quietly left the Establishment
and erected a meeting-house. In 1763 there was a Qmwiho f
great debate in the assembly on the progress of schism, dissent.
in which the Popular party laid the whole blame at
the door of the Moderates, while the Moderates rejoined that
patronage and Moderatism had made the church the dignified
and powerful institution she had come to be. In 1764 the
number of meeting-houses was 120, and in 1773 it had risen to
190. Nor was a conciliatory attitude taken up towards the
seceders. The ministers of the Relief desired to remain con-
nected with the Establishment, but were not suffered to do so.
Those ministers who resigned their parishes to accept calls to
Relief congregations, in places where forced settlements had
taken place, and who might have been and claimed to be recog-
nized as still ministers of the church, were deposed and forbidden
to look for any ministerial communion with the clergy of the
Establishment. Such was the policy of the Moderate ascendancy,
or of Principal Robertson's administration, on this vital subject.
It had the merit of success in so far as it completely established
itself in the church. The presbyteries ceased to disregard
presentations, and lay patronage came to be regarded as part
of the order of things. But the growth of dissent steadily
continued and excited alarm from time to time; and it may
be questioned whether the peace of the church was not purchased
at too high a price. The Moderate period is justly regarded as
in some respects the most brilliant in the history of the church.
Her clergy included many distinguished Scotsmen, among them
Thomas Reid, George Campbell, Adam Ferguson, John Home,
Hugh Blair, William Robertson and John Erskine. The labours
of these men were not mainly in theology; in religion the age
was one not of advance but of rest; they gained for the church
a great and widespread respect and influence.
Another salient feature of the Moderate policy was the con-
solidation of discipline. It is frequently asserted that discipline
was lax at this period and that ministers of scandalous lives
were allowed to continue in their charges. It cannot, however,
be shown that the leaders of the church at this time sought
to procure the miscarriage of justice in dealing with such cases.
That some offenders were acquitted on technical grounds is
true; it was insisted that in dealing with the character and
status of their members the church courts should proceed in
as formal and punctilious a manner as civil tribunals, and should
recognize the same laws of evidence; in fact, that the same
securities should exist in the church as in the state for individual
rights and liberties.
The religious state of the Highlands, to which at the period
of the Union the Reformation had only very partially pene-
trated, occupied the attention of the church during the whole
of the i8th century. In 1725 the gift called the " royal bounty "
was first granted a subsidy amounting at. first to 1000
4 6 4
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
Religious
per annum, increased in George IV. 's reign to 2000, and
continued to the present day; its original object was to
ass ' st ^e reclamation of the Highlands from Roman
Catholicism by means of catechists and teachers.
ttoaof The Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge,
Highlands. j ncor po ra ted in 17(39, with a view partly to the
wants of the Highlands, worked in concert with the Church of
Scotland, setting up schools in remote and destitute localities,
while the church promoted various schemes for the dissemina-
tion of the Scriptures in Gaelic and the encouragement of Gaelic
students. In these labours as well as in other directions the
church was sadly hampered by poverty. The need of an increase
in the number of parishes was urgently felt, and, though chapels
began to be built about 1 796, they were provided only in wealthy
places by local voluntary liberality; for the supply of the
necessities of poor outlying districts no one as yet looked to any
agency but the state. In every part of the country many of
the ministers were miserably poor; there were many stipends,
even of important parishes, not exceeding 40 a year; and it
was not till after many debates in the assembly and appeals
to the government that an act was obtained in 1810 which made
up the poorer livings to i 50 a year by a grant from the public
exchequer. The churches and manses were frequently of the
most miserable description, if not falling to decay.
With the close of the i8th century a great change passed
over the spirit of the church. The new activity which sprang
up everywhere after the French Revolution produced
s. m Scotland a revival of Evangelicalism which has
not yet spent its force. Moderatism had cultivated
the ministers too fast for the people, and the church had become
to a large extent more of a dignified ruler than a spiritual mother.
About this time the brothers Robert and James Haldane devoted
themselves to the work of promoting Evangelical Christianity,
James making missionary journeys throughout Scotland and
founding Sunday schools; and in 1798 the eccentric preacher
Rowland Hill visited Scotland at their, request. In the journals
of these evangelists dark pictures are drawn of the religious state
of the country, though their censorious tone detracts greatly
from their value; but there is no doubt that the efforts of the
Haldanes brought about or coincided with a quickening of the
religious spirit of Scotland. The assembly of 1799 passed an
act forbidding the admission to the pulpits of laymen or of
ministers of other churches, and issued a manifesto on Sunday
schools. These acts helped greatly to discredit the Moderate
party, of whose spirit they were the outcome; and that party
further injured their standing in the country by attacking Leslie,
afterwards Sir John Leslie, on frivolous grounds a phrase he
had used about Hume's view of causation when he applied for
the chair of mathematics in Edinburgh. In this dispute, which
made a great sensation in the country, the popular party success-
fully defended Leslie, and thus obtained the sympathy of the
enlightened portion of the community. In 1810 the Christian
Instructor begun to appear under the editorship of Dr Andrew
Thomson, a churchman of vigorous intellect and noble character.
It was an ably written review, in which the theology of the
Haldanes asserted itself in a somewhat dogmatic and confident
tone against all unsound ness and Moderatism, clearly proclaiming
that the former things had passed away. The question of
pluralities began to be agitated in 1813, and gave rise to a long
struggle, in which Dr Thomas Chalmers (q.v.) took a notable
part, and which terminated in the regulation that a university
chair or principalship should not be held along with a parish
which was not close to the university seat.
The growth of Evangelical sentiment in the church, along
with the example of the great missionary societies founded
in the end of the i8th and the beginning of the igth
extension, century, led to the institution of the various missionary
schemes still carried on, and their history forms the
chief part of the history of the church for a number of years.
The education scheme, having for its object the planting of schools
in destitute Highland districts, came into existence in 1824.
The foreign mission committee was formed in 1825, at the instance
of Dr John Inglis (1763-1834), a leader of the Moderate party;
and Dr Alexander Duff (q.v.) went to India in 1829 as the first
missionary of the Church of Scotland. The church extension
committee was first appointed in 1828, and in 1834 it was made
permanent. The colonial scheme was inaugurated in 1836 and
the Jewish mission in 1838, Robert Murray M'Cheyne (1813-
1843) and Andrew Alexander Bonar (1810-1892) setting out in
the following year as a deputation to inquire into the condition
of the Jews in Palestine and Turkey and on the continent of
Europe. Of these schemes that of church extension has most
historical importance. It was originally formed to collect in-
formation regarding the spiritual wants of the country, and to
apply to the government to build the churches found to be
necessary. As the population of Scotland had doubled since
the Reformation, and its distribution had been completely altered
in many counties, while the number of parish churches remained
unchanged, and meeting-houses had only been erected where
seceding congregations required them, the need for new churches
was very great. The application to government for aid, how-
ever, proved the occasion of a " Voluntary controversy," which
raged with great fierceness for many years and has never com-
pletely subsided. The union of the Burgher and the Anti-
burgher bodies in 1820 in the United Secession both having
previously come to hold Voluntary principles added to the
influence of these principles in the country, while the political
excitement of the period disposed men's minds to such dis-
cussions. The government built forty-two churches in the
Highlands, providing them with a slender endowment; and
these are still known as parliamentary churches. Under Thomas
Chalmers, however, the church extension committee struck out
a new line of action. That great philanthropist had come to
see that the church could only reach the masses of the people
effectively by greatly increasing the number of her places of
worship and abolishing or minimizing seat-rents in the poorer
districts. In his powerful defence of establishments against the
voluntaries in both Scotland and England, in which his ablest
assistants were those who afterwards became, along with him,
the leaders of the Free Church, he pleaded that an established
church to be effective must divide the country territorially into
a large number of small parishes, so that every corner of the land
and every person, of whatever class, shall actually enjoy the
benefits of the parochial machinery. This " territorial principle "
the church has steadily kept in view ever since. With the view
of realizing this idea he appealed to the church to provide funds
to build a large number of new churches, and personally carried
his appeal throughout the country. By 1835 he had collected
65,626 and reported the building of sixty-two churches in con-
nexion with the Establishment. The keenness of the conflict
as it approached the crisis of 1843 checked the liberality of the
people for this object, but by 1841 305,747 had been collected
and 222 churches built.
The zealous orthodoxy of the church found at this period
several occasions to assert itself. John M'Leod Campbell (<?..),
minister of Row, was deposed by the assembly of 1830 for
teaching that assurance is of the essence of faith and that Christ
died for all men. He has since been recognized as one of the
profoundest Scottish theologians of the igih century, although
his deposition was never removed. The same assembly con-
demned the doctrine put forth by Edward Irving, that Christ
took upon Him the sinful nature of man and was not impeccable,
and Irving was deposed five years later by the presbytery of
Annan, when the outburst of supposed miraculous gifts in his
church in London had rendered him still more obnoxious to the
strict censures of the period. In 1841 Thomas Wright of Borth-
wick (1785-1855) was deposed for a series of heretical opinions,
which he denied that he held, but which were said to be contained
in a series of devotional works of a somewhat mystical order
which he had published.
The influence of dissent also acted along with the rapidly
rising religious fervour of the age in quickening in the church
that sense of a divine mission, and of the right and power to
carry out that mission without obstruction from any worldly
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
465
authority, which belongs to the essential consciousness of
the Christian church. An agitation against patronage, the
ancient root of evil, and the formation of an anti-
fi843 " patronage society, helped in the same direction.
The Ten Years' Conflict, which began in 1833 with
the passing by the assembly of the Veto and the Chapel Acts,
is treated in the articles FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, and it is
not necessary to dwell further in this place on the consequences
of those acts. The assembly of 1843, from which the exodus
took place, proceeded to undo the acts of the church during the
preceding nine years. The Veto was not repealed but ignored,
as having never had the force of law; the Strathbogie ministers
were recognized as if no sentence of deposition had gone forth
against them. The protest which the moderator had read before
leaving the assembly had been left on the table; and an act of
separation and deed of demission were received from the ministers
of the newly formed Free Church, who were now declared to
have severed their connexion with the Church of Scotland. The
assembly addressed a pastoral letter to the people of the country,
in which, while declining to " admit that the course taken by
the seceders was justified by irresistible necessity," they coun-
selled peace and goodwill towards them, and called for the loyal
support of the remaining members of the church.
Two acts at once passed through the legislature in answer to
the claims put forward by the church. The Scottish Benefices
Act of Lord Aberdeen, 1843, gave the people power to state
objections personal to a presentee, and bearing on his fitness
for the particular charge to which he was presented, and also
authorized the presbytery in dealing with the objections to look
to the number and character of the objectors. Sir James
Graham's Act, 1844, provided for the erection of new parishes,
and thus created the legal basis for a scheme under which chapel
ministers might become members of church courts.
The Disruption left the Church of Scotland in a sadly maimed
condition. Of 1203 ministers 451 left her, and among these
n . were many of her foremost men. A third of her
UGVclOp* . 11 i i
meat of membership is computed to have gone with them.
the church In Edinburgh many of her churches were nearly
empty. The Gaelic-speaking population of the
northern counties completely deserted her. All her
missionaries left her but one. She had no gale of popular
enthusiasm to carry her forward, representing as she did not
a newly arisen principle but the opposition to a principle
which she maintained to be dangerous and exaggerated. For
many years she had much obloquy to endure. But she at once
set herself to the task of filling up vacancies and recruiting
the missionary staff. A lay association was formed, which raised
large sums of money for the missionary schemes, so that their
income was not allowed seriously to decline. The good works
of the church, indeed, were in a few years not only continued but
extended. All hope being lost that parliament would endow the
new churches built by the church extension scheme of Dr
Chalmers, it was felt that this also must be the work of voluntary
liberality. Under Dr James Robertson, professor of church
history in Edinburgh, one of the leading champions of the
Moderate policy in the Ten Years' Conflict, the extension scheme
was transformed into the endowment scheme, and the church
accepted it as her duty and her task to provide the machinery
of new parishes where they were required. 1 By 1854, 30 new
parishes had been added at a cost of 130,000, and from this
time forward the work of endowment proceeded still more rapidly.
In 1843 the number of parishes had been 924; in 1909 it was
1437. By the Poor Law Act of 1845 parishes were enabled to
remove the care of the poor from the minister and the kirk-
session, in whom it was formerly vested, and to appoint a
parochial board with power to assess the ratepayers. The
1 Those branches of the church extension scheme which dealt with
church building, and with the opening of new missions to meet the
wants of increasing populations, were taken up by a new department,
called the Home Mission scheme. The home mission as the pioneer
in opening up new fields of labour, and the endowment scheme which
renders permanent the religious centres that the mission has founded,
are both traceable to Dr Chalmers.
Education Act of 1872 severed the ancient tie connecting church
and school together, and created a school board having charge
of the education of each parish. At that date the Church of
Scotland had 300 schools, mostly in the Highlands. The church
continued till lately to carry on normal schools for the training
of teachers in Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen; but these,
along with the normal schools of the United Free Church, were
recently made over to the state.
In 1874 patronage was abolished. The working of Lord
Aberdeen's Act had given rise to many unedifying scenes and
to lengthy struggles over disputed settlements, and it
was early felt that some change at least was necessary in y*"'^
the law. The agitation on the subject went on in the pa t roaage .
assembly from 1857 to 1869, when the assembly by a
large majority condemned patronage as restored by the Act of
Queen Anne, and resolved to petition parliament for its removal.
The request was granted, and the right of electing parish ministers
was conferred by the Patronage Act 1874 on the congregation;
thus a grievance of old standing, from which all the ecclesiastical
troubles of a century and a half had sprung, was removed and
the church placed on a thoroughly democratic basis. This act,
combined with various efforts made within the church for her
improvement, secured for the Scottish Establishment a large
measure of popular favour, and in the last half of the igth
century she grew rapidly both in numbers and in i mprove .
influence. This revival was largely due on the one meats in
hand to the improvement of her worship which began public
with the efforts of Dr Robert Lee (1804-1868), minister
of Old Greyfriars, Edinburgh, and professor of Biblical criticism
in Edinburgh university. By introducing into his church a
printed book of prayers and also an organ, Dr Lee stirred up
vehement controversies in the church courts, which resulted in
the recognition of the liberty of congregations to improve their
worship. The Church Service Society, having for its object the
study of ancient and modern liturgies, with a view to the prepara-
tion of forms of prayer for public worship, was founded in 1865;
it has published eight editions of its " Book of Common Order,"
which, though at first regarded with suspicion, has been largely
used by the clergy. Church music has been cultivated and
improved in a marked degree; and hymns have been introduced
to supplement the psalms and paraphrases; in 1898 a committee
appointed by the Church of Scotland, the Free Church, the
United Presbyterian Church and the Presbyterian Church in
Ireland issued The Church Hymnary, which is authorized for use
in all these churches alike. Architecture has restored many of
the larger churches from their disfigurement by partition walls
and galleries though much still remains to be done in this
way and has erected new churches of a style favourable to
devotion. The cathedral churches of St Giles, Edinburgh, and
of Brechin and Dunblane, the abbey church of Paisley and the
Church of the Holy Trinity, St Andrews, have been restored;
and the abbey of lona, handed over to the Church of Scotland
by the duke of Argyll, is now once more fitted up for worship.
The fervour of the church found a channel in the operations
of a " Committee on Christian Life and Work," appointed in
1869 with the aim of exercising some supervision of Commlt .
the work of the church throughout the country, tee on
stimulating evangelistic efforts and organizing the Christian
labours of lay agents. This committee publishes a *$* r d
magazine of " Life and Work," which has a circulation
of over 100,000, and has organized young men's gilds in connexion
with congregations and revived the ancient order of deaconesses.
It was to reinforce this element of the church's activity, as well
as to strengthen her generally, that James Baird (1802-1876)
in 1873 made the munificent gift of 500,000. This fund is
administered by a trust which is not under the control of the
church, and the revenue is used mainly in aid of church building
and endowment throughout the country.
The church has greatly increased of late years in width of view
and liberality of sentiment, and shelters various tendencies of
thought. A volume of Scotch Sermons, published in 1880 by
ministers holding liberal views, brought out the fact that the
4 66
SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF
Questions
ot heresy.
church would not willingly be led into prosecutions for heresy.
After this, however, there was a revival on the part of some of
the clergy of High Church and orthodox sentiment.
The Scottish Church Society was founded in 1892 with
Dr John Macleod of Govan as president, " to defend
and advance catholic doctrine as set forth in the ancient creeds
and embodied in the standards of the Church of Scotland." In
1897, however, Alexander Robinson of Kilmun was deposed by
the presbytery of Dunoon acting under the orders of the Assembly
on account of the views contained in his book The Saviour in the
Newer Light, in which the results of modern criticism of the
Gospels were set forth with some ability. The National Church
Union, of which Professor A. Menzies was president, was formed
after this event by ministers and elders who feared that the cause
of free theological inquiry was in peril in the church. This body
at once raised the question of the relaxation of subscription,
which was in a few years seriously taken up by the church, and
the National Church Union, feeling that in this, as well as in
the growth of liberal opinion in the church its object had been
attained, discontinued its operations. The Scottish Church
Society still carries on its work.
The question of subscription has been more or less before the
church for many years. The formula adopted by the assembly of
1711 had still to be signed by ministers, and was felt to be much
too strict. After debates extending over many years, the
assembly of 1889 fell back on the words of the act of parliament
1693, passed to enable the Episcopalian clergy to join the estab-
lishment, in which the candidate declared the Confession of
Faith to be the confession of his faith, owned the doctrine therein
contained to be the true doctrine and promised faithfully to
adhere to it. This was accompanied by a Declaratory Act in
which the church expressed its desire to enlarge rather than
curtail the liberty hitherto enjoyed. Ten years later the assembly
was again debating the question of subscription. A committee
appointed in 1899 to inquire into the powers of the church in
the matter reported that the power of the church was merely
administrative it was in her power as cases arose to prosecute
or to refrain from prosecuting, but that she had no power to
modify the confession in any way. Here the matter might have
remained, but that the approach to parliament of the United
and the Free Churches after the decision of the House of Lords
in 1904 (see FREE CHURCH and UNITED FREE CHURCH) offered
an opportunity for asking parliament to remove a grievance
the church herself had no power to deal with. The Scottish
Churches Bill of 1005 afforded relief to all the Presbyterian
churches. It did not do what the Church of Scotland asked,
viz. allow the words of the act of 1690 to be used as the formula;
but it removed that of 1693 and left it to the church to frame
a new formula for her ministers and professors, an undertaking
to which she is seriously addressing herself.
The agitation for disestablishment sprang up afresh after
the passing of the Church Patronage Act (Scotland); each
assembly of the Free Church passed a resolution in
favour of it, and the United Free Church continued
tn ' s testimony. In 1890 Mr Gladstone declared for
disestablishment, and under his government of 1892 a
Disestablishment Bill was introduced in the House cf Commons
by Sir Charles Cameron, in two successive sessions, 1893-1894.
After the defeat of the Liberal government in 1895, the church
was for ten years relieved from this anxiety, nor had the attack
been renewed up to 1911. A counter-movement was represented
by a bill introduced into parliament in 1886 in order to declare
the spiritual independence of the Church of Scotland, in the hope
that the way might be opened to a reunion of the Presbyterian
bodies. The act of 1905 has altered the circumstances of the
churches in this regard. During the agitation the church was
much occupied with the question of her own defence, and after it
died down, various schemes were entertained for the improve-
ment of her position without and within. She more than once
expressed her willingness to confer with the daughter Presby-
terian churches, with a view to their sharing with her the benefits
of her position.
llshmeat.
theo-
logians.
Since 1908 the subject of the union of the churches has been
much spoken of. The quarter-centenary of the birth of Calvin
occurring at the time of the Church assemblies of 1909 brought
the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church assembly
together for a memorial service in St Giles's; and a committee
on union, consisting of 105 representatives from each assembly,
was appointed.
The Church of Scotland has made few contributions of importance
to the movement of Biblical Criticism which has entered so deeply
into the religious life of Scotland, but she has had dis-
tinguished writers on theology. Robert Lee (1804-1868), Scottish
minister of Old Greyfriars and professor of Biblical
criticism in Edinburgh University, fought a long battle for
the liberty and the improvement of worship, of which the churches
generally now reap the advantage. He held clear views as to the
necessity of reform in the doctrine of the church as well ; but these
he died without publishing. Norman Macleod (q.v.), minister of the
Barony Parish, Glasgow, a man of great natural eloquence and an
ardent philanthropist, enjoyed the warm friendship of Queen
Victoria and was beloved by his nation. John Caird (q.v.), professor
of divinity and then principal of Glasgow University, wrote An
Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, exercised a deep influence
as a teacher on Scottish thought, and was the most distinguished
British preacher, of the intellectual order, of his day. John Tulloch
(q.v.), principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews, wrote Theism,
Leaders of the Reformation, Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy
in England in the ifth century, and many other works, and was an
effective champion of doctrinal liberty. He was succeeded at St
Andrews and as Liberal leader in the assembly by John Cunningham
(1819-1893), who wrote a very successful History of the Church of
Scotland. Robert Herbert Story (1835-1906), principal after Caird
of Glasgow University, stood by the side of Lee and Tulloch in their
assembly contendings and was an outspoken defender of the National
Church against her spoliators from without. Of his works may be
mentioned lives of his father Dr Story, of Carstairs, and of Robert
Lee. His life was written by his daughters. Andrew K. H. Boyd
(1825-1899), minister of St Andrews, was widely known by the
numerous volumes of essays, especially the " Recreations of a Country
Parson." His " Twenty-five Years of St Andrews " contains a good
deal of information. Robert Flint (q.v.) published The Philosophy
of History in Europe, Historical Philosophy in France; his volumes
on Theism and Antitheistic Theories have passed through many
editions.
The Church of Scotland in 1909 had 1437 parishes and 251 chapels
and preaching stations. The General Assembly consisted of 741
members. The professors of divinity at the four Scottish _ .
universities must be ministers of the church, but a pro- ^ tatlstlcs -
posal has been made to throw the chairs open to ministers of any
of the Presbyterian bodies. The foreign mission employs fifty-two
ordained and about as many unordained, medical, industrial and
other missionaries, with a large number of native agents, in India,
East Africa and China. Jewish missions are kept up at five stations
in the East, and the colonial committee supplies ordinances to
emigrants from Scotland in many of the dependencies of the empire.
The small-livings fund aims at bringing up to 200 a year all stipends
which fall short of that sum, of which there are nearly 400. About
4000 a year was still required in 1910 to carry out the object of this
scheme.
The parliamentary return of 1888 showed the value of the teinds
of 876 parishes to be 375,678 and the stipends paid to amount (ex-
clusive of manses and glebes) to 242,330. The value of augmenta-
tions obtained since that date is more than balanced by the decline
of fiars prices, so that the total revenue of the church from this source
is about 220,000. The unexhausted teinds, according to the return
in 1907, amounted to about 133,000. The exchequer pays to 190
poor parishes and 42 Highland churches, from church property in
the hands of the crown, 17,040. From burgh and other local funds
the church derives a revenue of 23,501. The church has herself
added to her endowments, for the equipment of 453 new parishes,
1,681,330, yielding over 54,000 a year. The entire endowments of
the church, including manses and glebes but not church buildings, is
about 300,000.
For aetailed accounts of the separate bodies the UNITED
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, the FREE CHURCH and the UNITED FREE
CHURCH see the articles on each of these. The table on the following
page shows the material progress of the respective organizations in
recent years.
In the absence of a religious census it is not possible to deduce from
statistics supplied by the churches themselves any trustworthy con-
clusion as to the percentage of the population adhering to each
church. The Communion rolls of the parish churches require to
be kept with care, as in vacancies they form the register of those
entitled to vote for the new minister. In the able statistical discussions
in the reports of the United Free Church it is pointed out that in the
figures furnished by the churches the numbers of members and the
numbers of deaths are not in the same proportion as the population
of the country and the general death-rate, and the conclusion
is drawn that the number of members is in each case too great.
SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF
467
1879.
1899.
1909.
Congregations :
Church of Scotland
1.337
1,447
1,687
Free Church
'.033
1,101
United Presbyterian .
533
577
United Free Church .
1,620
Membership :
Church of Scotland
518,146
648,476
706,653
Free Church . . .
246,250
293,684
United Presbyterian .
172,150
195,498
United Free Church .
506,573
Income:
Church of Scotland
3",378
492,816
554,145
Free Church
594,05
706,546
United Presbyterian .
367,915
392,116
United Free Church
1,089,101
(for 1908)
The Free Church in 1909 had 150 congregations and 77 ministers ; its
members and adherents are stated to number 60,000, and its income,
apart from investments, is 22,542. The membership of the larger
churches is that of communicants only; in the Highlands especially
the adherents of these churches who do not communicate form a large
proportion of those connected with the church.
According to the figures given above the communicants of the Church
of Scotland represent 14-7 of the population and those of the United
Free 10-6. A study of the figures for many years past shows that
the proportion of the people attached to these churches is not
decreasing.
The Scottish Episcopal Church in 1909 numbered 388 charges with
52,029 communicants. Its charges are numerous in proportion to its
membership, having an average of 134 members, while the Church of
Scotland averages 497 and the United Free Church 313 members for
each congregation. The adherents of each of these churches out-
number their communicants in a ratio which is variously estimated.
The Roman Catholic hierarchy 1 was restored in Scotland in 1878.
There are six dioceses (two archbishops, one of Edinburgh and St
Andrews and the other of Glasgow; and four suffragans, Aberdeen,
Argyll and the Isles, Dunkeld and Galloway), with, in 1909, 550
priests; 398 churches, chapels and stations; and a Roman Catholic
population estimated at about 519,000.
The original Secession Church has 5 presbyteries and 26 congrega-
tions; and the remnant of the Reformed Presbyterian Church which
did not join the Free Church in 1876, 2 presbyteries and II congre-
gations. The Congregational and Evangelical Union (formed by the
amalgamation of the Congregational and Evangelical Churches in
1896), has 183 churches; and the remnant of the Evangelical Union,
7 churches. The Baptist Union has 128 congregations and the
Wesleyan Methodists 40 churches.
LITERATURE. For the earlier history of the kirk the outstanding
authorities are the histories of Knox, Calderwood, Baillie's Letters,
and Wodrow's History: Knox's liturgy has been edited by Dr
Sprott, and on the Westminster Standards the reader may consult
Dr Mitchell's Minutes of the Westminster Assembly, and Baird
lectures on the same subject. Modern histories of the church have
been written by Cook, Hetherington and Principal Cunningham;
Dr Story's Church of Scotland in 5 vols. contains information on every
side of the subject. Among books professedly dealing with the Free
Church question, the most valuable are Sydow's Die Scholtische
Kirchenfrage (Potsdam, 1845), and The Scottish Church Question
(London, 1845); Buchanan's Ten Years' Conflict (1849); Hanna's
Life of Chalmers (1852) ; and Taylor Innes on The Law of Creeds in
Scotland (1867). See also Cockburn, Memorials of His Time (Con-
tinuation, 1874); Walker, Dr Robert Buchanan: an Ecclesiastical
Biography (1877); Annals of the Disruption (published by authority
of a committee of the Free Church (1876-1877). On the United
Presbyterian Church see McKerrow, History of the United Secession
Church (1841); Struthers, History of the Relief Church (1843);
McKelvie, Annals and Statistics of the United Presbyterian Church
(1873). For a concise account of all the Secessions and Unions,
Logan, The United Free Church (1681-1906). (A. M.*)
SCOTLAND, EPISCOPAL CHURCH OF, a Scottish church
(see above) in communion with, but historically distinct from,
the Church of England, and composed of seven dioceses: Aber-
deen and Orkney; Argyll and the Isles; Brechin; Edinburgh;
Glasgow and Galloway; Moray, Ross and Caithness; and
St Andrews, Dunkeld and Dunblane. All, except Edinburgh,
founded by Charles I., are pre- Reformation sees. The bishops
constitute the episcopal synod, the supreme court of appeal,
1 During the long period of proscription, the Roman Catholic
Church in Scotland survived in scattered groups; after the Refor-
mation it was at first under the jurisdiction of the English arch-priest,
but from 1653 to 1694 it was governed by prefects apostolic and from
1694 to 1878 by vicars apostolic appointed by the pope.
whose president, elected by the members from among them-
selves, has the style, not the functions, of a metropolitan, being
called primus. The legislature is the provincial synod, con-
sisting of the bishops, at whose discretion it is summoned, and
a lower chamber of presbyters. The canons have the authority
of this synod. The representative church council, including
laymen, administers finance. Each diocese has its synod of the
clergy. Its dean is appointed by the bishop, and, on the voidance
of the see, summons the clerical and lay electors, at the instance
of the .primus, to choose a bishop, who is presented to the
episcopal synod for confirmation and to the primus for consecra-
tion. There are cathedrals at Perth, Inverness, Edinburgh and
Cumbrae; the sees of Aberdeen, Brechin and Glasgow have no
cathedrals. The Theological College was founded in 1810, incor-
porated with Trinity College, Glenalmond, in 1848, and re-
established at Edinburgh in 1876. There were 356 congregations,
with a total membership of 124,335, and 324 working clergy in
1900. No existing ministry can claim regular historic continuity
with the ancient hierarchy of Scotland, but the bishops of the
Episcopal Church are direct successors of the prelates consecrated
to Scottish sees at the Restoration. On the refusal of the bishops
to recognize William III. ( 1 689) , the presby terian polity was estab-
lished in the kirk, the effect of which on its ecclesiastical status
is a matter of theological opinion, but the Comprehension Act
of 1690 allowed episcopalian incumbents, on taking the Oath of
Allegiance, to retain their benefices, though excluding them from
any share in the government without a further declaration of
presbyterian principles. Many non-jurors also succeeded for
a time in retaining the use of the parish churches. The extruded
bishops were slow to organize the episcopalian remnant under a
jurisdiction independent of the state, regarding the then arrange-
ments as provisional, and looking forward to a reconstituted
national kirk under a " legitimate " sovereign. A few prelates,
known as college bishops, were consecrated without sees, to pre-
serve the succession rather than to exercise a defined authority.
But at length the hopelessness of the Stewart cause and the
growth of congregations outside the establishment forced the
bishops to dissociate canonical jurisdiction from royal prerogative
and to reconstitute for themselves a territorial episcopate. The
act of Queen Anne (1712), which protects the "Episcopal
Communion," marks its virtual incorporation as a distinct
society. But matters were still complicated by a considerable,
though declining, number of episcopalian incumbents holding the
parish churches. Moreover, the Jacobitism of the non-jurors
provoked a state policy of repression in 1715 and 1745, and
fostered the growth of new Hanoverian congregations, served
by clergy episcopally ordained but amenable to no bishop, who
qualified themselves under the act of 1712. This act was further
modified in 1746 and 1748 to exclude clergymen ordained in
Scotland. These causes reduced the Episcopalians, who included
at the Revolution a large section of the people, to what is now,
save in a few corners of the west and north-east of Scotland, a
small minority. The official recognition of George III. on the
death of Charles Edward in 1788, removed the chief bar to pro-
gress. The " qualified " congregations were gradually absorbed,
though traces of this ecclesiastical solecism still linger. In 1792
the penal laws were repealed, but clerical disabilities were only
finally removed in 1864. In 1784 Seabury, the first American
bishop, was consecrated at Aberdeen. The Book of Common
Prayer, which came into general use at the Revolution, is now
the authorized service book. The Scottish Communion Office,
compiled by the non-jurors in accordance with primitive models,
has had a varying co-ordinate authority, and the modifications of
the English liturgy adopted by the American Church were
mainly determined by its influence. Among the clergy of post-
Revolution days the most eminent are Bishop Sage, a well-known
patristic scholar; Bishop Rattray, liturgiologist ; John Skinner,
of Longside, author of Tullochgorum; Bishop Gleig, editor of the
3rd edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica; Dean Ramsay,
author of Reminiscences of Scottish Life and Character; Bishop
A. P. Forbes; G. H. Forbes, liturgiologist; and Bishop Charles
Wordsworth.
4 68
SCOTT, A. SCOTT, SIR G. G.
AUTHORITIES. Carstares, State Papers; Keith, Historical Cata-
logue of the Scottish Bishops (Russel's edition, 1824); Lawson,
History of the Scottish Episcopal Church from the Revolution to the
Present Time (1843) ; Stephen, History of the Church of Scotland from
the Reformation to the Present Time (4 vols., 1843) ; Lathbury, History
of the Nonjurors (1845); Grub, Ecclesiastical History of Scotland
(4 vols., 1861); Dowden, Annotated Scottish Communion Office
(1884). (J.G.Sl.)
SCOTT, ALEXANDER (fl. is 5), Scottish poet, was probably
a Lothian man, but particulars of his origin and of his life are
entirely wanting. It is only by gathering together a few scraps
of internal evidence that we learn that his poems were written
between 1545 and 1568 (the date of the Bannatyne MS., the cnly
MS. authority for the text). Allan Ramsay was the first to bring
Scott's work to the notice of modern readers, by printing some of
the poems in his Ever Green. In a copy of verses ("Some Few
of the Contents ") on .the Bannatyne MS., he thus refers to
Scott:
" Licht skirtit lasses, and the girnand wyfe,
Fleming and Scot half painted to the lyfe.
Scot, sweit tunged Scot, quha sings the welcum hame
To Mary, our maist bony soverane dame;
How lyflie he and amorous Stuart sing!
Quhen lufe and bewtie bid them spred the wing."
The sketch is just, for Scott's poems deal chiefly with female
character and with passion of a strongly erotic type. He is
" sweit tunged," for his technique is always good, and his lyrical
measures show remarkable accomplishment. In this respect he
holds his own with the best of the " makars" represented in the
Bannatyne MS. In what may appear excessive coarseness to
present-day taste, he makes good claim to rival Dunbar and his
contemporaries. The poems referred to by Ramsay are " Ane
Ballat maid to the Derisioun and Scorne of Wantoun Wemen,"
" Ane New Yeir Gift to the Queen Mary quhen scho come first
Hame, 1562," and some or all of his amorous songs (about 30
in number). Of these " To luve unluvit," " Ladeis, be war,"
and " Lo, quhat it is to lufe " are favourable examples of his
style. No early Scots poet comes nearer the quality of the
Caroline love-lyric. His Justing and Debait vp at the Drum betwix
W[Uliam] Adamsone and Johine Sym follows the literary tradition
of Peblis to the Play and Christis Kirk on the Grene. He has left
verse-renderings of the ist and soth Psalms.
The first collected edition was printed by D. Laing in 1821 ; a
second was issued privately at Glasgow in 1882. The latest edition
is that by James Cranstoun (Scottish Text Society, I vol., 1896).
(G. G. S.)
SCOTT, DAVID (1806-1849), Scottish historical painter,
brother of William Bell Scott, was born at Edinburgh in October
1806, and studied art under his father, Robert Scott, the en-
graver. In 1828 he exhibited his first oil picture, the " Hopes
of Early Genius dispelled by Death," which was followed by
" Cain, Nimrod, Adam and Eve singing their Morning Hymn,"
" Sarpedon carried by Sleep and Death," and other subjects
of a poetic and imaginative character. In 1829 he became a
member of the Scottish Academy, and in 1832 visited Italy,
where he spent more than a year in study. At Rome he executed
a large symbolical painting, entitled the " Agony of Discord,
or the Household Gods Destroyed." The works of his later
years include " Vasco da Gama encountering the Spirit of the
Storm," a picture immense in size and most powerful in
conception finished in 1842, and now preserved in the Trinity
House, Leith; the " Duke of Gloucester entering the Water
Gate of Calais" (1841); the "Alchemist" (1838), "Queen
Elizabeth at the Globe Theatre " (1840) and " Peter the
Hermit " (1843), remarkable for varied and elaborate character-
painting; and " Ariel and Caliban " (1837) and the " Triumph
of Love " (1846), distinguished by beauty of colouring and depth
of poetic feeling. The most important of his religious subjects
are the " Descent from the Cross " (1835) and the " Crucifixion
the Dead Rising " (1844). Scott also executed several re-
markable series of designs. Two of these the Monograms
of Man and the illustrations to Coleridge's Ancient Mariner
were etched by his own hand, and published in 1831 and 1837
respectively, while his subjects from the Pilgrim's Progress
and Nichol's Architecture of the Heavens were issued after his
death. He died in Edinburgh on the 5th of March 1849.
See W. Bell Scott, Memoir of David Scott, R.S.A. (1850), and
J. M. Gray, David Scott, R.S.A., and his Works (1884).
SCOTT, SIR GEORGE GILBERT (1811-1878), English archi-
tect, was born in 1811 at Gawcott near Buckingham, where
his father was rector; his grandfather, Thomas Scott (1747-
1821), was a well-known commentator on the Bible. In 1827
young Scott was apprenticed for four years to an architect in
London named Edmeston, and at the end of his pupildom
acted as clerk of the works at the new Fishmongers' Hall and
other buildings. In Edmeston's office he became acquainted
with W. B. Moffat, a fellow-pupil, who possessed considerable
talents for the purely business part of an architect's work, and
the two entered into partnership. In 1834 they were appointed
architects to the union workhouses of Buckinghamshire, and for
four years were busily occupied in building a number of cheap
and ugly unions, both there and in Northamptonshire and
Lincolnshire. In 1838 Scott built at Lincoln his first church,
the design for which won the prize in an open competition, and
this was quickly followed by six others, all very poor buildings
without chancels; church building in England had then reached
its very lowest point both in style and in poverty of construc-
tion. About 1839 his enthusiasm was aroused by some of the
eloquent writings of Pugin on medieval architecture, and by
the various papers on ecclesiastical subjects published by the
Camden Society. These opened a new world to Scott, and he
thenceforth studied and imitated the architectural styles and
principles of the middle ages with the utmost zeal and patient
care. The first result of this new study was his design for the
Martyrs' Memorial at Oxford, erected in 1840, a clever adapta-
tion of the late 13th-century crosses in honour of Queen Eleanor.
From that time Scott became the chief ecclesiastical architect
in England, and in the next twenty-eight years completed a
large number of new churches and " restorations," the fever
for which was fomented by the Ecclesiological Society and the
growth of ecclesiastical feeling in England.
In 1844 Scott won the first premium in the competition for
the new Lutheran church at Hamburg, a noble building with
a very lofty spire, designed strictly in the style of the I3th
century. In the following year his partnership with Moffat
was dissolved, and in 1847 he was employed to renovate and
refit Ely cathedral, the first of a long series of English cathedral
and abbey churches which passed through his hands. In 1851
he visited and studied the architecture of the chief towns in
northern Italy, and in 1855 won the competition for the town-
house at Hamburg, designed after the model of similar buildings
in north Germany. In spite of his having won the first prize,
another architect was selected to construct the building, after
a very inferior design. In 1856 a competition was held for
designs of the new government offices in London; Scott ob-
tained the third place in this, but the work was afterwards
given to him on the condition (insisted on by Lord Palmerston)
that he should make a new design, not Gothic, but Classic or
Renaissance in style. To this Scott very reluctantly consented,
as he had little sympathy with any styles but those of England
or France from the I3th to the isth century. In 1862-1863
he was employed to design and construct the Albert Memorial,
a costly and elaborate work, in the style of a magnified 13th-
century reliquary or ciborium, adorned with many statues and
reliefs in bronze and marble. On the partial completion of this
he was knighted. In 1866 he competed for the new London
law-courts, but the prize was adjudged to his old pupil, G. E.
Street. In 1873, owing to illness caused by overwork, Scott
spent some time in Rome and other parts of Italy. The mosaic
pavement which he designed for Durham cathedral soon after-
wards was the result of his study of the 13th-century mosaics
in the old basilicas of Rome. On his return to England he
resumed his professional labours, and continued to work almost
without intermission till his short illness and death on the
27th of March 1878* He was buried in the nave of Westminster
Abbey, and an engraved brass, designed by G. E. Street, was
SCOTT, M. SCOTT, SIR WALTER
469
placed over his grave. In 1838 Scott married his cousin, Caroline
Oldrid, who died in 1870; they had five sons, two of whom
adopted their father's profession.
An incomplete list of his works from 1847 in the Builder for 1878
(p. 360) ascribes to Scott 732 buildings with which he was connected
as architect, restorer or the author of a report. These include 29
cathedrals, British or colonial, 10 minsters, 476 churches, 25 schools,
23 parsonages, 58 monumental works, 25 colleges or college chapels,
26 public buildings, 43 mansions and a number of small ecclesiastical
accessories. While a member of the Royal Academy, Scott held for
many years the post of professor of architecture, and gave a long
series of able lectures on medieval styles, which were published in
1879. He wrote a work on Domestic Architecture, and a volume of
Personal and Professional Recollections, which, edited by his eldest
son, was published in 1879, and also a large number of articles and
reports on many of the ancient buildings with which he had to deal.
SCOTT, MICHAEL (1780-1835), British author, was born at
Cowlairs, near Glasgow, on the 3oth of October 1789, the son of
a Glasgow merchant. In 1806 he went to Jamaica, first managing
some estates, and afterwards joining a business firm in Kings-
ton. The latter post necessitated his making frequent journeys,
on the incidents of which he based his best known book, Tom
Cringle's Log. In 1822 he left Jamaica and settled in Glasgow,
where he engaged in business. Tom Cringle's Log began to appear
serially in Blackwood's Magazine in 1829. Scott's second
story, The Cruise of the Midge, was also first published serially
in Blackwood's in 1834-1835. The first appearance in book-form
of each story was in Paris in 1834. Both stories were originally
published anonymously, and their authorship was not known till
after Scott's death at Glasgow, on the 7th of November 1835.
SCOTT, ROBERT (1811-1887), English divine and lexico-
grapher, was born on the 26th of January 1811, at Bondleigh
in Devonshire, where his father was rector. Educated at
Shrewsbury School and Christ Church, Oxford, after a brilliant
university career he was elected fellow of Balliol, where he was
tutor from 1835 to 1840. After holding successively the college
livings of Duloe and South Luffenham, in 1854 he was elected
master of Balliol. This office he held, together (from 1861)
with that of the professorship of the exegesis of Holy Scriptures,
down to 1870, when he accepted the deanery of Rochester.
As master of Balliol he kept the college up to the high level it
had attained under his predecessor Dr Jenkyns. As a Greek
scholar, he had few equals among his contemporaries. His
great literary achievement, which may be said to constitute
his life's work, was his collaboration with Dean Liddell in the
Greek lexicon which bears their names. He died at Rochester
on the 2nd of December 1887.
SCOTT, SIR WALTER, BART. (1771-1832), Stottish poet and
novelist, was born at Edinburgh on the 15th of August 1771.
His pedigree, in which he took a pride that strongly influenced
the course of his life, may be given in the words of his own
fragment of autobiography. " My birth was neither distin-
guished nor sordid. According to the prejudices of my country
it was esteemed gentle, as I was connected, though remotely,
with ancient families both by my father's and mother's side.
My father's grandfather was Walter Scott, well known by the
name of Beardie. He was the second son of Walter Scott, first
laird of Raeburn, who was third son of Sir William Scott, and
the grandson of Walter Scott, commonly called in tradition
Auld Watt of Harden. I am therefore lineally descended from
that ancient chieftain, whose name I have made to ring in many
a ditty, and from his fair dame, the Flower of Yarrow no
bad genealogy for a Border minstrel."
In a notice of John Home, Scott speaks of pride of family
as " natural to a man of imagination," remarking that, " in
this motley world, the family pride of the north country has
its effects of good and of evil." Whether the good or the evil
preponderated in Scott's own case would not be easy to deter-
mine. It tempted him into courses that ended in commercial
ruin; but throughout his life it was a constant spur to exertion,
and in his last years it proved itself as a working principle
capable of inspiring and maintaining a most chivalrous con-
ception of duty. If the ancient chieftain Auld Watt was,
according to the anecdote told by his illustrious descendant,
once reduced in the matter of live stock to a single cow, and
recovered his dignity by stealing the cows of his English neigh-
bours, Scott's Border ancestry were sheep-farmers, who varied
their occupation by " lifting " sheep and cattle, and whatever
else was " neither too heavy nor too hot." The Border lairds
were really a race of shepherds in so far as they were not a race
of robbers. Scott may have derived from this pastoral ancestry
an hereditary bias towards the observation of nature and the
enjoyment of open-air life. He certainly inherited from them
the robust strength of constitution that carried him successfully
through so many exhausting labours. And it was his pride in
their real or supposed feudal dignity and their rough marauding
exploits that first directed him to the study of Border history
and poetry, the basis of his fame as a poet and romancer. His
father, Walter Scott, a writer to the signet (or attorney) in
Edinburgh the original of the elder Fairford in Redgauntlet
was the first of the family to adopt a town life or a learned
profession. His mother was the daughter of Dr John Ruther-
ford, a medical professor in the university of Edinburgh, who
also traced descent from the chiefs of famous Border clans.
The ceilings of Abbotsford display the arms of about a dozen
Border families with which Scott claimed kindred through one
side or the other. His father was conspicuous for methodical
and thorough industry; his mother was a woman of imagination
and culture. The son seems to have inherited the best qualities
of the one and acquired the best qualities of the other.
The details of his early education are given with great pre-
cision in his autobiography. John Stuart Mill was not more
minute in recording the various circumstances that shaped
his habits of mind and work. We learn from himself the secret
as much at least as could be ascribed to definite extraneous
accident of the " extempore speed " in romantic composition
against which Carlyle protested in his famous review of Lock-
hart's Life of Scott. The indignant critic assumed that Scott
wrote " without preparation "; Scott himself, as if he had
foreseen this cavil, is at pains to show that the preparation began
with his boyhood, almost with his infancy. The current legend
when Carlyle wrote his essay was that as a boy Scott had been
a dunce and an idler. With a characteristically conscientious
desire not to set a bad example, the autobiographer solemnly
declares that he was neither a dunce nor an idler, and explains
how the misunderstanding arose. His health in boyhood was
uncertain; 1 he was consequently irregular in his attendance
1 Dr Charles Creighton contributes the following medical note on
Scott's early illness: " Scott's lameness was owing to an arrest of
growth in the right leg in infancy. When he was eighteen months old
he had a feverish attack lasting three days, at the end of which time
it was found that he ' had lost the power of his right leg ' i.e. the
child instinctively declined to move the ailing member. The malady
was a swelling at the ankle, and either consisted in or gave rise to
arrest of the bone-forming function along the growing line of cartilage
which connects the lower epiphysis of each of the two leg-bones with
its shaft. In his fourth year, when he had otherwise recovered, the
leg remained ' much shrunk and contracted.' The limb would have
been blighted very much more if the arrest of growth had taken place
at the upper epiphysis of the tibia or the lower epiphysis of the femur.
The narrowness and peculiar depth of Scott's head point to some more
general congenital error of bone-making allied to rickets but certainly
not the same as that malady. The vault of the skull is the typical
' scaphoid ' or boat-shaped formation, due to premature union of the
two parietal bones along the sagittal suture. When the bones of the
cranium are universally affected with that arrest of growth along their
formative edges, the sutures become prematurely fixed and effaced,
so that the brain-case cannot expand in any direction to accommodate
the growing brain. This universal synostosis of the cranial bones is
what occurs in the case of microcephalous idiots. It happened to
me to show to an eminent French anthropologist a specimen of a
miniature or microcephalic skull preserved in the Cambridge museum
of anatomy; the French savant, holding up the skull and pointing to
the ' scaphoid ' vault of the crown and the effaced sagittal suture,
exclaimed ' Voila Walter Scott! ' Scott had fortunately escaped
the early closure or arrest of growth at other cranial sutures than the
sagittal, so that the growing brain could make room for itself by
forcing up the vault of the skull bodily. When his head was opened
after death, it was observed that ' the brain was not large, and the
cranium thinner than it is usually found to be.' In favour of the
theory of congenital liability it has to be said that he was the ninth of
a family of whom the first six died in ' very early youth.' "
470
at school, never became exact in his knowledge of Latin syntax,
and was so belated in beginning Greek that out of bravado he
resolved not to learn it at all.
Left very much to himself throughout his boyhood in the
matter of reading, so quick, lively, excitable and uncertain in
health that it was considered dangerous to press him and prudent
rather to keep him back, Scott began at a very early age to
accumulate the romantic lore of which he afterwards made such
splendid use. As a child he seems to have been an eager and
interested listener and a great favourite with his elders, ap-
parently having even then the same engaging charm that made
him so much beloved as a man. Chance threw him in the way
of many who were willing to indulge his delight in stories and
ballads. Not only his own relatives the old women at his
grandfather's farm at Sandyknowe, his aunt, under whose
charge he was sent to Bath for a year, his mother took an
interest in the precocious boy's questions, told him tales of
Jacobites and Border worthies of his own and other clans, but
casual friends of the family such as the military veteran at
Prestonpans, old Dr Blacklock the blind poet, Home the author
of Douglas, Adam Ferguson the martial historian of the Roman
republic helped forward his education in the direction in
which the bent of his genius lay. At the age of six he was able
to define himself as "a virtuoso," "one who wishes to and will
know everything." At ten his collection of chap-books and
ballads had reached several volumes, and he was a connoisseur
in various readings. Thus he took to the High School, Edin-
burgh, when he was strong enough to be put in regular attend-
ance, an unusual store of miscellaneous knowledge and an
unusually quickened intelligence, so that his master " pro-
nounced that, though many of his schoolfellows understood the
Latin better, Guallerus Scott was behind few in following and
enjoying the author's meaning."
Throughout his school days and afterwards when he was
apprenticed to his father, attended university classes, read for
the bar, took part in academical and professional debating
societies, Scott steadily and ardently pursued his own favourite
studies. His reading in romance and history was really study,
and not merely the indulgence of an ordinary schoolboy's
promiscuous appetite for exciting literature. In fact, even as a
schoolboy he specialized. He followed the line of overpowering
inclination; and even then, as he frankly tells us, " fame was
the spur." He acquired a reputation among- his schoolfellows
for out-of-the-way knowledge, and also for story-telling, and
he worked hard to maintain this character, which compensated
to his ambitious spirit his indifferent distinction in ordinary
school-work. The youthful " virtuoso," though he read ten
times the usual allowance of novels from the circulating library,
was carried by his enthusiasm into fields much less generally
attractive. He was still a schoolboy when he mastered French
sufficiently well to read through collections of old French
romances, and not more than fifteen when, attracted by trans-
lations to Italian romantic literature, he learnt the language
in order to read Dante and Ariosto in the original. This willing-
ness to face dry work in the pursuit of romantic reading affords
a measure of the strength of Scott's passion. In one of the
literary parties brought together to lionize Burns, when the
peasant poet visited Edinburgh, the boy of fifteen was the only
member of the company who could tell the source of some lines
affixed to a picture that had attracted the poet's attention
a slight but significant evidence both of the width of his reading
and of the tenacity of his memory. The same thoroughness
appears in another little circumstance. He took an interest in
Scottish family history and genealogy, but, not content with
the ordinary sources, he ransacked the MSS. preserved in the
Advocates' Library. By the time he was one and twenty he had
acquired such a reputation for his skill in deciphering old manu-
scripts that his assistance was sought by professional antiquaries.
This early, assiduous, unintermittent study was the main
secret, over and above his natural gifts, of Scott's extempore
speed and fertility when at last he found forms into which to
pour his vast accumulation of historical and romantic lore. He
SCOTT, SIR WALTER
was, as he said himself, " like an ignorant gamester who keeps
up a good hand till he knows how to play it." That he had
vague thoughts from a much earlier period than is commonly
supposed of playing the hand some day is extremely probable,
if, as he tells us, the idea of writing romances first occurred
to him when he read Cervantes in the original. This was long
before he was out of his teens; and, if we add that his leading
idea in his first novel was to depict a Jacobitic Don Quixote,
we can see that there was probably a long interval between the
first conception of Waverley and the ultimate completion.
Scott's preparation for painting the life of past times was
probably much less unconsciously such than his equally thorough
preparation for acting as the painter of Scottish manners and
character in all grades of society. With all the extent of his
reading as a schoolboy and a young man he was far from being
a cloistered student, absorbed in his books. In spite of his lame-
ness and his serious illnesses in youth, his constitution was natur-
ally robust, his disposition genial, his spirits high : he was always
well to the front in the fights and frolics of the High School,
and a boon companion in the " high jinks " of the junior bar.
The future novelist's experience of life was singularly rich and
varied. While he liked the life of imagination and scholarship
in sympathy with a few choice friends, he was brought into
intimate daily contact with many varieties of real life. At home
he had to behave as became a member of a Puritanic, somewhat
ascetic, well-ordered Scottish household, subduing his own
inclinations towards a more graceful and comfortable scheme
of living into outward conformity with his father's strict rule.
Through his mother's family he obtained access to the literary
society of Edinburgh, at that time electrified by the advent of
Burns, full of vigour and ambition, rejoicing in the possession of
not a few widely known men of letters, philosophers, historians,
novelists and critics, from racy and eccentric Monboddo to refined
and scholarly Mackenzie. In that society also he may have found
the materials for the manners and characters of St Ronan's Well,
From any tendency to the pedantry of over-culture he was
effectually saved by the rougher and manlier spirit of his pro-
fessional comrades, who, though they respected belles lettres,
would not tolerate anything in the shape of affectation or senti-
mentalism. The atmosphere of the Parliament House (the law-
courts of Edinburgh) had considerable influence on the tone of
Scott's novels. His peculiar humour as a story-teller and painter
of character was first developed among the young men of his own
standing at the bar. They were the first mature audience on
which he experimented, and seem often to have been in his mind's
eye when he enlarged his public. From their mirthful com-
panionship by the stove, where the briefless congregated to
discuss knotty points in law and help one another to enjoy the
humours of judges and litigants, " Duns Scotus " often stole
away to pore over old books and manuscripts in the library
beneath; but as long as he was with them he was first among his
peers in the art of providing entertainment. It was to this market
that Scott brought the harvest of the vacation rambles which it
was his custom to make every autumn for seven years after his
call to the bar and before his marriage. He scoured the country
in search of ballads and other relics of antiquity; but he found
also and treasured many traits of living manners, many a lively
sketch and story with which to amuse the brothers of " the
mountain " on his return. His staid father did not much like
these escapades, and told him bitterly that he seemed fit for
nothing but to be a " gangrel scrape-gut." But, as the companion
of " his Liddesdale raids " happily put it, " he was makin'
himsell a' the time, but he didna ken maybe what he was about
till years had passed: at first he thought o' little, I dare say, but
the queerness and the fun."
His father intended him originally to follow his own business,
and he was apprenticed in his sixteenth year; but he preferred
the upper walk of the legal profession, and was admitted a
member of the faculty of advocates in 1792. He seems to have
read hard at law for four years at least, but almost from the first
to have limited his ambition to obtaining some comfortable
appointment such as would leave him a good deal of leisure for
SCOTT, SIR WALTER
literiry pursuits. In this he was not disappointed. In 1799 he
obtained the office of sheriff -depute of Selkirkshire, with a salary
of joo and very light duties. In 1806 he obtained the reversion
of the office of clerk of session. It is sometimes supposed, from
the immense amount of other work that Scott accomplished,
that this office was a sinecure. But the duties, which are fully
described by Lockhart, were really serious, and kept him hard at
fatiguing work, his biographer estimates, for at least three or four
hours daily during six months out of the twelve, while the court
was in session. He discharged these duties faithfully for twenty-
five years, during the height of his activity as an author. He did
not enter on the emoluments of the office till 1812, but from that
time he received from the clerkship and the sheriffdom com-
bined an income of 1600 a year, being thus enabled to act in his
literary undertakings on his often-quoted maxim that "literature
should be a staff and not a crutch." Scott's profession, in
addition to supplying him with a competent livelihood, supplied
him also with abundance of opportunties for the study of men
and manners.
It was as a poet that he was first to make a literary reputation.
According to his own account, he was led to adopt the medium
of verse by a series of accidents. The story is told by himself at
length and with his customary frankness and modesty in the
Essay on Imitations of the Ancient Ballad, prefixed to the 1830
edition of his Border Minstrelsy, and in the 1830 introduction to
the Lay of the Last Minstrel. The first link in the chain was a
lecture by Henry Mackenzie on German literature, delivered in
1788. This apprized Scott, who was then a legal apprentice and
an enthusiastic student of French and Italian romance, that
there was a fresh development of romantic literature in German.
As soon as he had the burden of preparation for the bar off his
mind he learnt German, and was profoundly excited to find a
new school founded on the serious study of a kind of literature his
own devotion to which was regarded by most of his companions
with wonder and ridicule. We must remember always that Scott
quite as much as Wordsworth created the taste by which he was
enjoyed, and that in his early days he was half-ashamed of his
romantic studies, and pursued them more or less in secret with
a few intimates. While he was in the height of his enthusiasm
for the new German romance, Mrs Barbauld visited Edinburgh,
and recited an English translation of Burger's Lenore. Scott
heard of it from a friend, who was able to repeat two lines
" Tramp, tramp, across the land they speed ;
Splash, splash, across the sea ! "
The two lines were enough to give Scott a new ambition. He
could write such poetry himself! The impulse was strengthened
by his reading Lewis's Monk and the ballads in the German
manner interspersed through the work. He hastened to procure
a copy of Burger, at once executed translations of several of
his ballads, published The Chase, and William and Helen, in a
thin quarto in 1796 (his ambition being perhaps quickened
by the unfortunate issue of a love affair), and was much en-
couraged by the applause of his friends. Soon after he met
Lewis personally, and his ambition was confirmed. " Finding
Lewis," he says, " in possession of so much reputation, and
conceiving that if I fell behind him in poetical powers, I
considerably exceeded him in general information, I suddenly
took it into my head to attempt the style of poetry by which
he had raised himself to fame." Accordingly, he composed
Glenfinlas, The Eve of St John, and the Gray Brother, which
were published in Lewis's collection of Tales of Wonder (2 vols.,
1801). But he soon became convinced that "the practice of
ballad- writing was out of fashion, and that any attempt to
revive it or to found a poetical character on it would certainly
fail of success." His study of Goethe's Gotz wn Berlichingen,
of which he published a translation in 1799, gave him wider
ideas. Why should he not do for ancient Border manners what
Goethe had done for the ancient feudalism of the Rhine? He
had been busy since his boyhood collecting Scottish Border
ballads and studying the minutest details of Border history.
He began to cast about for a form which should have the ad-
vantage of novelty, and a subject which should secure unity
471
of composition. He was engaged at the time preparing a collec-
tion of the Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. The first instalment
was published in two volumes in 1802; it was followed by a
third next year, and by an edition and continuation of the old
romance of Sir Tristram; and Scott was still hesitating about
subject and form for a large original work. Chance at last
threw in his way both a suitable subject and a suitable metrical
vehicle. He had engaged all his friends in the hunt for Border
ballads and legends. Among others, the countess of Dalkeith,
wife of the heir-apparent to the dukedom of Buccleuch, interested
herself in the work. Happening to hear the legend of a tricksy
hobgoblin named Gilpin Horner, she asked Scott to write a ballad
about it. He agreed with delight, and, out of compliment to the
lady who had given this command to the bard, resolved to connect
it with the house of Buccleuch. The subject grew in his fertile
imagination, till incidents enough had gathered round the
goblin to furnish a framework for his long-designed picture of
Border manners. Chance also furnished him with a hint for
a novel scheme of verse. Coleridge's fragment of Christabel,
though begun in 1797 when he and Wordsworth were discussing
on the Quantock Hills the principles of such ballads as Scott
at the same time was reciting to himself in his gallops on Mussel-
burgh sands was not published till 1816. But a friend of
Scott's, Sir John Stoddart, had met Coleridge in Malta, and had
carried home in his memory enough of the unfinished poem to
convey to Scott that its metre was the very metre of which
he had been in search. Scott introduced still greater variety
into the four-beat couplet; but it was to Christabel that he owed
the suggestion, as one line borrowed whole and many imitated
rhythms testify.
The Lay of the Last Minstrel appeared in January 1803, and
at once became widely popular. It sold more rapidly than poem
had ever sold before. Scott was astonished at his own success,
although he expected that " the attempt to return to a more
simple and natural style of poetry was likely to be welcomed."
Many things contributed to the extraordinary demand for the
Lay. First and foremost, no doubt, we must reckon its simplicity.
After the abstract themes and abstruse, elaborately allusive
style of the i8th century, the public were glad of verse that
could be read with ease and even with exhilaration, verse in which
a simple interesting story was told with brilliant energy, and
simple feelings were treated not as isolated themes but as in-
cidents in the lives of individual men and women. The thought
was not so profound, the lines were not so polished, as in The
Pleasures of Memory or The Pleasures of Hope, but the " light-
horseman sort of stanza " carried the reader briskly over a much
more diversified country, through boldly outlined and strongly
coloured scenes. No stanza required a second reading; you had
not to keep attention on the stretch or pause and construe
laboriously before you could grasp the writer's meaning or enter
into his artfully condensed sentiment. To remember the pedi-
grees of all the Scotts, or the names of all the famous chiefs
and hardy retainers " whose gathering word was Bellenden,"
might have required some effort, but only the conscientious
reader need care to make it. The only puzzle in the Lay was the
goblin page, and the general reader was absolved from all trouble
about him by the unanimous declaration of the critics, led by
Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review, that he was a grotesque
excrescence, in no way essential to the story. It is commonly
taken for granted that Scott acquiesced in this judgment, his
politely ironic letter to Miss Seward being quoted as conclusive.
This is hardly fair to the poor goblin, seeing that his story was
the germ of the poem and determines its whole structure; but
it is a tribute to the lively simplicity of the Lay that few people
should be willing to take the very moderate amount of pains
necessary to see the goblin's true position in the action. The
supernatural element was Scott's most risky innovation. For
the rest, he was a cautious and conservative reformer, careful
not to offend established traditions. He was far from raising
the standard of rebellion, as Wordsworth had done, against
the great artistic canon of the classical school
" True art is nature to advantage dressed."
472
SCOTT, SIR WALTER
To " engraft modern refinement on ancient simplicity," to
preserve the energy of the old ballad without its rudeness and
bareness of poetic ornament, was Scott's avowed aim. He
adhered to the poetic diction against which Wordsworth pro-
tested. His rough Borderers are " dressed to advantage " in
the costume of romantic chivalry. The baronial magnificence
of Branksome, Deloraine's " shield and jack and acton, " the
elaborate ceremony of the combat between the pseudo-Deloraine
and Musgrave, are concessions to the taste of the i8th century.
Further, he disarmed criticism by putting his poem into the
mouth of an ancient minstrel, thus pictorially emphasizing the
fact that it was an imitation of antiquity, and providing a
scapegoat on whose back might be laid any remaining sins of
rudeness or excessive simplicity. And, while imitating the
antique romance, he was careful not to imitate its faults of
rambling, discursive, disconnected structure. He was scrupu-
lously attentive to the classical unities of time, place and action.
The scene never changes from Branksome and its neighbourhood;
the time occupied by the action (as he pointed out in his preface)
is three nights and three days; and, in spite of all that critics
have said about the superfluity of the goblin page, it is not
difficult to trace unity of intention and regular progressive
development in the incidents.
The success of the Lay decided finally, if it was not decided
already, that literature was to be the main business of Scott's
life, and he proceeded to arrange his affairs accordingly. It
would have been well for his comfort, if not for his fame, had he
adhered to his first plan, which was to buy a small mountain-
farm near Bowhill, with the proceeds of some property left to
him by an uncle, and divide his year between this and Edinburgh,
where he had good hopes, soon afterwards realized, of a salaried
appointment in the Court of Session. This would have given
him ample leisure and seclusion for literature, while his private
means and official emoluments secured him against dependence
on his pen. He would have been laird as well as sheriff of the
cairn and the scaur, and as a man of letters his own master.
Since his marriage in 1797 with Charlotte Charpentier, daughter
of a French refugee, his chief residence had been at Lasswade,
about six miles from Edinburgh. But on a hint from the lord-
lieutenant that the sheriff must live at least four months in the
year within his county, and that he was attending more closely
to his duties as quartermaster of a mounted company of
volunteers than was consistent with the proper discharge of his
duties as sheriff, he had moved his household in 1804 to Ashestiel.
When his uncle's bequest fell in, he determined to buy a small
property on the banks of the Tweed within the limits of his
sheriffdom. There, within sight of Newark Castle and Bowhill,
he proposed to live like his ancient minstrel, as became the
bard of the clan, under the shadow of the great ducal head of the
Scotts. But this plan was deranged by an accident. It so
happened that an old schoolfellow, James Ballantyne (1772-1833),
a printer in Kelso, whom he had already befriended, transplanted
to Edinburgh, and furnished with both work and money, applied
to him for a further loan. Scott declined to lend, but offered
to join him as sleeping partner. Thus the intended purchase
money of Broadmeadows became the capital of a printing concern,
of which by degrees the man of letters became the overwrought
slave, milch-cow and victim.
When the Lay was off his hands, Scott's next literary enterprise
was a prose romance a confirmation of the argument that he
did not take to prose after Byron had " bet him," as he put it,
in verse, but that romance writing was a long-cherished purpose.
He began Waverley, but a friend to whom he showed the first
chapters which do not take Waverley out of England, and
describe an education in romantic literature very much like
Scott's own not unnaturally decided that the work was deficient
in interest and unworthy of the author of the Lay. Scott
accordingly laid Waverley aside. We may fairly conjecture that
he would not have been so easily diverted had he not been
occupied at the time with other heavy publishing enterprises
calculated to bring grist to the printing establishment. His
active brain was full of projects for big editions, which he
undertook to carry through on condition that the printing was
done by Ballantyne & Co., the " Co. " being kept a profound
secret, because it might have injured the lawyer and poet
professionally and socially to be known as partner in a commercial
concern.
In 1806 he collected from different publications his Ballads
and Lyrical Pieces. Between 1806 and 1812, mainly to serve
the interests of the firm, though of course the work was not in
itself unattractive to him, Scott produced his elaborate editions
of Dryden (18 vols., 1808), Swift (19 vols., 1818), the Somers
Tracts (13 vols., 1809-1815), and the Stale Papers and Letters
of Sir Ralph Sadler (2 vols., 1809). Incidentally these laborious
tasks contributed to his preparation for the main work of his
life by extending his knowledge of English and Scottish history.
Marmion, begun in November 1806 and published in February
1808, was written as a relief to " graver cares," though in this
also he aimed at combining with a romantic story a solid picture
of an historical period. It was even more popular than the
Lay. Scott's resuscitation of the four-beat measure of the old
" gestours " afforded a signal proof of the justness of their
instinct in choosing this vehicle for their recitations. The
four-beat lines of Marmion took possession of the public like
a kind of madness: they not only clung to the memory but they
would not keep off the tongue: people could not help spouting
them in solitary places and muttering them as they walked
about the streets. The critics, except Jeffrey, who may have
been offended by the pronounced politics of the poet, were on
the whole better pleased than with the Lay. Their chief com-
plaint was with the " introductions " to the various cantos, which
were objected to as vexatiously breaking the current of the
story.
The triumphant success of Marmion, establishing him as
facile princeps among living poets, gave Scott such a heeze,
to use his own words, " as almost lifted him off his feet." He
touched then the highest point of prosperity and happiness.
Presently after, he was irritated and tempted by a combination
of little circumstances into the great blunder of his life, the
establishment of the publishing house of John Ballantyne & Co.
A coolness arose between him and Jeffrey, chiefly on political
but partly also on personal grounds. They were old friends,
and Scott had written many articles for the Review, but its
political attitude at this time was intensely unsatisfactory
to Scott. To complete the breach, Jeffrey reviewed Marmion
in a hostile spirit. A quarrel occurred also between Scott's
printing firm and Constable, the publisher, who had been the
principal feeder of its press. Then the tempter appeared in
the shape of Murray, the London publisher, anxious to secure
the services of the most popular litterateur of the day. The
result of negotiations was that Scott set up, in opposition to
Constable, " the crafty, " " the grand Napoleon of the realms
of print, " the publishing house of John Ballantyne & Co., to
be managed by John Ballantyne (d. 1821), James's younger
brother, whom Scott nicknamed " Rigdumfunnidos, " for his
talents as a mimic and low comedian. Scott interested himself
warmly in starting the Quarterly Review, and in return Murray
constituted Ballantyne & Co. his Edinburgh agents. Scott's
trust in Rigdumfunnidos and his brother, " Aldiborontiphos-
cophornio, " and in his own power to supply all their deficiencies,
is as strange a piece of infatuation as any that ever formed
a theme for romance or tragedy. Their devoted attachment
to the architect of their fortunes and proud confidence in his
powers helped forward to the catastrophe, for whatever Scott
recommended they agreed to, and he was too immersed in
multifarious literary work and professional and social engage-
ments to have time for cool examination of the numerous rash
speculative ventures into which he launched the firm.
The Lady of the Lake (May 1810) was the first great publication
by the new house, and next year the Vision of Don Roderick
followed. The Lady of the Lake was received with enthusiasm,
even Jeffrey joining in the chorus of applause. It made the
Perthshire Highlands fashionable for tourists, and raised the
post-horse duty in Scotland. But it did not make up to
SCOTT, SIR WALTER
473
Ballantyne & Co. for their heavy investments in unsound ventures.
The Edinburgh Annual Register, meant as a rival to the Edinburgh
Review, though Scott engaged Southey to write for it and wrote
for it largely himself, proved a failure. In a very short time
the warehouses of the firm were filled with unsaleable stock.
By the end of three years Scott began to write to his partners
about the propriety of " reefing sails." But apparently he
was too much occupied to look into the accounts of the firm,
and, so far from understanding the real state of their affairs,
he considered himself rich enough to make his first purchase
of land at Abbotsford. But he had hardly settled there in the
spring of 1812, and begun his schemes for building and planting
and converting a bare moor into a richly wooded pleasaunce,
than his business troubles began, and he found himself harassed
by fears of bankruptcy. Rigdumfunnidos concealed the situation
as long as he could, but as bill after bill came due he was obliged
to make urgent application to Scott, and the truth was thus
forced from him item by item. He had by no means revealed
all when Scott, who behaved with admirable good-nature, was
provoked into remonstrating, " For heaven's sake, treat me as
a man and not as a milch-cow." The proceeds of Rokeby
(January 1813) and of other labours of Scott's pen were swallowed
up, and bankruptcy was inevitable, when Constable, still eager
at any price to secure Scott's services, came to the rescue.
With his help three crises were tided over in 1813.
It was in the midst of these embarrassments that Scott
opened up the rich new vein of the Waverley novels. He chanced
upon the manuscript of the opening chapters of Waverley which
he had written in 1805, and resolved to complete the story.
Four weeks in the summer of 1814 sufficed for the work, and
Waverley was published by Constable without the author's
name in July. The notes and introductions first appeared in
the edition of 1829. Many plausible reasons might be given and
have been given for Scott's resolution to publish anonymously.
The reason given by Lockhart is that he considered the writing
of novels beneath the dignity of a grave clerk of the Court of
Session. Why he kept up the mystification, though the secret,
which was formally divulged in 1827, was an open one to all his
Edinburgh acquaintances, is easily understood. He enjoyed it,
and his formally initiated coadjutors enjoyed it; it relieved him
from the annoyances of foolish compliment; and it was not
unprofitable curiosity about " the Great Unknown " keeping
alive the interest in his works. The secret was so well kept by
all to whom it was definitely entrusted, and so many devices
were used to throw conjecture off the scent, that even Scott's
friends, who were certain of the authorship from internal evidence,
were occasionally puzzled. He kept on producing in his own
name as much work as seemed humanly possible for an official
who was to be seen every day at his post and as often in society
as the most fashionable of his professional brethren. His
treatises on chivalry, romance and the drama, besides an elaborate
work in two volumes on Border antiquities, appeared in the
same year with Waverley, and his edition of Swift in nineteen
volumes in the same week. In 1813 he published the romantic
tale of The Bridal of Triermain in three cantos, enlarged from
an earlier poem, printed in the Edinburgh Annual Register of
1809. The Lord of the Isles was published in January 1815;
Guy Mannering, written in " six weeks about Christmas," in
February; and The Field of Waterloo in the same year. Paul's
Letters to his Kinsfolk and The Antiquary appeared in 1816;
the first series of the Tales of My Landlord, edited by " Jedediah
Cleishbotham " The Black Dwarf and Old Mortality in the
same year; Harold the Dauntless 1 in 1817; the two volumes
of The Border Antiquities of England and Scotland in 1814 and
1817. No wonder that the most positive interpreters of internal
evidence were mystified. It was not as if he had buried himself
in the country for the summer half of the year. On the contrary,
he kept open house at Abbotsford in the fine old feudal fashion
and was seldom without visitors. His own friends and many
This poem, like the Bridal of Triermain, did not bear his name
on the title-page, but the authorship was an open secret, although he
tried to encourage the idea that the author was his friend Erskine.
strangers from a distance, with or without introductions, sought
him there, and found a hearty hospitable country laird, entirely
occupied to all outward appearance with local and domestic
business and sport, building and planting, adding wing to wing,
acre to acre, plantation to plantation, with just leisure enough
for the free-hearted entertainment of his guests and the cultiva-
tion of friendly relations with his humble neighbours. How
could such a man find time to write two or three novels a year,
besides what was published in his own name? Even the few
intimates who knew how early he got up to prepare his packet
for the printer, and had some idea of the extraordinary power
that he had acquired of commanding his faculties for the utiliza-
tion of odd moments, must have wondered at times whether he
had not inherited the arts of his ancestral relation Michael Scot,
and kept a goblin in some retired attic or vault.
Scott's fertility is not absolutely unparalleled; Anthony
Trollope claimed to have surpassed him in rate as well as total
amount of production, having also business duties to attend
to. But in speed of production combined with variety and
depth of interest and weight and accuracy of historical substance
Scott is unrivalled. On his claims as a serious historian, which
Carlyle ignored in his curiously narrow and splenetic criticism,
he was always, with all his magnanimity, peculiarly sensitive.
A certain feeling that his antiquarian studies were undervalued
seems to have haunted him from his youth. It was probably
this that gave the sting to Jeffrey's criticism of Marmion, and
that tempted him to the somewhat questionable proceeding
of reviewing his own novels in the Quarterly upon the appearance
of Old Mortality. He was nettled besides at the accusation of
having treated the Covenanters unfairly, and wanted to justify
himself by the production of historical documents. In this criticism
of himself Scott replied lightly to some of the familiar objections
to his work, such as the feebleness of his heroes, Waverley,
Bertram, Lovel, and the melodramatic character of some of
his scenes and characters. But he argued more seriously against
the idea that historical romances are the enemies of history,
and he rebutted by anticipation Carlyle's objection that he wrote
only to amuse idle persons who like to lie on their backs and read
novels. His apologia is worth quoting. Historical romances,
he admits, have always been failures, but the failure has been
due to the imperfect knowledge of the writers and not to the
species of composition. If, he says, anachronisms in manners
can be avoided, and " the features of an age gone by can be
recalled in a spirit of delineation at once faithful and striking, . . .
the composition itself is in every point of view dignified and
improved; and the author, leaving the light and frivolous
associates with whom a careless observer would be disposed
to ally him, takes his seat on the bench of the historians of his
time and country. In this proud assembly, and in no mean place
of it, we are disposed to rank the author of these works. At
once a master of the great events and minute incidents of history,
and of the manners of the times he celebrates, as distinguished
from those which now prevail, the intimate thus of the living
and of the dead, his judgment enables him to separate those
traits which are characteristic from those that are generic;
and his imagination, not less accurate and discriminating than
vigorous and vivid, presents to the mind of the reader the
manners of the times, and introduces to his familiar acquaintance
the individuals of the drama as they thought and spoke and
acted." This defence of himself shows us the ideal at which
Scott aimed, and which he realized. He was not in the least
unconscious of his own excellence. He did not hesitate in this
review to compare himself with Shakespeare in respect of truth
to nature. " The volume which this author has studied is the
great book of nature. He has gone abroad into the world in
quest of what the world will certainly and abundantly supply,
but what a man of great discrimination alone will find, and a
man of the very highest genius will alone depict after he has
discovered it. The characters of Shakespeare are not more
exclusively human, not more perfectly men and women as they
live and move, than those of this mysterious author."
The immense strain of Scott's double or quadruple life as
474
SCOTT, SIR WALTER
sheriff and clerk, hospitable laird, poet, novelist, and miscella-
neous man of letters, publisher and printer, though the prosperous
excitement sustained him for a time, soon told upon his health.
Early in 1817 began a series of attacks of agonizing cramp of the
stomach, which recurred at short intervals during more than
two years. But his appetite and capacity for work remained
unbroken. He made his first attempt at play-writing l as he
was recovering from the first attack; before the year was out
he had completed Rob Roy, and within six months it was followed
by The Heart of Midlothian, which filled the four volumes of the
second series of Tales of My Landlord, and has remained one of
the most popular among his novels. The Bride of Lammermoor,
The Legend of Montrose, forming the third series by " Jedediah
Cleishbotham," and Ivanhoe (1820) were dictated to amanuenses,
through fits of suffering so acute that he could not suppress
cries of agony. Still he would not give up. When Laidlaw
begged him to stop dictating he only answered, " Nay, Willie,
only see that the doors are fast. I would fain keep all the cry
as well as the wool to ourselves; but as to giving over work,
that can only be when I am in woollen."
Throughout those two years of intermittent ill-health, which
was at one time so serious that his life was despaired of and he
took formal leave of his family, Scott's semi-public life at Abbots-
ford continued as usual swarms of visitors coming and going,
and the rate of production, on the whole, suffering no outward
and visible check, all the world wondering at the novelist's
prodigious fertility. The first of the series concerning which
there were murmurs of dissatisfaction was The Monastery (1820),
which was the first completed after the re-establishment of the
author's bodily vigour. The failure, such as it was, was possibly
due to the introduction of the supernatural in the person of the
White Lady of Avenel; and its sequel, The Abbot (1820), in which
Mary, Queen of Scots, is introduced, was generally hailed as
fully sustaining the reputation of " the Great Unknown."
Kenilworth (1821), The Pirate (1822), The Fortunes of Nigel
(1822), Peveril of the Peak (1822), Quenlin Dunvard (1823),
St Ronan's Well (1824), Redgauntlel (1824) followed in quick
succession in the course of three years, and it was not till the last
two were reached that the cry that the author was writing too
fast began to gather volume. St Ronan's Well was very severely
criticized and condemned. And yet Leslie Stephen tells a story
of a dozen modern connoisseurs in the Waverley novels who
agreed that each should write down separately the name of his
favourite novel, when it appeared that each had without concert
named St Ronan's Well. There is this certainly to be said for
Si Ronan's, that, in spite of the heaviness of some of the scenes
at the " bottle " and the artificial melodramatic character of
some of the personages, none of Scott's stories is of more absorbing
or more brilliantly diversified interest. Contradictions between
contemporary popular opinion and mature critical judgment,
as well as diversities of view among critics themselves, rather
shake confidence in individual judgment on the vexed but not
particularly wise question which is the best of Scott's novels.
There must, of course, always be inequalities in a series so
prolonged. The author cannot always be equally happy in his
choice of subject, situation and character. Naturally also he
dealt first with the subjects of which his mind was fullest. But
any theory of falling off or exhaustion based upon plausible
general considerations has to be qualified so much when brought
into contact with the facts that very little confidence can be
reposed in its accuracy. The Fortunes of Nigel comes com-
paratively late in the series and has often been blamed for its
looseness of construction. Scott himself always spoke slightingly
of his plots, and humorously said that he proceeded on Bayes's
maxim, " What the deuce is a plot good for but to bring in good
things?" Yet some competent critics prefer The Fortunes
of Nigel to any other of Scott's novels. An attempt might be
1 The Doom of Devorgoil. This and his other dramatic sketches,
Macdufs Cross, Halidon Hill (1822) and Auchindrane, or The
Ayrshire Tragedy, printed with Devorgoil in 1830, were slight com-
positions, dashed off in a few days, and afford no measure of what
Scott might have done as a dramatist if he had studied the conditions
of stage representation.
made to value the novels according to the sources of their
materials, according as they are based on personal observation,
documentary history or previous imaginative literature. On
this principle Ivanhoe and The Tales of the Crusaders (1825,
containing The Betrothed and The Talisman) might be adjudged
inferior as being based necessarily on previous romance. But
as a matter of fact Scott's romantic characters are vitalized,
clothed with a verisimilitude of life, out of the author's deep,
wide and discriminating knowledge of realities, and his observa-
tion of actual life was coloured by ideals derived from romance.
He wrote all his novels out of a mind richly stored with learning
of all kinds, and in the heat of composition seems to have drawn
from whatever his tenacious memory supplied to feed the
fire of imagination, without pausing to reflect upon the source.
He did not exhaust his accumulations from one source first
and then turn to another, but from first to last drew from all
as the needs of the occasion happened to suggest.
During the years 1821-1825 he edited Richard Franck's
Northern Memoirs (1821), Chronological Notes of Scottish A/airs
from the Diary of Lord Fountainhall (1822), Military Memoirs
of the Great Civil War (1822), and The Novelists' Library (10 vols.,
London, 1821-1824), the prefatory memoirs to which were
separately published in 1828.
Towards the close of 1825, after eleven years of brilliant and
prosperous labour, encouraged by constant tributes of admiration,
homage and affection such as no other literary potentate has
ever enjoyed, realizing his dreams of baronial splendour and
hospitality on a scale suited to his large literary revenues, Scott
suddenly discovered that the foundations of his fortune were
unsubstantial. He had imagined himself clear of all embarrass-
ments in 1818, when all the unsaleable stock of John Ballantyne
& Co. was bargained off by Rigdum to Constable for Waverley
copyrights, and the publishing concern was wound up. Appar-
ently he never informed himself accurately of the new relations
of mutual accommodation on which the printing firm then
entered with the great but rashly speculative publisher, and
drew liberally for his own expenditure against the undeniable
profits of his novels without asking any questions, trusting
blindly in the solvency of his commercial henchmen. Un-
fortunately, " lifted off their feet " by the wonderful triumphs
of their chief, they thought themselves exempted like himself
from the troublesome duty of inspecting ledgers and balancing
accounts, till the crash came. From a diary which Scott began
a few days before the first rumours of financial difficulty reached
him we know how he bore from day to day the rapidly unfolded
prospect of unsuspected liabilities. " Thank God," was his
first reflection, " I have enough to pay more than 203. in the
pound, taking matters at the worst." But a few weeks revealed
the unpleasant truth that, owing to the way in which Ballantyne
& Co. were mixed up with Constable & Co., and Constable with
Hurst & Robinson, the failure of the London house threw
upon him personal responsibility for 130,000.
How Scott's pride rebelled against the dishonour of bankruptcy,
how he toiled for the rest of his life to clear off this enormous
debt, declining all offers of assistance and asking no consideration
from his creditors except time, and how nearly he succeeded,
is one of the most familiar chapters in literary history, and would
be one of the saddest were it not for the heroism of the enterprise.
His wife died soon after the struggle began, and he suffered
other painful bereavements; but, though sick at heart, he
toiled on indomitably, and, writing for honour, exceeded even
his happiest days in industrious speed. If he could have main-
tained the rate of the first three years, during which he completed
Woodstock (1826); Chronicles of the Canongale (1827), which
included three tales" The Highland Widow," " The Two
Drovers" and "The Surgeon's Daughter"; The Fair Maid
of Perth (1828, in the second series of Chronicles of the Canongale) ;
Anne of Geierstein (1829); the Life of Napoleon (9 vols., 1827);
part of his History of Scotland (2 vols., 1829-1830, for Lardner's
Cabinet Cyclopaedia) ; the Scottish series of Tales of a Grandfather
(four series, 1828-1829-1830-1831; inscribed to " Hugh Little-
John," i.e. John Hugh Lockhart), besides several magazine articles,
SCOTT, W. B. SCOTT, W.
some of them among the most brilliant of his miscellaneous
writings, and prefaces and notes to a collected edition of his
novels if he could have continued at this rate he might soon
have freed himself from all his encumbrances. The result of his
exertions from January 1826 to January 1828 was nearly 40,000
for his creditors. But the terrific labour proved too rnuch
even for his endurance. Ugly symptoms began to alarm his
family in 1829, and in February of 1830 he had his first stroke
of paralysis. Still he was undaunted,, and not all the persuasions
of friends and physicians could induce him to take rest. " During
1830," Lockhart says, " he covered almost as many sheets
with his MS. as in 1829," the new introductions to a collected
edition of his poetry and the Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft
being amongst the labours of the year. He had a slight touch
of apoplexy in November and a distinct stroke of paralysis in
the following April; but, in spite of these warnings and of
other bodily ailments, he had two more novels, Count Robert of
Paris and Castle Z>agerows(constituting the fourth series olTales
of My Landlord}, ready for the press by the autumn of 1831.
He would not yield to the solicitations of his friends and consent
to try rest and a change of scene, till fortunately, as his mental
powers failed, he became possessed of the idea that all his debts
were at last paid and that he was once more a free man. In this
belief he happily remained till his death. When it was known
that his physicians recommended a sea voyage for his health,
a government vessel was put at his disposal, and he cruised
about in the Mediterranean and visited places of interest for
the greater part of a year before his death. But, when he felt
that the end was near, he insisted on being carried across Europe
that he might die on his beloved Tweedside at Abbotsford, where
he expired on the 2ist of September 1832. He was buried
at Dryburgh Abbey.
Scott's wife had died in 1826. His eldest son, Walter, succeeded
to the baronetcy which had been conferred on his father in 1820,
and the title became extinct on his death in 1847; the second
son, Charles, died at Teheran in 1841, and the second daughter,
Anne, died unmarried in 1833. Scott's elder daughter Charlotte
Sophia (d. 1837) was the wife of his biographer, J. G. Lockhart
(q.v.); and their daughter Charlotte (d. 1858) married J. R.
Hope-Scott (q.v.), and was the mother of Mary Monica, wife of
the Hon. J. C. Maxwell, who in 1874 took the additional name
of Scott on his marriage with the heiress of Abbotsford. Mrs
Maxwell Scott inherited some of the family literary talent, and
among other books wrote two volumes about Abbotsford (1893
and 1897).
Two busts of Scott were executed by Sir Francis Chantrey:
one in 1820, which was presented to Scott by the sculptor in
1828; a second in 1828, which was sent by Chantrey to Sir
Robert Peel about 1837, and is now in the National Portrait
GaUery, London. The 1820 bust was duplicated by Chantrey
for the duke of Wellington in 1827, and there is a copy in West-
minster Abbey, erected in 1897. Henry Raeburn painted
Scott's portrait for Archibald Constable in 1808; Scott sat to
the same artist in 1809 for the portrait now at Abbotsford, and
two or three times subsequently. Other notable portraits were
executed by Sir Thomas Lawrence in 1820 for George IV.;
by John Graham Gilbert in 1829 for the Royal Society of
Edinburgh; by Francis Grant for Lady Ruthven in 1831; and
a posthumous portrait of Scott with his dogs in the Rhymer's
Glen by Sir Edwin Landseer. The Scott monument in Princes
Street, Edinburgh, erected in 1846, was designed by George
Kemp, the statue being the work of John Steell.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The Miscellaneous Prose Works of Sir Walter
Scott (6 vols., Edinburgh, 1827) were subsequently printed in 30 vols.
(London, 1834-1871) and in 3 vols. (1841-1847). The collected
editions of the novels and tales are very numerous. Among them are
that known as the " author's favourite edition " (48 vols., Edinburgh,
1829-1833), for which Scott wrote new prefaces and notes; an
edition de luxe of the Waverley novels, illustrated by A. Lalauze,
E. Riou and others (25 vols., London, 1882-1898); the " Border"
edition (48 vols., 1892-1894), with introductory essays and notes by
A. Lang; and many modern cheap reprints. His Poetical Works
were printed in 12 vols. (Edinburgh, 1820); they were edited by
J. G. Lockhart (12 vols., Edinburgh, 1833-1834), with 24 steel
475
engravings from illustrative drawings by Turner; by F. T. Palgrave
for the " Globe " edition (1866); by W. Minto (2 vols., Edinburgh,
1888); by J. Logie Robertson (Oxford complete edition, 1904).
Many of the novels have been adapted for the stage, the most famous
of these dramatizations being the libretto of Donizetti's Lucia di
Lammermoor and the Ivanhoe of Sir Arthur Sullivan and J. R.
Sturgis. His Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (3 vols., 1802-1803)
was edited (4 vols., 1902) by T. F. Henderson.
The standard life by his son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, Memoirs of the
Life of Sir Walter Scott (7 vols., Edinburgh, 1837-1838), left little
new material for later biographers. It was supplemented by the
publication (2 vols., 1890) of Scott's Journal, covering the years from
1825 to 1832, and of his Familiar Letters (2 vols., 1894), both edited
by David Douglas. Some unpublished letters from Scott to the
marchioness of Abercorn were sold at Sotheby's in 1909. Shorter
lives, chiefly based on Lockhart, are by R. H. Hutton (" English
Men of Letters," London, 1898) ; by C. D. Yonge (" Great Writers,"
London, 1888), with bibliography by J. P. Anderson; by Robert
Chambers (Edinburgh, 1871); by K. Elze (2 vols., Dresden, 1864);
by G. E. B. Saintsbury (" Famous Scots" Series, 1897); by Andrew
Lang (" Literary Lives," London, 1906), and by G. le Grys Norgate
(London, 1906). For the Ballantyne controversy see also The
Ballantyne Press and its Founders (1909), which should be taken into
account in considering Lockhart 's attitude on the subject.
In the long list of critical essays on Scott and his works may be
mentioned: W. Bagehot, "The Waverley Novels," in Literary
Studies (1879, vol. ii.); W. Hazlitt, in his Spirit of the Age (1825);
James Hogg, The Domestic Manners and Private Life of Sir Walter
Scott (Glasgow, 1834); A. Lang, in Letters to Dead Authors (1886) ;
Catalogue of the Scott Exhibition held at Edinburgh in 1871, preface
by Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell (Edinburgh, 1872); Sir Leslie Stephen,
Hours in a Library (London, 1874); J. Veitch, The History and
Poetry of the Scottish Border (Glasgow, 1878) ; L. Maigron, Le Roman
historique a I'epoque romantique, Essai sur I'influence de Walter Scott
(Paris, 1898). An account of the portraits of Scott, and a biblio-
graphy of his works, are given in Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell's Catalogue
of the Scott Exhibition, commemorating Scott's centenary at Edinburgh
in July-August 1871. (W. M.; X.)
-\ SCOTT, WILLIAM BELL (1811-1890), British poet and
artist, son of Robert Scott (1777-1841), the engraver, and
brother of David Scott, the painter, was born in Edinburgh
on the 1 2th of September 1811. While a young man he studied
art and assisted his father, and he published verses in the Scottish
magazines. In 1837 he went to London, where he became
sufficiently well known as an artist to be appointed in 1844
master of the government school of design at Newcastle-on-Tyne.
He held the post for twenty years, and did good work in organiz-
ing art-teaching and examining under the Science and Art
Department. He did much fine decorative work, too, on his
own account, notably at Wellington Hall, in the shape of eight
large pictures illustrating Border history, with life-size figures,
supplemented by eighteen pictures illustrating the ballad of
Chevy Chase in the spandrels of the arches of the hall. For
Penhill Castle, Perthshire, he executed a similar series, illustrating
The King's Quhair. After 1870 he was much in London, where
he bought a house in Chelsea, and he was an intimate friend of
Rossetti and in high repute as an artist and an author. His
poetry, which he published at intervals (notably Poems, 1875,
illustrated by etchings by himself and Alma-Tadema), recalled
Blake and Shelley, and was considerably influenced by Rossetti;
he also wrote several volumes of artistic and literary criticism,
and edited Keats, " L.E.L.," Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Shake-
speare and Scott. He resigned his appointment under the
Science and Art Department in 1885, and from then till his
death (22nd November 1890) he was mainly occupied in writing
his reminiscences, which were published posthumously in 1802,
with a memoir by Professor Minto. It is for his connexion with
Rossetti's circle that Bell Scott will be chiefly remembered.
SCOTT, WINFIELD (1786-1866), American general, was
born near Petersburg, Virginia, on the i3th of June 1786. In
1805 he entered the College of William and Mary, where he
studied law, and he continued his studies in the law office of
David Robertson in Petersburg. In 1807 he removed to Charles-
ton, South Carolina, but as war with England seemed imminent
he soon left for Washington and offered his services. In 1808
he was commissioned as a captain of artillery, recruited a
company in Richmond and Petersburg, and was ordered to
New Orleans. His criticism of his superior officer, General
James Wilkinson, led to his being suspended for a year, but the
476
SCOUNDREL SCRANTON
term was eventually reduced to three months. In July 1812,
as a lieutenant-colonel of artillery, he was sent to the Niagara
frontier and fought at Queenston, where he was taken prisoner.
He was exchanged in January 1813, became colonel in the
following March, in March 1814 was promoted to the rank of
brigadier-general, and in July received the brevet of major-
general. In the battles of Chippewa (sth July 1814) and Lundy's
Lane (25th July) he took a conspicuous part, being twice wounded
in the latter engagement. For his services he was presented
with a gold medal by Congress and with a sword by the state
of Virginia. Among the difficult tasks that he was called upon
to perform between 1815 and 1861, for the last twenty years of
which period he was the commanding general of the U.S. army,
were: an expedition to the Middle West in 1832, where, after
the end of the Black Hawk War, he negotiated treaties of peace
with the Sauk, Fox, Winnebago, Sioux, and Menominee Indians;
a journey to Charleston in the same year to watch the progress
of the nullification movement, and to strengthen the garrisons
of the forts in the harbour; an expedition in 1836 against the
Seminole Indians in Florida; the supervision of the removal
in 1838 of the Cherokee Indians from Georgia, North Carolina,
Alabama and Tennessee to the reservation set apart for them
by treaty W. of the Mississippi river; a visit to the Niagara
river in the autumn and winter of 1838 to put an end to the acts
by Canadian insurgents in violation of American neutrality;
a similar mission to Maine in 1839 to restore tranquillity between
the citizens of Maine and New Brunswick, who were disputing
the possession of a tract of land along the Aroostook river; and
a journey to the north-west in 1859 to adjust a dispute between
American a.nd British officers concerning the joint occupation of
San Juan Island in Puget Sound. His greatest achievement
was the brilliant Mexican campaign of 1847. As the senior
officer of the army, he was placed in command of the invading
expedition, and after capturing Vera Cruz (March 29th, 1847),
and winning victories at Cerro Gordo (April i8th), Contreras-
Churubusco (August I9th-25th), Molino del Rey (September Sth),
and Chapultepec (September I3th), he crowned his campaign
by the capture, on the i4th of September, of the Mexican capital.
In March 1848 he received a vote of thanks from Congress,
which ordered a gold medal to be struck in commemoration of
his services. Scott appeared to have an excellent opportunity
for a political career; his nomination for the presidency by the
Whigs had been suggested in 1839 and in 1848, and in 1852
he received it; but his candidacy was doomed to failure. The
Whigs, divided on the slavery question, gave only half-hearted
support to their compromise platform; and Scott made several
extemporaneous addresses which did him harm. He received
the electoral votes of only four states Kentucky, Virginia,
Massachusetts and Vermont. This defeat, however, detracted
nothing from the esteem in which he was held, and in 1852 the
brevet rank of lieutenant-general was created specially for him.
Among the other honours conferred upon him were the degree
of Master of Arts by Princeton in 1814, and the degree of Doctor
of Laws by Columbia in 1850 and by Harvard in 1861. At the
outbreak of the Civil War, though a Virginian, he remained at
the head of the United States armies and directed operations
from Washington until November 1861. He then visited
Europe for a short time, and after returning wrote his Memoirs,
published in 1864. He died at West Point, New York, on the
29th of May 1866.
See Memoirs of Lieutenant-General Scott, LL.D. (2 vols., New York,
1864); Raphael Semmes, The Campaign of General Scott in the
Valley of Mexico (Cincinnati, 3rd ed., 1852); Edward D. Mansfield,
Life and Military Services of General Scott (New York, 1862) ; and
Marcus J. Wright, General Scott (New York, 1894), in the " Great
Commanders " series.
SCOUNDREL, a rogue, a rascal. Etymologists have referred
the word to various sources; but Skeat (Etym. Diet.) refers
it to the provincial or Scottish scunner (O. Eng. scunian, to shun),
to shrink back in fear or loathing.
SCOURGE (Ital. scoriada, from Lat. excoriare, to flay, corium,
skin), a whip or lash, especially one used for the infliction of
punishment. The typical scourge (Lat. flagellum) has several
thongs or lashes attached to a single handle, as in the
modern " cat-o'-nine-tails." The scourge or flail, and the crook,
are the two symbols of power and domination depicted in the
hands of Osiris in ancient Egyptian monuments; these show the
unchanging form of the instrument throughout the ages.
SCOUT (from O. Fr. escouter, mod. ecouter, Lat. auscullare,
to listen), a soldier sent out to watch the enemy and bring
information of his numbers, movements, whereabouts, &c.
The name has also been applied to a particular class of light
speedy cruisers in the British navy. After the South African
War of 1899-1902, the importance of military scouting received
much attention in England in consequence of the prominence
given to it by Major-General Baden-Powell, of Mafeking fame.
Under the latter's auspices an unofficial attempt to foster the
qualities required was made by the institution of the Boy Scouts,
a voluntary organization which, starting in 1908, had by 1910
enrolled many hundreds of thousands of boys throughout the
United Kingdom, with branches overseas.
Various birds of the auk family, such as the guillemot and the
puffin, are known as " scouts." The name is also given colloqui-
ally to college servants at Oxford and Harvard Universities.
It then answers to the " gyp " of Cambridge, Trinity College,
Dublin, and Durham, which has been variously explained as
short for " gipsy," as taken from yvfy, vulture, from a supposed
reference to a grasping character, or as representing an old
word " gippo " (FT.jupeau, tunic), used of a scullion or kitchen
servant.
In the above senses, " scout" must be distinguished from
the word meaning to flout, or reject with ridicule and scorn,
which is derived from the Icel. skiita, taunt, jeer.
In the military sense, see Sir R. S. Baden-Powell, Scouting, and
Scouting for Boys. The Boy Scouts' movement in England has
official papers in the weekly Scout and monthly Headquarters Gazette.
SCRANTON, a city and the county-seat of Lackawanna county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of the Lackawanna
river and Roaring Brook, about 162 m. by rail N. by W. of
Philadelphia and about 146 m. W.N.W. of New York. Pop.
(1890) 75,215; (1900) 102,026, of whom 28,973 were foreign-born
(including 7193 Irish, 4704 Germans, 4621 Welsh and 3692
English) and 521 were negroes; (1910, census) 129,867.
Scranton is served by the Erie, the Delaware, Lackawanna &
Western, the Central of New Jersey, the New York, Ontario
& Western, the Delaware & Hudson, and the Lackawanna &
Wyoming Valley railways. It occupies an area of about 20 sq. m.
Among the principal public buildings are the United States
Government building, the County Court House, the City Hall,
the Albright Memorial building, housing the public library
(55,800 vols. in 1908), the armoury of the I3th Regiment, State
National Guard, the Board of Trade building, some fine
churches and school-houses, a Young Men's Christian Association
building and a Young Women's Christian Association building.
Scranton is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop, has a good public
school system, and is the seat of the International Correspondence
Schools (1891), which give instruction by mail in the trades
and professions to large numbers of students; Mt. St Mary's
Seminary (1902) for girls, and the W. T. Smith (Memorial)
Manual Training School (1905), a part of the public school
system. The city has an Institute of History and Science,
and the Everhart Museum of natural history, science and art
(dedicated 1908), founded and endowed by Dr I. F. Everhart
(b. 1840) of Scranton, a Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument, and
monuments to the memory of Columbus and Washington.
Scranton is the largest city in the great anthracite-coal region
of the United States; and 17,525,995 long tons of coal were
produced within the county in 1905. The chief manufactures
are silk goods (21-6% of all in value) and other textiles,
but large quantities of foundry and machine-shop products,
malt liquors, flour, and planing mill products are also manu-
factured. The total value of the city's factory products in 1905
was $20,453,285. The Delaware, Lackawanna & Western rail-
way has since built large machine and car shops.
A permanent settlement was established within the present
SCREAMER SCREW
477
limits of Scranton in 1788, and a primitive grist-mill, a saw-mill
and a charcoal iron-furnace were erected during the next tew
years; but there was little further development until 1840, when
the Lackawanna Iron Company was formed for the manufacture
of iron here. The limestone and iron ore of the vicinity proved
to be of inferior quality, and the failure of the enterprise was
prevented only by the persistent efforts of George Whitefleld
Scranton (1811-1861), aided by his brother Selden T. Scranton
and his cousin Joseph Hand Scranton. Under the leadership
of George W. Scranton better grades of iron ore and of limestone
were procured, and within a decade a rolling mill, a nail factory
and a manufactory of steel rails were established, and adequate
facilities for railway transportation were provided. Scranton was
incorporated as a borough in 1854, was chartered as a city of the
third class in 1866, and became a city of the second class in 1901.
See B. H. Throop, A Half-Century in Scranton (Scranton, 1895).
SCREAMER, a bird inhabiting Guiana and the Amazon valley,
so called in 1781 by T. Pennant (Gen. Birds, p. 37) " from the
violent noise it makes " the Palamedea cornula of Linnaeus.
First made known in 1648 by G. de L. Marcgrav under the name
of " Anhima," it was more fully described and better figured
by Buffon under that of Kamichi, still applied to it by French
writers. Of about the size of a turkey, it is remarkable for the
^curious " horn " or slender caruncle, more than three inches
long, it bears on its crown, the two sharp spurs with which each
wing is armed, and its elongated toes. Its plumage is plain
in colour, being of an almost uniform greyish black above, the
space round the eyes and a ring round the neck being variegated
with white, and a patch of pale rufous appearing above the
carpal joint, while the lower parts of the body are white. Closely
related to this bird is another first described by Linnaeus as a
species of Parra (see JACANA), to which group it certainly does
not belong, but separated therefrom by Illiger to form the genus
Chauna, and now known as C. chavaria, very generally in English
as the " Crested Screamer," a name which was first bestowed
on the Seriema (q.v.). This bird inhabits the lagoons and swamps
of Paraguay and Southern Brazil, where it is called " Chaja "
or " Chaka," and is smaller than the preceding, wanting its
" horn," but having its head furnished with a dependent crest
of feathers; while the plumage is grey. Its nest is a light con-
struction of dry rushes, having its foundation in the water, and
contains as many as six eggs, which are white tinged with buff.
The young are covered with down of a yellowish-brown colour.
A most singular habit possessed by this bird is that of rising
in the air and soaring there in circles at an immense altitude,
uttering at intervals the very loud cry of which its local name
is an imitation. From a dozen to a score may be seen at once
so occupying themselves. The young are often taken from the
nest and reared by the people to attend upon and defend their
poultry, a duty which is faithfully 1 and, owing to the spurs
with which the chaka's wings are armed, successfully discharged.
Another very curious property of this bird, which was observed
by Jacquin, who brought it to the notice of Linnaeus, 2 is its
emphysematous condition there being a layer of air-cells
between the skin and the muscles, so that on any part of the
body being pressed a crackling sound is heard. In Central
America occurs another species, C. derbiana, chiefly distinguished
by the darker colour of its plumage. For this a distinct genus,
Ischyrornis, was proposed, but apparently without necessity,
by A. B. Reichenbach (Syst. Avium. p. xxi.).
The taxonomic position of the Palamedeidae, for all will allow
to the screamers the rank of a family at least, has been much
debated. Their anserine relations were pointed out by W. K.
Parker in the Zoological Proceedings for 1863 (pp. 511-518,
and in the same work for 1867 T. H. Huxley placed the family
among his Chenomorphae; but this view was contravened in
1876 by A. H. Garrod, who said, " The screamers must have
sprung from the primary avian stock as an independent offshoot
1 Hence J. Latham's name for this species is " Faithful Jacana "
he supposing it to belong to the genus in which Linnaeus placed it.
" Tacta manu cutis, sub pennis etiam lanosa, crepat ubique
fortiter " (Syst. Nat. ed. 12, i. p. 260).
at much the same time as did most of the other important
families." P. L. Sclater in 1880 placed them in a distinct
order, Palamedeae, which he, however, placed next to the true
Anseres, and they are now generally regarded as forming a sub-
order of anseriform birds.
SCREEN (usually, but very doubtfully, connected with Lat.
scrinium, a box for holding books, from scribere, to write; a
connexion with Ger. Schranke, barrier, has .been suggested), in
architecture, any construction subdividing one part of a building
from another as a choir, chantry, chapel, &c. The earliest
screens are the low marble podia, shutting off the chorus can-
tanlium in the Roman basilicas, and the perforated cancelli
enclosing the bema, altar, and seats of the bishops and presbyters.
The chief screens in a church are those which enclose the choir
or the place where the breviary services are recited. This is done
on the continent of Europe, not only by doors and screen-work,
but also, when these are of open work, by curtains, the laity
having no part in these services. In England screens were of
two kinds: one of open woodwork; the other, massive enclosures
of stonework enriched with niches, tabernacles, canopies,
pinnacles, statues, crestings, &c., as at Canterbury, York,
Gloucester, and many other places both in England and abroad
(see ROOD and JUBE).
As an article of furniture, the screen is an ornamental frame,
usually of wood, but sometimes of metal, for protection from
observation, draught, or the heat of a fire. Screens are made of
all shapes and sizes, and may consist of leather, paper or textile
materials fastened to the framework; they may have several
leaves or only one thus a fourfold screen has four leaves. Fire-
screens are usually small, with a single leaf indeed in the
Georgian period of English furniture they often took the form
of a circular, oval, heart-shaped or oblong piece of framed
embroidery fixed to a wooden pole or upright, upon which they
could be raised or lowered. This variety, which was called
a pole-screen, was more effective as an ornament than as a
protection. The hand-screen was light and portable, as the
name implies. At the present time fire-screens are often of
glass set in metal frames. The larger type of screen, with
several leaves, is of uncertain origin, but probably first came
into use towards the end of the 1 6th century. The earlier examples
were of stamped or painted Spanish leather or of some rich stuff
such as tapestry; at a later date lacquer was extensively used.
They were tall enough to conceal the person sitting behind them,
and were frequently exceedingly handsome and stately.
SCREW (G.E. scrue, from O. Fr. escrow., mod. ecrou; ultimate
origin uncertain; the word, or a similar one, appears in Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. Schraube, Dan. skrue, but Skeat, following
Diaz, finds the origin in Lat. scrobs, a ditch, hole, particularly
used in Low Latin for the holes made by pigs boring in the
ground with their snouts), a cylindrical or conical piece of wood
or metal having a groove running spirally round it. The surface
thus formed constitutes an external or male screw, while a similar
groove cut round the interior of a cylindrical hole, as in a nut,
constitutes an internal or female screw. The ridge between
successive turns of the groove is the " thread," and the distance
between successive turns of the thread is the " pitch." The present
article will deal with the standard pitches in common use and
with modern methods of manufacture, the earlier history of which,
down to the time of Sir Joseph Whitworth, may be read in
Holtzapffel's Turning and Mechanical Manipulation. For the
screw as a mechanical power see MECHANICS; for the screw
used to propel steamships see SHIPBUILDING.
Standardization of Screws. All screws made to-day are copies
of pre-existing or master screws, which are familiarly known
as " guide screws," " hobs " or " leaders," " chasers " or " comb
tools," " taps," and " dies " in numerous forms. These are so
standardized that a thread cut to a given standard in England
fits its fellow thread cut to the same standard in America,
Germany or elsewhere. At one time screws cut by one firm
would not match those cut by another. Formerly there was no
" tackle," but large screws were cut with chisel and file, and a
nut was cast around them and used for correction, up. til gradually
SCREW
the coarser errors were eliminated. Another method was that
of the mathematical instrument makers, who used a screw and
tangent wheel by which a cutter was moved along synchronously
with the revolution of the screw blank, a method only suitable
for short screws. The first attempt at securing uniformity in
screw threads was made by Sir Joseph Whitworth, who com-
municated a paper on the subject to the Institution of Civil
Engineers in 1841.. In the course of about twenty years the
Whitworth system generally displaced the previous heterogeneous
designs of threads, by the existence of which engineers' repairs
had been rendered most inconvenient and costly, almost every
establishment having its own " standard " set of screwing tackle.
In fact it was suspected that firms thought their interest lay
in this separation of practice in order to capture repairs, each of
its own work.
When Whitworth began his work he made an extensive
collection of screw bolts from the principal English workshops,
and an average observed for diameters of j in., 5 in., i in., and
ij in. chiefly was taken and tabulated in exact numbers and
equal fractional parts of threads per inch, the scale being after-
wards extended to 6-in. diameter. In cases above an inch the
same pitch is maintained for two sizes, the object being to avoid
small fractions, and to simplify the construction of screwing
apparatus. The system is therefore a practical compromise
based on previous practice. The proportion between pitch and
diameter varies throughout the series, and at the extremes
the amount of power required to turn a nut is either in excess
or insufficient.
When the Whitworth threads were accepted in England,
Germany and the United States, it appeared as though they
were established for ever in an impregnable position, as a unifica-
tion evolved from chaos. Moreover, Great Britain at that time
occupied a position of pre-eminence in manufacturing engineering,
which was favourable to the establishment of an English system.
But two things were wanting to permanence the facts that
the Whitworth threads were not based on the metric system,
and that the United States was destined to come into rivalry
with Great Britain. Metric systems became standardized on
the continent of Europe and the Sellers thread in America
overshadowed the Whitworth, though it is impossible to doubt
that the Sellers like the Whitworth must in time be swallowed
up by some one metric system.
It is easier to devise new standards than to induce manu-
facturers to accept them. Change means the purchase of a very
costly new equipment of screwing tackle, both hand and machine,
besides the retention of the old for effecting repairs. There
is no question of accommodating or bringing in the threads of
one system to others nearly like them. They either fit or do not
fit, they are right or wrong, so that a clean sweep has to be made
of the entire screwing tackle in favour of the new. The two
great attacks that have been made on the Whitworth thread
came, one from the Franklin Institute in 1864, when the Sellers
thread was adopted and recommended to American engineers,
and the other in 1873, when Delisle of Carlsruhe initiated a metric
system. As a result, after several years of effort, the Society
of German Engineers took the matter up, and the appointment
of a committee gave birth to the International Screw Thread
Congress, which has met from time to time for the discussion
of the matter. We have thus two broad lines of departure from
the Whitworth standard.
The history of the battle of the screw 'threads in England,
America, Germany, Switzerland and France would occupy a
volume. The subject is highly technical, involving practical
points concerned with manufacture as well as with questions
of strength and durability. We can merely state the fact that
the threads now recognized as standard are included in about
eight great systems, out of about sixty that have been advocated
and systematized. Their elements are shown by the diagram,
fig. i; but tables of dimensions are omitted, since they would
demand too much space.
Methods of Cutting Screws. There are four methods employed
for the cutting of screw threads: one by means of a single-edged tool
held in the saddle of the screw-cutting lathe, and traversed horizon-
tally only, the cylinder which is to receive the thread revolving the
while; another by means of short master screws, hobs or leaders,
controlling chasers or comb tools; the third by means of screw taps
FIG. i. Sections of principal Screw Threads.
Formulae: * = pitch, or distance between centres of contiguous
threads; d = depth of thread; h = total height of thread construc-
tion; r = radius;/=flat.
A. Whitworth thread. =0-9605 p\ ^ = 0-6403 p; leaving $th h
to be rounded at top and bottom.
B. Sellers, or Franklin Institute, or U.S. standard thread.
fc = o-866 p; ^ = 0-6495 ;/=ith p.
C. Sharp Vee thread. d = o-866o/>.
D. British Association standard thread. d=o-6 p', r = 3*fth p.
E. C.E.I, or Cycle Engineers' Institute standard thread.
fc = o-866 p; <f=o-5327 p; r = Jth p.
F. Lowenherz or Delisle thread (metric, used largely on the
continent of Europe), h p; ^ = 0-75 A;/ = ith h.
thread (metric). d =0-6495 p;
G. International standard
=lth h;r = ^thh.
H. Thury thread (metric).
T. Square thread. <i = J p.
K. Acme thread. d = \ />+o-oio;/ =
= |th p; r = Jth p; r' = |th p.
p.
and dies, either the work or the tool being absolutely still. The
fourth is by means of a milling cutter presented to the work in a
special screw-milling machine, both the work and the cutter re-
volving.
The problem of screw-cutting in the lathe in the simplest form
resolves itself into the relative number of revolutions of the lathe
spindle and of the lead screw (fig. 2). If the two rotate at
the same speed, the thread cut on the spindle axis will be '" '
equal in pitch to that of the lead screw. If the spindle
revolves more slowly than the lead screw, a thread coarser than that
in the latter will result ; if it revolves more rapidly, one of finer pitch
will be produced. The spindle is the first factor, being the driver,
and the lead screw is driven therefrom through the change wheels
the variables which determine the number of revolutions of the
latter whether the same, or slower, or faster than the spindle. Screw-
cutting in all its details is an extensive subject, including the cutting
of what are termed odd or unequal pitches, that is, those which
involve fractions, the catching of threads for successive traverses of
the tool, the cutting; of multiple threads and of right- and left-hand
threads, which involve much practical detail. The principle of screw-
cutting may be stated briefly thus: the pitch of the guide screw is to
that of the screw to be cut as the number of teeth on the mandrel
or (headstock) wheel is to the number of teeth on the lead screw
wheel. It is therefore simply a question of ratio. Hence for cutting
threads finer than that of the lead screw, the guide screw must rotate
more slowly than the lathe mandrel ; and for cutting threads coarser
than those of the guide screw, the lead screw must rotate faster than
the lathe mandrel (fig. 2, C and D). When the ratios are ascertained,
these facts indicate when the larger or the smaller wheels must be
placed as drivers, or be driven. " Simple trains " are those which
contain only one pair of change wheels; " compound trains " have
two, three, four or more pairs (fig. 2), and are necessary when the
ratio between the guide screw and the screw to be cut exceeds about
six to one.
A device which has become very popular under the name of
Hendey-Norton gears comprises a nest of twelve change wheels,
mounted and keyed on the end of the lead screw. A stud wheel is
made to engage through an intermediate wheel with any one of the
twelve change gears, on the simple movement of a lever, giving twelve
SCREW
479
different ratios for screw-cutting. These again are doubled or
trebled by altering the ratios of other gears connected therewith, so
FIG. 2.
A, Simple train which rotates lead
screw in opposite direction to
mandrel, and makes slide-
rest feed away from the
headstock.
B, Simple train with intermediate
wheel on stud, which rotates
lead screw in same direction
as mandrel, making slide-rest
feed towards the headstock.
Intermediate on " stud "
does not alter ratio.
C, Typical compound train ar-
ranged for cutting a screw
finer than that of the lead
screw.
D, Ditto for screw coarser than
that of the lead screw.
that for each position of''engagement of the stud wheel, two, or in
some cases three, pitches can be cut. This avoids the waste of time
involved in setting up fresh wheels on the swing-plate as often as a
screw of different pitch has to be cut.
Another step in the direction of economy depends on the removal
of all screw-cutting, except those screws which are of several feet in
length, from the ordinary lathe to the special chasing and screwing
machines. The screw-cutting arrangement of an engineer's lathe is
a cumbrous apparatus to fit up and set in motion for the cutting of
screws of small dimensions. When there was no other method
available except that of common dies operated by hand or carried in
a screwing machine, there was good reason why a true cutting tool
should be operated in the lathe through change wheels. But the
reason no longer exists, since for the single cutting tool of the lathe
the two or three cutters of the chasing and screwing machines
(figs. 3 and 4) are substituted, and the hollow mandrel embodied in
the latter permits of screws being cut and parted from the solid bars
of several feet in length. Except for the cutting of long screws and
screws of odd pitches, the ordinary lathe is now a wasteful machine.
FIG. 3. Bolt-Screwing Machine" (John Stirk & Sons, Ltd., Halifax).
J, Handle for opening the
A, Bed. B, Spindle.
C, Four-step belt pulley, driving
through triple spur gears D,
to B.
E, Opening die head.
F, Bolt carriage racked to or fro
along the bed by rotation of
hand-wheel G.
H, Handle for opening and closing
vee-jaws at a for gripping
and releasing bolts by means
of a right- and left-hand
Handle
dies.
K, Lever for automatically open-
ing the dies, operating
through J.
L, Rod having adjustable dog b,
struck by carriage at a
definite position of its travel,
thus throwing the dies off
the work.
M, Pump drawing lubricant from
reservoir in bed.
The second method of cutting screws is that by means of hobs or
leaders, and either comb or single-edged tools. That is, a short
FIG. 4. Opening Die-head for Screwing Machine.
A, Spindle end.
B, Sliding collar.
C, Ring bolted to B, and enclosing ring having three coned
grooves a, a, a, set eccentrically to close in or let out the
chasers D.
E, Curled spring keeping chasers outwards in contact with a.
F, Piece screwed to end of A, and provided with three grooves to
carry the chasers.
G, Cover plate confining the chasers, and unscrewed from F when
changing chasers for other sizes.
SCREW
standard screw is mounted somewhere on the lathe, at the rear,
or in front, and a nut partly embracing this becomes a guide to
.... a bar which is attached to the tool slide directly. These
9y hobs. afe terme( j c hasing lathes. Their value lies in the cutting
of screws of but a few inches in length, of which large numbers
are required, a familiar example being the screwed stays for the
fire-boxes of steam boilers, hundreds of which are used in a single
boiler.
The third method jembodies the use of taps and dies in their
numerous designs. The simpler forms used are those operated by
_ . hand at the bench, from which all the machine taps
and dies an ^ ^' es have been elaborated. The tap is the solid
screwed cylindrical tool which cuts an internal thread
(fig- 5) I the die is the hollow tool which cuts a thread on the outside
of a cylinder (fig. 6).
FIG. 5. Taps. A, Entering or taper tap; B, middle or second
tap; D, bottoming or plug tap; E, machine tap; F, hob or master
tap.
These taps and dies are, or should be, true cutting tools, and if we
examine any of those of approved form we shall see that they are so
in fact. But none of the early taps was in any sense a cutting tool.
They ground, and scraped, and squeezed, but never cut. They were
usually made of round steel rod, screwed, and having three or four
flats filed down upon them. The angles therefore which abraded the
work were always obtuse, and as proper backing off was often
neglected, or insufficiently done, the labour not only of running them
down, but also of running them back out of their holes, was very
the
FIG. 6.
A, Dies cut over hob of same size
as screw to be cut ; the lead
is bad, there is coincidence
only at the completion of the
thread, and they are seldom
used except in solid screw
plates.
B, Dies cut over hob one thread
deeper than the screw to be
cut, the standard form; the
lead is good and there is
great. This, combined with the inefficient form of solid screw plates
used at the same time, made the work of fitting nuts and bolts one of
constant trial and error, of easing and doctoring ; and when this had
been done, nuts and bolts were not interchangeable, but each nut
was marked for its own bolt. The earliest screw plates were probably
of the same forms which are used now for screws below T \ in. dia-
meter mere hardened plates of steel, having holes of graduated
diameters, screwed to the various sizes required.
Dies.
coincidence at about
middle of action.
C, Dies cut over hob two threads
deeper than screw to be cut,
frequently used; the lead is
good and there is coincidence
at the beginning of action,
a, dies at beginning of
action, b, at completion.
D, Screw stock.
In all taps and dies the problem is to cut a screw, of which the angle
of thread changes from point to root, with tools whose angle must
remain constant. In taps there is no choice of angle, since they must
be the exact counterparts of the tapped threads when finished. But
in dies a compromise is made by cutting them with hobs, or master
taps (fig. 5), one thread larger than the thread to be cut by the dies.
Briefly, the practical effect is that the dies are only counterparts of
the thread to be cut at about the middle part of their action (fig. 6, B).
Though the action of taps resembles in some respects that of
common dies, the results achieved are better, partly because the
backing off is generally superior, partly because taper taps are
commonly used to start a screw hole. Tapered solid dies are also
used in some kinds of turret work with the same object, namely, to
facilitate the work of an inherently badly formed tool. With a
tapered tap, or a tapered solid die, the full threads do not come into
operation until after the tapered threads have started the cut. A
properly made throughfare tap, or a tapered die, will cut an average-
sized screw at one traverse, provided lubrication is ample. Taps are
now made with very narrow edges and wider clearances than
formerly, very different from the common taps with broad edges and
narrow grooves. There is thus little friction, and there is plenty of
clearance for the chips, essential conditions for cutting screws rapidly
at a single traverse.
Dies are held in stocks. In the common die stocks one adjustable
die is moved forward with a screw, which forms one of the handles
of the stock, or a separate tightening screw is used at right angles with
the handles, or the tightening screw is set diagonally in relation to
the handle (fie. 6, D). Sir Joseph Whitworth's well known " guide "
screw stock (fig. 7) is an example of the embodiment of the principle
FIG. 7. Whitworth Guide- Screw Stock, o, Guide; 6,6, cutters;
c, adjusting bolt.
just stated, the dies being cut over a hob two depths of thread larger
than the screw; one, a broad die, is used for guidance only, and two
narrow dies do all the cutting. The guide-screw stock derives its
name from the fact that it embodies a guide o distinct from the
cutters 6,6, the guide doing very little actual cutting ; it is one of the
best tools for screw-cutting outside the lathe, but some of the
American types of dies, such as in fig. 8, A and B, give very accurate
results, especially when they are combined with a guide in advance
of the dies, to keep them truly parallel on the work. The common
dies are inferior in operation to those used in the guide-screw stock.
Nevertheless, the common die stocks are used most extensively.
The reason is that, although they are of faulty construction regarded
strictly from the mechanician's point of view, yet they dp their work
in a very satisfactory manner it moderate care be exercised in their
construction and working.
Machine Work. Hand tapping and screwing has long been con-
fined to occasional pieces of work done by the fitter at the bench, the
FIG. 8.
Common split spring die, ad-
justed by taper screw, o.
Split die held in collet, 6, and C,
expanded or contracted by
turning in the taper-pointed
screw, c, and slackening the
screws d,d, or vice versa.
Spring die for lathes, adjusted
to cut larger or smaller by
means of the split ring e.
erecter and repairer. Screws and tapped holes required in quantities
are done on machines which include numerous types, at a rate of
Production which would seem incredible were it not so common,
or cutting common screws of no very great length the lathe has long
been superseded by the various screwing machines. The earlier
forms were provided with clutch mechanism for running the solid
dies back off the thread, in imitation of the action of the hands, and
the dies could not cut a complete thread at one traverse, two or three
traverses being necessary in the production of a full thread. In the
modern screwing machines (fig. 3) the cutters are closed and released
by cam mechanism, and all threads except those of large diameter
are cut at a single traverse. Common bolts and nuts are cut in
SCREW
481
machines of this kind, machine taps, which are longer than hand
operated taps, being employed in the same machines.
But the smaller screws made in large quantities, and screws which
have to be cut on pieces of work on which other operations, as
turning, boring, facing, knurling, have to be performed, are made in
the numerous capstan or turret lathes, the dies or taps being held in
the turrets. Often a cam-operated screwing plate is pulled into line
with the work, operating independently of the turret head. But in
most cases the dies (fig. 8) are held in a chuck which is inserted in one
of the holes in the turret and which is better for the cutting of the
finer screws. More valuable than any other single improvement is
the automatic opening of many dies used in turret lathes, by which
the running back of the die over the work is avoided. These opening
die heads are of several designs. They are so beautifully contrived
that contact with a stop, the position of which can be regulated,
arrests the cutting action and causes the dies to fly open away from
the screw, so that the turret can be slid away instantly, while the dies
close in readiness for the next screw.
Sizing Taps are used for the finishing of threads which are required
to be finished so uniformly as to be interchangeable one with the
other. These are ordinary plug or second taps, generally short in
length, and as they remove but a mere trifle of material they retain
their size for a very long time. The case of sizing taps is more diffi-
cult than that of dies, because a die can be readily compressed to
compensate for wear (fig. 8), but a tap has to be expanded. The
result is that while plenty of adjustable dies are made, there are few
expanding taps. Many have been designed, but they are used to a
much less extent than the dies. A sizing tap is kept true as long as
possible by careful use. and when it falls below the limit dimensions
it is replaced by a new one.
Screw milling, the latest development in screw-cutting, involves the
use of a special machine, something like the lathe in outline, the piece
gcre^, of work to be threaded being rotated in the axis of the
.... machine. The cutter is carried in a head, with swivelling
arrangements, to provide for variations in screw angles,
and is rotated at speeds suitable for the metal or alloy being cut.
The necessary traverse is imparted either to the work or to the
cutter, according to the design of machine, by lead screw and
change gears. This method is employed to a considerable extent,
chiefly for cutting coarsely threaded screws and worms. The great
advantage which the revolving cutter possesses over the single-edged
tool is its rapidity of action, by which threads may be produced
more quickly than in the lathe.
Testing Screws. The screws cut in engineers' shops are sufficiently
true for all practical purposes. But the fact remains that no guide
screw yet made is true, and no true screw can be made apart from the
use of devices which are unknown in the machine shop. Actually no
screw ever has been, or probably ever will be, made perfect, but the
variation from truth has been in some cases only 8 5,000 or -jo^VoTi
part of an inch. The microscope is brought into requisition for
testing standard screws, but commercial screws simply have to pass
the test of gauges. A screw 21 ft. long was made by the Pratt
& Whitney Co., and tested by Professor VV. A. Rogers. _A scale,
the corrections of which were known to within sr^aao ln -< vi . as
mounted parallel with the axis of the screw. A microscope contain-
ing a cross bar was mounted on the carriage actuated by the screw.
The cross bar was furnished with a micrometer by which the devia-
tions for any revolution of the screw could be measured. A reading
was taken for each half inch in length of the screw. Special tests
were made at various points by turning the screw through 45 at a
time. The maximum error in the entire length of the screw was
found to be less than T J^> in.
The problem of producing a true screw has occupied investigators
since the days of Henry Maudslay (1771-1831). The great difficulty
is that of attaining accurate pitch, so that the distances between all
the threads shall be uniform, and consequently that a nut on the
screw shall move equably during the rotation. The importance of
this point is felt in the dividing engines of various classes employed
for ruling, and in measuring machines used for testing standards of
length. The ordinary screw, cut by dies or in the screw-cutting lathe,
is found, on applying comparatively coarse tests, to be far from
accurate in pitch, while the thread may be wavy or " drunken " and
the diameter may not be uniform at all points. There are several
methods of correcting the errors in screws; the principal one is that
of retarding or accelerating the traverse motion of the screw-cutting
tool by means of a compensating lever bearing on a compensating
bar, which is formed after observations have been made on the degree
of accuracy of the leading screw used to propel the tool carriage.
The original errors in the leading screw are therefore eliminated as
far as possible. The inspection of the screw is done by means of the
microscope working in conjunction with a line measure fastened
down parallel with the axis of the screw, so that the coincidence or
otherwise of the screw pitches with the subdivisions of the measure
may be compared. (J. G. H.)
Errors of Screws. For scientific purposes the scrw must be so
regular that it moves forward in its nut exactly the same distance
for each given angular rotation around its axis. As the mountings
of a screw introduce many errors, the final and exact test of its
accuracy can only be made when it is finished and set up for use.
A large screw can, however, be roughly examined in the following
xxiv. 1 6
manner: (i) See whether the surface of the threads has a perfect
polish. The more it departs from this, and approaches the rough
torn surface as cut by the lathe tool, the worse it is. A perfect
screw has a perfect polish. (2) Mount it between the centres of a
lathe and then slip upon it a short nut which fits perfectly. If the nut
moves from end to end with equal friction, the screw is uniform in
diameter. If the nut is long, unequal resistance may be due to
either an error of run or a bend in the screw. (3) Fix a microscope
on the lathe carriage and focus its single cross-hair on the edge of
the screw and parallel to its axis. If the screw runs true at every
point its axis is straight. (4) Observe whether the short nut runs
from end to end of the screw without a wabbling motion when the
screw is turned and the nut kept from revolving. If it wabbles
the screw is said to be drunk. One can see this error better by fixing
a long pointer to the nut, or by attaching it to a mirror and observ-
ing an image in it with a telescope. The following experiment will
also detect this error. (5) Put upon the screw two well-fitting and
rather short nuts, which are kept from revolving by arms bearing
against a straight-edge parallel to the axis of the screw. Let one
nut carry an arm which supports a microscope focused on a line
ruled on the other nut. Screw this combination to different parts
of the screw. If during one revolution the microscope remains in
focus, the screw is not drunk; and, if the cross-hairs bisect the line
in every position, there is no error of run. Where the highest accu-
racy is needed, we must resort in the case of screws, as in all other
cases, to grinding. A long solid nut, tightly fitting the screw in one
position, cannot be moved freely to another position unless the screw
is very accurate. If grinding material is applied and the nut is
constantly tightened, it will grind out all errors of run, drunkenness,
crookedness and irregularity of size. The condition is that the nut
must be long, rigid and capable of being tightened as the grinding
Eroceeds; also the screw must be ground longer than it will finally
e needed, so that the imperfect ends may be removed.
The following process will produce a screw suitable for ruling
gratings for optical purposes. Suppose it is our purpose to produce
a screw which is finally to be 9 in. long, not including bearings,
and Ij in. in diameter. Select a bar of soft Bessemer steel, which
has not the hard spots usually found in case steel, about if in. in
diameter and 30 in. long. Put it between lathe centres and turn it
down to I in. diameter everywhere, except about 12 in. in the centre,
where it is left a little over I J in. in diameter for cutting the screw.
Now cut the screw with a triangular thread a little sharper than 60.
Above all, avoid a fine screw, using about 20 threads to the inch.
The grinding nut, about II in. long, has now to be made. Fig. 9
represents a section of the nut, which is made of brass, or better,
d d
FIG. 9. Section of Grinding Nut.
of Bessemer steel. It consists of four segments, a, a, which can
be drawn about the screw by two collars, b,b, and the screw c.
Wedges between the segments prevent too great pressure on the
screw. The final clamping is effected by the rings and screws, d,d,
which enclose the flanges, e, of the segments. The screw is now
placed in a lathe and surrounded by water whose temperature can
be kept constant to 1 C., and the nut placed on it. In order that
the weight of the nut may not make the ends too small, it must
either be counterbalanced by weights hung from a rope passing
over pulleys in the ceiling, or the screw must be vertical during
the whole process. Emery and oil seem to be the only available
grinding materials, though a softer silica powder might be used
towards the end of the operation to clean off the emery and prevent
future wear. Now grind the screw in the nut. making the nut
pass backwards and forwards over the screw, its whole range being
nearly 20 in. at first. Turn the nut end for end every ten minutes
and continue for two weeks, finally making the range of the nut only
about 10 in., using finer washed emery and moving the lathe slower
to avoid heating. Finish with a fine silica powder or rouge. During
the process, if the thread becomes too blunt, recut the nut by a
short tap, so as not to change the pitch at any point. This must of
course not be done less than five days before the finish. Now cut to
the proper length; centre again in the lathe under a microscope; and
turn the bearings. A screw so ground has fewer errors than from any
other system of mounting. The periodic error especially will be too
small to be discovered, though the mountings and graduation and
centering of the head will introduce it; it must therefore finally be
corrected.
Mounting of Screws. The mounting must be devised most care-
SCREW-PINESCRIBES
fully, and is indeed more difficult to make without error than the
screw itself. The principle which should be adopted is that no
workmanship is perfect; the design must make up for its imper-
fections. Thus the screw can never be made to run true on its
bearings, and hence the device of resting one end of the carriage
on the nut must be rejected. Also all rigid connexion between
the nut and the carriage must be avoided, as the screw can never
be adjusted parallel to the ways on which the carriage rests. For
many purposes, such as ruling optical gratings, the carriage must
move accurately forward in a straight line as far as the horizontal
plane is concerned, while a little curvature in the vertical plane
produces very little effect. These conditions can be satisfied by
making the ways V-shaped and grinding with a grinder somewhat
shorter than the ways. By constant reversals, and by lengthening
or shortening the stroke, they will finally become nearly perfect.
The vertical curvature can be sufficiently tested by a short carriage
carrying a delicate spirit-level. Another and very efficient form
of ways is V-shaped with a flat top and nearly vertical sides. The
carriage rests on the flat top and is held by springs against one of
the nearly vertical sides. To determine with accuracy whether
the ways are straight, fix a flat piece of glass on the carriage and
rule a line on it by moving it under a diamond; reverse and rule
another line near the first, and measure the distance apart at the
centre and at the two ends by a micrometer. If the centre measure-
ment is equal to the mean of the two end ones, the line is straight.
This is better than the method with a mirror mounted on the carnage
and a telescope. The screw itself must rest in bearings, and the end
motion be prevented by a point bearing against its flat end, which is
protected by hardened steel or a flat diamond. Collar bearings intro-
duce periodic errors. The secret of success is so to design the nut and
its connexions as to eliminate all adjustments of the screw and indeed
all imperfect workmanship. The connexion must also be such as to
give means of correcting any residual periodic errors or errors of run
which may be introduced in the mountings or by the wear of the
machine.
The nut is shown in fig. 10. It is made in two halves, of wrought
iron filled with boxwood or lignum vitae plugs, on which the screw
is cut. To each half a
long piece of sheet steel
is fixed which bears
against a guiding edge, to
be described presently.
The two halves are held
to the screw by springs,
so that each moves for-
ward almost inde-
pendently of the other,
to the carriage, a ring is attached to the
plane is vertical and which can turn
axis. The bars fixed midway on the two
nut bear against this ring at points ox>
axis. Hence each half does its share in-
the other in moving the carriage forward,
parallelism between the screw and the
tricity in the screw mountings thus
the forward motion of the carriage. The
which the steel pieces of the nut rest can
form as to correct any small error of run
the screw. Also, by causing it to move
forwards periodically, the periodic error
mountings can be corrected,
gratings Tor optical purposes the periodic
very perfectly eliminated, since the
, placement of the lines only one-millionth
' their mean position will produce "ghosts"
(See DIFFRACTION.) Indeed this is the most sensi-
_. detecting the existence of this error, and it is
practically impossible to mount the most perfect of screws without
introducing it. A very practical method of determining this error is
to rule a short grating with very long lines on a piece of common thin
plate glass; cut it in two with a diamond and superimpose the
two halves with the rulings together and displaced sideways over
each other one-half the pitch of the screw. On now looking at the
plates in a proper light so as to have the spectral colours show
through it, dark lines will appear, which are wavy if there is a periodic
error and straight if there is none. By measuring the comparative
amplitude of the waves and the distance apart of two lines, the
amount of the periodic error can be determined. The phase of the
periodic error is best found by a series of trials after setting the
corrector at the proper amplitude as determined above.
A machine properly made as above and kept at a constant tempera-
ture should be able to make a scale of 6 in. in length, with errors
at no point exceeding mutant of an inch. When, however, a grating
of that length is attempted at the rate of 14,000 lines to the inch, four
days and nights are required and the result is seldom perfect, possibly
on account of the wear of the machine or changes of temperature.
Gratings, however, less than 3 in. long are easy to make. (H. A. R.)
SCREW-PINE, the popular name for plants of the genus
Pandanus, which are shrubs or trees of peculiar habit, having
OWL
To join the nut
latter, whose
round a vertical
halves of the
distant from its
dependently of
Any want of
ways or eccen-
scarcely affects
guide against
be made of such
due to wear of
backwards and
of the head and
In making
error must be
periodic dis-
pf an inch from
in the spectrum,
live method of
a main stem and a few branches at the ends of which is a tuft
of long, stiff, narrow leaves closely arranged in three strongly
twisted lines. The stem forms stout roots, which grow obliquely
downwards to the soil, and owing to the decay of the lower
part of the stem the plant is often supported merely by these
strong prop-like roots. The ripe fruits are borne in often very
large spherical or cylindrical heads, which are often extremely
hard. The genus is the principal one of the family Pandanaceae,
a small order of Monocotyledons, which is widely distributed
through the tropics of the Old World, especially in the islands
of the Malay Archipelago and of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
SCRIBE, AUGUSTIN EUGENE (1791-1861), French dramatist,
was born in Paris on the 24th of December 1791. His father
was a silk merchant, and he was well educated, being destined
for the bar. But, having a real gift for the theatre, a gift which
unfortunately was not allied with a corresponding literary power,
he very soon began to write for the stage. His first piece, Le
Pretendu sans le savoir, was produced without his name at the
Varietes in 1810, and was a failure. Numerous other plays,
written in collaboration with various authors, followed; but
Scribe achieved no distinct success till 1815, when Une Nuit de
la garde nationale, written in collaboration with Delestre-Poirson,
made him famous. Thenceforward his fertility was unceasing
and its results prodigious. He wrote every kind of drama
vaudevilles, comedies, tragedies, opera-libretti. To the Gymnase
theatre alone he is said to have furnished a hundred and fifty
pieces before 1830. This extraordinary fecundity is explained by
the systematic methods of collaboration which he established.
He had a number of co-workers, one of whom supplied the story,
another the dialogue, a third the jokes and so on. He is said
in some cases to have sent sums of money for " copyright in
ideas " to men who were unaware that he had taken suggestions
from their work. Among his collaborators were Jean Henri
Dupin (1787-1887), Germain Delavigne, Delestre-Poirson, Meles-
ville (A. H. J. Duveyrier), Marc-Antoine Desaugiers, Xavier
Saintine and Gabriel Legouv6. His debut in serious comedy
was made at the Theatre Francais in 1822 with Valerie, the first
of many successful pieces of the same kind. His industry was
untiring and his knowledge both of the mechanism of the stage
and of the tastes of the audience was wonderful. For purely
theatrical ability he is unrivalled, and his plays are still regarded
as models of dramatic construction. Moreover he was for fifty
years the best exponent of the ideas of the French middle classes,
so that he deserves respectful attention, even though his style
be vulgar and his characters commonplace. He wrote a few
novels, but none of any mark. The best-known of Scribe's
pieces after his first successful one are Une Chatne (1842); Le
Verre d'eau (1842); Adrienne Lecouweur (1849), in conjunction
with Legouve; Bertrand el Raton, ou I' art de conspirer; and
the libretti of many of the most famous operas of the middle
of the century, especially those of Auber and Meyerbeer. The
books of La Muetle de Portici, Fra Diavolo, Robert le Diable,
and of Les Huguenots are wholly or in part by him. Scribe
died in Paris on the 2oth of February 1861.
His (Euvres completes appeared in seventy-six volumes in 1874-
1885. See Legouve, Eugene Scribe (1874).
SCRIBES. The word " scribe " (from Lat. scribere, to
write) means generally a writer; but it has a more special
application as the English term for the Jewish class called
in Hebrew Sopherim (Gr. 7p<wmTs). Both the Hebrew
and the Greek word are used to denote something equivalent
to secretary of state or town-clerk in general; and through the
influence of the law, revealed through Moses, upon the Jewish
nation conceived as a theocracy, both words denote in particular
one learned in Scripture. Jeremiah (for example) knew of Scribes
who made the law of the Lord falsehood (viii. 8), just as he knew
of false prophets and profane priests (xxiii.). The function of
writing belongs rather to the scribe or secretary in general
than to the specifically Jewish scribe, whose primary business was
to read and interpret the existing revelation of God's will, just
as the town-clerk at Athens read public documents to the
assembly (Thuc. vii. 10). So Ezra, the most famous of the early
SCRIM SCROFULA
483
Scribes, is referred to as " the scribe of the commandments of
the Lord and of his statutes to Israel " (Ezra vii. n), and again
as " a ready scribe in the law of Moses which the Lord, the God
of Israel, had given." As a Scribe he read the Law to the con-
gregation of the children of Israel and the Levites recited a
paraphrase to enable them to understand it (Nehemiah viii.).
But even Jewish scribes were not only readers (as the old Greek
version of i Esdras calls Ezra) but writers. Jeremiah (viii. 8)
had a feud with the Scribes of his day, who wrote what they
thought necessary as a compendium or supplement of the Law;
but ben Sira, a Scribe himself, left such a book (Ecclesiasticus) ,
which is reckoned Apocryphal, indeed, but is on its merits
worthy to be " read for example of life and instruction of manners "
(Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion, vi.; following Jerome). The
book contains the Scribes' ideal (xxxviii. 24-xxxix. 1 1) as well as
a typical performance. To be a Scribe requires a man's whole
life; a ploughman (for example) has not leisure enough to acquire
such wisdom and here it is well to notice that experience
taught the Jews the necessity of teaching all their children
some handicraft, even if they were to be Scribes. But a Scribe
must devote himself to the study of the law, the wisdom of the
fathers and the prophets, i.e. the written law, and he must receive
the oral tradition which will teach him to unlock its secrets.
He must wander through the lands of the nations and explore
things good and evil among men. So trained he will stand
beside the rulers of his people because the law covers all the
departments of their life. And he may be inspired to speak or
write the wisdom he has gained. Ben Sira's grandson (natural
or spiritual) in the prologue to the Greek version of this collection
of such wisdom speaks of him as having been led forward to
write it as an aid to the progressive fulfilment of God's law.
Such were the Scribes of the Jews, an order of learned theologians
who practised applied theology, a succession of religious teachers
and thinkers controlled in their speculations by their oral
tradition to some extent and always by the principles of the
law and the other scriptures so far as they accepted them and
regarded them as consistent with the teaching of Moses. Their
general aim was progress in knowledge of God's will, but apart
from fundamental principles there were no tests or formularies
to which their teaching must conform. Necessarily they differed
from one another even in the same generation according to their
different temperaments and their different experiences, especially
of foreign lands. And different generations had to adapt them-
selves to different needs. In the time of Antiochus Epiphanes
(for example) they had to face the problem, Was the law of the
Sabbath to be broken, or was the whole nation to perish and leave
none to keep the rest of the law and that part in happier days?
A company of them decided with a unanimity rare in the history
of the order that the Sabbath must be broken (i Mace. ii.
40-42). Later these Hasidaeans deserted the Maccabean rebels,
when some relief had been effected on the coming of a priest of
the seed of Aaron (i Mace. vii. 12-16). Their massacre, like the
massacres which led to the suspension of the Sabbath law,
was another fact to be assimilated for the guidance of posterity,
and, as Scribes always did, they found and cited the prophecy
which was thus fulfilled (Ps. Ixxix. 2, 3; i Mace. vii. 17).
Later they are represented as falling generally into two classes,
the Pharisees and the Sadducees, for it is obvious that the
Sadducees needed doctors of the law to answer the Scribes of the
Pharisees as long as they could, and as long as they dared to hold
out against the Pharisaic tradition, backed as it was by the
popularity of the Pharisees. But it must not be supposed that
the Pharisees all held identical views or insisted upon all points
in the tradition which accumulated and tended to crystallize
as of equal importance. The Sadducean position was probably
more definite and more commonly held by individual Sadducees
because it was mainly based on negations. The rivals may
be compared roughly to theists and atheists of the present day
so far as their relative solidarity is concerned. As an example
of the broad and conspicuous divergences among the Pharisees
it is enough to point to the Zealots; they had isolated precursors
before the final coalition of Pharisees, who thought that the time
had come for the sword of Gideon as well as the sword of the
Lord, with others who seemed to Josephus to love the bloodshed for
its own sake. And the Talmud speaks of the Pairs of Scribes
e.g. Hillel and Shammai as contending with one another.
In the Gospel according to St John, which is wholly, and the
Gospel of St Luke, which is partially in touch with the life of
the time of our Lord, the different receptions which different
Scribes accorded to the new teachers is clearly recognized.
St Paul was of course a Scribe, and helped St Luke, it may fairly
be supposed, to resist Christian prejudice against the whole order
the mere name of Scribe without any discrimination in favour
of such men as Nathaniel, Nicodemus and Gamaliel. The
Gospel associated with the name of St Matthew has at any rate
something of the intolerance with which a tax-gatherer might
well regard those of the Pharisees (i.e. the Zealots, to use the term
handed down) who condemned them as breakers of God's law.
But in respect of its wholesale denunciations of " Scribes and
Pharisees, hypocrites," it must be said that there were many
Scribes and Pharisees who were not hypocrites, and were there-
fore entitled to say, " Let the galled jade wince, our withers are
unwrung." It appears that the parable of the Pharisee and the
Publican ended originally with a question, " Which went home
justified " the Pharisee who thanked God because he had been
saved from the grosser sins, or the Publican who recognized
that his calling was in itself sinful, and without venturing to pass
beyond the Court of the Gentiles whom he served without even
promising to abandon their service prayed for mercy to the
God whom he feared? The official text of St Luke has answered
the question in one way: Christian practice is, on the whole, in
favour of the Pharisee.
Other views of the ancient Scribes are too notorious to need
statement here. Broadly speaking they have no connexion with
the real evidence, because they rest upon the denunciations of
the First Gospel. If it is necessary to begin historical investiga-
tion at the wrong end, it is advisable to take into account the whole
evidence available. The Scribes of the ist century A.D. preserved
Judaism in spite of the destruction of the Temple, and this fact
is enough to refute the view too commonly taken of them by
Christians in spite of St Luke and St John. The common view
is as reasonable and just as an account of the Prophets based
on Jeremiah's denunciations would be or an estimate of the
Church of England which consisted of summary accounts of
its criminous clerks.
See Schttrer's History of the Jewish People, with full authorities.
(J- H. A. H.)
SCRIM, a light open texture, usually made of cotton or flax.
It is used in bookbinding, upholstery and other industries.
It is also used as a backing to strengthen paper, as in maps and
packing paper. Sometimes jute scrims are made for the latter
purpose, and the whole made impervious to moisture by the
addition of some waterproof solution. Certain varieties of jute
scrims or nets are used for supporting the branches of fruit
trees, and for preventing birds from damaging the fruit.
SCRIP, properly any written document; the word is a corrup-
tion of " script " (Lat. scribere, to write), possibly from an
assimilation with " scrip," a pilgrim's bag or wallet, which is
borrowed from the Scandinavian (cf. Nor. skreppa, knapsack),
and is ulfimately cognate with " scrap," shred. In commercial
usage, " scrip " is a document or certificate issued by a public
company when instalments upon its shares are payable at
different dates, or the whole amount to be paid has not been
called up. Such a document entitles the person named to be
treated as the allottee of the shares mentioned; it is transferable,
and entitles the allottee on payment of all the calls to a share
certificate. Scrip requires a penny stamp impressed upon it.
The word is frequently loosely used for the share certificates or
shares collectively.
SCROFULA (Lat. for " little 'sow "), or STRUMA, the general
names formerly given to the disease now termed tuberculosis
(q.v.) " scrofulous," " strumous " and " tuberculous " being
nearly interchangeable. The particular characters associated
with " scrofula " have, therefore, varied at different periods,
SCROGGS SCROPE (FAMILY)
when the real nature of the disease was misunderstood; but
essentially what was meant was tuberculosis of the bones and
lymphatic glands, with its attendant symptoms, and it is in this
sense that the word survives. The old English popular name
was " king's evil," so called from the belief that the sovereign's
touch could effect a cure. This superstition can be traced back
to the time of Edward the Confessor in England, and to a much
earlier period in France. Samuel Johnson was touched by
Queen Anne in 1712, and the same prerogative of royalty was
exercised by Prince Charles Edward in 1745.
SCROGGS, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1623-1683), lord chief justice
of England, was the son of a butcher of sufficient means to give
his son a university education. Scroggs went to Oriel College,
and later to Pembroke College, Oxford, where he graduated in
1640, having acquired a fair knowledge of the classics. There
is some evidence that he fought on the royalist side during the
Civil War. In 1653 he was called to the bar, and soon gained
a good practice in the courts. He was appointed a judge of the
common pleas in 1676, and two years later was promoted to be
lord chief justice, his advancement being due to his unfailing
readiness to degrade the administration of justice to serve the
purposes of the court. He was a man of debauched life and
coarse and violent manners; and these qualities were con-
spicuous in his demeanour on the bench. As lord chief justice
Scroggs presided at the trial of the persons denounced by Titus
Gates for complicity in the " popish plot," and he treated these
prisoners with characteristic violence and brutality, overwhelm-
ing them with indecent sarcasm and abuse while on their trial,
and taunting them with savage mockery when sentencing
them to death. He may at first have been a sincere believer
in the existence of a plot; if so he showed himself not less
gullible than the ignorant multitude out of doors; at all events
he did nothing to test the credibility of such perjured witnesses
as Oates, Bedloe and Dangerfield. At the trial in February
1679 of the prisoners accused of the murder of Sir Edmund
Godfrey he gave a characteristic exhibition of his methods,
indulging in a vituperative tirade against the Roman Catholic
religion, and loudly proclaiming his satisfaction in the guilt of the
accused. It was only when, in July of the same year, Oates's
accusation against the queen's physician, Sir George Wakeman,
appeared likely to involve the queen herself in the ramifications
of the plot, that Scroggs began to think matters were going too
far; he was probably also influenced by the discovery that the
court regarded the plot with discredit and disfavour, and that
the country party led by Shaftesbury had less influence than
he had supposed with the king. The chief justice on this occasion
threw doubt on the trustworthiness of Bedloe and Oates, and
warned the jury to be careful in accepting their evidence. This
change of front inflamed public opinion against Scroggs, for the
popular belief in the plot was still undiminished. Scroggs,
however, was no less violent than before against Catholic priests
who came before him for trial, as he showed when he sentenced
Andrew Bromwich to death at Stafford in the summer of 1679;
but his proposing the duke of York's health at the lord mayor's
dinner a few months later in the presence of Shaftesbury indicated
his determination not to support the Exclusionists against the
known wishes of the king. Acting in the assurance of popular
sympathy, Oates and Bedloe now arraigned the chief justice
before the privy council for having discredited their evidence and
misdirected the jury in the Wakeman case, accusing him at the
same time of several other misdemeanours on the bench, including
a habit of excessive drinking and bad language. In January
1680 the case was argued before the council and Scroggs was
acquitted. At the trials of Elizabeth Cellier and of Lord Castle-
maine in June of the same year, both of whom were acquitted,
he discredited Dangerfield's evidence, and on the former occasion
committed the witness to prison. In the same month he dis-
charged the grand jury of Middlesex before the end of term in
order to save the duke of York from indictment as a popish
recusant, a proceeding which the House of Commons declared
to be illegal, and which was made an article in the impeach-
ment of Scroggs in January 1681. The dissolution of parlia-
ment put an end to the impeachment, but in April Scroggs
was removed from the bench with a pension; he died in
London on the 25th of October 1683.
Scroggs was perhaps the worst of the judges who disgraced
the English bench at a period when it had sunk to the lowest
degradation; and although his infamy is less notorious than
that of Jeffreys, his character exhibited fewer redeeming
features. Scroggs was the author of a work on the Practice
of Courts-Leet and Courts-Baron (London, 1701), and he edited
reports of the state trials over which he presided. He was the
subject of many contemporary satires.
See W. Cobbett, Complete Collection of State Trials (vols. i.-x. of
State Trials, 33 vols., London, 1809); Roger North, Life of Lord
Guilford, &c., edited by A. Jessopp (3 vols., London, 1890), and
Examen (London, 1740); Narcissus Luttrell, A Brief Relation of
State Affairs, 1678-1714 (6 vols., Oxford, 1857); Anthony a Wood,
Alhenae Oxonienses, edited by P. Bliss (4 vols.. London, 1813-1820);
Correspondence of the Family of Hatton, edited by E. M. Thompson
(2 vols., Camden Soc. 22, 23, London, 1878); Lord Campbell,
Lives of the Chief Justices of England (3 vols., London, 1849-1857);
Edward Foss, The Judges of England (9 vols., London, 18481864);
Sir J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England (3 vols.,
London, 1883); Henry B. Irving, Life of Judge Jeffreys (London,
1898). (R. J. M.)
SCROLL, a strip or roll of paper, parchment, &c. The word
in Mid. Eng. was scroiv, and came from Fr. escrou, modern
ecrou; the French form is preserved in the legal term " escrow "
(see DEED); the French diminutive escrouel gave the English
form " scroll." The Fr. escrou is of Teutonic origin and is
connected with "shred," "shard" and "sherd"; and meant
a " shred " of paper. The term is sometimes given in architecture
to the volute of the Ionic capital, to the termination of the hand-
rail of a staircase, and also to the wave-like decorations of
Roman red glazed pottery, and more particularly in Samian
ware.
SCROPE, the name of an old English family of Norman origin.
Sir William le Scrope, of Bolton, in Wensleydale, Yorkshire,
had two sons, HENRY (d. 1336) and GEOFFREY (d. 1340), both
of whom were in succession chief justice of the king's bench
and prominent supporters of the court in the reign of Edward II.
Henry was father of RICHARD LE SCROPE, ist Baron Scrope of
Bolton (c. 1327-1403), chancellor of England, an active adherent
of John of Gaunt. Having been knight of the shire of Yorkshire
in the parliament of 1364, he was summoned to the upper house
as a baron by writ in 1371, when he was made treasurer and
keeper of the great seal. In 1378 Lord Scrope became chancellor,
in which office he attempted to curb the extravagance of Richard
II., an offence for which he was deprived of office in 1382.
Scrope engaged in several disputes with regard to his armorial
bearings, the most celebrated of which was with Sir Richard
Grosvenor as to his right to the shield blazoned " Azure, a bend
or," which a court of chivalry decided in his favour after a
controversy extending over four years. Both as a soldier and a
statesman Lord Scrope was a man of high attainments, his
integrity and prudence being conspicuous. His eldest son
WILLIAM (c. 1350-1399) was created earl of Wiltshire in 1397
by Richard II., of whose evil government he was an active
supporter. Wiltshire bought the sovereignty of the Isle of Man
from the earl of Salisbury. In 1398 he became treasurer of
England. His execution at Bristol was one of the first acts of
Henry IV., and the irregular sentence of an improvised court was
confirmed by that monarch's first parliament. Wiltshire's
father, Lord Scrope, and his other sons were not included in the
attainder, but received full pardon from Henry. Scrope, who
was the builder of Bolton Castle, his principal residence, died
in 1403. He was succeeded in the barony by his second son,
Roger, whose descendants held it till 1630. HENRY, gth Baron
Scrope of Bolton (1534-1592), was governor of Carlisle in the
time of Elizabeth, and as such took charge of Mary Queen of
Scots when she crossed the border in 1568; and he took her to
Bolton Castle, where she remained till January 1569. He was
grandfather of Emmanuel Scrope, nth baron (1584-1630),
who was created earl of Sunderland in 1627; on his death
without legitimate issue in 1630 the earldom became extinct, and
SCROPE, G. J. P. SCROPHULARIACEAE
485
the immense estates of the Scropes of Bolton were divided
among his illegitimate children, the chief portion passing by
marriage to the marquis of Winchester, who was created duke
of Bolton in 1689; to the Earl Rivers; and to John Grubham
Howe, ancestor of the earls of Howe. The barony of Scrope
of Bolton seems then to have become dormant; but the title
might, it would appear, be claimed through the female line by the
representative of Charles Jones (d. 1840) of Caton, Lancashire.
From Stephen, third son of the ist Baron Scrope of Bolton, were
descended the Scropes of Castle Combe, Wiltshire, the last
of whom was William Scrope (1772-1852), an artist and author,
who was an intimate friend of Sir Walter Scott. His daughter
married George Poulett Thompson (1797-1876), an eminent
geologist and prolific political writer, who took the name of
Scrope, and who after his wife's death sold Castle Combe, of
which he wrote a history. Probably from the same branch of
the family was descended Adrian Scrope, or Scroope (1601-1660),
who was prominent on the parliamentarian side in the Civil War,
and one of the signatories of Charles I.'s death warrant.
SIR GEOFFREY LE SCROPE (d. 1340), chief justice of the
king's bench as mentioned above, uncle of the first Baron
Scrope of Bolton, had a son Henry (1315-1391), who in 1350
was summoned to parliament by writ as Baron Scrope, the
designation " of Masham " being added in thi time of his grandson
to distinguish the title from that held by the elder branch of the
family. Henry's fourth son was RICHARD LE SCROPE (c. 1350-
1405), archbishop of York, who took part with the Percies in
opposition to Henry IV., and was beheaded for treason in
June 1405. HENRY LE SCROPE, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham
(c. 1376-1415), was a favourite of Henry V., by whom he was
made treasurer in 1410 and employed on diplomatic missions
abroad. But in 1415 he was concerned in a conspiracy to de-
throne Henry and was executed at Southampton, when his title
was forfeited. It was, however, restored to his brother John
in 1455; and it fell into abeyance on the death, in 1517, of
Geoffrey, nth Baron Scrope of Masham, without male heirs.
See Sir N. H. Nicolas, The Scrope and Grosvenor Controversy (2 vols.,
London, 1832), containing much detailed information about the
various branches of the Scrope family; J. H. Wylie, History of
England under Henry IV. (4 vols., London, 1884-1898); Edward
Foss, The Judges of England (9 vols., London, 1848-1864); G. P.
Scrope, History of the Manor and Ancient Barony of Castle Combe,
Wilts (London, 1852); G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (London,
1896). (R. J. M.)
SCROPE, GEORGE JULIUS POULETT (1797-1876), English
geologist and political economist, was born on the loth of March
1797, the second son of J. Poulett Thompson of Waverley Abbey,
Surrey. He was educated at Harrow, and for a short time at
Pembroke College, Oxford, but in 1816 he entered St John's
College, Cambridge, graduated B.A. in 1821, and through the
influence of E. D. Clarke and Sedgwick became interested in
mineralogy and geology. During the winter of 1816-1817 he
was at Naples, and was so keenly interested in Vesuvius that
he renewed his studies of the volcano in 1818; and in the
following year visited Etna and the Lipari Islands. In 1821
he married the daughter and heiress of William Scrope of Castle
Combe, Wiltshire, and assumed her name; and he entered
parliament in 1833 as M.P. for Stroud, retaining his seat until
1868. Meanwhile he began to study the volcanic regions of
Central France in 1821, and visited the Eifel district in 1823.
In 1825 he published Considerations on Volcanos, leading to the
establishment of a new theory of the Earth, and in the following
year was elected F.R.S. This earlier work was subsequently
amplified and issued under the title of Volcanos (1862): an
authoritative text-book of which a second edition was published
ten years later. In 1827 he issued his classic Memoir on the
Geology of Central France, including the Volcanic formations of
Auvergne, the Velay and the Vivarais, a quarto volume illustrated
by maps and plates. The substance of this was reproduced
in a revised and somewhat more popular form in The Geology
and extinct Volcanos of Central France (1858). Scrope was
awarded the Wollaston Medal by the Geological Society in 1867.
Among his other works was the History of the Manor and Ancient
Barony of Castle Combe (printed for private circulation, 1852).
He died at Fairlawn near Cobham in Surrey on the igth of
January 1876.
Biography (with portrait) in Geol. Mag. for May 1870.
SCROPHULARIACEAE, in botany, a natural order of seed-
plants belonging to the sympetalous section of Dicotyledons,
and a member of the series Tubiflorae. It is a cosmopolitan
order containing about 180 genera with about 2000 species;
the majority occur in temperate regions, the numbers diminishing
rapidly towards the tropics and colder regions. About 30%
of the species are annual herbs, such as eyebright (Euphrasia
officinalis), cow- wheat (Melampyrum), and species of Veronica;
FIG. i Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) f nat. size.
1, Corollacutopen showing the showing the thick axial
four stamens, rather more placenta bearipgnumerous
than | nat. size small seeds.
2, Unripe fruit cut lengthwise, 3, Ripe capsule split open.
more than 60% are biennial or generally perennial herbs and
undershrubs, such as species of Veronica, mullein (Verbascum),
foxglove (Digitalis; fig. i), &c., while shrubs and trees are rare;
Paulownia, a native of the mountains of Japan, a tree with
large leaves and handsome panicles of violet flowers, is grown
in European gardens.
The stem is sometimes prostrate and creeping, as in ivy-leaved
toad-flax (Linaria Cymbalaria) and some of the native British
Veronicas, but generally erect as in foxglove, figwort, mullein, &c. ;
a few are climbers as Rhodochiton and Maurandia. The South
African genera Hyobanche and Harveya are parasites almost devoid of
chlorophyll with scale-like leaves; and many genera are semipara-
sitic, having green leaves, but attaching themselves by root-suckers
to roots of grass, &c., from which they derive part of their nourish-
ment; such are Euphrasia, Rhinanthus, Pedicularis, &c. >A few
4 86
SCRUB-BIRDSCRUPLE
genera are aquatic, e.g. Ambulia (old world tropics), and have much
divided submerged leaves and entire aerial leaves. The leaf-arrange-
ment varies; the leaves are alternate as in Verbascum, or the lower
leaves are opposite and the upper alternate as in Antirrhinum (snap-
dragon), or all are opposite (Mimulus), or whorled (some Veronicas).
All varieties of leaf-arrangement are found in the one genus Veronica
(q.v.), in some New Zealand species of which the leaves are small and
appressed to the stem. The flowers are solitary in the leaf-axils, as
in Mimulus, species of Linaria, &c., or form spikes or racemes which
are terminal as in foxglove, species of Veronica, &c., or axillary as in
Veronica (Chamaedrys section). Cymose inflorescences also occur, as
in Verbascum, consisting of dichasia arranged in spikes, racemes or
panicles. The flowers are hermaphrodite, hypogynous and zygo-
morphic in the median plane, being often more or less two-lipped,
and having five sepals joined below and persisting in the fruiting
sta^e, five petals uniting to form a corolla of very various shape,
generally four stamens, the fifth (posterior) being suppressed or
represented by a rudiment, while the anterior pair are longer than the
posterior, and two generally equal carpels in the median plane forming
a two-celled ovary containing numerous anatropous ovules on a
thick axile placenta, and bearing a simple or bilobed style (fig. 2).
FIG. 20. FIG. 26. FIG. ic.
FIG. 2. Floral Diagrams of Scrophulariaceae. a, Linaria.
b, Veronica, c, Verbascum.
When a terminal flower is present it becomes regular as in toad-
flax, where radial symmetry is produced by development of a spur to
each petal such flowers are termed peloric; all the flowers in a
spike are sometimes peloric. In Euphrasia and many species of
Veronica the posterior sepal is suppressed, and in Calceolaria the
anterior petals are completely united. The form of the corolla shows
great variety, depending on the length and breadth of the tube
which in Veronica is almost obsolete, while in foxglove it is large and
almost bell-shaped-^-and the development of the limbs, which are
spreading in Veronica, small and almost erect in figwort, or form a
pair of closed lips as in Linaria and Antirrhinum. In Linaria the
anterior petal is spurred ; in Calceolaria a very short tube is succeeded
by a two-lipped limb, a smaller upper lip representing the two
posterior petals and a larger, often very large, lower lip representing
the three anterior petals. In Verbascum the five segments are almost
equal, forming a nearly regular corolla; in Veronica the two posterior
petals have united and the corolla is four-lobed. The approach to
regularity in the corolla in Verbascum is associated with the presence
of five fertile stamens, but the three posterior are generally larger than
the two anterior. In Veronica, Calceolaria and other genera only two
stamens are present. The anthers generally open introrsely by a
longitudinal slit ; their form shows great variety. These differences
in the form of the corolla, the position and length of the stamens and
the form of the anthers, are associated with their pollination by
insects which probe the flower for honey, which is secreted by a disk
surrounding trie base of the ovary or by special nectaries below it.
Verbascum and Veronica with a short -tubed corolla represent an open
type of flower with more exposed nectar; in foxglove the honey is at
the base of the long tube, and a bee crawling to reach it will rub with
its back the anthers or stigmas which are placed on the upper side
of the bell. The closed flowers of Linaria and Antirrhinum can be
visited only by insects which are strong enough to separate the lips.
In Euphrasia and others the pollen is loose and powdery, and the
anthers have appendages which when touched by the head of the
insect-visitor cause the pollen to be scattered.
The fruit is generally a capsule surrounded at the base, or some-
times as in yellow-rattle (Rhinanthus) enveloped in the persistent
calyx; it opens by two or four valves, or, as in Antirrhinum, by
pores. Occasionally it is a berry. The seeds are generally small and
numerous, rarely few and large as in Veronica. In Linaria Cymbal-
aria the fruit becomes buried by the stalks bending downwards when
ripe.
The order is divided into tribes by characters derived from the
number of fertile stamens present and the form of the corolla. It is
well represented in Britain by 13 genera, viz. Verbascum (mullein),
Linaria (toad-flax), Antirrhinum (snapdragon), Scrophularia (fie-
wprt), Limosella a small creeping annual found on cages of ponds,
Siblhorpia, a small herb with creeping thread-like stems, Digitalis
(foxglove). Veronica (speedwell), Bartsia, Euphrasia (eyebnght),
Rhinanthus (yellow-rattle), Pedicularis (louse- wort) and Melampy-
rum (cow-wheat). An American species of Mimulus (M. Langs-
dorfii) has become naturalized by river-sides in many places.
Several genera are well known in gardens; such are Calceolaria, an
important genus in temperate So_uth America, Collinsia, Pentstemon
and Mimulus (musk), also American genera.
Scrophulariaceae are closely allied to Solanaceae (q.v.), from which
they are distinguished by the median position of the carpels, and
generally by the zygomorphic flower; Verbascum and its allies, in
which the flower approaches regularity, form a connecting link.
An anatomical distinction is found in the arrangement of the wood
and bast in the stem, which is collateral, not bicollateral as in
Solanaceae.
SCRUB-BIRD, the name of an Australian genus, one of the
most curious ornithological types of the many furnished by
that country. The first examples were procured between Perth
and Augusta in West Australia, and were described by J. Gould
in the Zoological Society's Proceedings for 1844 (pp. i, 2) as
forming a new genus and species under the name of Atrichia
clamosa, the great peculiarity observed by that naturalist being
the absence of any bristles around the gape, in which respect
alone it seemed to differ from the already known genus Sphenura.
Later, however, it was given its modern name Atrichornis clamosa,
and on account of the discovery of its peculiar sternum (made
by A. Newton) it was removed from Oscine division of the
Passeres, and the family Atrichornithidae in the sub-oscine
division of Passeres was made for the genus, the nearest ally
West-Australian Scrub-bird (Atrichornis clamosa).
being the lyre-bird (q.v.), now placed in the family Menuridae.
Both the known species of scrub-bird are about the size of a
small thrush A. clamosa being the larger of the two. This
species is brown above, each feather barred with a darker shade;
the throat and belly are reddish white, and there is a large black
patch on the breast; while the flanks are brown and the lower
tail-coverts rufous. A. rufescens of New South Wales has the
white and black of the fore-parts replaced by brown, barred
much as is the upper plumage. Both species inhabit the thickest
" scrub " or brushwood forest; but little has been ascertained
as to their mode of life except that the males are noisy, imitative
of the notes of other birds, and given to violent gesticulations.
The nest and eggs seem never to have been found, and indeed
no example of the female of either species is known to have
been procured, whence that sex may be inferred to escape
observation by its inconspicuous appearance and retiring
habits. (A.N.)
SCRUPLE, a term used in the two senses of (i) perplexity,
doubt, reluctance or hesitation, especially the moral doubt
arising from the difficulties of conscience; (2) a unit of weight,
5*1 part of the ounce in apothecaries' weight, =J of a dram, 20
grains (1-296 grammes). The word is an adaptation of Fr.
scrupitle, Lat. scrupulus, scrupulum, primarily a small sharp
stone, also used in both the English meanings, dim. of scrupus,
a rough stone, figuratively uneasiness of mind, probably to
be connected with the root skar, to cut, cf. Gr. an.vpov, stone-
chippings, vp6v, a razor.
SCRUTIN DE LISTE SCULLERY
487
SCRUTIN DE LISTE (Fr. scrutin, voting by ballot, and lisle,
a list), a system of election of national representatives by which
the electors of a department vote for all the deputies to be
elected in that department (compare the " general ticket "
in the United States). It is distinguished from the scrutin
d'arrondissement, under which the electors in each arrondisse-
ment vote only for the deputy to be elected in it. See REPRE-
SENTATION.
SCRUTINY (Fr. scrutin, Late Lat. scrutinium, from scrutari,
to search or examine thoroughly), careful examination or inquiry.
The word is specifically applied in the early church to the ex-
amination of the catechumens or those under instruction in the
faith. They were taught the creed and the Lord's Prayer,
examined therein, and exorcized prior to baptism. The days
of scrutiny varied at different periods from three to seven.
From about the beginning of the 1 2th century, when it became
usual to baptize infants soon after their birth instead of at
stated times (Easter and Pentecost), the ceremony of scrutiny
was incorporated with that of the actual baptism. Scrutiny
is also a term applied to a method of electing a pope in the
Roman Catholic church, in contradistinction to two other
methods, acclamation and accession. (See CONCLAVE.) In
the law of elections, scrutiny is the careful examination of
votes cast after the unsuccessful candidate has lodged a petition
claiming the seat, and alleging that he has the majority of legal
votes. Each vote is dealt with separately, notice being given
beforehand by one party to the other of the votes objected to
and the grounds of objection.
SCUDERY, the name of a family said to have been of noble
Italian origin and to have transferred itself to Provence, but
only known by the singular brother and sister who represented
it during the zyth century.
GEORGES DE SCUDERY (1601-1667), the elder of the pair,
was born at Havre, whither his father had moved from Provence,
on the 22nd of August 1601. He served in the army for some
time, and, though in the vein of gasconading which was almost
peculiar to him he no doubt exaggerated his services, there seems
little doubt that he was a stout soldier. But he conceived a
fancy for literature before he was thirty, arid during the whole
of the middle of the century he was one of the most characteristic
figures of Paris. He gained the favour of Richelieu by his
opposition to Corneille. He wrote a letter to the Academy
criticizing the Cid, and his play, L'Amour tyrannique (1640),
was patronized by the cardinal in opposition to Corneille.
Possibly these circumstances had something to do with his
appointment as governor of the fortress of Notre-Dame de la
Garde, near Marseilles in 1643, and in 1650 he was elected to
the Academy. During the troubles of the Fronde he was exiled
to Normandy, where he made his fortune by a rich marriage.
He was an industrious dramatist, but L'Amour tyrannique is
practically the only piece among his numerous tragi-comedies
and pastorals that has escaped oblivion. His other most famous
work was the epic of Alaric (1655). He lent his name to his
sister's first romances, but did little beyond correcting the proofs.
He died at Paris on the i4th of May 1667. Scudery's swash-
buckler affectations have been rather exaggerated by literary
gossip and tradition. Although possibly not quite sane, he
had some poetical power, a fervent love of literature, a high
sense of honour and of friendship.
His sister MADELEINE (1607-1701), born also at Havre on
the 1 5th of November 1607, was a writer of much more ability
and of a much better regulated character. She was very plain
and had no fortune, but her abilities were great and she was very
well educated. Establishing herself at Paris with her brother,
she was at once admitted to the Rambouillet coterie, afterwards
established a salon of her own under the title of the Sociele du
samedi, and for the last half of the I7th century, under the
pseudonym of " Sapho " or her own name, was acknowledged
as the first blue-stocking of France and of the world. She
formed with Pellisson a close friendship only terminated by his
death in 1693. Her lengthy novels, such as Artamene, ou le
Grand Cyrus (10 vols. 1648-1653), Clilie (10 vols. 1654-1661),
Ibrahim, ou I'illustre Bassa (4 vols. 1641), Almahide, ou I'esclave
reine (8 vols. 1661-1663) were the delight of all Europe, including
persons of the wit and sense of Madame de S6vign6. But
neither in conception nor in execution will they bear criticism
as wholes. With classical or Oriental personages for nominal
heroes and heroines, the whole language and action are taken
from the fashionable ideas of the time, and the personages can
be identified either really or colourably with Mademoiselle de
Scudery's contemporaries. In CUlie, Herminius represents Paul
Pellisson; Scaurus and Lyriane were Paul Scarron and his wife
(afterwards Mme de Maintenon); and in the description of
Sapho in vol. x. of Le Grand Cyrus the author paints herself.
It is in CUlie that the famous Carte de Tendre appeared, a
description of an Arcadia, where the river of Inclination waters
the villages of Billet Doux, Petits Soins and so forth. The
interminable length of the stories is made out by endless conversa-
tions and, as far as incidents go, chiefly by successive abductions
of the heroines, conceived and related in the most decorous
spirit, for Mademoiselle de Scudry is nothing if not decorous.
Nevertheless, although the books can hardly now be read through,
it is still possible to perceive their attraction for a period which
certainly did not lack wit. In that early day of the novel
prolixity did not repel. " Sapho " had really studied mankind
in her contemporaries and knew how to analyse and describe
their characters with fidelity and point. Moreover her novels
had the interest always attaching to the roman a clef. She was a
real mistress of conversation, a thing quite new to the age as far
as literature was concerned, and proportionately welcome.
She had a distinct vocation as a pedagogue, and is compared
by Sainte-Beuve to Mme de Genlis. She could moralize a
favourite employment of the time with sense and propriety.
Though she was incapable of the exquisite prose of Mme de
Sevigne and some other of her contemporaries, her purely
literary merits were considerable. Madeleine survived her
brother more than thirty years, and in her later days published
numerous volumes of conversations, to a great extent extracted
from her novels, thus forming a kind of anthology of her work.
She outlived her vogue to some extent, but retained a circle
of friends to whom she was always the " incomparable Sapho."
She died in Paris on the 2nd of June 1701.
Her Life and Correspondence were published at Paris by MM.
Rathery and Boutron in 1873. An amusing sketch of her is to be
found in vol. iv. of Sainte-Beuve's Causeries du lundi. Georges de
ScudeYy is sketched by Theophile Gautier in his Grotesques. See also
V. Cousin, La Societe fran$aise au XVII' siecle, vol. ii.
SCULL (the same word as " skull," cf. Swed. skal, basin,
hufvud-skdl, skull of the head), a light oar with blade more
concave than the ordinary racing oar and with shorter helm,
thus allowing the user to hold one in each hand. " Sculling "
is therefore the propulsion of a boat by one person with a pair
of sculls. The word is also applied to the propulsion of a boat
by one scull worked over the stern, the blade being swept
through the water from side to side, turning diagonally at
each stroke; the sculler usually stands. The principles of
sculling with a pair of sculls are the same as those of rowing (q.v.).
For the type of boat used in racing see BOAT. The Wingfield
Sculls, a race which forms the English Amateur championship,
was instituted in 1830. It is rowed from Putney to Mortlake.
The Diamond Challenge Sculls, instituted in 1844, are rowed for
at Henley Regatta. The earliest professional championship
sculling race was rowed on the Thames in 1831. Since 1876,
when an Australian (E. Trickett, of Sydney) beat J. H. Sadler,
the professional championship of the world has been held by
Australians or Canadians; the principal champions have been
E. Hanlan (Toronto), 1880-1884, W. Beach (New South Wales),
1884-1887; other names are H. E. Searle, J. Stanbury, G. Towns
and R. Arnst (New Zealand) . Most of the races have been rowed
on the Paramatta river. In August 1910 the race was rowed
on the Zambezi between E. Barry of England and Arnst, the
latter winning.
SCULLERY, a back-kitchen, the place where dishes, plates,
kettles, &c., are washed and cleaned, and the rough work connected
with the domestic service of a house is performed.' The Med.
SCULPTURE
Lat. scutellarius, keeper of dishes and plates (scutella), became
in O. Fr. escueillier or sexier, whence in English sculler, squiler,
&c. A " sergeaunt-squylloure " is found amongst the officials
of the royal household; and the Promptorium parvulorum,
dating about 1400, glosses lixa, a sutler or camp-cook, by
" squyllare, dysche-wescheare." " Scullion," a kitchen- wench,
has been naturally connected with scullery, but is derived from
O. Fr. escouillon, dish-cloth, cf. Span, escobillon, spring for a gun,
ultimately from Lat. scopa, birch tree, scopae, broom of birch
twigs.
SCULPTURE (Lat. sculpture, from sculpere, to carve, cognate
with Gr. "yXu^ew), a general term for the plastic art of carving,
especially in stone and marble, but also in such materials as
wood (see WOOD-CARVING), ivory (see IVORY), metal (see METAL-
WORK) and gems (see GEM).
The production of bronze statues by the cire perdue (anglice,
" lost wax ") process is described in the article METAL-WORK ;
Technical unt ^ ( smce i ts revival) recent times but little practised
methods in Europe outside of Paris, it has now invaded most
of the countries where fine casting is appreciated, and where
sculptor, naturalistic rendering is desired. There are signs,
however, of its being ousted for a certain class of handling by
the " galvanoplastic " method a system of copper deposit
by an electrical process whereby " going over " the work
after it has been reproduced in metal is avoided.
For the execution of a marble statue the sculptor first models
a finished preliminary sketch on a small scale in clay or wax.
He then, in the case of a life-size or colossal statue,
model. nas a sort f ' ron skeleton set up, with stout bars for
the arms and legs, fixed in the pose of the future figure.
This is called the " armature." It is placed on a stand, called
a chassis, with a revolving top, so that the sculptor can easily
turn the whole model round and thus work with the light on any
side of it. Over this iron skeleton well-tempered modelling-clay
is laid and is modelled into shape by the help of wood and bone
tools; without the sustaining assistance of the ironwork a soft
clay figure, if more than a few inches high, would collapse with
its own weight and squeeze the lower part out of shape. While
the modelling is in progress it is necessary to keep the clay moist
and plastic by squirting water on to it with a sort of garden
syringe capped with a finely perforated rose. When the sculptor
is not at work the whole figure is kept wrapped up in damp
cloths. A modern improvement is to mix the modelling-clay,
not with water, but with stearin and glycerin; this, while
keeping the clay soft and plastic, has the great advantage of
not being wet, and so the sculptor avoids the chill and consequent
risk of rheumatism which follow from a constant manipulation
of wet clay. This method, however, has not been very exten-
sively adopted. When the clay model is finished it is cast in
plaster. A " piece-mould " l is formed by applying patches
of wet plaster of Paris all over the clay statue in such a way
that they can be removed piecemeal from the model, and then
be fitted together again, forming a complete hollow mould.
The inside is then rinsed out with plaster and water mixed to
the consistency of cream till a skin of plaster is formed all over
the inner surface of the mould, and thus a hollow cast is made
of the whole figure. The " piece-mould " is then taken to pieces
and the casting set free. If skilfully done by a good formalore
or moulder the plaster cast is a perfect facsimile of the original
day, very slightly disfigured by a series of lines showing the
joints in the piece-mould, the sections of which cannot be made
to fit together with absolute precision. Many sculptors have
their clay model cast in plaster before the modelling is quite
finished, as they prefer to put the finishing touches on the
plaster cast good plaster being a very easy and pleasant
substance to work on.
The next stage is to copy the plaster model in marble. The
model is set on a large block called a " scale stone," while the
1 Moulds made in one or few pieces, from which the cast can onljr
be extracted by destroying the mould, are called " spoil-moulds. '
A large number of casts can be made from a " piece-mould," but only
one from a " spoil-mould."
marble.
marble for the future statue is set upon another similar block.
The plaster model is then covered with a series of marks, placed
on all the most salient parts of the body, and the front
of each " scale stone " is covered with another series of
points, exactly the same on both stones. An ingenious
instrument called a pointing machine, which has
arms ending in metal points or " needles " that move in ball-socket
joints, is placed between the model and the marble block. Two
of its arms are then applied to the model, one touching a point
on the scale stone while the other touches a mark on the figure.
The arms are fixed by screws in this position, and the machine
is then revolved to the marble block, and set with its lower needle
touching the corresponding point on the scale stone. The upper
needle, which is arranged to slide back on its own axis, cannot
reach the corresponding point on the statue because the marble
block is in the way; a hole is then drilled into the block at the
place and in the direction indicated by the needle, till the latter
can slide forward so as to reach a point sunk in the marble block
exactly corresponding to the point it touched on the plaster
mould. This process is repeated both on the model and on
the marble block till the latter is drilled with a number of holes,
the bottoms of which correspond in position to the number of
marks made on the surface of the model. A comparatively
unskilled scorpellino or " chisel-man " then sets to work and cuts
away the marble till he has reached the bottoms of all the holes,
beyond which he must not cut. The statue is thus roughly
blocked out, and a more skilled scarpcllino begins
to work. Partly by eye and partly with the constant
help of the pointing machine, which is used to give
any required measurements, the workman almost completes
the marble statue, leaving only the finishing touches to be
done by the sculptor. In the opinion of many artists the use
of the mechanical pointing-machine is responsible in a great
measure for the loss of life and fire in much of modern
sculpture.
Among the ancient Greeks and Romans and in the medieval
period it was the custom to give the nude parts of a marble statue
a considerable degree of polish, which really suggests
the somewhat glossy surface of the human skin very marble*."
much better than the full loaf-sugar-like surface which
is left on the marble by most modern sculptors. This high
polish still remains in parts of the pedimental figures from the
Parthenon, where, at the back, they have been specially protected
from the weather. The Hermes of the Vatican Belvidere is a
remarkable instance of the preservation of this polish. Michel-
angelo carried the practice further still, and gave certain parts
of some of his statues, such as the Moses, the highest possible
polish in order to produce high lights just where he wanted them;
the artistic legitimacy of this may perhaps be doubted, and in
weak hands it might degenerate into mere trickery. It is,
however, much to be desired that modern sculptors should
to some extent at least adopt the classical practice, and by a
slight but uniform polish remove the disagreeable crystalline
grain from all the nude parts of the marble.
A rougher method of obtaining fixed points to measure from
was occasionally employed by Michelangelo and earlier sculptors.
They immersed the model in a tank of- water, the water being
gradually allowed to run out, and thus by its sinking level it
gave a series of contour lines on any required number of planes.
In some cases Michelangelo appears to have cut his statue out
of the marble without previously making a model a marvellous
feat of skill.
In modelling bas-reliefs the modern sculptor usually applies
the clay to a slab of slate on which the design is sketched; the
slate forms the background of the figures, and thus
keeps the relief absolutely true to one plane. This
method is one of the causes of the dulness and want
of spirit so conspicuous in most modern sculptured
reliefs. In the best Greek examples there is no absolutely fixed
plane surface for the backgrounds. In one place, to gain an
effective shadow, the Greek sculptor would cut below the average
surface; in another he would leave the ground at a higher plane,
tun.
METHODS AND MATERIALS]
SCULPTURE
489
exactly as happened to suit each portion of his design. Other
differences from the modern mechanical rules can easily be
seen by a careful examination of the Parthenon frieze and other
Greek reliefs. Though the word " bas-relief " is now often
applied to reliefs of all degrees of projection from the ground, it
should, of course, only be used for those in which the projection
is slight; " basso," " mezzo " and " alto rilievo " express three
different degrees of salience. Very low relief is but little used
by modern sculptors, mainly because it is much easier to obtain
striking effects with the help of more projection. Donatello
and other 15th-century Italian artists showed the most wonderful
skill in their treatment of very low relief. One not altogether
legitimate method of gaining effect was practised by some
medieval sculptors: the relief itself was kept very low, but was
" stilted " or projected from the ground, and then undercut
all round the outline. A 15th-century tabernacle for the host
in the Brera at Milan is a very beautiful example of this method,
which as a rule is not pleasing in effect, since it looks rather
as if the figures were cut out in cardboard and then stuck on (see
RELIEF).
The practice of most modern sculptors is to do very little to
the marble with their own hands; some, in fact, have never
really learnt how to carve, and thus the finished
Sculptor's - j-i j 11 j ft i
assistants, statue is often very dull and lifeless in comparison
with the clay model. Most of the great sculptors
of the middle ages left little or nothing to be done by
an assistant; Michelangelo especially did the whole of the
carving with his own hands, and when beginning on a block oi
marble attacked it with such vigorous strokes of the hammer
that large pieces of marble flew about in every direction. But
skill as a carver, though very desirable, is not absolutely necessary
for a sculptor. If he casts in bronze by the clre perdue process
he may produce the most perfect plastic works without touching
anything harder than the modelling-wax. The sculptor in
marble, however, must be able to carve a hard substance if he
is to be master of his art. Unhappily some modern sculptors
not only leave all manipulation of the marble to their workmen,
but they also employ men to do their modelling, colloquially
termed " ghosts," the supposed sculptor supplying little or
nothing but his sketch and his name to the work. The practice,
however, is less common nowadays than formerly , owing mainly to
one or two exposures which brought the matter sharply before the
public. In some cases sculptors of ability who suffer under an
excess of popularity are induced to employ aid of this kind on
account of their undertaking more work than any one man could
possibly accomplish a state of things which is necessarily
very hostile to the interests of true art. As a rule, however,
the sculptor's scarpellino, though he may and often does attain
the highest skill as a carver and can copy almost anything with
wonderful fidelity, seldom develops into an original artist. The
popular admiration for pieces of clever trickery in sculpture,
such as the carving of the open meshes of a fisherman's net,
or a chain with each link free and movable, or a veil over
and half revealing the features of the face, would perhaps be
diminished if it were known that such work as this is invariably
done, not by the sculptor, but by the scarpellino. Unhappily
at the present day there is, especially in England, little apprecia-
tion of what is valuable in plastic art; there is probably no other
civilized country where the State does so little to give practical
support to the advancement of monumental and decorative
sculpture on a large scale the most important branch of
the art which it is hardly in the power of private persons to
further.
It may here be well to say a few words on the technical methods
employed in the execution of medieval sculpture, which in the
M di ft mam were very s ' mnar m England, France and Germany.
When bronze was used in England as a rule only for
aad the effigies of royal persons or the richer nobles the metal
materials was cast by l ^ e delicate cire perdue process, and the whole
' surface of the figure was then thickly gilded. At Limoges
in France a large number of sepulchral effigies were produced, especi-
ally between 1300 and 1400, and exported to distant places. These
were not cast, but were made of hammered (repousse q.v.) plates of
copper, nailed on a wooden core and richly decorated with champleve'
enamels in various bright colours. Westminster Abbey possesses a
fine example, executed about 1300, in the effigy of William of Valence
(d. I296). 1 The ground on which the figure lies, the shield, the border
of the tunic, the pillow, and other parts are decorated with these
enamels very minutely treated. The rest of the copper was gilt, and
the helmet was surrounded with a coronet set with jewels, which are
now missing. One royal effigy of later date at Westminster, that of
Henry V. (d. 1422), was formed of beaten silver fixed to an oak core,
with the exception of the head, which appears to have been cast,
i he whole of the silver disappeared in the time of Henry VIII., and
nothing now remains but the rough wooden core; hence it is
doubtful whether the silver was decorated with enamel or not; it
was probably of English workmanship.
In most cases stone was used for all sorts of sculpture, being
decorated in a very minute and elaborate way with gold, silver and
colours applied over the whole surface. In order to give additional
richness to this colouring the surface of the stone, often even in the
case of external sculpture, was covered with a thin skin of gesso or
fine plaster mixed with size; on this, while still soft, and over the
drapery and other accessories, very delicate and minute patterns
were stamped with wooden dies, and upon this the gold and colours
were applied; thus the gaudiness and monotony of flat smooth
surfaces covered with gilding or bright colours were avoided. 2 In
addition to this the borders of drapery and other parts of stone
statues were frequently ornamented with crystals and false jewels, or,
in a more laborious way, with holes and sinkings filled with polished
metallic foil, on which very minute patterns were painted in trans-
parent yartiish colours ; the whole was then protected from the air by
small pieces of transparent glass, carefully shaped to the right size
and fixed over the foil in the cavity cut in the stone. It is difficult
now to realize the extreme splendour of this^ilt, painted and jewelled
sculpture, as no perfect example exists, though in many cases traces
remain of all these processes, and show that they were once very
widely applied. 3 The architectural surroundings of the figures were
treated in the same elaborate way. In the I4th century in England
alabaster came into frequent use for monumental sculpture; it too
was decorated with gold and colour, though in some cases the whole
surface does not appear to have been so treated. In his wide use of
coloured decoration, as in other respects, the medieval sculptor came
far nearer to the ancient Greek than do any modern artists. Even
the use of inlay of coloured glass was common at Athens during the
5th century B.C. as, for example, in the plait-band of some of the
marble bases of the Erechtheum and five or six centuries earlier
at Tiryns and Mycenae.
Another material much used by medieval sculptors was wood,
though, from its perishable nature, comparatively few early ex-
amples survive; 4 the best specimen is the figure of George de
Cantelupe (d. 1273) in Abergavenny church. This was decorated
with gesso reliefs, gilt and coloured in the same way as the stone.
The tomb of Prince John of Eltham (d. 1334) at Westminster is a
very fine example of the early use of alabaster, both for the re-
cumbent effigy and also for a number of small figures of mourners
all round the arcading of the tomb. These little figures, well pre-
served on the side which is protected by the screen, are of very great
beauty and are executed with the most delicate minuteness; some
of the heads are equal to the best contemporary work of the son and
pupils of Niccola Pisano. The tomb once had a high stone canopy of
open work arches, canopies and pinnacles -a class of architectural
sculpture of which many extremely rich examples exist, as, for
instance, the tomb of Edward II. at Gloucester, the de Spencer tomb
at Tewkesbury, and, of rather later style, the tomb of Lady Eleanor
Fitzalan de Percy at Beyerley. This last is remarkable for the great
richness and beauty of its sculptured foliage, which is of the finest
Decorated period and stands unrivalled by any Continental example.
The condition of this shrine (erected about 1335 to 1340) is almost
perfect.
On technical methods, see (specially for the explanation of model-
ling, &c.) Edward LanteVi, Modelling (London, vol. i, 1903, vol. 2,
1904, vol. 3, 1910), and Albert Toft, Modelling and Sculpture
(London, 1910). These volumes give in detail every process and
method of the sculptor's craft with a fulness to be found in no other
works of their class in the English language.
1 Other effigies from Limoges were imported into England, but no
other example now exists in the country.
1 In the modern attempts to reproduce the medieval polychromy
these delicate surface reliefs have been omitted; hence the painful
results of such colouring as that in Notre-Dame and the Sainte
Chapelle in Paris and many other " restored " churches, especially
in France and Germany.
3 On the tomb of Aymer de Valence (d. 1326) at Westminster a
good deal of the stamped gesso and coloured decoration is visible on
close inspection. One of the cavities of the base retains a fragment of
glass covering the painted foil, still brilliant and jewel-like in effect.
4 The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a magnificent colossal
wood figure of an angel, not English, but Italian work of the I4th
century. A large stone statue of about the same date, of French
workmanship, in the same museum is a most valuable example of the
use of stamped gesso and inlay of painted and glazed foil.
490
SCULPTURE
[MEDIEVAL
HISTORY
The following general sketch of the history of sculpture is
confined mainly to that of the middle ages and modern times.
The philosophy and aesthetics of the subject the relation of
sculpture to the other arts and the nature of its appeal to the
emotions are treated in the article FINE ARTS. What is known
as " classical " sculpture is dealt with under GREEK ART and
ROMAN ART; see also, for other allied aspects, CHINA, Art;
JAPAN, Art; EGYPT, Art; BYZANTINE ART; and articles on
METAL-WORK, IVORY, WOOD-CARVING, &c.; the article ARCHI-
TECTURE and allied articles (e.g. CAPITAL); and the articles
on the several individual artists.
In the 4th century A.D., under the rule of Constantino's
successors, the plastic arts in the Roman world reached the
lowest point of degradation to which they ever fell.
Christian. Coarse in workmanship, intensely feeble in design,
and utterly without expression or life, the pagan
sculpture of that time is merely a dull and ignorant
imitation of the work of previous centuries. The old faith
was dead, and the art which had sprung from it died with it.
In the same century a large amount of sculpture was produced
by Christian workmen, which, though it reached no very high
standard of merit, was at least far superior to the pagan work.
Although it shows no increase of technical skill or knowledge
of the human form, yet the mere fact that it was inspired and
its subjects supplied by a real living faith was quite sufficient
to give it a vigour and a dramatic force, which raise it aesthetic-
ally far above the expiring efforts of paganism. Apart f torn
ivories (see IVORY), a number of large marble sarcophagi are the
chief existing specimens of this early Christian sculpture. In
general design they are close copies of pagan tombs, and are
richly decorated outside with reliefs. The subjects of these
are usually scenes from the Old and New Testaments. From the
former those subjects were selected which were supposed to
have some typical reference to the life of Christ: the Meeting
of Abraham and Melchisedec, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Daniel
among the Lions, Jonah and the Whale, are those which most
frequently occur. Among the New Testament scenes no repre-
sentations occur of Christ's sufferings; 1 the subjects chosen
illustrate his power and beneficence: the Sermon on the Mount,
the Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem, and many of his miracles
are frequently repeated. The Vatican and Lateran museums
are rich in examples of this sort. One of the finest in the former
collection was taken from the crypt of the old basilica of St
Peter; it contained the body of a certain Junius Bassus, and
dates from the year 359.* Many other similar sarcophagi were
made in the provinces of Rome, especially Gaul; and fine
specimens exist in the museums of Aries, Marseilles and Aix;
those found in Britain are of very inferior workmanship.
Sculpture hi the round, with its suggestion of idol worship
which was offensive to the Christian spirit, was practically
non-existent during this and the succeeding centuries, although
there are a few notable exceptions, like the large bronze statue of
St Peter* in the nave of St Peter's in Rome, which is probably
of sth-century workmanship and has much of the repose, dignity
and force of antique sculpture.
Italian plastic art in the sth century continued to create in
the spirit of the 4th century, especially reliefs in ivory (to a
certain extent imitations of the later consular diptychs), which
were used to decorate episcopal thrones or the bindings of MSS.
of the Gospels. The so-called chair of St Peter, still preserved
(though hidden from sight) in his great basilica, is the finest
example of the former class; of less purely classical style, dating
from about 550, is the ivory throne of Bishop Maximianus in
Ravenna cathedral. Another very remarkable work of the
1 A partial exception to this rule is the scene of Christ before
Pilate, which sometimes occurs.
1 See Dionysius, Sac. Vat. Bas. Cryp., and Bunsen, Besch. d. Stadl
Rom (1840).
1 There is no ground for the popular impression that this is an
antique statue of Jupiter transformed into that of St Peter by the
addition cf the keys.
Sth century is the series of small panel reliefs on the doors of
S. Sabina on the Aventine Hill at Rome. There are scenes from
Bible history carved in wood, and in them much of the old
classic style survives. 4
In the 6th century, under the Byzantine influence of Justinian,
a new class of decorative sculpture was produced, especially
at Ravenna. Subject reliefs do not often occur, but large slabs
of marble, forming screens, altars, pulpits and the like, were
ornamented in a very skilful and original way with low reliefs
of graceful vine-plants, with peacocks and other birds drinking
out of chalices, all treated in a very able and highly decorative
manner. Byzantium, however, in the main, became the birth-
place and seat of all the medieval arts soon after the transference
thither of the headquarters of the empire (see BYZANTINE ART).
It was natural that love of splendour and sumptuousness in the
Eastern capital found expression in colour and richness of
material rather than in monumental impressiveness. The
school of sculpture which arose at Byzantium in the sth or 6th
century was therefore essentially decorative, and not monu-
mental; and the skill of the sculptors was most successfully
applied to work in metals and ivory, and the carving of foliage
on capitals and bands of ornament, possessed of the very highest
decorative power and executed with unrivalled spirit and
vigour. The early Byzantine treatment of the acanthus or
thistle, as seen in the capitals of S. Sophia at Constantinople,
the Golden Gate at Jerusalem, and many other buildings in the
East, has never since been surpassed in any purely decorative
sculpture; and it is interesting to note how it grew out of the
dull and lifeless ornamentation which covers the degraded
Corinthian capital used so largely in Roman buildings of the
time of Constantine and his sons.
Till about the izth century, and in some places much later,
the art of Byzantium dominated that of the whole Christian
world in a very remarkable way. The spread of this / n // uence
art was to a great extent due to the iconoclast riots of
which not only led to the destruction of images and Byzantine
works of art, but threatened the very life of the artists "*'
and craftsmen, who thereupon sought refuge in foreign countries,
especially at the court of Charlemagne, and for several centuries
determined the course of European art. From Russia to Ireland
and from Norway to Spain any given work of art in one of the
countries of Europe might almost equally well have been designed
in any other. Few or no local characteristics or peculiarities
can be detected, except of course in the methods of execution,
and even these were wonderfully similar everywhere. The
dogmatic unity of the Catholic Church and its great monastic
system, with constant interchange of monkish craftsmen between
one country and another, were the chief causes of this widespread
monotony of style. An additional reason was the unrivalled
technical skill of the early Byzantines, which made their city
widely resorted to by the artist-craftsmen of all Europe the
great school for learning any branch of the arts.
The extensive use of the precious metals for the chief works
of plastic art in this early period is one of the reasons why so
few examples still remain their great intrinsic value naturally
causing their destruction. One of the most important existing
examples, dating from the Sth century, is a series of colossal
wall reliefs executed in hard stucco in the church of Cividale
(Friuli) not far from Trieste. These represent rows of female
saints bearing jewelled crosses, crowns and wreaths, and closely
resembling in costume, attitude and arrangement the gift-bearing
mosaic figures of Theodora and her ladies in S. Vitale at Ravenna.
It is a striking instance of the almost petrified state of Byzantine
art that so close a similarity should be possible between works
executed at an interval of fully two hundred years. Some
very interesting small plaques of ivory in the library of St Gall
show a still later survival of early forms. The central relief
is a figure of Christ in Majesty, closely resembling those in the
colossal apse mosaic of S. Apollinare in Classe and other churches
4 Various dates have been assigned to these interesting reliefs by
different archaeologists, but the costumes of the figures are strong
evidence that they are not later than the sth century.
MEDIEVAL]
SCULPTURE
491
of Ravenna; while the figures below the Christ are survivals
of a still older time, dating back from the best eras of classic art.
A river-god is represented as an old man holding an urn, from
which a stream issues, and a reclining female figure with an
infant and a cornucopia is the old Roman Tellus or Earth-
goddess with her ancient attributes. 1
While the countries of the north could not altogether resist
the rising tide of Byzantinism, in Scandinavia, and to a great
Norse tad extent in England, the autochthonous art was not
Celtic la- altogether obliterated during the early middle ages. In
flueaces la England, during the Saxon period, when stone buildings
England. were rare am j even i ar g e cathedrals were built of
wood, the plastic arts were mostly confined to the use of
gold, silver, and gilt copper. The earliest existing specimens
of sculpture in stone are a number of tall churchyard crosses,
mostly in the northern provinces and apparently the work of
Scandinavian sculptors. One very remarkable example is a
tall monolithic cross, cut in sandstone, in the churchyard of
Gosforth in Cumberland. It is covered with rudely carved
reliefs, small in scale, which are of special interest as showing
a transitional state from the worship of Odin to that of Christ.
Some of the old Norse symbols and myths sculptured on it
occur modified and altered into a semi-Christian form. Though
rich in decorative effect and with a graceful outline, this sculp-
tured cross shows a very primitive state of artistic development,
as do the other crosses of this class in Cornwall, Ireland and
Scotland, which are mainly ornamented with those ingeniously
intricate patterns of interlacing knotwork designed so skilfully
by both the early Norse and the Celtic races. 2 They belong
to a class of art which is not Christian in its origin, though it
was afterwards largely used for Christian purposes, and so is
thoroughly national in style, quite free from the usual widespread
Byzantine influence. Of special interest from their early date
probably the nth century are two large stone reliefs now in
Chichester cathedral, which are traditionally said to have come
from the pre-Norman church at Selsey. They are thoroughly
Byzantine in style, but evidently the work of some very ignorant
sculptor; they represent two scenes in the Raising of Lazarus;
the figures are stiff, attenuated and ugly, the pose very awkward,
and the drapery of exaggerated Byzantine character, with long
thin folds. To represent the eyes pieces of glass or coloured
enamel were inserted ; the treatment of the hair in long ropelike
twists suggests a metal rather than a stone design.
The Romanesque period in art was essentially one of archi-
tectural activity. The spirit of the time did not encourage
that individual thought which alone can produce
a great development of sculpture and painting. Thus
sculpture, the plastic art of the nth and izth centuries, which
was still entirely at the service and under the rule of
the Church, was strictly confined to conventional symbols, ideas
and forms. It is based, not on the study of nature, but on
the late Roman reliefs. The treatment of the figures, though
often rude and clumsy, and sometimes influenced by Byzantine
stiffness, is on the whole dignified, solemn and serious, and bent
upon the expression of the typical, and not of the individual.
The tympana of the porches, the capitals of columns and the
pulpits and choir-screens of the Romanesque churches, and, on
a smaller scale, the ivory carvings for book-covers and portable
miniature altars, provided the field for the Romanesque sculptors'
activity.
In Italy the strong current of hierarchal Byzantinism had
never altogether supplanted the antique tradition, though the
works based upon the latter, before Niccola Pisano revived
1 On early and medieval sculpture in ivory consult Gori, Thesaurus
veterum diptychorum (Florence, 1759); Westwood, Diptychs of
Consuls (London, 1862); Didron, Images ouvrantes du Louvre (Paris,
1871); William Maskell, Ivories in the South Kensington Museum
(London, 1872 & 1875); Wieseler, Diptychon Quirinianum zu
Brescia (Gottingen, 1868); Wyatt and Oldfield, Sculpture in Ivory
(London, 1856); Alfred Maskell, Ivories (London, 1905), one of the
best treatises in the English language; E. Molinier, Les Ivoires;
Die Elfenbeinbilder (Berlin Museum, 1903).
1 See O'Neill, Sculptured Crosses of Ireland (London, 1857).
for a short while the true spirit of the antique, are of almost
barbaric rudeness, like the bronze gates of S. Zeno at Verona, and
the stone-carving of The Last Supper on the pulpit of
S. Ambrogio, in Milan. The real home of Romanesque
sculpture was beyond the Alps, in Germany and France, and
much of the work done in Italy during the izth century was
actually due to northern sculptors as, for example, the very
rude sculpture on the facade of S. Andrea at Pistoia, executed
about 1 1 86 by Gruamons and his brother Adeodatus, 3 or the
relief by Benedetto Antelami for the pulpit of Parma cathedral
of the year 1178. Unlike the sculpture of the Pisani and later
artists, these early figures are thoroughly secondary to the
architecture they are designed to decorate; they are evidently
the work of men who were architects first and sculptors in a
secondary degree. After the I3th century the reverse was
usually the case, and, as at the west end of Orvieto cathedral, the
sculptured decorations are treated as being of primary importance
not that the Italian sculptor-architect ever allowed his statues
or reliefs to weaken or damage their architectural surroundings,
as is unfortunately the case with much modern sculpture. In
southern Italy, during the I3th century, there existed a school
of sculpture resembling that of France, owing probably to the
Norman occupation. The pulpit in the cathedral of Ravello,
executed by Nicolo di Bartolommeo di Foggia in 1272, is an
important work of this class; it is enriched with very noble
sculpture, especially a large female head crowned with a richly
foliated coronet, and combining lifelike vigour with largeness
of style in a very remarkable way. The bronze doors at Monreale
(by Barisanus of Trani), Pisa and elsewhere are among the
chief works of plastic art in Italy during the I2th century.
The history of Italian sculpture of the best period is given to a
great extent in the separate articles on the Pisani and other
Italian artists. Here it suffices to say that sculpture never
became as completely subservient to architecture, as it did in
the north, and that with Giovanni Pisano the almost classic
repose and dignity of his father Niccola's style gave way
probably owing to northern influences to an increased
sense of life and freedom and dramatic expression. Niccola
stands at the close of the Romanesque, and Giovanni on the
threshold of the Gothic period. During the i3th century Rome
and the central provinces of Italy produced very few sculptors
of ability, almost the only men of note being the Cosmati.
The power acquired by Germany under the Saxon emperors,
upon whom had descended the mantle of the Roman Caesars,
was the chief reason that led to the great development
of Romanesque art in Germany. It is true that,
in the nth century, Byzantine influences stifled the work.
spontaneous naivete of the earlier work; but about the
end of the I2th century a new free and vital art arose, based upon
a better understanding of the antique, and fostered by the rise
of feudalism and the prosperity of the cities. Next in importance
to the numerous examples of German Romanesque ivory carvings
are the works in bronze, in the technique of which the German
craftsmen of the pre-Gothic period stand unrivalled. This is
seen in the bronze pillar reliefs and other works, notably the
bronze gates of Hildesheim Cathedral, produced by Bishop
Bernward (d. 1022) after his visit to Rome. Hildesheim,
Cologne and the whole of the Rhine provinces were the most
active seats of German sculpture, especially in metal, till the
1 2th century. Many remarkable pieces of bronze sculpture
were produced at the end of that period, of which several speci-
mens exist. The bronze font at Li6ge, with figure-subjects
in relief of various baptismal scenes from the New Testament,
by Lambert Patras of Dinant, cast about 1112, is a work of most
wonderful beauty and perfection for its time; other fonts in
Osnabriick, by Master Gerhard, and Hildesheim cathedrals are
surrounded by spirited reliefs, fine in conception, but inferior
in beauty to those on the Li6ge font. Fine bronze candelabra
exist in the abbey church of Combourg and at Aix-la-Chapelle,
3 The other finest examples of this early class of sculpture exist at
Pisa, Parma, Modena and Verona; in most of them the old Byzantine
influence is very strong.
492
SCULPTURE
[MEDIEVAL
France.
the latter of about 1165. Merseburg cathedral has a strange
realistic sepulchral figure of Rudolf of Swabia, executed about
i loo ; and at Magdeburg is a fine effigy, also in bronze, of Bishop
Frederick (d. 1152), treated in a more graceful way. The last
figure has a peculiarity which is not uncommon in the older
bronze reliefs of Germany: the body is treated as a relief, while
the head sticks out and is quite detached from the ground in a
very awkward way. One of the finest plastic works of this
century is the choir screen of Hildesheim cathedral, executed
in hard stucco, one rich with gold and colours; on its lower
part is a series of large reliefs of saints modelled with almost
classical breadth and nobility, with drapery of especial excellence.
In the i3th century German sculpture had made considerable
artistic progress, but it did not reach the high standard of
France. One of the best examples of the transition period from
German Romanesque to Gothic is the " golden gate " of Freiburg
cathedral, with sculptured figures on the jambs after the French
fashion. The statues of the apostles on the nave pillars, and
especially one of the Madonna at the east end (1260-1270),
possess great beauty and sculpturesque breadth. Of the same
period, and kindred in style and feeling, are the reliefs on the
eastern choir-screen in Bamberg cathedral.
France is comparatively poor in characteristic examples
of Romanesque sculpture, as the time of the greatest activity
coincides with the beginnings of the Gothic style, so
that in many cases, as for instance on the porches
of Bourges and Chartres cathedrals, Romanesque and Gothic
features occur side by side and make it impossible to establish a
clear demarcation between the two. Among the most important
Romanesque monuments of the early iath century are the
sculptures on the porch of the abbey church of Conques, repre-
senting the Last Judgment; the somewhat barbaric tympanum
of Autun cathedral (c. 1130); and that of the church of
Moissac.
During the i2th and i3th centuries the prodigious activity
of the cathedral builders of France and their rivalry to outshine
each other in the richness of the sculptured decorations, led to
the glorious development that culminated in the full flower
of Gothic art. The facades of large cathedrals were completely
covered with sculptured reliefs and thick-set rows of statues
in niches. The whole of the front was frequently one huge
composition of statuary, with only sufficient purely architectural
work to form a background and frame for the sculptured figures.
A west end treated like that of Wells cathedral, which is almost
unique in England, is not uncommon in France. Even the shafts
of the doorways and other architectural accessories were covered
with minute sculptured decoration, the motives of which
were often, especially during the 1 2th century, obviously derived
from the metal-work of shrines and reliquaries studded with
rows of jewels. The west facade of Poitiers cathedral is one of
the richest examples; it has large surfaces covered with foliated
carving and rows of colossal statues, both seated and standing,
reaching high up the front of the church. Of the same century
(the i zth), but rather later in date, is the very noble sculpture
on the three western doors of Chartres cathedral, with fine
tympanum reliefs and colossal statues (all once covered with
painting and gold) attached to the jamb-shafts of the openings.
These latter figures, with their exaggerated height and the
long straight folds of their drapery, are designed with great
skill to assist and not to break the main upward lines of the
doorways. The sculptors have willingly sacrificed the beauty and
proportion of each separate statue for the sake of the architectonic
effect of the whole facade. The heads, however, are full of
nobility, beauty, and even grace, especially those that are
softened by the addition of long wavy curls, which give relief
to the general stiffness of the form. The sculptured doors of
the north and south aisles of Bourges cathedral are fine examples
of the end of the izth century, and so were the west doors of
Notre Dame in Paris till they were hopelessly injured by
" restoration." The early sculpture at Bourges is specially
interesting from the existence in many parts of its original
coloured decoration.
Romanesque sculpture in England, during the Norman
period, was of a very rude sort and generally used for the
tympanum reliefs over the doors of churches. Christ
in Majesty, the Harrowing of Hell and St George
and the Dragon occur very frequently. Reliefs of the England.
zodiacal signs were a common decoration of the
richly sculptured arches of the 1 2th century, and are frequently
carved with much power. The later Norman sculptured orna-
ments are very rich and spirited, though the treatment of the
human figure is still very weak. 1
The best-preserved examples of monumental sculpture of
the 1 2th century are a number of effigies of knights-templars
in the round Temple church in London. 2 They are laboriously
cut in hard Purbeck marble, and much resemble bronze in their
treatment; the faces are clumsy, and the whole figures stiff
and heavy in modelling; but they are valuable examples of
the military costume of the time, the armour being purely
chain-mail. Another effigy in the same church cut in stone,
once decorated with painting, is a much finer piece of sculpture
of about a century later. The head, treated in an ideal way
with wavy curls, has much simple beauty, showing a great
artistic advance. Another of the most remarkable effigies of
this period is that of Robert, duke of Normandy (d. 1134),
in Gloucester cathedral, carved with much spirit in oak, and
decorated with painting. The realistic trait of the crossed
legs, which occurs in many of these effigies, heralds the near
advent of Gothic art. Most rapid progress in all the arts,
especially that of sculpture, was made in England in the second
half of the i3th and the beginning of the i4th century, largely
under the patronage of Henry III., who employed and handsomely
rewarded a large number of English artists, and also imported
others from Italy and Spain, though these foreigners took only
a secondary position among the painters and sculptors of England.
The end of the i3th century was in fact the culminating period
of English art, and at this time a very high degree of excellence
was reached by purely national means, quite equalling and even
surpassing the general average of art on the Continent, except
perhaps in France. Even Niccola Pisano could not have sur-
passed the beauty and technical excellence of the two bronze
effigies in Westminster Abbey modelled and cast by William
Torell, a goldsmith and citizen of London, shortly before
the year 1300. These are on the tombs of Henry III. and Queen
Eleanor (wife of Edward I.), and, though the tomb itself of the
former is an Italian work of the Cosmati school, there is no trace
of foreign influence in the figures. At this time portrait effigies
had not come into general use, and both figures are treated
in an ideal way. 3 The crowned head of Henry III., with noble
well-modelled features and crisp wavy curls, resembles the
conventional royal head on English coins of this and the following
century, while the head of Eleanor is of remarkable, almost
classic, beauty, and of great interest as showing the ideal type
of the i3th century. In both cases the drapery is well conceived
in broad sculpturesque folds, graceful and yet simple in treat-
ment. The casting of these figures, which was effected by the
cire perdue process, is technically very perfect. The gold em-
ployed for the gilding was got from Lucca in the shape of the
current florins of that time, which were famed for their purity.
Torell was highly paid for this, as well as for two other bronze
statues of Queen Eleanor, probably of the same design.
Although the difference between fully developed Gothic
sculpture and Romanesque sculpture is almost as clearly marked
as the difference between Gothic and Romanesque architecture
1 In Norway and Denmark during the nth and I2th centuries
carved ornament of the very highest merit was produced, especially
the framework round the doors of the wooden churches; these are
formed of large pine planks, sculptured in slight relief with dragons
and interlacing foliage in grand sweeping curves, perfect master-
pieces of decorative art, lull of the keenest inventive spirit and
originality.
* See Richardson, Monumental Effigies of the Temple Church (Lon-
don, 1843).
3 The effigy of King John in Worcester cathedral of about 1216 is
an exception to this rule; though rudely executed, the head appears
to be a portrait.
MEDIEVAL]
SCULPTURE
493
indeed, the evolution of the two arts proceeded in parallel stages
the change from the earlier to the later style is so gradual and
almost imperceptible, that it is all but impossible to follow it
step by step, and to illustrate it by examples. What distinguishes
the Gothic from the Romanesque in sculpture is the striving to
achieve individual in the place of typical expression. This
striving is as apparent in the more flexible and emotional treat-
ment of the human figure,as it is in the substitution of naturalistic
plant and animal forms for the more conventional ornamentation
of the earlier centuries. Statuesque architectonic dignity and
calmness are replaced by slender grace and soulful expression.
The drapery, instead of being arranged in heavy folds, clings
to the body and accentuates rather than conceals the form.
At the same time, the subjects treated by the Gothic sculptor
do not depart to any marked degree from those which fell to
the task of the Romanesque workers, though they are brought
more within the range of human emotions.
It is only natural that in France, which was the birthplace of
Gothic architecture, the sister art of sculpture should have
attained its earliest and most striking development.
seuf/ure During the i3th century, the imagiers, or stone
in France, sculptors, worked hand in hand with the great cathedral
builders. This century may indeed be called the
golden age of Gothic sculpture.
While still keeping its early dignity and subordination to
its architectural setting, the sculpture reached a very high
degree of graceful finish and even sensuous beauty. Nothing
could surpass the loveliness of the angel statues round the
Sainte Chapelle in Paris, and even the earlier work on the facade
of Laon cathedral is full of grace and delicacy. Amiens cathedral
is especially rich in sculpture of this date, as, for example,
the noble and majestic statues of Christ and the Apostles at
the west end; the sculpture on the south transept of about
1260-1270, of more developed style, is remarkable for dignity
combined with soft beauty. 1 The noble row of kings on the
west end of Notre Dame at Paris has, like the earlier sculpture,
been ruined by " restoration," which has robbed the statues
of both their spirit and their vigour. To the latter years of the
i3th century belong the magnificent series of statues and reliefs
round the three great western doorways of the same church,
among which are no fewer than thirty-four life-sized figures.
On the whole, the single statues throughout this period are finer
than the reliefs with many figures. Some of the statues of the
Virgin and Child are of extraordinary beauty, in spite of their
being often treated with a certain mannerism a curved pose
of the body, which appears to have been copied from ivory
statuettes, in which the figure followed the curve of the elephant's
tusk. The north transept at Rheims is no less rich: the central
statue of Christ is a work of much grace and nobility of form;
and some nude figures for example, that of St Sebastian
show a knowledge of the human body which was very unusual
at that early date. Many of these Reims statues, like those
by Torell at Westminster, are quite equal to the best work
of Niccola Pisano. The abbey church of St Denis possesses
the largest collection of French 13th-century monumental
effigies, a large number of which, with supposed portraits of the
early kings, were made during the rebuilding of the church in
1264; some of them appear to be " archaistic " copies of older
contemporary statues. 2
In the 1 4th century French sculpture began to decline, though
much beautiful plastic work was still produced. Some of the
reliefs on the choir screen of Notre Dame at Paris belong to this
period, as does also much fine sculpture on the transepts of
Rouen cathedral and the west end of Lyons. At the end of this
century an able sculptor from the Netherlands, Claus Sluter
(who followed the tradition of the 14th-century school of Tournai,
which is marked by the exquisite study of the details of nature
and led to the brilliant development of Flemish realism), executed
much fine work, especially at Dijon, under the patronage of
Philip the Bold, for whose newly founded Carthusian monastery
1 See Ruskin, The Bible of Amiens (1878).
2 See Felibien, Histoire de I'Abbaye de Saint-Denys (Paris, 1706).
in 1399 he sculptured the great " Moses fountain " in the cloister,
with six life-sized statues of prophets in stone, painted and gilt
in the usual medieval fashion. Not long before his death in 1411
Sluter completed a very magnificent altar tomb for Philip
the Bold, now in the museum at Dijon. It is of white marble,
surrounded with arcading, which contains about forty small ala-
baster figures representing mourners of all classes, executed
with much dramatic power. The recumbent portrait effigy of
Philip in his ducal mantle with folded hands is a work of great
power and delicacy of treatment. 3
Whilst in France there was a distinct slackening in building
activity in the I4th century, which led to a corresponding
decline in sculpture, Germany experienced a reawaken- aermaa
ing of artistic creative energy and power. That the 13th-
Gothic style had taken root on German soil in the century
preceding century, is proved by the fresh, mobile scuj ' >ture -
treatment of the statues on the south porch of the east facade
of Bamberg cathedral, and even more by the equestrian statue
of Conrad III. in the market-place at Bamberg, which supported
by a foliated corbel, exhibits startling vigour and originality,
and is designed with wonderful largeness of effect, though small
in scale. The statues of Henry the Lion and Queen Matilda
at Brunswick, of about the same period, are of the highest beauty
and dignity of expression. Strassburg cathedral, though sadly
damaged by restoration, still possesses a large quantity of the
finest sculpture of the I3th century. One tympanum relief of
the Death of the Virgin, surrounded by the sorrowing Apostles,
is a work of the very highest beauty, worthy to rank with the
best Italian sculpture of even a later period. Of its class nothing
can surpass the purely decorative carving at Strassburg, with
varied realistic foliage studied from nature, evidently with the
keenest interest and enjoyment.
But such works were only isolated manifestations of German
artistic genius, until, in the next century, sculpture rose to new
and splendid life, though it found expression not so much in
the composition of extensive groups, as in the neighbouring
France, but in the carving of isolated figures of rare and subtle
beauty.
Nuremberg is rich in good sculpture of the I4th century.
The church of St Sebald, the Frauenkirche, and the west facade
of St Lawrence are lavishly decorated with reliefs and statues,
very rich in effect, but showing the germs of that mannerism
which grew so strong in Germany during the isth century.
Of special beauty are the statuettes which adorn the " beautiful
fountain," which was formerly erroneously attributed to the
probably mythical sculptor Sebald Schonhofer, and is decorated
with gold and colour by the painter Rudolf. 4 Of considerable
importance are the statues of Christ, the Virgin, and the Apostles
on the piers in the choir of Cologne cathedral, which were
completed after 1350. They are particularly notable for their
admirable polychromatic treatment. The reliefs on the high
altar, which are of later date, are wrought in white marble on
a background of black marble. Augsburg produced several
sculptors of ability about this time; the museum possesses
some very noble wooden statues of this school, large in scale
and dignified in treatment. On the exterior of the choir of the
church of Marienburg castle is a very remarkable colossal figure
of the Virgin of about 1340-1350. Like the Hildesheim choir
screen, it is made of hard stucco and is decorated with glass
mosaics. The equestrian bronze group of St George and the
Dragon in the market-place at Prague is excellent in workman-
ship and full of vigour, though much wanting dignity of style.
Another fine work in bronze of about the same date is the effigy
of Archbishop Conrad (d. 1261) in Cologne cathedral, executed
many years after his death. The portrait appeals truthful and
the whole figure is noble in style. The military effigies of this
time in Germany as elsewhere were almost unavoidably stiff
and lifeless from the necessity of representing them in plate
See A. Kleinclausz, Claus Sluter (Paris, 1908).
4 See Baader, Beitrdge zur Kunstgesch. Niirnbergs ; Rettberg,
Niirnberger K unstleb n (Stuttgart, 1854), and P. J. Ree, Nuremberg
and its Art to the end of the loth Century (London, 1905).
494
SCULPTURE
[MEDIEVAL
to
England.
armour. The ecclesiastical chasuble, in which priestly effigies
nearly always appear, is also a thoroughly unsculpturesque
form of drapery, both from its awkward shape and its absence
of folds. The Gunther of Schwarzburg (d. 1349) in Frankfort
cathedral is a characteristic example of these sepulchral effigies
in slight relief.
In England, much of the fine 13th-century sculpture was
used to decorate the facades of churches, though, on the whole,
Anhttec- English cathedral architecture did not offer such great
tmi opportunities to the imugier as did that of France.
sculpture A notable exception is Wells cathedral, the west end of
which, dating from about the middle of the century,
is covered with more than 600 figures in the round
or in relief, arranged in tiers, and of varying sizes. The tympana
of the doorways are filled with reliefs, and above them stand
rows of colossal statues of kings and queens, bishops and knights,
and saints both male and female, all treated very skilfully with
nobly arranged drapery, and graceful heads designed in a
thoroughly architectonic way, with due regard to the main lines
of the building they are meant to decorate. In this respect
the early medieval sculptor inherited one of the great merits
of the Greeks of the best period : his figures or reliefs form an
essential part of the design of the building to which they are
affixed, and are treated in a subordinate manner to their archi-
tectural surroundings very different from most of the sculpture
on modern buildings, which frequently looks as if it had been
stuck up as an afterthought, and frequently by its violent and
incongruous lines is rather an impertinent excrescence than
an ornament. 1 Peterborough, Lichfield and Salisbury cathedrals
have fine examples of the sculpture of the I3th century: in the
chapter-house of the last the spandrels of the wall-arcade are
filled with sixty reliefs of subjects from Bible history, all treated
with much grace and refinement. To the end of the same
century belong the celebrated reliefs of angels in the spandrels
of the choir arches at Lincoln, carved in a large massive way with
great strength of decorative effect. Other fine reliefs of angels,
executed about 1260, exist in the transepts of Westminster
Abbey; being high from the ground, they are broadly treated
without any high finish in the details. 2
Purely decorative carving in stone reached its highest point
of excellence about the middle of the i4th century rather later,
that is, than the best period of figure sculpture. Wood-carving
(?..), on the other hand, reached its artistic climax a full century
later under the influence of the fully developed Perpendicular
style.
The most important effigies of the nth century are those
in gilt bronze of Edward III. (d. 1377) and of Richard II. and
his queen (made in 1395), all at Westminster. They are all
portraits, but are decidedly inferior to the earlier work of William
Torell. The effigies of Richard II. and Anne of Bohemia were
the work of Nicolas Broker and Godfred Prest, goldsmith citizens
of London. Another fine bronze effigy is at Canterbury on the
tomb of the Black Prince (d. 1376); though well cast and with
carefully modelled armour, it is treated in a somewhat dull
and conventional way. The recumbent stone figure of Lady
Arundel, with two angels at her head, in Chichester cathedral is
remarkable for its calm peaceful pose and the beauty of the
drapery. Among the most perfect works of this description
is the alabaster tomb of Ralph Nevill, first earl of Westmorland,
with figures of himself and his two wives, in Staindrop church,
county Durham (1426), removed, 1908, from a dark corner of
the church into full light, a few feet away, where its beauty
may now be examined. A very fine but more realistic work is
the tomb figure of William of Wykeham (d. 1404) in the cathedral
1 The sculpture on the Paris opera house is a striking instance of
this ; and so, in a small way, are the statues in the reredos at West-
minster Abbey and that at Gloucester cathedral. Another is afforded
by the figures of modern soldiers inserted in the beautifully-designed
Gothic Boer War Memorial (by G. F. Bodley, R.A.) set up in the
cathedral close in York.
1 On the whole, Westminster possesses the most completely
representative collection of English medieval sculpture in an un-
broken succession from the I3th to the i6th century.
at Winchester. The cathedrals at Rochester, Lichfield, York,
Lincoln, Exeter and many other ecclesiastical buildings in
England are rich in examples of 14th-century sculpture,
used occasionally with great profusion and richness of effect,
but treated in strict subordination to the architectural
background.
The finest piece of bronze sculpture of the isth-century is
the effigy of Richard Beauchamp (d. 1439) in his family chapel
at Warwick a noble portrait figure, richly decorated with
engraved ornaments. The modelling and casting were done
by William Austen of London, and the gilding and engraving
by a Netherlands goldsmith who had settled in London, named
Bartholomew Lambespring, assisted by several other skilful
artists.
The first Spanish sculptor of real eminence who need be
considered is Aparicio, who lived and worked in the nth century.
His shrine of St Millan, executed to the order of Don Spain
Sancho the Great is in the monastery of Yuso, and is
a composition excellent, in its way, in design, grace and propor-
tion. In the early medieval period the sculpture of northern
Spain was much influenced by contemporary art in France.
From the izth to the I4th century many French architects
and sculptors visited and worked in Spain. The cathedral of
Santiago de Compostella possesses one of the grandest existing
specimens in the world of late 12th-century architectonic
sculpture; this, though the work of a native artist, Mastei
Mateo, 3 is thoroughly French in style; as recorded by an inscrip-
tion on the front, it was completed in 1188. The whole of the
western portal with its three doorways is covered with statues
and reliefs, all richly decorated with colour, part of which still
remains. Round the central arch are figures of the twenty-four
elders, and in the tympanum a very noble relief of Christ in
Majesty between Saints and Angels. As at Chartres, the jamb-
shafts of the doorways are decorated with standing statues of
saints St James the elder, the patron of the church, being
attached to the central pillar. These noble figures, though
treated in a somewhat rigid manner, are thoroughly subordinate
to the main lines of the building. Their heads, with pointed
beards and a fixed mechanical smile, together with the stiff
drapery arranged in long narrow folds, recall the Aeginetan
pediment sculpture of about 500 B.C. This appears strange at
first sight, but the fact is that the works of the early Greek and
the medieval Spaniard were both produced at a somewhat
similar stage in two far distant periods of artistic development.
In both cases plastic art was freeing itself from the bonds of a
hieratic archaism, and had reached one of the last steps in a
development which in the one case culminated in the perfec-
tion of the Phidian age, and in the other led to the exquisitely
beautiful yet simple and reserved art of the end of the I3th
and early part of the i4th century the golden age of sculpture
in France and England. In the cathedral of Tarragona
are nine statues, in stone, executed by Bartolome' in 1278 for
the gate.
In the i4th century the silversmiths of Spain produced many
works of sculpture of great size and technical power. One of
the finest, by a Valencian called Peter Bernec, is the great silver
retable at Gerona cathedral. It is divided into three tiers of
statuettes and reliefs, richly framed in canopied niches, all of
silver, partly cast and partly hammered.
In the 1 5th century an infusion of German influence was
mixed with that of France, as may be seen in the very rich
sculptural decorations which adorn the main door of Salamanca
cathedral, the facade of S. Juan at Valladolid, and the church
and cloisters of S. Juan de los Reyes at Toledo, perhaps the most
gorgeous examples of architectural sculpture in the world.
These were executed between 1418 and 1425 by a group of
clever sculptors, among whom A. and F. Diaz, A. F. de Sahagun,
A. Rodriguez and A. Gonzales were perhaps the chief. The
marble altar-piece of the grand altar at Tarragona was begun
' A kneeling portrait-statue of Mateo is introduced at the back of
the central pier. This figure is now much revered by the Spanish
peasants, and the head is partly worn away with kisses.
SCULPTURE
PLATE I.
(Pholo, Bragi.)
JACOPO DELLA QUERCIA Tomb, Ilaria del Carretto, Lucca.
(Photo, Anderson.)
DONATELLO Equestrian Statue, General Gattamelata, Padua.
(Pinto, Alinari.) (Photo, Alinari.)
ANDREA PISANO The 6rst bronze door of the Baptistery, DONATELLO Statue of St George,
Florence. Florence.
(Photo, Anderson.)
MICHELANGELO Head of Colossal David, Florence.
(Photo, Anderson.)
VERROCCHIO & LEOPARDI Bronze Colossal Statue of Bartolommeo
XXIV. 494.
Colleoni, Venice.
(Pkolo, A nilerson.)
LUCA DELLA ROBBIA Girls and boys playing on musical
instruments and dancing (Museo dell' Opera, Florence).
PLATE II.
SCULPTURE
(Photo, Alinari.)
BENVENUTO CELLINI Bronze Statue o/ Perseus
and Medusa, in the Loggia del Lanzi, Florence.
(Photo, Wurlhle & Sahn.)
PETER VISCHER Gilt Bronze Statue of
King Arthur, Innsbruck.
(Photo. Anderson.)
BERNINI Apollo and Daphne (Borghese Gallery).
(Photi, Ciraudon.)
JEAN GOUJON Diane de Poitiers (as Huntress), in the Louvre.
(Photo, Liiwy.)
CANOV A Colossal Marble Group of Theseus and Centaur, Vienna.
(Photo. Ciraudon. )
HOUDON Voltaire (Theatre Francais. Paris).
< Photo. Giraudon.)
COYSEVOX Bust of himself, in the Louvre.
MEDIEVAL]
SCULPTURE
495
by P. Juan in 1426 and completed by G. De La Mota. The
carved foliage of this period is of especial beauty and spirited
execution; realistic forms of plant-growth are mingled with
other more conventional foliage in the most masterly manner.
The very noble bronze monument of Archdeacon Pelayo (d. 1490)
in Burgos cathedral was probably the work of Simon of Cologne,
who was also architect of the Certosa at Miraflores, 2 m. from
Burgos. The church of this monastery contains two of the most
magnificently rich monuments in the world, especially the
altar-tomb of King John II. and his queen by Gil de Siloe
a perfect marvel of rich alabaster canopy-work and intricate
under-cutting. The effigies have little merit. From the i6th
century onwards wood was a favourite material with Spanish
sculptors, who employed it for devotional and historical groups
realistically treated, such as the" Scene from Taking of Granada"
by El Maestre Rodrigo, and even for portraiture, as in the Bust
of Turiano by Alonzo Berruguete (1480-1561).
During the I4th century Florence and the neighbouring
cities were the chief centres of Italian sculpture, and there
numerous sculptors of successively increasing artistic
Gothic power lived and worked, till in the isth century the
c * tv na( * become the aesthetic capital of the world.
But the Gothic sculptor's activity was by no means
confined to Tuscany, for in northern Italy various schools
of sculpture existed in the I4th century, especially at Verona
and Venice, whose art differed widely from the contemporary
art of Tuscany; but Milan and Pa via, on the other hand, possessed
sculptors who followed closely the style of the Pisani. The chief
examples of the latter class are the magnificent shrine of St
Augustine in the cathedral of Pavia, dated 1362, and the some-
what similar shrine of Peter the Martyr (1339), by Balduccio
of Pisa, in the church of S. Eustorgio at Milan, both of white
marble, decorated in the most lavish way with statuettes and
subject reliefs. Many other fine pieces of the Pisan school exist
in Milan. The well-known tombs of the Scaliger family at
Verona show a more native style of design, and in general form,
though not in detail, suggest the influence of transalpine Gothic.
In Venice the northern and almost French character of much
of the early isth-century sculpture is more strongly marked,
especially in the noble figures in high relief which decorate
the lower story and angles of the doge's palace; 1 these are
mostly the work of a Venetian named Bartolomeo Bon. A
magnificent marble tympanum relief by Bon can be seen at the
Victoria and Albert Museum; it has a noble colossal figure
of the Madonna, who shelters under her mantle a number of
kneeling worshippers; the background is enriched with foliage
and heads, forming a " Jesse tree," designed with great decorative
skill. The cathedral of Como, built at the very end of the isth
century, is decorated with good sculpture of almost Gothic
style, but on the whole rather dull and mechanical in detail,
like much of the sculpture in the extreme north of Italy. A
large quantity of rich sculpture was produced in Naples during
the I4th century, but of no great merit either in design or in
execution. The lofty monument of King Robert (1350), behind
the high altar of S. Chiara, and other tombs in the same church
are the most conspicuous works of this period. The extraordinary
poverty in the production of sculpture in Rome during the I4th
century was remarkable. The clumsy effigies at the north-east
of S. Maria in Trastevere are striking examples of the degradation
of the plastic art there about the year 1400; and it was not
till nearly the middle of the century that the arrival of able
Florentine sculptors, such as Filarete, Mino da Fiesole, and the
Pollaiuoli, initiated a brilliant era of artistic activity, which,
however, for about a century continued to depend on the presence
of sculptors from Tuscany and other northern provinces. It
was not, in fact, till the period of full decadence had begun that
Rome itself produced any notable artists.
In Florence, the centre of artistic activity during the isth
as well as the I4th century, Giotto not only inaugurated the
'See Ruskin, Stones of Venice; and Mothes, Gesch, der Bauk. a.
Bildh. Venedigs (Leipzig, 1859); also H. v. d. Gabelentz, Mittelaltert.
Plastik in Venedig (Leipzig, 1902).
modern era of painting, but in his relief sculpture, and more
particularly by the influence he exercised upon Andrea Pisano,
carried the art of sculpture beyond the point where it had been
left by Giovanni Pisano. In Andrea we find something of
Niccola's classic dignity grafted on to Giovanni's close observation
of nature. His greatest works are the bronze south gate of the
Baptistery, and some of the reliefs on Giotto's Campanile. The
last great master of the Gothic period is Andrea di Cione, better
known as Orcagna (1308? to 1368), who, like Giotto, achieved
fame in the three sister arts of painting, sculpture and archi-
tecture. His wonderful tabernacle at Or San Michele is a noble
testimony to his efficiency in the three arts and to his early
training as a goldsmith. Very beautiful sepulchral effigies in
low relief were produced in many parts of Italy, especially at
Florence. The tomb of Lorenzo Acciaioli, in the Certosa near
Florence, is a fine example of about the year 1400, which has
absurdly been attributed to Donatello. The similarity between
the plastic arts of Athens in the sth or 4th century B.C. and of
Florence in the i sth century is not one of analogy only. Though
free from any touch of copyism, there are many points in the
works of such men as Donatello, Luca della Robbia, and Antonio
Pisano which strongly recall the sculpture of ancient Greece,
and suggest that, if a sculptor of the later Phidian school had been
surrounded by the same types of face and costume as those
among which the Italians lived, he would have produced plastic
works closely resembling those of the great Florentine masters.
Lorenzo Ghiberti may be called the first of the great sculptors
of the Renaissance. But between him and Orcagna stands
another master, the Sienese, Jacopo della Quercia 2 (1371-
1438) who, although in some minor traits connected with the
Gothic school, heralds at this early date the boldest and most
vigorous and original achievements of two generations hence.
Indeed, Jacopo, whose chief works are the Fonte Gaja at Siena
(now reconstructed) and the reliefs on the gate of S. Petronio
at Bologna, stands in his strong muscular treatment of the
human figure nearer to Michelangelo than to his Gothic pre-
cursors and contemporaries. Contemporaneously with Ghiberti,
the sculptor of the world-famed baptistery gates, and with
Donatello, and to a certain extent influenced by them, worked
some men who, like Ciuffagni, were still essentially Gothic in
their style, or, like Nanni di Banco, retained unmistakable
traces of the earlier manner. Luca della Robbia, the founder
of a whole dynasty of sculptors hi glazed terra-cotta, with his
classic purity of style and sweetness of expression, came next
in order. Unsensual beauty elevated by religious spirit was
attained in the highest degree by Mino da Fiesole, the two
Rossellini, Benedetto da Maiano, Desiderio da Settignano and
other sculptors more or less directly influenced by Donatello.
Through them the tomb monument received the definite form
which it retained throughout the Renaissance period. Two
of the noblest equestrian statues the world has probably ever
seen are the Gattamelata statue at Padua by Donatello and the
statue of Colleoni at Venice by Verrocchio and Leopardi. A
third, which was probably of equal beauty, was modelled in clay
by Leonardo da Vinci, but it no longer exists. Among other
sculptors who flourished in Italy about the middle of the isth
century, are the Lucchese Matteo Civitali; Agostino di Duccio
(i4i8-c. 1481), whose principal works are to be found at Rimini
and Perugia; the bronze-worker Bertoldo di Giovanni (1420-
1491); Antonio del Pollaiuolo, the author of the tombs of popes
Sixtus IV. and Innocent VIII. at St Peter's in Rome; and
Francesco Laurana (1424-1501?), a Dalmatian who worked
under Brunelleschi and left many traces of his activity in Naples
(Triumphal Arch), Sicily and southern France. Finally came
Michelangelo, who raised the sculpture of the modern world
to its highest pitch of magnificence, and at the same time sowed
the seeds of its rapidly approaching decline; the head of his
David at Florence is a work of unrivalled force and dignity.
His rivals and imitators, Baccio Bandinelli, Giacomo della
Porta, Montelupo, Ammanati and Vincenzo de' Rossi (pupils
of Bandinelli) and others,' copied and exaggerated his faults
1 See Carl Cornelius, Jaeopo della Quercia (Halle a. S., 1896).
49 6
SCULPTURE
[RENAISSANCE
without possessing a touch of his gigantic genius. In other
parts of Italy, such as Pavia, the traditions of the isth century
lasted longer, though gradually fading. The statuary and reliefs
which make the Certosa near Pavia one of the most gorgeous
buildings in the world are free from the influence of Michelangelo,
which at Florence and Rome was overwhelming. Though much
of the sculpture was begun in the second half of the isth century,
the greater part was not executed till much later. The magnifi-
cent tomb of the founder, Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, was not
completed till about 1560, and is a gorgeous example of the
style of the Renaissance grown weak from excess of richness
and from loss of the simple purity of the art of the isth century.
Everywhere in this wonderful building the fault is the same;
and the growing love of luxury and display, which was the
curse of the time, is reflected in the plastic decorations of the whole
church. The old religious spirit had died out and was succeeded
by unbelief or by an affected revival of paganism. Monuments
to ancient Romans, such as those to the two Plinys on the facade
of Como cathedral, or " heroa " to unsaintly mortals, such as
that erected at Rimini by Sigismondo Pandolfo in honour of
Isotta, 1 grew up side by side with shrines and churches dedicated
to the saints. We have seen how the youthful vigour of the
Christian faith vivified for a time the dry bones of expiring
classic art, and now the decay of this same belief brought
with it the destruction of all that was most valuable in medieval
sculpture. Sculpture, like the other arts, became the bond-slave
of the rich, and ceased to be the natural expression of a whole
people. Though for a long time in Italy great technical skill
continued to exist, the vivifying spirit was dead, and at last a
dull scholasticism or a riotous extravagance of design became
the leading characteristics.
The 1 6th century was one of transition to this state of degrada-
tion, but nevertheless produced many sculptors of great ability
who were not wholly crushed by the declining taste of their
time. John of Douai (1524-1608), usually known as Giovanni
da Bologna, one of the ablest, lived and worked almost entirely
in Italy. His bronze statue of Mercury flying upwards, in the
Uffizi, one of his finest works, is full of life and movement. By
him also is the " Carrying off of a Sabine Woman " in the Loggia
de' Lanzi. His great fountain at Bologna, with two tiers of boys
and mermaids, surmounted by a colossal statue of Neptune, a
very noble work, is composed of architectural features combined
with sculpture, and is remarkable for beauty of proportion.
He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue of Cosimo de'
Medici at Florence and the very richly decorated west door of
Pisa cathedral, the latter notable for the overcrowding of its
ornaments and the want of sculpturesque dignity in the figures;
it is a feeble imitation of Ghiberti's noble production. One of
Giovanni's best works, a group of two nude figures fighting,
is now lost. A fine copy in lead existed till recently in the front
quadrangle of Brasenose College, Oxford, of which it was the
chief ornament. In 1881 it was sold for old lead by the principal
and fellows of the college, and was immediately melted down by
the plumber who bought it an irreparable loss, as the only
other existing copy is very inferior; the destruction was an
utterly inexcusable act of vandalism. The sculpture on the
western facade of the church at Loreto and the elaborate bronze
gates of the Santa Casa are works of great technical merit by
Girolamo Lombardo and his sons, about the middle of the i6th
century. Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1569), though in the main
greater as goldsmith than as sculptor, produced one work of
great beauty and dignity the bronze Perseus in the Loggia
de' Lanzi at Florence. His large bust of Cosimo de' Medici in the
Bargello is mean and petty in style. A number of very clever
statues and groups in terra-cotta were modelled by Antonio
Begarelli of Modena (d. 1565), and were enthusiastically admired
by Michelangelo; the finest are a " Pieta " in S. Maria Pomposa
and a large " Descent from the Cross " in S. Francesco, both at
Modena. The colossal bronze seated statue of Julius III. at
Perugia, cast in 1555 by Vincenzio Danti, is one of the best
portrait-figures of the time.
1 See Yriarte, Rim'ni au XV' siicle (Paris, 1880).
aalssaace
la France.
The latter part of the i5th century in France was a time of
transition from the medieval, style, which had gradually been
deteriorating, to the more florid and realistic taste of
the Renaissance. To this period belong a number
of rich reliefs and statues on the choir-screen
of Chartres cathedral. Those on the screen at
Amiens are later still, and exhibit the rapid advance of the
new style.
The transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance is to be
noted in many tomb monuments of the second half of the 15th
and the beginning of the i6th centuries, notably in Rouland
de Roux's magnificent tomb of the cardinals of Amboise at
Rouen cathedral. Italian motifs are paramount in the great
tomb of Louis XII. and his wife Anne of Bretagne, at St Denis,
by Jean Juste of Tours.
The influx of Italian artists into France in the reign of Francis I.,
who, with Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Rosso, and
Primaticcio, had summoned Benvenuto Cellini and
other Italian sculptors to his court, naturally led to *
the practical extinction of the Gothic style, though
isolated examples of medievalism still occur about the
middle of the i6th century. Such are the " Entombment " in the
crypt of Bourges cathedral, and the tomb of Rene of Chalons
in the church of St Etienne at Bar-le-Duc. But the main current
of artistic thought followed the direction indicated by the found-
ing of the Italianizing school of Fontainebleau. Jean Goujon,
(d. 1572) was the ablest French sculptor of the time; he combined
great technical skill and refinement of modelling with the florid
and affected style of the age. His nude figure of " Diana reclining
by a Stag," now in the Louvre, is a graceful and vigorous piece
of work, superior in sculpturesque breadth to the somewhat
similar bronze relief of a nymph by Cellini. Between 1540 and
1552 Goujon executed the fine monument at Rouen to Duke
Louis de Breze, and from 1555 to 1562 was mainly occupied in
decorating the Louvre with sculpture. One of the most pleasing
and graceful works of this period, thoroughly Italian in style,
is the marble group of the " Three Graces " bearing on their heads
an urn containing the heart of Heury II., executed in 1560 by
Germain Pilon for Catherine de Medicis. The monument of
Catherine and Henry II. at St Denis, by the same sculptor,
is an inferior and coarser work. Maitre Ponce, probably the
same as the Italian Ponzio Jacquio, chiselled the noble monument
of Albert of Carpi (1535), now in the Louvre. Another very
fine portrait effigy of about 1570, a recumbent figure in full
armour of the duke of Montmorency, preserved in the Louvre,
is the work of Barthelemy Prieur. Francois Duquesnoy of
Brussels (1594-1644), usually known as II Fiammingo, was a
clever sculptor, thoroughly French in style, though he mostly
worked in Italy. His large statues are very poor, but his reliefs
in ivory of boys and cupids are modelled with wonderfully soft
realistic power and graceful fancy.
To these sculptors should be added Jacques Sarrazin, well
known for the colossal yet elegant caryatides for the grand
pavilion of the Louvre; and Francois Augier, the sculptor of
the splendid mausoleum of the due de Montmorency.
In the Netherlands the great development of painting was
not accompanied by a parallel movement in plastic
art. Of the few monuments that claim attention, jv*ter-
we must mention the bronze tomb of Mary of B urgundy lands.
at Notre-Dame, Bruges, executed about 1495 by Jan
de Baker, and the less remarkable though technically more
complete companion tomb of Charles the Bold (1558).
The course of the Renaissance movement in German sculpture
differs from that of most other countries in so far as it appears
to grow gradually out of the Gothic style in the Beglna i ng
direction of individual, realistic treatment of the of the
figure which in late Gothic days had become somewhat ^ e als '_
conventional and schematic and idealized. Marked
physiognomic expression, careful rendering of move-
ment, costume and details, and the suggestion of different
textures, together with almost tragic emotional intensity, are
the chief aims of the 15th-century sculptors who, on the whole,
"
Germany.
RENAISSANCE]
SCULPTURE
497
adhere to medieval thought and arrangement. The Italian
influence, which did not make itself felt until the early days
of the i6th century, led to brilliant results, whilst the workers
retained their fresh northern individuality and keen observation
of nature. But in the latter half of this century it began to
choke these national characteristics, and led to somewhat
theatrical and conventional classicism and mannerism.
One speciality of the I5th century was the production of an
immense number of wooden altars and reredoses, painted and
gilt in the most gorgeous way and covered with subject-reliefs
and statues, the former often treated in a very pictorial style. 1
Wooden screens, stalls, tabernacles and other church-fittings
of the greatest elaboration and clever workmanship were largely
produced in Germany at the same time, and on into the i6th
century. 2 Jorg Syrlin, one of the most able of these sculptors
in wood, executed the gorgeous choir-stalls in Ulm cathedral,
richly decorated with statuettes and 'canopied work, between
1469 and 1474; his son and namesake sculptured the elaborate
stalls in Blaubeuren church of 1496 and the great pulpit in Ulm
cathedral. Another exceptionally important work of this type
is the magnificent altar at St Wolfgang in Upper Austria,
carved by the Tirolese, Michael Pacher, in 1481. Veit Stoss
of Cracow, who later settled in Nuremberg, a man of bad char-
acter, was a most skilful sculptor in wood; he carved the high
altar, the tabernacle and the stalls of the Frauenkirche at
Cracow, between 1472 and 1494. One of his finest works is a
large piece of wooden panelling, nearly 6 ft. square, carved in
1495, with central reliefs of the Doom and the Heavenly Host,
framed by minute reliefs of scenes from Bible history. It is
now in the Nuremberg town-hall. Wohlgemuth (1434-15^),
the master of A. Diirer, was not only a painter but also a clever
wood-carver, as was also Diirer himself (1471-1528), who
executed a tabernacle for the Host with an exquisitely carved
relief of Christ in Majesty between the Virgin and St John,
which still exists in the chapel of the monastery of Landau.
Diirer also produced miniature reliefs cut in boxwood and
hone-stone, of which the British Museum (print-room) possesses
one of the finest examples. Adam KrarTt (c. 1455-1507) was
another of this class of sculptors, but he worked also in stone;
he produced the great Schreyer monument (1492) for St Sebald's
at Nuremberg, a very skilful though mannered piece of
sculpture, with very realistic figures in the costume of the time,
carved in a way more suited to wood than stone, and too pictorial
in effect. He also made the great tabernacle for the Host,
80 ft. high, covered with statuettes, in Ulm cathedral, and the
very spirited " Stations of the Cross " on the road to the Nurem-
berg cemetery.
The Vischer family of Nuremberg for three generations were
among the ablest sculptors in bronze during the i5th and i6th
centuries. Hermann Vischer the elder worked mostly between
1450 and 1505, following the earlier medieval traditions, but
without the originality of his son, Peter Vischer.
Next to Nuremberg, the chief centres of bronze sculpture
were Augsburg and Liibeck. Innsbruck possesses one of the
finest series of bronze statues of the first half of the i6th century,
namely twenty-eight colossal figures round the tomb of the
emperor Maximilian, which stands in the centre of the nave,
representing a succession of heroes and ancestors of the emperor.
The first of the statues which was completed cost 3000 florins,
and so Maximilian invited the help of Peter Vischer, whose skill
was greater and whose work less expensive than that of the
local craftsmen. Most of them, however, were executed by
sculptors of whom little is now known. They differ much in
style, though all are of great technical merit. The finest is an
ideal statue of King Arthur of Britain, in plate armour of the
I4th or early isth century, very remarkable for the nobility
of the face and pose. That of Theodoric is also a very fine
1 This class of large wooden retable was much imitated in Spain
and Scandinavia. The metropolitan cathedral of Roskilde in Den-
mark possesses a very large and magnificent example covered with
subject reliefs enriched with gold and colours.
2 See Waagen, Kunst und Kiinstler in Deutschl. (Leipzig, 1843-
1845).
conception. Both are wrongly said to be the work of Peter
Vischer himself. Of the others, the best, nine in number, axe
by Master Gilg. The others, which range from stiffness to
exaggerated realism, are executed by inferior workers.
In the latter part of the i6th century the influence of the
later Italian Renaissance becomes very apparent, and many
elaborate works in bronze were produced, especially at Augsburg,
where Hubert Gerhard cast the fine " Augustus fountain " in
1593, and Adrian de Vries made the " Hercules fountain" in
1599; both were influenced by the style of Giovanni di Bologna,
as shown in his magnificent fountain at Bologna.
At the beginning of the i6th century sculpture in England
was entering upon a period of rapid decadence, and to some
extent had lost its native individuality. The finest The
series of statues of this period are those of life-size Reaais-
high up on the walls of Henry VII. 's chapel at West- saace la
minster and others over the various minor altars. Ba x land -
These ninety-five figures, which represent saints and doctors
of the church, vary very much in merit: some show German
influence, others that of Italy, while a third class are, as it
were, " archaistic " imitations of older English sculpture. 3 In
some cases the heads and general pose are graceful, and
the drapery dignified, but in the main they are coarse both
in design and in workmanship compared with the better
plastic art of the i3th and i4th centuries. This decadence of
English sculpture caused Henry VII. to invite the Florentine
Torrigiano (1472?-! 522) to visit England to model and cast
the bronze figures for his own magnificent tomb, which still
exist in almost perfect preservation. The recumbent effigies of
Henry VII. and his queen are fine specimens of Florentine art,
well modelled with lifelike portrait heads and of very fine
technique in the casting. The altar-tomb on which the effigies
lie is of black marble, decorated with large medallion reliefs
in gilt bronze, each with a pair of saints the patrons of Henry
and Elizabeth of York of very graceful design. The altar and
its large baldacchino and reredos were the work of Torrigiano,
but were destroyed during the i7th century. The reredos had
a large relief of the Resurrection of Christ executed in painted
terra-cotta, as were also a life-size figure of the dead Christ
under the altar-slab and four angels on the top angles of the
baldacchino; a number of fragments of these figures have
recently been found in the " pockets " of the nave vaulting,
where they had been thrown after the destruction of the reredos.
Torrigiano's bronze effigy of Margaret of Richmond in the
south aisle of the same chapel is a very skilful but too realistic
portrait, apparently taken from a cast of the dead face and
hands. Another terra-cotta effigy in the Rolls chapel is also,
from internal evidence, attributed to the same able Florentine.
Another talented Florentine sculptor, Benedetto da Maiano, was
invited to England by Cardinal Wolsey to make his tomb; of
this only the marble sarcophagus now exists and has been used
to hold the body of Admiral Nelson in St Paul's Cathedral.
Another member of the same family, named Giovanni, was
the sculptor of the colossal terra-cotta heads of the Caesars
affixed to the walls of the older part of Hampton Court Palace.
In Spain, in the early part of the i6th century, a strong Italian
influence superseded that of France and Germany, partly owing
to the presence there of the Florentine Torrigiano Spanish
and other Italian artists. The magnificent tomb of Kenais-
Ferdinand and Isabella in Granada cathedral is a fine saace
specimen of Italian Renaissance sculpture, somewhat Scul i >ture -
similar in general form to the tomb of Sixtus IV. by Ant.
Pollaiuolo in St Peter's, but half a century later in the style
of its detail. It looks as if it had been executed by Torrigiano,
but the design which he made for it is said to have been rejected.
The statue of St Jerome, which he executed for the convent
of Buenavista, near Seville, was declared by Goya to be superior
to Michelangelo's " Moses." Some of the work of this period,
though purely Italian in style, was produced by Spanish sculptors,
8 There were once no fewer than 107 statues in the interior of this
chapel, besides a large number on the exterior; see J. T. Mickle-
thwaite in Archaeologia, vol. xlvii. pi. x.-xii.
498
SCULPTURE
[RENAISSANCE
for example, the choir reliefs at Toledo cathedral, and those
in the Colegio Mayor at Salamanca by Alonzo Berruguete,
sculptor, painter and architect, trained in Rome and Florence,
and the greatest designer of Spain up to that time. He worked
under Michelangelo and Vasari, and on his return to Spain in
1520 was appointed court painter and sculptor to Charles V.
The same position was occupied under Philip II. by Caspar
Becerra (1520-1570), whose masterpiece is a figure of Our Lady
of the Solitude, in Madrid. Esteban Jordan, Gregorio Hernandez
and other Spanish sculptors produced a large number of elaborate
retables, carved in wood with subjects in relief and richly
decorated in gold and colours. These sumptuous masses of
polychromatic sculpture resemble the 15th-century retables of
Germany more than any Italian examples, and were a sort
of survival of an older medieval style. J. Morlanes was the
first of Spanish sculptors to adopt the style of Albert Diirer,
which afterwards became general. Philip de Vigarni, Christopher
of Salamanca, and Paul de Cespedes, who was native of Cordova,
are names of great prominence up to the end of the century.
Alonzo Cano (1600-1667), the painter, was remarkable for clever
realistic sculpture, very highly coloured and religious in style.
Montanes, who died in 1614, was one of the ablest Spanish
sculptors of his time. His finest works are the reliefs of the
Madonna and Saints on an altar in the university church of
Seville, and in the cathedral, in the chapel of St Augustine, a
very nobly designed Conception, modelled with great skill.
In the 1 7th century sculpture in wood still prevailed. The
statue of St Bruno of Montafiez seems to have inspired
others to repeat the subject in the same material: Juan de
Juin (d. 1614) is a case in point. Pedro de Mena and Zarcillo
achieved great success in this class of sculpture. A. Pujol of
Catalonia and Peter Roldan carried on the Spanish tradition.
The chief names in the i8th century are those of Don P. Duque
Cornesso of Seville, Don J. de Hinestrosa, A. Salvador (known
as " the Roman," d. 1766), Philip de Castro of Galicia, one of
the most eminent sculptors of his time (d. 1775), and F.
Gutierrez (d. 1782).*
If the immediate followers of Michelangelo showed a tendency
to turn the characteristics of the master's style into exaggerated
mannerism, the beginning of the i7th century finds
JJJJJJJJ^ Italian sculpture in a state of complete decadence,
ia Italy. statuesque dignity having given way to violent
fluttering movement and florid excesses, such as was
revived in a later century. From Italy this " baroque " style
spread over the whole continent of Europe and retained its hold
for nearly two centuries. The chief sculptor and architect of
this period was the Neapolitan, J. L. Bernini (1598-1680), who,
with the aid of a large school of assistants, produced an almost
incredible quantity of sculpture of the most varying degrees
of merit and hideousness. His chief early group, the Apollo and
Daphne in the Villa Borghese, is a work of wonderful technical
skill and delicate high finish, combined with soft beauty and
grace, though too pictorial in style. In later life Bernini turned
out work of brutal coarseness, 2 designed in a thoroughly un-
sculpturesque spirit. The churches of Rome, the colonnade
of St Peter's, and the bridge of S. Angelo are crowded with his
clumsy colossal figures, half draped in wildly fluttering garments,
perfect models of what is worst in the plastic art. And yet
his works received perhaps more praise than those of any other
sculptor of any age, and after his death a scaffolding was erected
outside the bridge of S. Angelo in order that people might walk
round and admire his rows of feeble half-naked angels. For all
that, Bernini was a man of undoubted talent, and in a better
period of art would have been a sculptor of the first rank; many
1 For the earlier history of Spanish sculpture, see Don Juan
Augustin Cean Bermudez, Diccionario hislorico de los mas illustres
professores de las bellas arles en Espagna (Madrid, 1800, 6 vols.).
For the later sculptors, see B. Handke, Studien tur Geschichle der
spanischen Plastik (Strasburg, 1900).
1 The Ludovisi group of Pluto carrying off Proserpine, now in
the Borghese Gallery, is a striking example, and shows Bernini's
deterioration of style in later life. It has nothing in common with
the Cain and Abel or the Apollo and Daphne of his earlier years.
of his portrait-busts are works of great vigour and dignity, quite
free from the mannered extravagance of his larger sculpture.
Stefano Maderna (1571-1636) was the ablest of his contempo-
raries; his clever and much-admired statue, the figure of the
dead S. Cecilia under the high altar of her basilica, is chiefly
remarkable for its deathlike pose and the realistic treatment
of the drapery. Another clever sculptor was Alessandro Algardi
of Bologna (i5Q8?-i654), who formed a school, which included
G. Brunelli, D. Guidi and C. Mazza of Bologna.
In the next century at Naples Queirolo, Corradini and Sam-
martino produced a number of statues, now in the chapel of
S. Maria de' Sangri, which are extraordinary examples fb e
of wasted labour and neglect of the simplest canons classicist
of plastic art. These are marble statues enmeshed in revival la
nets or covered with thin veils, executed with almost ltaly '
deceptive realism, perhaps the lowest stage of tricky degradation
into which the sculptor's art could possibly fall. 8 In the i8th
century Italy was naturally the headquarters of the classical
revival, which spread thence throughout most of Europe.
Canova (1757-1822), a Venetian by birth, who spent most of his
life in Rome, was perhaps the leading spirit of this movement,
and became the most popular sculptor of his time. His work
is very unequal in merit, mostly dull and uninteresting in style,
and is occasionally marred by a meretricious spirit very contrary
to the true classic feeling. His group of the " Three Graces,"
the " Hebe," and the very popular " Dancing-Girls," copies of
which in plaster disfigure the stairs of countless modern hotels and
other buildings on the Continent, are typical examples of Canova's
worst work. Some of his sculpture is designed with far more
of the purity that distinguished antique art; his finest work
is the colossal group of Theseus slaying a Centaur, at Vienna.
Canova's attempts at Christian sculpture are singularly unsuccess-
ful, as, for example, his pretentious monument to Pope Clement
XIII. in St Peter's at Rome, that of Titian at Venice, and
Alfieri's tomb in the Florentine church of S. Croce. Fiesole in
the igth century produced one sculptor of great talent, named
Bastianini. He worked in the style of the great 15th-century
Florentine sculptors, and followed especially the methods of
his distinguished fellow-townsman Mino da Fiesole. Many of
Bastianini's works are hardly to be distinguished from genuine
sculpture of the isth century, and in some cases great prices
have been paid for them under the supposition that they were
medieval productions. These frauds were, however, perpetrated
without Bastianini's consent, or at least without his power to
prevent them. Several of his best terra-cotta works may be
seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
Whilst monumental sculpture in France during the I7th
century continued to be influenced by Italy, the national
tradition was carried on to a certain extent by such i a p Taactf
portraitists as the two Coustous and their master
Coysevox (1640-1720), whose works are marked by a great
sense of life and considerable technical skill. The exaggerated
elegance in the treatment of the female figure, which
became so marked a characteristic of French sculpture during
this period, is the chief trait of Francois Girardon (1630-1715),
who was chiefly employed on the sculptural decorations at
Versailles, and on the famous equestrian statue of Louis XIV.,
which was destroyed during the Revolution and for which
hundreds of exquisite drawings and studies were made, now in
the French national collection. Far more strength and grandeur
mark the work of Pierre Puget (1622-1694), who is best known
by his " Milo of Crotona " for Versailles. His training was
entirely Italian, and in style considerably influenced by Bernini.
He worked for some considerable time in Italy, particularly in
Genoa. The same opposed movements which run side by side
in French 18th-century painting, academic allegory and frivolous
sensuality, can be traced in the sculpture of this period. Of
* In the igth century an Italian sculptor named Monti won much
popular repute by similar unworthy tricks; some veiled statues by
him in the London Exhibition of 1851 were greatly admijed ; since
then copies or imitations of them have enraptured the visitors who
have crowded round the Italian sculpture stalls at every subsequent
international exhibition.
MODERN]
SCULPTURE
499
the first, the chief representatives are Lemoyne and his pupil
Falconet, who executed the equestrian statue of Peter the Great
at St Petersburg; of the other, Clodion, whose real name was
Claude Michel (c. 1745-1814). The latter worked largely in
terra-cotta, and modelled with great spirit and invention, but
in the sensual unsculpturesque manner prevalent in his time.
In the later part of the i8th century France produced two
sculptors of great eminence in Jean-Baptiste Pigalle (1714-1785)
and Jean Antoine Houdon (1740-1828). Houdon
ma ^ "** re 8 ar ^ e( ^ as tne precursor of the modern school
of French sculpture of the better sort. Towards the
end of the i8th century a revolution was brought about in the
style of sculpture by the suddenly revived taste for antique
art. A period of dull pseudo-classicism succeeded, which
in most cases stifled all original talent and reduced the
plastic arts to a lifeless form of archaeology. Regarded even as
imitations the works of this period are very unsuccessful: the
sculptors got hold merely of the dry bones, not of the spirit of
classic art; and their study of the subject was s_o shallow and
unintelligent that they mostly picked out what was third-rate
for special admiration and ignored the glorious beauty of the
best works of true Hellenic art. Thus in sculpture, as in painting
and architecture, a study which might have been stimulating
and useful in the highest degree became a serious hindrance
to the development of modern art; this misconception and
misdirection occurred not only in France but in the other
countries of Europe. In France, however, the victories
of Napoleon I. and his arrogant pretension to create a Gaulish
empire on the model of that of ancient Rome caused the taste
for pseudo-Roman art to be more pronounced than elsewhere.
Among the first sculptors of this school were Antoine
Eg 1 ** Chaudet (1763-1810) and Joseph Bosio (1769-1845).
century. The latter was much employed by Napoleon I.; he
executed with some ability the bronze spiral reliefs
round the column of the Place Vend6me and the statue of
Napoleon on the top, and also modelled the classical quadriga on
the triumphal arch in the Place du Carrousel. Jacques Pradier
of Geneva (1790-1852) produced the " Chained Prometheus "
of the Louvre and the Niobe group (1822). He possessed great
technical ability, but aimed in most of his works at a soft sensuous
beauty which is usually considered to be specially unsuited to
sculpture. Francois Rude (1784-1855), worked in a style
modelled on Graeco-Roman sculpture treated with some freedom.
His bronze Mercury in the Louvre, is a clever work and the
enormous high-relief on the Arc de 1'Etoile in Paris, representing
" The Song of Departure to Battle," is full of vigour and move-
ment, but his statues of Marshal Ney in the Luxembourg Gardens
and of General Cavaignac (1847) in the cemetery of Montmartre
are conspicuously poor. The reliefs on the pediment of the
Pantheon are by Pierre Jean David of Angers (1789-1856);
his early works are of dull classic style, but later in life he
became a realist and produced very unsculpturesque results.
A bronze statue of a Dancing Fisher-lad modelled by Francois
Joseph Duvet, now in the Luxembourg collection, is an able
work of the genre class. Other French sculptors who were
highly esteemed in their time were Ottin, Courtet, Simart,
Etex and Carpeaux. The last was an artist of great ability,
and produced an immense number of clever but often, sculptur-
esquely considered, offensive statues. He obtained the highest
renown in France, and, hailed as a great innovator by those
who welcomed a greater measure of naturalism, he was denounced
by the " pure " and classic school as a typical example of the
sad degradation of taste which prevailed under the rule of
Napoleon III.
The modern schools of French sculpture are the most important
in the world; they are dealt with in a separate section later.
Technical skill and intimate knowledge of the human form are
possessed by French artists to a degree which has probably
never been surpassed. Many of their works have a similar
fault to that of one class of French painters: they are much
injured by an excess of sensual realism; in many cases nude
statues are simply life-studies with all the faults and individual
peculiarities of one model. Very unsculpturesque results are
produced by treating a statue as a representation of a naked
person, one, that is, who is obviously in the habit of wearing
clothes, a very different thing from the purity of the ancient
Greek treatment of the nude. Thus the great ability of many
French sculptors has been degraded to suit, or rather to illustrate,
the taste of the voluptuary. An extravagance of attitude and
an undignified arrangement of the figures do much to injure some
of the large groups which are full of technical merit, and executed
with marvellous anatomical knowledge. This is specially the
case with much of the sculpture that decorates the buildings
of Paris. The group of nude dancers by Carpeaux outside the
opera-house is a work of astonishing skill and sensual imagina-
tion, unsculpturesque in style and especially unfitted to decorate
the comparatively rigid lines of a building. The egotism of
modern French sculptors, with rare exceptions, has not allowed
them, when professedly aiming at providing plastic decoration
for buildings, to accept the necessarily subordinate reserve
which is so necessary for architectonic sculpture. Other French
works, on the other hand, have frequently erred in the direction
of a sickly sentimentalism, or a petty realism, which is fatal to
sculpturesque beauty; or they seek to render modern life,
sometimes on the scale of life-size, even to the point of securing
atmospheric effect. This exaggerated misconception of the
function of sculpture can only be a passing phase; yet as any
movement issuing from Paris finds adherents throughout other
countries, the effect upon sculptors and upon public taste can
hardly be otherwise than mischievous. The real power and
merits of the modern French school make these faults all the
more conspicuous.
Whatever work of importance was produced by Netherlandish
sculptors in the I7th and i8th centuries, was due entirely to
Italian training and influence. Francois Duquesnoy
(usually called "The Fleming") (1594-1644) has
already been mentioned; he worked principally in
Rome, in rivalry with Bernini, and most of his works
have remained in Italy, but, inasmuch as his style is conspicu-
ously French, he is here included in the French school. His pupil
Arthur Quellinus is best known by his allegorical groups on the
pediments of Amsterdam town-hall, and has also left some
traces of his activity in Berlin. P. Buyster, native of Brussels
(b. 1595), passed into France and is also often classed as a
French sculptor.
By far the greatest sculptor of the classical revival was Bertel
Thorwaldsen (1770-1844), an Icelander by race, whose boyhood
was spent at Copenhagen, and who settled in Rome
in 1797, when Canova's fame was at its highest. The Scaadl -
Swedish sculptors Tobias Sergell and Johann Bystrom sculptors.
belonged to the classic school; the latter followed in
Thorwaldsen's footsteps. Another Swede named Fogelberg was
famed chiefly for his sculptured subjects taken from Norse
mythology. H. W. Bissen and Jerichau of Denmark produced
some able works, the former a fine equestrian statue of Frederick
VII. at Copenhagen, and the latter a very spirited and widely
known group of a Man attacked by a Panther.
During the troublous times of the Reformation, sculpture,
like the other arts, continued to decline. Of 17th-century
monumental effigies that of Sir Francis Vere (d. 1607) gey,,,.
in the north transept at Westminster is one of the best, teenth
though its design a recumbent effigy overshadowed century la
by a slab covered with armour, upborne by four Ea P aaa '
kneeling figures of men-at-arms is almost an exact copy of
the tomb of Engelbert II. of Vianden-Nassau. 1 The finest
bronze statues of this century are those of George Villiers..
duke of Buckingham (d. 1628), and his wife at the north-east
of Henry VII. 's chapel. The effigy of the duke, in rich armour
of the time of Charles I., lies with folded hands in the usual
medieval pose. The face is fine and well modelled and the casting
very good. The allegorical figures at the foot are caricatures
of the style of Michelangelo, and are quite devoid of merit, but
the kneeling statues of the duke's children are designed with
1 See Arendt, Chateau de Vianden (Paris, 1884).
500
SCULPTURE
[MODERN
grace and pathos. A large number of very handsome marble
and alabaster tombs were erected throughout England during
the 1 7th century. The effigies are poor and coarse, but the rich
architectural ornaments are effective and often of beautiful
materials, alabaster being mixed with various richly coloured
marbles in a very skilful way. Nicholas Stone (1586-1647),
who worked under the supervision of Inigo Jones and was master-
mason to King Charles I., was the chief English sculptor of his
time. The De Vere and Villiers monuments are usually attributed
to him. 1 One of the best public monuments of London is the
bronze equestrian statue of Charles I. at Charing Cross, which
was overthrown and hidden during the protectorate of Cromwell,
but replaced at the Restoration in 1660; it is very nobly modelled
and was produced under Italian influence by the French sculptor
Hubert Le Soeur (d. 1670). The standing bronze statue of
James II., formerly behind the Whitehall banqueting room,
very poorly designed but well executed, was the work of Grinling
Gibbons (1648-1721), a native of Holland, who was chiefly
famed for his extraordinary skill in carving realistic fruit and
flowers in pear and other white woods. Many rich and elaborate
works of his exist at Trinity College, Oxford, at Cambridge,
Chatsworth, and several other places in England. In the early
part of the i8th century he worked for Sir Christopher Wren,
and carved the elaborate friezes of the stalls and screens in
St Paul's Cathedral and in other London churches.
During the i8th century English sculpture was mostly in
the hands of Flemish and other foreign artists, of whom Roubiliac
(1695-1762), Peter Scheemakers (1691-1773), and
J- M- R y sbrack (1694-1770) were the chief. The
ridiculous custom of representing Englishmen of the
i8th and igth centuries in the toga or in the armour
of an ancient Roman was fatal alike to artistic merit and eikonic
truth; and when, as was often the case, the periwig of the
Georgian period was added to the costume of a Roman general
the effect is supremely ludicrous. Nollekens (1737-1823), a
pupil of Scheemakers, though one of the most popular sculptors
of the i8th century, was a man of very little real ability. John
Bacon (1740-1799) was in some respects an abler sculptor.
John Flaxman (1755-1826) was in England the chief initiator
of the classical revival. For many years he worked for Josiah
Wedgwood, the potter, and designed for him an immense number
of vases covered with delicate cameo-like reliefs. Many of
these, taken from antique gems and sculpture, are of great
beauty, though hardly suited to the special necessities of fictile
ware. Flaxman's large pieces of sculpture are of less merit,
but some of his marble reliefs are designed with much spirit and
classic purity. He modelled busts as well as small portrait
medallions for production in Wedgwood's pottery. His illustra-
tions in outline to the poems of Homer, Aeschylus and Dante,
based on drawings on Greek vases, have been greatly admired,
but they are unfortunately much injured by the use of a thicker
outline on one side of the figures an unsuccessful attempt to
give a suggestion of shadow. Flaxman's best pupil was Baily
(1788-1867), chiefly celebrated for his nude marble figure of Eve.
On the whole the i7th and i8th centuries in Germany, as in
England, were periods of great decadence in the plastic art;
little of merit was produced, except some portrait
figures. Among the rare exceptions mention must
sculpture. be ma de of Andreas SchlUter, of Hamburg (c. 1662-
1714), who produced many decorative bronze reliefs
for the royal castle in Berlin, and the famous colossal equestrian
statue of the Great Elector on the bridge in Berlin. Another
artist who approached greatness in a period of utter degradation
was Rafael Donner, whose principal work is the large fountain
with lead figures of Providence and the four rivers of Austria
(the Enns, Ybbs, Traun and March), in Vienna, a very remarkable
1 The Villiers monument is evidently the work of two sculptors
working in very opposite styles. These monuments, however, are
not included in the list of his works drawn up by Stone himself
and printed in Walpole's Anecdotes of Painting, \. 239-243. This
sculptor's receipts, recorded by his kinsman, Charles Stoakes,
amounted to 10,889 an enormous sum for an English sculptor
and " tomb-maker " of those days.
example of baroque sculpture which to this day is known as the
Donner fountain. In the second half of the i8th century there
was a strong revival in sculpture, especially in the classic style;
and since then Germany has produced an immense quantity
of large and pretentious sculpture, mostly dull in design and
second-rate in execution. Gottfried Schadow of Berlin (1764-
1850) finished a number of portrait figures, not in the customary
antique guise, but in the costume of the period. Some of his
works are ably modelled. He was followed by Christian Rauch
(1777-1857), whose works are, however, mostly weak and senti-
mental in style, as, for example, his recumbent statue of Queen
Louisa at Charlottenburg (1813), and his statues of generals
Billow and Scharnhorst at Berlin. Rauch became the leader
of an important school in Berlin, but will be most honourably
remembered by his splendid monument of Frederick the Great,
in Berlin an elaborate work, modern in feeling and of great
technical accomplishment. Friedrich Drake was the ablest
of Rauch's pupils, but he lived at a very unhappy period for the
sculptor's art. His chief work is perhaps the colossal bronze
equestrian statue of King William of Prussia at Cologne. Albert
Wolff was a sculptor of more ability; he executed the equestrian
portrait of King Ernest Augustus at Hanover, and a " Horseman
attacked by a Lion " now in the Berlin Museum. Augustus Kiss
(1802-1865) produced the companion group to this, the celebrated
Amazon and Panther in bronze, as well as the fine group of St
George and the Dragon in a courtyard of the royal palace at
Berlin. The St George and his horse are of bronze; the dragon
is formed of gilt plates of hammered iron. Kiss worked only
in metal. The bad taste of the first half of the present century
is strongly shown by many of the works of Theodore Kalide,
whose " Bacchanal sprawling on a Panther's Back " is a marvel
of awkwardness of pose and absence of any feeling for beauty.
Ernst Rietschel (1804-1861) was perhaps the best German
sculptor of this period, and produced work superior to that of
his contemporaries, such as Haagen, Wichmann, Fischer and
Hiedel. Rietschel's career was marked by steady progress from
a meaningless classicism to serious realism. It was his task to
erect monuments in memory of some of the greatest intellectual
heroes of Germany, such as his Lessing monument in Braun-
schweig, the monument to Goethe and Schiller in Weimar,
and that to Martin Luther at Worms. Some revival of a better
style is shown in certain sculpture, especially reliefs, by Hahnel,
whose chief works are at Dresden. Schwanthaler (1802-1848),
who was largely patronized by King Louis of Bavaria, studied
at Rome and was at first a feeble imitator of antique classic
art, but later in life he developed a more romantic and pseudo-
medieval style. By him are a large number of reliefs and statues
in the Glyptothek at Munich and in the Walhalla, also the
colossal but feeble bronze statue of Bavaria, in point of size one
of the most ambitious works of modern times. 2 Johannes
Schilling (b. 1826) is the author of the colossal national monument
on the Niederwald near Rudesheim, and Ernst Bandel of the
imposing monument of Hermann Arminius in the Teutoburg
Forest near Detmold.
It was Reinhold Begas (b. 1831) who definitely broke away
from the all-pervading classicist tradition. His art has more
in common with that of the Rococo period than with that of
Canova and his followers. Not only did he excel in the rendering
of textures, and in giving life and animation to his figures, but
his earlier work was marked by unconventionality and great
boldness of disposition. Unfortunately his rapid success, and
the official favour that was shown to him, led him subsequently
to hasty and what might almost be described as factory-like
production. His work became pretentious, and though some
of the reliefs and single figures on his monuments are remarkable
for his keen gift of observation, the whole effect is frequently
spoilt by the unnecessary introduction of disturbing decorative
features, ill-disposed and singularly lacking in sculptural dignity.
The monument of the emperor William I. with the two beautiful
1 In size, but not in merit, this enormous statue was surpassed
by the figure of Liberty made in Paris by Bartjioldi and erected
as a beacon in the harbour of New York city.
MODERN BRITISH]
SCULPTURE
reliefs of Peace and War, and the Neptune fountain, both in
front of the imperial palace, and the Schiller monument before
the royal theatre, all in Berlin, are perhaps his most successful
works. The Bismarck in front of the Reichstag building suffers
from the excessive use of allegorical motifs and from other
errors of taste.
Of Begas's many pupils, who participated in the execution
of the numerous statues that flank the Siegesallee in the Beilin
Thiergarten, the most distinguished is Joseph Uphues (b. 1850),
who is the creator of the Moltke monument in Berlin, and of
the Frederick the Great in the Siegesallee, a replica of which
is to be found in Washington. Adolf Briitt (b. 1855) and Gustav
Eberlein should be mentioned among the most successful Berlin
sculptors; Robert Dietz, as the founder of an important school
in Dresden; and Wilhelm Ruemann (d. 1906) and Rudolf
Maison among the modern sculptors of Munich.
The closing years of the ipth century were marked by an
enormous advance, not only in public appreciation of sculpture
but in productive activity. The younger generation of Berlin
sculptors includes such distinguished artists as Fritz Klimsch,
who is best known by " The Triumph of Woman " and " The
Kiss "; Hugo Lederer, the designer of the Bismarck monument
in Hamburg; August Gaul, who excelled in statuettes of animals;
Max Kruse, a woodcarver of great ability; and Louis Touaillon,
who spent his early years in Rome, and became famous for the
excellent anatomy and action of his equine studies. Karl
Seffner, of Leipzig; August Hudler, of Dresden; Georg Weba,
Fritz Christ, Erwin Kurz, Hermann Hahn, Theodor von Gosen
and Hugo Kaufmann, all of Munich, should also here be men-
tioned. Adolf Hildebrand (b. 1847) is best known by his Wittels-
bach fountain in Munich and his Reinhard fountain in Strassburg.
He has also executed some excellent medals and plaquettes.
Franz Stuck, who has ranked among the leading painters of
modern Germany, has also produced some powerful pieces of
sculpture, such as the Beethoven, and the " Athlete holding
a heavy Ball." Max Klinger (b. 1857), famous as painter
and etcher, revived polychromatic sculpture in Germany. His
Beethoven monument, at the Leipzig Museum, is the best known
example of his work in this direction. The great composer is
conceived as Jupiter enthroned, with the eagle at his feet. The
work caused an enormous sensation on its first appearance before
the public and became a veritable apple of discord around which
a wordy war was waged by the different factions. The Leipzig
Museum also owns his Cassandra and a rough-hewn portrait
bust of Liszt. One of his most striking works is the Nietzsche
bust at Weimar. At the Albertinum, in Dresden, is an important
late work of his, a marble group of three beautifully modelled
life-size figures, " The Drama." (J.H.M.; M.H.S.; P.G.K.)
During the first half of the igth century the prevalence of a
cold, lifeless pseudo-classic style was fatal to individual talent,
and robbed the sculpture of England of all real vigour
Sri* and s P irit - Francis Chantrey (1782-1841) produced
sculpture. a g rea -t quantity of sculpture, especially sepulchral
monuments, which were much admired in spite of
their limited merits. Allan Cunningham and Henry Weekes,
who excelled in busts of men, worked in some cases in conjunction
with Chantrey, who was distinguished by considerable technical
skill. John Gibson (1790-1866) was perhaps after Flaxman
the most successful of the English classic school, and produced
some works of real merit. He strove eagerly to revive the
polychromatic decoration of sculpture in imitation of the
circumlitio of classical times. His " Venus Victrix," shown at
the exhibition in London of 1862 (a work of about six years
earlier), was the first of his coloured statues which attracted
much attention. The prejudice, however, in favour of white
marble was too strong, and both the popular verdict and that
of other sculptors were strongly adverse to the " tinted Venus."
The fact is that Gibson's colouring was timidly applied:
it was a sort of compromise between the two systems, and thus
his sculpture lost the special qualities of a pure marble surface,
without gaining the richly decorative effect of the polychromy
either of the Greeks or of the medieval period. The other chief
sculptors of the same inartistic period were Banks, the
elder Westmacott (who modelled the Achilles in Hyde Park),
R. Wyatt (who cast the equestrian statue of Wellington, removed
from London to Aldershot), Macdowell, Campbell, Calder
Marshall, and Bell. Samuel Joseph (d. 1850), working in a
naturalistic spirit, produced some excellent work, notably
(in 1840) the remarkable statue of Samuel Wilberforce now in
Westminster Abbey. The brilliant exception of its period is the
Wellington monument in St Paul's cathedral, probably the
finest plastic work of modern times. It was the work of Alfred
Stevens (1817-1875), a sculptor of the highest talent, who lived
and died almost unrecognized by the British public. The value
of Stevens's work is all the more conspicuous from the feebleness
of most of the sculpture of his contemporaries.
During the last quarter of the century a great change came
over British sculpture a change so revolutionary that it gave
a new direction to the aims and ambitions of the artist, and
raised the British school to a level wholly unexpected. It cannot
be pretended that the school yet equals either in technical
accomplishment, in richness or elasticity of imagination, or in
creative freedom, the schools of France and Belgium, for these
have been built up upon the example of national works of many
generations of sculptors during several centuries. British
sculptors, whose training was far less thorough and intelligent
than that which is given abroad, found themselves practically
without a past of their own to inspire them, for there existed
no truly national tradition; with them it was a case of beginning
at the beginning.
The awakening came from without, brought to England
mainly by a Frenchman Jules Dalou as well as by Lord
Leighton, Alfred Gilbert and, in a lesser degree, by Onslow
Ford. To Carpeaux, no doubt despised of the classicists-
the new inspiration was in a great measure due; for Carpeaux,
who infused life and flesh and blood into his marble (too much
of them, as has been here shown, to please the lovers of purism),
was to his classic predecessors and contemporaries much what
in painting Delacroix was to David a.nd the cold professors of
his formal school. But it was to Jules Dalou that was chiefly
due the remarkable development in Great Britain. A political
refugee at the time of the Commune, he received a cordial
welcome from the artists of England, and was invited to assume
the mastership of the modelling classes at South Kensington.
This post he retained for some years, until the amnesty for
political offenders enabled him to return to his native land;
but before he left he had succeeded in making it clear that
severe training is an essential foundation of good sculpture.
This had been but partly understood is not even now wholly
realized; yet by the impression he made, Dalou improved the
work in the schools beyond all recognition. The whole conception
of sculpture seemed to be modified, and intelligent enthusiasm
was aroused in the students. When he departed, he left in his
stead Professor Lanteri, who became a naturalized Englishman,
and who exercised a beneficent influence over the students equal
to that of his predecessor. Meanwhile, the Lambeth Art Schools
where Mr W. S. Frith, a pupil of M. Dalou, was conducting
his modelling class under the directorship of John Sparkes
(d. 1907) were being maintained with great success. At the
Royal Academy, where in 1901 the professorship of sculpture
was revived after many years, the inspiring genius of Alfred
Gilbert aroused the students to an enthusiasm curiously contrast-
ing with the comparative apathy, which passed as dignified
restraint, of earlier days. British sculpture, therefore, when
it is not coloured directly from the Italian Renaissance, is
certainly influenced from France. But it is remarkable that in
spite of this turning of British sculptors to romantic realism
as taught by Frenchmen and Italians, and in spite of the fact
that the spirit of colour and decoration and greater realism in
modelling had been brought from abroad, the actual character
of British sculpture, even in its most decorative forms, is not
in the main other than British.
Nevertheless, there has been shown a tendency towards
reviving the application of colour in sculpture which has not
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met with universal approval. Although the polychromatic
work of the Renaissance, for example, may keep its place, it is
held to clash with the idea of sculptural art; for though there
is no absolute approach to imitation, there is a very strong
suggestion of it. The use of a variety of marbles and metals,
or other materials, such as has been increasingly adopted, does
not offend in the same measure, as the result is purely formal.
Yet, in the final result, the work becomes not so much sculpture
broadly seen, as an " object of art," amiably imagined and
delicately wrought.
Indeed, the sculptor has been greatly reinforced by the
artificer in metal, enamel, and the like. But the revival of
metal-work, cut, beaten, and twisted, however fine in itself,
does not help sculpture forward very much. It may even
keep it back; for, popular and beautiful as it is, it really tends
to divert the attention from form to design, and from light and
shade, with planes, to ingenuity, in pleasing lines a very
beautiful and elevated art, but not sculpture. As an adjunct,
it may be extremely valuable in the hands of a fine artist who
does not mistake the mere wriggles and doublings which are
the mark of the more extravagant phase of the so-called " New
Art " for harmonious " line." But it must always suggest the
man with the anvil, shears, and pincers, rather than the man
with the clay and the chisel. It is mainly to Alfred Gilbert that
is due the delightful revival of metal-work in its finest form
wedded to sculpture, with the introduction of marbles, gems,
and so forth, felicitous and elegant in invention and ornament,
and so excellent in design and taste that in his hands, at least,
it is subservient to the monumental character of his sculpture.
The first effectual rebellion against the Classic, and the birth of
Individualism, dates back to Alfred Stevens. The picturesque
fancy of the Frenchman Roubiliac (who practised for many years
jn England), with his theatrical arrangement and skilful technique,
inherited from his master Coustou, had left little mark on the
Englishmen of his day. They went on, for the most part, with their
pseudo-classic tradition, which Flaxman carried to the highest
point. But until Stevens, few in England thought of instilling real
life and blood and English thought and feeling into the clay and
marble. It was not only life that Stevens realized, but dignity,
nobility of form, and movement, previously unknown in English
work. Follower though he was of Michelangelo and the Italian
Renaissance, he was entirely personal. He was no copyist, although
he had the Italian traditions at his fingers' ends, and his feeling for
architecture helped him to treat sculpture with fine decorative effect.
Yet even Stevens and his brilliant example were powerless to weaken
the passion for the Greek and Roman tradition that had engrossed
English sculptors with their cold imitations and lifeless art,
pursued in the name of their fetish, " the Antique."
Until towards the close of the I9th century this pseudo-classic
art was blindly pursued by a non-Latin race, and a public favourite
like W. Calder Marshall (1813-1894; A.R.A., 1844; R.A., 1852)
never attempted, except perhaps in the " Prodigal Son," now at the
Tate Gallery, to break away towards originality of thought.
Thomas Woolner (1825-1892; A.R.A., 1871; R.A., 1874), who
had represented a modern heroine as a Roman matron, and had
shown in his monument to Bishop Jackson in St Paul's cathedral
an archaic severity and dryness altogether excessive, sought elevation
of conception such as brought him applause for his " Tennyson " in
portraiture and for his classically-inspired relief " Virgilia lamenting
the Banishment of Coriolanus ' probably his most admirable and
most exquisitely touching work.
Meanwhile, Baron Carlo Marochetti (1809-1867; A.R.A., 1861;
R.A., 1866), an Italian of French parentage, had tried to introduce
a more modern feeling, and his " Richard Cceur de Lion " at West-
minster evoked great enthusiasm. It is difficult, now, to admire
without reserve the incongruity of the 12th-century king; mounted
on a modern thoroughbred, and raising arm and weapon with an
action lacking in vigour. The intention was excellent and fruitful,
notwithstanding, and the statue is not without merit. It was he
who cast for Landseer the lions of the Nelson monument in Trafalgar
Square, London.
Later on Charles Bell Birch (1832-1803; A.R.A., 1880), with his
German training, introduced a new picturesque element in his
" Wood Nymph," " Retaliation," " The Last Call," and the " Me-
morial to Lieut. Hamilton, V.C., dying before Kabul " ; but neither
the vigour nor the individuality of his work influenced his con-
temporaries to any extent, doubtless on account of the strong
Teutonic feeling it displayed.
_Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm, R.A. (1834-1890), an Austrian by
birth, was more successful, and his influence, helped by the talent
of able studio-assistants (Professor LanteVi, Alfred Gilbert, and
others), contributed somewhat to thaw the chill which the cold
marble still seemed to shed around. There was not much inspiration
in his monument of " General Gordon " in St Paul's cathedral, and
his " Wellington Memorial " is cold and empty, though correct
enough; but the '' Herdsman and Bull," among his ideal subjects,
the " Carlyle " on Chelsea Embankment, among his portrait-statues,
had the right feeling in them. His busts were usually excellent.
J. H. Foley (1818-1874; A.R.A., 1849; R.A., 1858), who at first
was all for " the unities " and a " pure style," seemed in his later
years to throw his previous convjctions to the winds, when he pro-
duced the finely spirited equestrian statue of " General Sir James
Outram," now erected in India, and the statue of Sir Joshua Reynolds
in the Tate Gallery. This statue was welcomed with enthusiasm
in the art world, and helped to remind the public that monuments
need not be staid to dulness, nor stiff and dead in their imperturb-
ability.
Meanwhile Henry Hugh Armstead (1828-1905; A.R.A., 1875;
R.A., 1880), who had begun by devoting himself to the art of the
silversmith, fashioning the " St George's Vase," " The Packington
Shield," and " The Outram Shield," was working in the spirit of the
younger school; he made his first appearance in the exhibitions in
1851. He was carrying out commissions of considerable magnitude
in the Palace of Westminster, and in the Abbey itself, for which
he executed the marble reredos with its many figures, the whole of
the external sculptural decorations for the Colonial Office in White-
hall, as well as the eighty-four life-sized figures on two sides of the
podium of the Albert Memorial, with the four bronze statues,
" Chemistry," " Astronomy," " Medicine," and " Rhetoric."
Portrait-figures of all ages are here classed together, and the work
is a better-sustained piece of designing and carving than is commonly
understood. The statue set up at Chatham of Lieutenant Wag-
horn " is a good example of Armstead's sculpture, impressive by its
breezy strength and picturesqueness ; but a more remarkable work,
technically speaking, is the memorial to a son of the earl of Wemyss,
" David and the Lion," now fixed in the Guards' Chapel. It is in
very flat relief; Ninevite in character of treatment, and carved
wholly by the artist directly from the living model, it is, in point of
technique, one of his best productions. His marble statuette of
" Remorse," bought for the Chantrey Collection, is a remarkable
example of combined intensity of expression and elevated purity
of style. The work of Armstead is monumental in character the
quality which has been so rare among British sculptors, yet the finest
quality of all; and in almost everything he did there is a " bigness "
of style which assures him his place in the British school.
Following the chronological order of the artists' first public
appearance, as being the most convenient and the only consistent
method that will prevent overlapping, we come to F. J. Williamson
(b. 1853), who executed many works for Queen Victoria; John
Hutchison, R.S.A. (b. 1856), a Scottish sculptor of the Classic
school; and George A. Lawson, H. R.S.A. (18321904). Lawson
was a pupil of Alexander Ritchie, of the Royal Scottish Academy,
and in a measure of Rome. He went to London in 1867, and soon
proved himself one of the best sculptors Scotland has produced.
' In the Arena " was his first striking group; " Daphms " is an
excellent example of his Classic life-size work; and " Motherless "
one of his greater successes in a more modern and pictorial spirit,
a group full of pathetic pathos and free and sympathetic handling.
" Callicles," " The Weary Danai'd," " Old Marjone," and the statue
of " Robert Burns," erected at Ayr, are all in their way noticeable,
Lawson's work, which only requires a little more animation to be
fine, has the quality of " style," and is strong, manly, and full of
distinction.
Sir Edwin Landseer (1802-1873) had exhibited in 1866 a " Stag
at Bay," but his four colossal lions for the Nelson monument in
Trafalgar Square, London, constitute his principal plastic works.
They engaged him from 1859 to 1867, the year in which they were
set up. The casting of them, as already stated, was carried out by
Baron Marochetti. Each is 20 ft. in length and weighs 7 tons.
They have great nobility and dignity of pose, and although they are
not altogether sculptural in treatment, they are finely impressive
with a good sense of style.
George Simonds (b. 1844) is a product of the foreign schools.
He is the author of many monumental works and not a little decora-
tive sculpture, but he is best recognized by ideal subjects, such as
" Dionysus astride his Leopard " (his finest work), " The Goddess
Gerd," " The Falconer " (in the Central Park, New York), " Cupid
and Campaspe " and " Anemone, the Wind Flower." His treatment
of the undraped female figure is refined and delicate, and there
is an intellectual reality about his best work, as well as imagination
in conception. A. Bruce-Joy (b. Dublin, 1842) has produced ideal
work and statues of public men for public spaces, and many busts.
Thomas Brock (b. 1847; A.R.A., 1883; R.A., 1891), whose work
is prodigious in amount as well as solid and scholarly, came to London
from Worcester in 1866 and fell early under the influence of the
sculptor Foley, who was soon to rebel against the formalism that
prevailed. When his chief died, in 1874, Brock was appointed to
carry out the great unfinished works in the studio-^-the O'Connell
Monument " in Dublin, the " Lord Canning " in Calcutta, and
several others. But he felt the foreign current ; and even when his
style was formed, his career being already assured, he was perceptive
enough to modify it, and, so developed, he left his master very far
behind. The ideal work that marked this transition was "The
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503
Moment of Peril," a fine, scholarly work representing a mounted
Red Indian repelling the attack of a great serpent which has thrown
his horse to earth. How greatly he improved in technical quality
and in refinement of taste is to be seen in the life-sized marble statue
called " The Genius of Poetry " graceful where the " Moment of
Peril " was violent in action, reposeful and harmonious where that
was vigorous, and sculpturesque where that was anecdotal. A
higher intellectual point was reached in " Song " and in the " Eve,"
now in the Tate Gallery in London. A similar advance is to be
observed in Brock's portraiture. The statues of " Robert Raikes "
(on the Thames Embankment) and " Sir Richard Temple " (in
Bombay Town Hall), for example, are finely treated, unconventional
figures; but "The Rt. Rev. Henry Philpott, D.D., Bishop of
Worcester," in which the inherent difficulty of a seated figure is
happily surmounted, marks the progress. The skill with which the
artist has given the drapery, especially of the sleeves, a lightness
not commonly seen, is striking. There are no black holes of shadow :
the depressions are shallow and of the right shape to hold light even
while securing shadow; yet weakness is avoided and crispness is
secured by the sharpening of the edge of the folds the principle
which is established in the Pheidian group of ;l The Fates," for
example, among the Elgin Marbles. Other works of importance in
the same class are the effigy of " Dr Benson, archbishop of Canter-
bury," and the admirable statue of "Sir Richard Owen" in the
Natural History Museum, South Kensington, and especially the
" Thomas Gainsborough " in the Tate Gallery, are all of a high order
whether as to character or handling. With these may be grouped
the statue of " Sir Henry Irving," the tribute of British actors to
the memory of the great dramatic artist (1910), and the seated marble
statue of Lord Russell (190^). The bust of Queen Victoria is one
of the noblest and most dignified works of its class executed in Eng-
land; full of tenderness and of character, lovingly rendered; and
with a delicate feeling for form, rightly realized. This head heralded
the noble work by which the memory of Lord Leighton is to be kept
green in the aisle of St Paul's cathedral. In proportion and in
harmony of design and of line, alike in conception and in reticence,
it is the sculptural expression of a well-ordered mind and taste.
The effigy shows Leighton asleep, while figures personifying his arts,
painting and sculpture, guard his sarcophagus at head and foot.
There is a note of triumph in the great design for the " Queen
Victoria Memorial," which provides London with its most elaborate
sculptural effort, rising 70 ft. high on a plateau 200 ft. across, with
numerous emblematical figures of great size and imposing arrange-
ment. It is based on an elevated style, dignified, refined and
monumental; for Brock is a sculptor in the full sense of the term,
and his lines are always good.
D.W. Stevenson, R.S.A. (1842-1904), in his general work showed
but little sympathy with modern developments. The " Bronze
Lectern " (in St Cuthbert's Church, Edinburgh) is perhaps the most
decoratively effective; but his most ambitious work, called " The
Pompeian Mother," is a modern adaptation of the " Niobe and her
Daughter " by a follower of the school of Scopas in the Uffizi
Gallery.
Although Horace Montford, modelling master at the Royal
Academy, passed much time in the studio of Matthew Noble (1818-
1876), he did not thereby lose his sculptural taste. Not that he
displayed it much in the share he had, as assistant to C. B. Birch,
A.R.A., in the modelling of the notorious " City Griffin " at Temple
Bar a weird but spirited beast, the design for which had been
supplied by the city architect, Sir Horace Jones. " A Hymn to
Demeter," a life-size statue full of movement, and the statue of
" Psyche and the Casket of Venus," may be named as typical of
the style of Montford, whose work is usually broad and sculpturesque,
distinguished by firmness and grace.
Sir Charles B. Lawes-Wittewronge (b. 1843) has produced three
large works which have attracted attention: an elaborate and
spirited equestrian group of a female Mazeppa " They Bound me
on " (1888); "The United States of America" (1890), decorative
and not without elegance, and " The Death of Dirce." The last-
named, of heroic size, in variously coloured bronze, was first exhibited
at the Royal Academy in 1908, and again, in coloured marbles (yet
not truly polychromatic in character) in colossal size, at the Franco-
British Exhibition (1908). The complexity of the design, the skilful
composition and arrangement of the elaborate group, the vigour of
the modelling, and the impressiveness with which the work imposes
itself upon the spectator, combine to render this perhaps the most
important sculptured group of its kind exhibited in England.
Sir Charles's work is always strong and robust, though occasionally
somewhat lacking in repose.
W. Hamo Thornycroft (b. 1850; A.R.A., 1881; R.A., 1888)
became a great influence for good in the British school. His tendency
towards the Greek has been a wholesome reminder of the danger of
the over-enthusiasm for naturalism, and yet was never forced to
conventionalism. Alike in ideal work, in monumental sculpture
and in portraiture, his art is marked by refined taste and scholarship
and a noble sense of beauty. It is strong, yet without undue display
of power. In him we have to appreciate an unaffected sympathy
with grandeur and style, and in all, a big, broad rendering of the
human form, with something of the movement of the Greek sculptors
and not a little of their repose, yet individual and unmistakably
belonging to the British order of mind. In his largest monumental
group, however, the " National Memorial to W. E. Gladstone,"
erected in the Strand, London, there is little trace of the classic.
In this work, as in the bronze statue of Bishop Creighton in St Paul's
Cathedral, there is a modern feeling entirely responsive to the feeling
of the people. Mr Thornycroft's seated marble statue of Lord
Tennyson (1909) in Trinity College, Cambridge, is one of his finest
portrait figures, full of dignity and excellent in likeness a worthy
memorial of the poet.
J. Havard Thomas began in 1872 to exhibit portrait sculpture,
and soon turned his attention to ideal work, but he did not attract
widespread attention until 1886, when he produced " The Slave
Girl." This marble nude was a curious contrast to most Slave
Girls by other sculptors that by Hiram Powers, for example.
Somewhat stunted in form, she is nevertheless full of very human
grace and well-felt realism, and is a good example of the artist's
carving. Mr Thomas, indeed, is one of the few to carve his own
marbles, often without taking the intermediate step of making a clay
model. This of course cannot be the case with his large sculpture,
such as his great statue of " The Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster " at Bradford,
and his " Samuel Morley, M.P.," and " Edmund Burke, M.P.," both
at Bristol ; but the beautiful small heads of peasants and children
such as the Donatellesque " Pepinella " of Capri, where he lived
for years from 1889 onwards, are mostly carved direct from life.
The beauty of his chisel work can be seen to perfection in the
exquisite bust of Mrs Wertheimer in the Tate Gallery; the marble
seems to turn to flesh under his chisel and to palpitate with life:
it is, perhaps, too much like flesh. This is very far from the
" Classic," with over-attention to which Mr Thomas has curiously
and quite inaccurately been reproached. It is true that his much
discussed statue " Lycidas " appears to be a distant echo of Myron;
it is in truth archaistic, but with an aim altogether different from
that of the Greek. It is Classic in a sense, full of life and wonderfully
modelled, but the attainment of perfection of human beauty was
not the intention of the. sculptor, and yet it appears to the un-
obserying as but a rifacimento. There is a vivid sense of style in
Mr Thomas's work, and sometimes a search for beauty in subjects
which to the common eye may suggest the ugly. But Mr Thomas
must be recognized as an artist of great power and originality and
to the last degree conscientious. Sculptural subtleties he loves,
and he works in a low key, quiet and unobtrusive, and severe though
he is, he is a poet in sentiment with extreme refinement of taste.
His reliefs are fine in rhythm, and by their accentuated definition,
allied with delicacy, extremely telling.
From the year 1873 Edwin Roscoe Mullins (d.i9os) produced
numerous busts and statues, and his work was in the main ideal
and decorative. His best figure is probably that of " Cain My
Punishment is Greater than I can Bear," executed in 1896; his latest
work, " The Sisters " (1905), shows considerable grace. Mullins'
work in architectural embellishment was good in style, appropriate
and effective.
Joseph Swynnerton (d. 1910) was a sculptor who spent a good deal
of his time in Rome and worked under her influence. His colossal
fountain of flowers, zephyrs and splashing nymphs is, on the contrary,
rather rococo in style, with charming passages. On_the other hand,
" Love's Chalice " is Classic in feeling. Generally speaking,
Swynnerton's work has an appearance of strength, without common-
ness or lack of effect.
E. Onslow Ford (1852-1901; A.R.A., 1888; R.A., 1895) was lost
to British art before he had passed middle age. His seated statue of
" Henry Irving as Hamlet " is a well-conceived piece of reaKsm, with
expression subtly marked, and verging upon the theatrical which
is precisely what an actor's character-portrait should be. Compared
with this work, the later seated statue, that of " Huxley," keen and
refined, is more strictly sculpturesque for in it there is no " subject,"
and there are no ornaments to divert the attention and suggest a
false appearance of decoration. The statue of " Gordon " mounted
on a camel reminding us too vividly of the " Arab Chief " by
Barye is more open to criticism on the score of the elaborateness of
the ornamental details, which almost reach the boundary of what is
allowable in sculpture. It is erected at Chatham, and a replica has
been set up (1902) in Khartum. A finer memorial is that to the
honour of Shelley." It is, however, better in its parts than in its
entirety, because the decorative scheme injures, rather than helps,
the sculptural dignity of the drowned poet's exquisitely-rendered
figure. Of Onslow Ford's other memorials, that of Queen Victoria
at Manchester is perhaps the most discussed and the least to be
admired, for although the conception is dignified and characteristic,
it does not rank by any means with the best of which the artist was
capable. As a truthful portraitist Onslow Ford had few rivals.
The sitter is before the spectator, without undue flattery, yet without
ever showing the commoner side of the model. Flesh, bone, hair,
clothing, are all in their true relation, and the whole is admirably
realized]. Idealism, or at least poetic realism, Onslow Ford cultivated
in a series of small works. Of his last figure, " Glory to the Dead,"
it may be said that, although statuesque, it carries realism rather
far in treatment. It may be objected that in funerary art, so to
call jt, the nude was never resorted to by the Greeks in such a
relation ; but Onslow Ford felt that he was working, not for ancient
Greeks, but for modern Englishmen, and that sentiment, and not
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[MODERN BRITISH
archaeology, must in such matters be the guide. There are, besides,
the " Marlowe Memorial," set up in Canterbury graceful and refined,
but rather trifling in manner and the " Jowett Memorial," a wall
decoration, in the style of the Italian Renaissance. The work of
Onslow Ford always charms, for he had a strong sense of the pictur-
esque and a true feeling for beauty, but with insufficient power.
But for his delight in decorative detail, he would have been greater
than he was; for over-enrichment is in inevitable opposition to the
greater qualities of the monumental and the dignified in glyptic art,
and abundance of small details involves poorness of effect. But
against Ford's taste, especially against his admirable dexterity,
little can be said. The high degree of refinement, the charm of
modelling, grace of line and composition, sweetness of feeling, which
are the note of his work, are in a great measure a set-off against
occasional weakness of design and character, and lack of monu-
mental effect.
H. R. Hope Pinker is primarily a portrait-sculptor. Of all his
works the seated statue of " Dr Martineau " is perhaps the best, for
interest, refinement, and for technical qualities. His reliefs are as
numerous as his statues, of which the most popular is the " Henry
Fawcett " in the Market Place of Salisbury, but his most important
work is the colossal statue of Queen Victoria executed for the
government of British Guiana.
The most remarkable work executed by any British amateur-
sculptor is the " Shakespeare Memorial," presented to the nation by
Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower, and set up by him outside the
Shakespeare Theatre at Stratford-on-Avon (1888). This monument,
carried out in Paris, represents the poet on the summit, attended
below by the four great characters " Hamlet," " Henry V.,"
" Lady Macbeth " and " Falstaff," designed with singular ability
and a happy display of symbolic inventiveness. Lord Ronald also
modelled statues of " Marie Antoinette," " The Dying Guardsman,"
and other works which have secured wide attention.
In 1877 there burst upon the world a new sculptor, in the person
of Sir Frederick (afterwards Lord) Leighton (1830-1896; A.R.A.,
1864; R.A., 1868), who, in the following year, was to be the president
of the Royal Academy. His first work was " An Athlete Struggling
with the Python." No piece of sculpture of modern times made a
greater stir on its appearance; for here was a work, by a painter, a
work, it was declared, which would have done honour to the ancients,
fine in style, noble in type and in form, learned in the knowledge of
the figure it displayed, original and strong in pose, in action and
movement ; scholarly in execution and instinct, with the manner of
the painter himself. The group was hailed as a masterpiece by one
who was thought to be not yet even a student in sculpture, and it was
declared by the most exacting critics to be worthy to rank with the
best examples of all but the finest periods. Yet it is somewhat lack-
ing in expression in that kind of humanity which every really great
masterpiece of ait should exhibit; and connoisseurs applauded the
technique, the surface qualities and the like, when they should have
been caught by the sentiment. But as Leighton was seeking only the
beauty and expression of form, to the neglect of sentiment, he was
well content with the reception and world-wide recognition of his
work. One day the model for the " Athlete," tired out, rose and
stretched himself, and the sculptor was so enraptured by the pose
that he forthwith began the model for the " Sluggard." This work
is in its way of still higher accomplishment than the "Athlete."
It is just as Greek as the other in its devotion to form and its worship
of the beauty of the human frame. But it is a condition, a sensation,
an idea, rather than an action, that is here recorded; and so it is
the higher conception. And it has some of the mystery which i?
distinctive of the finest art of ancient times, in which modern sculp-
ture is almost entirely deficient. Yet while the " Athlete " may be
compared, in idea, with the relatively debased " Laocoon," which it
seems in some degree to follow if not to challenge, the " Sluggard "
belongs to a more elevated expression of a distinctly pagan art, and,
as it were, to a better period. Great as was the sensation made by
these works, and by the charming little statue of " Needless Alarms
(cast by the " lost-wax " process), Leighton seems to have left no
direct follower or imitator among the younger men.
T. Stirling Lee, by natural ability as well as by cultivation, is an
artist of unusual elevation of mind and excellence of execution, and
in his composition he aims at securing beauty by the arrangement of
his figures in the panel, rather than at enriching them with details,
as a designer would do. He is an ascetic in choice of materials, so
that his works generally remain beautiful studies of the human form,
draped or undraped. It is for his power of telling a story beautifully
in marble as in his panels for St George's Hall, Liverpool, which are
among the finest work of their kind in England that Mr Lee will
continue to be admired: he is, beyond almost all others, a sculptor's
sculptor. His statue of _" Cain," extremely simple in conception, is a
masterpiece of expression.
John M. Swan (1847-1010; A.R.A., 1894; R.A., 1905); a pupil
of the Royal Academy and of Ger&me and Fr6miet, specialized as a
sculptor of a particular class of subject. He is a stylist in a high
degree, whose work is full of beauty and importance. For the most
part, but by no means exclusively, his sculptures are studies of
animals, mainly of thefelidae; but he would pass from the accentua-
tion of action to the covering of skin and hair, without seeking much
to emphasize the bone and flesh, because they alone display, with the
fascinating expressiveness of their sinuous bodies, the whole range of
the passions in the most concentrated form. In the " Leopard
Playing with a Tortoise," " Leopard Running," " Puma and
Macaw," and similar works, we have the note of his art sinuosity,
with tense muscles, stretched and folded skin, suppressed frenzy of
enjoyment. The note of Barye, the great Frenchman, from whom in
some measure Swan drew inspiration, is power and strength and
decorative form, but his aim is rather at fine, grim, naturalistic
studies of a great cat's crawl, with amazing vivacity and vitality.
In certain groups, such as " Orpheus " and " Boy and Bear Cubs,"
the sculptor combines the human figure with animal forms. In the
composition of these there is always the note of originality.
Another student of animal life is Harry Dixon, whose bronze
" Wild Boar " is in the Tate Gallery. " A Bear Running," excellent
alike in character, form and construction, and especially in move-
ment, " Otters and Salmon," and the figure-subject called " The
Slain Enemy " a prehistoric man with a dead wolf are among his
chief works.
Andrea C. Lucchesi is one of the few who, in spite of all discourage-
ment, has not only persisted in concentrating his attention on ideal
work, but has devoted most of it to the rendering of the female form.
Prominent among his figures are those called " Destiny," " The
Flight of Fancy," " The Mountain of Fame," " The Myrtle's Altar,"
"Carthage, 149 B.C.," and "Verity and Illusion." Mr Lucchesi's
main excellence is in the treatment of nude forms, in which he has
succeeded, through agreeable working out of idea and excellent
execution, in interesting a public usually indifferent to this branch of
sculpture.
Alfred Gilbert (b. 1854; A.R.A., 1887; R.A., 1892; resigned,
1909) is to be regarded as one of the greatest figures in British sculp-
ture, not only as being a master of his art, but as having preached
in his work a great movement, and in less than a decade effected
more than any other man for the salvation of the British school,
and inspired almost as much as Carpeaux or Dalou, the young
sculptors of the country. Among his earlier works are two fine
heads of a man and a girl, pure in style and incisive in character,
which were cast by the cire perdue, or " lost-wax," process, which
he had learned in Naples. Its introduction into Great Britain or,
it may be more correct to say, its revival had considerable influence
on the treatment of bronze sculpture by British artists. In Gilbert's
portraiture we have not merely likenesses in the round, but little
biographies full of character, with a spiritual and decorative as well
as a physical side, and the mental quality displayed with manly
sympathy. Flesh and textures are perfectly realized, yet broad,
simple, and modest. Many of these qualities are as obvious in his
portrait-statues, such as the fine effigy set up to " John Howard "
in the market-place of Bedford. The monument with which Gilbert's
name will ever be associated is the " Statue of Queen Victoria " set
up at Winchester, which, since its erection and re-erection in that
city, has been irretrievably injured by depredations, and remains
incomplete in its decorative details. The queen is shown with extra-
ordinary dignity. Large in its masses, graceful in its lines, the
person of the queen enveloped by all the symbolical figures and
fanciful ornaments with which the artist has chosen to enrich it,
the monument marks the highest level in this class to which any
sculptor and metal-worker has reached for generations. The pro-
fusion of an ardent and poetic imagination is seen throughout in
the arrangement of the figure itself, in the exquisite " Victory "
that used to surmount the orb, in the stately throne. Invention,
originality, and inspiration are manifest in every part, and every
detail is worked out with infinite care, and birth is given to a score
of dainty conceits, not all of them, perhaps, entirely defensible
from the purely sculptural point of view. In a measure it suggests
goldsmithry, to which the genius of Gilbert has so often yielded, as
in the exquisite epergne presented to Queen Victoria on her jubilee
in 1887, typifying Britannia's realm and sea power in endless poetic
and dainty suggestions of beautiful devices. Among Gilbert's
memorials, not mentioned elsewhere, are those to " Frank Holl,
R.A.," and to " Randolph Caldecott," both in the crypt of St Paul's
cathedral, London; the " Henry Fawcett " memorial in Westminster
Abbey, which, with its row of expressive little symbolical figures,
has been styled " a little garden of sculpture." The finest work
of its kind in England is the " Tomb of the Duke of Clarence " in
St George's chapel, which in 1910 still awaited final completion.
Perhaps his best composition expressive of emotion is the half-
length group " Mors Janua Vitae, a terra-cotta group designed to be
executed in bronze for the hall of the Royal College of Surgeons.
Few artists in any age have shown greater genius as at once artificer
and sculptor. Gilbert is fond of dealing with a subject which allows
his fancy full play. His work is full of colour; it is playful and
broad. The smallest details are big in treatment, and every part is
carefully thought out and most ingenious in design. His playfulness
has caused him at times to be somewhat too florid in manner; but
his taste is so just, and his fancy so inexhaustible, that he has safely
given rein to his imagination where another man would have run
riot and come to griefT
Robert Stark is an animal sculptor who has usually attracted the
notice of connoisseurs rather than of the greater public, and his
fine bronze statuette of an " Indian Rhinoceros " is to be seen in
the Chantrey Collection. Mr Stark has a profound knowledge of
SCULPTURE BRITISH (a)
PLATE III.
(Photo, London Stereoscopic Co.)
ALFRED STEVENS The Wellington
Monument, St Paul's Cathedral} London.
SIR GEORGE FRAMPTON, R.A.-
The Dr Barnardo Memorial.
(Photo, Mansell & Co.)
LORD LEIGHTON, P.R.A. The Sluggard.
HARRY BATES, A.R.A. Homer.
(Pholo, Frederick Hottyer.)
H. H. ARMSTEAD, R.A.- Lieutenant Waghorn.
XXIV. 504.
G. F. WATTS, R. A. Hugh Lupus.
A. GILBERT, M.V.O. Icarus. 24
PLATE IV.
SCULPTURE BRITISH (b)
E. ONSLOW FORD, ILA. Shelley Memorial.
F. W. POMEROY, A.R.A.-The Spearman.
ALFRED DRURY, A.RJV. F. DERWENT WOOD, A.R.A. BERTRAM MACKENTNAL, A.R.A.-
Innocence. Psyche. Diana Wounded.
W. HAMO THORNYCROFT, R.A.-
Teucer.
ALBERT TOFT
Antigone.
HAVARD THOMAS-Lycidas.
W. HAMO THORNYCROFT, R.A.-Dcan Colet.
W. COSCOMBE JOHN, R.A.-
St John the Baptist.
MODERN BRITISH]
SCULPTURE
505
animal anatomy; his range is considerable, and he is as easy with
a rhinoceros as with a cart-horse or a hunter.
Conrad Dressier is best known for his busts of distinguished men,
but his statue of " A Girl Tying up her Sandal," and his two large
marble panels for St George's Hall, Liverpool, assured him his
position. There is a cleverness, a daring, in his marked style, vigour
of treatment, and a tendency towards emphasis, especially in his
decorative work, much of which is designed for execution in Delia
Robbia ware. Since his return to pure sculpture he has executed
some important work, including a bronze " Bacchante."
In the work of Harry Bates (1850-1899; A.R.A., 1892), especially
in the reliefs, with its balance and dignity, its rhythmical line and
fine expression, is to be seen a flexibility which few Englishmen had
shown up to that time. Style and a genuinely modern treatment
of classic form, which is not weakened by touches of naturalism,
were also to be recognized. Nor in his " Homer," for example
does the background detract from the main subject: Homer and
Humanity in front; and behind, a vision of the Parthenon and Pallas
Athene, and the great Sun of Art rising with the dawn of Poetry.
" Psyche " is more delicate in thought and treatment, but it has
little of the originality or force of the " Homer," or of the classic
style seen in the head called " Rhodope." The serene and reposeful
statue of " Pandora," about to open her ivory casket, successfully
achieves the purity of style at which the sculptor aimed. " Hounds
in Leash " (the bronze of which belongs to the earl of Wemyss) is a
vigorous group which was undertaken by Bates in response to the
criticism that he could design no figures but such as are at rest.
The plastic group is in the Tate Gallery, where it figures along with
the " Pandora." In " Endymion " the' sculptor seems to have
united in some degree the sculptural ideas expressed in the " Homer "
and the central relief of " Psyche ": there is in it a good deal of
the grace of the one and of the decorative force of the other, together
with a lofty sense of beauty. The portrait-busts of Harry Bates
are good pieces of realism strong, yet delicate in technique, and
excellent in character.
Sir George Frampton (b. 1860; A.R.A., 1894; R.A., 1902;
knighted, 1908), pupil of the Royal Academy, the Lambeth Schools,
and Merci6 in Paris, is a particularly versatile and original artist,
thoroughly in the " new movement " which he has done so much to
direct. Highly accomplished, he is at home in every branch of his
art, and covers the whole field. He first exhibited " Socrates
Teaching " (1884), and followed this with " The Songster " (1887),
" An Act of Mercy " (1888), " In Silence Prayeth She," " The Angel
of Death " (1889), " Caprice " (1891), and in 1892 " The Children of
the Wolf " his last ideal statue of the kind. It was followed by
" Mysteriarch," heralding a class of work with which the artist has
since identified himself; for being in open rebellion against " white
sculpture," he thenceforward devoted himself to colour. " Mother
and Child " is an experiment in polychromatic figure-work. The
half-length figure called " Lamia," with ivory face, head, and neck,
and in a quaint head-and-neck dress of bronze jewelled, is a further
departure from the true reserve of sculpture, but beautiful and
delightful in feeling. The statue of " Dame Alice Owen," in bronze
and marble, and " King Edward VI." are original, notwithstanding
the pseudo-medieval taste of their conception. Frampton is happiest
in distinctly decorative sculpture. His prolific and inventive fancy
has expressed itself in such works as the bronze " The Steamship "
and " The Sailing Ship " tor Lloyd's Registry in London, and in
the memorial " Monument to Charles Mitchell," at Newcastle-on-
Tyne. Herein a new note is sounded, and we have some of the most
striking features of Frampton's design. That is to say, he seeks
to escape from the purely architectural forms, pediments and
mouldings, introducing his own inventions of curved lines, and
frequently substituting tree-forms for columns or pilasters, with
roots for bases, trunks for pillars, and branches and foliage for
capitals. Besides these should be mentioned " The Vision," the
seven heroines from the Morte d' 'Arthur, " My Thoughts are my
Children," " Music " and " Dancing," and memorials and busts of
" Charles Keene," " R. Stuart Poole," " Leigh Hunt," " Passmore
Edwards," " Dr Garnett," a colossal statue of " Queen Victoria "
erected in Calcutta, and another, an extremely successful work, for
Leeds. His group of " Maternity " (1905) and the full-length seated
statue of the marquess of Salisbury (1907) have added to his reputa-
tion. There are always charm of arrangement, delicacy of work-
manship, and daintiness of feeling, as well as considerable power of
design, simplicity, and breadth in his work. Sir George Frampton
has also produced a number of fine medals.
W. S. Frith, one of the most successful teachers of sculptors in
England, is chiefly remarkable for the decorative quality of his
work. As in the monument to " Wheatstone, Inventor of the Tele-
graph," or again, the standard lamps at the Astor Estate Office on
the Thames Embankment, the sculptor shows charm of thought and
spirit of design, vigour, and richness of effect. His ideal statuary
and portraiture are not his chief work, however; his decorative
sculpture for ecclesiastical and secular buildings is vast in extent
and has had good influence on the younger school. One of his chief
works is the " Bishop Ellicott's Memorial," a tomb with recumbent
figure, a design of considerable imagination.
Henry A. Pegram (b. 1862; A.R.A., 1904), a pupil of Hamo
Thornycroft and of the Royal Academy, attracted early attention
with Death Liberating a Prisoner," and by the two high reliefs
Ignis Fatuus " (acquired for the Chantrey Collection) and " The
Doom of Medusa." These were followed by " Eve," " Sibylla
Fatidica," > " The Last Song," "The Bather," "Labour," and
" Fortune," by decorative work for the exterior of the Imperial
Institute, and later by the great candelabra which flank the interim
western end of St Paul's cathedral. " Into the Silent Land " (1905)
is a group typical of the funerary sculpture on which his chisel was
engaged in later years. His portraiture is also noteworthy, and his
work generally is usually sculpturesque, with movement and life.
A. G. Walker has produced notable work in the class of pure
sculpture, including the relief representing " The Last Plague: The
Death of the Firstborn," " Adam and Eve: And They were Afraid "
and " The Thorn " (exhibited in bronze in 1910), graceful and
quaintly charming, with elegance in the pose and in the action.
His chief decorative work includes the sculptural figures in Stam-
ford Hill Church.
The name of Captain Adrian Jones was for many years chiefly
associated with the spirited work called " Duncan's Horses," a group
displaying great knowledge of equine anatomy, form and action;
since then his equestrian statue of " The Duke of Cambridge,"
erected in Whitehall, London, outside the War Office, has been
recognized as a vigorous performance. His most important work is
the monumental quadriga designed to crown Burton^ great Arch at
Hyde Park Corner, London.
W. Reynolds-Stephens (b. 1862), more devoted to goldsmith's
figure-work than to larger and more searching sculpture, must be
considered less as a statuary than as " a poet who sings in metal."
A relief, after Sir L. Alma-Tadema's " Wcmen of Amphissa " (1889),
was followed by a " Wall Fountain," " Truth and Justice," and the
" Sleeping Beauty," a bas-relief, full of thought, invention, and dainty
conceits. In the highly decorated " Launcelot and the Nestling,
" Guinevere and the Nestling," and similar works, the artist makes
use of various coloured metals, ivory, gems and the like, with pretty
symbolism. Apart from his choice of material, there is a delicate
languor about the lines of his figures and reliefs, which display a
charming feeling and refined taste. By two striking works he has
re-entered the field of pure sculpture the dramatic and somewhat
too anecdotal " A Royal Game and " The Scout in War," exhibited
in 1908, an equestrian group of great refinement and excellence.
Alfred Drury (b. 1857; A.R.A., 1900) was a pupil of Dalou, whose
assistant for a time he became. The first result was the curious echo
of the master's style, " The Triumph of Silenus " (1885). " The
Genius of Sculpture " and " The First Reflection " (bought by the
queen of Saxony) and " The Evening Prayer " (1890, Manchester
Corporation Gallery) were followed by the statue of " Circe " (1893),
which, through its grace, elegance of line, and symbolical realization
of the subject, achieved a great popular success and was acquired
by Leeds. The bronze head of " St Agnes " (1894) is one of the first
examples of Mr Drury's later style, belonging to the higher order of
conception which, generally speaking, he has since maintained.
This may be seen also in " Griselda " (bought for the Chantrey
Collection), " The Age of Innocence," and other busts symbolical of
childhood, and in the series of " The Months," at Barrow Court.
For the decoration of the City Square at Leeds Drury executed the
statue of Dr Priestly, consisting of the colossal figure entitled
" Even." His colossal groups for the decoration of the War Office,
thermonumental panels in high relief for the piers of Lambeth Bridge,
and the decorative sculpture for the facade of the new Victoria and
Albert Museum, all in London, are works of considerable importance.
Among the latter are the figures of " Inspiration " and " Knowledge,"
executed in 1907. Drury's quiet, suave, and contemplative art lends
itself well as decorative sculpture to architectural embellishment.
His portraiture is also good, reticent, and full of character, and as a
manipulator of clay he represents the highest contemporary standard
of English sculptors.
Frederick W. Pomeroy (A.R.A., 1906), pupil of the Lambeth and
Royal Academy Schools, and of Merci6, is of equal taste and ability.
After 1888, when he exhibited the bronze statuette " Giotto," he
produced many ideal works " Love, the Conqueror " (Walker Art
Gallery, Liverpool), " Pleasures are like Poppies Spread," " Boy-
Piping," " Dionysos," and " The Nymph of Loch Awe " (both in the
Tate Gallery), " A Nymph Finding the Head of Orpheus," " Undine,"
' Pens6e," and the clever study of the nude called '' The Potter."
" Perseus " is an inspiration from Benvenuto Cellini, but " The
Spearman " is an original and powerful work. " Feroniae " (1909)
is a nude statue, in bronze, remarkable for grace and sculptural
animation. In ideal portraiture he has produced the statues of
" Admiral Blake," " Dean Hook " (a colossal work for Leeds),
" Oliver Cromwell " (also colossal, for St Ives, Huntingdonshire),
" Robert Burns " for Paisley, as well as " R. P. Bonington " (1910),
" Monsignor Nugent of Liverpool " (1905), an impressive group,
and similar work, together with the life-size panel of " Archbishop
Temple," in bronze, for St Paul's cathedral. In true portraiture,
Pomeroy executed the Liberal Memorial Statue of Mr Gladstone, in
the lobby of the Houses of Parliament, and the recumbent effigy of
the Duke of Westminster, for Chester cathedral. His work is strong
and sculpturesque, and his statues " stand " well. He sees nature in a
big broad way, and his decoration is effective and well designed.
Albert Toft became known by his statue of " Lilith " (1889), and
SCULPTURE
[MODERN BRITISH
emphasized the impression then created by " Fate-Led " (1892,
Walker Art Gallery), " Age and the Angel of Death," " In the Sere
and Yellow Leaf " (a remarkable study of old age), " The Goblet of
Life," and " Hagar." " The Spirit of Contemplation " and " The
Cup of Immortality " are more complete and display dignity and
refinement. His memorials of the Boer War, at Cardiff and Birming-
ham, in design and silhouette, are among the most striking in the
country. In " Mother and Child " (1903) and " Maternity (1905)
he has greatly raised the high-water mark of his achievement.
Toft's busts, such as those of W. E. Gladstone and Philip Bailey, as
well as his statue of Sir Charles Mark Palmer, at Jarrow, and similar
works, have force and breadth of character; and in his ideal work
there is an effort, well sustained and successful, after dignity,
harmony, evenness of balance, and relation of the whole.
Professor Edouard Lanteri, a naturalized Englishman, to whom
British sculpture owes much, employed his own striking gifts to
teach rather than to produce. But " The Fencing Master,' " The
Duet," and " A Garden Decoration " have exercised influence on
the younger school through their fine sculptural qualities of vitality,
richness, joyousness, sensuousness, and movement. His portrait
busts are full of life and have that refinement and elegance pushed to
the utmost length, which are characteristic of all his work; in his
nude figure called " Pax " we have much of the severity, dignity, and
placid repose of the Greek.
W. Birnie Rhind, R.S.A., has produced little work so important as
the elaborate decorations for the doorway of the Scottish National
Portrait Gallery, but some of his statues and busts " King James
V. of Scotland, " Lord Salisbury," and others show the influence
of the modern school.
W. Goscombe John (b. 1860; A.R.A., 1899, R.A., 1909) achieved
an early reputation with a figure of " St John the Baptist," an austere
creation of real importance. His other chief works are " Morpheus,"
" A Girl Binding her Hair," " A Boy at Play " (Tate Gallery), " The
Glamour of the Rose," and " The Elf " a weird creation of trne
comedy. In these are shown a love of the purity and refinement of
nature, realized with delicacy and a feeling for beauty. In portraiture
Mr John is not less successful. The colossal seated statue of " The
Duke of Devonshire " at Eastbourne has been acknowledged by the
best critics in France and England to be one of the finest things of jts
kind, good in design and quiet suggestion of power. Among his chief
memorials are the tomb of the marquess of Salisbury in Westminster
Abbey, the " Memorial of the King's Regiment " at Liverpool, the
equestrian statue of "Viscount Tredegar " at Cardiff, the " Maharajah
of Balrampur " at Lucknow, and the monument to Sir Arthur
Sullivan in the Embankment Gardens, London. These all sustain
the reputation of the sculptor who has from the first been loyally
encouraged by his fellow-countrymen of Wales. The striking frieze
" The Battle of Trafalgar," for the pedestal of the statue of Viscount
Tredegar (1910), is a remarkable performance.
Bertram Mackennal (A.R.A., 1909), the son of a Scottish sculptor
settled in Australia, acknowledges no school, but was chiefly influ-
enced by study in Paris. In his early ideal works, such as " Circe "
and " For She Sitteth on a Seat in the High Places of the City," there
are boldness and a sense of drama, with a keen appreciation of ele-
gance of form, not without severity and power of design. But they
give little hint of the excellence that was to follow and to bring him
to the very front rank of British sculptors, so that in 1910 he was
selected to design the coinage of the new reign. His great pediment
in the Local Government Offices in Whitehall is perhaps the finest
work of its kind in the Kingdom. " Diana," 1908, bought for the
Chantrey Collection in the same year, is a marble nude of extraordin-
ary grace, beauty, and refinement; and his small " Earth and the
Elements," similarly acquired in the preceding year for the Chantrey
Collection, reveals a poetic beauty rare in these days. " The
Mother " (1910) belongs to this group. The bronze statue of " The
Dancer " (1904) is a work not less subtle, in which the learnedness of
the sculptor is evident to every discerning eye, and " War," a colossal
female bust, reveals a power, amounting almost to ferocity, not
disclosed in the other works. Among Mackennal's other important
statuary are the War Memorial at Islington and statues of Queen
Victoria for India, Australia, and Blackburn; in all of these the
sculpture is marked by good style, with movement, vigour, grace and
nervousness of treatment.
G. Herbert Hampton made his first appearance in the Paris Salon
with " The Mother of Evil," and then the statues of " David " and
Apollo " and " The Broken Vow," " A Mother and Child," " Nar-
cissus," " Orpheus " and other works were seen in the London
galleries. Portraiture of merit has come from Mr Hampton, but his
greatest success, perhaps, has been achieved in decorative sculpture.
F. E. Schenck (d. 1908) was similarly and more emphatically an
architect's sculptor one of those who have done much to embellish
many of the numerous great buildings which during the last twenty
years of the igth and the opening decade of the present century
sprang up all over Great Britain. The municipal buildings at
Stafford and Oxford, the public library at Shoreditch, and the
Scotsman offices in Edinburgh involving groups of colossal figures
bearing close relation to their architectural setting are among the
works which made his reputation. His defect was a " curliness "
in his ornamental forms, which frequently detracts from the dignity
and seriousness of his work.
J. Wenlock Robbins is another architectural sculptor of real power
and individuality, whose work for the New General Hospital in
Birmingham and for the Town Hall of Croydon is of a high order.
His portraiture is also good, the colossal statue of " Queen Victoria "
for Belfast being the most important of his achievements. Of ideal
work, the statue called " Nydia " is the best known.
Henry C. Fehr (pupil at the Royal Academy and of T. Brock)
contributed the group of " Perseus and Andromeda " to the Academy
in 1893, when it was purchased for the Chantrey Collection (Tate
Gallery). His subsequent ideal works, " Hypnos Bestowing Sleep
upon the Earth," " The Spirit of the Waves, " St George and the
Rescued Maiden," and " Ambition's Crown Fraught with Pain,"
confirmed the high opinion of his cleverness; but in some of them
his exuberance tells somewhat against their general effect, in spite
of their inherent grace and strength. On the other hand, the statue
of " James Watt " for the City Square of Leeds exhibits those
qualities needful for open-air portraiture; and his busts and statues
have character and life. " Isabella and the Pot of Basil " is free
from this defect, and is an original treatment of the subject; and
" The Briton " (1908), though full of vigour and imagination, shows
restraint.
George Wade is essentially a sculptor of busts and statues; the
most noteworthy of his works are the memorial to Sir John Mac-
donald in Montreal, the seated figure for Madras of the native judge.
Sir T. Aiyar Muthuswamy, and a number of ambitious monumental
works.
Gilbert Bayes, at first a modeller in the flat of horses treated in a
decorative manner, produced " Vanity," " A Knight-Errant," and
similar picturesque bibelSts on a large scale; and later still, such
work as " The Fountain of the Zodiac," showing a talent at once
more serious, ordered and graceful. " The Coming of Spring "
(1904) and " The Gallopers " (1905) are reliefs noteworthy for the
intelligence and the sculptural appropriateness they display. The
equestrian " Sigurd " (1909 and 1910) is full of fancy and illustrates
the personal talent of the sculptor: the latter group was acquired for
the Chantrey Collection. He is the designer of the great seal (1910).
W. R. Colton (b. 1867; A.R.A., 1903) is a sculptor of strong
individuality, capable equally of deep feeling and dainty fancy.
" The Girdle," " The Image-Finder," ' ! The Crown of Love," " The
Wavelet " and the " The Spring-tide of Life " revealed a sculptor
of exceptional ability, whose love of truth and life has sometimes
inspired him to place a touch of rather awkward realism in a graceful
and charming composition; the result is something unusual, yet
quite natural, and because it imparts to the work a flavour of
quaintness and originality, it is not only unobjectionable but wel-
come. Later, Colton struck out another path especially in the
monumental and statuary work executed in England and India.
Among his principal efforts are the South African memorial to the
Royal Artillery erected in the Mall, London, during the summer
of 1910, the statue of the Maharajah of Mysore (1906) and a monu-
mental " Tiger " (1909) in bronze a work of considerable power.
His vigour of design and sense of style made him a force in the
younger school of sculptors. He has acted as professor of sculpture
at the Royal Academy.
David McGill first attracted attention with the relief of " Hero
and Leander," following it with a series of figures, of which the most
striking is " The Bather," a work at once of vigour and of humour.
His work is good in pose and line, refined in drawing and feeling, and
excellent in style.
Charles J. Allen belongs to the same group. " Love and the
Mermaid " (Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool), " A Dream of Love,"
" Rescued " and " Love's Tangles " (1908) are works of high merit,
in every case good in treatment, free in modelling and pleasing in
design. His important Queen Victoria memorial in Liverpool was
unveiled in 1906, and the monument to " Rt. Hon. Samuel Smith,
M.P.," and numerous busts have followed. " The Woman whom
Thou gavest to be with me " is probably his completes! ideal work.
F. M. Taubman, who had both French and Belgian teaching, has
produced a series of works which display his power of design and
strength of technique. " The Angel of Sad Flowers," " Orpheus and
Eurydice " and " Adam and Eve ' reveal his strength in ideal work;
and the statue of " Sir Sidney Waterlow " at Highgate is a good
example of his monumental portraiture. In " The Sandal," a small
nude kneeling figure, he has turned frankly to classic coldness, and
even the purity of design and modelling cannot warm it into life.
J. Pittendrigh Macgillvray, R.S.A., belongs to the rather meagre
Scottish group, of whom he is generally regarded as the chief. His
chief work consists mainly of monuments and colossal memorials.
The " Peter Low Memorial " in Glasgow cathedral, the " Robert
Burns," the "Allan Family Memorial," the fine relief of " Rhythm "
and the " National Gladstone Memorial " for Scotland are his
leading works. With these should be considered the " Dean Mont-
gomery Memorial " in St Mary's cathedral, Edinburgh, and the
" John Knox Memorial " in St Giles's cathedral.
F. Derwent Wood (A.R.A., 1910) is a sculptor of exceptional
ability. His varied training at the Royal College of Art, the
Slade School, the Royal Academy schools, and under M. Rodin
and Mr Brock gave him a wide outlook without impairing his
individuality. His merit was recognized as soon as he quitted his
masters, and he forthwith won the competition for a series of statues
SCULPTURE BRITISH (c)
PLATE V.
W. R. COLTON, A.R.A. Maharajah
of Mysore
SIR CHARLES LAWES-WITTEWRONGE-
The Punishment of Dirce.
G. F. WATTS, R.A. Clytie
SIR J. EDGAR BOEHM, R.A. Carlyle.
XXIV. 506.
W. R. COLTON, A.R.A. The Crown of Love.
THOMAS BROCK. R.A. The Genius
of Poetry.
PLATE VT.
SCULPTURE AMERICAN
J. Q. A. WARD George Washington.
D. C. FRENCH-Indian Corn; Bull by E. C. POTTER.
AUGUSTUS ST GAUDENS Memorial to Robert Gould Shaw.
FREDERICK MAcMONNIES Nathan Hale:
(By permission of Theodore B. Starr, New York.
Copyriiktcd by Frederick MacMonnies.)
MODERN BRITISH]
SCULPTURE
507
representing the arts for the Kelvingrove art gallery at Glasgow.
A great mural tomb followed, with " Love Sacred and Profane as
its motif, together with a series of other works of growing artistic
importance. " Cain " (1905), a vigorous, dramatic, yet wholly
sculpturesque figure, is in powerful contrast to the three works that
appeared in successive years: " Abundance " (a group of a woman and
two children) and the marble statues " Atalanta " and " Psyche "
all of them the type of grace in pose and of beauty of face and form.
At the same time Derwent Wood produced the two boy figures on
the piers to the southward of the Queen Victoria Memorial in front
of Buckingham Palace. There is marked individuality in all he
does, sculpturesque character, firmness and delicacy of handling,
with a richness of style and appreciation of breadth and simplicity.
Paul Montford, the son of Horace Montford, after a brilliant
academic career made his mark in decorative sculpture. It is not
by such work as " Court Favourites " (1906) that he sustains his
reputation, but rather by the sculptural embellishments wherewith
the archway connecting the Local Government offices with the
Home Office in Whitehall is enriched. " The Spinning Girl " is one
of his best ideal figures, and the l8th century " Viscount Boling-
broke " and " The Storm Waves " are characteristic of his vigorous
style and personal conception and execution.
John Tweed, who studied under Falguiere and Rodin, was in-
fluenced more by the latter than by the former, and inclines rather
to the impressionistic school than to the academic. His statue of
Cecil Rhodes has power and emphasis it impresses rather than
attracts. The statues of Queen Victoria at Aden, of van Riebeck
at Cape Town, and the Wilson Memorial in Rhodesia are among
his chief works. He was selected to " complete " Alfred Stevens's
Wellington Memorial in St Paul's cathedral. Basil Gotto has not
less force, and he is more exuberant in his realization of life an
exuberance which does not always make for refinement. " Brother
Ruffino " has dignity and strength, and the " Bacchus " of 1907 is
realistic enough to repel those who ask for elegance even in an
unrefined subject. The work, however, is ably treated.
Henry Poole belongs to the same vigorous school, and has a true
sense of the monumental, as is evident in his colossal group of " The
Mermaids "; while his " Naiad " (1909) shows an innate refinement.
S. Nicholson Babb, for some years an assistant of Mr Brock, has
produced an ambitious " War Memorial " and many able groups
and figures, among which " The Coming of Spring " (1910) reveals
the modern French influence.
Albert H. Hodge stands by himself. As a sculptor-decorator with
special views on relief-work in which he adheres to the sentiment
and character of the architecture it is to embellish, he adopts a
convention which gives the appearance of high relief to what is
really low, by sharpness of edges and by a learned use of light and
shade. His panels of " Science and Art " (1904) and " Commerce "
(1906) are good illustrations of this original kind of architectonic
work, while his large equestrian group of" Prosperity " applies the
same principles to the round. These three works were modelled
for the town of Hull.
A man of similar force is Joseph Epstein, who replaces refinement
by vigour, archaic simplicity, and primitiveness of outlook, as though
casting his vote in favour of the Garden of Eden as against the
garden of the Tuileries. His work, in which he leans towards the
modern German view, is mainly decoration for buildings; his most
discussed productions are the statues (1907) on the topmost storey
of the British Medical Association offices.
Richard Garbe, a sculptor of equal strength, was a pupil of the
London County Council School of Arts and Crafts and began to
exhibit in 1898. Rugged power both in subject and execution mark
his productions. His ideal works, such as " The Egoist " (1906),
" Man and the Ideal " (1907), " The Idealist " (1908) and " Undine "
(1909), illustrate his range of thought and reveal his uncommon vigour
which amounts, it might be said, to well-controlled, idealistic
brutality; they are broad and impressive, and are conceived in a
monumental spirit.
Charles L. Hartwell has grace and strength combined. The nude
figure representing " The Rising Tide " (1906), reminding us a little
of Leighton's work, and " The Bathers " (1907), are both works of
refinement and elegance, and " Dawn " (1909) displays unusual
charm and, like the others, offers a silhouette of much interest.
While much poetry of expression and grace of composition distinguish
his " Sirens " (1910), vigour is the note of the small group " A Foul
in the Giants' Race," which was acquired by the Chantrey trustees
in 1908.
Benjamin Clemens, pupil of Professor Lant6ri and the Royal
College of Art, is another member of this talented group. His life-
size ideal figures, " Sappho " (1902), " Cain " (1904), Eurydice "
(1906), " Andromeda " (1907) and " Aurora " (1908), all made their
mark when exhibited in the Royal Academy, and showed the sculptor
to be possessed of the qualities of sensitiveness, elegance, and strength.
The group of " Kephalos and Prokris " (1910) is his most important
and most striking work.
Harold Parker came to England from Australia in 1896 at the age
of twenty-three, and after studying under W. S. Frith, made many
Academic successes, and in 1904 exhibited his plaster life-size statue
of " Ariadne," which, translated into marble and re-exhibited in
1908, was bought by the trustees of the Chantrey Collection and is
now in the Tate Gallery. His other more important works include
" The Long, Long Dreams of Youth " (1905), " Narcissus " (1906),
and " Prometheus " (1909). Without revealing any striking origin-
ality, Parker displays very considerable accomplishment and a good
sense of the sculpturesque, and his busts are refined and good.
Oliver Wheatley, formerly assistant to Brock, and pupil of Aman-
Jean, has done much decorative work. His life-size recumbent
statue " Awakening " is among the best of his figures.
T. Tyrrell, who first attracted attention by his decorative figures
on Professor Pite's house in Mortimer Street, London, has shown
much graceful fancy in his " The Ideal, " such as " The Whisper "
(1906).
Reuben Sheppard has shown himself poetic and pleasing in
symbolic suggestion in his striking half-length group " The Music of
Death " (1907) ; and Oliver Sheppard, in his " Eve " of the same
year, produced a graceful work.
The Irish sculptor, John Hughes, achieved a great success by his
monument to Queen Victoria erected in Dublin. It is a fine com-
bination of sculptural and architectural effect and richness of group-
ing, and although it reveals too great a love of ornament it is im-
pressive alike in mass, design, silhouette, and general arrangement.
There should also be mentioned, among the younger sculp-
tors, Mortimer Brown (" St John the Baptist "), David B. Brown
(" The Spirit of Ivy "), Bertram Pegram (" Down to the Sea "), the
Scotsmen, McFarlane Shannan (" The Arcadian Shepherd's
Dream "), Kellock Brown, and J. Crosland McLure (" Leicester War
Memorial"); Herbert Ward (bronzes of South African savages,
" The Idol Maker " and the like), Alfred Turner, Charles Pibworth,
and F. Arnold Wright.
The women sculptors include such accomplished amateurs aa
H.R.H. the duchess of Argyll (" A Crucifix "the Colonial
Memorial in St Paul's cathedral) and Countess Gleichen. The
relief), Esther Moore (" At the Gates of the Past "), Edith Maryon
(" The Poet of Umbria "), and Gwendolen Williams ("The Lorelei,"
1907, and charming groups of children).
The sculptor-decorators make a group of workers of striking fancy
and ability. Lynn Jenkins, whose frieze in bronze, ivory and
mother-of-pearl at Lloyd's Registry is a remarkable achievement, is
one of the leaders. He has latterly devoted himself to pure sculpture,
such as the life-size bronze figure on a sarcophagus, " Destiny " (1909
and 1910) and bust portraits remarkable for exquisite feeling and
delicacy of carving. Walter Crane designed for Manchester a mace
that is remarkable for beauty of conception and felicity of symbol-
ism. Alexander Fisher and Nelson Dawson should be included in
the group. Other sculptors already mentioned, including Thorny-
croft, Gilbert, Frampton, Pomeroy, Colton and Toft, have all de-
voted themselves to sculptural decoration pure and simple, whether
in metal, stone, or marble.
The painter-sculptors claim among them Alfred Stevens, Sir
Edwin Landseer, Lord Leighton, J. M. Swan, W. Reynolds-Stephens,
George Richmond, and G. F. Watts. George Richmond's real talent
may be gauged by his "Monument to Bishop Blomfield " in St Paul's
cathedral. His son, Sir William Richmond, K.C.B., has also
practised in sculpture the memorial tomb of Mr and Mrs Gladstone
is his. Watts educated himself artistically on the Elgin Marbles,
and he produced half a dozen pieces of sculpture which place him
high among the world's finest sculptors of the igth century. The
recumbent effig_y of " Bishop Lonsdale " in Lichfield cathedral was
an epoch-marking work, not only in the technical matter of the bold
treatment of the drapery, but in largeness and breadth and its noble
sense of style, and the " Lord Lothian " in Bickling church is also
very remarkable. The artist then produced the colossal equestrian
group of " Hugh Lupus " for the duke of Westminster (Eaton Hall),
a composition as imaginative and original as it is grand and sculptur-
esque. Then followed " Physical Energy," another equestrian
group, which, after being about twenty years in progress, was cast in
1902; it was executed in duplicate; one copy has been set up in
South Africa, to the memory of Cecil Rhodes, whose character it may
be held to symbolize, and the other has been erected in Kensington
Gardens, London, at the expense of the British government. In 1902
also, the statue of " Lord Tennyson "was completed. But the bust
of " Clytie " is surpassed in bigness and classic purity of style and
feeling by nothing ever produced in England; it is a complete and
noble thing. There is no sculptor who has come nearer to obtaining
the grandeur of form which is so wonderful in the Greek masterpieces.
Simple in line, immense in character, full and rich in modelling,
Watts's work is instinct with vigour, breadth and movement. It
sets the true standard, and is a constant and a noble warning to
sculptors of the younger school not to be led away by the dainty and
fanciful, however alluring. Especially it warns them against what
has become a feature with a certain section the devotion to metal-
working, enamelling, and the like, and the free introduction of these
accessories into serious sculptural work. Irresistible in the hands of
a great artist like Alfred Gilbert, such work, at all times attractive,
is the goldsmith's and ironsmith's business rather than the sculptor's;
and although it has coloured the work of some of the younger
sculptors of the day, it is not likely to obtain any very wide hold, or
SCULPTURE
[MODERN FRENCH
to exercise permanent influence for evil. The variety and independ-
ence of the British School are such that it is impossible to define any
particular tendency in its practice other than towards an ever-
increasing rise in the level of technical excellence and the power ol
design. There is, broadly speaking, a general stand against the
" modernity " imported into sculpture by the younger members ol
the foreign schools, and a disinclination to bend the art to the illustra-
tion of everyday life and to the rendering of effects not hitherto
considered to be the function of the plastic arts. (M. H. S.)
After 1870, when a great artistic movement marked the
resuscitation of France after the Franco-German War, sculpture
especially revived with exceptional vigour, and the last
thirty years of the igth century were a memorable
sculpture, epoch in its history. Not that many new and unexpected
men of genius suddenly arose, for most of the artists
who then came to the front had already distinguished themselves
by equally noble work; but sculpture, like the other arts,
benefited by the pause for thought, and by the ripe and manly
tone stamped on the national mind by the discipline of events.
Intense ardour animated the admirable group of French sculptors:
the oldest still found some lofty expression; the men in their
prime showed their powers with unwonted force and fire;
and the younger generations grew up in rapid succession, a
close phalanx of sculptors whose number is still increasing,
for if we include only living artists, and those who have taken
honours in the Salons, we find a list of seven hundred exhibitors.
The first generation of survivors of the war, who led the way
in the new period, still boasted of such men as Dumont (1801-
1884), Cavelier (1814-1894), Bonnassieux (1810-1892), Jouffroy
(1806-1882), Schoenewerck (1820-1885), Carrier-Belleuze (1824-
1887), Aime Millet (1819-1891) and Clesinger (1814-1883).
These artists, born in the first quarter of the igth century, were
for the most part each the head of a studio, their teaching being
carried on till the end of the century. Next to them followed
their immediate pupils, already their rivals, and some indeed
famous before the new era; such were Guillaume, Dubois and
Fremiet; others, fresh from the Academy at Rome, at once rose
to distinction, and all combined to form the remarkable group
of artists to which the modern school of French sculpture owes
its world- wide fame. At this time Eugene Guillaume (1822-
1905) was exhibiting his " Roman Marriage," his " Bust of Mgr
Darboy," his " Orpheus," and " Andromache," works of learned
skill and severe distinction. Paul Dubois (1829-1905) executed
his " Narcissus," and the " Tomb of General Lamoriciere," on
which the decorative figures of Charity, Faith, and Military
Courage are popular favourites, full of grave and pathetic
feeling. Chapu (1833-1891) executed his exquisite figure of
" Youth " for the tomb of Henri Regnault, and that of
" Thought " for the tomb of Daniel Stern, his monuments to
Berryer and to Mgr Dupanloup. Barrias' (1841-1905) " First
Interment" won him the medal of honour in 1878; besides
his patriotic group of the " Defence of Paris." Falguiere
(1831-1900) produced a remarkable series of statues, character-
ized by their life-like power; some dignified or pathetic, as
" St Vincent de Paul," " La Rochejacquelein," and " Cardinal
Lavigerie "; some full of bold and dashing spirit, as his " Diana,"
his " Nereids," and " Hunting Nymphs." Mercie gave us
" Gloria V'ictis," " Quand Mdme," and his monuments, among
which that called " Memory " must be mentioned; his pediment
for the Tuileries; his " Genius of Art," &c. Delaplanche
(1836-1890) produced his " Mother's Teaching," " Music,"
" The Virgin with a Lily," and " Aurora "; and Allar " The
Death of Alcestis." To these names must be added those of
Degeorge, who, with Chapu, gave so powerful an impetus to the
art of the medallist; of Gautherin, Hiolle, Thomas, Crauck,
Lafrance, Maniglier and Moreau-Vauthier one of the men who,
with Gerome (the painter) and Fremiet, revived the taste for
coloured sculpture, a style first attempted long before by Simart;
besides many more. These artists created a supremely healthy
and vital school of sculpture, dignified and elegant, learned and
varied, fresh and charming, and, above all, as single-hearted
and as well trained as in any period of history.
To understand, however, the position of contemporary
sculpture in France, it will be necessary to look back even
further than 1870. It must be remembered that the whole
history of French sculpture, as far back as the i7th century,
is connected with the invasion of Italian influence in the i6th
century, which remained paramount over French art for more
than three hundred years. Statue-making, until then an art
of expression national, popular, human and Christian lost
its primitive character under the dilettante refinement of an
aristocratic society closely gathered round a king who made
art subservient to his splendour or his pleasure; it sank into
superficial and conventional beauty, and became almost ex-
clusively the interpreter of trivial ingenuity or flattering allegories
derived from the dead fables of heathen mythology. The best
that would be expected from this was choice elegance of line,
a harmonious treatment of mass and composition, a loving
study of the nude in short, a purely plastic type of art. And
sculpture had become the art of the nobility and of the court,
having no hold, as it had in the past, on the great human family
the nation. Still, even at the high tide of Louis XIV.'s reign,
some dissatisfaction became evident, even some rebellion, in
the great though solitary spirit of Puget, who strove to animate
the marble with the passions of humanity. In the next century
he found followers Falconet, Pigalle and Houdon, who also
asserted their right to infuse life and passion and movement
into their statues, seeking them in the despised province of stern
reality. The great cataclysm of the Revolution, which might
have been expected to break the bonds of thought, turned men's
minds to contemplate the Antique, and though it certainly
modified the style of sculpture, was far from changing the source
of its inspiration, since it sent it once more to the Antique.
Indeed, at the beginning of the igth century, when the teaching
of David was paramount in spite of Gros, who, then in the
master's studio, was unconsciously sowing the seed of romanticism
in painting, a robust individuality was developing among
French sculptors a spirit somewhat rugged, independent,
and partly trained, beyond the academic pale, prepared to carry
on the tradition of Puget, and quite simply, without any revolu-
tionary airs of innovation, to shake off torpid conventionality.
By the mere force of a strong plebeian temperament Rude quite
naturally happened on a style of art high art at once expressive
and popular. He was the first to raise the cry of liberty in
sculpture, and he left successors who bravely worked out what
he had begun. Barye and Carpeaux were both in 1875 on the
threshold of an era to which they bequeathed a fruitful influence.
Barye carried on Rude's tradition of expression, and transformed
what had previously been mere decorative carving into a new
style and branch of art now adopted by a whole phalanx of
admirable artists: the sculpture, namely, of animals, the first
glance that sculpture had till then bestowed on nature apart
from man. Carpeaux, who was much younger, was in his day
as Puget had been an exceptional personality; he carried
on the slow revolt of two centuries which was to break the narrow
mould of school-training and infuse a soul of more ardent vitality
into sculptured forms.
The importance of these two great artists in relation to con-
temporary art was not fully seen till after their death. In point
of fact Painting had until now amply filled the new part assigned
to Art; its vehement efforts had strongly influenced public
opinion; and as, in the early years of the igth century, it had
argely extended the field of human vision over the remote
last and the domains of feeling, with the promise of surveying
all nature, space and time, the spirit of the age asked no more,
and did not expect sculpture, too, to abandon old-world myths.
tt must also be said that those sculptors who at that time carried
on the classical tradition had renewed its youth by their learned
and enthusiastic love of it; they had reverted to the past,
but it was the past of the really great masters, either of antiquity
>r of the early Florentine school, no less enamoured of life,
jeauty and nature. Guillaume and Paul Dubois, Chapu and
['alguiere, Mercie, and Delaplanche were the rivals in sculpture
of the great idealist painters Puvis de Chavannes, Gustave
Moreau, Ricard, Delaunay, Baudry, and Henner who were
working at the same time.
SCULPTURE FRENCH (a)
PLATE VII.
A. FALGUIERE St Vincent
de Paul.
E. BARRIAS The First Funeral.
A. IDRAC Mercury inventing the Caduceus.
E. DELAPLANCHE The Virgin
with the Lily.
JUSTE BECQUER St Sebastian.
XXIV. 508.
L. GEROME -Bonaparte at Cairo.
L. MARQUESTE Galatea.
PLATE VIII.
SCULPTURE FRENCH (b)
E. GUILLAUME The Roman Marriage.
R. DE SAINT-MARCEAUX Genius guarding
the Secret of the Tomb.
A. MERCIE Souvenir.
A. RODIN The Kiss.
MODERN FRENCH]
SCULPTURE
509
This it is which accounts for the fact that romanticism then
found so little acceptance among sculptors. But in the next
generation the sowers of the seed might see their harvest The
pupils of Rude, of Barye and of Carpeaux, allied by school
sympathies the little drawing-school conducted by Lecoq
de Boisbaudran, which, in despite of the studios of the Beaux
Arts, created a group of independent and highly original artists
formed the centre of a distinct force which increased day by day.
Young men, fresh from Rome, persistently kept up the spirit
of the Antique. A galaxy of learned and refined artists was
represented by such men as Hiolle (1833-1887) (" Arion,"
"Orpheus"), Idrac (1840-1884) (''Mercury inventing the
Caduceus," " Salammbo "), Marqueste (" Galatea," " Eros,"
" Perseus beheading the Gorgon," '' The Rape of Europa "),
and Coutan (" Eros," " A Woman carrying Loaves," " A
Sergeant-at-Arms," &c.), Lanson (" The Iron Age "), Longepied
(1840-1888) ("Immortality"), Peinte ("Orpheus charming
Cerberus to Sleep "), Gustave Michel (" In a Dream," " Medita-
tion "), Carles (" Innocence," " Abel "), A. Boucher (" Earth,"
" Au but "), besides Carlier, Leonard and Turcan (1846-1895)
soon to be followed by another generation: Puech (" The Siren,"
" The Muse of Andre Chenier "), Verlet (" The Monument to
Maupassant," " Orpheus "), Larche (" The Brook and the
Meadow," " Violets "), Sicard (" Hagar and Ishmael "), and
Daillon, Escoula, St Lami, and many more. In opposition to
these there stood a group of sculptors, young and old, who sought
their subjects in mythology, legend, history or poetry, or
merely in the scenes of daily life, and aimed at presenting the
ideal of their time under its external aspects, but more especially
the deepest emotions of the modern mind. It was Fremiet,
with his striking and vivid conceptions, who led the advance with
new and dramatic subjects: primeval man and the fierce beasts
with which he disputed his rule (" A She-Bear and a Man of the
Stone Age," " An Oran-utan and a Savage," " Gorillas "),
or embodiments of the heroes of the past (" Joan of Arc," " Saint
Louis," "Saint George," "Louis of Orleans," &c.); then
followed Just Becquet (1820-1907), the excellent artist who
represented the stricken figures of " Ishmael " and " Saint
Sebastian "; Christophe (1827-1892), with his symbolical pre-
sentments of " The Human Comedy," " Fortune " and " The
Supreme Kiss"; Aube (" Monument to Gambetta," "Dante,"
" Bailly," &c.); A. Legros the naturalized English painter
and sculptor, who executed some fine fountains for the duke
of Portland; Injalbert, returned from Rome (" Hippomene,"
"Christ on the Cross," "The Herald"); and, younger than
these, Desbois (" Leda "), Dampt (" A Grandmother's Kiss,"
" Melusine "), Alexandre Charpentier, Carries, Baffier, Pierre
Roche, Madame Marie Cazin and many more.
The disruption of the Salons in 1890 showed very plainly
the bent of this group, who seceded to the Champ de Mars,
where the leaders were Dalou and Rodin, and where Bartholome
made an unexpected and original appearance. Foreigners
added a contingent of the highest merit, such as the American
St Gaudens, and, more especially, the Belgian Constantin
Meunier, affiliated to France by their early training, to say nothing
of descent. Meunier especially, with his statues and statuettes
of labouring figures miners, puddlers, hammerers, glass-blowers,
and the like gave to his art a keynote new to France, which
found a response even in academic circles. A broad democratic
current was swaying public feeling. The questions which turn
on the status of the working man had become the programme of
every party, even of the most conservative. Art being the
mirror of society, the novel, the drama and painting devoted
themselves to the glorification of a new factor in modern life,
namely, Labour. Sculpture now, in rivalry with painting,
through which Millet had immortalized the peasant, and Courbet
the working man, also sought inspiration from such themes;
and at the same time the demands of the democratic movement
called for monuments to the memory and deeds of great or
useful men.
Sculpture, under this modern tendency, assumed an unexpected
aspect; its highest expression is seen in the work of three men
very dissimilar: Dalou, Rodin, and Bartholomg. In Belgium,
as has been said, where modern social questions are strongly
felt, Constantin Meunier had interpreted the democratic impulse
in a very striking manner, under the influence, no doubt, of J. F.
Millet. In France, Jules Dalou (1838-1902), with a broader
view, aimed at creating an art which should represent the
aspirations and dreams of this phase of society while adhering
to the fine old traditions of the art of Louis XIV., stamped with
magnificence and grandeur, but applied with graver, simpler
and severer feeling to the glorification of the people. He revived
the older style of sculpture, giving it greater power and truer
dignity by a close study of life, supported by a scholarly and
serious technique. In his " Triumph of the Republic," and the
monuments to " Alphand," to " Delacroix," to " Floquet,"
to " Victor Hugo," and others, he strove to create a style apart
from life, to which he is alien and indifferent, but based on life,
the outcome of the needs of society, the impersonation of its
characteristics, the expression in eloquent form of its nature,
spirit, and moral idiosyncrasy.
Treacling the same path, though in a different step, is Auguste
Rodin. He disregards every contingent fact; even when he
takes his subject from legend or history, whether " Eve " or
" St John the Baptist," " The Age of Bronze " or " The Burgesses
of Calais," "Victor Hugo" or "Balzac," he avoids all the
conventional details and attributes of his personages to embody
the very essence of humanity as expressed in the quivering
flesh. He, like Carpeaux, has gone back, to Dante and to Michel-
angelo to force the " Gates of Hell " the subject chosen for
the entrance to the Musee des Arts Decoratifs and to read
the deepest mysteries of the human soul. His is the art of
suffering, anguish and terror, of cruel and despairing pleasure
a wild cycle of proud and bitter melancholy. All the efforts
made in the past to infuse life into Art, all that Puget, Falconet,
Pigalle and Houdon tried to effect, and that Rude, Barye and
Carpeaux strove for in their turn all this was part of the
endeavour of these their successors, but with a clearer purpose
and more conscious aim. By good hap or providence they
were greeted on their way by the voice of the most devoted
apostle who was to preach the new doctrine, namely, Louis
Courajod, the founder of the French sculpture gallery in the
Louvre. From his professor's chair in the schools he cursed
the Italian intruders of the i6th century for having debased
French art with " noble attitudes," extravagant gestures and
allegorical antics; and he carried his pupils and his hearers
back to the great national period of French sculpture, which,
in the dark medieval ages, had created the splendid stone images
of the noble French cathedrals.
A marked individuality now appeared in protest against
academic traditions Albert Bartholome. He, after beginning
as a painter, was tempted by sculpture, more particularly, in the
first instance, by a wish to execute a monument to a comrade
he had loved. From this first effort, carried out in his studio,
without any school training, but with a firm determination
to master technical difficulties and fulfil his dream, followed a
broader purpose to execute a great expressive and vitally
human work which should appeal to the heart of the populace.
From this arose the idea of a " Monument to the Dead " in Pere
Lachaise. Bartholome had started without a guide, but he
instinctively turned to the great tradition of Northern Christ-
ianity, winch his mind subsequently associated with that of the
antique race who had ever done most honour to Death, the
people of Egypt.
Thus two currents contended, as it were, for the guidance
of French sculpture, each claiming a descent from the historic
past; one inheriting the classic tradition of the Renaissance,
of Latin and Hellenic origin, to which the French school, since
the time of Jean Goujon, has owed three centuries of glory.
This is the pagan art of the South; its marks are balance,
reasonableness and lucidity; it was the composer of apotheoses,
the preserver of the ideal of beauty. The other, reverting, after
centuries of resignation or of impotent rebellion, to the genuine
French past which produced the noble works of the nth, i2th
SCULPTURE
[MODERN FRENCH
and I3th centuries to the tradition of Flanders and of
Burgundy, which was smothered in the i6th century by Italian
art to the Christian and naturalistic art of the North, which
renounced the canons of antiquity, and expressed itself by
methods essentially human and mutable, living and suffering
appeals to all mankind. The immediate result of this antagonism
was no doubt a period of agitation. The outcome, on the whole,
is confusion. Still, however vexatious the chaos of form and
movement may be, it is Life, a true reflection of the tumult
of modern thought in its complexity and bewilderment; it is
the reawakening of sculpture.
Monumental and decorative statuary found an extended
sphere through the founding or restoration of public buildings
after the events of 1870. Memorial sculpture obtained constant
employment on patriotic or republican monuments erected
in various parts of France, and not yet complete. Illustrious
masters have done themselves honour in such work. Dalou,
Mercie, Barrias, Falguiere, and many others less famous executed
monuments to the glory of the Republic or in memory of the
national defence, and figures of Joan of Arc as a symbol of
patriotism, &c., as well as numberless statues erected in the
market-places of humble towns, or even of villages, in com-
memoration of national or local celebrities: politicians, soldiers,
savants and artists Thiers, Gambetta, Jules Ferry, Carnot,
Pasteur, Claude Bernard, Delacroix, Ingres, Corot, Millet, Victor
Hugo, Lamartine and many more. The garden of the Luxem-
bourg alone has become a sort of Elysian Fields, where almost
every day some fresh statue rises up in memory of contemporary
French poets. The funereal style of monument, in which French
art was at all times conspicuously distinguished, was also revived
in sympathy with that general sentiment which regards reverence
for the dead as a religion, and gave rise, as we have seen, to some
splendid work by Chapu (the monuments to Regnault, to Daniel
Stern, of Mgr Dupanloup); by Paul Dubois (the monument
to General Lamoriciere) ; by Mercie (the tombs of Baudry,
of Cabanel, of King Louis Philippe and his queen Marie Amelie) ;
by Dalou (the monuments to Victor Noir, to Floquet and
Blanqui); and by many more, with Bartholome at their head.
The cemetery of Pere Lachaise is indeed one of the best spots
to visit for a review of contemporary sculpture.
While man has been diligently studied in every class of sculp-
ture, more particularly in portrait sculpture, which finds a more
practical adaptation to daily uses by a bust or small statue,
such as Theodore Riviere was the first to produce, by medallions,
or by medals, closely related to statuary, nature now holds a
place in the sculpture of animals a place created, so to say,
by Barye and carried on by Fremiet, Mene, Cain, and, with
even greater vigour and a closer study of character, by Gardet
(" Panthers," in the Luxembourg, " Lions " and " Dogs," at
Chantilly, Sfc.); Peter, Valton, Le Due, Isidore Bonheur,
Peyrol, Cordier, Surand, Virion, M6rite and others. Finally,
the class of la petite sculpture the statuette and small group
after long hesitation in the hands of the two men who first
cultivated it, Fremiet and the painter Gr6me, made a sudden
start into life, due in no small measure to the success attending
the charming and pathetic statuettes of Theodore Riviere
(" Salammb6 and Malthft," " Ultimum feriens," " Charles VI.
and Odette," " The Vow," " Fra Angelico," " The Shunammite
Woman," &c.). Riviere was wont to use as Ger6me did in his
" Bellona," and subsequently in his small " Tamerlane "-
materials of various colours, and even precious stones and
metals, which he employed with great effect. A whole class of
art was not, indeed, originated, but strongly vivified by this
method of treatment. Claudius Marioton and Dampt, who
always affected small and precious work, Agathon Leonard
(e.g. a table decoration of " Dancers " in Sevres china), Laporte
Blairsy, Ferrary, Levasseur, Belloc, E. Lafont, &c., utilized
every process and every kind of material marble and metal,
wood and ivory, enchanced by the most costly goldsmiths' work
and gems.
It would seem now that sculpture, thus endowed with new
ideas and the most various means of expression, and adapted
to every comprehension and every situation, was fully on a level
with the other graphic arts. What it had chiefly to fear was,
in fact, the wealth of means at its disposal, and its competition
or collaboration with other arts. And this the later generations
seem to have understood the men who were the outcome of
the two conflicting traditions: order and moderation on one
side; character, life, and emotion on the other. Though very
variously inspired by the facts or ideals of contemporary life,
such young artists as Jean Boucher (" Evening," " The Antique
and the Modern "), Roger Bloche (" Childhood," '.' Cold "),
Derre, Boverie, Hippolyte Lefebvre, Desruelles, Gaston Schnegg,
Pierre Roche, Fix-Masseau, Couteilhas, and others seem to show
that French sculpture is about to assume a solid position on a
sound foundation, while not ceasing to keep in touch with
the tastes, aspects and needs in short, the ideal of the day.
Thus, while painting engaged the attention of the public by its
new departures, its daring, and its very extravagance, sculpture,
which by the conditions of its technique is less exposed to transient
influences, has, since the close of the ipth century, developed
normally but with renewed vigour. If the brilliancy of the school
was not so conspicuous and its works gave rise to little discussion
or speculation, it is not the less certain that at the beginning
of the zoth century the younger generation offered the encourag-
ing prospect of a compact group of sculptors who would probably
leave works of permanent merit. Yet sculpture too had gone
through a crisis, and been deeply stirred by the currents which
so violently agitated all modern thought. We have already
spoken of its " state of mind," torn between the noble traditions
of a glorious past which link it to the antique, and the craving
to render in its own medium, with greater freedom and fuller
force of expression, all those unuttered meanings of the universe
and of contemporary thought which the other arts painting,
literature, the drama, and even music have striven to identify
and to record. But the acute stage of tentative and incoherent
effort seemed in 1910 to be past; inspiration had returned to
its normal channel and purely plastic expression.
The powerful individuality which had the most vital influence
on modern sculpture in France, and, it may be added, on many
foreign schools, is that of Rodin. During the ten years which
followed the Great Exhibition in Paris (1900) and the special
display of his works, his reputation spread throughout the
countries of the world and his fame was fully established. The
state liberally contributed to his triumph by commissions and
purchases, and in the Luxembourg Gallery may be seen about
five and twenty of his finest works. His productiveness was
unbroken, but it was chiefly evolved in relation to his first great
conception, "The Gate of Hell"; its leading features were
taken up again, modified, expanded, and added to by their
creator. But besides the numberless embodiments of voluptuous,
impassioned, or pathetic ideas of which there is need to name
only " Les ombres " (the Shades) and " Le penseur " (the
Thinker), now placed in front of the steps of the Pantheon;
several monuments, as for instance to Victor Hugo, to Whistler,
and to Puvis de Chavannes; besides a large number of portrait-
busts. Enthusiastic literary men, and the critics of the day who
upheld Rodin in his struggles, more from an instinct of pugnacity
and a love of paradox than from conviction and real compre-
hension of his prodigious and fertile genius, have tended to give
him a poetic and prophetic aspect, and make him appear as a
sort of Dante in sculpture. Though his art is vehement in ex-
pression, and he has revelled in the presentment of agonized
suffering and the poignant melancholy of passion, it is by the
methods of Michelangelo and essentially plastic treatment
than power of modelling. His modelling is indeed the most
wonderful that modern sculpture has to show, the most purely
plastic technique, and this characteristic is always evident
in his work, combined with reverence for the antique. Rodin
made his home in the midst of Greek statues, a museum of the
antique which he collected at Meudon; and some of his own late
work, such as the male torsos which he exhibited at the Salon,
has a direct relationship to the marbles of the Parthenon the
Ilyssus and the Theseus. It is the fuller understanding of these
SCULPTURE FRENCH (V)
PLATE IX.
G. MICHEL Dreaming.
*%v
vv; ;*
J. DALOU The Triumph of the Republic.
H. CHAPU Youth (Monument to Henri Regnault).
P. AUB-Bailly.
XXIV. 510.
ROGER BLOCHE-The Child.
GARDET Fighting Panthers.
BARTHOLOME-Young Girl dressing her Hair.
PLATE X.
SCULPTURE OTHER FOREIGN COUNTRIES
S. SINDING The Captive Mother.
(Danish.)
(Photo, W. Tilzenl/ialer, Berlin.)
RE1NHOLD BEGAS Statue and Memorial of Emperor William I.
(German.)
ETTORE XIMENES Revolution.
(Italian.)
A. QUEROL Memorial to Alphonso XII. (From tlie Model.)
(Spanish.)
M. ANTOKOLSKI Satan.
(Russian.)
JEF LAMBEAUX- The Human Passions.
(Belgian.)
C. MEUNIER Unloading.
(Belgian.)
MODERN BELGIAN]
SCULPTURE
5 11
characteristics of Rodin's work, apart from some exaggeration
of expression to which they have given rise, that has had the most
valuable influence on the younger generation.
Nothing need be particularly noted as to the development o
masters long since recognized, whatever branch of the school they
belong to; such as Fremiet, Mercie, Marqueste, Injalbert, Saint-
Marceaux and others already spoken of. The very distinct indi-
viduality of Bartholome, after asserting itself in his crowning effort
the " Monument of the Dead," found very delicate expression ir
numerous works on a more modest scale, nude figures, monumental
groups, and portraits. His monument to Jean- Jacques Rousseau for
the Pantheon (1909) is a fine example of his art.
We must not omit, after the elder generation, the name of Alfred
Lenoir, who particularly distinguished himself in portrait-statues by
dealing successfully with the difficult problem of modern dress, as in
the monuments of Berlioz, to Cesar Franck, to Marshal Canrobert,
in the bust of M. Moreau, &c. ; nor that of Gustave Michel, a spirit
loftily; inspired in his decorative compositions and figures for
galleries, " Le rgve " (the Dream), " La pensee " (Thought) both in
the Luxembourg Gallery, '^Au soir de la vie " (in the Evening of
Life), and " Automne." H. Greber, after some realistic works, such as
" Le Grisou " (Fire-damp) and portrait-statuettes, as the tiny full-
length figures of " Fremiet " and of " Gevine," distinguished himself
in the Salon of 1909 by a statue of " Narcissus " at the edge of a
fountain-pool, very elegant and Italian in feeling. And among the
younger men of the school we must name Verlet, Gasq Vermare,
Ernest Dubois, and Larche, all employed on important works.
It must indeed be said that in France, apart from the select com-
mittees which have, with more or less success, peopled provincial
towns with monumental statues, the government has always taken
an interest in encouraging the art of sculpture. Any considerable
work of that class could hardly be undertaken without its support.
The former Council of Fine Arts in Paris foresaw the application of
sculpture to the decoration of the park of Saint Cloud; the present
council has encouraged a strong competition among our sculptors by
decorating the squares of the Carrousel and of the Champ de Mars,
by carrying on the decorative work in the Pantheon, &c. They have
thus given commissions to a group of rising artists, who quickly made
a distinguished reputation. The names of these younger sculptors
have already been recorded here; in the ten years 1901-1910 they
came into the front rank of their contemporaries by their conspicuous
talent and the firm expression of their ideals. The first fact to be
noted about them is their determination to be men of their time.
Many artists before them were indeed possessed by this idea: Legros,
Dalou, the Belgian sculptor Constantin Meunier, the American St
Gaudens, and among their immediate precursors Alfred Lenoir.
But now this purposeful bias is more strongly marked; the new men
do_ not restrict themselves to the merely monumental or commemor-
ative aspect, to the picturesque treatment of the miners or the tillers
of the soil. Every type of the people, even of the middle-class citizen,
is included in the programme. Alexandra Charpentier (d. 1909) was
one of the earliest of these younger realists, and he gave it expression
not only in sculpture proper, but in medal work, and bas-reliefs
introduced into architecture, in decorative furniture and in every
form of ornamental sculpture. Thus he produced the " Woman
suckling her Infant " (1883) and a large bas-relief of " Bakers,"
executed in stone and placed in the square of St Germain des Pres,
Paris; and, following in his footsteps, other artists gave expression
to the same ideas. An instructive fact is that one of these men was
a pupil of the Ecole des Beaux Arts and of the academy at Rome.
Hippolyte Lefebvre devoted himself to proving that the common
aspects of modern life are not an insuperable problem for the
sculptor's art ; nay, that they actually afford him new subjects most
suitable to his methods. He persisted in this purpose, and finally
won the adhesion of his fellow-artists and the medal of honour for his
" Jeunes aveugles " (Blind Boys), in the Luxembourg Gallery. We
have also by him in this manner of the day, handled with truly
synthetic breadth, " Summer," a youthful female figure in an ordinary
walking dresscarrying a parasol, her straw hat tilted over her eyes;
" Winter," an old lady wrapped in furs, coming down snow-covered"
steps; " Spring," more accurately the " Age of Love," a group of
six figures, and others. His comrade Roger Bloche has gone even
further, asserting with no little pugnacity the same ideas in figures
derived from the people, and in episodes of daily life, as in the
" Accident," a recumbent figure surrounded by about twenty
bystanders, drawn from every rank of society and rendered with that
firm decision and breadth of treatment which alone constitute a work
of art. This work earned him a first prize in the Salon of 1909.
I hese awards are an unmistakable sign of official recognition of
these tendencies, so long ignored and disapproved. Such encourage-
men t has borne fruit. Francois Sicard and Henri Bouchard, who
both had won the prix de Rome, started boldly on the new road, one
m his monumental sculpture (a " Monument of the War of 1870 " at
ours; Monument to Barbey"; "Monument to Bertagna "; a
ediment for a college for girls at Tours), the other in works recalling
Deling of Constantin Meunier by subjects of labour, in town or
country, small figures in bronze, or large and important decorative
groups, as La Carriere " (the Quarry) and " Le Defrichement "
(Turning the Sod), a group of six oxen led by two men. This was
intended to decorate the Champ de Mars.
Meantime the study of beauty in the nude, far from being neglected,
seemed to start on a new flight. Some students of the Roman school
revived this tradition. Victor Segoffin and Maximilien Landowski,
each in his own nervous, vivid and characteristic manner, and, borne
on an independent current, Louis Convers and Aime Octobre show
a feeling for grace and charm.
This is the normal and traditional heritage of the school; we see
how strikingly it has renewed itself. In opposition to the followers
of Rodin we find another group which represents an antagonistic
school. Mademoiselle Camille Claudel, Jose de Charmoy and Henri
Matisse typify the extremes of this manner; Emile Bourdelle,
Aristide Maillot and Lucien Schnegg might be regarded as some of
the artists who best deserved attention. With various characteristics
and vehement or equable temperament they all reveal in the highest
degree a fine sense of purely plastic qualities; in them we find no
lapse into the pictorial, no purpose or arriere-pensee that is not of the
essence of sculpture. Emile Bourdelle has given us busts of Beet-
hoven, Carpeaux, Heracles (in the Luxembourg Gallery), Pallas
Athena, and the large group of " Wrestlers of Tarn et Garonne " for
completion in bronze. Maillot for his part prefers to work in marble
and stone with large surfaces, after the tradition of the ancients; he
exhibited in the autumn Salons several heads of girls and of old
women, a figure of a youth in bronze (1909) and a stooping nude
female figure in plaster. Lucien Schnegg's (d. 1909) reputation
would have been assured by one bust only from his hand, that,
namely,_ of his pupil " Mademoiselle Jane Poupelet." This in
marble is now in the Luxembourg Gallery, and is a masterpiece for
grace and dignity in the best spirit of the antique.
Besides these there should be named Jean Boucher, who has exe-
cuted a monument to Renan, the " Evening of Life " and " Ancient
and Modern"; E. Derre, an inventive decorator, with social
tendencies and grateful emotional feeling; Max Blondat, lively and
witty, as is seen in a fountain with frogs entitled " Jeunesse " (ex-
hibited in the Royal Academy, 1910) and " Love " (in the Luxem-
bourg Gallery); Abbal, Pierre Roche, who loves to handle very
various materials marble, stone and lead; Moreau-Vauthier,
D. Poisson, Fix-Masseau, Gaudissard, David, Jacquot, Despiau,
known by some fine busts, Drivier, Niclausse and Michel Cazin.
Sculpture on a small scale was effectively carried on by L. Dejean,
Vallgren, Carabin, who carves in wood, Cavaillon and Feomont-
Meurice. The sculpture of animals, since G. Gardet and P. P6ter, has
been brilliantly executed by Paul Jouve, Christophe, Navellier, Bigot,
Perrault-Harry, Marie Gautier, Berthier and others. (L. BE.)
The inevitable reaction in Belgium following upon the long
period of dry and lifeless academic sculpture is difficult to trace
to any particular pioneer or leader. Nevertheless the
three men who certainly mark this period of revolt
are Guillaume Geefs, De Bay and Simonis. There
is, however, very little to be remembered of these men
except that they were the best of their time. Geefs work
was marred greatly by his frivolous and unessential details and
poverty of thought, together with a frigid coldness of expression
"n his modelling. In his statue of General Belliard at Brussels,
lowever, he shows the tendency to search for a broader and truer
nterpretation that warrants his being mentioned as belonging
:o the movement against the academic school. De Bay was a
sculptor of a more artistic temperament, and though some of
lis works are charming and sympathetic when judged by the
standard of his own day, few show evidence of advanced ideas.
The work of Simonis is very different. Beyond the mere en-
deavour to grasp something more true, his work is fresher and
perhaps more honest, more bold and gifted with more life. Such
qualities are shown in his " Young Girl," in the museum at
Brussels, and " Godefroid de Bouillon," in the Place Royale.
Besides these three sculptors there was no man of note to
strengthen the revival of sculptural art until Paul de Vigne
(1843-1901). His early work bears the unmistakable influence
of the Italian Renaissance, but after studying in Paris and in
Rome he became a follower of the true classic ideal, not of the
so-called classicism of Canova and his followers. He was a
prolific artist, and from his numerous works it is difficult
o pronounce one as his masterpiece. Perhaps that most
generally considered his best is the sepulchral marble figure of
' Immortality " in the museum at Brussels. Almost its equal in
jeauty and truthful rendering are his two bronze groups, " The
Triumph of Art," on the facade of the Palais des Beaux Arts at
Brussels, and the monument to Breydel and De Koninck at
Bruges. Among his other works are " Fra Angelico of Fiesole,"
5*2
SCULPTURE
the bust of Professor Moke, at Antwerp, " Heliotrope " in the
museum at Ghent, " Portrait of M. Charles van Hutten," the
Wilson monument in the Musee Communal, Brussels, the statue
of " Marnix de Sainte Aldegonde " in Brussels, the monumen
erected at Courtrai to Mgr de Hearne, the monument of Medde
penningen at Ghent, and the monument of the Gevaert family
in the Communal Cemetery at Evere.
The art of Charles van der Stappen (b. 1843) is decorative in
character, mostly applied to architecture, though he proved himsel
a versatile sculptor, producing many statues, reliefs, groups, monu
mental works, and statuettes. His works include a silver centre-
piece executed for the town of Brussels, the statue of William the
Silent in the Square du Petit Sablon, Brussels, a bust for the monu-
ment of Edouard Agneesens in the cemetery of St Josse-ten-noode
St Michael in the Gothic hall of the H6tel de Ville, Brussels, the
monument to Baron Coppens near Sheel, the Alexandre Gendebien
monument at Brussels, statues for the Alhambra theatre anc
Caryatids for the architect De Curtis' house in the same city, and the
group of tired workmen, called " The Builders of Cities."
The work of Thomas Vinootte is characterized chiefly by its vigour
and vitality. Vincptte is classed by some authorities as belonging to
the classic group, but his work is less graceful than that of de Vigne
and more vigorous and life-like than Van der Stappen's. There is
perhaps more movement in his work than in that of any of his con-
temporaries. The many portraits he executed reveal the ability of
grasping the essentials of portraiture as well as the discrimination
necessary to discard everything that does not render the work alike
and characteristic. Among his works are a statue of Giotto in the
Brussels Museum, " Music," on the facade of the Palais dcs Beaux
Arts, the Godecharles monument in the Park, the bronze group of the
" Horsebreaker " in the Avenue Louise, and the statue " Agneessens "
in the Boulevard du Midi, all of them in Brussels. There is also a
bronze group of horses and Tritons for the park of the Chateau
d'Ardenne.
Few men have exercised such influence upon Belgian sculpture
as Jef Lambeaux (1852-1908), the Flemish artist. He was born at
Antwerp of poor and obscure parents. At an early age he showed
great aptitude for drawing, and after a very meagre education he was
apprenticed to a wood carver. While there he studied at the academy
schools. At sixteen he completed his course and undertook his first
important commission, that for two reliefs for the tympana of the
French theatre. He was successful for a time in producing statu-
ettes, but after a while his success waned and he was obliged to
abandon sculpture and to take any work he could get. After a
period devoted to odd employments sometimes painting, sometimes
modelling he again saved money to enable him to produce some
good works. The first of these, " The Kiss," was finished in 1880.
It had a great success and was bought by the Antwerp Museum.
This discovery of a sculptor of talent led the town of Antwerp to
find the means for sending Lambeaux to Italy. After studying in
Florence he returned to produce " La Folle Chanson," which by
some is considered his masterpiece. The group of " Intoxication
produced later is less satisfactory. The figures show a curious and
unpleasant development which the sculptor's previous work scarcely
hinted at. A work which may be placed with his " Folle Chanson "
is the " Fountain of Brabo " in front of the Hdtel de Ville at Antwerp.
This in fact is declared by many critics to be Lambeaux's chef-
bold and energetic than Lambeaux's is the work of Julien
Dillens (b. 1849). Though it does not possess that sense of life and
the directness which is found in his brother sculptor, his standard of
excellence was steadier. He will be remembered as one of Belgium's
finest decorative sculptors, for his best work has been done in archi-
tectural enrichment. His pediment for the Hospice des Trois
Allies at Uccle is a successful treatment of the difficult dress of
modern times. Dillen's masterpiece is without doubt the group of
" Justice " in the Palais de Justice at Brussels. He is responsible
f r many other important works, the chief of which are the busts
of De Pede and Rubens in the Brussels Museum, a statue of Van
Orley in one of the squares of Brussels, "The Lansquenets," on the
summit of the Royal Palace (before its reconstruction), a statue of
Jean dc Nivelles on the front of the Palais de Justice at Nivelles,
and the marble statues of St Victor and St Louis at Epernay.
There is yet another artist who ranks as one of the greatest
sculptors of Flanders. This is Jules Lagaft (b. 1862). He was a
pupil of Jef Lambeaux. His work does not call for further distinc-
tion from that of Dillens and Lambeaux, than that it is what may be
termed " delicate " and possessed a distinctive charm of spontaneous
freshness. His " Mother and Child," shown at Florence in 1891, is
a good example of the first quality, while " The Kiss," a terra-cotta
bust, shows his spontaneity.
In the Walloon provinces two sculptors have done much for the
renaissance of the art, Achille Chainaye and Jean Marie Caspar.
Achille Chainaye (b. 1862) is not a prolific sculptor, but all his work
[MODERN ITALIAN
is inspired, it would seem, by similar motives and ideas to those
which inspired the early sculptors of Florence. The scarcity of his
works may be accounted for by the fact that his productions were
received with ridicule and derision. Meeting with scant success, he
abandoned sculpture and devoted himself to journalism.
The work of Jean Marie Caspar (b. 1864) shows the inspiration of
a whole gamut of emotions, but hardly the continuity of purpose
necessary to carry to completion half of his conceptions He
studied under Lambeaux, and, while still in his master's studio, he
produced a wonderful group, " The Abduction," two men on furious,
plunging horses wrestling for the possession of a struggling woman
This group was shown at the Pans Exposition of 1889, and brought
immediate fame to the then unknown sculptor. Of his other
finished works may be cited " The Brave," an Indian on horseback-
" Adolescents," a charming group of two nude children embracing'
The Young Girl on a Rock," and the " Panther," destined for the
botanical gardens at Brussels.
From the death in 1904 of Constantin Meunier (b. 18-51) up to the
year 1910 no man had advanced beyond the standard set up by
that great sculptor. At the outset of his career Meunier had, like
all pioneers, to contend with the hostility and derision of the public
and of the press. His work touched a hitherto unawakened note.
His sympathies lay all with the people who, obscure and unsung
work for the enrichment of the nation. Thus we find his energies
and love of work wrapped around the iron foundry, the mine, the
field and the factory. His art is not the art of the pseudo-classic
nor is he influenced by the masters of the Renaissance. His work is
free and straightforward, true almost to brutality, but withal
inspired by a love of doing homage to the workers of the people
He studied in the studio ofFraikin. But it is unlikely that he was
much influenced by him, and he soon forsook sculpture for painting.
He was for some years one of the group of independent painters,
which included De Groux, Dubois, Boulanger, and Baron. When
these artists fell apart, Meunier stood alone, painting where no
painter had before ventured or given a thought, working amongst
the machinery, the pits, and the great factory yards. He continued
for twenty-five years to paint in this manner, ignoring public ridicule
and neglect. Then Meunier suddenly returned to his old love and
produced some small statuettes. One of these a puddler seated
in an attitude of weariness, hard and rough and muscular, clad in
little beyond his leathern apron attracted much attention at the
exhibition of the " Society of the XX." at Brussels. The subject
and the treatment, so different to the recognized precepts of the
schools, created a vast amount of discussion. From that time
Meunier continued on the road he had taken, and produced works
which gained to him new believers and new friends. Among his
:hief productions are " Fire-damp," in the Brussels Museum, " The
Vlower," in the Jardin Botaniqlae at Brussels, " The Glebe," and
| Puddlers at the Furnace," both in the Luxembourg Museum,
The Hammerman," the statues on the facade of Notre Dame de
a Chapelle, and the monument to Father Damien at Louvain.
Jacques de Lalaing is the author of the masterly monument
erected at Evere to the English officers and men who fell at Waterloo,
an elaborate work full of imagination and sculptural force and
originality. His statue to Robert Cayelier de la Salle, at Chicago, is
ilso a noteworthy performance, and important decorative works by
lim are to be seen embellishing public gardens in Brussels. Among
he leading sculptors of to-day is to be teckoned Charles Samuel,
who leans towards the traditions of yesterday.
Canova so dominated the world of sculpture at the beginning
of the igth century that the pseudo-classic style which he
ntroduced remained typical of all the Italian sculpture
of note until Bartolini led the movement which Modertt
ultimately crushed it. In Rome Canova completely sculpture.
overshadowed all other sculptors except perhaps
Phorwaldsen, the Danish sculptor, who resided for some time
n that city. It is true that Pompeo Marches! (1780-1858)
it the outset of his career enjoyed great popularity, but at the
ime of his death he was well-nigh forgotten. The interval
between the death of Canova and the rise of Bartolini and the
new school was filled in by men of mediocre talent, in whose
work the influence of the leader of classicism is strongly marked,
"rancesco Carradori (1747-1824), Camillo Pacetti (1758-1826),
linaldo Rinaldi (b. 1793) and Giuseppe Fabris (b. 1800) were all
ollowers of Canova, the last three being pupils of that master.
Lorenzo Bartolini (1777-1850) became the leader of the
movement towards naturalism. This was nothing more nor
ess than the servile copying of form both in natural forms
nd in dress. Nevertheless Bartolini must be remembered
s the pioneer of a different kind of naturalism which was of far
reater importance than the manner of treating forms and
exture. His true originality lay in his representations of
haracter. In place of the classic subjects invariably treated
MODERN AUSTRIAN]
SCULPTURE
5*3
in his time, he applied himself to the study of actual life. Instead
of the expressionless faces of the pseudo-classic, he gave vitality
and energy.
A sculptor who was much talked of in his day was Pietro
Tenerani (1789-1869), a native of Torano near Carrara. He
worked for some time as assistant to Thorwaldsen. Later these
two sculptors jointly accepted a commission for the monument
of Eugene Beauharnais, and as Thorwaldsen wished to suppress
the younger man's name, they quarrelled and finally separated.
Tenerani visited Munich and Berlin, where he enjoyed the
patronage of Frederick William IV. During the disturbances
of 1848 and 1849 he was obliged to leave Rome with his family,
in consequence of his sympathy with the Papists and his friend-
ship for Count Pellegrino Rossi, who was assassinated in 1848.
Amongst Tenerani's works are a statue of Count Rossi, a monu-
ment to Pius VIII. in the sacristy of St Peter's, " The Angel of
Resurrection " in the Friedenskirche at Potsdam, a low relief
in the church at Castle-Ashby, Northamptonshire, and " The
Descent from the Cross," in the Torlonia chapel in St John
Lateran. The last-named reveals the close study of nature so
characteristic of his work.
The most distinguished Piedmontese sculptor of this period
was Marochetti, who is referred to above in connexion with the
British school.
Although Vincenzio Vela (1820-1891) was Swiss by birth,
he was Italian both by adoption and in his sympathies. In
1838 he won the prize offered by the government to the students
of the Lombard-Venetian provinces of Austria, and became
known by his statue of Spartacus. His chief works are a statue
of Bishop Luini at Lugano; Desolation, at the Villa Gabrina,
Lugano; William Tell, at Lugano; the Alfieri and statues
of Dr Gallo at the university, and of Cesare Balbo, all
at Turin; the statues of Tommaso Grossi and Gabrio Piola
at the Brera, Milan; Dante and Giotto at Padua; Joachim
Murat at the Certosa, Bologna; and Cavour at Genoa. His
masterpiece is the seated figure of Napoleon at Versailles.
After Bartolini, sculpture in Italy slowly developed along the
lines of " naturalism " suggested by that leader. Perhaps the
greatest activity and advance are to be recorded around Naples, a
city till then of subordinate importance in art. Tommaso Sofari
(b. 1820), who may be regarded as one of the group belonging to
Naples, produced work which is hardly distinguishable from that of
Vela. His statue of Carlo Poerio, which occupies an important
position in Naples, is characteristic of his work. He was followed
by several sculptors whose works betray but little originality except
in some cases in the forcing of qualities they wished to accentuate,
and the selection of daring or dramatic subjects qualities which
reveal the true character of the Neapolitan. The work of Raffaele
Belliazzi, another Neapolitan (b. 1835), like that of Solari, is full of
conscientious study, but his naturalism shows no genius. Among his
works are " The Sleeping Boy," in the Gallery of Modern Art, Rome;
" A Woman and Child," and two terra-cotta busts at Capodimonte.
Emilio Franceschi (1839-1890) and Achille D'Orsi (b. 1845) both
belonged to the Neapolitan group of sculptors. Though the former
was not a native of Naples, he resided there from 1869 until his
death. But while Franceschi was influenced to a very large extent
by the Neapolitan school, D'Orsi broke away from it and created a
distinctive style of his own. He studied in Rome, and in 1876
returned to Naples, where he produced " II Cabalista," followed by
" The Parasites," the latter establishing his fame by its singularity
both of subject and treatment. It represents two gluttons in a state
of extreme intoxication. The group is remarkable as showing
D'Orsi's powers of characterization.
A man of perhaps greater original thought was Francesco Jerace,
who seems to have been entirely free from the " academic " small-
ness which characterized the followers of the naturalistic movement.
He was bom at Polistena in Calabria in 1853. His work bears the
impress of his personality and his rather marked aloofness from his
contemporaries. He is the author of the monument to Mary Somer-
ville, the English mathematician, which is in the Protestant cemetery
at Naples; Vittoria Colonna, exhibited at the Brera, Milan, in
1894; and the Beethoven exhibited at Venice, 1895. At Bergamo
there is a statue of the musician Donizetti, which was placed there in
1897.
Vincenzo Gemito was born at Naples in 1852 of parents in a very
humble position. He picked up a living in various occupations
until, at the age of fourteen, he entered the studio of Emanuele
Caggiano (1866). He worked hard and to some purpose, for two
years after he modelled " The Gamester," which is at Capodimonte.
This work shows evidence of astounding precocity. HLs work is
XXIV. 17
realistic, but forcible and more alive than that of many sculptors of
nis day. Gemito was supremely confident of his powers, and in a
manner this was justified by his early recognition both amongst
critics and the public. He designed a statue of Charles V. for the
;agade of the Royal Palace at Naples. A small figure of a water-
carrier upon a fountain is now in the Gallery of Modern Art at Rome;
in the same gallery are his statuette of Meissonier and a terra-cotta
figure of Brutus.
A sculptor of quite a different class of subject is Costantino
Barbella, born at Chieti in 1853, who gave his entire attention to
pastoral subjects, dealing with the costumes, types and occupations
of the folk among whom his early life was spent. In the Royal Villa
at Monza is a replica of his three peasant girls a group in terra-cotta.
In the national gallery at Rome there are a group of " The Departure
of the Conscript," " The Conscript's Return," and another called
" April,"
For some years the activity amongst what may be called the
Sicilian group of sculptors was headed by Benedetto Civiletti (b.
Palermo, 1846). Civiletti was a pupil of Dupr, but his work bears
little impress of his master's influence; it is characterized mostly by
its force and meaning of gesture and facial expression. His statue
of " The Youth Dante " at the moment of the first meeting with
Beatrice, and his seated figure of " The Young Caesar " are both
works which successfully show his power of pose and facial expres-
sion. He is the author also of the famous Canaris group, " Christ
in Gethsemane," " The Dead Christ," a group of the siege of Misso-
longhi, and a group of seventeen life-size figures representing the
last stand of the Italians at the massacre of Dogali.
The family of Ximenes of Palermo is noted on account of the
three of its members who each became well known in the world of
art: Empedocle, the painter. Eduardo, the writer, and Ettore, the
sculptor. Ettore was a pupil of Morelli. His earliest work of note
was a boy balancing himself upon a ball which he called " Equili-
brium." He also produced " La Rixe," " Le marmiton," " Cuore del
Re," " The Death of Ciceruacchio," " Achilles," and many others.
His statue of " Revolution " is one of his best works.
Giulio Monteverde's work is conspicuous for its gaiety and sparkle,
but though he has had some influence upon the recent sculptors of
Italy, his work follows the naturalistic precepts laid down by his
predecessors. A group of his own children, full of vivacious merri-
ment, is in the Palazzo Bianco at Genoa; a " Madonna and Child " is
in 'the Camposanto, and a statue of Victor Emmanuel stands in the
square in the centre of Bologna.
Ettore Ferrari of Rome (b. 1849) is another sculptor whose work
shows remarkable care and love of what is called finish. He has
produced the statues " Porcari," the medieval revolutionist, " Ovid,"
JacopoOrtis," " A Roman Slave," " Giordano Bruno," intheCampo
di Fiori, and " Abraham Lincoln," in the New York Museum.
To the Roman group of sculptors also belongs Ercole Rosa (b.
1846). That he was a man of considerable talent is shown by his
group of the Cairoli at Rome and his monument of Victor Emmanuel
near the cathedral at Milan. Emilio Gallon, who studied at the
Florence academy, is the author of the colossal statue of St Peter on
the facade of the cathedral at Florence. He won the competition
for, and executed, the Garibaldi monument at Rome.
A sculptor who is looked upon as the leader of the Venetian school
is Antonio dal Zotto (b. 1841), a follower of Ferrari, at whose hands
he received much of his training. He won the prix de Rome offered
by the academy, and in Rome he met and became a friend of
Tenerani. Being a man of independent views, however, he was but
little affected by Tenerani's work. He was then twenty-five years
old, and after spending two years in Rome and in other centres of
artistic interest, he returned to Venice, where he produced a statue
of St Anthony of Padua, one of Petrarch and another of Galileo.
In 1880 he completed his statue of Titian for the master's birth-
place, Pieve di Cadore, and in 1883 he finished the figure of Goldoni
in Venice. He is author also of a statue of Victor Emmanuel and
a monument of Tartini the violinist, the former in the memorial
tower on- the battlefield of S. Martino near Brescia, the latter in a
public square at Pirano.
Turin boasts many sculptors who are known throughout the
country. Chief of these is Odoardo Tabacchi (b. 1831). He is the
joint author with Antonio Tantardini of the Cavour monument at
Milan. He has modelled several subjects of a lighter type, such as
" The Bather," exhibited in Milan in 1894. Lorenzo Bistolfi, a
younger man, conquered recognition chiefly by tiis composition of
" Grief Comforted by Memory." Amongst other Turin sculptors
must be mentioned Luigi Belli, author of the Raphael monument at
Urbino, and Davide CaTandra, whose " L'Aratro " is in the national
gallery at Rome.
As everywhere in western and central Europe, national
sculpture in Austria during the first half of the igth century
was altogether influenced by the classicism of the
Italian Canova in Austria perhaps more than in
other countries, since two of Canova's most important sculpture,
works came to Vienna in the early years of the century:
the famous tomb of Marie Christine in the Augustinerkirche,
5
SCULPTURE
[MODERN SPANISH
which was ordered by Duke Albrecht of Saxony, in 1805, at the
price of 20,000 ducats; and the Theseus group, bought by the
emperor Francis, in Rome, which is now in the Vienna Museum.
Canova's pupil, Pompeo Marchesi, was the author of the emperor
Francis monument, unveiled in 1846, in the inner court of the
Hofburg.
The first national sculptor of note was the Tirolese Franz
Zauner (1746-1822), who was knighted in 1807 (the year in
which his Kaiser- Joseph monument was unveiled) and became
director of the Vienna gallery and academy. Among his works
are the tomb of Leopold II. in the Augustinerkirche; the
tomb of General Laudon at Hadersdorf; the tomb of the poet
Heinrich von Collin in the Karlskirche in Vienna; and a number
of busts in the Empire style, which are by no means remarkable as
expressions of artistic individuality. Leopold Kiesling (1770-
1827), another Tirolese, whose first work on a large scale is the
Mars, Venus and Cupid, in the Imperial gallery, was sent by
his patron, Count Cobenzl, to Rome, where he was more attracted
by Canova than by the antique or the late Renaissance. Joseph
Klieber (1773-1850), also Tirolese, enjoyed the protection of
Prince Johann Liechtenstein, who employed him in the plastic
decoration of his town residence and country seats. His reputa-
tion as sculptor of colossal figures for imperial triumphal arches
and lofty tombs was so widespread that he was given the
commission for the catafalque of Louis XVIII. in Paris. Many
middle-class houses of the Empire, period in Vienna were decor-
ated by him with reliefs of children. The elaborate relief figures
on the Andreas Hofer monument in Innsbruck are the work of
his hand. His followers were less favoured by powerful protec-
tion and were forced into a definite direction: among them
must be mentioned Johann Martin Fischer (1740-1820), who
succeeded Zauner as head of the academy. His best-known work
is " The Muscle-man," which still serves as model to students.
Of the greatest importance for the development of Austrian
sculpture in the second half of the ipth century was the influence
of Joseph Daniel Boehm (1794-1865), director of the academy
of coin-engravers, and discriminating collector of art treasures.
He was the father of Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm, R.A. Emanuel
von Max (1810-1900), who in conjunction with his brother
Joseph modelled the Radetzky monument in Prague, wrote
in his autobiography, concerning the year 1833 in Vienna:
" Art, particularly sculpture, was at the lowest ebb. The
appearance of a statuette or bust at an exhibition was considered
an event." But a strong movement began towards the end
of the 'fifties. Professor Franz Bauer, of the Vienna academy
(1797-1872), exercised a most stimulating influence upon the
rising generation. Among the earlier artists, whose life overlaps
into the new era, were Anton Dietrich (1799-1872), who is
best known by " The Three Magi," on the porch of the church
of St John, and by a very beautiful ivory crucifix; and Johann
Preleuthner (b. 1810).
The architectural rejuvenation of Vienna led to the rise of an
original local school of sculpture. J. D. Boehm devoted himself
almost entirely to goldsmith-work and medals, but with the aid of
his great collections he taught the new generation and helped to
develop original talent. Hans Gasser (1817-1868) owed him his
introduction to society, for whom he produced many busts. He
modelled the empress Elisabeth monument at the western railway
station in Vienna, the Wieland monument in Weimar, and the
famous " Donauweibchen " in the Vienna town park. His brother,
Joseph Gasser von Wallhorn (b. 1816), was a sculptor of figures of
saints, many of which decorate St Stephen's Cathedral and the
Votive Church in Vienna. Anton Fernkorn (1813-1878), born at
Erfurt, was Austrian by his art. He started as a metal worker,
and studied in Munich, but not at the academy. His talent was only
fully developed after he settled in Vienna, which city owes to him
the bold equestrian bronze monuments of Archduke Charles (1859)
and Prince Eugene of Savoy (1865). He became director of the
imperial bronze foundry, in which post he was followed by his pupil
Franz Poenninger. Johann Meixner (b. 1819 in Bohemia) is the
creator of the marble figures on the Albrecht Fountain, one of the
most famous and imposing monuments in Vienna. Vienna received
a few of her most important monuments from the strong personality
of the Westphalian Kaspar von Zumbusch (b. 1830), the Beethoven
monument, and that of Maria Theresa, an imposing and skilfully
designed work, which solves in admirable fashion the problem of
placing a monument effectively between the heavy masses of the
two imperial museums. Munich owns his monument of King
Maximilian II. Zumbusch's fame did not quite overshadow that of
Karl Kundmann (b. 1838), to whose vigorous art Vienna owes the
Tegetthoff monument (based on the Duilius column), the Schubert
statue, the seated figure of Grillparzer, and the awkwardly placed
" Minerva " in front of the houses of parliament. Joseph V. Mysl-
beck (b. 1848) worked under Thomas Seidaus (1830-1890), and is
the author of the equestrian figure of St Vaclav, of " The Crucified
Saviour," and of the Sladkowsky tomb in Prague. The most successful
of the younger school was Edmund Hellmer (b. 1850), who executed
the group on the pediment of the houses of parliament; " Francis
Joseph granting the Constitution "; the Turkish monument at St
Stephen s; one of the wall fountains on the facade of the new Hofburg
(Austria's land power) the companion figure (" Sea Power ") is
by Rudolf Weyr (b. 1847); the animated Bacchus frieze of the
Court Theatre; the statue of Francis Joseph in the polytechnic
institute; and the reliefs of the Grillparzer monument.
Like Hellmer and Weyr, Victor Tilgner (1844-1896) was a pupil of
F. Bauer; but he owed his training rather to Joseph von Gasser
and Daniel Boehm. He produced a vast number of portrait busts
of his most prominent contemporaries in Vienna. Among his most
notable monuments are those to Mozart and Makart in Vienna, the
Werndl figure at Steyr, Burgermeister Petersen in Hamburg, and a
war memorial at Koniggratz, in addition to numerous monumental
fountains. Artistically on a higher plane than Tilgner stands
Arthur Strasser (b. 1854), who excelled in polychromatic work on a
small scale. In the 'seventies his Japanese figures excited consider-
able interest and attracted Makart's attention. He excelled in
Egyptian and Indian genre figures, such as a praying Hindu between
two elephants. An Arab leaning against a Sphinx and a classic
female figure with a funeral torch were strikingly decorative. His
green patined bronze of " The Triumph of Antinous " with a team
of lions was awarded a first medal at the Paris Exhibition of 1900.
Vincenz Pilz (b. 1816) was the sculptor of the quadrigas and
caryatids on the Vienna houses of parliament, and of the Kolnitz
and Tiirck monuments. Contemporary with him were Karl Coste-
noble (b. 1837), Alois Dull (b. 1843), Otto Konig (b. 1838), Anton
Schmidgruber (b. 1837), the craftsman Franz Schonthaler, Johann
Silbernagel (b. 1839) the author of the Liebenberg monument in
Vienna, and Anton Wagner (18341900), whose "Goose Girl " is
one of the monumental features of the streets of Vienna. Classic
form was represented by Johannes Benk, who did good work in
groups for pediments. One of his latest productions is the Amerling
monument in the Vienna town park. Theodor Friedel (1842-1899)
excelled in decorative work on a large scale. His are " The Horse
Tamers " in front of the Hof-Stallgebaude.
Edmund Hofmann von Aspernburg (b. 1847) is the sculptor of the
Friedrich Schmidt monument, of the bronze centaurs in front of the
Vienna Academy of Fine Arts, and of the monument of Archduke
Karl Ludwig. The works of Stefan Schwartz (b. 1851) are remark-
able for their vigour. He excelled in a new technique of embossing
portrait plaques in silver direct from life. He counts also among the
best Viennese medallists, almost equalling Heinrich Natter (1844-
1892). Hermann Klotz(b. 1850) became professor of sculpturein wood.
The very talented statuette-maker Ludwig Diirnbauer (1860-1895)
died almost at the beginning of what promised to be a brilliant
career. Other distinguished sculptors of statuettes and works on a
small scale were Hans Rathausky (b. 1858) and Johann Scherpe
(b. 1855), who was entrusted with the execution of the Anzengruber
monument. They all were pupils of Kundmann, as was also the
animal sculptor Lax. Karl Schwerzek is the author of the Lenau
and Anastasias Griin busts in Vienna, and Franz Vogl (b. 1861) of
the poet Raimund's monument. Among Zumbusch s pupils were
Anton Brenck, the creator of the emperor Joseph II. monuments
in Briinn and Reichenberg; Emanuel Pendl, whose colossal marble
statue of " Justice '' is placed in the law courts in Vienna; and Hans
Bitterlich (b. 1860), whose bust of Exner in the Vienna university
is one of the most remarkable pieces of realistic portraiture in that
city. Another work of his is the Gutenberg monument. Othmar
Schimkowitz is remarkable for a strikingly original style.
In the other provinces under the Austrian emperor's rule, the
best-known sculptors are the Carniole Marcell Guigki (1830-1894),
Lewandowski, Buracz. and the Tirolese Gurschner, who follows the
modern French style of statuette sculptors.
In the art of the medallist, Professor Karl Radnitzky the elder
(b. 1818) led the way after J. D. Boehm; but he was surpassed by
his pupil Joseph Tautenhayn (b. 1837), whose large shield " Struggle
between the Centaurs and Lapithae " was the cause of his appoint-
ment as professor. More important still is Anton Scharff (b. 1845),
a real master of the delicate art of the medallist.
At the beginning of the igth century the art of sculpture
was practically dead in Spain or at least was mainly confined
to the mechanical production of images of saints. Spanish
But towards the middle of the century the two brothers 19th-
Agapito and Venancio Vallmitjana, of Barcelona, century
encouraged by the enthusiasm with which some of Slul ' >t0 '
their works had been received by local connoisseurs, took part
RUSSIAN]
SCULPTURE
in the Paris Figaro competition for the figure which decorates
the entrance to the offices of that journal, and carried off the
second prize. They afterwards obtained the first prize in other
competitions at Madrid and other Spanish centres. Their
chief works are: " Beauty dominating Strength," " St Vincent
de Paul," the large statue erected at Valencia to Don Jaime
Conquistador, and groups of Queen Isabella with the Prince
of the Asturias, and Queen Marie Christine with Alfonso
XIII.
Another sculptor of distinction is Andres Aleu, professor
of the Barcelona School of Fine Arts, whose principal works
are the " St George and the Dragon " on the facade of the
Barcelona Chamber of Deputies, and Marshal Concha, the
equestrian statue in Madrid. Kosendo Novas, of Catalan birth,
like most modern Spanish sculptors of eminence, is best known
by his masterpiece, " The dead Torero." Manuel Oms, another
Barcelona sculptor who leans to the naturalistic school, is the
author of the monument to Isabella the Catholic, erected at the
end of the Paseo de la Castellana in Madrid in 1883. Antonio
Fabres, who at the beginning of his career was an eminent
sculptor, devoted himself subsequently to painting. Agustin
Querol, and Mariano Benlliure, of Valencia, were for many years
the official favourites of the Spanish government, who entrusted
them with numerous important commissions, though their
work was neither lofty in conception nor particularly remarkable
as regards execution, and occasionally, as in Querol's monument
of Alfonso XII. especially in the completed sketch of it
baroque in the extreme. Indeed, the genius of the Spanish
race at all times, and particularly in the ipth century, found
its expression in painting rather than in sculpture. Querol's
group called " Tradition " is well imagined and expressive, and
a good example of the best work achieved by a school in which
freedom is the chief note.
Towards the end of the igth and in the early years of the aoth
centuries, Joseph Llimona y Brugena (" The Communion ") and
Blay, both of Catalan birth, were the most distinguished sculptors
of Spain. The fame of Blay, who was a pupil of Chapu in Paris, has
extended beyond the frontiers of his native country. His style has at
the same time strength and delicacy. His chief works are the
Miners' monument at Bilbao, and a group of an old man seated on
a bench protecting a little girl from the cold. He also produced a
great number of delicately wrought marble busts before his career
was prematurely cut short. Joseph Llimona is the most personal
and distinguished of all modern Spanish sculptors. His art ranges
from the greatest delicacy to real power. At the International
Exhibition at Barcelona in 1907 he was awarded the grand prize of
honour for a group intended for the monument to Dr Robert in that
city; and for a small marble figure of Pain, a work in which he
has been thought to rival the Florentines of the best period. Jos6
Alcoyerro, Pages y Serratora, Jos6 Gragera, Fuxa y Leal, Miguel
Embil, and the brothers Osle are prominent members of the younger
school and aim at giving " the personal note." The vigour displayed
by them illustrates the revivification and rejuvenation of Spanish
sculpture.
Russian sculpture has practically no past to record. In its
beginnings Russian art was entirely ruled by the Church, whose
laws were inspired by Byzantinism, and who forced all
sculpture. art i sts to submit to strictly fixed rules as regards
form and formula. Before the i8th century, Russian
sculpture was practically non-existent, except in the form of
peasant wood-carving. The early stone idols (Kamenyia baby)
and primitive bas-reliefs belong to the sphere of archaeology
rather than of art. Real sculpture only appears at the end of
the i8th century, when Peter the Great, to use his own ex-
pression, " opened a window upon Europe " and ordered, together
with a radical change in Russian society, the introduction of
western art in Russia.
From all European countries artists streamed into Russia
and helped to educate native talent, and at the same time the
tsar sent young artists abroad to study in foreign art centres.
Among the foreign artists of this period were Conrad Hausner,
Egelgrener and Schpekle; among the Russians Koulomjin,
Issaeiv and Woynow. About 1776 Falconet and his wife
arrived in Russia; then Gillet, whose pupil Schubin ranks
among Russia's most gifted artists. Among his best-known
works is the monument of Catherine II. His fame was rivalled
by that of Schedrine. Kozlovski is known by his Souvorine
monument. Other early sculptors of distinction were Demouth-
Malinowski, the sculptor of the Soussaniev monument; Pimenow,
Martos, and the medallist Count Theodore Tolstoi, who is also
known as an able illustrator. Orlovsky, Vitali and the whole
preceding group represent the pseudo-classic character acquired
at foreign academies. Among animal sculptors Baron Klodt
is known by his horses which decorate the Anitschkine bridge
at St Petersburg.
About the beginning of the ipth century the sculptor Kamenski
inaugurated a more realistic tendency by his work which was
inspired by contemporary life. He entered the academy after
having exhibited a series of sculptures among which the most
interesting were " The First Step " and " Children in the Rain."
His contemporary Tschigoloff began his career in brilliant
fashion, but devoted himself subsequently to the execution of
commissions which did not give full scope to his gifts.
The greatest talent of all was unquestionably Marc Antokolsky
(1845-1902), a Jewish sculptor permitted to work outside the
Pale, of whom the Paris correspondent of The Times wrote,
about 1888, that French sculptors would benefit by study-
ing under Antokolsky, and by learning from him the power
of the inspiration drawn from the study of nature. The artist
himself held his statue of Spinoza to be his finest achievement.
" I have put into this statue," he wrote, " all that is best in
me. In the hard moments of life I can find peace only before this
work." Equally beautiful is " The Christian Martyr," in the
creation of which Antokolsky definitely broke all the fetters
of tradition and strove no longer to express linear beauty, but
intense truth. The martyr is an ugly, deformed woman, tortured
and suffering, but of such beautiful sentiment that under the
influence of religious extasis her very soul seems to rise to the
surface. Among his other works few are better known than
" Mephistopheles " (which he wanted to call " The igth Century ")
and the powerful " Ivan the Terrible," which the Russian
critic Starsoff called "The Torturer Tortured." The whole
strange psychology of this ruler, whose compeer in history can
only be found perhaps in the person of Louis XL, is strikingly
expressed by Antokolsky. Very beautiful is the statue of Peter
the Great, which breathes strength, intelligence, genius and
devouring activity. To the works already mentioned must
be added the statues of Ermak and of Nestor. Antokolsky
has left to the world a gallery of the most striking figures in
Russian history, giving to each one among them his proper
psychology. His technique is always marked by perfect sureness
and frequently by dazzling bravura.
Antokolsky was twenty-one years of age when he left St Petersburg.
The academy at that time was in a state of complete decadence,
under the rule of worthy old professors who remained strangers to
their pupils, just as their pupils remained strangers to them. When
Professors PiminofF and Raimers died, soon after, the academy
seemed quite deserted; but just at that time a number of very
gifted students began to work with energy, learning all they could
from one another, fired by the same purpose and spirit. Antokolsky
was in close touch with his friend, the painter Repin, with whom he
worked much, and so failed to come under the influence of the
idealist M.^V. Praklow, who soon began to deliver certain lectures on
art which excited keen interest among the young workers. Anto-
kolsky tried the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts, but finding it ruled
by the same routine, he returned before long to St Petersburg, where
within a short time he executed the statue of " Ivan the Terrible " to
which he owed his fame. This epoch became the starting-point of
Russian sculpture, so that Antokolsky deserves an eminent position
in the history of Russian art.
Among his pupils was his faithful follower and friend Ilia Gins-
bourg (b. 1859), who devoted himself to genre scenes and portraits in
the spirit of his master, but with a degree of sincerity and enthu-
siasm which save him from the reproach of plagiarism. LanceVe 1
(1848-1887) is known by his military statuettes. Lib6rich (1828-
1883) has left few remarkable works. Leopold Bernstamm always
practised in Paris; among his works are a great number of portraits
and a few monuments that are not without merit. Among con-
temporary sculptors, whose number is still restricted in Russia, and
whose artistic merit remains stationary, without marked progress
and with little evidence of evolution, are Beklemicheff, Bach,
Brodsky, Mikechine, Tourgeneff, Auber and Bernstein. Prince
Troubetzkoi, who is counted among the scujptors of Russia, though
he was educated and worked in Italy, acquired some reputation by
5 i6
SCULPTURE
[AMERICAN
his skill in the rapid execution of cleverly-wrought impressionist
statuettes of figures and horses as well as busts. Their value lies in
the vivid representation they giye of Russian life and types. Among
the most original modern Russian sculptors is Naoum Aronson (b.
1872), whose best-known work is his Beethoven monument at Bonn.
At Godesberg is his Narcissus fountain, whilst other works of his
are at the Berlin, St Petersburg and Dublin Museums.
(M. H. S. ; P. G. K.)
The early names in American sculpture Shem Drowne, the
maker of weather-vanes; Patience Wright (1725-1785); William
Rush ( 1 765-1833) , carver of portraitsand of figure-heads
for ships; John Frazer (1790-1850), the stonecutter;
and Hezekiah Augur (1791-1858) have the interest
of chronicle at least. Hiram Powers (1805-1873) had a certain
technical skill, and his statues of the " Greek Slave " (carved
in 1843 in Rome and now at Raby castle, Darlington, the seat
of Lord Barnard, with a replica at the Corcoran Gallery, Washing-
ton, and others elsewhere) and " Eve before the Fall " were
important agents in overcoming the Puritanic abhorrence of the
nude. Horatio Greenough (1805-1852) Joel T. Hart (1810-1877),
S. V. Clevenger (1812-1843) and Clark Mills (1815-1883) all
received many commissions but made no additions to the
advancement of a true art-spirit. Thomas Crawford (1814-1857)
began the bas-reliefs for the bronze doors of the Capitol, and
they were finished by William H. Rinehart (1825-1874),
whose " Latona " has considerable grace. Henry Kirke Brown
(1814-1886) achieved, among less noteworthy works, the heroic
" Washington " in Union Square, New York City. It is one of the
noblest of equestrian statues in America, both in breadth and
certainty of handling and in actual majesty, and reflects unwonted
credit on its period. Erastus D. Palmer (1817-1904) was the
first to introduce the lyrical note into American sculpture; his
statue, " The White Captive," and still more his relief, " Peace
in Bondage," may be named in proof. There is undeniable
skill, which yet lacks the highest qualities, in the work of Thomas
Ball (b. 1819). William Wetmore Story (1810-1896), whose
" Cleopatra," though cold, shows power; Randolph Rogers (1825-
1892), best known for his blind " Nydia," and for his bronze
doors of the Capitol at Washington; John Rogers (1829-1904),
who struck out a new line in actuality, mainly of an anecdotal
military kind; Harriet Hosmer (1830-1908), a classicist, whose
recumbent " Beatrice Cenci " is perhaps her most graceful
work; J. S. Hartley (b. 1845); Launt Thompson (1833-1894)
are among the leaders of their day. The works of Olin L. Warner
(1844-1896) and J. Q. A. Ward (1830-1910) reveal at times
far greater originality than any of these. Warner's two graceful
classical figures for a fountain in Portland, Oregon, and his
admirable portrait statue of William Lloyd Garrison, reveal a
nice discernment of the fitness of manner to matter. He was
also successful in modelling medallions. Ward has a sturdiness,
dignity, and individuality quite his own, and may be considered
at the head of his own generation. In addition to these should
be mentioned Larkin G. Mead (b. 1835), George Bissell (b.
1839), Franklin Simmons (b. 1839), Martin Milmore (1844-1883),
Howard Roberts (1843-1900), Moses Ezekiel (b. 1844), all of
whom are prominent in the history and development of
sculpture in America. By their time the sculptors of America
had wakened completely, artistically speaking, to a sense of their
own nationality.
It was however later that came that inspired modernity,
that sympathy with the present, which are in some senses vital
to genuinely emotional art. American sculpture, like American
painting, was awakened by French example. The leading spirit
in the new movement was Augustus St Gaudens (?..), a great
sculptor whose work is sufficiently dealt with in the separate
article devoted to him. Two other Americans stand out, with
St Gaudens, among their contemporaries, Daniel Chester
French (q.v.) and Frederick Macmonnies (?..). French's
" Gallaudet teaching a Deaf Mute " is an example of how a
difficult subject can be turned into a triumph of grace. His
" Death and the Young Sculptor " is a singularly beautiful
rendering of the idea of the intervention of death. In collabora-
tion with E. C. Potter he modelled various important groups,
particularly " Indian Corn " and the equestrian " Washington,"
in Paris. The " Bacchante " of Macmonnies, instinct with
Renaissance feeling, is a triumph of modelling and of joyous
humour; while his statue of " Nathan Hale " in City Hall
Park, New York, his " Horse Tamers," and his triumphal arch
decorations for the Soldiers' and Sailors' Memorial at Brooklyn,
show the artist's power in the treatment of a serious theme.
The strenuous achievements of George Grey Barnard have both
high skill and deep sincerity. His " Two Natures," his " Brotherly
Love," his " Pan " and the design for a monumental Norwegian
stove are among the strongest efforts of modern American statuary.
Ranking with him, though different in thought and method, stands
Paul Wayland Bartlett. Success, too, artistically has been accorded
to the fine works of John J. Boyle, William Couper, twenty years of
whose life were passed in Florence, William O. Partridge, Hermon
MacNeil and Lorado Taft. The beautiful busts of Herbert Adams;
the thoroughly artistic miniature figures of Mrs Clio Hinton Bracken ;
the graceful figurines of Mrs Potter Vonnoh; Edwin F. Elwell's
" Egypt " and " Orchid "; and the work of F. Wellington Ruck-
stuhl should also be mentioned; also J. Massey Rhind, a Scotsman
by birth and artibtic education, John Donoghue, Charles H. Niehaus,
Roland H. Perry (" Fountain of Neptune "), Andrew O'Connor,
Jerome Conner, John H. Roudebush, and Louis Potter. Equally
noteworthy are Bela L. Pratt (" General Benjamin F. Butler
memorial), Cyrus E. Dallin (with Wild West subjects), Richard E.
Brooks, Charles Grafly (" Fountain of Life "), Alexander S. Calder,
Edmund A. Stewardson (" The Bather ") and Douglas Tilden
(" Mechanics' Fountain," San Francisco). The leading " animaliers "
include Edward Kemeys (representing the Southern states), Edward
C. Potter, Phimister Proctor, Solon H. Borglum, Frederick G. Roth,
and Frederick Remington. Among the women sculptors are Mrs
Kitson, Mrs Hermon A. MacNeil, Miss Helen Mears, Miss Evelyn
Longman, Miss Elise Ward, Miss Yandell and Miss Katherine
Cohen. (M. H. S.)
LITERATURE. On the general history of sculpture, see Agincourt,
Histoire de I'art (Paris, 1823) ; du Sommerard, Les Arts au moyen dge
(Paris, 1839-1846); Cicognara, Storia delta scultura (Prato, 1823-
1844); Westmacott, Handbook of Sculpture (Edinburgh, 1864);
Lubke, History of Sculpture (Eng. trans., London, 1872) ; Ruskm,
Aratra Pentelici (six lectures on sculpture) (London, 1872); Viardot,
Les Meraeilles de la sculpture (Paris, 1869); Arsenne and Denis,
Manuel . . . du sculpteur (Paris, 1858); Clarac, Musee de sculpture
(Paris, 1826-1853); Demmin, Encyclopedic des beaux-arts plasliques
(Paris, 1872-1875), vol. iii.
On Italian and Spanish sculpture, see Vasari, Trattato della scultura
(Florence, 1568, vol. i.), and his Vite dei pittori, &c., ed. Milanesi
(Florence, 1880); Rumohr, Italienische Forschungen (Leipzig, 1827-
1831) ; Dohme, Kunst und Kiinstler Italiens (Leipzig, 1879) ; Perkins,
Tuscan Sculptors (London, 1865), Italian Sculptors (1868) and
Hand-book of Italian Sculpture (1883); Robinson, Italian Sculpture
(London, 1862); Gruner, Marmor-BUdwerke der Pisaner (Leipzig,
1858); Ferreri, L' Area di S. Agostino (Payia, 1832); Symonds,
Renaissance in Italy (London, 1877), vol. iii. ^ Crowe and Caval-
caselle, Hist, of Painting in Italy (London, 1903) (new ed.), vol. i. ;
Selvatico, Arch, e scultura in Venezia (Venice, 1847); Ricci, Storia
dell' arch, in Italia (Modena, 1857-1860) ; Street (Arundel Society),
Sepulchral Monuments of Italy (1878); Gozzini, Monumenti sepol-
crali della Toscana (Florence, 1819); de Montault, La Sculpture
religieu.se a Ronu (Rome, 1870), a French edition (with improved
text) of Tosi and Becchio, Monumenti sacri di Roma (Rome, 1842);
Cavallucci and Molinier, Les Della Robbia (Paris, 1884); Cicognara,
Monumenti di Venezia (Venice, 1838-1840); Surges and Didron,
Iconographie des chapitaux du palais ducal a Vemse (Paris, 1857)
(see also Ruskin's Stones of Venice) ; Richter, " Sculpture of S. Mark's
at Venice," Macmillan's Mag. (June 1880); Temanza, Vite degli
scultori veneziani (Venice, 1778); Diedo and Zanotto, Monumenti
di Venezia (Milan, 1839); Schulz, Denkmdler der Kunst in Vnter-
Italien (Dresden, 1860); Brinckmann, Die Sculptur von B. Cellini
(Leipzig, 1867); Eug. Plon, Cellini, sa vie, &c. (Paris, 1882); John
Addington Symonds, The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini
(London, 1887); Moses and Cicognara, Works of Canova (London,
1824-1828); Piroli, Fontana and others, a series of engraved Plates
of Canova's Works, s.l. et a.; Giulliot, Les Artistes en Espagne (Paris,
1870); Carderera y Solano, Iconografia espanola, siglo XI -XV II
(Madrid, 1855-1864); Monumentos arquitectonicos de Espaila,
published by the Spanish government (1859), passim; Lord Bal-
carres, The Evolution of Italian Sculpture (London, 1910) ; L. I.
Freeman, Italian Sculpture of the Renaissance (London, 1901); A. R.
Willard, Hist, of Modern Italian Art (London, 1898). The recent
literature on the subject is too copious to be catalogued here; every
phase of the art has been critically dealt with and nearly every
sculptor of importance has been made the subject of a biography;
e.g. John Addington Symonds, The Life of Michelangelo Buonarroti,
2nd ed. (London, 1898); Sir Charles Holroyd, Michael Angela
Buonarroti (London, 1903); Lord Balcarres, Donatella (London,
1903); and G. H. Hill, Pisanello (London, 1905)- For repertoires of
sculptural works, see collections such as Reale Calleria di Firenze:
SCURVY SCUTAGE
Statue (3 vols., 1817), and F. von Reber and A. Bayersdorfer,
Classical Sculpture Gallery (4 vols., London, 1897-1900).
On French sculpture see Adams, Recueil de sculptures gotkiques
la scutpture'du V" au XVI' siecle (Paris, 1851-1859); Mdnard,
Sculpture antique et mpderne (Paris, 1867); Didron, Annales archeo-
logiques, various articles; Felibien, Histoire de I' art en France
(Paris, 1856); Lady Dilke (Mrs Pattison), Renaissance of Art in
France (London, 1879); Montfaucon, Monumens de la monarchie
franfaise (Paris, 1729-1733); Jouy, Sculptures modernes du Louvre
(Paris, 1855); Reveil, (Euvre de Jean Goujon (Paris, 1868); Lister,
Jean Goujon (London, 1903); Viollet-le-Duc, Dictionnaire de V archi-
tecture (Paris, 1869), art. " Sculpture," vol. viii. pp. 97-279; Claretie,
Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains (Paris); Gonse, La Sculpttire
franc,aise depuis le XIV' siecle (Paris, 1895); W. C. Brownell,
French Art: Classic and Contemporary Painting and Sculpture
(London, 1901); Male, L'Art religieux du XIII' siecle en France
(Paris, 1902); Vitry and Briere, Documents de sculpture franfaise du
moyen age (Paris, 1904) ; Lady Dilke, French Architects and Sculptors
of the XVIIIth Century (London, 1900); Lanislas Lami, Dictionnaire
des sculpteurs de I'ecole front; aise du moyen age au regne de Louis XIV
(Paris, 1898), a useful book to consult for the sake of the biblio-
graphical references to nearly every artist entered ; L. B6n<jdite, Les
Sculpteurs franfais contemporains (Paris, 1901); E. Guillaume, " La
Sculpture francaise au XIX 6 siecle," Gaz. des beaux-arts (1900).
On German sculpture, see Foerster, Denkmale deutscher Baukunst
(Leipzig, 1 855). For an adequate but brief and concentrated account
of recent work see A. Heilmeyer, Die moderne Plastik in Deutschland
(Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1903).
On Austrian sculpture, see Camillo List, Bildhauer-Arbeiten in
Oesterreich-Ungarn (Vienna, 1901).
On Belgian sculpture, see Olivier Georges Destrce, The Renaissance
of Sculpture 'in Belgium (London, 1895).
On Spanish sculpture, see Paul Laforid, La Sculpture espagnole
(Paris, 1908).
On English sculpture, see Carter, Specimens of Ancient Sculpture
(London, 1780); Aldis, Sculpture of Worcester Cathedral (London,
1874); Cockerell, Iconography of Wells Cathedral (Oxford, 1851);
Stothard, Monumental Effigies of Britain (London, 1817); Westma-
cott, " Sculpture in Westminster Abbey," in Old London (pub. by
Archaeological Institute, 1866), p. 159 seq.; G. G. Scott, Gleanings
from Westminster (London, 1862); W. Bell Scott, British School of
Sculpture (London, 1872); W. M. Rossetti, " British Sculpture," in
Fraser's Mag. (April 1861). The subject of recent British sculpture
has been curiously neglected, except in newspaper notices and
occasional articles in the periodical press, such as Edmund Gosse's
" Living English Sculptors " in the Century Magazine for July 1883.
The only volume published is M. H. Spielmann's British Sculpture
and Sculptors of To-day (London, 1901).
For American sculpture, see Henry T. Tuckerman, Book of the
Artists: American Artist Life (New York, 1870, and later editions);
Lorado Taft, American Sculpture (New York and London, 1903);
William J. Clark, Jnr., Great American Sculptures (Philadelphia,
1877) ; Charles H. Caffin, American Masters of Sculpture (New York,
1903); Sadikichi Hartmann, Modern American Sculpture (New
York).
SCURVY (Scorbutus), a constitutional disease, characterized
by debility, morbid conditions of the blood, spongy gums,
impairment of the nutritive functions, and the occurrence of
haemorrhagic extravasations in the tissues of the body. In
former times this disease was extremely common among sailors,
and gave rise to a frightful amount of mortality. It is now,
however, of rare occurrence at sea, the simple means of prevention
being well understood. Scurvy has also frequently broken out
among soldiers on campaign, in beleaguered cities, as well as
among communities in times of scarcity, and in prisons, work-
houses and other public institutions. In all such instances it
has been found to depend closely upon the character of the
food. The precise etiology is obscure, and the modern tendency
is to suspect an unknown micro-organism; on the other hand,
even among the more chemical school of pathologists, it is
disputed whether the cause (or conditio sine qua non) is the
absence of certain constituents in the food, or the presence of
some actual poison. Sir Almroth Wright in 1895 published
his conclusions that scurvy was due to an acid intoxication,
while Torup of Christiania believes ; t to be a direct poisoning
from damaged and badly preserved meat. Dr Jackson and
Dr Harley support this latter view, contending that scurvy
occurs when meat is eaten in this condition, even when lime
juice and vegetables are given in conjunction with it. The
palmy days of the disease were those when sailors and soldiers
had to fare on salt meat and " hard tack," or were deprived of
fresh vegetables; and the fact that scurvy has been practically
abolished by the supply of these latter has led to the association
of this factor with the disease as a vera causa. But how the
defect in vegetable diet produces scurvy is not quite clear;
nor how far other conditions may be involved.
The symptoms of scurvy come on gradually, and its onset is not
marked by any special indications beyond a certain failure of
strength, most manifest on making effort. Breathlessness and ex-
haustion are thus easily induced, and there exists a corresponding
mental depression. The countenance acquires a sallow or dusky
hue; the eyes are sunken; while pains in the muscles of the body
and limbs are constantly present. The appetite and digestion may
be unimpaired in the earlier stages and the tongue comparatively
clean, but the gums are tender and the breath offensive almost from
the first. These preliminary symptoms may continue for weeks,
and in isolated cases may readily escape notice, but can scarcely
fail to attract attention where they affect large numbers of men.
In the further stages of the disease all these phenomena are aggra-
vated in a high degree and the physical and mental prostration
soon becomes extreme. The face looks haggard; the gums are livid,
spongy, ulcerating and bleeding; the teeth are loosened and drop
out; and the breath is excessively foetid. Extravasations of blood,
now take place in the skin and other textures. These may be small
like the petechial spots of purpura (q.v.), but are often of large
amount and cause swellings of the muscles in which they occur,
having the appearance of extensive bruises and tending to become
hard and brawny. These extravasations are most common in the
muscles of the lower extremities; but they may be formed any-
where, and may easily be produced by very slight pressure upon
the skin or by injuries to it. In addition, there are bleedings from
mucous membranes, such as those of the nose, eyes and alimentary
or respiratory tracts, while effusions of blood-stained fluid take place
into the pleural, pericardia! or peritoneal cavities. Painful, exten-
sive and destructive ulcers are also apt to break out in the limbs.
Peculiar disorders of vision have been noticed, particularly night-
blindness (nyctalopia), but they are not invariably present, nor
specially characteristic of the disease. The further progress of the
malady is marked by profound exhaustion, with a tendency to syn-
cope, and with various complications, such as diarrhoeaand pulmonary
or kidney troubles, any or all of which may bring about a fatal result.
On the other hand, even in desperate cases, recovery may be hope-
fully anticipated when the appropriate remedy can be obtained.
The composition of the blood is materially altered in scurvy, par-
ticularly as regards its albumen and its red corpuscles, which are
diminished, while the fibrine is increased.
No disease is more amenable to treatment both as regards pre-
vention and cure than scurvy, the single remedy of fresh vegetables
or some equivalent securing both these ends. Potatoes, cabbages,
onions, carrots, turnips, &c., and most fresh fruits, will be found
of the greatest service for this purpose. Lime juice and lemon juice
are recognized as equally efficacious, and even vinegar in the absence
of these will be of some assistance. The regulated administration of
lime juice in the British navy, which has been practised since 1795,
has had the effect of virtually extinguishing scurvy in the service,
while similar regulations introduced by the British Board of Trade
in 1865 have had a like beneficial result as regards the mercantile
marine. It is only when these regulations have not been fully carried
out, or when the supply of lime juice has become exhausted, that
scurvy among sailors has been noticed in recent times. Wright has
proposed giving what he terms anti-scorbutic elements (Rochelle
salt, calcium chloride or lactate of sodium) instead of raw materials
such as lime juice and vegetables, as being more convenient to carry
on voyages. Besides the administration of lime or lemon juice and
the use of fresh meat, milk, cider, &c., which are valuable adjuvants,
the local and constitutional conditions require the attention of the
physician. The ulcers of the gums and limbs can be best treated
by stimulating astringent applications; the hard swellings, which
are apt to continue long, may be alleviated by fomentations and
frictions ; while the anaemia and debility are best overcome by the
continued administration of iron tonics, aided by fresh air and other
measures calculated to promote the general health.
Infantile Scurvy (Scurvy Rickets, Barlow's disease), a disease of
childhood due to a morbid condition of the blood and tissues from
defects of diet, was first observed in England in 1876 by Sir T. Smith,
and later fully investigated by Sir Thomas Barlow. The chief
symptoms are great and progressive anaemia, mental apathy,
spongy gums, haemorrhages into various structures, particularly
under the periosteum and muscles, with suggestive thickenings
round the shafts of the long bones, producing a state of pseudo-
paralysis.
SCUTAGE or ESCUAGE, the pecuniary commutation, under
the feudal system, of the military service due from the holder
of a knight's fee. Its name is derived from his shield (scutum).
The term is sometimes loosely applied to other pecuniary levies
on the basis of the knight's fee. It was supposed till recently
5 i8
SCUTARI
that scutage was first introduced in 1156 or on the occasion of
Henry II.'s expedition against Toulouse in 1159; but it is
now recognized that the institution existed already under
Henry I. and Stephen, when it occurs as scutagium, scuagium
or escuagium. Its introduction was probably hastened by the
creation of fractions of knights' fees, the holders of which could
only discharge their obligation in this fashion. The increasing
use of mercenaries in the I2th century would also make a money
payment of greater use to the crown. Levies of scutage were
distinguished by the names of the campaigns for which they were
raised, as "the scutage of Toulouse" (or "great scutage"),
" the scutage of Ireland " and so forth. The amount demanded
from the fee was a marc (135. 4d.), a pound or two marcs, but
anything above a pound was deemed abnormal till John's
reign, when levies of two marcs were made in most years without
even the excuse of a war. The irritation caused by these exac-
tions reached a climax in 1214, when three marcs were demanded,
and this was prominent among the causes that led the barons to
insist on the Great Charter (1215). By its provisions the crown
was prohibited from levying any scutage save by " the common
counsel of our realm." In the reissue of the Charter in 1217 it
was provided, instead of this, that scutages should be levied
as they had been under Henry II. In practice, however, under
Henry III., scutages were usually of three marcs, but the assent
of the barons was deemed requisite, and__they were only levied
on adequate occasions.
Meanwhile, a practice had arisen, possibly as early as Richard
I.'s reign, of accepting from great barons special " fines " for
permission not to serve in a campaign. This practice appears
to have been based on the crown's right to decide whether
personal service should be exacted or scutage accepted in lieu
of it. A system of special composition thus arose which largely
replaced the old one of scutage. As between the tenants-in-
chief , however, and their under-tenants, the payment of scutage
continued and was often stereotyped by the terms of charters
of subinfcudation, which specified the quota of scutage due
rather than the proportion of a knight's fee granted. For the
purpose of recouping themselves by levying from their under-
tenants the tenant-in-chief received from the crown writs de
scutagio habendo. Under Edward I. the new system was so
completely developed that the six levies of the reign, each
as high as two pounds on the fee, applied only in practice to
the under-tenants, their lords compounding with the crown by
the payment of large sums, though their nominal assessment,
somewhat mysteriously became much lower (see KNIGHT
SERVICE). Scutage was rapidly becoming obsolescent as a
source of revenue, Edward II. and Edward III. only imposing
one levy each and relying on other modes of taxation, more
uniform and direct. Its rapid decay was also hastened by the
lengths to which subinfeudation had been carried, which led
to constant dispute and litigation as to which of the holders
in the descending chain of tenure was liable for the payment.
Apart from its financial aspect it had possessed a legal importance
as the test, according to Bracton, of tenure by knight-service,
its payment, on however small a scale, proving the tenure to be
" military " with all the consequences involved.
The best monograph on the subject (though not wholly free from
error) is J. F. Baldwin's The Scutage and Knight Service in England
(1897), a dissertation printed at the University of Chicago Press.
Madpx's History of the Exchequer was the standard authority formerly,
and is still of use. The view now held was first set fortn by J. H.
Round in Feudal England (1895). In 1896 appeared the Red Book
of the Exchequer (Rolls series), which, with the Testa de Nevill (Record
Commission) and the Pipe Rolls (published by the Record Commis-
sion and the Pipe Roll Society), is the chief record authority on the
subject ; but many of the scutages are wrongly dated by the editor,
whose conclusions have been severely criticized by J. H. Round in
his Studies on the Red Book of the Exchequer (privately issued) and
his Commune of London and other Studies (1899). Pollock and
Maitland's History of English Law (1895) should be consulted.
M'Kechnie's Magna Carta (1905) is of value; and Scargill Bird's
" Scutage and Marshal's Rolls in Genealogist (1884), vol. i., is
important for the later records. (J. H. R.)
SCUTARI (Turkish, Uskudar, anc. Chrysopolis), a town of
Turkey in Asia, on the E. shore of the Bosporus, opposite Con-
stantinople of which it forms the gth Cercle Municipale. Its
painted wooden houses and white minarets piled upon the slopes
of the shore and backed by the cypresses of the great cemetery
farther inland present a very picturesque appearance from the
sea. The town contains eight mosques, one of them, the Valideh
Jami, built in 1547, of considerable beauty. Other remarkable
buildings are the vast barracks of Selim III. and a hospital used
during the Crimean War (see NIGHTINGALE, FLORENCE). The
chief industry of Scutari is the manufacture of silk, muslin and
cotton stuffs. The population is estimated at 105,500, of which
two-thirds are Mahommedan. The most striking feature of
Scutari is its immense cemetery, the largest and most beautiful
of all the cemeteries in and around Constantinople; it extends
over more than 3 m. of undulating plain behind the town.
Between Scutari and Haidar Pasha the English army lay en-
camped during the Crimean War, and in a cemetery on the
Bosporus are buried the 8000 English who died in hospital.
At Haidar Pasha is the terminus of the Angora, Konia and
Smyrna railways. Chrysopolis (" Golden City "), the ancient
name of Scutari, most probably has reference to the fact that
there the Persian tribute was collected, as at a later date the
Athenians levied there a tenth on the ships passing from the
Euxine. Scutari was formerly the post station for Asiatic
couriers (Uskudar= courier), as also down to the introduction
of steam the terminus of the caravan routes from Syria and
Asia.
SCUTARI (anc. Scodra, Slav. Skadar, Albanian ShkSder, or
with the definite article Shk6dr-a), the capital of the vilayet
of Scutari and principal city of Albania, European Turkey;
o.n the south-eastern shore of Lake Scutari, near the confluence
of the Drin and Boyana rivers, and 14 m. inland from the Adriatic
Sea. Pop. (1905) about 32,000. The plain in which Scutari
is built extends southwards to Alessio and northwards to the
Montenegrin frontier. It is enclosed by lofty mountains on
every side except where it adjoins the lake. It is very liable
to be flooded, and this liability was greatly increased towards
the close of the igth century by the deflection of the Drin
and its junction with the Boyana. Its bazaar and mosques
give Scutari an oriental appearance, but the finest of its buildings
are Italian an old Venetian citadel on a high crag, and a
Roman Catholic cathedral. The city is the seat of a Roman
Catholic archbishop and a Jesuit college and seminary, which
are subsidized by the Austrian government. The trade of
Scutari tends to decline and to be diverted to Salonica and
other ports connected with the main European railways. Grain,
wool, hides and skins, tobacco and sumach are exported; arms
and cotton stuffs are manufactured; and textiles, metals, pro-
visions and hardware are imported. Large quantities of a
kind of sardine, called scoranze by the Italians and seraga by the
Albanians, are caught in the Boyana and cured for export or
home consumption. The Boyana is navigable by small sea-
going vessels as far as Oboti, 12 m. from its mouth; cargoes
for Scutari are then transhipped into light river craft. The
steamers of the Anglo-Montenegrin trading company ply on the
lake.
Livy relates that Scodra was chosen as capital by the Illyrian
king Gentius, who was here besieged in 168 B.C., and carried
captive to Rome. In the 7th century Scutari fell into the hands
of the Servians, from whom it was wrested by the Venetians,
and finally, in 1479, the Turks acquired it by treaty.
LAKE SCUTARI is almost bisected by the line of the Montenegrin
frontier. It occupies one of the depressions, known as polyes,
which are common throughout the Illyrian Karst region. Its
generally even margin is broken by the estuary of the river Moratcha,
and by a long, narrow inlet which stretches towards the North
Albanian Alps. The lake measures 135 sq. m. ; its maximum depth
was long considered to be no more than 23 ft. But a series of
soundings taken in 1901 by Dr Jovan Cvijid revealed the existence
of a series of deep holes near the south-western shore, one of which
attains a depth of 144 ft. The surface is 20 ft. above sea-level.
The principal affluent of Lake Scutari is the Moratcha, which enters
it, after forming two small lakes, near the Montenegrin port of
Plavnitza. It is drained by the Boyana, which issues from its south-
eastern extremity and flows to the Adriatic. Lake Scutari abounds
in aquatic birds and fish; its brilliantly clear water, its archipelago
SCUTTLE SCYPHOMEDUSAE
of wooded islets, and its setting of rugged mountains, some of which
are covered with snow during the greater part of the year, render it
one of the most beautiful lakes in Europe.
SCUTTLE, a term formerly applied to a broad flat dish or
platter; it represents the O. Eng. sculel, cognate with Ger.
Schiissel, dish, derived from Lat. scutella, a square salver or tray,
dim. of scutra, a platter, probably allied to scutum, the large oblong
shield, as distinguished from the clypeus, the small round shield.
The name survives in the coal-scuttle, styled " purdonium "
in English auctioneers' catalogues, which now assumes various
forms. " Scuttle " in this sense must be distinguished from
the word meaning a small opening in the deck or side of a ship,
either forming a hatchway or cut through the covering of the
hatchway; from which to " scuttle " a ship means to cut a hole
in the bottom so that she sinks. This word is an adaptation
of O. Fr. escoutille, mod. ecoutille, from Span, escotilla, dim.
of escoti, a sloping cut in a garment about the neck. The Spanish
word is cognate with Du. school, Ger. Schoss, lap, bosom, properly
the flap or projecting edge of a garment about the neck, O. Eng.
sceat, whence " sheet." The colloquial " scuttle," in the sense
of hurrying away, is another form of " scuddle," frequentative
of " scud," to run, which, like its variant " scoot," is another
form of " shoot."
SCYLAX OF CARYANDA (in Caria), Greek historian, lived
in the time of Darius Hystaspis (521-485 B.C.), who commis-
sioned him to explore the course of the Indus. He started
from Caspatyrus (Caspapyrus in Hecataeus; the site cannot be
identified: see V. A. Smith, Early Hist, of India, 2nd ed., 1908,
34 note), and is said by Herodotus (iv. 44) to have reached the
sea, whence he sailed west through the Indian Ocean to the
Red Sea. Scylax wrote an account of his explorations, referred
to by Aristotle (Politics, vii. 14), and probably also a history
of the Carian hero Heracleides, 1 prince of Mylasae, who distin-
guished himself in the revolt against Darius (Herodotus v.
121). This work is the earliest known Greek history which
centred round the achievements of a single individual. Suidas
(s.v.), who mentions the second work, confounds the older Scylax
with a much later author, who wrote a refutation of the history
of Polybius, and is presumably identical with Scylax of Hali-
carnassus, a statesman and astrologer, the friend of Panaetius
spoken of by Cicero (De div. ii. 42). Neither of these, however,
can be the author of the Periplus of the Mediterranean, which
has come down to us under the name of Scylax of Caryanda.
This work is little more than a sailor's handbook of places and
distances all round the coast of the Mediterranean and its
branches, and then along the outer Libyan coast as far as the
Carthaginians traded. Internal evidence shows that it must
have been written long after the time of Herodotus, about
350 B.C.
Editions by B. Fabricius (1878) and C. Muller in Geographici
Graeci minores, i., where the subject is fully discussed; see also
G. F. Unger, Philologus, xxxiii. (1874); B. G. Niebuhr, Kleine
Schriften, i. (1828); and E. H. Bunbury, History of Ancient Geo-
graphy, i.
SCYLLA AND CHARYBDIS. In Homer (Od. xii. 73, 235,430)
Scylla is a dreadful sea-monster, daughter of Crataeis, with six
heads, twelve feet and a voice like the yelp of a puppy. She
dwelt in a sea-cave looking to the west, far up the face of a huge
cliff. Out of her cave she stuck her heads, fishing for marine
creatures and snatching the seamen out of passing ships. Within
a bowshot of this cliff was another lower cliff with a great fig-
tree growing on it. Under this second rock dwelt Chary bdis,
who thrice a day sucked in and thrice spouted out the sea water.
Between these rocks Odysseus sailed, and Scylla snatched
six men out of his ship. In later classical times Scylla and
Charybdis, whose position is not defined by Homer, were localized
in the Straits of Messina Scylla on the Italian, Charybdis
on the Sicilian side (Strabo i. p. 24; vi.p. 268). The well-known
line, Incidis in Scyllam cupiens vitare Charybdim, occurs in the
Alexandras of Gautier de Lille, a poet of the I2th century. In
1 This Heracleides is noticed in an Egyptian papyrus containing
a fragment of the historian Sosylus, which alludes, by way of com-
parison, to the tactical ability displayed by him at the battle of
Artemisium (Wilcken in Hermes, xli., 1906, pp. 103 seq.).
Ovid (Metam. xiv. 1-74) Scylla appears as a beautiful maiden
beloved by the sea-god Glaucus and other deities, and changed
by the jealous Circe (or other rival) into a sea-monster; after-
wards she was transformed into a rock shunned by fishermen.
According to a late legend (Servius on Aeneid, iii. 420), Charybdis
was a voracious woman who robbed Heracles of his cattle and
was therefore cast into the sea by Zeus, where she retained her
old voracious nature. In later poetry and art Scylla was con-
ceived of as a maiden above, with dogs' or wolves' heads growing
out of her body, and the tail of a fish.
Another Scylla, confounded by Virgil (Eel. vi. 74) with the
sea-monster, was a daughter of Nisus (q.v.), king of Megara.
See O. Waser, Skylla und Charybdis in der Literatur und Kunst der
Griechen und Romer (1894); and D. Jobst, Skylla und Charybdis
(Wurzburg, 1902), who endeavours to show that the Homeric
description really referred, as the ancients assumed, to the Sicilian
straits.
SCYMNUS of Chios, the name assigned to a Greek geographer
of uncertain date, commonly taken to be the author of a frag-
mentary anonymous Paraphrasis in verse describing the northern
coasts of the Mediterranean and the shores of the Black Sea, a
work which in the first edition (Augsburg, 1600) was ascribed
to Marcianus of Heraclea. Meineke showed that this piece
cannot be by Scymnus. It is dedicated to a King Nicomedes,
probably Nicomedes III. of Bithynia (91-76 B.C.), and so would
date from the beginning of the 1 ist century B.C. Its most
valuable portions relate to the Euxine regions and to the Hellenic
colonies of those shores as well as of the coasts of Spain, Gaul
and Italy.
See Meineke's edition (Berlin, 1846) ; C. Muller, Geographi Graeci
minores, vol. i., where the poem is edited with sufficient prolegomena,
(pp. Ixxiv.-lxxvii.) ; E. H. Bunbury, Ancient Geography, i. 99, 100,
102, 128, 183 ;ii. 26, 69-74.
SCYPHOMEDUSAE or ACALEPHAE, one ot the two sub-
divisions of the Hydrozoa (q.v.), the other being the Hydro-
medusae (q.v.). The subclass Scyphomedusae contains a number
of animals which in the adult condition are medusae or jelly-
fishes (see MEDUSA), exclusively marine in habitat and found in
all seas. They are chiefly pelagic organisms, floating at or near
the surface of the water, but occur also at great depths, and are
sometimes fixed and sessile in habit. Many species attain a
large size and by their brilliant coloration are very conspicuous
objects to the mariner or traveller. In spite of the soft nature
of their bodies, a number of Scyphomedusae have been found
fossil; see especially Maas (7 and 12).
A scyphomedusa is distinguished from a hydromedusa chiefly
by the following points. The umbrella has a lobed, indented
margin, a character only seen amongst Hydromedusae in the
order Narcomedusae, and it is without the characteristic velum
of the Hydromedusae; hence the Scyphomedusae are sometimes
termed Hydrozoa Acraspeda. The sense-organs are covered
over by flaps of the umbrellar margin (hence " Steganophthal-
mata "), and are always tentaculocysts, that is to say, reduced
and modified tentacles, which bear usually both ocelli and
otocysts, and are hollow. The gonads are formed in the endoderm
(hence " Entocarpeae "), and the generative products are shed
into the gastric cavity and pass to the exterior by way of the
mouth. The development from the egg may be direct, or may
take place with an alternation of generations (metagenesis),
in which a non-sexual individual, the so-called scyphistoma or
scyphopolyp, produces by budding the sexual medusae.
Morphology of the Scyphomedusa. As already stated, a
medusa of this order may be free-swimming or sessile in habit.
Intermediate between these two types are species which have
the power of temporal fixation by the exumbral surface. Such
forms when undisturbed fix themselves to the bottom and rest
with their mouths and tentacles uppermost. If disturbed they
swim about like other medusae until a favourable opportunity
presents itself for resuming the sedentary habit. A well-known
example of a permanently sessile form is Lucernaria, common on
the Atlantic coasts of Europe, especially in Zostera-beds, attached
to the weed. It resembles in general appearance a polyp, lacking
even the characteristic medusan sense-organs, which are present,
5 2
SCYPHOMEDUSAE
however, in the allied genus Haliclystus (fig. i), proving its
medusan nature beyond all doubt.
The body-form of the Scyphomedusae varies from that of a conical
or roughly cubical cap (fig. 4), to that of a shallow saucer or disk
(fig. 20). The tentacles vary in number from four, the primitive
The mouth may be a simple structure at the extremity of the
manubrium, or may be four-cornered, with the corners drawn out
into so-called oral arms, each of which bears on the inner side a
groove continuing the angle of the mouth (fig. 20). In some genera
the oral arms are of great length, and in the suborder Rhizostomeae
they undergo concrescence to form a proboscis (fig. 3, a), in such a
way that the mouth becomes nearly obliterated, and is
reduced to a system of fine canals opening to the exterior by
small pores.
The mouth leads into the spacious stomach, which is
typically four lobed (fig. 26, t>). On the floor of the stomach
are borne the conspicuous gonads (ov), and also tentacle-like
processes termed gastric filaments or phacellae, projecting into
the cavity of the stomach. The gonads are folds of the
endoderm containing generative cells, and are primitively
four in number, situated interradially, but each gonad may
be divided into two by the partition which separates two
adjacent lobes of the stomach, that is to say, by one of the
areas of concrescence between exumbral and subumbral
endoderm, whence arises a condition with eight gonads which
is by no means uncommon. As a rule these medusae are of
separate sexes, but hermaphrodite forms are known, for
example, the conspicuous British (east-Atlantic) medusa
Chrysaora (fig. 3, 6).
Immediately below each gonad the subumbral ectoderm
is pushed in, as it were, to form a pit or deep cavity (fig. 20,
Tc.
From Bronn's Tierreich, ii. 2. "Codenterata," by Carl Chun, by permission ot C. F. Winter.
FIG. I. Haliclyslus auricula. (After H. J. Clark.)
I. From the side. /',
II. From above.
III. From the side, with the umbrella kl,
drawn back and the mouth oc,
thrust out.
IV. A tentaculocyst (" colleto-cysto- 0,
phore" or "marginal anchor") se,
seen from the subumbral
side.
p. Stalk.
su, Subumbrella.
/, Knobbed tentacles in eight
clusters.
ra, Tentaculocysts, four perradial,
four interradial.
Rudimentary tentacle of the
tentaculocyst.
Glandular cushion.
Ocellus, and en, internal canal of
the tentaculocyst.
Mouth.
Interradial septal ridges, passing
into the taeniolae (f.t) in the
stalk.
gen, The eight adradial gonads on the
subumbral walls of the four
radial pouches, representing
primitively four horse-shoe-
shaped gonads each divided
into two by an interradial
septum.
number, to a very large number, but in one suborder, the Rhizo-
stomeae, tentacles are absent altogether (fig. 3, a). Typically the
tentacles have the form of long flexible filaments, hollow or solid,
implanted singly on the margin of the umbrella (fig. 3, b), but in some
species they occur in groups or tufts (fig. 15), and in Lucernaria and
its allies a bunch of small capitate tentacles is found on each of the
eight adradial lappets of the margin (fig. i). A true velum is absent,
as already stated, but in Charybdaea (fig. 4) a structure is found
termed a velarium (Ve), which is a flap hanging down from the
margin of the umbrella, and which consists of a fold of the subumbral
ectoderm containing endodermal canals. A true velum, such as is
found in Hydromedusae, never contains endoderm.
Fie. 20. Surface view of the Subumbrella or oral
aspect of Aurelia aurita, to show the position of the
openings of the subgenital pits, GP. In the centre is the
mouth, with four perradial arms corresponding to its angles
(compare fig. Ii). The four sub-genital pits are seen to be
interradial. x indicates the outline of the roof (aboral limit)
of a subgenital pit; y, the outline of its floor or oral limit,
in which is the opening.
x, y) opening by a wide aperture (GP). These cavities are
known as the infundibular or subgenital cavities. They serve
probably for the aeration of the gonads by admitting to
their vicinity water with its dissolved oxygen; they never
serve as genital ducts, since the generative products are
always dehisced into the stomach and pass out by the
mouth. In some genera, for instance, Cyanea and its allies
the gonad as a whole protrudes through the subgenital cavity
as if it had undergone a hernia, and hangs down in the
subumbral space as if suspended by a mesentery (fig. 15).
Usually the four subgenital cavities are distinct from each
other (so-called tetrademnic condition), but in many
Rhizostomeae, for example, Crambessa, the subgenital
cavities join together under the subumbral floor of the
stomach (so-called monodemnic condition) and coalesce to
form a so-called subgenital portico placed on the oral side of
the stomach, opening by four interradial apertures between
the oral arms, that is to say, by the four primitive apertures
of the subgenital pits. In Nausithoe subgenital pits are
absent altogether, and the same condition may be found in
Charybdaeidae.
The gastroyascular system shows every degree of complexity from
a very primitive to a highly elaborate type of structure. Taking as a
starting-point the wide archenteric cavity which the medusa inherits
primitively from the antecedent actinula-stage (see article MEDUSA),
we find, in such a form as Tessera, four interradial areas of concres-
cence between the exumbral and subumbral layers of endoderm, four
so-called septal nodes or " cathammata," subdividing the stomach
into four wide, radially situated pouches which communicate with
each other beyond the septal nodes by wide apertures constituting
what is termed by courtesy a ring-canal. In other cases the areas of
concrescence may extend as far as the margin of the umbrella, so
that the lobes of the stomach are completely separated from one
SCYPHOMEDUSAE
another, as in Charybdaea (fig. 4) , where there are four gastric pouches
communicating with the central stomach by four so-called gastric
ostia (fig. 4). A similar condition is seen in Pelagia, where the
number of gastric pouches is
increased to sixteen. In forms
such as Lucerna'ia and Charyb-
daea, in which the umbrella is
of deep form and the stomach-
cavity consequently of great
extent in the vertical direction,
the concrescence-areas or septal
nodes are drawn out into
vertical partitions or taeniolae
(fig. 4, L.o.c.), resembling in
their anatomical relations the
mesenteries of the Anthopolyp.
The phacellae are carried on
the edges of the taeniolae
(fig. 4, Gh). Finally in the
majority of Scyphomedusae
the primitively simple con-
crescence-areas become in-
creased in number and in
extent, so that radial canals,
ring-canals, &c., can be distin-
guished in addition to stomach-
pouches. Thus in Aurelia (figs.
2a and 26), to take a familiar
example, the digestive tract
begins with the mouth, of
FIG. 26. Half of the lower surface which the four corners are
of Aurelia aurita. The transparent prolonged into the four long
tissues allow the enteric cavities and oral arms, perradial in position,
canals to be seen through them. The mouth leads into the
(From Gegenbaur.) spacious stomach containing
Marginal lappets hiding ten- the four conspicuous horse-
taculocysts. shoe-shaped gonads (ov) mark-
Oral arms. ing. four stomach-pouches,
tentacles. which, however, are inter-
Axial or 'gastric portion of the radial in position. From the
enteric cavity. stomach or its pouches arise
gv, Radiating and anastomosing- sixteen radial canals, four
canals of the enteric system, perradial, four interradial and
ov, Ovaries. The gastral filaments eight adradial (fig. 26). The
near to these are not drawn. perradial and interradial canals
consist of a main stem giving
off branches, and both stem and branches reach to the marginal
ring-canal, the main stem ending in one of the eight tentaculocysts,
which are lodged in the notches between the lobes of the umbrellar
margin. The adradial canals are unbranched and run to the middJe
point of one of the marginal lobes. The system of canals shows
great variation even in the same species.
The muscular system of the Scyphomedusae is developed on the
subumbral surface as a system of circularly disposed fibres which by
their contraction make the umbrella more concave and diminish its
a,
f,
FIG. 3. Scyphomedusae. a, Rhizostoma pulmo; b, Chrysaora
hysoscella.
cavity. The circular muscles usually form two chief portions, a
peripheral wreath-muscle (Kranzmuskel), subdivided into four, eight
or sixteen areas, and an oral ring-muscle round the mouth. Endo-
dermal muscles are found in the phacellae, and in such forms
as Lucernaria, longitudinal (vertical) muscular tracts or bands are
found in the taeniolae, which, according to some authorities, are
of endodermal origin, but which, according to recent observations, are
formed in the walls of the infundibular cavities, and are therefore
of ectodermal origin.
The nervous system consists as in Hydromedusae of a diffuse
plexus beneath the ectoderm, concentrated in certain places to form
a central nervous system. In these medusae, however, the central
nervous system does not form continuous rings, but occurs as four or
eight separate con-
centrations at the
margin of the um-
brella, centred each
round one of the
sense-organs (tenta-
culocysts). Each
nerve-centre controls
its own antimere or
segment of the body,
receiving sensory im-
pressions from the
tentaculocyst and in-
nervating its special
subdivision of the
muscular system.
The separate nerve-
centres are, as a rule,
placed in communi-
cation only by the
general nerve-plexus,
but in Charybdaea
there is a zigzag
marginal nerve con-
necting them up.
The sense-organs of
the Scyphomedusae
are on the whole of a
very uniform type.
They are always
tentaculocysts, as
already stated, and
they always have a
hollow axis, unlike
the tentaculocysts of
Hydromedusae, in
which group these
organs, when they do
occur (as in Trachy-
linae) are always
solid. Two types of
tentaculocyst must
be distinguished, the
one occurring only
in the order Stauro-
medusae, the other
in all orders of the
FIG.
(After
B,
group. The second
and commoner type
is known as a rho-
palium (fig. 6) and
4. Charybdaea marsupialis.
Claus.)
Natural size.
View of the margin of the umbrella,
natural size.
Horizontal section through the umbrella
and manubrium.
Vertical sections, to the left in the plane
of an interradius, to the right in the
plane of a perradius.
consists of a short, su Subumbrella.
hollow rod, the wall Ma Manubrium.
of which is composed E^Axial enteron.
of the two body- Gh and Fg Gastral filaments (phacellae).
layers, ectoderm and CG _ Corner groove.
endoderm, enclosing CR Corner ridge.
a cavity continuous
with that of the gas-
trovascular system.
At the apex of the
rhopalium the en-
doderm is
thickened and
G ,
side ridge _
Endoderm lamella (line of concrescence
of the wal j s of the enter i c cavity of the
umbrella, whereby its single chamber
; s b ro k en up into four pouches).
Line of attachment of a genital band
and band in section.
sists of concrement- EU> Enteric pouch of the umbrella, in the
Ve,
Fr,
Tc,
left-hand figure, points to the cavity
uniting neighbouring pouches near the
margin of the umbrella and giving origin
to TCa, the tentacular canal.
Velarium.
Frenum of the velarium.
Tentaculocyst.
cells secreting
otoliths (Con). The
more proximal por-
tion of the rhopalium
usually bears one or
more ocelli (oc). The
rhopalia are lodged
in the notches be-
tween the marginal lobes of the umbrella, and each rhopalium
is covered over by a little protecting flap or lappet. On the
external (i.e. exumbral) face of the lappet there is frequently a
patch of sensory ciliated epithelium regarded as olfactory in function
and termed the olfactory pit (fig. 6, A). Each rhopalium is a centre
round which, as already stated, nervous tissue is concentrated.
The otoliths vary considerably in number and size. In Aurelia
there are found numerous otoliths arranged irregularly. In Charyb-
daea (fig. 7, otol) the otoliths are larger but fewer in number and have
a definite arrangement. In Nausithoe a single large otolith is found.
522
SCYPHOMEDUSAE
The ocelli vary greatly both as regards number and complexity of
structure. In some genera they are absent, as, for instance, in Pelagia,
Cyanea and Khizostoma. In Aurelia there are two on each rhopalium,
a simple ocellus on the exumbral side, and a cupped ocellus on the
subumbral side (not present in young individuals). In Charybdaea
there are no less than six ocelli on each of the four rhopalia (fig. 7) ;
on the exumbral aspect
there are two median
ocelli (oc 1 , oc 2 ), a distal
and a proximal, each
of them a vesiculate
ocellus with a lens, and
on the sides of the
rhopalium are two
pairs of ocelli without
lenses (oc.l); some-
times also an addi-
tional seventh ocellus
occurs, a pit-like struc-
ture without a lens,
either between the two
median ocelli, or placed
asymmetrically near
the median proximal
ocellus.
FIG. 5. Scattered Nerve Ganglion Cells. . Th ^ celli consist, as
c, From the subumbrella of Aurelia aurita. ln Hydromedusae, of
(After Schafer.) * w ^ nd f of elements:
(i) visual cells, sensory
ectodermal cells, which may develop terminal visual cones; (2)
pigment-cells, usualjy ectodermal, but in one known instance
endodermal. The simplest type of ocellus is exemplified by the
exumbral ocellus of Aurelia, a simple patch of pigment -cells inter-
spersed with visual cells, the whole on a level with the remaining
ectodermal epithelium. In the next stage of complication, seen in the
supernumerary (seventh) ocellus of Charybdaea, the patch of pig-
mented and sensory epithelium is pushed in to form a little pit, in the
Fie. 6. Tentaculocyst and Marginal Lappets of Aurelia aurita.
(After Eimer.)
H, Bridge between the
In the left-hand figure
ML, Marginal lappets.
T, Tentaculocyst.
A, Superior or aboral olfactory
pit.
M T, Marginal tentacles of the
disc. The view is from the
aboral surface, magnified
about 50 diameters.
In the right-hand figure
A, Superior or aboral olfactory
pit.
B, Inferior or adoral olfactory
pit.
two
marginal lappets forming
the hood.
T, Tentaculocyst.
End, Endoderm.
Ent, Canal of the enteric system
continued into the tentacu-
locyst. [(auditory).
Con, Endodermal concretion
oc, Ectodermal pigment (ocel-
lus). The drawing repre-
sents a section, taken in
a radial vertical plane so as
to pass through the long
axis of_the tentaculocyst.
interior of which the pigment-cells secrete a gelatinous substance
forming a rudimentary vitreous body. As a further advance, the pit
becomes widened out into a cup, as in the lateral ocelli of Charybdaea.
The culminating stage of evolution is seen in the median ocelli of
Charybdaea (fig. 8) ; the primitively open cup has now closed over
to form a vesicle lying beneath the ectoderm ; the outer wall of the
vesicle becomes thickened to form a cellular lens (/), while the
proximal wall consists of sensory and pigmented cells and forms a
retina. In this way the ocellus becomes a true eye, very similar in
plan to the eyes of Gastropods and other molluscs. The ectoderm
continued over the optic vesicle forms a transparent cornea (fig. 8, c)
(better perhaps termed a conjunctiva), below which the spherical lens
projects into the optic vesicle, imbedded in the vitreous humour
(v.b) which fills it; the retina (r) consists of visual cells with long
cones (fig. 9) alternating with pigment -cells. The high development
of the eyes of Charybdaea is very remarkable, and so is their close
resemblance to the eyes found in other groups of the animal kingdom,
with which they can have no genetic relation. Highly developed
oc 1
eyes, with ectodermal pigment and lens, are found also on the
rhopalia of Paraphyllina (Maas [8]).
The subumbral ocellus of Aurelia is found to be of the inverted
type, with the visual cones turned away from the light, as in Tiaropsis
amongst Hydromedusae, and here also the pigment is furnished by the
endoderm, forming a cup into
which the ectodermal visual
cells project (Schewiakoff
[13])-
In the Stauromedusae
tentaculocysts are either
absent altogether, as in ///.-J- 5/.
Lucernaria, or represented
by peculiar structures termed
" colletocystophores " or
" marginal anchors " (fig. I,
IV.). Each such body has a
basal hollow portion (en) sur-
mounted by a glandular
cushion (kl), from the centre
of which projects a small,
solid, club-shaped process or
tentacle (t'). The basal por- oc''
tion bears an ocellus (oc) of
simple structure. The distal
club corresponds to the
crystal-sac of an ordinary ... ,. .
rhopalium, but bears a battery a "{SuMS gtfA&SPft&Z
of nematocysts in place of the xv., i88g, by permission of Wilhelm Engel-
otpliths. These organs are mann.
said to be used for purposes FIG. 7. Tentaculocyst of Charyb-
of adherence rather than to daea marsupialis, seen from the
have the function of sense- right side,
organs. st, Stalk.
The histological structure oc 1 , oc 2 , Distal and proximal median
of the Scyphomedusae is in ocelli,
the main similar to that of oc.l. Lateral ocelli,
the Hydromedusae (q.v.), but otol, Otoliths ("crystal-sac ").
the mesogloea is more abun-
dantly developed in the free-swimming forms, and contains special
mesogloeal corpuscles, derived by immigration from the ectoderm,
and generally occurring in the form of stellate or bipolar cells.
Development of the Scyphomedusae. No adult Scyphomedusae
are known to reproduce themselves by budding or by any method
other than the sexual one. The course of the development in
this group is best made clear by taking as a type Aurelia, which,
together with certain other common genera, such as Chrysaora
and Cotylorhiza, has been studied in detail. Unfortunately the
statements concerning some points are very contradictory.
Combined from three figures by Wladimir Schewiakoff in Morphologisches Jahrbuch,
xv., 1889, by permission of Wilhelm Engclmann.
FIG. 8. Vertical section of the Median Distal Ocellus (oc 1 of the
preceding figure) of Charybdaea. c, Cornea; I, lens; v.b., vitreous
body; r, retina.
The ova pass out of the mouth and are fertilized externally. In
some cases the ova, after leaving the mouth, are lodged in the oral
arms, and undergo the earliest phases of their development in this
situation, accumulating in the grooves that continue the angles of the
mouth, and bulging the wall of the groove into sacs or pockets.
SCYPHOMEDUSAE
523
\
,n
The ovum undergoes total cleavage, giving rise to a bastula which
forms a gastrula (fig. 10, A) by invagination (see article HYDROZOA).
This is a type of germ-layer formation never found in the Hydro-
medusae, though of universal occurrence in all groups of animals above
the Coelentera. We may regard it as a form of unipolar immigration
in which the immigrating cells pass into the
interior in a connected epithelial layer, instead
of going in singly and independently. The
embryo is set free as a planula larva (fig. 10, B)
in the gastrula stage, and the orifice of invagina-
tion or blastopore, which persists, is situated
at the hinder pole. After a time the planula
fixes itself by the anterior pole, with the blasto-
pore uppermost. The larva after fixation
changes into a polyp-like organism termed a
scyphistoma or scyphopolyp (fig. 10, C, D).
The body becomes in shape like a vase or urn
attached by a narrow stalk, round which a
chitinous membrane is secreted. From the
edges of the vase the four primary tentacles
grow out, each a slender filament with a solid
endodermal axis. The tentacles border a broad,
flattened peristome, from the centre of which
arises the hypostome with the mouth at its ex-
After W. Schewiakoff, tremity ; the hypostome is at first low, but soon
simplified from a coloured becomes a projecting, chimney-like tube. It has
plate in Uorphologisckcs been sought to prove that the interior of the
^mission "of wlfhelm hypostome is lined by ectoderm, so as to form
Engelmann. a stomodaeum or ectodermal oesophagus similar
p IG Sensory to tnat ^ t ' le Anthozoa, but this has been dis-
cells from the retina proved by the most recent investigations of
of Charybdaea, Hein (4) and Friedemann ,(3), who have shown
hiehlv magnified that the mouth at the extremity of the hypo-
c Visual cone; n, stome represents the persistent blastopore of
nucleus n f nerve t ' le g astru ' a stage.
fibril " The internal gastric cavity of the scyphistoma
is not a simple space as in the hydropolyp, but
is subdivided by four ridges or taeniolae, arising one in each
interradius (fig. n, B). Each taeniola is similar in its ana-
tomical relations to the similarly named structures in Haliclystus
(fig. i), and becomes perforated in the same way at its outer
side by a " septal ostium," forming as it were the rudiment of a
ring-canal. Each taeniola bears a strongly developed longitudinal
muscle-band, stated by Claus and Chun to be developed from the
endoderm, like the retractor muscles of the anthopolyp, but by other
investigators it is affirmed that each retractor muscle of the scyphi-
stoma arises from the lining of a funnel-shaped ectodermal ingrowth
(" Septaltrichter ") growing down from the peristome inside each
taeniola, in a manner similar to the infundibular cavities of
which in their turn are homologous with the sub-
genital cavities of
other Scypho-
medusae. It is
asserted, however,
by Friedemann (3),
a recent investi-
gator of the subject,
that the infundi-
bular cavities ap-
| pear late in the
scyphistoma and
have no relation
either to the septal
muscles or to the
subgenital cavities
of the adult. The
muscle-bands are
very contractile,
rendering the
scyphistoma one of
the most difficult
of all organisms to
preserve in an ex-
panded condition.
By their contrac-
tion the muscles of
the taeniolae drag
the hypostome
down and so produce the appearances which have been interpreted
as a stomodaeal invagination.
As the scyphistoma grows the tentacles increase in number, four
interradial and eight adradial being formed in addition to the four
primary perradial tentacles (fig. II, A, B, C). The animal may
produce its like by lateral budding, or by budding from a basal stolon.
The scyphistoma of Nausithoe forms a branching network which
grows in the sponge Esperella and forms the colonial polypoid
organism named by Schulze Spongicolafistularis, by Allman Stephano-
scyphus mirabilis. Sooner or later, however, the scyphistoma
produces free medusae by a process of transverse fission termed
strobilization. In the simplest case one medusa, or at least one at a
Lucernaria,
6.1
B
FIG. 10. Four stages in the development of
Chrysaora. From Balfour, after Claus.
A, Diblastula stage.
B, Stage after closure of blastopore.
C, Fixed larva.
D, Later stage with mouth, short tentacles, &c.
ep, Ectoderm.
hy, Endoderm.
pe, Stomodaeum.
m, Mouth.
bl, Blastopore.
time, is produced in this way (monodisk strobilization) ; a circular
furrow cuts off the upper, tentacle-bearing portion from the lower
half of the scyphistoma (fig. n, D, and fig. 12), and the upper part
becomes detached and swims away, while the base regenerates a
new crown. In most cases, however, many such furrows are formed
(polydisk strobilization), so that the animal comes to resemble a pile
of saucers one above the other (fig. 12). The uppermost saucers of
the pile become detached successively and swim off. In this state
the scyphistoma is termed a strobila.
The medusae produced by strobilization of the scyphistoma are
of a peculiar type termed Ephyrae (fig. 11, E, F). As preparations
FIG. II. Later development of Chrysaora and Aurelia.
(After Claus.)
D,
Scyphistoma of Chrysaora, E,
with four perradial tent-
acles and horny basal
perisarc.
Oral surface of later stage of
scyphistoma of Aurelia, F,
with commencement of
four interradial tentacles.
The quadrangular mouth is
seen in the centre; the
outline of the stomach
wall, seen by transparency A ,
around it, is nipped in four Ad,
places interradially to form F,
the four gastric ridges. In,
Oral surface of a sixteen- JG,
tentacled scyphistoma of JR-
Aurelia. The four gastric
interradial ridges are seen K,
through the mouth. M,
First constriction of the Mst
Aurelia scyphistoma to Mw,
form the pile of ephyrae or Ms,
young medusae. The single O,
ephyra carries the sixteen P,
scyphistoma tentacles, R 2 ,
which will atrophy and dis- R',
appear. The four longi- SG,
tudinal gastric ridges are
seen by transparency.
Young ephyra just liber-
ated, showing the eight
bifurcate arms of the disk
and the interradial single
gastral filaments.
Ephyra developing into a
medusa by the growth of
the adradial regions. The
gastral filaments have in-
creased to three in each of
the four sets.
Margin of the mouth.
Adradial radius.
Gastral filament.
Interradial radius.
Adradial gastral canal.
= R 3 , Adradial lobe of the
disk.
Lappet of a perradial arm.
Stomach wall.
Muscle of the gastral ridge.
Gastral ridge.
Mesogloea.
Tentaculocyst.
Perradial radius.
Interradial radius.
Adradial radius.
Commencement of lateral
vessel.
for their formation the margin of the peristome of the scyphistoma
grows out into eight lobes, four perradial, four interradial. The
sixteen tentacles of the scyphistoma disappear, and in the place of
the four perradial and four interradial tentacles, the eight tentacu-
locysts of the adult are formed as outgrowths of the subumbral
margin, independently of the tentacles of the scyphistoma (Friede-
mann). The septal ostia become widened and the gastral cavity
flattened, whereby the taeniolae become comparatively shallow
columns, similar to the septal nodes or cathammata of other forms. 1
The ephyra has a flat, disk-shaped body, with eight marginal lobes
(four perradial, four interradial) ; a tentaculocyst is lodged in a deep
notch at the apex of each lobe. Four groups of phacellae indicate
the four interradii. The stomach has sixteen marginal pouches and
the general anatomical structure recalls that of Pelagia. As the
1 The four primitive interradial cathammata disappear in the
fully formed ephyra and become replaced by sixteen subradial
concrescence-areas without any ostia or ring-canal at the margin.
524
SCYPHOMEDUSAE
ephyra grows in size it gradually takes on the form and structure
of the young medusa. The adradial regions grow (fig. n, F) so as
to change the star-like contour into one more evenly circular, the
tentacles grow out, and the various parts become complicated and
take on the structure of the adult medusa.
The course of development sketched out above is that which
is typical of the higher forms of Scyphomedusae, and is by no
means to be regarded as the most primitive type of development.
The complicated alternation of generations seen in such a form
as Aurelia does not occur in the more primitive genera. Thus
in Pelagia the scyphistoma-stage is free-swimming and changes
directly into the ephyra, which in its turn grows into the adult
form. On the other hand, such a form as Lucernaria or Hali-
dystus may be regarded simply as a scyphistoma which has
become adult and mature. The comparison of the metagenetic
type of development, such as that of Aurelia, with the more
primitive i genera of Scypho-
medusae, indicates clearly that the
scyphistoma and ephyra are re-
capitulative larval stages which
are represented by the adult forms
of primitive genera, making such
allowances as are necessary when
comparing adult and larval forms.
The metagenesis has arisen through
the scyphistoma-larva acquiring
the power of larval proliferation
by budding. A similar origin for
metagenesis has been discussed
under the Hydromedusae (q.v.).
The above comparison further
12. Development of indicates that the scyphistoma
Above to left, young should not be regarded as a polyp
tacles, but are ephyrae, each
with eight bifid arms (pro-
cesses of the disc). Each
drawn in fig. II,
(From Gegenbaur.)
E, F.
FIG.
Aurelia.
scyphistoma with four per- b ut rather as a medusoid organism,
radial tentacles. Below to _. . . 6 ,
left, scyphistoma with sixteen The onlv certain criterion of a
tentacles and first constric- medusa-individual is the presence
tion. To the right, strobila o f definite sense-organs, but in
condition of the scyphistoma. cases where the organ i sm is muc h
consisting of thirteen meta- , , . ... , .,
meric segments; the upper- reduced, this criterion may fail us,
most still possesses the sixteen as it does in the genus Lucernaria.
tentacles of the scyphistoma ; Nevertheless a comparison between
Lucernaria and its close ally Hali-
clystus shows clearly that the
absence of sense-organs in the
segment when detached be- former is the result of secondary
comes an ephyra, such as that reduction, so that a true medusa
may lose its most characteristic
feature. Hence the absence of
sense-organs in the scyphistoma does not necessarily disprove
its medusoid character, while its anatomical structure resembles
that of a simple scyphomedusa, such as Lucernaria, rather than
that of a polyp.
Affinities of the Scyphomedusae. By some authorities the
Scyphomedusae have been removed from the Hydrozoa and
united with the Anthozoa in a common group termed Scyphozoa.
The diagnostic features of the class Scyphozoa thus constituted
are supposed to be (i) an ectodermal oesophagus or stomodaeum,
(2) a gastric cavity subdivided by mesenteries, (3) gonads formed
in the endoderm. It appears, however, that the first of these
characters is non-existent, and that the so-called mesenteries
are simply the concrescence-areas found in all medusae. There
remains only the third feature, the endodermal gonads, as an
argument for uniting the Scyphomedusae with the Anthozoa,
against which must be set all the peculiarities of medusan organiza-
tion in which the Scyphomedusae resemble the Hydromedusae.
The fact that the Scyphomedusae have a number of well-marked
peculiarities of form and structure is not incompatible with
placing them in the Hydrozoa as a distinct sub-class, contrasting
sharply in many ways with the Hydromedusae.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCYPHOMEDUSAE
ORDER I. Cubomedusae or Charybdaeida. Medusae more or
less cubical in form, with four perradial rhopalia alternating with
four interradial tentacles or groups of tentacles; oral arms
short; stomach a wide cavity bearing four interradial groups
of phacellae and giving off four broad perradial pouches com-
pletely separated from each other by four interradial septa (i.e.
ring-canal absent); gonads divided each into two by the septa,
hence eight in number; subgenital pits small or absent.
This order stands very much apart from the other orders
of the Scyphomedusae. It has been proposed by Maas to
divide the entire subclass Acraspeda into A, Charybdaeida
and B, Acraspeda typica. The Charybdaeida comprise three
families:
1. Cliarybdaeidae. With four interradial tentacles. Charybdaea
marsupialis (fig. 4) is a familiar Mediterranean medusa ; the wonder-
ful development of the sense-organs in this genus has already been
described (figs. 7-9). The species of Charybdaea are stated to be
quick and active in their movements and to be voracious feeders.
2. Chirodropidae. With four interradial groups of tentacles.
Chirodropus.
3. Tripedaliidae.With four interradial groups of tentacles, three
in each group. Tripedalia.
ORDER II. Stauromedusae or Lucernarida. Medusae of deep
pyramidal form, often sessile, attached by a stalk developed from
the centre of the exumbral surface; rhopalia absent or repre-
sented by colletocystophores. Four families:
1. Lucernaridae. Sessile, stalked, with capitate tentacles arranged
in groups on eight projecting marginal lobes. Eight gonads.
Lucernaria, without, and Halidystus (fig. i) with colletocystophores,
are two well-known genera.
2. Tesseridae. Free, with eight or more tentacles, without
tentaculocysts. Tessera, &c.
3. Depastridae. Sessile, stalked, with eight shallow marginal
lobes bearing one or more rows of tentacles; without tentaculocysts;
with four gonads. Depastrum is a British genus.
4. Stenoscyphidae. Sessile, with the margin undivided; with
eight colletocystophores and eight adradial groups of capitate
tentacles. Stenoscyphus inabai, from Japan.
ORDER III. Coronata. Free medusae with rhopalia of the
normal type; the exumbrella is divided by a circular, so-called
coronal groove, into two parts, a central portion, which is conical,
thimble-shaped, or domed in form, and a peripheral portion, the
pedal zone, which bears the marginal lobes, tentacles and
rhopalia; the pedal zone is subdivided into areas termed pedalia,
from each of which arises a tentacle or rhopalium in the inter-
space between two adjacent lobes of the margin. The order
contains the following families:
1. Periphyllidae. With sixteen marginal lobes, four rhopalia and
twelve tentacles; the rhopalia are
interradial. Periphylla (fig. 13), a
widely distributed deep-sea genus.
2. Paraphyllinidae. With six-
teen marginal lobes, four rhopalia
and twelve tentacles; the rhopalia
are perradial in position, corre-
sponding to the angles of the
stomach. Paraphyllina recent ;
Paraphyllites fossil [see Maas (8
and 12)].
3. Atorellidae. With twelve
marginal lobes, six rhopalia and
six tentacles. Atorella.
4. Pericolpidae. With eight
marginal lobes, four rhopalia and
four tentacles. Pericolpa.
5. Collaspidae (Atollidae). With
sixteen or thirty-two rhopalia, mar-
ginal lobes and tentacles often
very numerous. Alolla (fig. 14) is Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
a well-known deep-sea genus.
6. Rphyropsidae. With sixteen
eight tentacles. Nausithoe, a small
medusa of world-wide distribu-
tion, is the type of the subfamily Nausithoidae; the subfamily
Linergidae includes the genera Linerges, &c., medusae confined to
tropical seas. By Maas and others the Nausithoidae and Linergidae
are ranked as independent families.
ORDER IV. Discophora. Medusae with umbrella flattened or
disk-like, without coronal groove; lips always prolonged into
long oral arms. The most prolific and dominant group of the
Scyphomedusae, containing two suborders; the Semaeostomae,
in which the oral arms remain separate, and the Rhizostomeae, in
Much simplified from a coloured plate
in Results of the "Albatross" Expedi-
tion, Museum of Comparative Zoology,
FIG. 13. Periphylla regina
from life, after O. Maas, about
half 1
SCYROS SCYTHE
525
which the oral arms become fused together to form a proboscis.
Nine families, three of Semaeostomeae, six of Rhizostomeae:
I. Pelagiidae. Semaeostomeae with wide gastric pouches not
united by a ring-canal. Pelagia, an oceanic genus with direct
development. Chr ysaora
(fig. 30), a common British
medusa, with a scyphistoma
alternation of
Dactylometra,
stage and
generations.
a common American medusa
of the Atlantic shores, differs
from Chrysaora in small
points.
2. Cyaneidae. Semaeo-
Modi6ed from a coloured plate in Prince of
Monaco's series.
FIG. 14. Atolla bairdi. After. Maas.
canals to the margin not united by a ring-canal ; tentacles in bunches
on the margin. Cyanea (fig. 15), represented in the British fauna
by two species.
3. Ulmaridae. Semaeostomeae with gastric pouches relatively
small, sending off branching canals to the margin, where they are
united by a ring-canal. Ulmaris, from the South Atlantic, has only
After E. Haeckel, from System der Medusen, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 15. Cyanea (Desmonema) anasethe, about two-thirds life-size.
eight adradial tentacles. Aurelia (fig. 2), with numerous marginal
tentacles, is one of the commonest and most familiar of jelly-
fishes.
4. Cassiopeidae. Rhizostomeae with subumbral musculature
arranged in feather-like arcades (Arcadomyaria, Maas) ; oral arms
pinnate. Cassiopeia.
5. Cepheidae. Rhizostomeae with subumbral musculature in
radial tracts (Radiomyaria, Maas); oral arms bifid. Cephea,
Cotylorhiza.
6. Rhizoslomatidae (Pilemidae). Rhizostomeae with subumbral
musculature in circular bands (Cyclomyaria) ; oral arms bifid or
very complicated ; sixteen radial canals. Rhizostoma (Pilema) is a
very'common genus (fig. 30).
7, 8, 9. The families Lychnorhizidae, Leptobrachidae and Cato-
stylidae resemble the preceding in the arrangement of the muscula-
ture. In Lychnorhizidae only eight of the sixteen radial canals reach
the ring-canal ; the genus Crambessa is the best-known representative
of the family. In the other two families there are eight radial canals,
and between them a network of canals with many openings into the
ring-canal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. i. E. T. Browne, " Variation in Aurelia aurita,"
Biometrika, i. (1901), pp. 90-108, 3 figs.; 2. "Scyphomedusae,"
Fauna and Geogr. Maldives and Laccadives, ii , suppl. i. (1905), pp.
958-971, pi- xciv. ; 3. O. Friedemann, " Untersuchungen uber die
postembryonale Entwicklung von Aurelia aurita," Zeitschr. f. wiss.
Zoo/. Ixxi. (1902), pp. 227-266, pis. xii. xiii., 3 text-figs.; 4. W. Hein,
" Untersuchungen uber die Entwicklung von Aurelia aurila,"
Zeitschr. /. wiss. Zool. Ixvii. (1900), pp. 401-438, pis. xxiv. xxv., 5
text-figs. ; 5. K. Kishinouye, " Some New Scyphomedusae of Japan,"
Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo, xvii., No. 7 (1902), 17 pp., 2 pis.; 6. O. Maas,
" Die Medusen " (Albatross Expedition), Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool.
Harvard Coll. xxiii. I (1897), 92 pp., 15 pis., with explanations;
" Uber Medusen aus dem Solenhofer Schiefer und der unteren
Kreide der Karpathen," Palaeontographica, xlviii. (1902), pp. 297-
322, pis. xxii. xxiii., with explanations, and 9 text-figs.; 8.
" Die Scyphomedusen der Siboga-Expedition," Uitkomst. Siboga-
Expeditie, xi. (1903), 91 pp., 12 pis., with explanations;
" Mdduses," Result. Camp. Sci. Albert, Monaco, xxyiii. (1904),
71 pp., 6 pis., with explanations; 10. " Me'dusen," in Resultats
du S.Y. Belgica (1906), 32 pp., 3 pis.; II. "Die arktischen
Medusen," Fauna Arctica, iv. (1906), pp. 479-526; 12. O. Maas,
" Uber eine neue Medusengattung aus dem lithpgraphischen
Schiefer," N.JB. Mineral Geol. Palaeontol. (1906), ii. pp. 90-99,
4 text-figs.; 13. W. Schewiakoff, " Beitrage zur Kenntms des
Acalephenauges," Morph. Jahrb. xv. (1889), pp. 21-60, 3 pis.;
14. E. Vanhoffen, " Die Akalephen der Plankton- Expedition,"
Ergebn. d. Plankt.-Exp. ii. (1892), 28 pp., 5 pis.; 15. "Die
acraspeden Medusen der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition," Deutsch.
Tiefsee-Exped. " Valdivia," iii. (1902), pp. 1-15, 8 pis. See also
the general works cited in the article HYDROZOA and the biblio-
graphies given in them. (E. A. M.)
SCYROS, a small rocky barren island in the Aegean Sea, off
the coast of Thessaly, containing a town of the same name. In
469 B.C. it was conquered by the Athenians under Cimon, and
it was probably about this time that the legends arose which
connect it with the Attic hero Theseus, who was said to have
been treacherously slain and buried there. A mythic claim
was thus formed to justify the Athenian attack, and Cimon
brought back the bones of Theseus to Athens in triumph. The
inhabitants of Scyros before the Athenian conquest were Dotopes
(Thuc. i. 98); but other accounts speak of Pelasgians or Carians
as the earliest inhabitants. There was a sanctuary of Achilles
on the island, and numerous traditions connect Scyros with that
hero. He was concealed, disguised as a woman, in the palace
of Lycomedes, king of the island, when his mother wished
to keep him back from the Trojan War; he was discovered
there by Odysseus, and gladly accompanied him to Troy. An
entirely different cycle of legends relate the conquest of Scyros
by Achilles. The actual worship on the island of a hero or god
named Achilles, and the probable kinship of its inhabitants
with a Thessalian people, whose hero Achilles also was, form
the historical foundation of the legends. Scyros was left,
along with Lemnos and Imbros, to the Athenians by the peace
of Antalcides (387 B.C.). It was taken by Philip, and continued
under Macedonian rule till 196, when the Romans restored it to
Athens, in whose possession it remained throughout the Roman
period. It was sacked by an army of Goths, Heruli and Peucini,
in A.D. 269. The ancient city was situated on a lofty rocky
peak, on the north-eastern coast, where the modern town of St
George now stands. A temple of Athena, the chief goddess of
Scyros, was on the shore near the town. The island has a small
stream, called in ancient times Cephissus.
SCYTHAE (Gr. S/ci>0ai), in Herodotus (iv. 1-142) and Hippo-
crates (De acre, 24 sqq.), a definite nation giving its name to
Scythia (q.ii.) ; in later writers a general term for the inhabitants
of that country without distinction of race.
SCYTHE, an implement for mowing grass or reaping corn
or grain, consisting of a curved steel blade fastened to a long
wooden handle with a slight double curve from which project
two small pieces by which the handle is held. The handle is
526
SCYTHIA
technically known as the " snathe," " sned " or " snead " (sncedan
to cut, cf. Ger. schneiden). The word in O.E. is, siSe or stye
M.E. sithe; the mis-spelling " scythe " is paralleled' by " scent,"
and is possibly due to the Fr. scier, saw; the word means " an
instrument for cutting," and is derived from the root sak-,
seen in Lat. secure, to cut, " saw " and " sickle," the oldest of
reaping implements, with deep curved blade and short handle.
The same root is seen in the " sedge," i.e. cutting or sword-grass,
strictly applied to plants of the genus Carex, but loosely used
of flags, rushes and other grasses growing in marshy places
(see REAPING).
SCYTHIA (Gr. 'Zicvdia), originally (e.gin Herodotus iv. 1-142),
the country of the Scythae or the country over which the nomad
Scythae were lords, that is, the steppe from the Carpathians
to the Don. With the disappearance of the Scythae as an ethnic
and political entity, the name of Scythia gives place in its original
seat to that of Sarmatia, and is artificially applied by geographers,
on the one hand, to the Dobrudzha, the lesser Scythia of Strabo,
where it remained in official use until Byzantine times; on the
other, to the unknown regions of northern Asia, the Eastern
Scythia of Strabo, the " Scythia intra et extra Imaum " of
Ptolemy; but throughout classical literature Scythia generally
meant all regions to the north and north-east of the Black Sea,
and a Scythian (Scythes) any barbarian coming from those parts.
Herodotus (I.e.), to whom with Hippocrates (De acre, &c. 24, sqq.)
we owe our earliest knowledge (Homer, //. xiii. 5, speaks of
" mare-milkers," and Hesiod, ap. Strabo vii. 3 (7) mentions
Scythae) of the land and its inhabitants, tries to restrict this
merely geographical usage and to confine the word Scyth to a
certain race or at any rate to that race and its subjects, but
even he seems to slip back into the wider use. Hence there is
much doubt as to his exact meaning.
His account of the geography falls into two irreconcilable
parts; one (iv. 99 sqq.), in connexion with the tale of the invasion
of Darius, makes of Scythia a kind of chessboard 4000 stades
square on which the combatants can make their moves quite
unhindered by the great rivers: the other (16-20), founded on
what he learned from Greeks of Olbia and supplemented by the
tales of the 7th century traveller Aristeas of Proconnesus,
is not very far removed from first-hand information and can be
made more or less to tally with the lie of the land. In accordance
with this we can give the relative positions of the various tribes,
and an excursus on the rivers (47-57) lets us define their actual
seats. In western Scythia, starting from Olbia and going north-
wards, we have Callippidae on the lower Hypanis (Bug), Alazones
where the Tyras (Dniester) and Hypanis come near each other in
their middle courses, and Aroteres (" Ploughmen ") above them.
These tribes raised wheat, presumably in the river valleys,
and sold it for export; in the eastern half from west to east
were Georgi (perhaps the same as Aroteres) between the Ingul
and the Borysthenes (Dnieper), nomad Scyths and Royal Scyths
between the Borysthenes and the Tdnais (Don). Above all
these stretched a row of non-Scythian tribes from west to east:
on the Maris (Maros) in Transylvania the Agathyrsi; Neuri
in Podolia and Kiev, Androphagi and Melanchlaeni in Poltava,
(Ryazan) and Tambov. On the lower Don and Volga we have
the Sauromatae, and on the middle course of the Volga the
Budini with the great wooden town of Gelonus and its semi-Greek
inhabitants. From this region started an important trade route
eastward by the Thyssagetae among the southern Urals, the
lyrcae on the Tobol and Irtysh to the Kirgiz steppe, where
dwelt other Scyths, regarded as colonists of those in Europe:
then by the Argippaei in the Altai and the Isscdones in the Tarym
basin, to the one-eyed Arimaspi on the borders of China, who
stole their gold from the watchful griffins, and who marched
with goat-footed men and Hyperboreans reaching to the sea.
To the south of Scythia the Crimean mountains were inhabited
by a non-Sythic race, the Tauri. (See also articles on these
tribes.)
Ethnology. Herodotus expressly divides the Scythians into
the Agriculturists, Callipidae, Alazones, Aroteres and Georgi
in the western part of the country, and the Nomads with the
Royal Scyths to the east. The latter claimed dominion over
all the rest. The question arises whether we have to do with
the various tribes of one race in different stages of civilization,
or with a mixed population called by foreigners after the ruling
tribe. The latter seems by far the more probable. The affinities
of this tribe have been sought in various directions, and the
evidence suggests that it was itself of mixed blood. We know
that in the 2nd century A.D., when the steppes were dominated
by the Sarmatae (q.v.) , the majority of the barbarian names in the
inscriptions of Olbia, Tanais, and Panticapaeum were Iranian,
and can infer that the Sarmatae spoke an Iranian language.
Pliny speaks of their descent from the Medes. Now the Sarmatae
are represented as half-caste Scyths speaking a corrupt variety
of Scythian. Presumably, therefore, the Scyths also spoke an
Iranian dialect. But of the Scy thic words preserved by Herodotus
some are Iranian, others, especially the names of deities, have
found no satisfactory explanation in any Indo-European language.
Indeed they rather suggest a Ugrian origin. Nevertheless, the
general opinion has been that the Scyths were Iranian. The
present writer believes that they were a horde which came
down from upper Asia, conquered an Iranian-speaking people,
and in time adopted the speech of its subjects. The settled
Scythians would be the remains of this Iranian population, or
the different tribes of them may have been connected with their
neighbours beyond Scythian dominion Thracian Getae and
Arimaspi, Slavonic Neuri, Finnish Androphagi and such like.
The Cimmerians who preceded the Scythians used Iranian proper
names, and probably represented this Iranian element in greater
purity. Herodotus gives three legends of the origin of the
Scyths (iv. 5-12); these, though they contradict each other,
can be reconciled with the view stated above. Two of them
seem to be the same story; one is very strongly Hellenized,
the other, in more or less native shape, is shortly this. The
tribe is autochthonous, claiming descent from a son of the river
Borysthenes Targitaos, who lived a thousand years before.
Of his three sons the youngest Colaxais is preferred by an ordeal
of picking up certain objects which fell from heaven, a plough,
a yoke, an axe and a cup, and becomes the ancestor of the
ruling clan of Paralatae; from the other sons, Lipoxais and
Harpoxais, are descended minor clans, and the name of the whole
people is Scoloti, not Scythae, which is used by the Greeks alone.
In this story the names make sense in Iranian, the tribes are not
again mentioned except when this passage is copied, the objects
are hardly such as would be held sacred by nomads, the form
of ordeal is to be paralleled in Iranian legends, and the people
say themselves that they are not really Scythae. Surely this is
the national legend of the agricultural Scythians about Olbia,
and the name Scoloti, by which careful modern writers designate
the Royal Scyths, is the true designation of the subject race.
The royal line of these is quite distinct from the true Royal
Scyths, who, like most nomad conquerors, allowed their subjects
to preserve their own organizations.
The third account fails chiefly in being too plausible, but
there seems no reason to reject it as an artificial combination
of unconnected facts. According to it the Scyths dwell in
Asia, and were forced by the Massagetae over the Araxes (Volga ?)
into the land of the Cimmerians. Aristeas says that the first
impulse came from the Arimaspi, who displaced the Issedones,
who in turn fell upon the Scyths. This comes to much the same
thing, as the Massagetae seem to have contained an element
which had come in from the land of the Issedones. The Scyths
having fallen upon them from the north-east, the Cimmerians
appear to have given way in two directions, towards the south-
west, where the tombs of their kings were shown on the Tyras
(Dniester) and one body joined with the Treres of Thrace
in invading Asia Minor by the Hellespont; and towards the
south-east where another body threatened the Assyrians, who
called them Gimirrai (Hebrew Gomer; Gen. xi.). They were
followed by the Scyths (Ashguzai, Heb. Ashkenaz) whom the
Assyrians welcomed as allies and used against the Cimmerians,
against the Medes and even against Egypt. Hence the references
to the Scyths in the Hebrew prophets (Jer. iv. 3, vi. 7). This
SCYTHIA
527
is all put in the latter half of the 7th century B.C. Herodotus
says that the Scyths ruled Media for twenty-eight years, and were
then massacred or expelled. The Assyrian evidence is in the
main a confirmation of Herodotus, though most writers think
that the Scythians who troubled Asia were Sacae from the east
of the Caspian (H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen, p. 484
sqq.). If the Scyths came out of upper Asia, the Scythian
colonists beyond the lyrcae might be a division which had
remained nearer the homeland, but in dealing with nomads we
can suppose such a return as that of the Calmucks (Kalmuks)
in the i8th century.
The physical features of the Scyths are not described by
Herodotus, but Hippocrates (I.e.) draws a picture of them
which makes them very similar to the Mongols as they appeared
to the Franciscan missionaries in the I3th century. He says
they are quite unlike any other race of men, and very like each
other. The main point seems to be a tendency to slackness,
fatness and excess of humours. The men are said to be in appear-
ance very like eunuchs, and both sexes have a tendency to sexual
indifference amounting in the men to impotence. When a man
finds himself in this condition he assumes the women's dress
and habits. Herodotus mentions the existence of this class,
called Enarees, and says that they suffer from a sacred disease
owing to the wrath of the goddess of Ascalon whose shrine they
had plundered. Reinegg describes a similar state of things
in the Nogai in the i8th century. The whole account suggests
a Tatar clan in the last stage of degeneracy. Hippocrates says
that this only applies to the ruling class, not to the slaves, but
gives as the reason the want of exercise among the former. The
skulls dug up in Scythic graves throw no light on the question,
some being round and some long. The representations of nomads
on objects of Greek art show people with full beards and shaggy
hair, such as cannot be reconciled with Hippocrates; but the
only reliefs which seem to be accurate belong to a late date when
the ruling clan was Sarmatian rather than Scythic.
Customs. Herodotus gives a good survey of the customs of the
Scyths: it seems mostly to apply to the ruling race. Again the
closest analogy is the state of the Mongols in the I3th century, but
too much weight must not be put on this, as the natural conditions
of steppe-ranging nomads dictated the greater part of them. Still
the correspondence of religion and of Tuneral rites is very close.
The Scyths lived upon the produce of their herds of cattle and horses,
their main food being the flesh of the latter, either cooked in a
cauldron or made into a kind of haggis, and the milk of mares from
which they made cheese and kumiss (a fermented drink resembling
buttermilk). This necessitated their constantly moving in search
of fresh pasture, spending the spring and autumn upon the open
steppe, the winter and summer by the rivers for the sake of moisture
and shelter. The men journeyed on horseback, the women in wagons
with felt tilts. These were drawn by their cattle, and were the
homes of each family. Hence the Greek names, Abii, Hippemolgi,
Hamaxobii. The women were kept in subjection, and were far
from enjoying the liberty granted them among the Sarmatae, among
whom they rode on horseback and engaged in war. Polygamy was
practised, the son inheriting his father's wives. Both men and
women avoided washing, but there was something of the nature of a
vapour bath, with which Herodotus has confused a custom of using
the smoke of hemp as a narcotic. The women daubed themselves
with a kind of cosmetic paste. The dress of the men is well shown
upon the Kul Oba and Chertomlyk vases, and upon other Greek
works of art made for Scythic use. It must not be confused with
the fanciful barbarian costumes that are so common upon the Attic
pots. They wore coats confined by belts, trousers tucked into soft
boots, and hoods or tall pointed caps. The women had flowing
robes, tall pointed caps, and veils descending over most of the figure.
Both sexes wore many stamped gold plates sewn upon their clothes
in lines or semis. Their horses had severe bits, and were adorned
with nose pieces, cheek pieces and saddle cloths. True stirrups
were unknown. In war the nation was divided into three sub-
kingdoms, and these into companies, each with its commander.
The companies had yearly feasts, at which the commander honoured
warriors who had slain one or more of the enemy. As evidence of
such prowess, and as a token of his right to a share of any spoil,
the warrior was accustomed to scalp his enemy and adorn his bridle
with the trophy. _ In the case of a special enemy or an adversary
overcome in a private dispute before the king, he would make a
cup of the skull, mounting it in bull's hide or in gold. The tactics
in war were the traditional nomad tactics of harassing the enemy on
the march, constantly retreating before him and avoiding a general
engagement. Their weapons consisted of bow and arrows, short
swords, spears and axes. The government was a despotism, but a
king who aroused the extreme dissatisfaction of his subjects was
liable to be murdered.
Religion. The religion of the Scyths was nature worship. Hero-
dotus (iv. 59) gives a list of their gods, with the Greek deities corre-
sponding, but we cannot tell what aspect of the Greek deity is in
question. He says they chiefly reverence Tahiti (Hestia), next
Papaeus and his wife Apia (Zeus and Ge), then Oitosyros (Apollo)
and Argimpasa (Aphrodite Urania). These are common to all the
Scythians, but Thamimasadas (Poseidon) is peculiar to the Royal
Scyths. 1 They set up no images or altars or temples save to Ares
only. To Ares they make a heap of faggots three stades square,
with three sides steep and one inclined, and bring to it a hundred
and fifty fresh loads of faggots every year. Upon the top is set up a
sword which is the image of Ares; to this they sacrifice captives,
pouring their blood over it. The account of the cult of Ares, for
whom no Scythian name is given, appears to be an addition, and
the mention of such masses of faggots suggests the wooded district
of the agricultural Scythians, not the treeless steppe of the Royal
tribe. The Scythian pantheon is not distinctive, and can be
paralleled among the Tatars and among the Iranians. The Scyths
had a method of divination with sticks, and the Enarees, who
claimed to be soothsayers by grant of the goddess who had afflicted
them, used another method by splitting bast fibres. They inter-
vened in case of the king's falling sick, when it was assumed that
some man had sworn by the king's hearth and broken his oath.
If a man accused_ of this denies it, other diviners are called, and if
these concur, he is beheaded and his sons slain and his goods given
to the diviners. But if a majority of diviners decide against the
accusers, the latter are set upon a wagon-load of brushwood and
burned to death. The burial rites are the most fully described.
Private persons were merely carried about among their friends, who
held wakes in their honour, and then buried forty days after death.
But the funerals of the kings were much more elaborate. They
exhibit the extreme development of the principle of surrounding
the dead man with everything in which he found pleasure during his
life. The tombs of the kings were in the land of Gerrhus near the
great bend of the Dnieper where the chief tumuli have been excavated.
The body was embalmed and filled with aromatic herbs, and then
brought to this region, passing through the lands of various tribes.
The Royal Scyths who followed the body were accustomed to cut
about their faces and arms, and each tribe that the cortege met
upon its way had to join it and conform to this expression of grief.
Arrived at the place of burial, the body was set in a square pit with
spears marking out its sides and a roof of matting. Then one of
the king's concubines and his cup-bearer, cook, groom, messenger
and horses were strangled and laid by him, and round about offerings
of all his goods and cups of gold no silver or bronze. After this
they raised a great mound, striving to make it as high as possible.
A year later they strangled fifty youths of the dead man's servants
(all Scyths born) and fifty of the best horses, stuffed them and
mounted them in a circle about the tomb.
Tombs. The description is generally borne out by the evidence of
the tombs opened in the Scythic area. None agrees in every point,
but almost every detail finds a close parallel in some ttfJhb or other.
The chief divergence is in the presence of silver and copper objects,
but the great quantity of gold is the most striking fact, and to say
that there was nothing but gold seems merely an exaggeration.
Tombs to which the name Scythic is generally applied form a well-
defined class. They are preceded over the whole area by a much
simpler form of burial marked by the practice of staining the bones
with red ochre, and the presence of one or two rude pots and nothing
more: yet that some were tombs of great chiefs is shown by the
great size of the barrows heaped over them. They have been
referred to the Cimmerians, but for this there is no clear evidence.
The Scythic tombs can be roughly dated by the objects of Greek
art that they contain. They seem to begin about the 6th century
B.C., and to continue till the 2nd century A.D. ; that is, they cover
the period of the Scythic domination according to the account
accepted above, and that of the Sarmatian, and so suggest that, as
Far as the archaeological evidence goes, there was little more than a
change of name and perhaps the substitution of one ruling clan for
another not a real change of population. The finest of the class
were opened about the bend of the Dnieper, where we should put the
land Gerrhus. Others are found to the south-west of the central
area, and in the governments of Kiev and Poltava we have many
tombs with Scythic characteristics, but a difference (e.g. the fewness
of the horses) which makes us think of the settled tribes under
Scythic domination. Others occur in the flat northern half of the
Crimea, and even close to Kerch, where the famous Kul Oba seems
:o have held a Scythic chieftain who had adopted a veneer of Greek
:astes, but remained a barbarian at heart. East of the Maeotis,
especially along the river Kuban, are many groups of barrows
showing the same culture as those of Gerrhus but in a purer form.
Farther to the north and east the series seems to extend into Siberia,
put in this region excavations have been few. Unfortunately very
: ew of these barrows have come down to us unplundered, and we
cannot find one complete example and take it as a type. Soon after
1 The names are read in various ways ; it is impossible to establish
the correct forms.
528
SCYTHIA
they were heaped up, before the beams supporting the central
chamber had rotted, thieves made a practice of driving a mine
into the mound straight to where the valuables were deposited, and
it is only by the collapse of this mine and the crushing of the robber
after he had thrown everything into confusion that the treasures of
the Chcrtomlyk barrow, on the whole the most typical, were pre-
served to us. This was 60 ft. high and noo ft. round; about it
was a stone plinth, and it was approached by a kind of stone alley.
A central shaft descended 35 ft. 6 in. below the surface of the earth,
and from each corner of it at the bottom opened out side chambers.
The north-west chamber communicated with a large irregular
chamber into which the plunderer's mine opened. In the central
;|t all was in confusion, but here the king seems to have lain on a
ier. His belongings, found piled up near the mine, seem to have
included a combined bow-case and quiver and a sword sheath,
each covered with plates of gold of Greek work, three swords with
gold hafts, a hone with gold mounting, a whip, many other gold
plates and a heap of arrow-heads. In the north-west chamber
was a woman's skeleton, and she had her jewels, mostly of Greek
work. She was attended by a man, and three other men were buried
in the other chambers. They were supplied with simpler weapons
and adornments, but even so their clothes had hundreds of stamped
gold plates and strips of various shapes sewn on to them. By
every skeleton were drinking vessels. Store of wine was contained
in six amphorae, and in two bronze cauldrons were mutton-bones.
The most wonderful object of all was a great two-handled vase
standing 3 ft. high and made to hold kumiss. The greater part of
its body is covered by a pattern of acanthus leaves, but on the shoulder
is a frieze showing nomads breaking in wild marcs, our chief authority
for Scythian costume. To the west of the main shaft were three
square pits with horses and their harness, and by ithem two pits
with men's skeletons. In the heap itself was found an immense
quantity of pieces of harness and what may be remains of a funeral
car. The Greek work would seem to date the burial as of the 3rd
century B.C.
At Alexandropol in the same district was an even more elaborate
tomb, _ but _its contents were in even greater confusion. Another
1 01 nl i in this region, Mclgunov's barrow, found as long ago as 1760,
contained a dagger-sheath and pommel of Assyrian work and Greek
things of the 6th century. In the Ku! Oba tomb mentioned above
the chamber was of stone and the contents, with one or two excep-
tions, of purely Greek workmanship, 'but the ideas underlying are
the same the king has his wife, his servant and his horse, his
amphorae with wine, his cauldron with mutton-bones, his drinking
vessels and his weapons, the latter being almost the only objects of
barbarian style. One of the cups has a frieze with reliefs of natives
supplementing that on the Chertomlyk vase.
East of the Maeotis on the Kuban we have many barrows; the
most interesting are the groups called the Seven Brothers, and those
of Karagodcuashkh, Kostromskaya, Ul and Kelermes, the latter
remarkable for objects of Assyrian style, the others for the enormous
slaughter of horses; on the Ul were lour hundred in one grave.
Art. Certain of the objects which occur in these Scythic graves
are of special forms typical for the Scythic area. Most interesting
of these is the dagger or sword, always very short, save in the latest
graves, and distinguished by a heart-shaped guard marking the
juncture of hilt and blade; its sheath is also characteristic, having
a triangular projection on one side and usually a separate chape:
these peculiar forms were necessitated by a special way of hanging
the dagger from two straps that it might not interfere with a rider's
movements. Just the same form of short sword was used in Persia
and is shown on the sculptures at Persepolis. Another special type
is the bow-case, made to take a short curved bow and to accommodate
arrows'as well. Further, there is the peculiar cauldron on one conical
foot, round which the fire was built, the cylindrical hone pierced
for suspension, and the cup with a rounded bottom. Assyrian and
afterwards Greek craftsmen working for Scythic employers were
compelled to decorate these outlandish forms, which they did accord-
ing to their own fashion: but there was also a native style with
conventionalized beast decoration, which was almost always em-
ployed for the adornment of bits and horses' gear, and very often for
weapons. This style and the types of dagger, cauldron, bit and two-
looped _socketed axchead run right across from Hungary to the upper
Yenisei, where a special Bronze Age culture seems to have developed
them. But even here it seems impossible to deny some influence
coming from the Aegean area, and Scythic beasts are very like certain
products of Mycenaean and early Ionic art. Again, the Scythic style
is interesting as being one element in the art of the barbarians who
conquered the Roman Empire and the zoomorphic decoration of the
early middle ages.
The dominance from the Yenisei to the Carpathians of a distinct
style of art which, whatever its original elements may have been,
seems to have taken shape as far cast as the Yenisei basin is an
additional argument in favour of a certain movement of population
from the far north-east towards the south Russian steppes. It
would correspond in time with the movement of the Scyths of which
Herodotus speaks, and it may be inferred that immigrants coming
from those regions were rather allied to the Tatar family of nations
than to the Iranian. Similar movements from the same regions
appear also to have penetrated Iran itself; hence the resemblance
between the dress and daggers of certain classes of warriors on the
sculptures of Persepolis and those shown on the Kul Oba vase. An
Iranian origin would not account for the presence of analogous types
on the Yenisei.
History. To sum up the history of Scythia, the oldest in-
habitants of whom we hear in Scythia were the Cimmerii; the
nature of the country makes it probable that some of them
were nomads, while others no doubt tilled some land in the
river valleys and in the Crimea, where they left their name to
ferries, earthworks and the Cimmerian Bosporus. They were
probably of Iranian race: among the Persians Herodotus
describes a similar mixture of nomadic and settled tribes. In
the 7th century B.C. these Cimmerians were attacked and partly
driven out by a horde of newcomers from upper Asia called
Scythae; these imposed their name and their yoke upon all
that were left in the Euxine steppes, but probably their coming
did not really change the basis of the population, which remained
Iranian. The newcomers adopted the language of the conquered,
but brought with them new customs and a new artistic taste
probably largely borrowed from the metal-working tribes
of Siberia. About the same time similar peoples harassed the
northern frontier of Iran, where they were called Saka (Sacae),
and in later times Saka and Scyths, whether they were originally
the same or not, were regarded as synonymous. It is difficult
always to judge whether given information applies to the Sacae
or the Scyths.
About 512 B.C. Darius, having conquered Thrace, made an
invasion of Scythia, which, according to the account of Herodotus,
he crossed as far as the Oarus, a river identified with the Volga,
burned the town of Gelonus and returned in sixty days. In this
march he was much harassed by the nomads, with whom he
could not come to close quarters, but no mention is made of his
having any difficulty with the rivers (he gets his water from
wells), and no reason for his proceedings is advanced except
a desire to avenge legendary attacks of Scyths upon Asia. After
losing many men the Great King comes back to the place where
he crossed the Danube, finds the lonians still guarding the bridge
in spite of the attempts of the Scyths to make them desert, and
safely re-enters his own dominions. Ctesias says that the whole
campaign only took fifteen days and that Darius did not get
beyond the Tyras (Dniester). This is also the view of the
reasonable Strabo; but it does not account for the genesis of
the other story. It seems best to believe that Darius made
an incursion in order to secure the frontier of the Danube,
suffered serious reverses and retired with loss, and that this
offered too good a chance to be missed for a moral tale about
the discomfiture of the Great King by a few poor savages. The
Greeks had been trading with the Scyths ever since their coming,
and at Olbia there were other tales of their history. We can
make a list of Scythian kings Spargapcithes, Lycus, Gnurus,
Saulius (whose brother, the famous Anacharsis (q.v.), travelled
over all the world in search of wisdom, was reckoned a sage
among the Greeks and was slain among his own people because
they did not like his foreign ways), and Idnnlhyrsus, the head
king at the time of Darius, probably the father of Ariapeithes.
This latter had three wives, a Greek woman from Istrus, Opoea
a Scythian, and a Thracian daughter to the great chief Teres.
Scyles, his son by the Greek mother, affected Greek ways, had
a house in Olbia, and even took part in Bacchic rites. When
this came to the knowledge of his subjects he was murdered,
and Octamasadas, his son by the third wife, reigned in his stead.
Herodotus adduces this to show how much the Scyths hated
foreign customs, but with the things found in the graves it
rather proves how strong was the attraction exercised upon the
nomads by the higher culture of their neighbours. Octamasadas
died shortly before the time of Herodotus. We cannot place
Ariantas, who made a kind of census of the nation by exacting
an arrow-head from each warrior and cast a great cauldron
out of the bronze, nor Taxacis and Scopasis, the under-kings
in the time of Idanthyrsus. After the retreat of Darius the
Scythians made a raid as far as Abydos, and even sent envoys
to King Cleomenes III. of Sparta to arrange that they should
attack the Persian Empire from the Phasis while the Spartans
SEA SEA, COMMAND OF THE
529
should march up from Ephesus. The chief result of the embassy
was that Clcomenes took to the Scythian habit of drinking his
wine neat and went mad therefrom (Herodotus vi. 84). Hence-
forward the Scyths appear as a declining power: by the middle
of the 4th century their eastern neighbours the Sarmatae have
crossed the Tanais (Don) and the pressure of the Scyths is felt
on the Danube. Here Philip II. of Macedon defeated and slew
their king Ateas in 339 B.C., and from this time on the repre-
sentatives of the old Scythic power are petty chieftains in the
western part of the country about Olbia, where they could still
be dangerous, and about Tomi. Towards the second half of the
2nd century B.C. this kingdom seems to have become the nucleus
of a great state under Scilurus, whose name appears on coins
of Olbia, and who at the same time threatened Chersonese in the
Crimea. Here, however, he was opposed by the might of Mithra-
datcs VI. of Pontus and his power was broken. Henceforward
the name " Scythian " is purely geographical. Meanwhile
Scythia had become the land of the Sarmatae (q.v.). These,
as has been seen, spoke a cognate dialect, and the tombs which
belong to their period show exactly the same culture with Greek
and Siberian elements. It is probable that the Iranian element
was stronger among the Sarmatae, whose power extended as
the ruling clan of the Scyths became extinct; but it is quite
likely that they in their turn were officered by some new horde
from upper Asia. Like the Scyths they were pressed towards
the west by yet newer swarms, and with the coming of the Huns
Scythia enters upon a new cycle, though still keeping its old
name in the Byzantine historians.
AUTHORITIES. (i) Ancient: Herodotus iv. 1-142 (editions of
Blakesley, Rawlinson, Macan): Hippocrates, De Aere, &c., c. 24
sqq.; for geography alone: Strabo vii. cc. 3, 4; xi. cc. I, 2, 6; Pliny
iv. 75 sqq.; Ptolemy, Sarmatia; Diodorus bic. ii. 2, 43-47; and
Justin i. cc. I, 8; ii. 1,4, do not seem to add anything of which we
can be certain. (2) Modern: E. H. Minns, Scythians and Greeks
(Cambridge, 1909), gives a summary of various opinions and a survey
of the subject from all points of view. See also for ethnological
questions, Mongolian hypothesis: K. Neumann, Die Ilellenen im
Skythenlande (Berlin, 1855). Iranian hypothesis: K. MUIlenhoff,
" Ubcr Herkunft und Sprache der Pontischen Skythen und Sar-
maten," in Monatsber. d. Berl. Ak. (1866), reprinted in Deutsche
Altertumskunde, vol. iii. For the archaeology: Kondakoff, Tolstoi
and Reinach, Antiquites de la Russie Meridionals (Paris, 1892);
more fully in Antiquit&s de la Russie d'llerodote and Compte rendu de
la commission archeologique de St-Petersbourg, passim. (E. H. M.)
SEA (in 0. Eng. sue, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. See,
Dutch Zee, &c.; the ultimate source is uncertain), in its widest
sense that part of the surface of the globe which consists of salt
water, in distinction from dry land. The greater divisions
of " the sea," in this sense, are. called oceans, and are dealt
with under the heading OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY, the latter
being the term now generally applied to the scientific study of
the sea. The word " sea," however, is also used, in a restricted
sense, in application to specific parts of the great oceans, more
or less clearly defined by a partial land-boundary. Such are the
Mediterranean Sea and the Caribbean Sea, connected with the
Atlantic Ocean; the Arabian Sea, a division of the Indian Ocean,
and the China and Japan Seas of the western Pacific Ocean.
Subdivisions of great seas arc similarly defined (e.g. the Adriatic
Sea), and a few large bodies of salt water entirely land-locked
are also called seas e.g. the Caspian Sea, the Sea of Aral, the
Dead Sea. Sea-level is the assumed mean level of the sea, serving
as a datum from which to calculate the elevation of land in
surveying (q.v.).
SEA, COMMAND OF THE, a technical term of naval warfare,
which indicates a definite strategical condition. (For its difference
from " sea-power," see the separate article on that
from" subject.) The term has been substituted sometimes
*ovcr- for the much older " Dominion of the sea " or " Sove-
tigntyor re ignty of the sea," a legal term expressing a claim,
""' if not a right. It has also been sometimes treated as
though it were identical with the rhetorical expression,
" Empire of the sea." Captain A. T. Mahan, instead of it, uses
the term " Control of the sea," which has the merit of precision,
and is not likely to be misunderstood or mixed up with a form
of words meaning something different. The expression " Com-
mand of the sea," however, in its proper and strategic sense,
is so firmly fixed in the language that it would be a hopeless task
to try to expel it; and as, no doubt, writers will continue to
use it, it must be explained and illustrated. Not only does it
differ in meaning from " Dominion or Sovereignty of the Sea,"
it is not even truly derived therefrom, as can be briefly shown.
" It has become an uncontested principle of modern international
law that the sea, as a general rule, cannot be subjected to
appropriation " (W. E. Hall, Treatise on International Law,
4th ed., 1895, p. 146). This, however, is quite modern. Great
Britain did not admit the principle till 1805; the Russians did
not admit it till 1824; and the Americans, and then only tacitly,
not till 1894. Most European nations at some time or other
have claimed and have exercised rights over some part of the
sea, though far outside the now well-recognized " three miles'
limit." Venice claimed the Adriatic, and exacted a heavy toll
from vessels navigating its northern waters. Genoa and France
each claimed portions of the western Mediterranean. Denmark
and Sweden claimed to share the Baltic between them. Spain
claimed dominion over the Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico, and
Portugal over the Indian Ocean and all the Atlantic south of
Morocco (Hall, pp. 148-9). The claim which has made the
greatest noise in the world is that once maintained by the kings
of England to the seas surrounding the British Isles. Like
other institutions, the English sovereignty of the sea was, and
was admitted to be, beneficent for a long period. Then came
the time when it ought to have been abandoned as obsolete;
but it was not, and so it led to war. The general conviction of the
maritime nations was that the Lord of the Sea would provide
for the police of the waters over which he exercised dominion.
In rude ages when men, like the ancients, readily " turned them-
selves to piracy," this was of immense importance to trade;
and, far from the right of dominion being disputed by foreigners,
it was insisted upon by them and declared to carry with it certain
duties. In 1299, not only English merchants, but also " the
maritime people of Genoa, Catalonia, Spain, Germany, Zealand,
Holland, Frisia, Denmark, Norway and several other places
of the empire " declared that the kings of England had from
time immemorial been in " peaceable possession of the sovereign
lordship of the seas of England," and had done what was " needful
for the maintenance of peace, right and equity between people
of all sorts, whether subjects of annthei kingdom or not, who
pass through those seas " (J. K. Laughton," Sovereignty
of the Sea," Fortnightly Review, August 1866). The English
sovereignty was not exercised as giving authority to exact toll.
All that was demanded in return for keeping the sea safe for
peaceful traffic was a salute, enforced no doubt as a formal
admission of the right which permitted the (on the whole,
at any rate) effective police of the waters to be maintained. The
Dutch in the 1 7th century objected to the demand for this salute.
It was insisted upon. War ensued; but in the end the Dutch
acknowledged by solemn treaties their obligation to render
the salute. The time for exacting it, however, was really past.
S. R. Gardiner (" The First Dutch War," Navy Records, vol.
xiii., 1899) maintains that though the " question of the flag "
was the occasion, it was not the cause of the war. There was
not much, if any, piracy in the English Channel which the king
of England was specially called upon to suppress, and if there
had been the merchant vessels of the age were generally able
to defend themselves, while if they were not their governments
possessed force enough to give them the necessary protection.
Great Britain gave up her claim to exact the salute in 1805.
The necessity of the foregoing short account of the " Sovereignty
or Dominion of the Seas " will be apparent as soon as we come
to the consideration of the first struggle, or rather
series of struggles, for the command of the sea. Gaining *"""**
this was the result of England's wars with the Dutch command.
in the I7th century. At the time of the first Dutch war,
1652-54, and probably of the later wars also, many people, and
especially seamen, believed that the conflict was due to a deter-
mination on her part to retain, and on that of the Dutch to put an
end to, the English sovereignty or dominion. The obstinacy of the
530
SEA, COMMAND OF THE
Dutch in objecting to pay the old-established mark of respect
to the English flag was quite reason enough in the eyes of most
Englishmen, and probably of most Dutchmen also, to justify
hostilities which other reasons may have rendered inevitable.
The remarkable thing about the Dutch wars is that in reality
what England gained was the possibility of securing an absolute
command of the sea. She came out of the struggle a great, and
in a fair way of becoming the greatest, naval power. It is this
whfch prompted Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb to hold that there
are various kinds of command, such as " absolute or assured,"
" temporary," " with definite ulterior purpose," &c. An explana-
tion that would make all these terms intelligible would be
voluminous and is unnecessary here. It will be enough to say
that the absolute command of which, as Colomb tells us, the
Anglo-Dutch wars were the most complete example is nothing
but an attribute of the nation whose power on the sea is para-
mount. It exists and may be visible in time of peace. The com-
mand which, as said above, expresses a definite strategical
condition is existent only in time of war. It can be easily seen
that the former is essential to an empire like the British, the parts
of which are bound together by maritime communications.
Inability to keep these communications open can have only
one result, viz. the loss of the parts with which communication
cannot be maintained. Experience of war as well as reason will
have made it evident that inability to keep open sea-communica-
tions cannot be limited to any single line, because the inability
must be due either to incapacity in the direction of hostilities
or insufficiency of force. If Great Britain has not force enough
to keep open all the communications of her widely extended
empire, or if having force enough she is too foolish to employ
it properly, she does not hold the command of the sea, and the
empire must fall if seriously attacked.
The strategic command of the sea in a particular war of
campaign has equal concern for all maritime belligerents. Before
seeing what it is, it will be well to learn on high authority
wnat il is not - Ma han says that command, or, to use
his own term, " control of the sea, however real, does
not imply that an enemy's single ships or small squadrons cannot
steal out of port, cannot cross more or less frequented tracts
of ocean, make harassing descents upon unprotected points of
a long coast-line, or enter blockaded harbours. On the contrary,
history has shown that such evasions are always possible, to
some extent, to the weaker party, however great the inequality
of naval strength " (Influence of Sea-Power on History, London,
1890, p. 14). The Anglo-French command of the sea in 1854-
1856, complete as it was, did not enable the Allies to intercept
the Russian ships in the north-western Pacific, nor did that held
by the Federals in the American Civil War put an early stop
to the cruises of the Confederate vessels. What the term really
does imply is the power possessed from the first, or gained during
hostilities, by one belligerent of carrying out considerable over-
sea expeditions at will. In the Russian war just mentioned the
Allies had such overwhelmingly superior sea-power that the
Russians abandoned to them without a struggle the command
of the sea; and the landing in South Africa (1890-1902), more
than six thousand miles away, of a large British army without
even a threat of interruption on the voyage is another instance
of unchallenged command. In wars between great powers and
also between secondary powers, if nearly equally matched, this
absence of challenge is rare. The rule is that the command
of the sea has to be won after hostilities begin. To win it the
enemy's naval force must be neutralized. It may be driven
into his ports and there blockaded or " masked," and thus ren-
dered virtually innocuous; or it must be defeated and destroyed.
The latter is the preferable, because the more effective plan.
As was perceptible in the Spanish-American War of 1898, as long
as one belligerent's fleet is intact or at large the other is reluctant
to carry out any considerable expedition over-sea. In fact, the
command of the sea has not been secured whilst the enemy
continues to have a " fleet in being " (see SEA-POWER).
In 1782 a greatly superior Franco-Spanish fleet was covering
the siege of Gibraltar. Had this fleet succeeded in preventing
the revictualling of the fortress the garrison would have been
starved into surrender. A British fleet under Lord Howe,
though much weaker in numbers, had not been de-
feated and was still at large. Howe, in spite of the
odds against him, managed to get his supply-ships in
to the anchorage and to fight a partial action, in which he did
the allies as much damage as he received. There has never
been a display of higher tactical skill than this operation of
Howe's, though, curiously enough, he owes his fame much
more to his less meritorious performance on the ist of June. The
revictualling of Gibraltar surpassed even Suffren's feat of the
capture of Trincomalee in the same year. In 1798 the French,
assuming that a temporary superiority in the Mediterranean
had given them a free hand on the water, sent a great expedition
to Egypt. Though the army which was carried succeeded in
landing there, the covering fleet was destroyed by Nelson at
the Nile, and the army itself was eventually forced to surrender.
The French had not perceived that, except for a short time and
for minor operations, you cannot separate the command of
the Mediterranean or of any particular area of water from that
of the sea in general. Local command of the sea may enable
a belligerent to make a hasty raid, seize a relatively insignificant
post or cut out a vessel; but it will not ensure his being able
to effect anything requiring considerable time for its execution,
or, in other words, anything likely to have an important influence
on the course of the war. If Great Britain has not naval force
enough to retain command of the Mediterranean she will certainly
not have force enough to retain command of the English Channel.
It can be easily shown why it should be so. In war danger
comes less from conditions of locality than from the enemy's
power to hurt. Taking up a weak position when confronting
an enemy may help him in the exercise of his power, but it does
not constitute it. A maritime enemy's power to hurt resides
in his fleet. If that can be neutralized his power disappears.
It is in the highest degree inprobable that Great Britain could
attain this end by splitting up her fleet into fragments so as
to have a part of it in nearly every quarter in which the enemy
may try to do her mischief. The most promising plan as
experience has often proved is to meet the enemy when he
shows himself with a force sufficiently strong to defeat him.
The proper station of the British fleet in war should, accordingly,
be the nearest possible point to the enemy's force. This was the
fundamental principle of Nelson's strategy, and it is as valid
now as ever it was. If Great Britain succeeds in getting into
close proximity to the hostile fleet with an adequate seeking
force of her own, her foe cannot obtain command the
of the sea, or of any part of it, whether that part be enemy's
the Mediterranean or the English Channel, at any rate
until he has defeated her. If he is strong enough to defeat her
fleet he obtains the command of the sea in general; and it is
for him to decide whether he shall show the effectiveness of that
command in the Mediterranean or in the English Channel.
In the smaller operations of war temporary command of a par-
ticular area of water may suffice for the success of an expedition,
or at least will permit the execution of the preliminary
Tin .1 a e . I" smaller
movements. When the mam fleet of a country is at opera </ ons .
a distance which it ought not to be except with the
object of nearing the opposing fleet a small hostile expedition
may slip across, say the English Channel, throw shells into a
coast town or burn a village, and get home again unmolested.
Its action would have no sort of influence on the course of the
campaign, and would, therefore, be useless. It would also most
likely lead to reprisals; and, if this process were repeated,
the war would probably degenerate into the antiquated system
of " cross-raiding," discarded centuries ago, not at all for reasons
of humanity, but because it became certain that war could be
more effectually waged in other ways. The power in command
of the sea may resort to raiding to expedite the formal submission
of an already defeated enemy, as Russia did when at war with
Sweden in 1719; but in such a case the other side cannot retaliate.
Temporary command of local waters will also permit of operations
rather more considerable than mere raiding attacks; but the
SEABURY SEADIAH
duration of these operations must be adjusted to the time
available. If the duration of the temporary command is in-
sufficient the operation must fail. It must fail even if the earlier
steps have been taken successfully. The command of the English
Channel, which Napoleon wished to obtain when maturing his
invasion project, was only temporary. It is possible that a
reminiscence of what had happened in Egypt caused him to
falter at the last; and that, quite independently of the pro-
ceedings of Villeneuve, he hesitated to risk a second battle of
rhe Nile and the loss of a second army. It may have been this
which justified his later statement that he did not really mean
to invade England. In any case, the British practice of fixing
the station of their fleet wherever that of the enemy was, would
have seriously shortened the duration of his command of the
English Channel, even if it had allowed it to be won at all.
Moreover, attempts to carry out a great operation of war against
time as well as against the efforts of the enemy to prevent it
are in the highest degree perilous.
In war the British navy has three prominent duties to dis-
charge. It has to protect the maritime trade, to keep open the
communications between the different parts of the empire
and to prevent invasion. If Great Britain commands the sea
these duties will be discharged effectually. As long as she does
that, the career of cruisers sent to prey on her commerce will
be precarious, because command of the sea carries with it the
necessity of possessing an ample cruiser force. As long as the
condition mentioned is satisfied her ocean communications will
be kept open, because an inferior enemy, who cannot obtain
the command required, will be too much occupied in seeing to
his own safety to be able to interfere seriously with that of any
part of the British empire. This being so, it is evident that the
greater operation of invasion cannot be attempted, much less
carried to a successful termination, by the side which cannot
make head against the opposing fleet. Command of the sea is
the indispensable preliminary condition of a successful military
expedition sent across the water. It enables the nation which
possesses it to attack its foes where it pleases and where they
seem to be most vulnerable. At the same time it gives to its
possessor security against serious counter-attacks, and affords
to his maritime commerce the most efficient protection that can
be devised. It is, in fact, the main object of naval warfare.
Authorities for the above may be given as naval histories in
general, placing in the first rank the well-known works of Captain
A. T. Mahan, U.S.N. The book which must be specially referred
to is Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb's Naval Warfare (3rd ed., London,
1900). See also the article NAVY. (C. A. G. B.)
SEABURY, SAMUEL (1720-1796), American Protestant
Episcopal bishop, was born on the 3oth of November 1729, in
Ledyard, Groton, Connecticut. His father, Samuel Seabury
(1706-1764), originally a Congregationalist minister in Groton,
was ordained deacon and priest in the Church of England in
1731, and was a rector in New London, Conn., from 1732 to
1743, and in Hempstead, Long Island, from 1743 until his death.
The son graduated at Yale in 1748; studied theology with his
father; studied medicine at Edinburgh in 1752-1753; was
ordained deacon by the bishop of Lincoln and priest by the
bishop of Carlisle in 1753; was missionary in New Brunswick,
New Jersey, in 1754-1757, and was rector in Jamaica, New
York, in 1757-1766, and of St. Peter's, Westchester, New York,
in 1766-1775. He was one of the signers of the White Plains
protest of April 1775 against " all unlawful congresses and
committees," in many other ways proved himself a devoted
loyalist, and wrote the Free Thoughts on the Proceedings of
the Continental Congress (1774) by " A. W. Farmer " (i.e. a
Westchester farmer), which was followed by a second " Farmer's
Letter," The Congress Canvassed (1774), answered by Alexander
Hamilton in A Full Vindication of the Measures of the Congress,
from the Calumnies of their Enemies. A third " Farmer's Letter "
replied to Hamilton's View of the Controversy between Great
Britain and her Colonies, in a broader and abler treatment than in
the previous pamphlets. To this third pamphlet Hamilton
replied with The Farmer Refuted (1775). These three " Farmer's
Letters " a fourth was advertised but apparently was never
published were forcible presentations of the pro-British claim,
written in a plain, hard-headed style; their authorship was
long in question, but it is certain that Seabury claimed them
in England in 1783 when he was seeking episcopal consecration.
At the same time he claimed the authorship of a letter, not signed
by the Westchester farmer, which under the title An Alarm to
the Legislature of the Province of New York (1775) discussed the
power of this the only legal political body in the colony. He
was arrested in November 1775 by a mob of lawless Whigs, and
was kept in prison in Connecticut for six weeks; his parochial
labours were broken up, and after some time in Long Island he
took refuge in New York City, where he was appointed in 1778
chaplain to the king's American regiment. On the 25th of March
1783 he was chosen their bishop by ten episcopal clergymen
of Connecticut, meeting in Woodbury; as he could not take
the British oath of allegiance, Seabury was shut out from con-
secration by the English bishops, and he was consecrated by
Scotch bishops at Aberdeen on the I4th of November 1784.
He returned to Connecticut in 1785 and made New Haven his
home, becoming rector of St James's Church there. The validity
of his consecration was at first questioned by many, but was
recognized by the General Convention of his church in 1789
In 1790 he took charge of the diocese of Rhode Island also. In
1792 he joined with Bishops William White and Samuel Provoost,
who had received English consecration in 1787, and James
Madison (1749-1812), who had received English consecration
in 1790, in the consecration' of Bishop Thomas J. Claggett of
Maryland in 1792, thus uniting the Scotch and the English
successions. He died in New London on the 25th of February
1796. He was a great organizer and a strict churchman: it
is noteworthy that after his consecration he used the signature
" Samuel Bp. Connect." Seabury's " Farmer's Letters " rank
him as the most vigorous American loyalist controversialist
and as one of the greatest masters of style of his period.
His son Charles (1770-1844) was rector in various Long Island
churches; and Charles's son Samuel (1801-1872), who graduated
at Columbia in 1823, was rector of the Church of the Annunciation
in New York in 1838-1868, and from 1862 professor of Biblical
learning and the Interpretation of Scriptures in the General
Theological Seminary. William Jones Seabury (b. 1837), son
of the last named, was rector of the Church of the Annunciation
from 1868 to 1898, professor of ecclesiastical polity and law in
the General Theological Seminary from 1873, and published
a Manual for Choristers (1878), Lectures on Apostolic Succession
(1893) and An Introduction to the Study of Ecclesiastical Polity
(1894).
See E. Edwards Beardsley, Life and Correspondence of the Rt. Rev.
Samuel Seabury (Boston, 1881).
SEADIAH (or SAADIA; in Arabic Sa'id) BEN JOSEPH (892-942)
was born in A.D. 892 at Dilaz in the Fayyum, whence he is often
called al-Fayyumi. Although he is j ustly regarded as the greatest
figure in the literary and political history of medieval Judaism,
nothing certain is known of his father or of his early life. Even
the names of his teachers, generally recorded in the case of
Jewish scholars, are unknown, with the exception of a certain
Abu Kathir, who is himself obscure, and left no writings. Saadia's
literary work is in fact the more remarkable since it suddenly
appears at a time when learning seemed to be dead both in East
and West. Since the completion of the Talmud very little of
any literary importance, if we except certain midrashim, had been
produced among the orthodox (Rabbanite) Jews, although the
Babylonian schools at Sura and Pumbeditha continued to enjoy
a somewhat intermittent prosperity. On the other hand, learning
was cultivated among the Qaraites (q.v.; see also HEBREW
LITERATURE), a sect of Jews who rejected the oral tradition,
restricting their practice to the ordinances of scripture (miqra).
It even seemed for a time as if conservative heresy would pre-
vail against progressive orthodoxy. In Saadia, however, the
Rabbanites found a powerful champion. Almost his first work,
written at the age of twenty-three, was an attack on the teaching
of "Anan, the founder of Qaraism, who lived in the 8th century.
This, like most of Saadia's polemical writings, is no longer extant,
532
SEADIAH
but we can gather something of its contents from references
in the author's other works, and from the statements of his
opponents. The controversy turned largely on the calendar,
which of course involved the dates of festivals, and, since the
Rabbanite calendar had come down from ancient times, opened
up the whole question of oral tradition and the authority of the
Talmud. The conflict raged for many years, the chief repre-
sentative of the other side being Solomon ben Yeruham, a virulent
if not successful opponent. It was not, however, the only contro-
versy in which Saadia was engaged. In 922 Ben Meir, a person
of importance in Palestine, attempted to make alterations in
the calendar, against the authority of the Babylonian schools.
Saadia, who was then at Baghdad, warned him of his errors,
refuted him in a work called Sefer ha-Md'adim (the Book of the
Festivals), and finally procured his excommunication by David
ben Zakkai, the exilarch or head of the Jewish community in
Babylonia. The vigorous action of Saadia seems to have brought
him more prominently to the notice of the exilarch, and that
at a time of more than usual difficulty. The honourable rivalry
of the two schools of Sura and Pumbeditha, as the recognized
authorities in matters of religion, had degenerated into jealousy
and contention. The Gaon (q.v.) or President of Pumbeditha,
taking advantage of his own position and of a vacancy in the
Gaonate of Sura, wished to abolish the rival school. The exilarch ,
however, no doubt in recognition of his recent services, appointed
Saadia as Gaon of Sura, although it was against the usual custom
to appoint a person who was not a member of the school. Un-
fortunately this step did not lead to peace. Pumbeditha
was jealous: the exilarch was weak and not very scrupulous.
Money had to be raised not only for the support of the schools,
but also to buy immunity from the government, and Saadia
was not the man to connive at the corruption and oppression
practised by the exilarch to raise it. Within two years matters
had come to a crisis, and the exilarch dismissed Saadia, while
Saadia retorted by declaring the exilarch deposed (930). After
three years of contention David succeeded in sufficiently bribing
the new and needy Caliph (Q5.hir, 932-934; see CALIPHATE, 19),
who definitely forbade Saadia to act as Gaon. The next four
years, spent in retirement at Baghdad, were devoted to literary
labours, which had no doubt been impossible during the previous
years of trouble, and in fact it was at this time that most
of Saadia's work was produced. Eventually a reconciliation
was effected with David, favoured probably by the new Caliph
Radi (934-940; see CALIPHATE, 20), and Saadia was reinstated
as Gaon of Sura in 938. Under his rule the school attained the
highest reputation among the Jewish communities of East
and West but it was not of long duration. His health had been
impaired by the strenuous life he had led, and in his later years
he suffered from melancholia. In 942 he died, two years after
the exilarch.
That some of the many works of Saadia, in spite of their
merits, have been neglected, and others partly or entirely lost,
is not as surprising as it appears at first sight. They were for
the most part written in Arabic, the vernacular of the Jews in
the East, so that after the break-up of the Babylonian schools in
the middle of the nth century, they would only be studied in
Spain, the new centre of Jewish learning, and in Egypt. After the
expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Arabic practically ceased to
be used by them for literary purposes, and in the rest of Europe
(except perhaps in S. Italy) it was never understood. Even some
Hebrew works, of great interest to us now, must have been
regarded at the time as of purely temporary value, such as e.g.
the Sefer ha-Mo'adim, fragments of which have only recently
been recovered in the Geniza at Cairo. The anti-Qaraite works l
against 'Anan, Ibn Sakawaihl and Ben Zu^J, the Kildb at-tamyiz,
Kitdb al-Shara'i, Kildb al-'Ibbur (calendar) and a book on
anthropomorphisms, all in Arabic, are now lost and only known
from quotations. So also are the refutation of the sceptic
Hivl of Balkh, and the Sefer 'Orayoth (on prohibited marriage,
against Qaraites). Of the Sefer ha-Mo'adim and Sefer ha-Galul
1 An excellent account of these is given by Poznartski in the Jewish
Quarterly Review, x. 238 ff.
(against David ben Zakkai), both in Hebrew, some fragments
have been recovered recently.
Closely allied to his polemical writings are his exegetical works.
He translated most of the Bible into Arabic, and commented
on at least some of the books. The memorial edition 2 contains
(i) the version of the Pentateuch (1893), (3) of Isaiah (1896),
(5) of Job (1899), (6) of Proverbs (1894), the last three with
commentary. The translation of the 5 Meghilloth, and of Daniel
(with commentary), usually ascribed to Saadia, is not really by
him, but a genuine translation of Daniel, with commentary,
exists in manuscript. There is also ascribed to him a midrashic
work on the Decalogue. These all, no doubt, exhibit the defects
necessary to the time in which their author lived. But it must be
remembered that Saadia was a pioneer. Hayyuj, the father
of Hebrew grammar, was not yet born, nor had the scientific
and comparative study of the language begun. In this respect
Saadia contributed little to the subject. Moreover, he shows
a tendency, common at all times and perhaps due to a particular
theory of inspiration, to get more out of the text than it contains,
and to interpret it in accordance with preconceived philosophical
opinions. At the same time both translations and commentaries
are remarkable for their great learning, sound sense and an
honest endeavour to arrive at the true meaning of the original.
They were thus admirably suited for their purpose, which was,
like the earlier Targums and the later work of Moses Mendelssohn,
to render the sacred text more intelligible to the faithful generally
and to check the growth of error.
The grammatical work called Agron, a sort of dictionary, is
now lost, as are also the Kulub al-Lughah and perhaps other
treatises on Hebrew grammar. The explanation of the 70
(really 90) hapaxlegomena in the Bible is still extant, and a
poem on the number of letters in the Bible.
On Talmudic subjects again little is preserved beyond the
Kildb al-Mawdrith, which was published as vol. ix. of the (Euvres
completes, together with the short treatise in Hebrew on the 13
Middolh or canons of exegesis of R. Ishmael and some Responsa
mostly in Hebrew. The translation of the Mishna, the introduc-
tion to the Talmud and other works of the kind are known
only by repute.
Of the Siddur or arrangement of the liturgy by Saadia, a large
part exists in a single manuscript at Oxford, and several fragments
have been recovered from the Cairo Geniza. Numerous other
liturgical poems, or parts of them, have been obtained from the
same source, and several have been published in periodicals.
His Azharoth, a poetical enumeration of the 613 precepts, in.
Hebrew, is included in vol. ix. of the (Euvres completes.
His philosophical works are (i) a commentary on the Sefer
Yezira, a mystical treatise ascribed to the patriarch Abraham,
which, as the foundation of the Kabbala, had great influence
on Jewish thought, and was the subject of numerous commen-
taries; (2) the Kitdb al-Amdndt w"al-rtiqdddt (Book of Beliefs
and Convictions], written in 933, called, in the Hebrew translation
by Judah ibn Tibbon, Emunolh we-De'dth. Its system is based
on reason in conjunction with revelation, the two being not
opposed, but mutually complementary. It is thus concerned,
as the title implies, with the rational foundation of the faith,
and deals with creation, the nature of God, revelation, free will,
the soul, the future life and the doctrine of the Messiah. It
shows a thorough knowledge of Aristotle, on whom much of the
argument is based, and incidentally refutes the viewsof Christians,
Moslems, Brahmins and sceptics such as Hivl. From its nature,
however, the work, although of great interest and value, never
had the same wider influence as that of Ibn Gabirol (q.v.). The
Arabic text was published by S. Landauer (Leiden, 1880), the
Hebrew version at Constantinople in 1562 and frequently since.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gratz, Geschichte der Juden, vol. 5 (ed. 3), cap.
10; Steinschneider, Arab. Literatur der Juden (Frankft. a. M., 1902)
p. 46 ff. ; W. Bacher's art. " Saadia ben Joseph," in the Jewish
Encyclopedia; M. Friedlander in the Jewish Quarterly Review, v.
177 ff. ; S. Poznariski, ibid. vol. x. 238 ff. r J- Guttmann, Die Religions-
philosophie des Saadias (Gottingen, 1882); W. Engelkemper, " Die
2 CEuvres completes de R. Saadia, ed. by J. Derenbourg (Paris,
1893 ff.)-
SEAFIELD, EARLS OF SEA-HORSE
533
rcligionsphilosophische Lehre Saaclja Gaons," in Baeumker's
Beitrage, iv. 4 (Miinster, 1903) (containing a German translation of
part iii. of the Kitab al-A mdnat) A. Harkavy, Studien, v. (St
Petersburg, 1891) '(in Hebrew); S. Schechter, Saadyana (Cambridge,
1903) (texts from the Geniza, repr. from the Jewish Quarterly
Review). (A. CY.)
SEAFIELD, EARLS OF. The ist earl of Seafield, in the
Scottish peerage, was James Ogilvy (1663-1730), son and heir
of James Ogilvy, 3rd earl of Findlater. Although in the conven-
tion parliament of 1689 he had spoken for James II., he took
the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, and after filling some
minor official positions he was made secretary of state in 1696,
and lord chancellor in'i7O2. In 1707 he was made chief baron
in the court of exchequer. In 1701 he was created earl of Seafield,
and in 1711 succeeded to his father's earldom of Findlater.
When his great grandson, James, 7th earl of Findlater and
4th earl of Seafield died in October 1811 the earldom of Findlater
became dormant or extinct, while the earldom of Seafield passed
to a cousin, Lewis Alexander Grant (1767-1840), who was
descended from Margaret, a daughter of the 2nd earl. He took
the name of Grant-Ogilvy and was succeeded as 6th earl by
his brother, Francis William Ogilvy-Grant (1778-1853), whose
descendant, James Ogilvie-Grant (b. 1876) became the nth
earl in 1888. The earl of Seafield is a peer of the United Kingdom
as Baron Strathspey.
SEAFORD, an urban district and watering-place in the East-
bourne parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 58 m. S. by
E. from London by the London, Brighton & South Coast railway.
Pop. (1901) 3355. In recent years there has been a considerable
increase in the number of visitors. The climate is bracing,
and the town is sheltered by high cliffs. There are golf links
on the neighbouring downs. The church of St Leonard is
Norman of various dates, but received large additions in the
Perpendicular period. In former days the river Ouse entered the
English Channel here, and the natural harbour so formed accounts
for the origin of Seaford (Sefford, Safford, Seford), probably in
Roman times. In the " Domesday of Cinque Ports " (which
existed in the reign of Edward III., but was lost before 1728),
it stood first among the members of Hastings, and was doubtless
of considerable importance until about the end of the i4th
century, when its rapid decline began owing to the constant
alteration of the sea-coast and the decay of the harbour. In the
i6th century the town was finally deserted by the Ouse, which
now runs into the sea at Newhaven, 2 m. westward, and no
revival of its prosperity occurred until the early i9th century,
when it began to be frequented as a watering-place. Fishing has
always been the chief industry.
Seaford is not mentioned in Domesday Book, but evidently per-
tained to the lordship of the 1st Earl Warenne and his descendants,
who were succeeded in 1347 by the earls of Arundel. It was probably
a mesne borough in the I2th century, growing up under the protec-
tion of the earls of Warenne, and was certainly called a borough in
1236. Bailiffs are mentioned in the I4th century, but the town
was not incorporated until 1544, when notwithstanding its decayed
condition Henry VIII. annexed it to Hastings by charter, and in-
corporated it under the title of bailiff and commonalty, presumably
as a reward for assisting the head port to provide its proportion of
ships to the crown. The corporation was dissolved by an act of
1883. The town returned two representatives to parliament from
1298 to 1399, and again from 1640 until 1832, when it was dis-
franchised. In the I3th century the earls of Warenne held a market
or fair, or both, apparently by prescriptive right. In 1792 the fair-
days were Whit-Monday and the loth of August, and the market-
days Wednesdays and Saturdays, but no market or fair now
exists.
SEAFORTH, EARL OF, a Scottish title held by the family
of Mackenzie from 1623 to 1716, and again from 1771 to 1781.
The Mackenzies trace their descent to one Colin of Kintail
(d. 1278), and their name is a variant of Mackenneth. Kenneth,
the twelfth head of the clan, was made Lord Mackenzie of Kintail
in 1609, and his son Colin, who succeeded his father as 2nd Lord
Mackenzie in March 1611, was created earl of Seaforth in 1623.
Colin's successor was his half-brother George (d. 1651), who
became the 2nd earl in 1633. George was alternately a royalist
and a covenanter between 1636 and 1646, and was afterwards
in Holland with Charles II., who made him secretary of state
for Scotland. His grandson, Kenneth, the 4th earl, followed
James II. to France and was with the dethroned king in Ireland.
Sent by James in 1690 to head a rising in Scotland, he was
captured and imprisoned, but in 1697 he was released and he died
in Paris in January 1701. His successor was his son William,
who joined the Jacobite standard at Braemar in 1715, and then,
having raised 3000 men, was present at the battle of Sheriffmuir
and was appointed lieutenant-general of the northern counties.
He also took part in the Jacobite enterprise of 1719, being
wounded at Glenshiel. In 1716 he was attainted and his titles
and estates forfeited; before his death in January 1740, he had
been relieved of some of the penalties of his treason, although
his titles were not restored. His son Kenneth (c. 1718-1761),
who but for the attainder would have been the 6th earl, helped
the English government during the rising of 1745, and was a
member of parliament for some years. His son Kenneth (c. 1744-
1781) was created earl of Seaforth in 1771, but his peerage became
extinct when he died in August 1781, although there were still
heirs to the older earldom, which was under attainder. This earl
raised the regiment of Highlanders, the 78th, known later as the
2nd battalion of the Seaforth Highlanders.
SEAHAM HARBOUR, a seaport and urban district, in the
South-eastern parliamentary division of Durham, England,
6 m. S. of Sunderland by a branch of the North-Eastern railway.
Pop. (1901) 10,163. The harbour was built (1828) by the third
marquis of Londonderry to facilitate the export of coal from the
mines on his adjacent property. Besides the coal trade there are
extensive bottle and chemical works.
SEA-HORSE. Sea-horses (Hippocampina) are small marine
fishes which, with pipe-fishes (Syngnathina), form the Lopho-
branchiate division of the suborder Thoracostei. The gills of
the members of this group are not arranged in leaf-like series as
in other fishes, but form a convex mass composed of small rounded
lobes attached to the branchial arches, as shown in the accom-
panying figure (fig. i) of the head of a sea-horse, in which the
FIG. I. Gills of Hippocampus abdominalis.
gill-cover has been pushed aside to show the interior of the gill-
cavity. Sea-horses differ from pipe-fishes by having a prehensile
and invariably finless tail; it is long, slender, tapering, quad-
rangular in a transverse section, and, like the rest of the body,
encased in a dermal skeleton, which consists of horny segments,
allowing of ventral, and in a less degree of lateral, but not of
dorsal, flexion. The typical sea-horse (Hippocampus) can coil
up a great portion of its tail, and firmly attach itself by it to the
stems of sea-weeds or similar objects. The body is compressed
and more or less elevated, and the head terminates in a long
tubiform snout, at the end of which is the small mouth. The
configuration of the fore part of the body, as well as the peculiar
manner in which the head is joined to the neck-like part of the
trunk, bears a striking resemblance to a horse's head. Sea-
horses are bad swimmers and are unable to resist currents. With
the aid of their single dorsal fin, which is placed about the middle
of the fish's body and can be put into a rapid undulatory motion,
they shift from time to time to some object near them, remaining
stationary among vegetation or coral where they find the requisite
amount of food and sufficient cover. Their coloration and the
tubercles or spines on the head and body, sometimes with the
addition of skinny flaps and filaments, closely resemble their
surroundings, and constitute the means by which these defence-
less creatures escape detection by their enemies. These protective
534
SEA-KALESEAL
structures are most developed in the Australian genus Phyllo-
pteryx, one of the most singular types of littoral fishes.
Sea-horses belong to the tropics and do not extend so far north as
pipe-fishes. They are abundant at suitable localities, chiefly on the
coral-banks of the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Some forty species are
known, of which the majority belong to the genus Hippocampus
proper. They vary from 2 to 12 in. in length; but in China and
FIG. 2. Phyllopteryx eques.
Australia a genus (Solenognathus) occurs, the species of which attain
to a length of nearly 2 ft. ; they, however, in form resemble pipe-fishes
rather than sea-horses. The species which may be sometimes seen
in European aquaria is Hippocampus antiquorum, common in the
Mediterranean and on the coasts of Portugal and France. It is rare
on the south coast of England, but it has often been captured on
the Essex coast. About 1885, according to Dr J. Murie, two Leigh
fishermen when shrimping at Harwich during the summer season
succeeded in procuring altogether between 100 and 120 specimens.
The food of the sea-horses consists probably of very small inverte-
brates and the fry of other fishes. Like the other Lophobranchiates,
they take great care of their progeny. The male Hippocampus
carries the ova in a sac on the lower side of the tail, in which they are
hatched; in the other genera no closed pouch is developed, and the
ova are embedded in the soft and thickened integument of either
the abdomen or the tail.
All that is known of the habits of these interesting fishes will be
found summarized in a valuable paper by T. Gill, " The Life History
of the Sea-Horses (Hippocampids)," in Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxviii.
(1905), p. 805.
SEA-KALE, Crambe marilima, a hardy perennial, a member
of the natural order Cruciferae, which grows wild along the
coasts of England, of Ireland and of the Scottish lowlands, along
the western coasts of Europe, and on the Baltic, reappearing on
the Black Sea.
In cultivation sea-kale prefers a light dry soil, and when manure is
necessary it should consist of sea- weed or well-rotted dung; or a
dressing of s#It or of nitrate of soda may be given. When raised
from seeds, they should be sown in March or April in rows I ft.
asunder, the plants being thinned to 6 in. apart. In the following
March these should be planted out in trenched well-prepared ground,
2 ft. asunder, in rows 2 J to 3 ft. apart. The top with the crown buds
should be cut off before planting to prevent them from running to
seed. In the spring of the second year the young shoots if blanched
will be fit for use, and therefore the summer growth should be
promoted by the use of water and liquid manure. Tolerably
blanched stalks may be produced by plants only nine months old
from the seed, and after two summers seedling plants will have
acquired sufficient strength for general cropping. The seeds, instead
of being sown in rows and transplanted, may be deposited in patches
of three or four together, where they are to remain. In the autumn,
after the leaves have been cleared off, the ground should be forked
up, and 6 or 8 inches' depth of leaves or of light sandy soil laid over
the plants, by either of which means they will be blanched, though
not forced. The blanched sprouts should be cut for use whilst they
are crisp, compact and from 3 to 6 in. in length, the stem being cut
quite down to the base.
Sea-kale beds may be made from cuttings of the roots of very
healthy plants, the extremities of the roots, technically called
" thongs, ' being best adapted for this purpose. They should be
taken up in autumn, cut into lengths of about 4 in., and laid in a
heap of sand or earth till spring, when they should be planted out
like the seedlings.
Forcing. Sea-kale may be forced in the open beds by the aid of
sea-kale pots or covers, which are contracted a little at top, with a
movable lid. One of the earthenware covers, or an inverted flower-
pot, is placed over each plant, or each patch of plants, and leaves of
trees are closely packed round the pots, and raised to about I ft.
above them. When fermentation commences, the temperature
within should not exceed 60 F. If the crowns are thus covered up
by about the end of October, the crop may be cut by about the third
week of December, and by starting a batch at various times a supply
may be kept up till the middle of May.
Strong plants may also be taken up and planted on hotbeds, the
sashes being kept covered close; or they may be set thickly in boxes
as recommended for rhubarb, and placed in any heated structure,
or in the mushroom house; but, to have the shoots crisp and tender
as well as blanched, light must be completely excluded. Besides the
common purple-leaved, there is a green-leaved sort, which is said to
blanch better.
SEAL, strictly speaking the name of the common European
representative of that group of marine carnivorous mammals
constituting the suborder Pinnipedia of the order Carnivora,
but in a wider sense used to designate all the members of that
group, except the walrus. The common seal (Phoca vitulina) is
the typical representative not only of that group (see CARNIVORA),
but also of the family Phocidae and the subfamily Phocinae,
and it is to this latter group that the present article is re-
stricted.
Although seals swim and dive with the greatest ease, often
remaining as much as a quarter of an hour or more below the
surface, and are dependent for their sustenance entirely on
living prey captured in the water, all the species frequently
resort to sandy beaches, rocks or ice-floes, either to sleep or to
bask in the sun, and especially for the purpose of bringing forth
their young. The latter appears to be the universal habit, and
the young seals of some species at least take to the water at
FIG. I. Common Seal (Phoca vitulina).
first very reluctantly, and have to be taught to swim by their
parents. The number of young produced is usually one annually,
though occasionally two. They are at first covered with a coat
of very thick, soft, nearly white fur, and until this falls off they
do not usually enter the water. This occurs in the Greenland
seal (Phoca groenlandica)&nd the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus)
when from two to three weeks old, but in the common seal the
change takes place either in utcro or at birth. The movements of
the true seals upon the ground or ice are very different from
those of the eared seals, or Otariidae, which walk and run upon
all four feet, the body being raised as in the case of ordinary
quadrupeds. The hind limbs (by which seals mainly propel
themselves through the water) are on land perfectly passive,
stretched backwards, with the soles of the feet applied to each
other, and often raised to avoid contact with the ground. Some-
times the fore-limbs are equally passive, being placed close to the
sides of the body; motion being then effected by a shuffling or
wriggling action produced by the muscles of the trunk. When,
however, there is necessity for more rapid progress, the animals
SEA LAWS
535
use the fore-paws, either alternately or simultaneously, pressing
the palmar surface on the ground and lifting and dragging the
body forwards in a succession of short jumps. In this way they
can move so fast that a man has to step out beyond a walk to
keep up with them; but such rapid action costs considerable
effort, and they soon become exhausted. These various modes
of progression appear to be common to all species so far as has
been observed.
Most kinds of seals are gregarious and congregate, especially at the
breeding season, in immense herds. Such is the habit of the Green-
land seal, which resorts in the spring to the ice-floes of the North Sea,
around Jan Mayen Island. Others, like the common seal of the
British Islands, though having a wide geographical range, are never
met with in such large numbers or far away from land. This species
is stationary all the year round, but some have a regular season of
migration, moving south in winter and north in summer. They are
usually harmless, timid, inoffensive animals, though, being poly-
gamous, the old males often fight desperately with each other, their
skins being frequently found covered with wounds and scars. They
are greatly attached to their young, and remarkably docile and easily
trained when in captivity; indeed there is perhaps no wild animal
which attaches itself so readily to the person by whom it is cared
for and fed. They have much curiosity, and are strongly attracted
by musical sounds. Their sense of smell is acute, and their voice
varies from a harsh bark or grunt to a plaintive bleat. Seals feed
chiefly on fish, of which they consume enormous quantities; some,
however, subsist largely on crustaceans, especially species of Gam-
marus, which swarm in the northern seas, also on molluscs, sea-
urchins and even occasionally [sea-birds, which they seize when
swimming or floating on the water.
Although the true seals do not possess the beautiful under-fur
(" seal-skin " of the furriers) which makes the skin of the sea-bears
or fur-seals so precious, their hides are still valuable as articles of
commerce, and together with the oil yielded by their fat, subject
them to a devastating persecution.
Two species of seal are met with regularly on the British coasts,
the common seal and the grey seal. The former is a constant resident
in all suitable localities round the Scottish, Irish and English coasts,
from which it has not been driven away by man. Although the most
secluded and out-of-the-way spots are selected as their habitual
dwelling-places, there are few localities where these seals may not
occasionally be seen. They frequent bays, inlets and estuaries, and
FIG. 2. Skull of Common Seal, with one of the molars on a larger
scale.
are seen on sandbanks or mud-flats left dry at low tide. Unlike
some of their congeners, they are not found on the ice-floes of the
open sea, nor, though gregarious, are very large numbers ever seen
in one spot. The young are born at the end of May or beginning of
June. They feed chiefly on fish, and the destruction they occasion
among salmon is well known to Scottish fishermen. The common
seal is found not only on the European and American coasts border-
ing the Atlantic, but also in the North Pacific. It is from 4 to 5 ft.
in length, and variable in colour, though usually yellowish grey,
with irregular spots of dark brown or black above and yellowish
white beneath. According to Dr J. A. Allen, there is a marked differ-
ence between the dentition of the male and female of the common
seal. In the latter sex the teeth are much smaller than those of the
male, and are inserted more obliquely in the jaw; they also differ
by the reduction in the size and number of the accessory cusps,
which are almost invariably absent on the inner side.
The grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) is of considerably larger size,
the males attaining when fully adult a length of 8 ft. from the nose
to the end of the hind feet. The form of the skull and the simple
characters of the molar teeth distinguish it generically from the
common seal. It is of a yellowish grey colour, lighter beneath, and
with dark grey spots or blotches, but, like most other seals, is liable
to great variations of colour according to age. The grey seal appears
to be restricted to the North Atlantic, having been rarely seen on the
American coasts, but not farther south than Nova Scotia; it is
chiefly met with on the coasts of Ireland, England, Scotland, Norway
and Sweden, including the Baltic and Gulf of Bothnia, and Iceland,
though it does not appear to range farther north. It is not migratory,
and its favourite breeding-places are rocky islands, the young being
born in the end of September or beginning of October.
As the grey seal is sometimes confused with the bearded seal
(Phoca barbata), the following account, by T. Southwell, of the
distinctions between the two may be quoted :
" As to the external features by which the grey seal may at any
age be distinguished from the bearded seal, which it most resembles,
in the first place the abnormal season of reproduction in this species
is unique; it is the only seal which has its young in the late autumn.
The large size is not a very trustworthy distinction, as it varies
considerably in individuals; but a marked feature is the great length
of the claws in the fore-flipper, the first two digits of which are
nearly of equal length and extend beyond the others; those on the
hind-flippers are small and weak, the margin of the skin extending
beyond them, and the outer toes on each foot the longest. The
long, scimitar-shaped, flattened and crenulated lip-bristles do not
differ greatly from those of other species, except from those of the
bearded seal, the only species in which this curious impressed pattern
is absent. The muzzle is broad and fleshy, and the upper lip and
nose extend considerably beyond the lower jaw. Dr Edmondston
calls special attention to this peculiarity, and states that in seizing
its prey he has often seen it ' make a slight turn in the manner of a
shark.' A captive young grey seal in taking fluid food always turned
its head on one side and sucked it in through the side of the mouth.
Another feature, which, so far as I know, is peculiar to this species,
is the dog-like way in which, when on the alert, it carries its fore-
flippers to the front.
" Dr Edmondston also mentions a curious disposal of the hair on
the neck of the adult animals, which he attributes to there being
four or five rings of hair a little longer than on the rest of the body,
which, he says, give it the appearance when rearing its head some-
what put of the water, as if several small ropes encircled its neck.
This is a sedentary species, seldom straying far from its chosen
locality and rarely met with far from land.
' In the British seas the grey seal resorts to tide-washed rocks
and lonely beaches, from Shetland and the Orkney Isles in the north
to a few scattered localities along the east and south coasts, as far
as Cornwall and even the Channel Islands; northward on the west
coast to Wales, the outlying rocks in the Irish Sea and the Hebrides
a sufficiently comprehensive range, and in a few favoured spots it
is still fairly numerous. It is seldom found far from land, and seems
to be much attached to particular spots, to which it regularly returns
as the state of the tide permits. In the breeding-season, which is the
late autumn or early winter, its favourite resort is the inner recess
of an ocean-cavern, often only to be approached under water; here,
in October or November, it deposits its single young one on the small
beach at the far end of the cave, beyond the reach of the tide, attend-
ing it assiduously for several weeks, until it has shed its infant-coat,
which is at first beautifully long, -soft and white, offering a great
eontrast to the young of the common seal. The young are suckled
for six weeks before they take to the water, and during that time
they are practically land animals. From this time till maturity
several successive changes of pelage in each sex take place."
Other species of seals inhabiting the nothern seas, of which
stragglers have occasionally visited the British coasts, are the small
ringed seal or " floe-rat " of the sealers (Phoca hispida), the Green-
land or harp-seal (Phoca groenlandica), the hooded or bladder-nosed
seal (Cystophora cristata) and the bearded seal (Phoca barbata).
See also SEAL-FISHERIES. (W.H.F.; R.L.*)
SEA LAWS, a title which came into use among writers on
maritime law in the i6th century, and was applied by them to
certain medieval collections of usages of the sea recognized as
having the force of customary law, either by the judgments of
a maritime court or by the resolutions of a congress of merchants
and shipmasters. To the former class belong the sea laws of
Oleron, embodying the usages of the mariners of the Atlantic;
under the latter come the sea laws of Visby (Wisby), reflecting
the customs of the mariners of the North Sea and of the Baltic.
The earliest collection of such usages received in England
is described in the Black Book of the Admiralty as the " Laws
of Oleron," whilst the earliest known text is contained in the
Liber memorandorum of the corporation of the City of London,
areserved in the archives of their Guildhall. These laws are
n an early handwriting of the i4th century, and the title pre-
Ixed to them is La Charte d'Oleroun des juggementz de la mier.
How and in what manner these " Judgments of the Sea " came
to be collected is not altogether certain. Cleirac, a learned
advocate in the parlement of Bordeaux, in the introduction
to his work on Les Us et coustumes de la mer (Bordeaux, 1647),
tales that Eleanor of Aquitaine (?..), having observed during
icr visit to the Holy Land that the collection of customs of the
SEA LAWS
sea contained in The Book of the Consulate of the Sea (see CON-
SULATE OF THE SEA) was held in high repute in the Levant, directed
on her return that a record should be made of the judgments of
the maritime court of the island of Oleron (at that time a peculiar
court of the duchy of Guienne), in order that they might serve
as law amongst the mariners of the Western Sea. He states
further that Richard I. of England, on his return from the Holy
Land, brought back with him a roll of those judgments, which
he published in England and ordained to be observed as law.
Though R. G. Marsden doubts the story of Richard I. having
brought back La Leye Olyroun to England, the general outline
of Cleirac's account accords with a memorandum on the famous
roll of 12 Edw. III., " De Superioritate Maris Angliae " (for
many years preserved in the archives of the Tower of London,
now deposited in the Public Record Office). According to this
memorandum, the king's justiciaries were instructed to declare
and uphold the laws and statutes made by the kings cf England,
in order to maintain peace and justice amongst the people of
every nation passing through the sea of England.
The earliest version of these Oleron sea laws comprised certain
customs of the sea which were observed in the wine and the oil
trade, as carried on between the ports of Guienne and those of
Brittany, Normandy, England and Flanders. No English trans-
lation seems to have been made before the Rutter of the Sea,
printed in London by Thomas Petyt in 1536, in which they are
styled " the Lawes of ye Yle of Auleron and ye Judgementes
of ye See." French was, in fact, a tongue familiar to the English
high court of admiralty down to the reign of Henry VI. A
Flemish text, however, appears to have been made in the latter
part of the I4th century, the Purple Book of Bruges, preserved
in the archives of Bruges, in a handwriting somewhat later
than that of the Liber Memorandorum. Prefixed to this Flemish
version is the title, " Dit es de Coppie van den Rollen van
Oleron van den Vonnesse van der Zee." Certain changes,
however, have been made in the Purple Book of Bruges in the
names of the ports mentioned in the original Gascon text. For
instance, Sluys is in several places substituted for Bordeaux,
just as in the Rutter of the Sea London replaces Bordeaux. That
these sea laws were administered in the Flemish maritime
courts may be inferred from two facts. First, a Flemish transla-
tion of them was made for the use of the maritime tribunal of
Damme, which was the chief Flemish entrep&t of the wine trade
in the I3th century. The text of this translation has been
published by Adriaen Verwer under the title of the Judgments
of Damme. In the second place, there is preserved in the archives
of the senate of Danzig, where there was a maritime court of
old, an early manuscript of the isth century, containing a
Flemish reproduction of the Judgments of O16ron headed " Dit
is Twater Recht in Vlaenderen." So far there can be no doubt
that the Judgments of O16ron were received as sea laws in
Flanders as well as in England in the I4th century. Further
inquiry can trace them as they followed the course of the wine
trade in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea. Boxhorn, in his
Chronyk van Zeelande, has published a Dutch version of them,
which van Leeuwen has reproduced in his Batavia Illustrata,
under the title of the Laws of Wcst-Capell in Zealand. Verwer
has also published a Dutch text of them in his Nederlant's
See-Rechten, accompanied by certain customs of Amsterdam,
of which other MSS. exist, in which those customs are described
as usages of Stavoren, or as usages of Enkhuizen, both ports
of active commerce in the isth century. Of these customs
of Amsterdam, or, as they were more generally styled, " Ordin-
ances of Amsterdam," further mention is made below.
A new and enlarged collection of sea laws, purporting to be an
extract of the ancient laws of Oleron, made its appearance in the
latter part of the isth century in Le Grant rentier de la mer, printed
at Poitiers in France by Jan de Marnef, at the sign of the Pelican.
The title-page is without a date, but the dedication, which purports
to be addressed by its author, Pierre Garcie, alias Ferrande, to his
godson, is dated from St Gilles on the last day of May 1483. It
contains forty-seven articles, of which the first twenty-two are
identical with articles of the " Judgments of the Sea," in the Liber
Memorandorum, the remaining articles being evidently of more
recent origin. A black-letter edition of this work in French, without
a date, is preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and to the
last article this colophon is appended: " Ces choses pr6c6dentes
sont extraictes du tres utille et profittable Roolle Doloyron par le
diet Pierre Garcie alias Ferrande. An English translation is printed
in the appendix to A View of the Admiral Jurisdiction, published in
1661 by Dr John Godolphin, in which the laws are described as " ar.
Extract of the Ancient Laws of OleVon rendered into English out of
Garsias alias Ferrand." Although this new text had the recom-
mendation of an advocate who had filled the office of judge of the
Admiralty Court during the Commonwealth and been appointed
king's advocate-general by Charles II., it seems to have been super-
seded in a short time by Cleirac's Us et coustumes de la mer, to
which was appended the following clause of authentication: " Tes-
moin le Seel de 1'Isle d'Oleron, estably aux contracts de la dite Isle,
le jour du Mardy apres la Feste Sainct Andre 1 1'an mille deux ceas
soixant-six." Cleirac does not inform us from what source or under
what circumstances he procured his text, nor on what authority
he has adopted in certain articles readings at variance with those
of Garcie, whilst he retains the same number of articles, to wit,
forty-seven. The clause of authentication cannot be accepted as a
warranty above suspicion, as the identical clause of authentication
with the same date is appended to the early Norman and Breton
versions of the rolls, which contain only twenty-six articles. Cleirac's
version, however, owing probably to the superior style in which it
was edited, and to the importance of the other treatises on maritime
matters which Cleirac had brought together for the first time in a
single volume, seems to have obtained a preference in England over
Garde's text, as it was received in the High Court of Admiralty
during the judgeship of Sir Leoline Jenkyns, and an English trans-
lation of it was introduced into the English translation of the Blar.k
Book of the Admiralty made by John Bedford, the deputy registrar
of the High Court. It seems to have been Bedford's intention to
print this translation under the title of "Sea Laws"; but the
manuscript passed into the hands of Sir Leoline Jenkyns, who gave
it to the College of Advocates in 1685. The Black Book itself, which
was missing for a long time from the Admiralty registry, was dis-
covered in the igth century and replaced in the archives of the
Admiralty Court. Of these two versions of the sea laws of Oldron
the earlier obtained a world-wide reception, for it was translated
into Castilian (Fuero de Layron) by order of King Alphonso X., and
a Gascon text of it is still preserved in the archives of Leghorn,
apparently in a handwriting of the 15th century, entitled " Asso es
la copia deus Rolles de Leron de jucgemens de mar."
The parent stock of the Visby sea laws would appear to have been
a code preserved in the chancery of Lubeck, drawn up in the Old
Saxon tongue, and dated 1240. This code contains amongst many
others certain articles on maritime law which are identical with
articles in the Gotland sea laws. This collection comprises sixty-six
articles, and it is now placed beyond a doubt by modern researches,
especially of Professor Schlyter of Lund, that these Gotland sea laws
are a compilation derived from three distinct sources a Lubeck,
an OleVon and an Amsterdam source. A Saxon or Low German text
of this collection was printed for the first time in 1505 at Copenhagen
by Godfrey de Gemen, a native of Gouda in Holland, who is reputed
to have set up the earliest printing-press in Copenhagen. This
print has no title-page, and in this respect resembles the earliest
known print of The Consulate of the Sea; but upon a blank leaf,
which occupies the place of a frontispiece in one of two copies of
Godfrey de Gemen's text, both preserved in the royal library at
Copenhagen, there has been inserted with a pen in alternate lines of
black and red ink the title " Dat hogheste Gotlansche Water-Recht
gedrucket to Koppenhaven Anno Domini M.D.VJ, " and there has
also been inserted on the first page of the text the introductory
title " Her beghynt dat hogheste Water-Recht " (here begins the
supreme sea law). Professor Schlyter discovered a MS. (No. 3123)
in the royal library at Copenhagen, which is written on parchment
in a hand of the 15th century, and from which it seems probable
that Godfrey de Gemen mainly derived his text, as it comprises the
same number of articles, containing the same matter arranged in
the same order, with this minor difference, that, whilst both the MS.
and the print have the simple title " Water-Recht " prefixed to the
first article, the MS. has also a similar title prefixed to the fifteenth.
Further, as this article, together with those that follow it in the MS.
appears to be in a handwriting different from that of the articles that
precede, the fifteenth article may justly be considered as the first of
a distinct series, more particularly as they are numbered in Roman
characters, beginning with I, and such characters are continued
with a single interruption down to the end of the MS. Although,
however, the numeration of the articles of this second series is
continuous and the handwriting of the MS. from the fifteenth to
the sixty-sixth article is unchanged, the text of the series is not
continuous, as the fortieth article commences with an introductory
clause " This is the ordinance which the skippers and merchants
have resolved amongst themselves as ship law.' There is no diffi-
culty in recognizing the first division of this second series of sea laws
as a Low German version of the Judgments of OleVon, transmitted
most probably through a Flemish text. This hypothesis would
account for the substitution in several articles of Sluys for Bordeaux.
On the other hand, the introductory clause which ushers in the
fortieth article is identical with the title that is generally prefixed
SEAL-FISHERIES
537
to MSS. of the maritime Ordinances of Amsterdam, and the text
of this and of the following articles down to the sixty-fifth inclusive
is evidently of Dutch origin and more or less identical with Verwer's
text of the usages of Amsterdam. M. Pardessus, in his valuable
Collection de lois maritimes, published in Paris before Professor
Schlyter made known the result of his researches, justly remarked
that the provisions of several articles of this last division of the sea
laws are inconsistent with the theory that they originated at Visby.
It may be observed that the sixty-sixth article of the MS. is a Lubeck
law identical with the first article of the first series, which is of
Lubeck origin. No colophon is appended to this final article in the
MS. Nevertheless, Godfrey de Gemen's edition of 1505, which breaks
off in the middle of the sixty-sixth article of the MS., has the following
colophon: " Here end the Gotland sea laws, which the community
of merchants and skippers have ordained and made at Visby, that
all men may regulate themselves by them. Printed at Copenhagen,
A.D. M.D.V. The question naturally suggests itself, To what MS.
was Godfrey de Gemen indebted for this colophon, or is the alterna-
tive more probable that he devised it ? There is no Tcnown M S.
of this collection of an earlier date to which an appeal can be made
as an authority for this colophon ; on the contrary, the only known
MSS. of which the date is earlier than Godfrey de Gemen's print,
both of which are in the library of the university of Copenhagen, are
without this colophon, and one of them, which purports to have been
completed at Nykoping on the Eve of the Visitation of the Virgin
in 1494, concludes with a colophon which precludes all idea that
anything has been omitted by the scribe, viz., " Here ends this book,
and may God send us His grace, Amen." We are disposed to think
that Gemen himself devised this colophon. He was engaged in
printing for the first time other collections of laws for the Danish
government, and, as Gotland was at that time a possession of Den-
mark, he may have thus distinguished the sea laws from another
collection, namely, of land laws. Professor Schlyter, however,
believes Gemen may have borrowed it from a MS. which is lost, or
at all events is not known. There is some support to this view in
the fact that in the archives of the guildhall of Lubeck there is pre-
served a MS. of 1533 which contains a Low German version of the
same collection of sea laws, with a rubric prefixed to the first article
announcing them to be " the water law or sea law, which is the oldest
and highest law of Visby," and there are good reasons for supposing
that the scribe of this MS. copied his text from a MS. other than the
Copenhagen MS. The same observation will apply to a second MS.
of a similar character preserved in the library of the gymnasium of
Lubeck, which purports to have been written in 1537. But as regards
the Visby sea laws little reliance can be placed on such rubrics or
colophons as proofs of the facts recited in them, though they may be
valuable as evidence of the reputed origin of the sea laws at the time
when the scribe completed the MS. In illustration of this view it
may be stated that m the same year in which the more recent of
these two MSS. purports to have been completed namely 1537
there was printed at Lubeck an enlarged edition of the sea laws
consisting of seventy-two articles, being a Low German translation
of a Dutch text, in which six additional Dutch laws had been inserted
which are not found in the Copenhagen MS., nor have a place in
Gemen's text, yet to this edition is prefixed the title, " This is the
highest and oldest sea law, which the community of merchants and
shipmasters have ordained and made at Visby, that all persons who
would be secure may regulate themselves by it." Further, it has an
introductory clause to its thirty-seventh article " This is the
ordinance which the community of skippers and merchants have
resolved upon amongst themselves as ship law, which the men of
Zeeland, Holland, Flanders hold, and with the law of Visby, which
is the oldest ship law." At the end of the seventy-second article
there follows this colophon: " Here ends the Gotland sea law,
which the community of merchants and mariners have ordained and
made at Visby, that each may regulate himself by it. All honour be
to God, MDXXXVII." Each article of this edition has prefixed to it
after its particular number the word " belevinge " (judgment).
It would thus appear that the Visby sea laws have fared like the
Oleron sea laws : they have gathered bulk with increasing years.
The question remains to be answered, How did this collection of
sea laws acquire the title of the " Visby sea laws " outside the Baltic ?
for under such title they were received in Scotland in the l6th
century, as may be inferred from extracts from them cited in Sir
James Balfour's System of the more Ancient Laws of Scotland, which,
although not printed till 1754, was completed before his death in
1583. The text of the Visby sea laws generally current in England
is an English translation of a French text which Cleirac published in
1641 in his Us et coustumes de la mer, and is an abbreviated, and in
many respects mutilated, version of the original sea laws. This
inquiry, however, would open a new chapter on the subject of the
northern sea laws, and the civilizing influence which the merchants
of Visby exercised in the I3th century through their factories at
Novgorod, linking thereby the trade of the Baltic to that of the
Black Sea. (T. T.)
See Pardessus, Collection de lois maritimes anterieures au XVIII*
sikcle (6 vols., Paris, 1828-1845); Schlyter, Wisby Stadslag och
Sjoralt, being vol. viii. of the Corpus Juris Sueco-Gotorum Anliqui
(Lund, 1853); an d The Black Book of the Admiralty, ed. by Sir
Travers Twiss (4 vols., London, 1871-1876). An exhaustively
critical edition of the Rhodian sea law (given in vol. i. of Pardessus)
by W. Ashburner, appeared in 1909 (Oxford, University Press).
It contains valuable material not only on the Rhodian sea law, but
on the various other sea laws in force on the Mediterranean coast.
SEAL-FISHERIES. Seals of all descriptions (see SEAL)
whether belonging to the typical family Phocidae, or true seals,
or to the Otariidae, or sea-lions and sea-bears are of great
commercial value. Whereas, however, the true seals and the
sea-lions are hunted only for the sake of their hides and blubber,
the sea-bears are sought on account of their valuable " seal-
skin " (see CARNIVORA; also FUR). Walruses (Odobaenidae) are
hunted not only for their hides and blubber but also for the
ivory of their tusks, which is, however, far less valuable than
elephant-ivory. Among the more important species of sea-
bears or fur-seals, which yield commercial " seal-skin," may be
mentioned Otaria (Arctocephalus) australis of South America
and the adjacent islands, including the Galapagos group and
Tierra-del-Fuego; O. (A.) antarctica or pusilla of South Africa
and the Crozets; O. (^4.) gazella of Kerguelen Island; and O.
(.4.) Forsteri of the coasts of New Zealand and South-Western
Australia. This group was widely distributed over the pelagic
islands of the southern hemisphere, but is now practically extinct
in the greater part of its habitat, although remnants of im-
portance exist on Lobos Island in the mouth of the river Plata
in Uruguay, and on the islands off Cape Horn, both of which
now receive protection from government. A second group is
represented by Otaria (Callorhinus) ursina of the Commander
Islands and Pribiloff Islands in Bering Sea, Robben Island and
the Kurile Islands, Sea of Okhotsk, and other parts of the North
Pacific; the forms from the different islands having received
distinct specific names.
Of the southern herds little authentic information exists,
but the records for the northern herds are fairly complete. At
the period of its maximum development, 1870 to 1880, the herd
of the Pribiloff Islands numbered about 2\ million animals;
that of the Commander Islands about one-half as many. The
herd in the Sea of Okhotsk is one of minor importance, numbering
in 1897 less than 1000 animals on Robben Island. All these
herds became greatly reduced, and in 1896-1897 numbered in
all not more than 600,000 animals. The typical adult male or
bull (sikatch) of the second group attains maturity about the
seventh year, and weighs from 400 to 500 Ib. It is 6 ft. in length,
with a girth of 45 ft. The fur is blackish or dark brown, with
long yellowish-white hairs, especially long and firm on the back
of the neck, forming the so-called " wig " or mane. The animal
stands erect and runs or " lollops " along the ground when
on land. The adult female, or cow (matka), is much smaller,
averaging about 80 ft in weight, with length and girth in pro-
portion. The fur is of varying shades of brown; she bears
her first young at the age of three years.
The breeding-grounds are boulder-strewn beaches or rocky
hill slopes near the shore. On these the sea-bears congregate
in close-set masses called " rookeries." The unit of rookery life
is the family group, or " harem," each bull collecting as many
females as he can control. The number ranges from i to too
or more, averaging about 30. The bulls reach the islands early
in May and take up their places. The cows begin to arrive
the first week in June. The number on the rookeries from day
to day grows steadily to a climax about the middle of July, when
about one-half are present, the number actually on the ground
diminishing to about one-fourth at and after the close of the
breeding season with the end of July. The single young, or pup
(kotik), weighing 10 to 12 ft and jet black in colour, is born
within six to forty-eight hours after the arrival of the cow.
Within a week the latter is served by the bull, and by the end
of another week she goes to sea to feed, returning at gradually
lengthening intervals through the summer to nourish her young,
left in the meantime to care for itself on the rookeries. The
bulls, having fasted since their arrival in May, go away in August
to feed. The pups learn to swim at the age of a month or six
weeks, and in November, with the approach of winter, swim away
with their mothers to the south. The winter migration of the
538
SEALING WAX
Pribiloff seals extends as far south as the latitude of southern
California, the return course following the coast. The Com-
mander seals reach the latitude of southern Japan and return
on their course. The fur-seals find their food, chiefly squid,
Alaska pollack, and especially a small smelt-like fish (Thero-
bromus callorhini), in deep water, and their feeding-grounds
in Bering Sea and on the migrations lie mainly along the 100-
fathom curve.
The Commander Islands were discovered by Vitus Bering in
1741, and our first knowledge of the northern fur-seal herds comes
from the notes of Georg Wilhelm Steller, a German naturalist
accompanying Bering's expedition. The Pribiloff Islands were
discovered in 1786 and transferred with the territory of Alaska
to the United States in 1867. Up to 1867 the catch taken by the
Russian Company holding the Alaska monopoly was about
75,000 yearly. Between 1868 and 1897 the reported catch of
seals from the Pribiloff herd on land was 2,440,213, and 651,282
were reported as taken by pelagic sealing; but the latter is
certainly greatly under the truth. From 1867 to 1902 the fur-seal
catch was worth, it has been estimated, about $35,000,000.
From 1870 to 1890 the United States government leased the
islands to the Alaska Commercial Company, and in 1890 the
monopoly passed to the North American Commercial Company;
this lease expired on the ist of May 1910, and was not to be
renewed. The catch was limited to 60,000 in 1890 and 1891;
7500 in 1892 and 1893; 20,000 in 1894; 15,000 in 1895, 20,000
in 1897; 30,000 in 1896, 1898-1903; and 15,000 in 1904, 1905
and 1906. The total number of skins shipped by the lessees from
1870 to 1906 was 2,135,248. From 1868 to 1906 the receipts
from royalties on skins was $9,311,054-77, and the expenses of
the United States were $1,353,015-53 (including $349,464-88
for agents, $254,051-49 for supplies to natives, $483,842-65
for Bering Sea awards and commission, and $41,000-31 for
investigation of the fur-seal fisheries in 1898-1899); besides this,
from 1890 to 1895 the government expended $1,410,722 for the
policing of Bering Sea and the prevention of illegal pelagic
hunting.
The Russians worked out the principle, based on the polygamous
habit of the animals, of affording absolute protection to the breeding
female herd, and confining the killing to the superfluous
ma ' es - The young males, or bachelors, " haul out " to
rest and sleep on beaches adjacent to, but distinct from,
the breeding-grounds. Here they are surrounded at night
by the sealing gangs, rounded up in droves of from 1000
to 3000, and driven inland to the killing - grounds. The large
droves are broken up into successive " pods,' or groups, of from
20 to 50, of which the " killable " seals (animals of three years of
age or approximating to such in size) are knocked down with clubs,
those too large or too small being allowed to escape. The skins are
removed, salted in kenches and, when cured, are exported. The
two important processes in dressing the skins are the removal of the
long hairs which grow out through the short thick fur, and the dyeing
of the fur itself black.
The decline in the fur-seal herds of Bering Sea is due to the growth
of a rival sealing industry the hunting of the animals at sea with
pear or shot-gun, known as pelagic sealing. 1 Stragglers from the
migrating herdhad from the earliest times been taken by the Indians
of Cape Flattery and Vancouver Island, going out from the shore in
their canoes, but the number so captured was small. In 1879,
however, sailing vessels began to be used to carry the hunters and
their canoes out to the mam body of the herd, and to enable them
to follow its movements. The industry developed rapidly, by 1892
employing a fleet of 122 sailing vessels, each with from five to twenty
hunting crews. The catch at sea grew to a maximum in 1894 of
140,000 skins. The operations of the fleet gradually extended to
cover the entire migration route of the herd, and in 1883 the sealers
entered its summer feeding-grounds in Bering Sea. Pelagic hunting,
necessarily indiscriminate, affected most seriously the herd of breed-
ing females. Investigations carried on in Bering Sea in 1895 and
1896 show that from 62 to 84% of the pelagic catch were of this
class, the death of the female involving the death of her unborn
offspring, as well as that of the unweaned young. From 1870 to
1902 the " pelagic " catch has been estimated (Jordan) as 1,000,000,
nearly half the corresponding total for the land-catch.
The abuse of pelagic sealing naturally created much indignation
_
1 A temporary cause for the shrinkage of the herd was the ravages
of the Uncinaria, a worm which attacked the infant seals; in 1906
it seemed no longer to be present.
in America. Under sanction of a claim made by Russia in 1821 to
exclusive jurisdiction in Bering Sea (a claim decided by the Paris
Tribunal of 1893 to be untenable), the United States in 1886 seized
sealing vessels operating in that sea among them Canadian vessels.
This brought on a diplomatic discussion with the British government,
which culminated in 1892 in a treaty by which it was agreed to submit
to arbitration the claims of the United States to jurisdiction in Bering
Sea in the interests of her fur-seal herd when beyond the ordinary
territorial limits. The Tribunal of Arbitration met in Paris in 1893
(see BERING SEA ARBITRATION). Its decision was adverse to the
contentions of the United States, and equally adverse to the life of
the fur-seal herds. As agreed upon in such event, the tribunal formu-
lated a set of rules for the regulation of pelagic sealing, with a view
to the protection of the seals. These regulations provided fora close
season in May, June and July, and a protected zone of 60 m. radius
about the breeding islands. The regulations failed of their object,
because the breeding females do not feed within the protected area,
but far outside, and are therefore taken without restriction on the
feeding-grounds in August and September, their young being left
to starve.
In 1896 it was agreed between the United States and Great Britain
that a new investigation of the facts of seal life should be made.
At the close of this inquiry in 1897 the two Commissions met in
Washington as a Joint Conference of Fur Seal Experts, and after a
discussion of the results of their labours, a substantial agreement
was reached on all essential facts. On the basis of this agreement
the fur-seal questjon passed into the hands of a Joint High Com-
mission, representing Great Britain, the United States and Canada,
called at Quebec in September 1898 to consider a number of questions
at issue between the United States and Canada. There the matter
rested. Meanwhile the herds continued to decline, and the pelagic
catch itself fell rapidly with the depleted herds. '-; ;-
The following is a summary of the fur skins from various sources
over the period 1743 to 1897: '
From all sources prior to 1868
Land sealing, 1868-1897, Pribiloff herd
,, Commander herd
Pelagic sealing, 1868-1897, Pribiloff herd
,, Commander herd
Lobos Island skins
Cape Horn skins
Grand Total
3-I97-I54
2,440,213
942,736
651,282
312,247
316,746
122,390
7,982,768
For a full account of the fur-seals and the fur-seal industries,
reference should be made to the reports of D'Arcy W. Thompson,
Commissioner for Great Britain, and his associates, for 1896 and
1897 (Parliamentary Papers, " United States," No. 3 [1897], and
No. I [1898]), and especially to the final report of David S. Jordan,
Commissioner for the United States, and his associates, for the same
years (Treasury Department Document No. 2017, Fur Seals and
Fur Seal Islands of North Pacific Ocean, 4 vols. and atlas, Wash-
ington, 1898). Other papers of importance are: H. W. Elliott's
" Monograph of the Seal Islands of Alaska," Bull. 147, U.S. Fish
Commission (1882), and the report of C. H. Merriam and T. C.
Mendenhall, the American Commissioners for 1891, Proc. Paris
Arbitration, ii. 311-396.
SEALING WAX. In medieval times, when the principal
use of sealing wax was for attaching the impression of seals to
official documents, the composition used consisted of a mixture
of Venice turpentine, beeswax and colouring matter, usually
vermilion. The preparation now employed contains no wax.
Fine red stationery sealing wax is composed of about seven
parts by weight of shellac, four of Venice turpentine, and three
to four of vermilion. The resins are melted together in an
earthenware pot over a moderate fire, and the colouring matter
is added slowly with careful stirring. The mass when taken
from the fire is poured into oiled tin moulds the form of the
sticks required, and when hard the sticks are polished by passing
them rapidly over a charcoal fire, or through a spirit flame,
which melts the superficial film. For the brightest qualities
of sealing wax bleached lac is employed, and a proportion of
perfuming matter storax or balsam of Peru is added. In
the commoner qualities considerable admixtures of chalk,
carbonate of magnesia, baryta white or other earthy matters
are employed, and for the various colours appropriate mineral
pigments. In inferior waxes ordinary resin takes the place of
lac, and the dragon gum of Australia (from Xanthorrhoea hasttiis)
and other resins are similarly substituted. Such waxes, used
for bottling, parcelling and other coarser applications, run
thin when heated, and are comparatively brittle, whereas fine
wax should soften slowly and is tenacious and adhesive.
SEALS
539
SEALS. The idea of testifying the personal presence or the
agency of an individual on some particular occasion, by affixing
the impression of his seal (Lat. sigillum, O. Fr. seel) to the record
or object connected with the transaction of the moment, can be
traced back among the nations of the old world when advanced
only a comparatively short way on the path of civilization.
In the East the custom which has prevailed for centuries, and
which is a practice at the present day, of using the seal as a stamp
wherewith to print its device in ink or pigment in authentication
of a document is parallel to our western habit of inscribing a
signature for the same purpose. In the West, too, the impression
of the seal has, at certain periods, had the same value as the
signature; and at all times the connexion between the signature
and the seal has been intimate in European practice (see AUTO-
GRAPHS and DIPLOMATIC). But the western method of obtaining
the impression has differed from the eastern method. With us,
the notion of a seal is an impression in relief, obtained from
an incised design, either on a soft material such as wax or clay,
or on a harder material such as lead, gold or silver. By common
usage the word " seal " is employed as a term to describe both
the implement for making the impression, and the impression
itself; but properly it should be confined to the latter, the graven
implement being technically called the matrix.
The earliest examples of seals, both matrices and impressions,
are found among the antiquities of Egypt, Babylonia and
Assyria. On the clay stoppers of wine jars of the
j^k * remote age which goes by the name of the pre-dynastic
period, and which preceded the historic period of the
first Pharaohs, there are seal impressions which must have been
produced from matrices, like those of Babylonia and Assyria,
of the cylinder type, the impress of the design having been
repeated as the cylinder was rolled along the surface of the moist
clay. Two such engraved cylinders of this archaic period are in
the British Museum collections. The cylinder, however, seems
to have been generally superseded in Egypt by the engraved
scarab, or beetle-shaped object, which, it may be assumed,
was used at an early time, as it certainly was in later Egyptian
history, for sealing purposes, although its proper function was that
of an amulet. Still, the fashion for cylinders appears to have
revived at intervals, for they are found in the 6th, the I2th and
the i8th dynasties. Even in the ist dynasty, about 4500 B.C.,
the Egyptian Pharaohs had their official sealers, or, to use a
modern expression, keepers of the Royal Seal. Egyptian signet-
rings, which were used for sealing, date back to the i2th dynasty.
As already stated, the matrices of ancient Babylonian and
Assyrian seals, usually cut on precious stones, are in cylinder form.
Baby- The fi ne collection in the British Museum presents
Ionian ant us with Babylonian specimens of even archaic times,
Assyrian followed by an historical series, the earliest of which
is of nearly 4500 years B.C. The Assyrian series is
not so full. The engraved subjects are chiefly mythological.
Impressions are to be found on many of the cuneiform clay
tablets. Early in the 7th century B.C. the cylinder seal gave
place to the cone, the impression being henceforth obtained
after the fashion followed to the present day.
The Phoenicians, as was only to be expected of those traders
and artisans of the ancient world, appear to have adopted both
the cylinder of Assyria and the scarab of Egypt as
cia'n'seais. patterns for their seals. Examples indeed are rare,
but that these people were acquainted with both
forms is certain. Phoenician names are found cut both on
cylinder matrices and on scarabs by the Phoenician engravers
employed in Assyria and Egypt; and, when the cone-shaped
matrix superseded the cylinder in Western Asia, the Phoenicians
conformed to the change.
In Europe, the use of seals among the early Greeks is well
known. Of the Mycenaean period numerous seal-impressions
in clay have been found. Also from ancient times
have survived the numerous engraved stones or
pebbles, technically called gems, which served as
matrices and in most instances were undoubtedly mounted
as finger-rings or were furnished with swivels. At first being
Greek
seals.
used in their natural forms, these pebbles or gems have been
grouped as lenticular or bean-shaped, and glandular or of the
sling-bolt pattern; later, from the 6th to the 4th century B.C.,
they were fashioned as scaraboids, that is, in the general form
of the Egyptian scarab, but without the sculptured details of
the beetle's body. To these, by a natural process, succeeded
the matrix formed of only a thin slice of stone, which was more
conveniently adapted for the bezel of the ring; and in this shape
the engraved matrix passed on from the Greeks to the Romans.
Signet-rings also with fixed metal bezels were in common use
among the Greeks from about 600 B.C.
But while the scarab met with little favour in Greece, where,
as just stated, the scaraboid was preferred, among the Etruscans
its adoption was complete, and with them it became
the commonest form of the seal-matrix, dating from
the latter part of the 6th century B.C., engraved
chiefly with subjects derived from Greek art.
Impressions of late Greekjor Roman gems in clay have survived
in a few instances. A series of impressions from Greek seals
was found at Selinus in Sicily, dating before 249 B.C.; a small
collection of sealed Greek documents on papyrus of the 4th and
3rd centuries B.C. has been discovered at Elephantine in
Egypt. An interesting and very rare example of a Roman
law deed sealed with gem impressions in clay is in the British
Museum, recording the sale of a slave boy in A.D. 166.
It is not the object of this article to deal further with the
history of antique seals (see NUMISMATICS; also GEMS, JEWELRY
and RING), but to give some account of European seals of the
middle ages, when the revival of their use for the authentication
of documents resulted in their universal employment among all
classes of society. Hence it is that we are in possession of the vast
number of impressions still to be found in public museums and
archives, and in private muniment rooms and antiquarian collec-
tions, either attached to the original charters or other deeds
which they authenticated, or as independent specimens. Hence,
too, have survived a fairly large number of matrices.
The connecting link between the general use of the signet,
which was required by the Roman law for legal purposes, but
which had died out by the 7th century, and the revival
of seals in the middle ages is to be found in the chanceries EaH ^.
/.in i /-!! medieval
of the Merovingian and Carolmgian sovereigns, where seals.
the practice of affixing the royal seal to diplomas
appears to have been generally maintained (see DIPLOMATIC).
Naturally, surviving examples of such seals are rare, but they
are sufficient in number to indicate the style adopted at different
periods. The seal-ring of Childeric II. (d. 673) was found in
his tomb, bearing a full-face bust and his name; and impressions
of seals of later monarchs of the Merovingian line, engraved with
their busts and names, have survived. Pippin the Short and the
early Carolings made use of intaglios, both actual antiques and
copies from them; their successors had seals of ordinary types
usually showing their busts. One of the oldest matrices is an
intaglio in rock crystal, now preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle, bearing
a portrait head of Lothair II., king of Lorraine (A.D. 835-869),
and the legend " Xpe [Chrisle] Adiwa Hlotharium Reg." As
time advanced there was a growing tendency to enlarge the royal
seal. Under Hugh Capet there was (A.D. 989) a further develop-
ment, the king being represented half-length with the royal
insignia; and at last under Henry I. (A.D. 1031-1060) the royal
seal of France was complete as the seal of majesty, bearing the
full effigy of the king enthroned. In Germany, however, this
full type had already been attained somewhat earlier in the seal
of the emperor Henry II. (A.D. 1002-1024) ; and it had been used
even earlier by Arnulf, count of Flanders, in 942. The royal
seal thus developed as a seal of majesty became the type for
subsequent seals of dignity of the monarchs of the middle ages
and later, the inscription or legend giving the name and titles
of the sovereign concerned.
All the early royal seals which have been referred to were
affixed to the face of the documents, that is, en placard; but in
the nth century the practice of appending the seal from thongs
or cords came into vogue; by the izth century it was universal.
540
SEALS
Naturally, the introduction of the pendant seal invited an
impression on the back as well as on the face of the disk of wax
or other material employed. Hence arose the use of the counter-
seal, which might be an impression from a matrix actually so
ca.11td(contrasigillum) , or that of a signet or private seal (secretum),
such countersealing implying a personal corroboration of the
sealing. The earliest seal of a sovereign of France to which a
counterseal was added was that of Louis VII. (A.D. 1141), an
equestrian effigy of the king as duke of Aquitaine being impressed
on the reverse. When, in 1154, Aquitaine passed to the English
crown, this counterseal disappeared, and eventually in subsequent
reigns a fleur-de-lis or the shield of arms of France took its place.
In the German royal seals the imperial eagle or the imperial
shield of arms was the ordinary counterseal.
To turn to England: it appears that the kings of the Anglo-
Saxon race, or at least some of them, imitated their Frankish
An la- neighbours in using signets or other seals. There are
Saxon still extant an impression of the seal of Offa of Mercia
(A.D. 790) bearing a portrait head; and one of the seal of
Edgar (A.D. 960), an intaglio gem. The first royal seal
of England which ranks as a " great seal " is that of Edward the
Confessor, impressions of which are extant. This seal was
furnished with a counterseal, the design being nearly
identical with that of the obverse (fig. i). William the
Conqueror, as duke of Normandy, used an equestrian
seal, representing him mounted and armed for battle. After
the conquest of England,
he added a seal of majesty,
copied from the seal of
Henry I. of France, as a
counterseal. In subsequent
reigns the order of the two
seals was reversed, the seal
of majesty becoming the
obverse, and the reverse
being the equestrian seal:
a pattern which has been
followed, almost uniformly,
down to the present day.
Besides the two royal
seals of Anglo-Saxon kings
noticed above there are
extant a few other seals,
seals.
Great
seals.
FIG. I . Seal of Edward the Confessor.
and there is documentary evidence of yet others, which were
An to- use< ^ * n England before the Norman Conquest; but
Saxoa the rarity of such examples is an indication that the
private employment of seals could not have been very
common among our Anglo-Saxon forefathers. Berht-
wald the thane, in 788, and /Ethelwulf of Mercia, in 857,
affixed their seals to certain documents. In the British
Museum are the bronze matrices of seals of ^thilwald,
bishop of Dunwich, about 800; of JEliric, alderman of
Hampshire, about 985; and the finely carved ivory double
matrix of Godwin the thane (on the obverse) and of the
nun Godcythe (on the reverse), of the beginning of the nth
century. In the Chapter Library of Durham there is the matrix
of the monastic seal of about the year 970; and in the British
Museum, appended to a later charter (Harl. 45 A. 36), is the
impression of the seal of Wilton Abbey of about 974.
The official practice of the Prankish kings, which, as we have
seen, was the means of handing down the Roman tradition of the
use of the signet, was gradually imitated by high
officers of state. In the 8th century the mayors of the
palace are found affixing their personal seals to royal
diplomas; and, once the idea was started, the multiplication of
seals naturally followed. From the end of the loth century there
was a growing tendency to their general use. From the I2th
to the 1 5th century inclusive, sealing was the ordinary process of
authenticating legal documents; and during that period an
infinite variety of seals was in existence. The royal seals of
dignity or great seals we have already noticed. The sovereign
also had his personal seals: his privy seal, his signet. The
Medieval
teals.
provinces, the public departments, the royal and public officers,
the courts of law: all had their special seals. The numerous
class of ecclesiastical seals comprised episcopal seals of all kinds,
official and personal; seals of cathedrals and chapters; of
courts and officials, &c. The monastic series is one of the largest,
and, from an artistic point of view, one of the most important.
The topographical or local series comprises the seals of cities,
of towns and boroughs and of corporate bodies. Then come
the vast collections of personal seals. Equestrian seals of barons
and knights; the seals of ladies of rank; the armorial seals of
the gentry; and the endless examples, chiefly of private seals,
with devices of all kinds, sacred and profane, ranging from the
finely engraved work of art down to the roughly cut merchant's
mark of the trader and the simple initial letter of the yeoman,
typical of the time when everybody had his seal.
The ordinary shape of the medieval seal is round ; but there are
certain exceptions. Ladies' seals and some classes of ecclesiastical
and monastic seals are of pointed oval form, which is ,..
best adapted to receive the standing figure of lady, bishop,
abbot or saint: the common types in such classes. Fancifully
shaped seals also occur, but they are comparatively rare.
In the middle ages the metal chiefly employed in the manufacture
of matrices was bronze. Among the wealthy, silver was not
uncommon ; among the poor, lead was in general use. u a i r i e
Matrices of steel and iron were made at a later time in
the i6th and iyth centuries. In the nth century a fairly large
number of matrices were cut in ivory. The use of engraved gems
in the early middle ages has already been
noticed; but the taste for antique intaglios was
not confined to any one period. In the later
centuries also, particularly in the I4th century,
they were set in seal matrices and finger rings.
A fine Graeco-Roman gem, bearing a female
head, full face and set in a medieval setting,
does duty for the head of Mary Magdalen, as
seen in the accompanying cut (fig. 2).
The ordinary matrix of the middle ages was pro- p IG 2 Antique
vided with a ridge on the back (or, in some in- gem used as
stances, with a vertical handle), by which it could p r ; va t e sea i
be held while being used for sealing, and which
might be pierced for suspension. Sockets for the insertion of handles
are of comparatively late make. The matrix was in most instances
simple, the design giving a direct impression once and for all. But
there are examples of elaborate matrices composed of several pieces,
from the impressions of which the seal was built up in an ingenious
fashion, both obverse and reverse being carved in hollow work,
through which figures and subjects impressed on an inner layer of
wax are to be seen. Such examples are the seal matrix of the
Benedictine priory of St Mary and St Blaise of Boxgrave in Sussex,
of the I3th century, now in the British Museum (fig. 3); and the
matrix of Southwick Priory in
Hampshire, of the same period
(Archaeologia, xxiii. 374). The
matrix of one of the seals of
Canterbury Cathedral was also
constructed in the same manner.
It has usually been the custom
to break up or deface the matrices
of official seals when they have
ceased to be valid, as, for example,
at the commencement of a new
reign. The seals of deceased
bishops or abbots were solemnly
broken in presence of the chapter
or before the altar. But the legal
maxim that corporations never die
is well illustrated by the survival
of the fine series, not complete,
indeed, but very full, of the
matrices of English corporations,
beginning with the close of the
1 2th century. A fine example is
the corporate seal of Rochester, of
the I3tn century, showing the keep
and battlements of the castle (fig.
4J in high relief.
The common material for re-
ceiving the impressions from the matrices was beeswax, generally
strengthened and hardened by admixture with other substances,
such as resin, pitch and even hemp and hair. The
employment of chalk as an ingredient in many seals "**'
of the 1 2th century has caused them to become ex- prt
tremely friable. It was a common practice to apply to such seals
a coating of brown varnish. Besides the transparent yellowish-
brown of the wax when used in its natural state, as it very
frequently was used in the earlier middle ages, many other colours,
FIG. 3. Seal of Boxgrave
Priory: obverse.
SEALS
especially red, dark green and dark brown, and even black,
are found in medieval seals. Any attempt to classify examples by
their colours fails, for, while at some periods the particular tints
employed in certain chanceries may have been selected with a view
to marking the character
of the documents so sealed,
such practice was not con-
sistently followed.
For the protection of the
impression, in the I2th and
I3th centuries, when it was
an ordinary custom to im-
press the seals on thick
cakes of wax, the surround-
ing margin rising well above
the field usually formed a
suitable fender; at other
times, as in the I4th and
1 5th centuries, a so-called
wreath,! or twisted shred
of parchment, or plaited
grass or reed, was imbedded
in the wax round the im-
pression. But the most
FIG. 4. Corporate Seal of Rochester, common process was to sew
up the seal in a bag or piece
of cloth or canvas, with the mistaken notion that this would ensure
the seal's integrity; the ordinary result being that, on the assumption
that seals thus protected needed no further care, they have been in
most instances either broken or crushed to powder. In later times,
seals, especially great seals, have been frequently fitted in metal
or wooden boxes.
The medieval seal may be said, in general, to be composed of two
essential parts: the device, or type as it is sometimes called, and the
inscription or legend. It is the existence of the legend,
surrounding the device as with a border, that distinguishes
it from the antique engraved gem, which rarely bore an
inscription and then only its field. Such antique gems as were
adopted for matrices in the middle ages were usually set in metal
mounts, on which the jegends were engraved. The first and obvious
reason for an inscription on a seal was to ensure identification of
the owner; and therefore the names of such owners appear in the
earliest examples. Afterwards, when the use of seals became com-
mon, and when they were as often toys as signets, fanciful legends
or mottoes appropriate to the devices naturally came into vogue.
Examples of such mottoes will be given below.
A few words may be said regarding the different kinds of types or
devices appropriate to particular classes or groups of medieval seals ;
and, although these remarks have special reference to English seals,
it may be noted that there is a common affinity between the several
classes of seals of all countries of western Europe, and that what is
said of the seal-devices of one country may be applied in general
terms to those of the rest. The types of the great seals of sovereigns
have already been mentioned : a seal of majesty on the obverse, an
equestrian seal on the reverse. Other royal official seals usually bear
on the obverse the king enthroned or mounted, ar.d the royal arms
on the reverse. Among other official seals a very interesting type
is that of the Lord High Admiral in the I5th century, several matrices
of the seals of holders of the dignity having survived and being
exhibited in the British Museum. That of John Holland, earl of
Huntingdon, Admiral of England, Ireland and Aquitaine, 1435-
1442, is here given (fig. 5),
having the usual device of
a ship, on the mainsail of
which are the earl's ar-
morial bearings. In ecclesi-
astical seals generally, in
the seals of religious foun-
dations, cathedrals, monas-
teries, colleges and the like,
sacred subjects naturally
find a place among other
designs. Such subjects as
the Deity, the Trinity, the
Annunciation, the Nativity,
the Crucifixion, the Cor-
onation of the Virgin, are
not uncommon. Episcopal
seals more generally show
the prelate prominently as
a standing figure, or, less
conspicuously, as kneeling
in prayer beforethe Deity or
patron saint; the counter-
FIG. 5. Seal of Lord High Admiral
Huntingdon.
seal also frequently represents him in the same posture of adoration.
Chapter seals may bear the patron saint, or a representation, more
or less conventional, of the cathedral; monastic seals may have
figures of the Virgin Mary, or other patron saint, or of the founder,
or of abbot or abbess; or the conventual building. If there be a
counterseal, the figure of patron saint or founder may stand there,
Art.
while the building occupies the obverse. Each abbot, too, would
have his own seal of dignity, generally showing him standing. Local
seals of town or borough may have the image of a patron saint, or
armorial device, or castle or bridge or other building (see fig. 4),
or the town itself. A seaport will be indicated by a ship on the
waves. _ The baronial seal bears the armed and mounted knight.
On ladies' seals the owner is often gracefully depicted standing and
holding flower or bird, or with shields of arms. After the I4th
century, the figures of ladies, other than queens, vanish from seals.
Armorial devices of the gentry first appear on seals at the close of
the I2th century; and from that time there is a gradual develop-
ment of the heraldic seal, which in the 1 4th century was often a
work of fine decorative sculpture. And, lastly, the devices on fancy
seals are without end in their variety.
As in all other departments of medieval art, the engraving of
seals in the middle ages passed through certain well-marked
developments and changes characteristic of different
periods. Fine seal engraving is to be found in the
productions of many of the continental nations; but in the best
periods nothing can excel the work of English cutters. Beginning
with the examples of the
nth and i2th centuries,
we find the subjects gener-
ally of an archaic style,
which is evidence of an
early stage of the art. In
the i3th century this un-
developed stage has passed,
and a fine, but still re-
strained, quality of en-
graving ensues, which, like
all the allied arts of that
century, charms with its
simple and unpretending
precision. For example, in
the great seals of Henry
III., something of the
antique stiffness remains,
but the general effect and
the finish of the details
are admirable. We may
refer also again to the
Boxgrave seal (fig. 3) as a
fine specimen of i3th cen-
tury architectural carving.
But the most beautiful
seal of this period, and in
many respects the most beautiful medieval seal in existence,
is the monastic seal of Merton Priory, in Surrey, of the year
1241. An engraving of the obverse, the Virgin and Child, is
here' given (fig. 6). The Merton seal is the work of a master hand
treating his subject with wonderful breadth and freedom. As the
century advances, a more
graceful movement in the
figures is discernible. For
instance, the great seal of
Edward I. shows a de-
parture from the severe
simplicity of his pre-
decessor in the addition
of decorative architec-
tural details, and in the
easier action of the
equestrian figure, which
in this instance is of a
strikingly fine type. Com-
parable with it is the
remarkable baronial FIG a , of Robert Fitz . Walter .
equestrian seal of Robert
Fitz- Walter (fig. 7), 1298-1304, the silver matrix of which is in
the British Museum collections.
The work of the I4th century is marked by a great develop-
ment in decoration. Where the artist of the former century
would have secured his effect by simple, firm lines, the new school
trusted to a more superficial style, in which ornament rather than
FIG. 6. Merton Priory Seal.
542
SEALS
form is the leading motive. The new style is conspicuous in the
great seals and other official seals of Edward III., as well as in
other classes. The I4th century is also the period of enriched
canopies, of niches and pinnacles and of other details of monu-
mental sculpture reproduced in its seals. A very beautiful and
typical example of the
best work of this period
is to be seen in the seal
of Richard de Bury,
bishop of Durham from
1333 to 1345 (fig. 8). It
is to be remarked that
the standing figure of
the bishop in episcopal
seals, of the abbot in
monastic seals and of
the lady in ladies' seals,
which was so persistent
from the I2th century
onwards, proved to be
the happy cause of the
maintenance of the
elegant oval shape in
examples of these
classes, wherein some of
the best balanced de-
signs are to be found.
The 15th century
brought with it to seal-
engraving, as it did to
FIG. 8. Seal of Richard de Bury, other departments of
late I4th century. medieval art, the
elements of decadence.
The execution becomes of a more mechanical type; the strength
of the I3th century and the gracefulness of the i4th century have
passed; and, while examples of great elaboration were still
produced, the tendency grows to overload the decoration. This
defect is noticeable, for example, in the elaborate great seals of
the Henries of the i$th century, as compared with the finer
types of their predecessors. As a good example of the middle
FIG. 9. Seal of King's College, Cambridge.
of the century, the seal of King's College, Cambridge, of about
the year 1443, is here given (fig. 9), showing the Virgin in glory in
the centre, between St Nicholas and King Henry VI.
With the rise of the period of the Renaissance, like other
medieval arts, seal-engraving passed out of the range of the
traditions of the middle ages and came under the influence of
the derived classical or pseudo-classical sentiment. There is,
therefore, no need to pursue the subject further.
We close this portion of the present article with specimens of
the legends or mottoes which are to be found on the innumerable
personal seals of the i3th, i4th and i5th centuries. M Uog
They are of great variety, and many of them are very
interesting, both on account of the devices which they accompany
and the sentiments which they express. In English seals they
are found composed in Latin, in French, and in the vernacular.
First there are legends describing the quality of the seal or
conveying a message to the recipient of the missive, as : Prive
su (suis); priv6 su et poi conu (peu connu); sigillum secreti;
secret! nuntius; je su mute; lei (loial) ami muet; je su sel bon e
led; veici parti lei; clausa secreta tego; signo secreta signo;
secreta gero; si frangis, revelo; frange, lege, tege; brusset,
liset, et celet; accipe, frange, lege; claude, repone, tege; missa
lege, lecta tege; tecta lege, lecta tege; briset, vaez, lisez,
craez; tene fidem; tenet la foy; softe and fayre. Seals with
love mottoes are numerous: sigillum pacis et amoris; je suy
damurs; je su seel damur Id; seel de saluz e damur; de li
penset par ki me avet; jeo su ci en lu dami; penset de li par ki
su ci; ase for the treweste; ami amet, car lei ami avet; amye
amet, mon quer avet; mun quer avet, ben le gard6; mun cuer
avet, ne le deceve; penset de moi, e je de vus; mon quer jolye
a vos doin, amye; je suy flur de lei amur; love me and I the;
if the liket, mi love holde; poi vaut vivre sans lei ami. The lion
is a not uncommon device: Je su lion bon par avisoun; sum
leo, quovis eo, non nisi uera veho; je su rey des bestes; leo
tegit secretum. A lion dormant: Ci repose le lion; ici dort le
lion fort; wake me no man. A lion dormant on a rose, the
symbol of secrecy: Ben pur celer, gis sur roser; ici repose liun
en la rose; de su la rose le lion repose. Rustic life is represented
by a squirrel: I crake notis; I krak nots; I bite notes: by
a hare, or a hare riding a dog: Sohou, sohou; sohou, mutel;
sohou, Robin; sohou, je le voi; sohou, je lai trouv6; je vois a
bois; by a hare in a tree: Sohou, scut, ware I cut: by a monkey
riding a dog or goat: Allone I ride, I hunt; allone I ride, have
I no swayn: by a stag: Alas, Bowles: by a dog: hobbe,
dogge, hobbe; garez ben le petit chen: by a hawk seizing a
bird: Alas, je su pris. And more than one example bears the
motto: By the rood, women ar wood (mad).
Bullae. As stated above, metal seals, as well as seals in soft
materials, have been employed in European countries under
certain conditions. These are technically called " bullae " (Lat.
bulla, a boss, or circular metal ornament), and necessarily they
were in all cases suspended from the documents, and they bore a
design on both obverse and reverse. In the southern countries
of Europe, where wax would be affected by the warmth of the
climate, it was natural that a harder material should also be used.
Hence the leaden bulla was a recognized form of seal during the
middle ages in the Peninsula, in southern France, in Italy, and
in the Latin East. The best-known series is the papal series of
leaden seals which have lent their name to the documents of the
papal chancery which they authenticate, popularly known as
papal " bulls." The earliest extant example of this series is of
the year 746 (see DIPLOMATIC). Leaden seals were also used by
the archbishops of Ravenna and other prelates of Italy; also
to some extent by officials of a lower rank, and by certain
communes. The official seals of the doges of Venice and of Genoa
and of other dignitaries of those states were also of lead. The
sovereigns of Spain, too, made use of the same material; and in
the Byzantine empire leaden bullae seem to have been universally
employed, not only by emperors and state officials but also by
private persons. Even in the north, metal bullae were also
occasionally in use. Certain Carolingian monarchs, probably
copying the practice of the papal chancery, issued diplomas
authenticated by leaden seals, examples of the reign of Charles
the Bald being still extant. The fashion even spread to Britain,
as is proved by the existence in the British Museum of a leaden
bulla of Ccenwulf of Mercia, A.D. 800-810. In Germany, too,
bishops occasionally made use of leaden seals. But, while lead
was the ordinary material for the metal seal, a more precious
substance was occasionally used. On special occasions golden
bullae were issued by the Byzantine emperors, by the popes,
SEALSFIELD SEAMANSHIP
543
by the Carolings, although no actual examples of the last have
survived, by the emperors of Germany, and by other sovereigns
and rulers. Such specimens as have descended to us show that
the golden bulla of the middle ages was usually hollow, being
formed of two thin plates of metal stamped with the designs of
obverse and reverse, soldered together at the edges and padded
with wax or plaster. On rare occasions it was of solid gold. The
popes attached golden bullae to their confirmations of the
elections of the emperors in the i2th and I3th centuries; and
they issued them on such occasions as when Leo X. conferred on
Henry VIII. the title of Defender of the Faith, in 1521; on the
coronation of Charles V., 1530; on the erection of the arch-
bishopric of Lisbon into a patriarchate in 1716, &c.; and quite
recently papal golden bullae have been conferred on royal
personages. Comparatively few examples of golden bullae have
survived. The value of the metal sufficiently accounts for their
scarcity. Some examples are in the British Museum, viz. of
Baldwin II. de Courtenay, formerly emperor of Constantinople,
attached to a charter of 1269; of Edmund, king of Sicily, son
of Henry III. of England; and of the emperor Frederick III.,
1452-1493. In the Public Record Office, of Alfonso X. of
Castile, ceding Gascony to Edward, son of Henry III. of England,
1254; of Clement VII. confirming to Henry VIII. the title of
Defender of the Faith, 1524 (this example being the work of
Benvenuto Cellini); and of Francis I. of France, ratifying the
treaty with Henry VIII., 1527 (the counterpart with Henry's
bulla being in Paris).
AUTHORITIES. W. de G. Birch, Catalogue of Seals in the British
Museum (6 vols., 1887-1900) ; A. Wyon, The Great Seals of England
(1887); G. Pedrick, Borough Seals of the Gothic Period (1904);
H. Laing, Catalogue of Ancient Scottish Seals (1858, 1866); Douet
d'Arcq, Collection de sceaux (Inventaires et documents des archives
de I'Empire) (3 vols., 1863-1868); G. Demay, Inventaire 'des sceaux
de la Flandre (2 vols., 1873), de I'Artois et de la Picardie (1877),
de la Normandie (1881); G. Schlumberger, Sigillographie de I'empire
byzantin (1884); J. von Pflugk-Hartung, Specimina selecta char-
tarum pontificum Romanorum (for papal bullae) (18851887); Cata-
logue of Engraved Gems in the Dept. of Greek and Roman Antiquities
(British Museum, 1888) ; F. H. Marshall, Catalogue of the Finger-
Rings, Greek, Etruscan, and Roman, in the British Museum (1907) ;
E. Babelon, Histoire de la gravure sur gemmes en France (1902).
There are also numerous papers on seals in Archaeologia and in the
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, and in the archaeological
journals. Handbooks on diplomatic devote some attention to seals,
e.g. A. Giry, Manuel de diplomatique (1894); H. Bresslau, Handbuch
der Urkundenlehre fur Deulschland und Ilalien (1889). (E. M. T.)
SEALSFIELD, CHARLES, the pseudonym of KARL ANTON
POSTL (1793-1864), German novelist, who was born on the 3rd
of March 1793 at Poppitz near Znaim in Moravia. His schooling
completed, he entered the Kreuzherrenorden in Prague, where
he became a priest, but in the autumn of 1822 he fled to America,
where he assumed the name of Charles Sealsfield. In 1826 he
returned to Germany and published a book on America (Die
Vereiniglen Staaten von Nordamerika), which was followed by an
outspoken criticism of Austria, written in English (Austria as i!
is, 1828) and published anonymously in London. Meanwhile
he had returned to America, where he published his first novel,
also in English, Tokeah, or the White Rose (1828). He now turned
journalist, first in New York and subsequently in Paris and
London, as correspondent for various journals. In 1832 he
settled in Switzerland, and in 1860 purchased a small estate
near Solothurn. Here he died on the 26th of May 1864.
His will first revealed the fact that he was the former monk,
Postl.
It is as a German novelist that he is best known. His Tokeah
appeared in German under the title Der Legitime und die Republi-
kaner (1838), and was followed by Der Virey und die Aristokraten
(1835). Lebensbilder aus beiden Hemispharen (1835-1837), Sturm-,
Land- und Seebilder (1838), Das Kajiitenbuch, oder Nationale Charak-
teristiken (1842). Sealsfield occupies an important position in the
development of the German historical novel at a period when Scott's
influence was beginning to wane. He endeavoured to widen the
scope of historical fiction, to describe great national and political
movements, without forfeiting the sympathy of his readers for the
individual characters of the story.
Sealsfield's Gesammelte Werke appeared in 18 vols. (1843-1846);
his chief novels are also to be obtained in modern reprints. See
KertbSny, Erinnerungen an Sealsfield (1864); L. Schmolle, Charles
Sealsfield (1875); L. Hamburger, Sealsfield-Postl, bisher unveroffent-
lichte Briefe (1879); A. B. Faust, Charles Sealsfield, der Dichter
beider Hemispharen (1896).
SEAMAN, OWEN (1861- ), English humorist and author,
was educated at Shrewsbury school and Clare College, Cambridge,
where he took a first-class in the classical tripos in 1883; in the
next year he became a master at Rossall school; and in 1890 he
was appointed professor of literature at the Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. He was called to the bar at the
Inner Temple in 1897. He was introduced to Punch in 1894,
with his " Rhyme of the Kipperling," a parody of Rudyard
Kipling's " Rhyme of the Three Sealers." He also wrote for The
National Observer and The World. In 1894 he published a
volume of parodies which is a classic of its kind, Horace at
Cambridge, followed by The Battle of the Bays (1896), In Cap and
Bells (1899), Borrowed Plumes (1902), A Harvest of Chaff (1904).
He joined the staff of Punch in 1897, and shortly afterwards
became assistant-editor, succeeding Sir F. C. Burnand as editor
in 1906.
SEAMANSHIP, the general term for the art by which vessels
of all classes and sizes are handled in all conditions of weather.
It is commonly distinguished from " boatmanship," but the
distinction is arbitrary. In ordinary speech it is frequently
used as meaning the same thing as navigation (<?..). But the
two subjects are essentially different. Navigation is a science
based on observation of the sun and stars in their apparent
movements, on their bearings to one another, and the earth,
and on time. It may be acquired from the study of books, and
by a student who has never been in sight of the sea. Seamanship
is an art. Its principles may be stated in literary form, but a
mastery of it can only be acquired by actual practice on the sea.
The art is far older than the science, but because of its practical
character its history is much more difficult to trace. Navigation,
being one form of the study of mathematics and astronomy,
has been written about from the beginning. Seamanship has
been practised in perfection by men who were perfectly illiterate
for thousands of years before any treatise on it appeared. Sea-
men have at all times been, as Clarendon noted, a people apart.
Till recently they have believed in practice only, and being
jealous of, and hostile to, landsmen, have generally endeavoured
to preserve their knowledge as an " art and mystery " to be
handed down by oral instruction from master to apprentice.
Sir Henry Manwayring, whose Seaman's Dictionary appeared
in 1644, claimed that it was the first treatise on seamanship
ever written. After explaining that a writer who had not acquired
the art by practice could not expound it, he goes on: " And
as for the professed Seamen, they either want ability and dexterity
to express themselves, or (as they do generally) will, to instruct
any Gentleman. If any will tell me why the vulgar sort of
Seamen hate landmen so much, either he or I may give the reason
why they are so unwilling to instruct them in their art, whence
it is that so many gentlemen go long voyages, and return (in a
manner) as ignorant and as unable to do their country service
as when they went out." Though the Seaman's Dictionary
did not appear in print till 1644, it is described on the title-page
as having been presented to George Villiers, duke of Buckingham,
the lord high admiral of Charles I., who was murdered in 1628.
Manwayring's book is therefore probably, if not the first treatise
on seamanship written in English, at least as old as its only
rival the Accidences, or the pathway to experience necessary for
all young seamen, published in 1626, by the famous Captain
John Smith, of Virginia. On the continent of Europe, as in
England, while works on navigation and gunnery were common,
treatises on practical seamanship date from the i7th century.
The books of Manwayring and Smith are rather glossaries of
terms than expositions of principles.
We are therefore left with very few documents from which
to learn what the seamanship of antiquity and the middle ages
was. But such testimony as we have confirms the conclusion
to be drawn from our general knowledge of the construction of
their ships, and of the scientific learning of their times. The old
seamen were coasters, who acted on the fisherman's adage
544
SEAMANSHIP
" If you cannot steer by the compass, steer by the land," because
they had no choice. War ship and merchant ship alike clung
to the coast or if they ventured out to sea, they did so for a
voyage to be counted by the hour, as, for instance, from the
south-west of Sicily to the opposite coast of Africa or they
relied on regular trade winds, like the seamen who sailed from
the Red Sea to the coast of Malabar going and coming with the
monsoons. In spite of exceptions, more apparent perhaps than
real, such as the voyages of Irish anchorites to Iceland, and of
the Norsemen to that island, and to Greenland, seamanship
continued to be the art of the coaster till the close of the middle
ages. Chaucer's sailor has hardly lost sight of the coast. Such
treatises as were written for seamen were books of pilotage.
Examples will be found at the end of the Hakluyt Society's
edition of Hues Tractatus de globis. The warships, Phoenician,
Greek, Roman, Norse, Byzantine and Italian throughout the
middle ages, used sails only when not in action. They were
rowed in battle, and the mast was lowered, or left on shore.
Whenever they could they avoided passing the night at sea.
Their galleys were beached or anchored close to the shore and
the men landed. We know from Thucydides' narrative of the
expedition to Syracuse, that the crews were landed even for their
meals; from the chronicle of Ramon de Muntaner, we know
that this was also the case with the best Mediterranean squadrons
at the end of the i3th century. The Athenians, clinging to the
coast, spent two months in going from Athens to Syracuse.
Roger di Lauria, the admiral of Aragon, when coming from
Sicily in circumstances of great urgency to Catalonia, went round
by the coast of Africa and Spain. When under sail the ships
of war and of commerce alike had, at the outside, very few sails,
and generally only one great course (see SAILS) square and slung
by the middle of the yard. It could be trained fore and aft
by bowlines, so as to enable the vessel to sail on the wind. Under
these restrictions seamanship was necessarily a limited art.
From Marco Polo we learn that the seamen of the China Sea
and of the Indian Ocean were coasters like their European
contemporaries.
Though the art of seamanship is distinct both from the art
of shipbuilding and the science of navigation, it has naturally
developed with them. The discovery of the mariner's compass,
the advance of astronomical knowledge, the invention of the
rude early instruments of navigation, the astrolabe, the back
staff, the quarter staff, loosened the dependence of the sailor
on the shore. Thence came the need for larger ships, and they
demanded a more developed rigging (?..). Modern seamanship
begins with the voyage of Columbus. The previous and con-
temporary voyages of the Portuguese were coasting voyages
round Africa. But Columbus struck across the ocean, and
within thirty years Sebastian de Elcano, who accompanied
Magellan, had sailed round the world.
Many of the seamen wrote treatises for the benefit of their fellow-
seamen, but, like the Brief Compendium of the Spaniard Martin
Cortes, or the Seaman's Secrets of the Englishman John Davis,
and the so-called " Waggoners " (a corruption of the name of the
Dutch author Waggenaer), they were devoted to navigation, or
were " rutters," i.e. route books and sailing directions. A curious
little volume named Six Dialogues about Sea Service between a High
Admiral and a Captain at Sea, published in London in 1685, and
written by Nathaniel Boteler, contains interesting details of the
seamanship of the time, but is mainly concerned with naval organiza-
tion. Such a well-known text-book as The Mariners' Magazine,
of Captain Samuel Sturmy, reprinted in the I7th century, from
which Swift took the sea phrases used in Gulliver's Travels, is de-
voted to " the doctrine of Triangles, " " Navigation," " Dialling,"
" Gunnery," &c. Little attention is paid to pure seamanship, and
the author practically confesses that his brother seamen regarded all
book knowledge as superfluous if not actually injurious. The art
continued in snort to be purely empirical till the middle of the l8th
century, and it suffered from adherence to rule of thumb and want
of study of principles.
The first writer on seamanship who went beyond a glossary, and
who looked at the way of a ship on the sea scientifically, was a
Frenchman who was not a seaman Pierre Bouguer, royal hydro-
grapher for the ports of La Croisic and of Havre, member of the
Academic Royale_ des Sciences, and of the British Royal Society.
I" '757 he published his book De la manceuvre des vaissaux, ou
Iraite de mtchanique et de dynamique, dans lequel on reduit & des
solutions tres simples les problemes de marine les plus difficiles qui ont
pour objet le mouvement du navire. It is to be observed that Bouguer,
even at this late date, notes the lack of treatises on seamanship as
compared to the abundance of books on navigation. His treatment
of the theme was too scientific to be intelligible by the average sea-
faring man, but his influence was gradually spread by his pupils,
French and foreign. He is quoted as the dominant authority in the
edition of Falconer's Dictionary issued by Dr Burney in 1830.
Bouguer had an English follower William Hutchinson a merchant
skipper and privateer captain, who was for some time dock master
of Liverpool. In 1777 he printed, probably at Liverpool, A Treatise
on Practical Seamanship; with Hints and Remarks relating thereto:
designed to contribute something towards fixing Rules upon Philo-
sophical and Rational Principles; to make ships, and the Management
of them; and also Navigation in general more perfect, and consequently
less dangerous and destructive to Health, Lives, and Property. Darcy
Lever, whose Young Officers' Sheet Anchor, or a Key to the leading
of Rigging and to Practical Seamanship appeared in 1835, says that
Hutchmson's was then the best treatise which had appeared in
English ; but it suffers from a defect to which the writer confesses
with perfect candour his want of education. His early training as
" cook, cabin boy, and beer drawer for the men " had not prepared
him to write clearly. Darcy Lever was the standard authority of
the middle of the icjth century, when the art of seamanship in sailing
ships had reached its fullest development.
What that art was can now be learnt only by the study of books.
Before Darcy Lever's book appeared, steam and the use of metal
for the construction of ships had already been introduced. Since
1835 a revolution has been carried out in shipbuilding and seaman-
ship greater than had taken place in all the previous centuries.
Even as regards the sailing ship the change from wood and hemp
to soft-steel and wire, together with the employment of small engines
to help in hauling the yards in the larger vessels, has made a vast
difference. As between the steamer and the sailing ship, the differ-
ence can hardly be said to be one of degree at all. A comparison of
two incidents in the history of the British navy in the igth century
will serve to illustrate the unlikeness better than any generalities.
They are the similar perils, and the very dissimilar escapes of the
74-gun ship " Magnificent " on the l6th of December 1812 in the
Basque roads on the French coast, and of the cruiser " Calliope "
at Apia in Samoa on the i6th of March 1888. Both were in danger
of being driven on shore by storms of extreme violence. The
" Magnificent " was saved by the resource of her captain, John
Hayes, who, by making an unprecedented use of his masts and sails,
tacked the ship when within her own breadth of a reef. Everything
was done by his order and under his eye (see Naval Chronicle, vol.
xxix. p. 19). Captain Kane of the "Calliope" steamed to sea by
the power of the machines of his ship, which were put of his sight,
below the water-line, and were handled by the engineers. The old
seamanship was concerned not only with directing the course of
the vessel, but with the actual control of the machinery of her
motive power, for masts and sails are, after all, machines. The new
seamanship directs the course. The motive power is exercised
below, out of sight, and by men whose function is radically different
from that of the members of the crew who are on deck.
The old seamanship did not retire before the new without a
long resistance. Until very recently it continued to be an article
of faith both in navies and in the merchant service, that the
sailor could only be trained in a sailing vessel. Special vessels
were maintained in navies to give the desired training to young
seamen and officers. But the navies of the world have found
that the brief period which can be spent by young men in a
special masted ship did not give an equivalent for the old training.
This was inevitable, if only because these ships were also pro-
vided with engines, and recourse was had to the machinery at
all times of difficulty or peril when entering and leaving
harbour, when rounding, awkward headlands or working off a
lee-shore. The name of " seamanship " still continues to be applied
to the art of handling ships under sail, and has never been made
the subject of a treatise in so far as it means the management of
a steamer. Perhaps it never can be. The art of constructing
and managing machines is really " engineering." It is by
" navigation " that the course of a ship is laid. The modern
seaman who steers and guides a steamer from the upper deck,
or the bridge, must he able to navigate, and must have such a
knowledge of engineering as will tell him what he may expect
from the machinery and what he must not ask it to do. But he
cannot see his engines, and must perforce leave to the engineers
the responsibility of handling them and the initiative in the
face of sudden peril. There remain to the captain, and the
officers who direct the course, the superior command and the
functions of the pilot.
In addition to the books already mentioned sec R. H. Dana,
SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO
545
Seaman's Manual; containing a treatise on Practical Seamanship
(London, 1841); B. J. Totten, Lieut. U.S.N., Naval Text-Book
(Boston, 1841); N. Tinmouth, Inquiry relative to various important
points of Seamanship (London, 1845); A. H. Alston, Lieut. R.N.,
Seamanship and its associated duties in the Royal Navy, with a treatise
on Nautical Surveying (London, 1860); R. Maxwell, Seamanship
and Navigation required for the examination of the Local Marine
Board (London, 1869). (D. H.)
SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO. In most legal systems
legislation has interfered to protect the seaman from the con-
sequences of that imprudence which is generally supposed to be
one of his distinguishing characteristics. In the United Kingdom
legislation has dealt with the interests of seamen with unusual
fulness of detail, proving the care bestowed by a maritime power
upon those to whom its commercial success is so largely due. How
far this legislation has had the efficiency which was expected
may be doubtful.
For legislative purposes seamen may be divided into three
classes seamen in the royal navy, merchant seamen, and
fishermen.
Seamen in the Royal Navy. It is still lawful to impress men
for the naval service (see IMPRESSMENT), subject to certain
exemptions (13 Geo. II. c. 17, 1740). Among persons exempt
are seamen in the merchant service. In cases of emergency
officers and men of the coastguard and revenue cruisers, seamen
riggers and pensioners may be required to serve in the navy
(Naval Volunteers Act 1853). There appears to be no other
instance (now that balloting for the militia is suspended) where
a subject may be forced into the service of the crown against
his will. The navy is, however, at the present day wholly re-
cruited by voluntary enlistment (see the Naval Enlistment
Acts, 1.835 to 1884). Special advantages are afforded by the
Merchant Shipping Act 1894 to merchant seamen enlisting in
the navy. They are enabled to leave their ship without punish-
ment or forfeiture in order to join the naval service. The dis-
cipline of the navy is, unlike that of the army, for which an annual
act is necessary, regulated by a permanent act of parliament,
that now in force being the Naval Discipline Act 1866. In
addition to numerous hospitals and infirmaries in the United
Kingdom and abroad, the great charity of Greenwich Hospital
is a mode of provision for old and disabled seamen in the navy.
At present such seamen are out-pensioners only; the hospital
has been for some years used as the Royal Naval College for
officer students. The enactments of the Merchant Shipping
Act 1854 as to savings banks are extended to seamen in the
navy by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, s. 148. Enlistment
without the licence of the crown in the naval service of a foreign
state at war with another foreign state that is at peace with
the United Kingdom is an offence punishable under the
Foreign Enlistment Act 1870. Any person buying from a
seaman or enticing a seaman to sell government property is
liable to penalties under the Seamen's Clothing Act 1869
(see NAVY).
Merchant Seamen. Most of the acts dealing with this subject,
commencing with 8 Eliz. c. 13, were repealed in 1854 and have
since been consolidated and extended by the Merchant Shipping
Acts 1894 and 1906,' the act of 1894 being the longest act on
the statute roll. The main part of the legislation affecting
seamen in the merchant service occurs in the second part of the
act of 1894 and the fourth part of the act of 1906. The act of
1894 defines a seaman to be " every person (except masters,
pilots, and apprentices duly indentured and registered) employed
or engaged in any capacity on board any ship " (s. 742).
The act of 1894 is largely a re-enactment of the previous acts of
1854, 1862 and 1876. The law as to the engagement and discharge
of seamen has not been altered. These must take place
'gage- before a superintendent only when the employment is
' e " *" on a foreign-going ship. If the ship is a home-trade ship,
of Seamen ?^ e s 'S nm S on an( ^ discharge take place before a super-
intendent only if the master so desire. But if the signing
on does not take place before a superintendent, the master must
cause the agreement to be read and explained to the seaman, and the
1 There are numerous Orders in Council dealing with seamen,
especially as to the registration of fishing boats and the lights to be
shown by them.
XXIV. 18
seaman must sign it in the presence of a witness; copies of all such
agreements must be transmitted to the Board of Trade. A copy of
every agreement with the crew must be posted in some part of the
ship accessible to the crew. In any British possession abroad other
than that in which the ship is registered, a seaman must be engaged
before a superintendent or officer of customs, and at any port abroad
where there is a British consular officer, before such officer. Before
a seaman can be discharged at any place abroad, the master must
obtain the sanction, endorsed on the agreement with the crew, of
the like officials or, in their absence, of merchants there resident.
A seaman discharged in a foreign country is entitled to be provided
with adequate employment on some other British ship bound to
the port in His Majesty's dominions at which he was originally
shipped, or to a port in the United Kingdom agreed to by the sea-
man, or to be furnished with the means of returning to such port or
of a passage home. The consul is charged with the duty of attending
to the seamen's interests. It is a misdemeanour wrongfully to force
a seaman on shore, or otherwise wrongfully leave him in any place
before the completion of the voyage for which he was engaged, or
the return of the ship to the United Kingdom. The only persons
by whom seamen may be engaged or supplied in the United Kingdom
are a superintendent, the master, the mate, a servant bona fide in
the constant employ of the owner, and any person holding a licence
from the Board of Trade.
At common law there was no obligation of the owner to provide
a seaworthy ship, but by the act of 1876, now superseded by the
act of 1894, part v., every person who sends or attempts to send,
or is party to sending or attempting to send, a British ship to sea
in such unseaworthy state that the life of any person is likely to be
thereby endangered is guilty of a misdemeanour, unless he proves
that he used all reasonable means to ensure her being sent to sea in
a seaworthy state, or that her going to sea in such unseaworthy state
was under the circumstances reasonable and justifiable. A master
knowingly taking a British ship to sea in such unseaworthy state
that the life of any person is likely to be thereby endangered is
guilty of a misdemeanour. In every contract of service between the
owner and the master or any seaman, and in every indenture of sea
apprenticeship, an obligation is implied that the owner, master
and agent shall use all reasonable means to ensure the seaworthiness
of the ship. By the act of 1906 many of the provisions as to sea-
worthiness was applied to foreign ships, and they may be detained in
a proper case. A return of certain particulars, such as lists of crews
and of distressed seamen sent home from abroad, reports on dis-
charge, births and deaths at sea, must be made to the registrar-
general of shipping and seamen, an officer of the Board of Trade.
The seaman is privileged in the matter of wills (see WILL), and is
exempt from serving in the militia (42 Geo. 1 1 I.e. 90, s. 43). Assaults
upon seamen with intent to prevent their working at their occupa-
tion are punishable summarily by the Offences against the Person
Act 1861, s. 40. There are special enactments in favour of Lascars
and foreign seamen on British ships, e.g. s. 125 of the act of
1894.
In addition to this legislation directly in his interest, the seaman
is indirectly protected by the provisions of the Merchant Shipping
Acts requiring the possession of certificates of competence _
by ships' officers, the periodical survey of ships by the " '
Board of Trade, and the enactments against deck cargoes
and overloading, as well as by other acts, such as the geamen
Chain Cables and Anchors Acts, enforcing a minimum
strength of cables and anchors, and the Passenger Acts, under which
a proper supply of life-boats and life-buoys must be provided. The
duties of the seaman appear to be to obey the master in all lawful
matters relating to the navigation of the ship and to resist enemies,
to encourage him in which he may become entitled to prize money
under 22 and 23 Car. II. c. II (see PRIZE). Any services beyond
these would fall under the head of salvage service and be recompensed
accordingly. There are certain offences for which the seaman is
liable to be summarily punished under the act of 1894. They
comprise desertion, neglect or refusal to join his ship or absence
without leave, quitting the ship without leave before she is placed
in security, wilful disobedience to a lawful command, either on one
occasion or continued, assault upon a master or mate, combining to
disobey lawful commands or to neglect duty, or to impede the
navigation of the ship or the progress of the voyage, wilful damage
to the ship, or embezzlement of or wilful damage to her stores or
cargo and smuggling. The punishment varies from forfeiture of
all or part of his wages to twelve weeks' imprisonment. Any offence
committed on board is entered in the official log-book. Personation
or forgery of a certificate of service or discharge is an offence punish-
able by summary jurisdiction by the Seamen's and Soldiers' False
Characters Act 1906.
A master, seaman or apprentice, who by wilful breach of duty,
or by neglect of duty, or by reason of drunkenness, does any act
tending to the immediate loss, destruction or serious damage of
the ship, or to immediately endanger the life or limb of any person
belonging to or on board of the ship, or who by wilful breach of duty,
&c., refuses or omits to do any lawful act proper and requisite to be
done by him for preserving the ship from immediate loss, destruction,
&c., is guilty of a misdemeanour. A seaman is also punishable at
common law for piracy and by statute for piracy and offences against
546
SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO
the Slave Trade Acts. A riotous assembly of seamen to prevent
the loading or unloading of any ship or to prevent others from
working is an offence under 33 Geo. III. c. 67. Deserters from
Portuguese ships are punishable by 12 and 13 Viet. c. 25, and from
any foreign ship by 15 and 16 Viet. c. 26, by virtue of conventions
with Portugal and other foreign powers. The rating of seamen is
now regulated by the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, s. 126. By that
act a seaman is not entitled to the rating of " A.B." unless he has
served four years before the mast, or three years or more in a
registered decked fishing vessel and one year at sea in a trading
vessel.
The act of 1894 enables contributions to seamen's refuges and
hospitals to be charged upon the mercantile marine fund. There
appears, however, to be no grant in support of seamen's hospitals out
of any public funds. The principal seamen's hospital is that at
Greenwich, established in 1821 and incorporated by 3 and 4 Will.
IV. c. 9 under the name of " The Seaman's Hospital Society." Up
to 1870 this hospital occupied the old " Dreadnought " at Greenwich,
but in that year it obtained the infirmary of Greenwich Hospital
from the Admiralty at a nominal rent, in return for which a certain
number of beds is to be at the disposal of the Admiralty. This
hospital with others is supported by voluntary contributions, in-
cluding those of many foreign governments. At one time there
was an enforced contribution of sixpence a month from the pay of
masters and seamen towards the funds of Greenwich Hospital,
levied under the powers of some of the Greenwich Hospital Acts.
The payment of these contributions enabled them to receive annuities
from the funds of the hospital. These " Greenwich Hospital six-
pences," however, became the source of very considerable irritation
and were discontinued. In their place a purely voluntary sea-
men's provident fund was established, its object being to per-
suade seamen to subscribe sixpence a month towards the seamen's
hospital.
The remedies of the seaman for wages are an ordinary action in
the king's bench division or plaint in a county court, an action in
rent or in personam in the admiralty division of the High
1 Court (in Scotland in the Court of Session), a cojomal
for wages. court o f admiralty, or a county court having admiralty
jurisdiction, or summary proceedings before justices, naval courts,
or superintendents of mercantile marine offices. The master has
now the same remedies as the seaman for his wages, under which are
included all disbursements made on account of the ship. At common
law he had only a personal action against the owner. He has the
additional advantage of being able to ensure his wages, which a
seaman cannot do. A county court having admiralty jurisdiction
may entertain claims for wages where the amount claimed does not
exceed 150 [County Courts (Admiralty Jurisdiction) Act 1868, s. 3].
Wages cannot be attached. They may be forfeited or reduced by
desertion, smuggling, and other kinds of misconduct. In O'Neil \.
Armstrong, 1895, 2 K.B. 418, it was held by the court of appeal that
a seaman, though he had .not completed the voyage, could recover
his full wages where war breaking out added a risk to the employment
which was not in his contemplation at the time of his engagement.
In actions in all courts of admiralty jurisdiction the seaman has a
maritime lien on the ship and freight, ranking next after claims for
salvage and_ damage. The amount recoverable summarily before
justices is limited to 50. Orders may be enforced by distress of
the ship and her tackle. Proceedings must be taken within six
months. A naval court on a foreign station may determine questions
as to wages without limit of amount. 1 As a rule a seaman cannot
sue abroad for wages due for a voyage to terminate in the United
Kingdom. The superintendent of a mercantile marine office has
power to decide any question whatever between a master or owner
and any of his crew which both parties in writing agree to submit
to him. These summary remedies are all preserved by the act of
1894. The act further provides that, where a question as to wages
is raised before a superintendent, if the amount in question does
not exceed 5, the superintendent may adjudicate finally, unless he
is of opinion that a court of law ought to decide it. The Merchant
Seamen Act 1880, by a section not repealed by the act of 1894., and
the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906, put seamen on a level with
other workmen. A county court or court of summary jurisdiction
(the latter limited to claims not exceeding 10) may under the act of
1875 determine all disputes between an employer and workman
arising out of their relation as such. The jurisdiction of courts of
summary jurisdiction is protected by the enactment of the act of
1894, that no proceeding for the recovery of wages under 50 is to
be instituted in a superior court unless either the owner of the ship
is bankrupt, or the ship is under arrest or sold by the authority of
such court, or the justices refer the case to such court, or neither
owner nor master is or resides within 20 m. of the place where the
seaman is put ashore. Claims upon allotment notes may be brought
in all county courts and before justices without any Jimit as to
amount. In Scotland the sheriff court has concurrent jurisdiction
with justices in claims for wages and upon allotment notes. The
1 In the absence of appeal the order of a naval court is conclusive.
Hutton v. Ros S.S. Co., 1907, i K.B. 834. By s. 68 of the act of
1906 an appeal lies to the High Court of Justice.
representatives of a deceased seaman may claim damages for his
death in cases within the Fatal Accidents Acts 1846 and 1864.
It has been held that the action lies where the deceased is a
foreign seaman on a foreign ship (Davidsson v. Hill, 1901, 2 K.B.
606).
Where a seaman is discharged before a superintendent in the
United Kingdom, his wages must be paid through or in the presence
of the superintendent, and in the case of home-trade ships may be
so paid if the master or owner so desire. The master must in every
case deliver either to the superintendent or to the seaman a full
account, in a form approved by the Board of Trade, of the wages
and of all deductions therefrom; such deductions will only be
allowed if they have been entered by the master during the voyage
in a book kept for that purpose, together with a statement of the
matters in respect of which they are made. Where a seaman is left
abroad on the ground of his unfitness or inability to proceed on the
voyage, the account of wages must be delivered to the superintendent,
chief officer of customs, consular officer, or merchants, from whom
the master obtains the certificate without which he may not leave
the seaman behind. To protect seamen from crimps, advance notes,
or documents authorizing or promising the future payment of money
on account of a seaman's wages conditionally on his going to sea
from any port of the United Kingdom, and made before those wages
had been earned, were from 1880 to 1889 wholly void. No money
paid in respect of any such document could be deducted from a
seaman's wages. Since 1889 this restriction has been removed to
the extent of one month's wages, provided that the agreement with
the crew contains a stipulation for such advance, but this does not
extend to cases where the seaman is going to sea from any port not
in the United Kingdom. In such cases there is no limitation upon
the right to make any agreement for advances or to make advances
to any amount.
As under the former law, the scale of provisions as amended by
the act of 1906 must be entered in the agreement with the crew, and
compensation made for short or bad provisions, and means are pro-
vided whereby the crew can raise complaints. In addition, in the
case of ships trading or going from any port in the United Kingdom
through the Suez Canal or round the Cape of Good Hope or Cape
Horn, the provisions and water are put under inspection by the
Board of Trade, and if they are deficient, the ship may be detained
until the defects are remedied. By the act of 1906 a certificated
cook must be provided for foreign-bound ships. If a seaman re-
ceives hurt or injury in the service of the ship, the expense of medical
attendance and maintenance, together with the cost of bringing
him home, is to be borne by the owner of the ship, and cannot be
deducted from wages.
The safety of the crew is aimed at by provisions which are de-
signed to prevent overloading and undermanning, and generally
to prevent ships from being sent to sea in an unseaworthy
state. The stringency of these provisions has been much * -oa< * "***
increased. Life-saving appliances, according to a scale and rules
prescribed by the Board of Trade, must be carried by every
British ship. Except where the ship is under 80 tons register,
employed solely in the coasting trade, or is employed solely in
fishing, or is a pleasure yacht, the position of each deck above water
must be marked by conspicuous lines, and the maximum load line
in salt water, to which it shall be lawful to load the ship, must be
marked at such level as may be approved by the Board of Trade
below the deck line, and in accordance with tables and regulations
prescribed by the Board of Trade. It is this load line which is
commonly known as the Plimsoll mark. It is an offence to load a
ship so as to submerge the load line, and a ship so loaded may be
detained as unsafe. Dangerous goods, e.g. explosives, must not be
shipped or carried without being distinctly marked as such. Timber
must not be carried on deck in the winter months. In the carriage
of grain cargoes, rules prescribed by the Board of Trade to prevent
shifting must be complied with. The officers of the Board of Trade
(subject to appeal to a court of survey from an order of final detention)
have power to detain a ship which is, by reason of the defective
condition of the hull, equipments or machinery, or of undermanning,
overloading or improper loading, unfit to proceed to sea without
serious danger to human life. Provision is made for the investigation
of complaints by seamen that a ship is unfit to proceed to sea. The
Public Health Act 1904 enables regulations to be made for carrying
into effect international conventions as to insanitary vessels and
conveyance of infection by vessels. By s. II of the Workmen's
Compensation Act 1906, a ship may be detained by order of a court
of record on allegation that a foreign owner is liable to pay com-
pensation under the act.
The manning of British merchant ships has received much
consideration, but has hitherto been little affected by statute
law. The effect of the acts is thus given in the report,
issued in 1806, by a Board of Trade committee on the Maanlag
' J , , . . , of British
manning of merchant ships: Since the final repeal S f,ips.
of the Navigation Laws, which required that the master
and three-fourths of the crew of every British ship should be
British subjects, and reserved the coasting trade entirely to
SEAMEN, LAWS RELATING TO
547
British ships and British seamen, the whole world has been open
as a recruiting ground to British shipowners, who have not been
hampered in their selection by any restriction as to colour,
language, qualification, age or strength. Except with regard
to certificates, which must be held by masters, officers, and
engineers in certain cases, and which, moreover, may be obtained
by men of any nationality, there is at present practically no
bar to the employment of any person of any nationality in any
capacity whatsoever on board any British ship." The Merchant
Shipping Act 1897 gave power to the Board of Trade to detain
ships unseaworthy by reason of undermanning, but prescribed
no rules for determining when a ship is to be deemed to be under-
manned. Apart from that act the law does not interfere with
the number of qualifications of the crew. Nearly one-fourth
the seamen employed on British ships are foreigners. Another
fourth are Lascars. The figures in 1904, as given by Mr Lloyd-
George in introducing the bill of 1906 in the House of Commons,
were 176,000 British subjects, 39,000 aliens, 42,000 Lascars.
Aliens serving on British ships may by a regulation of the home
secretary (2gth of April 1904) be naturalized without fee. The
act of 1906 (s. 12) provided that after the 3ist of December
1907 no seaman may be shipped who does not possess a sufficient
knowledge of the English language to understand necessary
orders, with an exception in favour of Lascars and inhabitants
of a British protectorate. Pilotage certificates are not to be
granted unless to British masters and mates (s. 73).
Certificates of competency as masters, mates, and engineers are
granted by the Board of Trade. Such certificates are for the following
grades, viz. master or first mate, or second mate, or only
Certlfi- mate of a foreign-going ship, master or mate of a home-
ateso trade passenger ship, first or second class engineer. By
re ' . virtue of Orders in Council under section 102 of the act of
engineers 1 **94 > certificates granted in many of the British colonies
have the same force as if granted by the Board of Trade.
The following are the requirements of the act as to the officers to be
carried by ships: Masters: A properly certificated master must be
carried by every foreign-going ship and every home-trade passenger
ship, whatever their tonnage. Mates : A mate, with the certificate
of the grade of first or only mate, or master, must, in addition to the
certificated master, be carried by every foreign-going ship of 100 tons
or upwards, unless more than one mate is carried, in which case the
first and second mates must have valid certificates appropriate to
their several stations on such ship or of a higher grade; and a mate,
with a certificate of the grade of first or only mate or master, must,
in addition to the certificated master, be carried by every home-
trade passenger ship of 100 tons or upwards. Engineers: Every
foreign-going steamship of 100 nominal horse power or upwards
must have two certificated engineers the first possessing a first-class
engineer's certificate, and the second possessing a second-class
engineer's certificate, or a certificate of the higher grade. Every
other foreign-going steamship, and every sea-going home-trade
passenger steamship, is required to carry as the first or only engineer
an engineer having a second-class certificate, or a certificate of the
higher grade. Vessels in the home trade (i.e. United Kingdom and
continent of Europe between the Elbe and Brest) are not required
to carry certificated masters or officers unless they are passenger
ships of 100 tons or upwards; and vessels in the foreign trade of less
than 100 tons are not required to carry any mate.
In 1898 a slight attempt was made to encourage shipowners
to carry apprentices. The Merchant Shipping Act of that year,
which dealt with light dues, provided that " on proof
to tne satisfaction of the Board of Trade that a British
ship has during any financial year carried, in accord-
ance with the scale and regulations to be made by the Board of
Trade, with the concurrence of the Treasury, boys between the
ages of 15 and 19, there shall be paid to the owner of the ship,
out of moneys to be provided by parliament, an allowance not
exceeding one-fifth of the light dues paid during that year in
respect of that ship. Provided that no such payment shall be
made in respect of anybody unless he has enrolled himself
in the Royal Naval Reserve, and entered into an obligation to
present himself for service when called upon in accordance
with rules to be issued by the Admiralty." This enactment
was to continue until 1905 and does not seem to have been
renewed. Some more efficient means will have to be devised
if apprenticeship to the sea service is to be revived; at present
it has practically ceased to exist, except in the case of boys
who intend to become officers.
Some only of the provisions of the acts apply to ships
belonging to the general lighthouse authorities and pleasure
yachts. But, with these exceptions, the whole of British
Part II. (Masters and Seamen) applies, unless the ships not
contract or subject-matter requires a different applica- registered
tion, to all sea-going ships registered in the United '" e
Kingdom. Where a ship is a British ship, but not
registered in the United Kingdom, the provisions of Part II.
apply as follows:
The provisions relating to the shipping and discharge of seamen
in the United Kingdom and to volunteering into the navy apply in
every case. The provisions relating to lists of the crew and to the
property of deceased seamen and apprentices apply where the crew
are discharged or the final port of destination of the ship is in the
United Kingdom. All the provisions apply where the ship is em-
ployed in trading or going between any port in the United Kingdom
and any port not situate in the British possession or country in
which the ship is registered. The provisions relating to the rights of
seamen in respect of wages, to the shipping and discharge of seamen
in ports abroad, to leaving seamen abroad, and the relief of seamen
in distress in ports abroad, to the provisions, health, and accommoda-
tion of seamen, to the power of seamen to make complaints, to the
protection of seamen from imposition, and to discipline, apply in
every case except where the ship is within the jurisdiction of
the government of the British possession in which the ship is
registered.
Fishermen. The regulations respecting fishermen are con-
tained chiefly in the Sea Fisheries Acts 1868 and 1883, and in
the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, part iv. The Sea Fisheries
Act of 1868 constituted a registry of fishing-boats, and that of
1883 gave powers of enforcing the provisions of the acts to sea
fishery officers. The Merchant Shipping (Fishing-Boats) Act
1883 was passed in consequence of the occurrence of some
cases of barbarous treatment of boys by the skippers of North
Sea trawlers. It is now incorporated in the act of 1894.
This act provides, inter alia, that indentures of apprenticeship
are to be in a certain form and entered into before a superintendent
of a mercantile marine office, that no boy under thirteen is to be
employed in sea-fishery, that agreements with seamen on a fishing-
boat are to contain the same particulars as those with merchant
seamen, that running agreements may be made in the case of short
voyages, that reports of the names of the crew are to be sent to a
superintendent of a mercantile marine office, and that accounts of
wages and certificates of discharge are to be given to seamen. No
fishing-boat is to go to sea without a duly certified skipper. Pro-
vision is also made for special reports of cases of death, injury, ill-
treatment or punishment of any of the crew, and for inquiry into
the cause of such death, &c. Disputes between skippers or owners
and seamen are to be determined at request of any of the parties
concerned by a superintendent. Fishermen are exempt from
Trinity House dues. There are numerous police provisions con-
tained in various acts of parliament dealing with the breach of
fishery regulations. These provisions act as an indirect protection
to honest fishermen in their employment. The rights of British
fishermen in foreign waters and foreign fishermen in British waters
are in many cases regulated by treaty, generally confirmed in the
United Kingdom by act of parliament. A royal fund for widows
and orphans of fishermen has been formed, the nucleus of the fund
being part of the profits of the Fisheries Exhibition held in London
in 1883. Special provisions as to fishermen in Scotland are contained
in s. 389 of the act of 1894 and s. 83 of the act of 1906.
India and Colonies. In India and in most British colonies there
are laws affecting merchant seamen. In some cases such legislation
is identical with the imperial act, but in most there are differences
of more or less importance, and the colonial statutes should be
consulted.
United States. The law of the United States is in general accord-
ance with that at England. The law relating to seamen in the navy
will be found in the articles for the government of the navy (Revised
Statutes, s. 1624). Legislation in the interests of merchant seamen
dates from 1790. A list of the crew must be delivered to a collector
of customs. The shipping articles are the same as those in use in
the United Kingdom. For vessels in the coasting trade they are,
with certain exceptions, to be in writing or in print. They must
in the case of foreign-bound ships be signed before a shipping com-
missioner appointed by the circuit court or a collector of customs,
or (if entered into abroad) a consular officer, where practicable, and
must be acknowledged by his signature in a prescribed form. One-
third of a seaman's wages earned up to that time is due at every
port where the ship unlades and delivers her cargo before the voyage
is ended. They must be fully paid in gold or its equivalent within
twenty days of the discharge of the cargo. Advance notes can be
made only in favour of the seaman himself or his wife or mother.
There is a summary remedy for wages before a district court, a
justice of the peace, or a commissioner of a district court. A shipping
SEA-POWER
of the
term.
commissioner may act as arbitrator by written consent of the parties.
Seaworthiness is an implied condition of the hiring. There may be
an examination of the ship on the complaint of the mate and a
majority of the crew. The expenses of an unnecessary investigation
are a charge upon the wages of those who complain. A seaman
may not leave his ship without the consent of the master. For
foreign-bound voyages a medicine-chest and antiscorbutics must
be carried, also 60 gallons of water, 100 Ib of salted meat, and 100 fc
of wholesome bread for every person on board, and for every seaman
at least one suit of woollen clothing, and fuel for the fire of the
seaman's room. An assessment of forty cents per month per seaman
is levied on every vessel arriving from a foreign port and on every
registered coasting vessel in aid of the fund for the relief of sick and
disabled seamen. In the navy a deduction of twenty cents per
month from each man's pay is made for the same purpose. The
offences and punishments are similar to those in the United Kingdom.
There is also the additional offence of wearing a sheath knife on ship-
board. As in England, consuls are required to provide for the
passage home of destitute seamen (see Revised Statutes, 4554-
4591). A seamen's fund was constituted by the act of the l6th of
July 1798, amended by subsequent legislation.
Continental European Countries. The commercial codes contain
provisions of a more or less detailed character. For France see
250-272; Italy, 343-380; Netherlands, 394-452; Germany,
Wendt, Maritime Legislation (1888). These enactments are in
general accordance with British legislation. In Germany the law
goes a little further than in the United Kingdom in enacting that
copies of the part of the law affecting him must be handed to each
seaman on his engagement at a seamen's office.
AUTHORITIES. The works on merchant shippings, such as those
of Abbott, Boyd, Kay, Maclachlan, Maude and Pollock, Temperley,
and on admiralty law and practice, such as those of Roscoe and
Williams and Bruce. Also E. S. Roscoe Modern Legislation for
Seamen and for Safety at Sea (1885). (J. W.)
SEA-POWER. This term is used to indicate two distinct,
though cognate, things. The affinity of these two and the
indiscriminate manner in which the term has been
H ' s t t ry applied to each have tended to obscure its real signifi-
cance. The obscurity has been deepened by the
frequency with which the term has been confounded
with the old phrase, " Sovereignty of the sea," and the still
current expression, " Command of the sea " (vide SEA, COMMAND
OF). A discussion etymological, or even archaeological in
character of the term must be undertaken as an introduction
to the explanation of its now generally accepted meaning.
It is one of those compound words in which a Teutonic and a
Latin (or Romance) element are combined, and which are easily
formed and become widely current when the sea is concerned.
Of such are " sea-coast," " sea-forces " (the " land- and sea-
forces " used to be a common designation of what we now call
the "Army and Navy"); "sea-service," "sea-serpent" and
" sea-officer " (now superseded by " naval officer "). The term
in one form is as old as the I5th century. Edward III., in com-
memoration of the naval victory of Sluys, coined gold " nobles "
which bore on one side his effigy " crowned, standing in a large
ship, holding in one hand a sword and in the other a shield."
An anonymous poet, who wrote in the reign of Henry VI.,
says of this coin:
" For four things our noble showeth to me,
King, ship and sword, and power of the sea."
Even in its present form the term is not of very recent date.
Grote (Hist, of Greece, v. 67, published in 1849, but with
preface dated 1848) speaks of " the conversion of Athens from a
land-power into a sea-power." In a lecture puWished in 1883,
but probably delivered earlier, the late Sir J. R. Seeley says that
" commerce was swept out of the Mediterranean by the besom
of the Turkish sea-power " (Expansion of England, p. 89). The
term also occurred in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia,
vol. xviii. p. 574, in the article " PERSIA," where we are told
that Themistocles was " the founder of the Attic sea-power."
The sense in which the term is used differs in these extracts.
In the first it means what we generally call a " naval power "
that is to say, a state having a considerable navy in contra-
distinction to a " military power," a state with a considerable
army but only a relatively small navy. In this sense there are
many old uses of the phrase. In the last two extracts it means
all the elements of the naval strength of the state referred to;
and this is the meaning that is now generally, and is likely to be
exclusively, attached to the term owing to the brilliant way in
which it has been elucidated by Captain A. T. Mahan of the
United States Navy.
The double use of the term is common in German, though in
that language both parts of the compound now in use are Teutonic.
One instance put of many may be cited from the historian Adolf
Holm (Griechische Geschichte, Berlin, 1889). He says (ii. p. 37)
that Athens, being in possession of a good naval port, could become
" eine bedeutende Seemacht," i.e. an important naval power. He also
says (ii. p. 91) that Gelon of Syracuse, besides a large army (Heer),
had " eine bedeutende Seemacht," meaning a considerable navy. The
term, in the first of the two senses, is old in German, as appears from
the following, extracted from Zedler's Grosses Universal Lexicon,
vol. xxxvi. (Leipzig and Halle, 1743); " Seemachten, Seepotenzen;
Latin, summae potestates mart potentes." " Seepotenzen " is probably
quite obsolete now. It is interesting as showing that German no
more abhors Teuto-Latin or Teuto-Romance compounds than
English. We may note, as a proof of the indeterminate meaning of
the expression until his own epoch-marking works had appeared, that
Mahan himself in his earliest book, Influence of Sea-power on History
(1890), used it in both senses. He says (p. 35), " The Spanish
Netherlands ceased to be a sea-power." He alludes (p. 42) to the
development of a nation as a " sea-power," and (p. 43) to the in-
feriority of the Confederate States " as a sea-power." Also (p. 225)
he remarks of the war of the Spanish Succession that " before it
England was one of the sea-powers, after it she was the sea-power
without any second." In all these passages, as appears from the
use of the indefinite article, what is meant is a naval power, or a
state in possession of a strong navy. The other meaning of the
term forms the general subject of Mahan's writings. In his earlier
works Mahan writes " sea power " as two words; but in a published
letter of the igth February 1897 he joins them with a hyphen, and
defends this formation of the term and the sense in which he uses it.
We may regard him as the virtual inventor of the term in its more
diffused meaning, for even if it had been employed by earlier
writers in that sense it is he beyond all question who has
given it general currency. He has made it impossible for any one
to treat of sea-power without frequent reference to his writings and
conclusions.
There is something more than mere literary interest in the fact
that the term in another language was used more than two
thousand years ago. Before Mahan no historian not Apprecla .
even one of those who specially devoted themselves to tion of
the narration of naval occurrences had evinced a sea-power
more correct appreciation of the general principles of b y the
naval warfare than Thucydides. He alludes several
times to the importance of getting command of the sea. Great
Britain would have been saved some disasters and been less often
in peril had British writers taken as guides by the public
possessed the same grasp of the true principles of defence as
Thucydides exhibited. One passage in his history is worth
quoting. Brief as it is, it shows that on the subject of sea-powei
he was a predecessor of Mahan. In a speech in favour of pro-
secuting the war, which he puts in the mouth of Pericles, these
words occur: 01 fiiv y&p ovx '^ovo-tv fiXXijv 6.vTi\a.@tiv a^axd,
TIIJUV ok tan yrj iroXXi) /cat iv vriaoK Kal K<XT' ijwtipov neya yap TO
rrjs 0aXd<T<T7;s KP&.TOS. The last part of this extract, though
often translated " command of the sea," or " dominion of the
sea," really has the wider meaning of sea-power, the " power of
the sea " of the old English poet above quoted. This wider
meaning should be attached to certain passages in Herodotus
(iii. 122 in two places; v. 83), which have been generally inter-
preted " commanding the sea," or by the mere titular and
honorific " having the dominion of the sea." One editor of
Herodotus, Ch. F. Baehr, did, however, see exactly what was
meant, for, with reference to the allusion to Polycrates, he says,
classe maximum valuil. This is perhaps as exact a definition of
sea-power as could be given in a sentence.
It is, however, impossible to give a definition which would be
at the same time succinct and satisfactory. To say that " sea-
power " means the sum total of the various elements Can oalybe
that go to make up the naval strength of a state would explained
be in reality to beg the question. Mahan lays down histori-
the " principal conditions affecting the sea-power of catly -
nations," but he does not attempt to give a concise definition
of it. Yet no one who has studied his works will find it difficult
to understand what it indicates. Our present task is, within the
necessarily restricted limits of an article in an encyclopaedia,
to put readers in possession of the means of doing this. The
SEA-POWER
549
best, indeed as Mahan has shown us the only effective way
of attaining this object is to treat the matter historically. What-
ever dat e we may agree to assign to the formation of the term
itself, the idea as we have seen is as old as history. It is not
intended to give a condensed history of sea-power, but rather
an analysis of the idea and what it contains, illustrating this
analysis with examples from history ancient and modern. It
is important to know that it is not something which originated
in the middle of the iyth century, and having seriously affected
history in the i8th, ceased to have weight till Captain Mahan
appeared to comment on it in the last decade of the igth. With
a few masterly touches Mahan, in his brief allusion to the second
Punic war, has illustrated its importance in the struggle between
Rome and Carthage. What has to be shown is that the principles
which he has laid down in that case, and in cases much more
modern, are true and have been true always and everywhere.
Until this is perceived there is much history which cannot be
understood, and yet it is essential to the welfare of Great Britain
as a maritime power that she should understand it thoroughly.
Her failure to understand it has more than once brought her,
if not to the verge of destruction, at any rate within a short
distance of serious disaster.
The high antiquity of decisive naval campaigns is among the
most interesting features of international conflicts. Nothwith-
Egrty standing the much greater frequency of land wars,
manifests- the course of history has been profoundly changed
tioas of more often by contests on the water. That this has not
* er ' received the notice it deserved is true, and Mahan
tells us why. " Historians generally, " he says, " have been
unfamiliar with the conditions of the sea, having as to it neither
special interest nor special knowledge; and the profound
determining influence of maritime strength on great issues has
consequently been overlooked. " Moralizing on that which
might have been is admittedly a sterile process; but it is some-
times necessary to point, if only by way of illustration, to a
possible alternative. As in modern times the fate of India and
the fate of North America were determined by sea-power, so also
at a very remote epoch sea-power decided whether or not Hellenic
colonization was to take root in, and Hellenic culture to dominate,
central and northern Italy as it dominated southern Italy, where
traces of it are extant to this day. A moment's consideration
will enable us to see how different the history of the world would
have been had a Hellenized city grown and prospered on the
Seven Hills. Before the Tarquins were driven out of Rome
a Phocaean fleet was encountered (537 B.C.) off Corsica by a
combined force of Etruscans and Phoenicians, and was so
handled that the Phocaeans abandoned the island and settled
on the coast of Lucania (Mommsen, .?/. Rome, English trans, i.
p. 153). The enterprise of their navigators had built up for the
Phoenician cities and their great off-shoot Carthage, a sea-power
which enabled them to gain the practical sovereignty of the sea
to the west of Sardinia and Sicily. The control of these waters
was the object of prolonged and memorable struggles, for on it
as the result showed depended the empire of the world. From
very remote times the consolidation and expansion, from within
outwards, of great continental states have had serious conse-
quences for mankind when they were accompanied by the
acquisition of a coast-line and the absorption of a. maritime
population. We shall find that the process loses none of its
importance in recent years. " The ancient empires, " says the
historian of Greece, Ernst Curtius, " as long as no foreign elements
had intruded into them, had an invincible horror of the water."
. When the condition, which Curtius notices in parentheses, arose
the " horror " disappeared. There is something highly significant
in the uniformity of the efforts of Assyria, Egypt, Babylon and
Persia to get possession of the maritime resources of Phoenicia.
Our own immediate posterity will perhaps have to reckon with
the results of similar efforts in our own day. It is this which gives
a living interest to even the very ancient history of sea-power,
and makes the study of it of great practical importance to us now.
We shall see, as we go on, how the phenomena connected with it
reappear with striking regularity in successive periods. Looked
Persians.
at in this light the great conflicts of former ages are full of useful,
indeed necessary, instruction.
In the first and greatest of the contests waged by the nations
of the East against Europe the Persian wars sea-power was
the governing factor. Until Persia had expanded to Wan of
the shores of the Levant the European Greeks had the Greeks
little to fear from the ambition of the great king. The
conquest of Egypt by Cambyses had shown how
formidable that ambition could be when supported by an efficient
navy. With the aid of the naval forces of the Phoenician cities
the Persian invasion of Greece was rendered comparatively easy.
It was the naval contingents from Phoenicia which crushed the
Ionian revolt. The expedition of Mardonius, and still more that
of Datis and Artaphernes, had indicated the danger threatening
Greece when the master of a great army was likewise the master
of a great navy. Their defeat at Marathon was not likely to,
and as a matter of fact did not, discourage the Persians from
further attempts at aggression. As the advance of Cambyses
into Egypt had been flanked by a fleet, so also was that of Xerxes
into Greece. By the good fortune sometimes vouchsafed to a
people, which, owing to its obstinate opposition to, or neglect of,
a wise policy, scarcely deserves it, there appeared at Athens an
influential citizen who understood all that was meant by the term
sea-power. Themistocles saw more clearly than any of his
contemporaries that, to enable Athens to play a leading part in
the Hellenic world, she needed above all things a strong navy.
" He had already in his eye the battle-field of the future." He
felt sure that the Persians would come back, and come with such
forces that resistance in the open field would be out of the
question. One scene of action remained the sea. Persuaded
by him the Athenians increased their navy, so that of the 271
vessels comprising the Greek fleet at Artemisium, 147 had been
provided by Athens, which also sent a large reinforcement after
the first action. Though no one has ever surpassed Themistocles
in the faculty of correctly estimating the importance of sea-power,
it was understood by Xerxes as clearly as by him that the issue
of the war depended upon naval operations. The arrangements
made under the Persian monarch's direction, and his very
personal movements, show that this was his view. He felt, and
probably expressed the feeling, exactly as in the war of
American Independence Washington did in the words, " What-
ever efforts are made by the land armies, the navy must have the
casting vote in the present contest." The decisive event was the
naval action of Salamis. To have made certain of success, the
Persians should have first obtained a command of the Aegean,
as complete for all practical purposes as the French and English
had of the sea generally in the war against Russia of 1854-56.
The Persian sea-power was not equal to the task. The fleet of
the great king was numerically stronger than that of the Greek
allies; but it has been proved many times that naval efficiency
does not depend on numerical superiority alone. The choice
sections of the Persian fleet were the contingents of the lonians
and Phoenicians. The former were half-hearted or disaffected;
while the latter were, at best, not superior in skill, experience,
and valour to the Greek sailors. At Salamis Greece was saved
not only from the ambition and vengeance of Xerxes, but also
and for many centuries from oppression by an Oriental conqueror.
Persia did not succeed against the Greeks, not because she had
no sea-power, but because her sea-power, artificially built up,
was inferior to that which was a natural element of the vitality
of her foes. Ionia was lost and Greece in the end enslaved, be-
cause the quarrels of Greeks with Greeks led to the ruin of their
naval states.
The Peloponnesian was largely a naval war. The confidence
of the Athenians in their sea-power had a great deal to do with
its outbreak. The immediate occasion of the hostilities,
which in time involved so many states, was the oppor- ^^""
tunity offered by the conflict between Corinth and war ,
Corcyra of increasing the sea-power of Athens. Hither-
to the Athenian naval predominance had been virtually confined
to the Aegean Sea. The Corcyraean envoy, who pleaded for help
at Athens, dwelt upon the advantage to be derived by the
550
SEA-POWER
Athenians from alliance with a naval state occupying an im-
portant situation " with respect to the western regions towards
which the views of the Athenians had for some time been directed"
(Thirlwall, Hist. Greece, iii. 96). It was the "weapon of her
sea-power," to adopt Mahan's phrase, that enabled Athens to
maintain the great conflict in which she was engaged. Repeated
invasions of her territory, the ravages of disease among her
people and the rising disaffection of her allies had been more
than made up for by her predominance on the water. The
scale of the subsequent Syracusan expedition showed how
vigorous Athens still was down to the interruption of the war
by the peace of Nicias. The great expedition just mentioned
overtaxed her strength. Its failure brought about the ruin of
the state. It was held by contemporaries, and has been held in
our own day, that the Athenian defeat at Syracuse was due to
the omission of the government at home to keep the force in
Sicily properly supplied and reinforced. This explanation of
failure is given in all ages, and should always be suspected. The
friends of unsuccessful generals and admirals always offer it,
being sure of the support of the political opponents of the ad-
ministration. After the despatch of the supporting expedition
under Demosthenes and Eurymedon no further great reinforce-
ment, as Nicias admitted, was possible. The weakness of Athens
was in the character of the men who swayed the popular assem-
blies and held high commands. A people which remembered
the administration of a Pericles, and yet allowed a Cleon or an
Alcibiades to direct its naval and military policy, courted defeat.
Nicias, notwithstanding the possession of high qualities, lacked
the supreme virtue of a commander firm resolution. He dared
not face the obloquy consequent on withdrawal from an enterprise
on which the popular hopes had been fixed; and therefore he
allowed a reverse to be converted into an overwhelming disaster.
" The complete ruin of Athens had appeared, both to her enemies
and to herself, impending and irreparable. But so astonishing,
so rapid and so energetic had been her rally, that (a year after
Syracuse) she was found again carrying on a terrible struggle "
(Grote, Hist. Greece, v. p. 354). Nevertheless her sea-power had
indeed been ruined at Syracuse. Now she could wage war only
" with impaired resources and on a purely defensive system."
Even before Arginusae, it was seen that " superiority of nautical
skill had passed to the Peloponnesians and their allies " (ibid.
P- 53)-
The great, occasionally interrupted, and prolonged contest
between Rome and Carthage was a sustained effort on the part
struggle f one to S*" 1 an( ^ ^ tne otner to keep the control of
between the western Mediterranean. So completely had that
Komcand control been exercised by Carthage, that she had
Carthage. an ti c ip a t e d the Spanish commercial policy in America.
The Romans were precluded by treaties from trading with the
Carthaginian territories in Hispania, Africa and Sardinia.
Rome, as Mommsen tells us, " was from the first a maritime city
and, in the period of its vigour, never was so foolish or so untrue
to its ancient traditions as wholly to neglect its war marine and
to desire to be a mere continental power." It may be that it
was lust of wealth rather than lust of dominion that first promoted
a trial of strength with Carthage. The vision of universal empire
could hardly as yet have formed itself in the imagination of a
single Roman. The area of Phoenician maritime commerce was
vast enough both to excite jealousy and to offer vulnerable
points to the cupidity of rivals. It is probable that the modern
estimate of the sea-power of Carthage is much exaggerated. It
was great by comparison, and of course overwhelmingly great
when there were none but insignificant competitors to challenge
it. Mommsen holds that, in the 4th and $th centuries after the
foundation of Rome, " the two main competitors for the dominion
of the Western waters" were Carthage and Syracuse. "Car-
thage," he says, "had the preponderance, and Syracuse sank
more and more into a second-rate naval power. The maritime
importance of the Etruscans was wholly gone. . . . Rome itself
was not exempt from the same fate; its own waters were likewise
commanded by foreign fleets." The Romans were for a long
time too much occupied at home to take much interest in Medi-
terranean matters. The position of the Carthaginians in the
western basin of the Mediterranean was very like that of the
Portuguese long afterwards in India. The latter kept within
reach of the sea; " nor did their rule ever extend a day's march
from their ships " (R. S. Whiteway, Rise of the Portuguese Power
in India. Westminster, 1889, p. 12). " The Carthaginians in
Spain," says Mommsen, " made no effort to acquire the interior
from the warlike native nations; they were content with the
possession of the mines and of stations for traffic and for shell
and other fisheries." Allowance being made for the numbers of
the classes engaged in administration, commerce and supervision,
it is nearly certain that Carthage could not furnish the crews
required by both a great war-navy and a great mercantile marine.
No one is surprised on finding that the land-forces of Carthage
were composed largely of alien mercenaries. We have several
examples from which we can infer a parallel, if not an identical,
condition of her maritime resources. How, then, was the great
Carthaginian carrying-trade provided for? The experience of
more than one country will enable us to answer this question.
The ocean trade of those off -shoots or dependencies of the United
Kingdom, viz. the United States, Australasia and India, is
largely or chiefly conducted by shipping of the "old country."
So that of Carthage was largely conducted by old Phoenicians.
These may have obtained a " Carthaginian Register," or the
contemporary equivalent; but they could not all have been
purely Carthaginian or Liby-Phoenician. This must have been
the case even more with the war-navy. British India for a
considerable time possessed a real, and indeed highly efficient
navy; but it was officered entirely and manned almost entirely
by men from the old country. Moreover, it was small. The
wealth of India would have sufficed to furnish a larger material
element; but, as the country could not supply the personnel,
it would have been absurd to speak of the sea-power of India
apart from that of England. As soon as the Romans chose to
make the most of their natural resources the maritime predomin-
ance of Carthage was doomed. The artificial basis of the latter's
sea-power would not enable it to hold out against serious and
persistent assaults. Unless this is perceived, it is impossible to
understand the story of the Punic Wars. Judged by every
visible sign of strength, Carthage, the richer, the more enter-
prising, ethnically the more predominant among her neighbours,
and apparently the more nautical, seemed sure to win in the
great struggle with Rome which, by the conditions of the case,
was to be waged largely on the water. Yet those who had
watched the struggles of the Punic city with the Sicilian Greeks,
and especially that with Agathocles, must have seen reason to
cherish doubts concerning her naval strength. It was an anticipa-
tion of the case of Spain in the age of Philip II. As the great
Elizabethan seamen discerned the defects of the Spanish naval
establishment, so men at Rome discerned those of the
Carthaginian. Dates in connexion with this are of great signifi-
cance. A comprehensive measure, with the object of " rescuing
their marine from its condition of impotence " was taken by the
Romans in the year 267 B.C. Four quaestores classici in modern
naval English we may perhaps call them port-admirals were
nominated, and one was stationed at each of four ports. The
objects of the Roman Senate, so Mommsen tells us, were very
obvious. They were "to recover their independence by sea,
to cut off the maritime communications of Tarentum, to close the
Adriatic against fleets coming from Epirus, and to emancipate
themselves from Carthaginian supremacy." Four years after-
wards the first Punic War began. It was, and had to be, largely
a naval contest. The Romans waged it with varying fortune,
but in the end triumphed by means of their sea-power. The
victory of Catulus over the Carthaginian fleet off the Aegadian
Islands decided the war and left to the Romans the possession
of Sicily and the power of possessing themselves of Sardinia and
Corsica. It would be an interesting and perhaps not barren
investigation to inquire to what extent the decline of the mother
states of Phoenicia, consequent on the campaigns of Alexander
the Great, had helped to enfeeble the naval efficiency of the
Carthaginian defences. One thing was certain. Carthage had
SEA-POWER
now met with a rival endowed with natural maritime resources
greater than her own. That rival also contained citizens who
understood the true importance of sea-power. " With a states-
manlike sagacity from which succeeding generations might have
drawn a lesson, the leading men of the Roman Commonwealth
perceived that all their coast fortifications and coast garrisons
would prove inadequate unless the war-marine of the state were
again placed on a footing that should command respect "
(Mommsen, i. 427). It is a gloomy reflection that the leading
men of the United Kingdom could not see this in 1860. A
thorough comprehension of the events of the first Punic War
enables us to solve what, until Mahan wrote, had been one of the
standing enigmas of history, viz. Hannibal's invasion of Italy
by land instead of by sea in the second Punic War. Mahan's
masterly examination of this question has set at rest all doubts
as to the reason of Hannibal's action (Influence on Hist. pp. 13-21).
The naval predominance in the western basin of the Mediter-
ranean acquired by Rome had never been lost. Though modern
historians, even those belonging to a maritime country, may
have failed to perceive it, the Carthaginians knew well enough
that the Romans were too strong for them on the sea. Though
other forces co-operated to bring about the defeat of Carthage in
the second Punic War, the Roman navy, as Mahan demonstrates,
was the most important. As a navy, he tells us in words like
those already quoted, " acts on an element strange to most
writers, as its members have been from time immemorial a
strange race apart, without prophets of their own, neither
themselves nor their calling understood, its immense determining
influence on the history of that era, and consequently upon the
history of the world, has been overlooked."
The attainment of all but universal dominion by Rome was
now only a question of time. " The annihilation of the Cartha-
ginian fleet had made the Romans masters of the
ofRomaa sea " (Schmitz, Hist. Rome, p. 256). A lodgment had
dominion already been gained in Illyricum, and countries farther
furthered east were before long to be reduced to submission.
A glance at the map will show that to effect this the
command of the eastern basin of the Mediterranean,
like that of the western, must be secured by the Romans. The
old historic navies of the Greek and Phoenician states had
declined. One considerable naval force there was which, though
it could not have prevented, was strong enough to have delayed
the Roman progress eastwards. This force belonged to Rhodes,
which in the years immediately following the close of the second
Punic War reached its highest point as a naval power (C. Torr,
Rhodes in Ancient Times, p. 40). Far from trying to obstruct
the advance of the Romans the Rhodian fleet helped it.
Hannibal, in his exile, saw the necessity of being strong on the
sea if the East was to be saved from the grasp of his hereditary
foe; but the resources of Antiochus, even with the mighty co-
operation of Hannibal, were insufficient. In a later and more
often quoted struggle between East and West that which was
decided at Actium sea-power was again seen to " have the
casting vote." When the whole of the Mediterranean coasts
became part of a single state the importance of the .navy was
naturally diminished ; but in the struggles within the declining
empire it rose again at times. The contest of the Vandal Genseric
with Majorian and the African expedition of Belisarius not
to mention others were largely influenced by the naval opera-
tions (Gibbon, Decline and Fall, chaps, xxxvi., xli.).
A decisive event, the Mahommedan conquest of northern
Africa from Egypt westwards, is unintelligible until it is seen
Bxteasi a now Sr 63 -*- a P ar t sea-power played in effecting it.
westward Purely land expeditions, or expeditions but slightly
ofMahom- supported from the sea, had ended in failure. The
medan emperor at Constantinople still had at his disposal
conquest. , , , . . . *;.
a fleet capable of keeping open the communications
with his African province. It took the Saracens half a century
(A.D. 647-698) to win " their way along the coast of Africa as
far as the Pillars of Hercules " (Hallam, Mid. Ages, chap, vi.);
and, as Gibbon tells us, it was not till the Commander of the
Faithful had prepared a great expedition, this time by sea as
well as by land, that the Saracenic dominion was definitely
established. It has been generally assumed that the Arabian
conquerors who, within a few years of his death, spread the faith
of Mahomet over vast regions, belonged to an essentially
non-maritime race; and little or no stress has been laid on the
extent to which they relied on naval support in prosecuting
their conquests. In parts of Arabia, however, maritime enter-
prise was far from non-existent; and when the Mahommedan
empire had extended outwards from Mecca and Medina till
it embraced the coasts of various seas, the consequences to the
neighbouring states were as serious as the rule above mentioned
would lead us to expect that they would be. " With the con-
quest of Syria and Egypt a long stretch of sea-board had come
into the Saracenic power; and the creation and maintenance of
a navy for the protection of the maritime ports as well as for
meeting the enemy became a matter*of vital importance. Great
attention was paid to the manning and equipment of the fleet "
(Amir Ali, Syed, Short Hist. Saracens, p. 442). At first the fleet
was manned by sailors drawn from the Phoenician towns,
where nautical energy was not yet quite extinct; and later
the crews were recruited from Syria, Egypt and the coasts of
Asia Minor. Ships were built at most of the Syrian and Egyptian
ports, and " also at Obolla and Bushire on the Persian Gulf,"
whilst the mercantile marine and maritime trade were fostered
and encouraged. The sea-power thus created was largely artificial.
It drooped as in similar cases when the special encourage-
ment was withdrawn. " In the days of Arabian energy," says
Hallam, " Constantinople was twice, in 668 and 716, attacked
by great naval armaments." The same authority believes
that the abandonment of such maritime enterprises by the
Saracens may be attributed to the removal of the capital from
Damascus to Bagdad. The removal indicated a lessened
interest in the affairs of the Mediterranean Sea, which was now
left by the administration far behind. " The Greeks in their
turn determined to dispute the command of the sea," with the
result that in the middle of the loth century their empire was
far more secure from its enemies than under the first successors
of Heraclius." Not only was the fall of the empire, by a rational
reliance on sea-power, postponed for centuries, but also much
that had been lost was regained. " At the close of the loth
century the emperors of Constantinople possessed the best and
greatest part " of southern Italy, part of Sicily, the whole of
what is now called the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, with some
parts of Syria and Armenia (Hallam, chap. vi. ; Gibbon,
chap. li.).
Neglect of sea-power by those who can be reached by sea
brings its own punishment. Whether neglected or not, if it
is an artificial creation it is nearly sure to disappoint
those who wield it when it encounters a rival power f^"{^ > J ver
of natural growth. How was it possible for the crusades.
Crusaders, in their various expeditions, to achieve
even the transient success that occasionally crowned their
efforts? How did the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem contrive
to exist for more than three-quarters of a century ? Why did
the Crusades more and more become maritime expeditions?
The answer to these questions is to be found in the decline of
the Mahommedan naval defences and the rising enterprise of
the seafaring people of the West. Venetians, Pisans and Genoese
transported crusading forces, kept open the communications
of the places held by the Christians and hampered the operations
of the infidels. Even the great Saladin failed to discern the
important alteration of conditions. This is evident when we
look at the efforts of the Christians to regain the lost kingdom.
Saladin " forgot that the safety of Phoenicia lay in immunity
from naval incursions, and that no victory on land could ensure
him against an influx from beyond the sea " (Amir Ali, Syed,
pp. 359-360). Not only were the Crusaders helped by the fleets
of the maritime republics of Italy, they also received reinforce-
ments by sea from western Europe and England, on the " arrival
of Malik Ankiltar [Richard Coeur de Lion] with twenty ship-
loads of fighting men and munitions of war."
Participation in the Crusades was not a solitary proof of the
552
SEA-POWER
importance of the naval states of Italy. That they had been
able to act effectively in the Levant, may have been in some
measure due to the weakening of the Mohammedans by
Sea-power t jj e disintegration of the Seljukian power, the move-
"repubiics. ments f tne Moguls and the confusion consequent
on the rise of the Ottomans. However that may have
been, the naval' strength of those Italian states was great
absolutely as well as relatively. Sismondi, speaking of Venice,
Pisa and Genoa, towards the end of the nth century, says
" these three cities had more vessels on the Mediterranean than
the whole of Christendom besides " (Itol. Republics, English
ed. p. 29). Dealing with a period two centuries later, he declares
it "difficult to comprehend how two simple cities could put to
sea such prodigious fleets as those of Pisa and Genoa." The
difficulty disappears when % we have Mahan's explanation. The
maritime republics of Italy like Athens and Rhodes in ancient,
Catalonia in medieval and England and the Netherlands in
more modern times were "peculiarly well fitted, by situation
and resources, for the control of the sea by both war and
commerce." As far as the western Mediterranean was con-
cerned, Genoa and Pisa had given early proofs of their maritime '
energy, and fixed themselves in succession to the Saracens, in
the Balearic Isles, Sardinia and Corsica. Sea-power was the
Themistoclean instrument with which they made a small state
into a great one.
A fertile source of dispute between states is the acquisition
of territory beyond sea. As others have done before and since,
the maritime republics of Italy quarrelled over this. Sea-
power seemed, like Saturn, to devour its own children. In
1284, in a great sea-fight off Meloria, the Pisans were defeated
by the Genoese with heavy loss, which, as Sismondi states,
" ruined the maritime power " of the former. From that time
Genoa, transferring her activity to the Levant, became the rival
of Venice. The fleets of the two cities in 1298 met near Cyprus
in an encounter, said to be accidental, that began " a terrible
war which for seven years stained the Mediterranean with blood
and consumed immense wealth." In the next century the two
republics, " irritated by commercial quarrels " like the English
and Dutch afterwards were again at war in the Levant. Some-
times one side, sometimes the other was victorious; but the
contest was exhausting to both, and especially to Venice. Within
a quarter of a century they were at war again. Hostilities
lasted till the Genoese met with the crushing defeat of Chioggia.
" From this time," says Hallam, " Genoa never commanded
the ocean with such navies as before; her commerce gradually
went into decay; and the i$th century, the most splendid in
the annals of Venice, is till recent times the most ignominious
in those of Genoa." Venice seemed now to have no naval rival,
and had no fear that any one could forbid the ceremony in which
the Doge, standing in the bows of the Bucentaur, cast a ring
into the Adriatic with the words, " Desponsamus te, mare, in
signum veri perpetuique dominii." The result of the combats
at Chioggia, though fatal to it in the long run, did not at once
destroy the naval importance of Genoa. A remarkable char-
acteristic of sea-power is the delusive manner in which it appears
to revive after a great defeat. The Persian navy occasionally
made a brave show afterwards; but in reality it had received
at Salamis a mortal wound. Athens seemed strong enough on
the sea after the catastrophe of Syracuse; but, as already stated,
her naval power had been given there a check from which it
never completely recovered. The navy of Carthage had had
similar experience; and, in later ages, the power of the Turks
was broken at Lepanto and that of Spain at Gravelines not-
withstanding the deceptive appearances afterwards. Venice was
soon confronted on the sea by a new rival. The Turkish naval
historian, Haji Khalifeh (Maritime wars of the Turks, Mitchell's
trans, p. 12), tells us that, " After the taking of Constantinople,
when they |the Ottomans] spread their conquests over land and
sea, it became necessary to build ships and make armaments in
order to subdue the fortresses and castles on the Rumelian and
Anatolian shores, and in the islands of the Mediterranean."
Mahommed II. established a great naval arsenal at Constanti-
nople. In 1470 the Turks, "for the first time, equipped a fleet,
with which they drove that of the Venetians out of the Grecian
seas" (Sismondi, p. 256). The Turkish wars of Venice lasted a
long time. In that which ended in 1503 the decline of the
Venetian naval power was obvious. " The Mussulmans had
made progress in naval discipline; The Venetian fleet could no
longer cope with theirs. " Henceforward it was as an allied
contingent of other navies that that of Venice was regarded
as important. Dyer (Hist. Europe, i. p. 85) quotes a striking
passage from a letter of Aeneas Sylvius, afterwards Pope Pius
II., in which the writer affirms that, " if the Venetians are
defeated. Christendom will not control the sea any longer; for
neither the Catalans nor the Genoese, without the Venetians,
are equal to the Turks."
The last-named people, indeed, exemplified once more the rule
that a military state expanding to the sea and absorbing older
maritime populations becomes a serious menace to Sea . power
its neighbours. Even in the 1 5th century Mahommed an< i pro .
II. had made an attack on Southern Italy; but his gressof
sea-power was not equal to the undertaking. Suley- the Turks.
man the Magnificent directed the Ottoman forces towards
the west. With admirable strategic insight he conquered
Rhodes, and thus freed himself from the danger of a hostile
force on his flank. " The centenary of the conquest of Constanti-
nople was past, and the Turk had developed a great naval
power besides annexing Egypt and Syria" (Seeley, British
Policy, i. 143). The Turkish fleets, under such leaders as Khair-
ad-din Barbarossa), Piale and Dragut, seemed to command
the Mediterranean, including its western basin; but the repulse
at Malta in 1565 was a serious check, and the defeat at Lepanto
in 1571 virtually put an end to the prospect of Turkish maritime
dominion. The predominance of Portugal in the Indian Ocean
in the early part of the i6th century had seriously diminished
the Ottoman resources. The wealth derived from the trade in
that ocean, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea had supplied the
Mahommedans with the sinews of war, and had enabled them
to contend with success against the Christians in Europe. "The
main artery had been cut when the Portuguese took up the
challenge of the Mahommedan merchants of Calicut, and swept
their ships from the ocean" (Whiteway, p. 2). The sea-power
of Portugal wisely employed had exercised a great, though
unperccived influence. Though enfeebled and diminishing, the
Turkish navy was still able to act with some effect in the i7th
century. Nevertheless, the sea-power of the Turks ceased to
count as a factor of importance in the relations between great
states.
In the meantime the state which had a leading share in winning
the victory of Lepanto had been growing up in the West. Before
the union of its crown with that of Castile and the Spaa i s i,
formation of the Spanish monarchy, Aragon had been sea-power,
expanding till it reached the sea. It was united with Catalonia,
Catalonia in the I2th century, and it conquered Ac -
Valencia in the I3th. Its long line of coast opened the way to
an extensive and flourishing commerce; and an enterprising
navy indemnified the nation for the scantiness of its territory
at home by the important foreign conquests of Sardinia, Sicily,
Naples and the Balearic Isles. Among the maritime states of
the Mediterranean Catalonia had been conspicuous. She was
to the Iberian Peninsula much what Phoenicia had been to
Syria. The Catalan navy had disputed the empire of the Mediter-
ranean with the fleets of. Pisa and Genoa. The incorporation
of Catalonia with Aragon added greatly to the strength of that
kingdom. The Aragonese kings were wise enough to understand
and liberal enough to foster the maritime interests of their new
possessions (Prescott, Ferdinand and Isabella, Introd. sects.
i.,ii.). Their French and Italian neighbours were to feel, before
long, the effect of this policy; and, when the Spanish monarchy
had been consolidated, it was felt not only by them, but by
others also. The more Spanish dominion was extended in Italy
the more were the naval resources at the command of Spain
augmented. Genoa became " Spain's water-gate to Italy. . . .
Henceforth the Spanish crown found in the Dorias its admirals;
SEA-POWER
553
their squadron was permanently hired to the kings of Spain."
Spanish supremacy at sea was established at the expense of
France (G. W. Prothero, in M. Hume's Spain 1479-1788, p.
65). The acquisition of a vast domain in the New World had
greatly developed the maritime activity of Castile, and Spain was
as formidable on the ocean as in the Mediterranean. After
Portugal had been annexed the naval forces of that country
were added to the Spanish, and the great port of Lisbon became
available as a place of equipment and as an additional base of
operations for oceanic campaigns. The fusion of Spain and
Portugal, says Seeley, " produced a single State of unlimited
maritime dominion. . . . Henceforth the whole New World
belonged exclusively to Spain. " The story of the tremendous
catastrophe the defeat of the Armada by which the decline
of this dominion was heralded is well known. It is memorable,
not only because of the harm it did to Spain, but also because
it revealed the rise of another claimant to maritime pre-eminence
the English nation. The effects of the catastrophe were not
at once visible. Spain still continued to look like the greatest
power in the world; and, though the English seamen were seen
to be something better than adventurous pirates a character
suggested by some of their contemporary exploits rfew could
have comprehended that they were engaged in building up what
was to be a sea-power greater than any known to history.
They were carrying forward, not beginning, the building of
this. " England," says Sir J. K. Laughton, " had always
EgH believed in her naval power, had always claimed
manifesto- the sovereignty of the Narrow Seas; and more than
tions of two hundred years before Elizabeth came to the
British throne, Edward III. had testified to his sense of its
"' importance by ordering a gold coinage bearing a
device showing the armed strength and sovereignty of England
based on the sea " (Armada, Introd.). It is impossible to make
intelligible the course of the many wars which the English waged
with the French in the middle ages unless the true naval position
of the former is rightly appreciated. Why were Crecy, Poitiers,
Agincourt not to mention other combats fought, not on
English, but on continental soil ? Why, during the so-called
" Hundred Years' War," was England in reality the invader
and not the invaded? We of the present generation are at
last aware of the significance of naval defence, and know that,
if properly utilized, it is the best security against invasion that
a sea-surrounded state can enjoy. It is not, however, commonly
remembered that the same condition of security existed and was
properly valued in medieval times. The battle of Sluys in 1340
rendered invasion of England as impracticable as did that of
La Hogue in 1692, that of Quiberon Bay in 1759 and that of
Trafalgar in 1805; and it permitted, as did those battles, the
transport of troops to the continent to support Great Britain's
allies in wars which, had she not been strong at sea, would have
been waged on the soil of her country. Her early continental
wars, therefore, are proofs of the long-established efficiency of
her naval defences. Notwithstanding the greater attention now
paid to naval affairs, it is doubtful if Great Britain even yet
recognizes the extent to which her security depends upon a good
fleet as fully as her ancestors did seven centuries ago. The
narrative of pre-Elizabethan campaigns is interesting merely as
a story; and, when told as, for instance, D. Hannay has told
it in the introductory chapters of his Short History of the Royal
Navy it will be found instructive and worthy of careful study
at the present day. Each of the principal events in England's
early naval campaigns may be taken as an illustration of the idea
conveyed by the term " sea-power, " and of the accuracy with
which its meaning was apprehended at the time. To take a very
early case, we may cite the defeat of Eustace the Monk (see
DOVER: Battle of) by Hubert de Burgh in 1217. Reinforce-
ments and supplies had been collected at Calais for conveyance
to the army of Prince Louis of France and the rebel barons who
had been defeated at Lincoln. The reinforcements tried to
cross the Channel under the escort of a fleet commanded by
Eustace. Hubert de Burgh, who had stoutly held Dover for
King John, and was faithful to the young Henry III., heard of
the enemy's movements. " If these people land," said he,
" England is lost; let us therefore boldly meet them." He
reasoned in almost the same words as Raleigh about four centuries
afterwards, and undoubtedly " had grasped the true principles
of the defence of England. " He put to sea and defeated his
opponent. The fleet on which Prince Louis and the rebellious
barons had counted was destroyed; and with-it their enterprise.
" No more admirably planned, no more fruitful battle has been
fought by Englishmen on water " (Hannay, p. 7). As introductory
to a long series of naval operations undertaken with a like object
it has deserved detailed mention here.
The i6th century was marked by a decided advance in both
the development and the application of sea-power. Previously
its operation had been confined to the Mediterranean ^tending
or to coast waters outside it. Spanish or Basque sphere of
seamen by their proceedings in the English Channel sea-
had proved the practicability of, rather than been *""
engaged in, ocean warfare. The English, who withstood them,
were accustomed to seas so rough, to seasons so uncertain and
to weather so boisterous, that the ocean had few terrors for them.
All that was wanting was a sufficient inducement to seek distant
fields of action and a development of the naval art that would
permit them to be reached. The discovery of the New World
supplied the first; and consequently increased length of voyages
and of absence from the coast led to the second. The world had
been moving onwards in other things as well as in navigation.
Intercommunication was becoming more and more frequent.
What was done by one people was soon known to others. It is
a mistake to suppose that, because the English had been behind-
hand in the exploration of remote regions, they were wanting in
maritime enterprise. The career of the Cabots would of itself
suffice to render such a supposition doubtful. The English
had two good reasons for postponing voyages to and settlement
in far-off lands. They had their hands full nearer home; and
they thoroughly, and as it were by instinct, understood the
conditions on which permanent expansion must rest. They
wanted to make sure of the line of communications first. To
effect this a sea-going marine of both war and commerce, and,
for further expansion, stations on the way were essential. The
chart of the world furnishes evidence of the wisdom and the
thoroughness of their procedure. Taught by the experience of
the Spaniards and the Portuguese, when unimpeded by the
political circumstances of the time, and provided with suitable
equipment, the English displayed their energy in distant seas.
It now became simply a question of the efficiency of sea-power.
If efficiency was not a quality of the English sea-power, then their
efforts were bound to fail; and, more than this, the position
of their country, challenging as it did what was believed to be
the greatest of maritime states, would have been altogether
precarious. The principal expeditions now undertaken were
distinguished by a characteristic peculiar to the people, and not
to be found in connexion with the exploring or colonizing
activity of most other great nations even down to our own time.
They were really unofficial speculations in which, if the govern-
ment took part at all, it was for the sake of the profit expected,
and almost, if not exactly, like any private adventurer. The
participation of the government, nevertheless, had an aspect
which it is worth while to note. It conveyed a hint and quite
consciously to all whom it might concern that the speculations
were ". under-written " by the whole sea-power of England.
The forces of more than one state had been used to protect its
maritime trade from the assaults of enemies in the Mediterranean
or in the Narrow Seas. They had been used to ward off invasion
and to keep open communications across not very extensive
areas of water. In the i6th century they were first relied upon
to support distant commerce, whether carried on in a peaceful
fashion or under aggressive forms. This, naturally enough,
led to collisions. The contention waxed hot, and was virtually
decided when the Armada shaped course to the northward
after the fight off Gravelines.
The expeditions against the Spanish Indies and, still more,
those against Philip II. 's peninsular territory had helped to define
554
SEA-POWER
Limits-
the limitations of sea-power. It became evident, and it was
made still more evident in the next century, that for a great
country to be strong it must not rely upon a navy
alone. It must also have an adequate and properly
r. organized mobile army. Notwithstanding the number
of times that this lesson has been repeated Great
Britain has been slow to learn it. It is doubtful if she has learned
it even yet. English seamen in all ages seem to have mastered it
fully; for they have always demanded at any rate for upwards
of three centuries that expeditions against foreign territory
oversea should be accompanied by a proper number of land-
troops. On the other hand, the necessity of organizing the army
of a maritime insular state and of training it with the object of
rendering effective aid in operations of the kind in question, has
rarely been perceived and acted upon by others. The result
has been a long series of inglorious or disastrous affairs, like the
West Indies voyage of 1595-1596, the Cadiz expedition of 1625
and that to the lie de Re of 1627. Additions might be made
to the list. The failures of joint expeditions have often been
explained by alleging differences or quarrels between the naval
and the military commanders. This way of explaining them,
however, is nothing but the inveterate critical method of the
streets by which cause is taken for effect and effect for cause.
The differences and quarrels arose, no doubt; but they generally
sprang out of the recriminations consequent on, not producing,
the want of success. Another manifestation of the way in which
sea-power works was first observed in the I7th century. It
suggested the adoption of, and furnished the instrument for,
carrying out a distinct maritime policy. What was practically
Appear- a standing navy had come into existence. As regards
aoceof England this phenomenon was now of respectable
standing a ge. Long voyages and cruises of several ships in
navies. company had been frequent during the latter half
of the 1 6th century and the early part of the lyth. Even the
grandfathers of the men who sailed with Blake and Penn in 1652
could not have known a time when ships had never crossed the
ocean, and squadrons kept together for months had never cruised.
However imperfect it may have been, a system of provisioning
ships and supplying them with stores, and of preserving discip-
line among their crews, had been developed, and had proved
fairly satisfactory. The parliament and the Protector in turn
found it necessary to keep a considerable number of ships in
commission, and make them cruise and operate in company.
It was not till well on in the reign of Queen Victoria that the
man-of-war's man was finally differentiated from the merchant
seaman; but, two centuries before, some of the distinctive marks
of the former had already begun to be noticeable. There were
seamen in the time of the Commonwealth who rarely, perhaps
some who never, served afloat except in a man-of-war. Some
of the interesting naval families which were settled at Ports-
mouth and the eastern ports, and which from father to son
helped to recruit the ranks of bluejackets till a date later than
that of the launch of the first ironclad, could carry back their
professional genealogy to at least the days of Charles II., when,
in all probability, it did not first start. Though landsmen
continued even after the Civil War to be given naval appoint-
ments, and though a permanent corps, through the rajiks of which
every one must pass, had not been formally established, a body
of real naval officers men who could handle their ships, super-
vise the working of the armament and exercise military command
had been formed. A navy, accordingly, was now a
n'a'urrt-' weapon of undoubted keenness, capable of very effective
torialex- use by any one who knew how to wield it. Having
tasted the sweets of intercourse with the Indies,
whether in the occupation of Portugal or of Spain,
both English and Dutch were desirous of getting a
larger share of them. English maritime commerce had increased
and needed naval protection. If England was to maintain the
international position to which, as no one denied, she was
entitled, that commerce must be permitted to expand. The
minds of men in western Europe, moreover, were set upon
obtaining for their country territories in the New World, the
amenities of which were now known. From the reign of James
I. the Dutch had shown great jealousy of English maritime
enterprise. Where it was possible, as in the East Indian Archi-
pelago, they had destroyed it. Their naval resources were great
enough to let them hold English shipping at their mercy, unless
a grand effort were made to protect it. The Dutch conducted
the carrying trade of most of the world, and the monopoly of
this they were resolved to keep, while the English were resolved
to share in it. The exclusion of the English from every trade-
route, except such as ran by their own coast or crossed the
Narrow Seas, seemed a by no means impossible contingency.
There seemed also to be but one way of preventing it, viz. by
war. The supposed unfriendliness of the Dutch, or at least
of an important party amongst them, to the regicide government
in England helped to force the conflict. The Navigation Act of
1651 was passed and regarded as a covert declaration of hostilities.
So the first Dutch war began. It established England's claim
to compete for the position of a great maritime commercial
power.
The rise of the sea-power of the Dutch, and the magnitude
which it attained in a short time, and in the most adverse
circumstances, have no parallel in history. The case
of Athens was different, because the Athenian power Sea-power
had not so much been unconsciously developed out oufcft.
of a great maritime trade, as based on a military marine
deliberately and persistently fostered during many years.
Thirlwall believes that it was Solon who " laid the foundations
of the Attic navy " (Hist. Greece, ii. p. 52), century before
Salamis. The great achievement of Themistocles was to con-
vince his fellow-citizens that their navy ought to be increased.
Perhaps the nearest parallel with the power of the Dutch was
presented by that of Rhodes, which rested largely on a carrying
trade. The Rhodian undertakings, however, were by com-
parison small and restricted in extent. Motley declares of the
Seven United Provinces that they " commanded the ocean "
(United Netherlands, ii. 132), and that it would be difficult to
exaggerate the naval power of the young Commonwealth. Even
in the days of Spain's greatness English seamen positively de-
clined to admit that she was stronger than England on the sea;
and the story of the Armada justified their view. The first two
Dutch wars were, therefore, contests between the two foremost
naval states of the world for what was primarily a maritime
object. The identity of the cause of the first and of the second
war will be discerned by any one who compares what has been
said about the circumstances leading to the former, with Monk's
remark as to the latter. He said that the English wanted a
larger share of the trade enjoyed by the Dutch. It was quite
in accordance with the spirit of the age that the Dutch should
try to prevent, by force, this want from being satisfied. Any-
thing like free and open competition was repugnant to the
general feeling. The highroad to both individual wealth and
national prosperity was believed to lie in securing a monopoly.
Merchants or manufacturers who called for the abolition of
monopolies granted to particular courtiers and favourites had
not the smallest intention, on gaining their object, of throwing
open to the enterprise of all what had been monopolized. It
was to be kept for the exclusive benefit of some privileged or
chartered company. It was the same in greater affairs. As
Mahan says," To secure to one's own people a disproportionate
share of the benefits of sea commerce every effort was made to
exclude others, either by the peaceful legislative methods of
monopoly or prohibitory regulations, or, when these failed, by
direct violence." The apparent wealth of Spain was believed
to be due to the rigorous manner in which foreigners were ex-
cluded from trading with the Spanish oversea territories. The
skill and enterprise of the Dutch having enabled them to force
themselves into this trade, they were determined to keep it to
themselves. The Dutch East India Company was a powerful
body, and largely dictated the maritime policy of the country.
We have thus come to an interesting point in the historical
consideration of sea-power. The Elizabethan conflict with
Spain had practically settled the question whether or not the
SEA-POWER
555
ocean
trade.
Mahan's
survey.
expanding nations were to be allowed to extend their activities
to territories in the New World. The first two Dutch Wars
were to settle the question whether or not the ocean
trade of the world was to be open to any people qualified
to engage in it. We can see how largely these
were maritime questions, how much depended on the
solution found for them, and how plain it was that they must
be settled by naval means.
Mahan's great survey of sea-power opens in 1660, midway
between the first and second Dutch Wars. " The sailing-ship
era, with its distinctive features, " he tells us, " had
fairly begun. " The art of war by sea, in its more
important details, had been settled by the first war.
From the beginning of the second the general features of ship
design, the classification of ships, the armament of ships, and
the handling of fleets, were to remain without essential alteration
until the date of Navarino. Even the tactical methods, except
where improved on occasions by individual genius, altered little.
The great thing was to bring the whole broadside force to bear
on an enemy. Whether this was to be impartially distributed
throughout the hostile line or concentrated on one part of it
depended on the character of particular admirals. It would
have been strange if a period so long and so rich in incidents had
afforded no materials for forming a judgment on the real signific-
ance of sea-power. The text, so to speak, chosen by Mahan is
that, notwithstanding the changes wrought in naval matiriel
since about 1850, we can find in the history of the past instructive
illustrations of the general principles of maritime war. These
illustrations will prove of value not only " in those wider opera-
tions which embrace a whole theatre of war," but also, if rightly
applied, " in the tactical use of the ships and weapons " of our
own day. By a remarkable coincidence the same doctrine was
being preached at the same time and quite independently by
Vice-Admiral Philip Colomb in his work on Naval Warfare. As
a prelude to the second Dutch War we find a repetition of a
process which had been adopted somewhat earlier. That was
the permanent conquest of trans-oceanic territory. Until the
I7th century had well begun, naval, or combined naval and
military, operations against the distant possessions of an enemy
had been practically restricted to raiding or plundering attacks
on commercial centres. The Portuguese territory in South
America having come under Spanish dominion in consequence
of the annexation of Portugal to Spain, the Dutch as the power
of the latter country declined attempted to reduce part of that
territory into permanent possession. This improvement on the
practice of Drake and others was soon seen to be a game at
which more than one could play. An expedition sent by Crom-
well to the West Indies seized the Spanish island of Jamaica,
which has remained in the hands of its conquerors to this day.
In 1664 an English force occupied the Dutch North American
settlements on the Hudson. Though the dispossessed rulers
were not quite in a position to throw stones at sinners, this was
rather a raid than an operation recognized warfare, because
it preceded the formal outbreak of hostilities. The conquered
territory remained in English hands for more than a century,
and thus testified to the efficacy of a sea-power which Europe
had scarcely begun to recognize. Neither the second nor the
third Dutch War can be counted amongst the occurrences to
which Englishmen may look back with unalloyed satisfaction;
but they, unquestionably, disclosed some interesting manifesta-
tions of sea-power. Much indignation has been expressed
concerning the corruption and inefficiency of the English govern-
ment of the day, and its failure to take proper measures for
keeping up the navy as it should have been kept up. Some,
perhaps a good deal, of this indignation was deserved; but it
would have been nearly as well deserved by every other govern-
ment of the day. Even in those homes of political virtue where
the administrative machinery was worked by, or in the interest
of speculating capitalists and privileged companies, the accumu-
lating evidence of late years has proved that everything was not
considered to be, and as a matter of fact was not, exactly as it
ought to have been. Charles II. and his brother, the duke of
York, have been held up to obloquy because they thought that
the coast of England could be defended against a naval enemy
better by fortifications than by a good fleet and, as Pepys noted,
were " not ashamed of it. " The truth is that neither the king
nor the duke believed in the power of a navy to ward off attack
from an island. This may have been due to want of intellectual
capacity; but it would be going a long way to put it down to
personal wickedness. They have had many imitators, some in
our own day. The huge forts which stud the coast of the United
Kingdom, and have been erected' within living memory, are
monuments, likely to last for many years, of the inability of
people, whom no one could accuse of being vicious, to rate sea-
power at its proper value. It is much more likely that it was
owing to a reluctance to study questions of naval defence as
industriously as they deserved, and to that moral timidity
which so often tempts even men of proved physical courage to
undertake the impossible task of making themselves absolutely
safe against hostile efforts at every point.
Charles II. has also been charged with indifference to the
interests of his country, or worse, because during a great naval
war he adopted the plan of trying to weaken the enemy
by destroying his commerce. The king " took a fatal
resolution of laying up his great ships and keeping only
a few frigates on the cruise." It is expressly related that this
was not Charles's own idea, but that it was urged upon him by
advisers whose opinion probably seemed at the time as well worth
listening to as that of others. Anyhow if the king erred, as he
undoubtedly did, he erred in good company. Eighteen hundred
years earlier the statesmen who conducted the great war against
Carthage, and whose astuteness has been the theme of innumer-
able panegyrics since, took the same " fatal resolution." In
the midst of the great struggle they " did away with the fleet.
At the most they encouraged privateering; and' with that view
placed the war-vessels of the state at the disposal of captains
who were ready to undertake a corsair warfare on their own
account " (Mommsen, 1894, ii. 191). In much later times this
method has had many respectable defenders. Mahan's works
are, in a sense, a formal warning to his fellow-citizens not to
adopt it. In France, within the last years of the igth century,
it found, and appears still to find, adherents enough to form a
school. The reappearance of belief in demonstrated impossi-
bilities is a recognized incident in human history; but it is
usually confined to the emotional or the vulgar. It is serious
and filled with menaces of disaster when it is held by men
thought fit to administer the affairs of a nation or advise concern-
ing its defence. The third Dutch War may not have settled
directly the position of England in the maritime world; but it
helped to place that country above all other maritime states
in the position, in fact, which Great Britain, the United Kingdom,
the British Empire, whichever name may be given it, has retained
up to the present. It also manifested in a very striking form
the efficacy of sea-power. The United Provinces, though attacked
by two of the greatest monarchies in the world, France and
England, were not destroyed. Indeed, they preserved much of
their political importance in the state system of Europe. The
Republic " owed this astonishing result partly to the skill of one
or two men, but mainly to its sea-power. " The effort, however,
had undermined its strength and helped forward its decline.
The war, which was ended by the Peace of Ryswick in 1697,
presents two features of exceptional interest: one was the havoc
wrought on English commerce by the enemy; the other was
Torrington's conduct at and after the engagement off Beachy
Head. Mahan discusses the former with his usual lucidity.
At 1 no time has war against commerce been conducted on a
larger scale and with greater results than during this period.
England suffered " infinitely more than in any former war. "
Many of her merchants were ruined; and it is affirmed that the
English shipping was reduced to the necessity of sailing under the
Swedish and Danish flags. The explanation is that Louis XIV.
made great efforts to keep up powerful fleets. The English
navy was so fully occupied in watching these that no ships could
be spared to protect England's maritime trade. This is only
556
SEA-POWER
another way of saying that her commerce had increased so
largely that the navy was not strong enough to look after it as
well as oppose the enemy's main force. Notwithstanding her
losses she was on the winning side in the conflict. Much misery
and ruin had been caused, but not enough to affect the issue of
the war.
Torrington's proceedings in July 1690 were at the time the
subject of much angry discussion. The debate, still meriting
the epithet angry, has been renewed within the last
la beiag." ^ ew X ears - The matter has to be noticed here, because
it involves the consideration of a question of naval
strategy which must be understood by those who wish to know
the real meaning of the term sea-power, and who ought to learn
that it is not a thing to be idly risked or thrown away at the
bidding of the ignorant and the irresponsible. Arthur Herbert,
earl of Torrington the later peerage is a viscountcy held by
the Byng family was in command of the allied English and
Dutch fleet in the English Channel. " The disparity of force, "
says Mahan, " was still in favour of France in 1690, but it was
not so great as the year before. " We can measure the ability
of the then English government for conducting a great war,
when we know that, in its wisdom, it had still further weakened
the fleet by dividing if. Vice-Admiral Killigrew had been sent
to the Mediterranean with a squadron, and had neglected, and
indeed refused when urged, to take the necessary steps to repair
this error. The government having omitted, as governments
sometimes do, to gain any trustworthy intelligence of the strength
or movements of the enemy, Torrington suddenly found himself
confronted by a considerably superior French fleet under Tour-
ville, one of the greatest of French sea-officers. Since then the
intentions of the French have been questioned; but it is beyond
dispute that, in England at the time, Tourville's movements
were believed to be preliminary to invasion. Whether Tourville
deliberately meant his movement to cover an invasion or not,
invasion would almost certainly have followed complete success
on his part; otherwise, his victory would have been without any
valuable result. Torrington saw that as long as he could keep
his own fleet intact, he could, though much weaker than his
opponent, prevent him from doing serious harm. Though
personally not a believer in the imminence of invasion, the
English admiral knew that " most men were in fear that the
French would invade." His own view was " that whilst we had
a fleet in being they would not dare to make an attempt." Of
late years controversy has raged round this phrase, " a fleet in
being," and the strategic principle which it expresses. Most
seamen were at the time, have been since, and still are in agree-
ment with Torrington. This might be supposed enough to settle
the question. It has not been allowed, however, to remain one
of purely naval strategy. It was made at the time a matter of
party politics. This is why it is so necessary that in a notice of
sea-power it should be discussed. Both as a strategist and as a
tactician Torrington was immeasurably ahead of his contem-
poraries. The only English admirals who can be placed above
him are Hawke and Nelson. He paid the penalty of his pre-
eminence: he could not make ignorant men and dull men see
the meaning or the advantages of his proceedings. Mahan, who
is specially qualified to do him full justice, does not devote much
space in his work to a consideration of Torrington's case, evidently
because he had not sufficient materials before him on which to
form a judgment. The admiral's character had been taken
away already by Macaulay, who did have ample evidence before
him; William III., with all his fine qualities, did not possess a
military genius quite equal to that of Napoleon; and Napoleon,
in naval strategy, was often wrong. William III. understooH
that subject even less than the French emperor did; and his
favourites were still less capable of understanding it. Conse-
quently Torrington's action has been put down to jealousy of
the Dutch. There have been people who accused Nelson of being
jealous of the naval reputation of Caracciolol The explanation
of Torrington's conduct is this: He had a fleet so much weaker
than Tourville's that he could not fight a general action with
the latter without a practical certainty of a crushing defeat.
Such a result would have laid the kingdom open: a defeat of
the allied fleet, says Mahan, " if sufficiently severe, might involve
the fall of William's throne in England." Given certain move-
ments of the French fleet, Torrington might have manoeuvred
to slip past it to the westward and join his force with that under
Killigrew, which would make him strong enough to hazard a
battle. This proved impracticable. There was then one course
left to retire before the French, but not to keep far from them.
He knew that, though not strong enough to engage their whole
otherwise unemployed fleet with any hope of success, he would
be quite strong enough to fight and most likely beat it, when a
part of it was trying either to deal with our ships to the west-
ward or to cover the disembarkation of an invading army.
He, therefore, proposed to keep his " fleet in being " in order to
fall on the enemy when the latter would have two affairs at the
same time on his hands. Vice-Admiral Colomb rose to a greater
height than was usual even with him in his criticism of this
campaign. What Torrington did was merely to reproduce on
the sea what has been noticed dozens of times on shore, viz. the
menace of the flanking enemy. In land warfare this is held to
give exceptional opportunities for the display of good generalship,
but, to quote Mahan over again, a navy " acts on an element
strange to most writers, its members have been from time
immemorial a strange race apart, without prophets of their
own, neither themselves nor their calling understood." Whilst
Torrington has had the support of the seamen, his opponents have
been landsmen. For the crime of being a good strategist he
was brought before a court-martial, but acquitted. His sovereign,
who had been given the crowns of three kingdoms to defend our
laws, showed his respect for them by flouting a legally constituted
tribunal and disregarding its solemn finding. The admiral who
had saved his country was dismissed from the service. Still, the
principle of the " fleet in being " lies at the bottom of all sound
strategy.
Admiral Colomb has pointed out a great change of plan in the
later naval campaigns of the jyth century. Improvements in
naval architecture, in the methods of preserving food,
and in the arrangements for keeping the crews healthy, na y"f e
permitted fleets to be employed at a distance from operations.
their home ports for long continuous periods. The
Dutch, as allies of the Spaniards, kept a fleet in the Mediterranean
for many months. The great de Ruyter was mortally wounded
in one of the battles there fought. In the War of the Spanish
Succession the Anglo-Dutch fleet found its principal scene of
action eastward of Gibraltar. This, as it were, set the fashion
for future wars. It became a kind of tacitly accepted rule that
the operation of British sea-power was to be felt in the enemy's,
rather than in British waters. The hostile coast was regarded
strategically as the British frontier, and the sea was looked upon
as territory which the enemy must be prevented from invading.
Acceptance of this principle led in time to the so-called " block-
ades " of Brest and Toulon. The name was misleading. As
Nelson took care to explain, there was no desire to keep the
enemy's fleet in; what was desired was to be near enough to
attack it if it came out. The wisdom of the plan is undoubted.
The hostile navy could be more easily watched and more easily
followed if it put to sea. To carry out this plan a navy stronger
in number of ships or in general efficiency than that of the enemy
was necessary. With the exception of that of American Inde-
pendence, which will, therefore, require special notice, England's
subsequent great wars were conducted in accordance with the
rule.
In the early part of the i8th century there was a remarkable
manifestation of sea-power in the Baltic. Peter the Great,
having created an efficient army, drove the Swedes
from the coast provinces south of the Gulf of Finland. /f uss / a > g
Like the earlier monarchies of which we have spoken, sea-power.
Russia, in the Baltic at least, now became a naval
state. A large fleet was built, and, indeed, a considerable navy
established. It was a purely artificial creation, and showed the
merits and defects of its character. At first, and when under the
eye of its creator, it was strong; when Peter was no more it
SEA-POWER
557
year"
dwindled away and, when needed again, had to be created afresh.
It enabled Peter the Great to conquer the neighbouring portion
of Finland, to secure his coast territories and to dominate the
Baltic. In this he was assisted by the exhaustion of Sweden
consequent on her endeavours to retain, what was no longer
possible, the position of a <?<m-great power which she had held
(since the days of Gustavus Adolphus. Sweden had been further
weakened, especially as a naval state, by almost incessant wars
with Denmark, which prevented all hope of Scandinavian pre-
dominance in the Baltic, the control of which sea has in these
days passed into the hands of another state possessing a quickly
created navy the modern German empire.
The War of the Spanish Succession left Great Britain a Mediter-
ranean power, a position which, in spite of twice losing Minorca,
she still holds. In the War of the Austrian Succession,
" France was forced to give up her conquests for want
of a navy, and England saved her position by her
sea-power, though she had failed to use it to the best
advantage " (Mahan, Influence on Hist. p. 280). This shows,
as we shall find that a later war showed more plainly, that even
the government of a thoroughly maritime country is not always
sure of conducting its naval affairs wisely. The Seven Years'
War included some brilliant displays of the efficacy of sea-power.
It was this which put the British in possession of Canada, decided
which European race was to rule in India, and led to a British
occupation of Havana in one hemisphere and of Manila in the
other. In the same war Great Britain learnt how, by a feeble
use of sea-power, a valuable possession like Minorca may be lost.-
At the same time, the maritime trade and the general prosperity
of the kingdom increased enormously. The result of the conflict
made plain to all the paramount importance of having in the
principal posts in the government men capable of understanding
what war is and how it ought to be conducted.
This lesson, as the sequel demonstrated, had not been learned
when Great Britain became involved in a war with the insurgent
colonies in North America. Mahan's comment is.
*Amlricaa strikm g : " Tlle magnificence of sea-power and its
WttFf value had perhaps been more clearly shown by the
uncontrolled sway and consequent exaltation of one
belligerent; but the lesson thus given, if more striking, is less
vividly interesting than the spectacle of that sea-power meeting
a foe worthy of its steel, and excited to exertion by a strife which
endangered not only its most valuable colonies, but even its own
shores " (Influence on Hist. p. 338). Great Britain was, in fact,
drawing too largely on the prestige acquired during the Seven
Years' War, and was governed by men who did not understand the
first principles of naval warfare, and would not listen to those who
did. They quite ignored the teaching of the then comparatively
recent wars which has been alluded to already that the enemy's
coast should be looked upon as the frontier. A century and a
half earlier the Dutchman Grotius had written
" Quae meta Britannis
Litora sunt aliis."
Though ordinary prudence would have suggested ample prepara-
tion, British ministers allowed their country to remain unpre-
pared. Instead of concentrating their efforts on the main
objective, they frittered away force in attempts to relieve two
beleaguered garrisons under the pretext of yielding to popular
pressure, which is the official term for acting on the advice of
irresponsible and uninstructed busy bodies. " Depuis le debut
de la crise," says Captain Chevalier, "les ministres delaGrande-
Bretagne s'etaient montres inferieurs a leur tache." An impres-
sive result of this was the repeated appearance of powerful and
indeed numerically superior hostile fleets in the English Channel.
The war notwithstanding that land operations constituted an
important part of it, and in the end settled the issue was
essentially oceanic. Captain Mahan says it was " purely
maritime." It may be true that, whatever the belligerent
result, the political result, as regards the status of the insurgent
colonies, would have been the same. It is in the highest degree
probable, indeed it closely approaches to certainty, that a
proper use of the British sea-power would have prevented
independence from being conquered, as it were, at the point of
the bayonet. There can be no surprise in store for the student
acquainted with the vagaries of strategists who are influenced
in war by political in preference to military requirements. Still,
it is difficult to repress an emotion of astonishment on finding
that a British government intentionally permitted de Grasse's
fleet and the French army in its convoy to .cross the Atlantic
unmolested, for fear of postponing for a time the revictualling
of the garrison beleaguered at Gibraltar. Washington's opinion
as to the importance of the naval factor has been quoted already;
and Mahan does not put the case too strongly when he declares
that the success of the Americans was due to "sea-power being
in the hands of the French and its improper distribution by the
English authorities." England's navy, misdirected as it was,
made a good fight of it, never allowed itself to be decisively
beaten in a considerable battle, and won at least one great
victory. At the point of contact with the enemy, however,
it was not in general so conspicuously successful as it was in the
Seven Years' War, or as it was to be in the great conflict with
the French republic and empire. The truth is that its opponent,
the French navy, was never so thoroughly a sea-going force as
it was in the War of American Independence; and never so
closely approached the British in sea experience as it did during
that period. Great Britain met antagonists who were very
nearly, but fortunately not quite, as familiar with the sea as she
was; and she never found it so hard to beat them, or even to
avoid being beaten by them. An Englishman would, naturally
enough, start at the conclusion confronting him, if he were to
speculate as to the result of more than one battle had the great
Suffren's captains and crews been quite up to the level of those
commanded by stout old Sir Edward Hughes. Suffren, it should
be said, before going to the East Indies, had " thirty-eight years
of almost uninterrupted sea-service " (Laugh ton, Studies in
Naval Hist. p. 103). A glance at a chart of the world, with the
scenes of the general actions of the war dotted on it, will show
how notably oceanic the campaigns were. The hostile fleets
met over and over again on the far side of the Atlantic and in
distant Indian seas. The French navy had penetrated into the
ocean as readily and as far as the British could do. Besides
this, it should be remembered that it was not until the I2th of
April 1782, when Rodney in one hemisphere and Suffren in the
other showed them the way, that British officers were able to
escape from the fetters imposed on them by the Fighting In-
structions a fact worth remembering in days in which it is
sometimes proposed, by establishing schools of naval tactics on
shore, to revive the pedantry which made a decisive success in
battle nearly impossible.
The mighty conflict which raged between Great Britain on one
side and France and her allies on the other, with little inter-
mission, for more than twenty years, presents a Wanof
different aspect from that of the war last mentioned, the Preach
The victories which the British fleet was to gain were Revolution
generally to be overwhelming; if not, they were looked """*
upon as almost defeats. Whether the fleet opposed Bmptre '
to the British was or was not the more numerous, the result was
generally the same the enemy was beaten. That there was a
discoverable reason for this is certain. A great deal has been
made of the disorganization in the French navy consequent on
the confusion of the Revolution. That there was disorganization
is undoubted; that it did impair discipline and, consequently,
general efficiency will not be disputed; but that it was con-
siderable enough to account by itself for the French naval
defeats is altogether inadmissible. Revolutionary disorder had
invaded the land-forces to a greater degree than it had invaded
the sea-forces. The supersession, flight or guillotining of army
officers had been beyond measure more frequent than was the
case with the naval officers. In spite of all this the French
armies were on the whole even in the early days of the Revolu-
tion extraordinarily successful. In 1792 " the most formidable
invasion that ever threatened France," as Alison calls it, was
repelled, though the invaders were the highly disciplined and
veteran armies of Prussia and Austria. It was nearly two years
SEA-POWER
later that the French and British fleets came into serious conflict.
The first great battle, " The Glorious First of June," though a
tactical victory for Great Britain, was a strategical defeat.
Villaret Joyeuse manoeuvred so as to cover the arrival in France
of a fleet of merchant vessels carrying sorely needed supplies of
food, and in this he was completely successful. His plan involved
the probability, almost the necessity of fighting a general action
which he was not at all sure of winning. He was beaten, it is
true; but the French made so good a fight of it that their
defeat was not nearly so disastrous as the later defeats of the
Nile or Trafalgar, and at the most not more disastrous than
that of Dominica. Yet no one even alleges that there was dis-
order or disorganization in the French fleet at the date of any
one of those affairs. Indeed, if the French navy was really dis-
organized in 1794, it would have been better for France
judging from the events of 1798 and 1805 if the disorganization
had been allowed to continue. In point of organization the
British navy was inferior, and in point of discipline not much
superior to the French at the earliest date; at the later dates,
and especially at the latest, owing to the all-pervading energy
of Napoleon, the British was far behind its rival in organization,
in " science," and in every branch of training that can be im-
parted without going to sea. Great Britain had the immense
advantage of counting among her officers some very able men.
Nelson, of course, stands so high that he holds a place entirely
by himself. The other British chiefs, good as they were, were
not conspicuously superior to the Hawkes and Rodneys of an
earlier day. Howe was a great commander, but he did little
more than just appear on the scene in the Revolutionary War.
Almost the same may be said of Hood, of whom Nelson wrote,
" He is the greatest sea-officer I ever knew " (Laughton, Nelson's
Lett, and Desp. p. 71). There must have been something, there-
fore, beyond the meritorious qualities of the principal British
officers which helped the navy so consistently to victory. The
many triumphs won could not have been due in every case to
the individual superiority of the British admiral or captain to
his opponent. There must have been bad as well as good
among the hundreds on the lists; and we cannot suppose that
Providence had so arranged it that in every action in which a
importance British officer of inferior ability commanded, a still
of sea more inferior French commander was opposed to him.
expert- The explanation of the nearly unbroken success is,
that the British was a thoroughly sea-going navy, and
became more and more so every month; while the French,
since the close of the American War, had lost to a great extent its
sea-going character and, because it had been shut up in its ports,
became less and less sea-going as hostilities continued. The
war had been for the British, in the words of Theodore Roosevelt,
" a continuous course of victory won mainly by seamanship."
The British navy, as regards sea experience, especially of the
officers, was immensely superior to the French. This enabled
the British government to carry into execution sound strategic
plans, in accordance with which the coasts of France and its
allied countries were regarded as the British frontier to be
watched or patrolled by British fleets.
Before the long European war had been brought to a formal
ending we received some rude rebuffs from another opponent
of unsuspected vigour. In the quarrel with the
^""5 United States, the so-called "War of 1812," the
American . . .
War. great sea-power of the British in the end asserted its
influence, and the Americans suffered much more
severely, even absolutely, than their enemy. At the same time
the British might have learned, for the Americans did their
best to teach it, that over-confidence in numerical strength and
narrow professional self-satisfaction are nearly sure to lead to
reverses in war, and not unlikely to end in grave disasters. The
British had now to meet the (lite of one of the finest communities
of seamen ever known. Even in 1776 the Americans had a great
maritime commerce, which, as Mahan says, " had come to be the
wonder of the statesmen of the mother country." In the six-
and-thirty years which had elapsed since then this commerce
had further increased. There was no finer nursery of seamen
than the then states of the American Union. Roosevelt says
that " there was no better seaman in the world " than the
American, who " had been bred in his work from infancy."
A large proportion of the population " was engaged in sea-going
pursuits of a nature strongly tending to develop a resolute and
hardy character in the men that followed them " (Naval War
of 1812, 3rd ed., pp. 29, 30). Having little or no naval protection,
the American seaman had to defend himself in many circum-
stances, and was compelled to familiarize himself with' the use
of arms. The men who passed through this practical, and there-
fore supremely excellent, training school were numerous. Very
many had been trained in English men-of-war, and some in
French ships. The state navy which they were called on to
man was small; and therefore its personnel, though without
any regular or avowed selection, was virtually and in the highest
sense a picked body. The lesson of the War of 1812 should be
learned by Englishmen of the present day, when a long naval
peace has generated a confidence in numerical superiority, in
the mere possession of heavier materiel, and in the merits of a
rigidly uniform system of training, such confidence, as experience
has shown, being often the forerunner of misfortune. It is
neither patriotic nor intelligent to minimize the American
successes. Certainly they have been exaggerated by Americans
and even by the British. To take the frigate actions alone, as
being those which properly attracted most attention, the captures
in action amounted to three on each side, the proportionate
loss to the Americans, considering the smallness of their fleet,
being immensely greater than to the British. We also see that
no British frigate was taken after the first seven months of a
war which lasted two and a half years. Attempts have been
made to spread a belief that British reverses were due to nothing
but the greater size and heavier guns of the enemy's ships.
It is now established that the superiority in these details, which
the Americans certainly enjoyed, was not great, and not of itself
enough to account for their victories. Of course, if superiority
in mere materiel, beyond a certain well-understood amount,
is possessed by o"ne of two combatants, his antagonist can hardly
escape defeat; but it was never alleged that size of ship or
calibre of guns greater within reasonable limits than the British
had necessarily led to the defeat of British ships by the French
or Spaniards. In the words of Admiral Jurien de la Graviere:
" The ships of the United States constantly fought with the
chances in their favour." All this is indisputable. Nevertheless
in any future war British sea-power, great as it may be, should
not receive shocks like those that it unquestionably did suffer
in 1812.
We have now come to the end of the days of the naval
wars of old time. The subsequent period has been illustrated
repeatedly by manifestations of sea-power, often of great interest
and importance, though rarely understood or even discerned
by the nations whom they more particularly concerned. The
British sea-power, notwithstanding the first year of the War of
1812, had come out of the great European conflict unshaken and
indeed more pre-eminent than ever. The words used half a
century before by a writer in the great French Encyclopedia
seemed more exact than when first written. " L' Empire des
mers," he says, is " le plus avantageux de tous les empires;
les Phceniciens le possedoient autre fois et c'est aux Anglois
que cette gloire appartient aujourd'hui sur toutes les puissances
maritimes " (Encyclopfdie, 7th January 1765, art. " Thalas-
sarchie "). Vast outlying territories had been acquired or were
more firmly held, and the communications of all the oversea
dominions of the British crown were secured against all possibility
of serious menace for many years to come. Her sea-power was
so ubiquitous and all-pervading that, like the atmosphere,
Great Britain rarely thought of it and rarely remembered its
necessity or its existence. It was not till a late date that the
greater part of the nation for there still are some exceptions
perceived that it was the medium apart from which the British
empire could no more live than it could have grown up. Forty
years after the fall of Napoleon she found herself again at war
with a great power. She had as her ally the owner of the greatest
SEA-POWER
559
navy in the world except her own. Her foe, as regards naval
forces, came the next in order. Yet so overwhelming was the
strength of Great Britain and France on the sea that
Atossiai R uss i a never attempted to employ her navy against
185-4-56. them. Not to mention other expeditions, considerable
enough in themselves, military operations on the
largest scale were undertaken, carried on for many months,
and brought to a successful termination on a scene so remote
that it was two thousand miles from the country of one, and
three thousand from that of the other partner in the alliance.
" The stream of supplies and reinforcements, which in terms
of modern war is called ' communications,' " was kept free from
even the threat of molestation, not by visible measures, but by
the undisputed efficacy of a real, though imperceptible sea-
power. At the close of the Russian War there were, even in
influential positions, men who, undismayed by the consequences
of mimicking in free England the cast-iron methods of Frederick
the Great, began to measure British requirements by standards
borrowed from abroad and altogether inapplicable to British
conditions. Because other countries wisely abstained from
relying on that which they did not possess, or had only imperfectly
and with elaborate art created, the mistress of the seas was led
to proclaim her disbelief in the very force that had made and
kept her dominion, and was urged to defend herself with fortifica-
tions by advisers who, like Charles II. and the duke of York
two centuries before, were " not ashamed of it." It was long
before the peril into which this brought the empire was per-
ceived; but at last, and in no small degree owing to the
teachings of Mahan, the people themselves took the matter
in hand and insisted that a great maritime empire should
have adequate means of defending all that made its existence
possible.
In forms differing in appearance, but identical in essentials,
the efficacy of sea-power was proved again in the American
Later Civil War. If ever there were hostilities in which,
manifest*- to the unobservant or short-sighted, naval operations
tioosof might at first seem destined to count for little they
r ' were these. The sequel, however, made it clear that
they constituted one of the leading factors of the success of the
victorious side. The belligerents, the Northern or Federal
states and the Southern or Confederate states, had a common
land frontier of great length. The capital of each section was
within easy distance of this frontier, and the two were not far
apart. In wealth, population and resources the Federals were
enormously superior. They alone possessed a navy, though at
first it was a small one. The one advantage on the Confederate
side was the large proportion of military officers which belonged
to it and their rare excellence as soldiers. In physique as well
as in moral the army of one side differed little from that of the
other; perhaps the Federal army was slightly superior in the
first, and the Confederate, as being recruited from a dominant
white race, in the second. Outnumbered, less well equipped, and
more scantily supplied, the Confederates nevertheless kept up
the war, with many brilliant successes on land, for four years.
Had they been able to maintain their trade with neutral states
they could have carried on the war longer, and not improb-
ably have succeeded in the end. The Federal navy, which was
largely increased, took away all chance of this. It established
effective blockades of the Confederate ports, and severed their
communications with the outside world. Indispensable articles
of equipment could not be obtained, and the armies, consequently,
became less and less able to cope with their abundantly furnished
antagonists. By dominating the rivers the Federals cut the
Confederacy asunder; and, by the power they possessed of
moving troops by sea at will, perplexed and harassed the defence,
and facilitated the occupation of important points. Meanwhile
the Confederates could make no reply on the water except by
capturing merchant vessels, by which the contest was embittered,
but the course of the war remained absolutely unaffected. The
great numbers of men under arms on shore, the terrific slaughter
in many battles of a war in which tactical ability, even in a
moderate degree, was curiously uncommon on both sides, and the
I89I
varying fortunes of the belligerents, made the land campaigns
far more interesting to the ordinary observer than the naval.
It is not surprising, therefore, that peace had been re-established
for several years before the American people could be made to
see the great part taken by the navy in the restoration of the
Union; and what the Americans had not seen was hidden from
the sight of other nations.
In several momentous wars in Europe waged since France and
Great Britain made peace with Russia sea-power manifested
itself but little. In the Russo-Turkish War the naval Kosso .
superiority of the Turks in the Black Sea, where the Turkish
Russians at the time had no fleet, governed the plans, War,
if not the course, of the campaign. The water being 1S77-78.
denied to them, the Russians were compelled to execute their
plan of invading Turkey by land. An advance to the Bosporus
through the northern part of Asia Minor was impracticable
without help from a navy on the right flank. Consequently the
only route was a land one across the Danube and the Balkans.
The advantages, though not fully utilized, which the enforce-
ment of this line of advance put into the hands of the Turks,
and the difficulties and losses which it caused the Russians,
exhibited in a striking manner what sea-power can effect even
when its operation is scarcely observable.
This was more conspicuous in a later series of hostilities.
The civil war in Chile between Congressists and Balmacedists
was specially interesting, because it threw into sharp
relief the predominant influence, when a non-maritime chlleaa
enemy was to be attacked, of a navy followed up
by an adequate land-force. At the beginning of the
dispute the Balmacedists, or President's party, had practically
all the army, and the Congressists, or Opposition party, nearly
all the Chilean navy. Unable to remain in the principal province
of the republic, and expelled from the waters of Valparaiso by
the Balmacedist garrisons of the forts the only and doubtful
service which those works rendered to their own side the
Congressists went off with the ships to the northern provinces,
where they counted many adherents. There they formed an
army, and having money at command, and open sea communi-
cations, they were able to import equipment from abroad, and
eventually to transport their land-force, secured from molestation
on the voyage by the sea-power at their disposal, to the neigh-
bourhood of Valparaiso, where it was landed and triumphantly
ended the campaign.
It will have been noticed that, in its main outlines, this story
repeated that of many earlier struggles. It was itself repeated,
as regards its general features, by the story of the war Wgf
between China and Japan in 1894-95. Every aspect between
of the war, says Colomb, is interesting to Great Britain, China ana
" as Japan is to China in a position similar to that
which the British Islands occupy to the European
continent " (Naval Warfare, 3rd ed. p. 436). It was additionally
interesting because the sea-power of Japan was a novelty.
Though a novelty, it was well known by British naval men to
be superior in all essentials to that of China, a novelty itself.
As is the rule when two belligerents are contending for something
beyond a purely maritime object, the final decision was to be on
land. Korea was the principal theatre of the land war; and,
as far as access to it by sea was concerned, the chief bases of
the two sides were about the same distance from it. It was
possible for the Chinese to march there by land. The Japanese,
coming from an island state, were obliged to cross the water.
It will be seen at once that not only the success of the Japanese
in the struggle, but also the possibility of its being carried on
by them at all, depended on sea-power. The Japanese proved
themselves decisively superior at sea. Their navy effectually
cleared the way for one army which was landed in Korea, and
for another which was landed in the Chinese province of Shan-
tung. The Chinese land-forces were defeated. The navy of
Japan being superior on the sea, was able to keep its sister service
supplied or reinforced as required. It was not, however, the
navy, but the army, which finally frustrated the Chinese efforts
at defence, and really terminated the war. What the navy did
560
SEARCH SEA-SERPENT
was what, in accordance with the limitations of sea-power, may
be expected of a navy. It made the transport of the army
across the sea possible, and enabled it to do what of itself the
army could not have done, viz. overcome the last resistance of
the enemy.
The issue of the Spanish-American War, at least as regards
the defeat of Spain, was a foregone conclusion. That Spain,
Spanish- even without a serious insurrection on her hands,
American was unequal to the task of meeting so powerful an
antagonist as the United States must have been evident
even to Spaniards. However that may be, an early
collapse of the Spanish defence was not anticipated, and however
one-sided the war may have been seen to be, it furnished examples
illustrating rules as old as naval warfare. Mahan says of it that,
" while possessing, as every war does, characteristics of its own
differentiating it from others, nevertheless in its broad analogies
it falls into line with its predecessors, evidencing that unity of
teaching which pervades the art from its beginnings unto this
day " (Lessons of the War with Spain, p. 16). The Spaniards
were defeated by the superiority of the American sea-power.
" A million of the best soldiers," says Mahan, " would have been
powerless in face of hostile control of the sea." That control
was obtained and kept by the United States navy, thus per-
mitting the unobstructed despatch of troops and their subse-
quent reinforcement and supply to Spanish territory, which
was finally conquered, not by the navy, but by the army on
shore. That it was the navy which made this final conquest
possible happened, in this case, to be made specially evident by
the action of the United States government, which stopped a
military expedition on the point of starting for Cuba until the
sea was cleared of all Spanish naval force worth attention.
It is unnecessary here to dwell on the results of sea-power in
the war between Great Britain and the Boers, in which troops
had to be transported by sea from England to South Africa,
or in that between Russia and Japan, in which the culminating
blow given by Japan was the defeat of the Russian fleet at the
battle of Tsushima.
The events of the long period which we have been considering
will have shown how sea-power operates, and what it effects.
What it involves will have appeared from this narrative more
clearly than would have been possible from any mere definition.
Like many other things, sea-power is composed of several ele-
ments. To reach the highest degree of efficacy it should be
based upon a population naturally maritime, and on an ocean
commerce naturally developed rather than artificially enticed
to extend itself. Its outward and visible sign is a navy, strong
in the discipline, skill and courage of a numerous personnel
habituated to the sea, in the number and quality of its ships, in
the excellence of its materiel, and in the efficiency, scale, security
and geographical position of its arsenals and bases. History
has demonstrated that sea-power thus conditioned can gain any
purely maritime object, can protect the trade and the com-
munications of a widely extended empire, and while so doing
can ward off from its shores a formidable invader. There are,
however, limitations to be noted. Left to itself its operation is
confined to the water, or at any rate to the inner edge of a
narrow zone of coast. It prepares the way for the advance of
an army, the work of which it is not intended and is unable to
perform. Behind it, in the territory of which it guards the
shores, there must be a land-force adjusted in organization,
equipment and numbers to the circumstances of the country.
The possession of a navy does not permit a sea-surrounded state
to dispense with all fixed defences or fortification; but it does
render it unnecessary and indeed absurd that they should be
abundant or gigantic. The danger which always impends over
the sea-power of any country is that, after being long unused,
it may lose touch of the sea. The revolution in the constructive
arts during the latter half of the ipth century, which has also
been a period of but little-interrupted naval peace, and the
universal adoption of mechanical appliances, both for ship-
propulsion and for many minor services mere materiel being
thereby raised in the general estimation far above really more
important matters make the danger mentioned more menacing
in the present age than it has ever been before.
The classic works on Sea-power are those of Captain A. T. Mahan :
Influence of Sea-power on History (1890); Influence of Sea-power on
the French Revolution and Empire (1892); Nelson: the Embodiment
of the Sea-power of Great Britain (1897), &c. See also the bibliography
of the article NAVY. (C. A. G. B.)
SEARCH, or VISIT AND SEARCH, a term used in international
law and apparently derived in some confused way from the
French word visile, which means search, combined with the
English translation of the word tiisite. An attempt made by
some writers to distinguish between visit and search only leads
to misunderstanding. Search is the exact English equivalent
of visile, and in the translation of the Declaration of London
(Feb. 26, 1909) the translator has rightly rendered it as such
(art. 63).
The right of search belongs to belligerents alone. Its object
is to verify the nationality of the vessel and if neutral to ascertain
whether it carries contraband. The consequence of resistance
to search is capture and trial in a Prize Court. " Forcible re-
sistance to the legitimate exercise of the right of stoppage,
search and capture," says art. 63 of the Declaration of London,
1909, " involves in all cases the condemnation of the vessel.
The cargo is liable to the same treatment as the cargo of an
enemy vessel. Goods belonging to the master or owner of the
vessel are treated as enemy goods." At the Hague Conference
of 1907 the question of the liability to search of mail-ships gave
rise to much discussion based on incidents arising out of the
South African and Russo-Japanese Wars. It was ultimately
decided that postal correspondence of neutrals and even of
belligerents, and whether official or private, found on board a
neutral or even an enemy ship should be " inviolable," and that
though the ship should be detained, this correspondence had to
be forwarded to its destination by the captor " with the least
possible delay." 1 The only exception to this exemption is
correspondence destined for or proceeding from a blockaded
port. As regards the mail-ships themselves, apart from this
inviolability of the correspondence, no exemption or privilege
is extended beyond the injunction that they should not be
searched, except when absolutely necessary, and then only " with
as much consideration and expedition as possible," which might
just as well be said of all ships stopped or searched on the high
seas. (T. BA.)
SEA-SERPENT. The belief in enormous serpents, both
terrestrial and marine, dates from very early times. Pliny
(H.N. viii. 14), following Livy (Epit. xviii.), tells us of a land-
serpent 1 20 ft. long, which Regulus and his army besieged with
balistae, as though it had been a city, and this story is repeated
by several other writers (Florus ii. 2; Val. Max. i. 8; Gellius
vi. 3). The most prolific in accounts of the sea-serpent, however,
are the early Norse writers, to whom the " So-Orm " was a
subject both for prose and verse. Olaus Magnus (Hist. gent,
sept. xxi. 24) describes it as 200 ft. long and 20 ft. round, and
states that it not only ate calves, sheep and swine, but also
" disturbs ships, rising up like a mast, and sometimes snaps
some of the men from the deck," illustrating his account with
a vivid representation of the animal in the very act. Pontoppi-
dan, in his Natural History (Eng. trans., 1755, pp. 195 seq.), says
that its existence was generally believed in by the sailors and
fishermen of his time, and he recounts the means they adopted
to escape it, as well as many details regarding its habits. The
more circumstantial records of comparatively modern times
may be conveniently grouped according to the causes which pre-
sumably gave rise to the phenomena described, (i) A number of
porpoises swimming one behind another may, by their character-
istic mode of half emerging from and then re-entering the water
during respiration, produce the appearance of a single animal
showing a succession of snake-like undulations. The figure
given by Pontoppidan was very likely suggested by such an
appearance, and a sketch of an animal seen off Llandudno by
1 Convention relative to certain restrictions on the exercise of
the right of capture in maritime war (art. i).
SEA-SERPENT
561
several observers 1 looks as though it might have had a similar
origin, notwithstanding that this hypothesis was rejected by
them. (2) A flight of sea-fowl on one occasion recorded by
Professor Aldis 2 produced the appearance of a snake swimming
at the surface of the water. (3) A large mass of seaweed has on
more than one occasion been cautiously approached and even
harpooned under the impression that it was such a monster. 3
(4) A pair of basking sharks (Selache maxima) furnish an explana-
tion of some of the recorded observations, as was first pointed
out by Frank Buckland. These fish have a habit of swimming
in pairs, one following the other with the dorsal fin and the
upper lobe of the tail just appearing above the water, and, as
each animal is fully 30 ft. long, the effect of a body of 60 or more
ft. long moving through the water is readily produced. To this
category belongs the famous serpent cast up on Stronsay, one
of the Orkneys, of which an account was read to the Wernerian
Society of Edinburgh;* some of its vertebrae were preserved
in the Royal College of Surgeons of London, and identified as
those of Selache maxima by both Home and Owen. 6 There
is also evidence to show that specimens of Carcharodon must
have existed more than 100 ft. long. 6 (5) Ribbon-fish (Regalecus) ,
from their snake-like form and great length (sometimes as much
as 20 ft.), have been suggested as the origin of so-called " sea-
serpents," amongst others by Dr Andrew Wilson 7 ; but Dr
Gunther, 8 from what is known regarding the habits of these
fish, does not regard the theory as tenable. (6) A gigantic
squid (Archileuthis) was most likely the foundation of the old
Norse accounts, * and also of those which in the early part of the
igth century came so frequently from the United States as to
gain for the animal the sobriquet of "American sea-serpent." 10
These stories were so circumstantial, so consistent, and vouched
for by persons of such eminence, that no doubt was possible
(notwithstanding the cavilling of Mitchell) 11 as to the existence
of a strange marine monster of very definite character in those
regions. The description commonly given of it has been summed
up by Gosse 12 somewhat thus: (i.) general form that of a serpent;
(ii.) length averaging 60 ft.; (iii.) head flattened, eye generally
not mentioned, some distinctly stating that it was not seen;
(iv.) neck 12 to 16 in. in diameter; (v.) appendages on the head,
neck or back (accounts here variable) ; (vi.) colour dark, lighter
below; (vii.) swims at the surface, head thrown forward and
slightly elevated; (viii.) progression steady and uniform, body
straight but capable of being bent; (ix.) water spouting from
it; (x.) in shape like
a " nun buoy." The
annexed figure (fig. i)
represents one which
was seen from
H. M.S. "Daedalus." 13
To show the reason-
FIG. i. Sea-serpent, as seen from H.M.S. ableness of this hy-
" Daedalus." pothesis, it may be
added that gigantic Cephalopods are not unfrequent on the shores
of Newfoundland. 14 and are occasionally met with on the coasts
1 Mott, Nature, xxvii. pp. 293, 315, 338; also Land and Water
(September 1872).
I Nature, ibid. ; also Drew, in vol. xviii. p. 489 ; Bird, torn. cit.
p. 519; Ingleby, torn, cit p. 541.
* F. Smith, Times (February 1858); Herriman, quoted by Gosse,
op. cit. postea, p. 338; Pringle, Nature, xviii. p. 519 (1878).
4 Mem. Wern. Soc. Edin. vol. i. pp. 418-444, pis. ix.-xi. (1811).
6 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 461 (1848) ; for a criticism
of these views, see Traill, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. vol. iii. p. 208 (1857).
6 Owen, Odontography, p. 30.
7 Leisure Time Studies, p. 115 (London, 1879), containing a
readable essay on the subject; Scotsman (6th September 1878);
Nature, loc. cit.
8 Study of Fishes, p. 521. (Edinburgh, 1880).
8 See note 2; also Deinbolt, quoted in Zoologist, p. 1604 (1847).
10 Bigelow, Amer. Journ. Sci. vol. ii. pp. 147-165 (1820); War-
burton, ibid. vol. xii. p. 375 (1823); Zoologist, p. 1714 (1847).
II Amer. Journ. Sci. vol. xv. p. 351 (1829).
12 Romance of Natural History, p. 345 (London, 1859).
8 M'Quahae, Times (October 1848) ; III. Land. News(October 1848).
14 A. E. Verrill, Trans. Connect. Acad. vol. v. part i. (1880), con-
taining an account of all authenticated specimens of gigantic squids.
of Scandinavia, 16 Denmark and the British Isles, 16 and their
extreme size seems to be above 60 ft., and, furthermore, that
their mode of progression is by means of a jet of water forcibly
expelled from the siphon, which would impart that equable
motion to which several observers allude as being evidently
not produced by any serpentine bending of the body. A very
interesting account of a
monster almost certainly
originating in one of
these squids is that of
Hans Egede, 17 the well-
known missionary to
Greenland; the drawing
by Bing, given in his
work, is reproduced here
(fig. 2), with a sketch of
a squid in the act of
rearing itself out from
the water (fig. 3), an
action which they have
been observed in aquaria
habitually to perform.
Numerous otherac-
counts seem to be explic-
able by this hypothesis, 18
FIG. 2. Sea-serpent, as observed by
Hans Egede.
among them may be mentioned that of a huge " snake " seen
by certain of the crew of the " Pauline " in the South Atlantic
Ocean, which was said to be coiled twice round a large sperm
whale, and then towered up many feet into the air and finally
dragged the whale to the bottom. It is now well-known that
the sperm whale kills and devours Architeuthis and other large
oceanic Cephalopods, and no one who has read Bullen's vivid
description, in The
Cruise of the Cachalot,
of the struggle between
a cachalot and a giant
squid, can doubt that it
was a combat of this
kind which was thus
erroneously described.
The immensely long
arms of Architeuthis
would not unnaturally
be mistaken for a snake
by sailors, and instead
of being dragged to the
bottom the whale
doubtless sounded of its
own accord as whales
usually do (see CUTTLE-
FISH). (7) A sea-lion,
or " Anson's seal "
(Morunga elephantina) , was suggested by Owen 19 as a pos-
sible explanation of the serpent seen from H.M.S. " Daedalus";
but as this was afterwards rejected by Captain M'Quahae, 20
who stated that it could not have been any animal of the seal
kind, it seems better to refer the appearance to a squid. (8)
A plesiosaurus, or some other of the huge marine reptiles usually
believed to be extinct, might certainly have produced the
16 Steenstrup, Forhandl. Skand. Naturf., yde Mode, pp. 182-185
(Christiania, 1857).
16 Saville Kent, Proc. Zool. Soc. Land. p. 178 (1874); More,
Zoologist, p. 4526 (1875); also Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. vi.
p. 123.
"Del gamle Gronlands nye Perlustration (Copenhagen, 1741;
Eng. trans., A Description of Greenland, London, 1745, pp. 86-89) !
also Paul Egede, Efterretninger om Griinland, Copenhagen, n.d., pp.
45, 46.
18 L. de Ferry, quoted by Pontoppidan, op. cit. ; Davidson and
Sandford, quoted in Zoologist, p. 2459 (1849) ; Senior, Graphic
(igth April 1879); Barnett, Nature, vol. xx. p. 289 (1879); Penny,
///. Land. News, vol. Ixvii. p. 515 (2Oth November 1875).
19 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 461 (1848).
20 Times (airt November 1848).
FIG. 3. Squid, rearing itself out of the
water.
562
SEA-SICKNESS SEATON, IST BARON
phenomena described, granting the possibility of one having
survived to the present time. Newman 1 and Gosse 2 have both
supported this theory, the former citing as evidence in its favour
the report of a creature with the body of an alligator, a long
neck and four paddles having been seen by Captain Hope of
H.M.S. " Fly " in the Gulf of California. 3 (9) No satisfactory
explanation has yet been given of certain descriptions of the
sea-serpent. Perhaps the most remarkable of these is Lieutenant
Hayne's 4 account of a creature seen from H.M. yacht "Osborne."
Two different aspects were recorded the first being a ridge,
30 ft. in length, of triangular fins, each rising 5 to 6 ft. above the
water, while the second view showed a large round head 6 ft.
in diameter, with huge flappers, which moved like those of a
turtle.
A more recent record of the appearance of a mysterious sea-
monster is that of Messrs Meade- Waldo and Nicoll, both fellows
of the Zoological Society, in the Proceedings of that Society for
1906, p. 719. These two gentlemen on the 7th of December
1005 were on board the yacht " Valhalla " off the coast of
Brazil when at 10- 1 5 A.M. they saw, 100 yds. from the ship, a large
fin projecting above the water to a height of 18 in. or 2 ft., and
6 ft. in length. Under the water to the rear of the fin was the
shade of a considerable body. When Mr Meade- Waldo directed
his field-glasses upon the object he saw a great head and neck
rise out of the water in front of the fin. The neck appeared
about the thickness of a man's body, and 7 to 8 ft. in length.
The head was of the same thickness and had a very turtle-like
appearance, eye and mouth being distinctly seen. The object
was going very slowly and shortly disappeared from view.
In this case as in others the objects seen were not sufficient to
identify the nature of the animal. It is difficult to attribute
such a head and neck to any known fish, and turtles have no
dorsal fin. It would thus appear that, while, with very few
exceptions, all the so-called " sea-serpents " can be explained
by reference to some well-known animal or other natural object,
there is still a residuum sufficient to prevent modern zoologists
from denying the possibility that some such creature may after
all exist.
Distinct in origin from the stories already touched on is the
legend of the sea-serpent or tinnin among the Arabs (MasTidi i.
266 seq.; Kazwini i. 132 seq.; Damiri i. 186 seq.), which is described
in such a way as to leave no doubt that the waterspout is the pheno-
menon on which the fable rests. The tinnin is the Hebrew tannin
(E.V. " whale," " dragon "), which in Ps. cxlviii. 7 might in the
context be appropriately rendered " waterspout."
In addition to the sources already cited, the reader may consult
Blackwood's Magazine, vol. iii. (1818); Lee, Sea Monsters Unmasked
(International Fisheries Exhibition Handbook, London, 1883);
Cogswell, Zoologist, pp. 1841, 1911 (1847); and Hoyle, Proc. Roy.
Phys. Soc. Edin. vol. ix. (W. E. Ho. ; J. T. C.)
SEA-SICKNESS, the symptoms experienced by many persons
when subjected to the pitching and rolling motion of a vessel
at sea, of which depression, giddiness, nausea and vomiting
are the most prominent. They generally show themselves soon
after the vessel has begun to roll by the onset of giddiness and
discomfort in the head, together with a sense of nausea and sinking
at the stomach, which soon develops into intense sickness and
vomiting. At first the contents of the stomach only are ejected;
but thereafter bilious matter, and occasionally even blood, are
brought up by the violence of the retching. The vomiting is
liable to exacerbations according to the amount of oscillation
of the ship; but seasons of rest, sometimes admitting of sleep,
occasionally intervene. With the sickness there is great physical
prostration, as shown in the pallor of the skin, cold sweats
and feeble pulse, accompanied with mental depression and
wretchedness. In almost all instances the attack has a favourable
termination, except in the case of persons weakened by other
diseases.
The conditions concerned in the production of the malady are
apparently of complex character. In the first place, the rolling or
heaving of the vessel disturbs that feeling of the relation of the body
to surrounding objects upon which the sense of security rests. The
nervous system being thus subjected to a succession of shocks fails
1 Zoologist, p. 2395.
Op. cit., p. 2356 (1849).
Of. cit. p. 358.
4 Graphic (3Oth June 1877).
to effect the necessary adjustments for equilibrium.- Giddiness and
with it nausea and vomiting follow, aided probably by the profound
vaso-motor disturbance which produces such manifest depression
of the circulation. The displacement of the abdominal viscera,
especially the stomach, by the rolling of the vessel may possibly
operate to some extent, but it can only be as an accessory cause.
The same may be said of the influence of the changing impressions
made upon the vision, since attacks of sea-sickness occur also in
the dark, and in the case of blind persons. Other contributory
causes may be mentioned, such as the feeling that sickness is certain
to come, which may bring on the attack in some persons even before
the vessel has begun to move ; the sense of the body being in a
yielding medium, the varied odours met with on board ship, and
circumstances of a like nature tend also to precipitate or aggravate
an attack.
No means has yet been discovered which can altogether prevent
the occurrence of sea-sickness, nor is it likely any will be found,
until the pitching movements of the vessel are done away with.
Swinging couches or chambers have not proved of any practical
utility. No doubt there is less risk of sickness in a large and well-
ballasted vessel than in a small one; but, even though the rolling
may be considerably modified, the ascending and descending move-
ments which so readily produce nausea continue. None of the
medicinal agents proposed possess infallible properties: a remedy
which suits one person will often wholly fail with another. Nerve
sedatives are among the most potent drugs which can be employed ;
and doses of bromide of potassium, bromural or chloral, appear to
act usefully in the case of many persons. On the other hand, some
high authorities have recommended the employment of nerve
stimulants, such as a small cupful of very strong coffee, to be taken
about two hours before sailing, which will frequently prevent or
mitigate the sickness. When the vessel is in motion, or even before
starting, the recumbent position with the head low and the eyes
closed should be assumed by those at all likely to suffer, and, should
the weather admit, on deck rather than below the body, especially
the extremities, being well covered. Many persons, however, find
comfort and relief from lying down in their berths with a hot bottle
to the feet, by which means sleep may be obtained, and with it a
temporary abatement of the giddiness and nausea. Should sickness
supervene small quantities of some light food, such as thin arrowroot,
gruel or soup, ought to be swallowed if possible, to lessen the sense
of exhaustion. The vomiting may be mitigated by saline effervescing
drinks, ice, chloroform, hydrocyanic acid or opium. Alcohol,
although occasionally useful in great prostration, generally tends
rather to aggravate the sickness. Dr Chapman, in accordance with
his view that the cause of the sickness is an undue afflux of blood
to the spinal cord, introduced a spinal ice-bag; but, like every other
plan of treatment, it has only occasional success. Such remedies
as nitrite of amyl and cocaine do not seem to yield any better
resuks.
SEASON (O. Fr. seson, seison, mod. saison, Lat. satio, sowing
time, the spring, from serere, to sow; in Late Lat. the word is
found with its present meaning, the spring being considered as
particularly the season of the year), a period of time, in particular,
that of the four periods into which the year is divided by the
changing of the temperature, rainfall, and growth and decay of
vegetation due to the annual motion of the sun in declination.
Divided strictly according to this motion the year falls into
four nearly equal seasons, " spring " (i.e. the springing time,
when vegetation rises or shoots), " summer " (O. Eng. sumer, cf.
Dutch zomer, Ger. Sommer, probably connected with Skt. sama,
year), " autumn " (Lat. autumnus, auctumnus, from augere,
to increase, the period of ripening or fruiting) and " winter "
(common Teutonic, possibly a nasalized form of root seen in
" wet ") (See further CLIMATE, METEOROLOGY.)
SEATON, SIR JOHN COLBORNE, IST BARON (1778-1863),
British field marshal, was born at Lyndhurst, Hants, on the i6th
of February 1778 and entered the 2oth (Lancashire Fusiliers) in
1794, winning thereafter every step in his regimental promotion
without purchase. He first saw service in the Helder expedition
of 1799, and as a captain he took part in Sir Ralph Abercromby's
expedition to Egypt in 1801. He distinguished himself at Maida,
and soon afterwards was brought under the notice of Sir John
Moore, who obtained a majority for him and made him his
military secretary. In this capacity he served through the
Corunna campaign, and Sir John Moore's dying request that he
should be given a lieutenant-colonelcy was at once complied with.
In the summer of 1809 Lieut. -Colonel Colborne was again in
the Peninsula, and before taking command of the 66th regiment,
he witnessed the defeat of the Spaniards at Ocana. With the
66th he was present at Busaco and shared in the defence of the
SEATTLE
563
lines of Torres Vedras, and next year, after temporarily com-
manding a brigade with distinction at the battle of Albuera,
he was gazetted to command the famous 5 2nd Light Infantry
(Oxfordshire and Bucks L.I.)with which corps he is most closely
identified. He led it and was very severely wounded' at Ciudad
Rodrigo (1812), and only rejoined in July 1814. Shortly after-
wards he was placed in temporary charge of a brigade of the
Light Division which he commanded in the Pyrenees engage-
ments and the battles of Orthes and Toulouse. At the peace
he was made colonel, aide-de-camp to the Prince Regent and
K.C.B. In 1815 Colborne and the S2nd at Waterloo played a
brilliant part in the repulse of the Old Guard at the close of the
day. Promoted major-general in 1825, Colborne was soon after-
wards made lieutenant-governor of Guernsey. In 1830 he served
as lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada. In 1838 at the moment
of his vacating the post on promotion to lieutenant-general,
the rebellion broke out, and he was ordered to assume the func-
tions of governor-general and commander-in-chief. He quickly
repressed the revolt, and in 1839, returning home, he was raised
to the peerage as Baron Seaton of Seaton in Devonshire. From
1843 to 1849 he was high commissioner of the Ionian islands.
In 1854 he was promoted full general, and from 1855 to 1860 he
was commander-in-chief in Ireland. He died at Torquay on
the i yth of April 1863.
See the Life by G. C. Moore Smith (1906).
SEATTLE, the county-seat of King county, Washington,
U.S.A., and the largest city in the state, situated on a neck of
land between Elliott Bay (an eastern arm of Admiralty Bay, Puget
Sound) and the fresh- water Lake Washington; about 865 m.
by water N.of San Francisco, about 185 m.by rail N. of Portland,
Oregon, and about 28 m. N. of Tacoma. Pop. (1870) 1107;
(1880) 3533; (1890) 42,837; (1900) 80,671; (1910 U.S. census)
2 37> I 94- Of tne population in 1900, 41,483 were of
foreign parentage and 22,003 wef e foreign-born. The area of
the city in 1910 was about 83-45 sq. m., of which 29-42 sq. m.
were water surface, 23 sq. m. being salt water. Seattle is the
terminus of the Northern Pacific, the Canadian Pacific (using
the tracks of the Northern Pacific), the Great Northern, the
Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound (1909), the Oregon &
Washington (1910; a joint extension to Puget Sound of the
Southern Pacific and Union Pacific), the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy (using the tracks of the Northern Pacific), and the
Columbia & Puget Sound railways. It is served by inter-urban
electric lines to Tacoma and Everett; is the starting-point for
steamers to Alaska and to Prince Rupert, British Columbia
(Grand Trunk Pacific line), and for lines to Japan, China, Siberia,
Hawaii, the Philippines, Australia, Mexico, South America and
Pacific coast ports of the United States; and is a port of call for
c6asting vessels. The city has the excellent salt-water harbour
of Elliott Bay to the W.; and to the E. there is a fresh-water
harbour, Lake Washington, connected with Puget Sound by the
Lake Washington Canal, an artificial improvement of the natural
waterway by Lake Union, a great V-shaped body of water in
the north-central part of the city, and by Salmon Bay, a narrow
channel setting in from Puget Sound on the N.W. Crossing the
S.W. part of the city is Duwamish river, which empties into
Elliott Bay. At Bremerton, Kitsap county, about 15 m. W. by
S. of Seattle, is the Puget Sound Navy Yard, protected by Fort
Ward, with one dry dock (1910) 836 ft. long and no ft. wide,
another 627 ft. long, and two docks 650 ft. long.
The surfaceof the city is hilly, the greatest height being 500 ft.
above sea-level. The higher hills, the better residential parts of
the city, are reached by cable railways or by electric railways
following winding routes. Many of the higher hills, especially
in the business district, have been removed by hydraulic power
and large parts regraded. Lake Washington, to the E., is 22 m.
long, and i to 4 m. wide, with an area of 50 sq. m., a shore line
of 80 m. and a maximum depth of 225 ft; its waters are deep
and clear and never freeze. In the north-central part of the city
is Green Lake, about i m. long and % m. wide. On Puget Sound
and Lake Union and about these two lakes, both with well-
wooded shores and both furnishing excellent boating and
canoeing, are the principal parks of the city. In 1910 the total
park acreage under the park commissioners was 1058 acres. Im-
mediately S. of Green Lake is Woodland Park (179 acres) with
athletic fields and a zoological collection. On the southern shore
of Union Bay (a circular, nearly landlocked arm of Lake Washing-
ton) in the east-central part of the city is Washington Park
(163 acres). Farther S. near Lake Washington are Madrona
Park (9 acres), Frink Park (20 acres), which adjoins Leschi Park
(4 acres), and Mount Baker Park (12 acres). Near Lake Union
is Volunteer Park (48 acres) on Capitol Hill, containing a public
observatory (460 ft. above sea-level) and a statue of W. H.
Seward by Richard Brooks. Schmitz Park (30 acres) is woodland
on the West Seattle peninsula, overlooking the Sound; and
between Volunteer Park and Washington Park is Interlaken
(46 acres). Kinnear Park (14 acres) is near the entrance to the
harbour. Nearly all these parks command views of the Cascade
and Olympic ranges. The city owns large areas which are to
be improved as parks, including Ravenna Park, which has a
noble native fir and cedar forest and sulphur springs. Private
parks include the White City (on Lake Washington), Golden
Gardens (50 acres) and, in West Seattle (annexed in 1907),
Luna Park, an amusement place with a natatorium. North of
the city on Lake Washington are the links of the Seattle Golf
and Country Club. Practically a part of the city's park system
and to be crossed by its boulevards are the campus of the uni-
versity of Washington, and the fine grounds (605 acres given to
the Federal government by the city) of Fort Lawton. On the
campus of the university are a statue of Washington by Lorado-
Taft and a bust of J. J. Hill by Ben Frolick.
The principal public buildings are the county court house (on
a commanding site), the county almshouse, the municipal build-
ing, a federal building, the Y.M.C.A. building, a Labor Temple,
a Carnegie library (1905), with several branches throughout the
city and about 1 28,000 volumes in 1910, and the buildings of the
university of Washington. In Georgetown, immediately S.
of the main part of Seattle and nearly hemmed in by parts of
the city, is the county hospital. The city has many churches,
including Chinese, Japanese, Finnish, Scandinavian, German
and Russian. Seattle is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop,
and St James Cathedral is the finest church in the city. The
First Presbyterian Church has a large auditorium.
Of the many educational institutions, the most important is the
university of Washington (see WASHINGTON), which was established
here by the legislature of 1854-1855. Among the others are: the
Washington Preparatory School for Girls; the Holy Names
Academy and Normal School (under the Sisters of the Holy Names
of Jesus and Mary) ; the College of Our Lady of Lourdes; Adelphia
College; the Brothers' School; the Seattle College; three business
colleges; the Seattle Art School, in connexion with which the Art
Students' League of Seattle was formed in 1909 ; and a good public
school system including six high schools in 1910, one of which has
an excellent collection of the fauna and flora of the Pacific Coast.
On Mercer Island in Lake Washington is the parental school of the
municipal public school system. The city has a cosmopolitan press,
including two Japanese dailies.
There are an associated charities organization and a " charities
endorsement committee " (1903), which is under the auspices of
three commercial associations. For children there are a receiving
home (1896, under the Washington Children's Home Society);
the Seattle Children's Home (1884, under the Ladies' Relief Society
of Washington); and a children's orthopaedic hospital (1907). The
Seattle Federation of Women's Clubs supports a Girls' Home and
Training School (1909). Under Roman Catholic control are a
Deaconess Home, the Mount Carmel Home (under the Missionary
Sisters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus), and the House of the Good
Shepherd (under the Sisters of the Good Shepherd). The Ladies'
Hebrew Benevolent Society, the Ladies' Montefiore Aid Society and
the Hebrew Benevolent Association are Jewish charities. Other
charities are the Seattle Seamen's Friend Society, the Florence
Crittenton Home, the Lebanon Rescue Mission, the Japanese
Women's Home, the Seattle Fruit and Flower Mission, and the
Kenny Home for Old Ladies (Presbyterian). The principal hospitals
are the Pacific (1899), the Seattle General (1894, under the Deaconess
Home Association), the Providence (1877, under the Sisters of
Charity), the Minor, the Wayside Emergency (1900), the Municipal
and the County.
The situation of Seattle makes it important commercially
and industrially. For its manufactories electric power is derived
564
SEA-URCHIN
from Snoqualmie Falls (N.E. of Seattle) from Puyallup river
(S.W.) and from Cedar river.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 (excluding Ballard)
was $25,406,574 (nearly one-fifth of that of the state), or 65-8 % more
than in 1900. The increase was particularly marked in the value of
flour, $4,593,566, or 253-9% more than in 1900. Other important
manufactures in 1905 were: packed meats and slaughter house pro-
ducts ($3,419,085); malt liquors ($2,121,631); foundry and machine
shop products ($1,77-1,571) there is a large manufactory of nuts
and bolts ; lumber and timber ($i ,519,247) ; confectionery ($821 ,123) ;
canned and preserved fish ($610,356) ; and ships and boats. In what
was formerly Ballard, now the I3th ward, on Salmon Bay, there
are large mills for the manufacture of red cedar shingles.
Seattle is the most important seaport of the state, being the
commercial and industrial centre for the customs district of Puget
Sound. In 1909 the net tonnage of vessels entering the harbour
(local figures) was 2,467,351 tons. The foreign exports in 1908
(Harbour Master's Report) were valued at $18,413,735, the foreign
imports at $23,805,727. Its exports and imports make up the
greater part of the commerce of the district, which has Port Townsend
as its port of entry, and the city is rivalled only by San Francisco
among the cities of the Pacific coast in the amount of its water-borne
traffic. The chief exports are wheat, flour, timber, hay, potatoes,
live stock, fruit, fish (salmon), oats, coal (from the mines E. of Lake
Washington), hops, cotton (from the Southern States), dairy products
and general merchandise; and the imports include silk, nee, coffee,
tea, sugar, spices, indigo and other Oriental products. Practically
all the gold from Alaska and the Yukon territory is received here,
and nearly 80% of the Alaskan trade is done through Seattle. The
foreign trade is with China, Japan, Siberia, Hawaii, the Philippines,
Australia, Mexico, South America and Europe. The Chamber of
Commerce has an excellent commercial museum.
The city was chartered in 1880, and under the charter of 1896
(as amended since) elections are biennial. By an amendment of
1908 the initiative and referendum were introduced; an initiative
petition must be signed by 10 % of the voters at the preceding
municipal election; a petition for a referendum on any ordinance
passed by the city council must be signed by 8 % of the voters
at the preceding municipal election. The city council is com-
posed of one councilman elected for a two-year term from each
ward (in 1910 there were 14 wards), and two councilmen elected at
large and serving for four years. The municipality owns the water-
supply system with its source at Cedar Lake and Cedar river, 28 m.
S.E., and an electric lighting plant (for which power is derived from
the falls of the Cedar river) , but most of the lighting is supplied by
private companies. The city has undertaken the regrading neces-
sitated by the hilly site of Seattle. In 1909 the assessed valuation
of the city was $185,317,470 and the city's debt was $8,570,380
(bonded) and $8,933,973 ( net debt for local improvements).
The first permanent settlement here was made in 1852 by
settlers who a year before had established New York, a
village at Alki Point, on the W. side of Elliott Bay and in the
present city limits. The name Seattle was given to the settle-
ment in honour of a Dwamish chief of that name, who died in
1866 and who was friendly to the whites. In 1853 a town plat
was filed, King county was erected, and Seattle became the
county seat. In 1855 Seattle had a population of 300. In
January 1856 in an attempt to exterminate the whites the
neighbouring Indians unsuccessfully attacked Seattle, which
was defended by the U.S. sloop-of-war " Decatur." The first
railway reached Seattle in 1884. In 1885-1886, when there
were anti-Chinese riots here led by the Knights of Labour,
martial law was declared by the governor and the Chinese were
defended by local vigilance committees. A destructive fire in
1889 and the financial depression of 1893 checked the city's
growth, which, however, received a new impulse from the dis-
covery of gold in Alaska and the Yukon territory in 1897, as
Seattle became the outfitting place for prospectors and the port
to which gold was shipped. The town of South Seattle was
annexed in 1905; and the city of South-east Seattle, the town
of Ravenna, the town of South Park, the city of Columbia, the
city of Ballard, the city of West Seattle, and Dunlap, Rainier
Beach and Atlantic City were '.annexed in 1907. From the ist
of June to the isth of October 1909 the Alaska- Yukon-Pacific
Exposition was held in Seattle on grounds which now form part
of the university campus, between Lake Union and Lake Wash-
ington; of the twelve central Exposition buildings some were
afterwards turned over to the university. The purpose of the
FIG. I. A Regular Sea-urchin, Echinus
esculentus. The test is still covered with spines,
between which the suckers of the podia are
seen in ten rows.
Exposition was to exploit Washington, the Yukon and the entire
north-west on the Pacific slope.
SEA-URCHIN. These animals belong to the great group of
Echinoderms (see ECHINODERMA) and to its class Echinoidea.
Both the scientific and the English names denote their resem-
blance to the urchin or hedgehog, the resemblance lying in the
prickles with which the skin is covered. The skin itself is
stiffened by a deposit of calcite (crystalline carbonate of lime)
in the form of plates. If the prickles be scraped away, these
plates will be seen to form a hard shell or test, in which are two
openings, for the mouth and the anus. According to the position
of these openings the urchins are described as Regular or
Irregular. In
the Regular ur-
chins, of which
Echinus esculen-
tus, the edible
egg-urchin (fig.
i), and Dorocid-
aris paptilata, the
piper (fig. 2), are
familiar ex-
amples, the test
is spheroidal with
the mouth at the
lower pole and
the anus at the
upper. In the
Irregular urchins,
of which Spat-
angus purpureus,
the purple heart-
urchin (fig. 3), is
a common type, the test has been drawn out into an oval or
heart shape, with the mouth shifted towards the front end and
the anus towards the hinder end.
The greater part of the test of a Regular urchin is divided, as a
globe by meridians of longitude, into ten areas, each composed of
two columns of plates. In five of these areas the plates are pierced
by pairs of pores (fig. 2, Ambulacrum), and in life there issues from
each pair a tubular process with a sucking disk at its end (fig. l).
Within the test these processes or podia are connected with five
tubes arising from a tubular ring round the mouth and running
upwards to the apex, where each passes out as a single process
through a special plate at the end of the area to which it belongs.
Since this terminal process is sometimes surrounded by pigment,
as are organs susceptible to light, it has been regarded as an eye
and the plate through which it passes called an ocular (fig. 2). From
the ring-canal round the mouth a single tube passes straight through
the body-cavity to the apex, where it opens through a sieve-like
plate the madreporite (fig. 2). Thus all this system of tubes is
placed in connexion with the outer sea-water, and is filled with it.
Within the test the bottom of each podium is swollen into a little
bag ampulla likewise full of water, and when the muscles with
which it is provided pull the sides of the bag together, the water is
squeezed into the podium and dilates it, so that it is stretched far
out (see ECHINODERMA, fig. 12 D). The podium can then wave
about and attach its sucker to any smooth object within reach.
Each of these five areas, with the podia on each side of it extended
and waving, looks like a garden avenue Latin ambulacrum and
the areas are therefore called ambulacra! areas, the plates composing
them ambulacrals, and the whole system of water-vessels the ambu-
lacral system. This system forms perhaps the most characteristic
feature of all living Echinoderms, but it reaches its highest develop-
ment in the urchins. The five areas alternating with the ambulacral
areas are called interambulacral (fig. 2, Interambulacrum) ; their plates
are not pierced by pores but are generally ornamented by large
tubercles bearing big prickles (spines or radioles), between and
around which are smaller prickles (fig. 2). The madreporite is one
of five plates that surround the anal opening and alternate in
position with the oculars. Each of these plates is pierced by a pore,
connected on the inside with one of the five generative glands, and
giving passage to the eggs or milt when they are ripe; hence these
plates are called genitals (fig. 2). The five genitals and five oculars
together form the apical system of plates (see ECHINODERMA, fig. 3,
A.B.). _From the mouth to the anus the gut follows a coiled course,
first going round the cavity of the test in one direction and then
turning back on itself, while the two limbs of the loop thus formed
are themselves thrown into festoons attached by strands to the
wall of the test. The lower coil, next the mouth, is the stomach
SEA-WOLF
565
in which food accumulates, while the upper coil is the intestine
proper. In Echinus, but not in the Cidarids, a narrow tube branches
from the gut at the beginning of the first coil, runs alongside the
stomach, and re-enters the gut at the end of the coil ; this, which is
called the siphon, permits a flow of water through the gut however
full of food the stomach may be. Round the gullet is a jaw-appara-
tus, consisting essentially of five hard, pointed teeth, the ten jaw-
pieces in which they are held, five struts between the pairs of jaws,
and five cambered stays for the attachment of ligaments to keep the
whole apparatus in position. The jaws are worked by muscles in
such a way as to draw the teeth together or apart, inwards or out-
wards. This apparatus is often called "Aristotle's lantern," though
it is extremely doubtful whether Aristotle (Hist. Anim. iv. 5) was
alluding to this structure. The whole of it is covered by the mem-
brane lining the body-cavity, and from the space thus enclosed there
rudiole.
smcM spins?
Mzdreporifo
genital-
ecu/tar-"
FIG. 2. A Regular Sea-urchin, Dorocidaris papillala. The test seen
from above, with most of the spines removed. Natural size.
pass to the exterior five pairs of hollow branched appendages, the
external gills; the five notches through which the gills passed can
be seen in the dried test of an Echinus from which the mouth-
membrane has been removed, but not in the test of the piper-urchin
or other Cidarid, because there the gills are not developed.
The prickles that cover the test are better studied in the piper-
urchin (fig. 2), where some of them are very large and, from their
resemblance to the drones of a bagpipe, have suggested the name of
the animal. Each of these large spines or radicles is attached to a
rounded tubercle by an enclosing ligament and outer coat of muscles,
the base of the radiole being hollowed to fit on the tubercle. Thus
the radiole can be moved in any direction. The attachment of the
larger radioles is protected by a ring of smaller ones. These and the
other small spines protect the sea-urchin, as its prickles protect a
hedgehog; the larger ones may also help the animal to move or to
fix itself firmly against the shock of waves. Some urchins, especially
the purple egg-urchin, bore holes even in very hard rocks, and by
stretching out their radioles they can hold themselves immovably
in their holes; how they bore the holes is not known with certainty.
Besides radioles, small pincer-like appendages called pedicellariae
are attached to the test by similar ball-and-socket joints. Each
consists of a long stalk bearing three blades which can meet at their
points; on the inner surface of each blade is a cushion of sensitive
skin, and often a gland which secretes a poison. The pedicellariae
were once supposed to be parasites, but they are really organs of the
urchin of the same nature as the radioles; they are of four different
forms, three of which undoubtedly serve for defence, while the
shortest ones clean the test from impurities and sand-grains that
fall between the radioles. Sea-urchins other than Cidarids also
bear on the test minute sensory organs called sphaeridia, each
consisting of a small hard knob, supported by a stalk which may
be partly calcified but always contains many nerve-fibres. It is
generally supposed that they are sensitive to vibrations in the water,
and to any change from the normal position which the animal may
assume or be forced into. Such a regular urchin as has here been
described lives with the mouth downwards, preferring a hard floor,
on which it creeps by its podia and its radioles, constantly scraping
the algae and seaweeds from the rock with its teeth and so feeding
itself. If it does not bore a hole, or is not protected by long needle-
like radioles, it may grasp bits of sea- weed or other objects with its
pedicellariae and hide beneath them from the fish that seek it for food.
The Irregular urchins (fig. 3) have been modified for another way
of life. Some of them live in mud or ooze, through which they
creep. The mouth
has moved forward,
has lost its jaws and
often has a lip, pro-
jecting so as to scoop
up the mud. The
prickles have become
smaller, often almost
silky, and are gener-
ally directed back-
wards so as not to
oppose the passage of
the body. The podia
of the under surface
still aid locomotion,
but those of the upper
surface, which are
concentrated in five
petal- shaped areas,
act mainly as gills.
These urchins often
assume a heart shape,
owing to the greater
development and
sinking in of the front
petal. The sand-
dollars and their allies,
which live half-buried
FIG. 3. An Irregular Sea-urchin,
Spatangus purpureus.
in sand without moving through it, retain a more or less circular
outline, as well as the central position of the mouth, which has not
lost its jaws; the anus, however, has moved to the side, while the
podia of the upper surface are concentrated in petals and many of
them modified into branched gills. The sand-dollars proper are
very thin and flat, but the shield-urchins (Clypeasler, &c.) have the
central region of the upper surface raised in a boss, which reaches
above the sand, so that the animal can still breathe though the
whole body is hidden. In many Irregular urchins the petals of the
ambulacra are deeply sunk, and serve as a nursery for the young,
which are covered by the spines of the parent.
Sea-urchins live only in the sea, from between tide-marks down
to all but the greatest depths. The abyssal forms have very thin
tests, which are often flexible. Urchins eat all kinds of animal
and vegetable food, and are themselves attacked by fish, by star-
fish, and even by other urchins. The ripe egg-bunches are a favourite
article of diet with dwellers round the Mediterranean; in other
respects sea-urchins are of small importance to man, being neither
useful nor harmful. In olden times the larger radioles were recom-
mended to be powdered and taken as a remedy for the stone.
For details of classification, see under Echinoidea, in the article
ECHINODERMA.
SEA-WOLF, also SEA-CAT and WOLF-FISH (Anarrhichas lupus),
a marine fish, the largest of the family Blenniidae or blennies.
In spite of its large size, it has retained the bodily form and
general external characteristics of the small blennies. Its body
is long, subcylindrical in front, compressed in the caudal portion,
smooth and slippery, the rudimentary scales being embedded
and almost hidden in the skin. An even dorsal fin extends the
whole length of the back, and a similar fin from the vent to the
caudal fin, as in blennies. The pectorals are large and rounded,
the pelvic fins entirely absent. Its dentition distinguishes the
sea-wolf from all the other members of the family. Both jaws
are armed in front with strong conical teeth, and on the sides
with two series of large tubercular molars, a biserial band of
similar molars occupying the middle of the palate. By these
teeth the sea-wolf is able to crush the hard carapaces or shells
of the crustaceans and molluscs on which it feeds; that it uses
5 66
SEA WRACK SEBASTIANI
Teeth of the lower and upper jaws of the
Sea-wolf.
the teeth as a weapon of defence and deserves the character of
ferocity generally attributed to it would appear to be rather
questionable. Sea-
wolves are inhabit-
ants of the northern
seas of both hemi-
spheres, one (A .
lupus) being com-
mon on the coasts
of Scandinavia and
North Britain, and
two in the seas round
Iceland and Green-
land. Two others
occur in the corre-
sponding latitudes of the North Pacific. They attain to a length
exceeding 6 ft., and in the north are esteemed as food, both
fresh and preserved. The oil extracted from the liver is said to
be in quality equal to the best cod-liver oil.
To the fishermen of the North Sea this fish is generally known
as the cat-fish, and for some years past numbers of this species
have been marketed. As it would be impossible to sell the fish
in its natural state on account of its forbidding appearance, it is
skinned and beheaded, and the flesh retailed under the name of
rock-salmon.
SEA WRACK, the detached seaweeds thrown up, often in great
quantities, by the sea and used for manure, also formerly for
making kelp. It consists largely of species of Fucus brown
seaweeds with flat branched ribbon-like fronds, characterized in
F. serratus by a saw-toothed margin and in F. vesiculosus,
another common species, by bearing air-bladders. Also of
Zostera marina, so-called sea-grass, a marine flowering plant
with bright green long narrow grass-like leaves.
SEBASTIAN, ST, a Christian martyr whose festival is celebrated
on the zoth of January. According to St Ambrose (in Psalm
118, oct. 20) Sebastian was a native of Milan, went to Rome at
the height of Diocletian's persecution, and there suffered martyr-
dom. The Acla of St Sebastian, falsely attributed to the same
St Ambrose, are far less sparing of details. They make him a
citizen of Narbonne and captain of the first cohort under the
emperors Diocletian and Maximian. Having secretly become
a Christian, Sebastian was wont to encourage those of his brethren
who in the hour of trial seemed wavering in their profession.
This was conspicuously the case with the brothers Marcus and
Marcellinus. He made many converts, several of whom suffered
martyrdom. Diocletian, having been informed of this conduct,
sent for him and earnestly remonstrated with him, but, finding
him inflexible, ordered him to be bound to a stake and shot to
death. After the archers had left him for dead, a devout woman,
Irene, came by night to take his body away for burial, but,
finding him still alive, carried him to her house, where his wounds
were dressed. No sooner had he wholly recovered than he
hastened to confront the emperor, reproaching him with his
impiety; Diocletian ordered him to be instantly carried off
and beaten to death with rods. The sentence was forthwith
executed, his body being thrown into the cloaca, where, however,
it was found by another pious matron, Lucina, whom Sebastian
visited in a dream, directing her to bury him ad Catacombas
juxta vestigia apostolorum. It was on this spot, on the Appian
way, that was built the basilica of St Sebastian, which was a
popular place of pilgrimage in the middle ages. The translation
of his relics to Soissons in 826 made that town a new centre of
his cult. St Sebastian is specially invoked against the plague.
As a young and beautiful soldier, he is a favourite subject of
sacred art, being most generally represented undraped, and
severely though not mortally wounded with arrows.
See Acta Sanctorum, January, ii. 257-296; Bibliotheca hagio-
graphica Latina (Brussels, 1899), n. 7543-7549; A. Bell, Lives and
Legends of the Evangelists, Apostles and other early Saints (London,
1901), pp. 238-240. (H. DE.)
SEBASTIAN, king of Portugal (Port. Sebastiao) (1554-1578),
the posthumous son of Prince John of Portugal and of his wife
Joanna, daughter of the emperor Charles, was born in 1554,
and became king in 1557, on the death of his grandfather John
III. of Portugal. During his minority (1557-1568), his grand-
mother Queen Catherine and his great uncle the Cardinal Prince
Henry acted jointly as regents. Sebastian's education was
entrusted to a Jesuit, D. Luiz Concalves da Camara and to D.
Aleixo de Menezes, a veteran who had served under Albuquerque.
He grew up resolved to emulate the medieval knights who had
reconquered Portugal from the Moors. He was a mystic and a
fanatic, whose sole ambition was to lead a crusade against the
Mahommedans in north-west Africa. He entrusted the govern-
ment to the Jesuits; refused either to summon the Cortes or to
marry, although the Portuguese crown would otherwise pass to
a foreigner, and devoted himself wholly to hunting, martial
exercises and the severest forms of asceticism. His first expedi-
tion to Morocco, in 1574, was little more than a reconnaissance;
in a second expedition Sebastian was killed and his army annihil-
ated at Al Kasr al Kebir (4th of August 1578). Although his
body was identified before burial at Al Kasr, reinterred at Ceuta,
and thence (1582) removed by Philip II. of Spain to the Convento
dos Jeronymos in Lisbon, many Portuguese refused to credit
his death. " Sebastianism " became a religion. Its votaries
believed that the rei encuberto, or " hidden king," was either
absent on a pilgrimage, or, like King Arthur in Avalon, was
awaiting the hour of his second advent in some enchanted island.
Four pretenders to the throne successively impersonated
Sebastian; the first two, known from their places of birth as
the " King of Penamacor " and the " King of Ericeira," were of
peasant origin;they were captured in 1584 and 1585 respectively.
The third, Gabriel Espinosa, was a man of some education,
whose adherents included members of the Austrian and Spanish
courts and of the Society of Jesus in Portugal. He was executed
in 1 594. The fourth was a Calabrian named Marco Tullio, who
knew no Portuguese; he impersonated the " hidden king " at
Venice in 1603 and gained many supporters, but was ultimately
captured and executed. The Sebastianists had an important
share in the Portuguese insurrection of 1640, and were again
prominent during the Miguelite wars (1828-34). At an even
later period Sir R. F. Burton stated that he had met with
Sebastianists in remote parts of Brazil (Burton, Camoens, vol.
i-P- 363, London, 1881), and the cult appears to have survived
until the beginning of the 2oth century, although it ceased to
be a political force after 1834.
See PORTUGAL, History; T. Barbosa Machado, Memorias para
o governo del rey D. Sebastiao (4 vols., Lisbon, 1736-1741);
Miguel d Antas, Les Faux Don Sebastien (Paris, 1866) ; Sao Mamede,
Don Sebaslien et Philippe II (Paris, 1884).
SEBASTIANI, HORACE FRANQOIS BASTIEN, COUNT
(1772-1851) French marshal and diplomatist. Of Corsican birth,
he was in his early years banished from his native island during
the civil disturbances, and in 1789 he entered the French army.
In 1793, as a French lieutenant, he took part in the war in his
native island, after which he served in the Army of the Alps.
He became chef de brigade in 1799. Attached by birth and service
to the future Emperor Napoleon, he took part in the Coup
d'lat of i8th Brumaire (gth November 1799). He was present
at Marengo in 1800. Sebastiani next appears in his first diplo-
matic post, in Turkey and Egypt (1802). Promoted general
of brigade in 1803, he served in 1805 in the first of the great
campaigns of the Empire. His conduct at Austerlitz (2nd
December), where he was wounded, won him promotion to the
rank of general of division. Sebastian! soon returned to Con-
stantinople as French Ambassador. As ambassador he induced
the Porte to declare war on Russia, as a soldier he directed with
success the defence of Constantinople against the British squadron
of Admiral (Sir) J. T. Duckworth. But the deposition of the
Sultan Selim III. put an end to French diplomatic success in
this quarter, and Sebastiani was recalled in April 1807 (see
La Politique orientate de Napoleon: Sebastiani et Gardam, by
E. Driault, Paris, 1905). He was at this time made Count of
the Empire. As the commander of a corps he served in the
Peninsular War, but his cavalry genius did not shine in the
SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO
567
laborious and painful operations against the careful English
and the ubiquitous guerrilleros. In the more congenial grande
guerre of Russia and Germany he was in his element, and at
Smolensk, Borodino and Leipzig he did brilliant service. He
accepted the Restoration government in 1814, but rejoined
his old leader on his return from Elba. After Waterloo he
retired into England for a time, but soon returned, and was
placed on half-pay. From 1819 onwards he was a prominent
member of the Chamber of Deputies. He held the posts of
Minister of Marine, and, later, of Foreign Affairs. In this latter
capacity he was the author of the historic saying " Order reigns
at Warsaw." In 1832 he was a Minister of State without port-
folio, next year ambassador at Naples, and from 1835 to 1840
was ambassador to Great Britain. On his retirement from this
post he was made Marshal of France. He was a brilliant social
figure in Paris. His last years were clouded by the death of
his daughter at the hands of her husband, the due de Praslin.
He died at Paris on the 2ist of July 1851.
His brother, JEAN ANDRE TIBURCE SEBASTIANI (1786-1871),
entered the army in 1806, served in the Peninsula from 1809
to 1811, and in the great campaigns of Russia, Germany, France
and Belgium. He took part in the war of Greek independence
under General Maison. In 1842, now lieutenant-general and
peer of France, he was appointed to command the military
division of Paris. But he proved incapable of dealing with the
Revolution of 1848, and the remainder of his life was spent in
retirement in Corsica.
SEBASTIANO DEL PIOMBO (1485-1547), Italian painter,
was born at Venice in 1485. His family name was Luciani.
He belongs to the Venetian school, exceptionally modified by
the Florentine or Roman. At first a musician, chiefly a solo-
player on the lute, he was in great request among the Venetian
nobility. He soon showed a turn for painting, and became a
pupil of Giovanni Bellini and afterwards of Giorgione. His
first painting of note was done for the church of San Giovanni
Crisostomo in Venice, and is so closely modelled on the style
of Giorgione that in its author's time it often passed for the work
of that master. It represents Chrysostom reading aloud at a
desk, a grand Magdalene in front, and two other female and
three male saints. Towards 1512 Sebastiano was invited to
Rome by the wealthy Sienese merchant Agostino Chigi, who
occupied a villa by the Tiber, since named the Farnesina; he
executed some frescoes here, other leading artists being employed
at the same time. The Venetian mode of colour was then a
startling novelty in Rome. Michelangelo saw and approved the
work of Luciani, became his personal friend, and entered into
a peculiar arrangement with him. At this period the pictorial
ability of Michelangelo was somewhat decried in Rome, the rival
faculty of Raphael being invidiously exalted in comparison;
in especial it was contended that Buonarroti fell short as a
colourist. He therefore thought that he might try whether, by
furnishing designs for pictures and leaving to Sebastiano the
execution of them in colour, he could not maintain at its highest
level his own general supremacy in the art. In this there seems
to have been nothing particularly unfair, always assuming that
the compact was not fraudulently concealed; and the facts are
so openly stated by Michelangelo's friend Vasari (besides other
writers) that there appears to have been little or no disguise
in the matter. The pictures are there to speak for themselves;
and connoisseurs have always acknowledged that the quality of
Michelangelo's unmatched design is patent on the face of them.
Some writers, however, jealous for Buonarroti's personal rectitude,
have denied that his handiwork is to be traced in the pictures
bearing the name of Sebastiano.
Four leading pictures which Sebastiano painted in pursuance
of his league with Buonarroti are the "Pieta" (earliest of the
four), in the church of the Conventuali, Viterbo; the " Trans-
figuration " and the " Flagellation," in the church of S. Pietro
in Montorio, Rome; and, most celebrated of all, the " Raising
of Lazarus," now in the National Gallery, London. This grand
work more remarkable for general strength of pictorial percep-
tion than for qualities of detailed intellectual or emotional
expression is more than 12 by 9 ft. in dimensions, with the
principal figures of the natural size; it is inscribed " Sebastianus
Venetus faciebat," and was transferred from wood to canvas
in 1771. It was painted in 1517-1519 for Giulio de' Medici,
then bishop of Narbonne, afterwards Pope Clement VII.; and
it remained in Narbonne cathedral until purchased by the duke
of Orleans early in the i8th century coming to England with
the Orleans gallery in 1792. It used to be generally admitted
(yet it is now increasingly contested) that the design of Michel-
angelo appears in the figure of Lazarus and of those who are
busied about him (the British Museum contains two sketches
of the Lazarus regarded as Michelangelo's handiwork); but
whether he actually touched the panel, as has often been said,
appears more than doubtful, as he left Rome about the time
when the picture was commenced. Raphael's " Transfiguration "
was painted for the same patron and the same destination.
The two works were exhibited together, and some admirers
did not scruple to give the preference to Sebastiano's. The
" Flagellation of Christ," though ordinarily termed a fresco,
is, according to Vasari, painted in oil upon the wall. This was
a method first practised by Domenico Veneziano, and afterwards
by other artists; but Sebastiano alone succeeded in preventing
the blackening of the colours. The contour of the figure of Christ
in this picture is supposed by many to have been supplied by
Buonarroti's own hand. Sebastiano, always a tardy worker, was
occupied about six years upon this work, along with its com-
panion the " Transfiguration," and the allied figures of saints.
After the elevation of Giulio de' Medici to the pontificate,
the office of the " piombo " or leaden seal that is, the office
of sealer of briefs of the apostolic chamber became vacant;
two painters competed for it, Sebastiano Luciani, hitherto
a comparatively poor man, and Giovanni da Udine. Sebastiano,
assuming the habit of a friar, secured the very lucrative appoint-
ment with the proviso that he should pay out of his emolu-
ments 300 scudi per annum to Giovanni. If he had heretofore
been slow in painting, he became now supine in a marked degree.
One of the few subject-pictures which he executed after taking
office was " Christ carrying the Cross " for the patriarch of
Aquileia, also a " Madonna with the body of Christ." The
former painting is done on stone, a method invented by Sebastiano
himself. He likewise painted at times on slate as in the
instance of " Christ on the Cross," now in the Berlin gallery,
where the slate constitutes the background. In the same method,
and also in the same gallery, is the " Dead Christ supported
by Joseph of Arimathea, with a weeping Magdalene " colossal
half-length figures. Late in life Sebastiano had a serious dis-
agreement with Michelangelo with reference to the Florentine's
great picture of the " Last Judgment." Sebastiano encouraged
the pope to insist that this picture should be executed in oil.
Michelangelo, determined from the first upon nothing but fresco,
tartly replied to his holiness that oil was only fit for women
and for sluggards like Friar Sebastian; and the coolness between
the two painters lasted almost up to the friar's death. This
event, consequent upon a violent fever acting rapidly upon a
very sanguine temperament, took place in Rome in 1547.
Sebastiano directed that his burial, in the church of S Maria
del Popolo, should be conducted without ceremony of priests,
friars or lights, and that the cost thus saved should go to the
poor; in this he was obeyed.
Numerous pupils sought training from Sebastiano del Piombo;
but, owing to his dilatory and self-indulgent habits, they learned
little from him, with the exception of Tommaso Laureti. Sebastiano,
conscious of his deficiency in the higher sphere of invention, made
himself especially celebrated as a portrait painter: the likeness of
Andrea Doria, in the Doria Palace, Rome, is one of the most re-
nowned. In the National Gallery, London, are two fine specimens;
one canvas represents the friar himself, along with Cardinal Ippolito
de' Medici; the other, a portrait of a lady in the character of St
Agatha, used to be identified with one of Sebastiano's prime works,
the likeness of Julia Gonzaga (painted for her lover, the aforenamed
cardinal), but this assumption is now discredited. There were also
portraits of Marcantonio Colonna, Vittoria Colonna, Ferdinand
marquis of Pescara, Popes Adrian VI., Clement VII. (Studj Gallery,
Naples) and Paul III., Sanmicheli, Anton Francesco degli Albizzi
568
SEBENICO SECESSION
and Pietro Aretino. One likeness of the last-named sitter is in
Arezzo and another in the Berlin gallery.
See his general histories of art; and, with regard to his designs,
Bernhard Berenson, The Drawings of Florentine Painters (1904).
The decision as to the authorship of various pictures which may or
may not be attributable to Sebastiano del Pipmbo is necessarily a
matter of contemporary connoisseurship, and it need only be noted
that Mr Berenson is inclined to give increased importance to this
master. (W. M. R.)
SEBENICO (Serbo-Croatian, Sibenik), an episcopal city, and
the centre of an administrative district in Dalmatia, Austria;
at the end of a branch railway from Knin. Pop. (1900) of city
and commune, 24,751. Sebenico is built on a hill overlooking
the river Kerka, which here forms a broad basin, connected by
a winding channel with the Adriatic Sea, 3 m. S.W. The city
is partly walled, and guarded on the seaward side by the 16th-
century castle of St Anna and two dismantled forts. Venetian
influence is everywhere manifest; the Lion of St Mark is carved
over the main gateway and on many public buildings; and
among the narrow and steep lanes of the city there are numerous
examples of Venetian Gothic or early Renaissance architecture.
Sebenico has been the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop since
1298. It has also an orthodox bishop. The Roman Catholics,
who constitute the majority of citizens, possess a lofty and
beautiful cruciform cathedral, built entirely of stone and metal.
Probably no other church of equal size in Europe is similarly
constructed. Even the waggon vaults over the nave, choir
and transepts are of stone unprotected by lead or tiles. The
older part of the cathedral, dating from 1430 to 1441, and includ-
ing the fine north doorway, is Italian Gothic. Giorgio Orsini
of Zara, who had studied architecture in Venice and been strongly
influenced by the Italian Renascence, carried on the work of
construction until his death in 1475. It was finished early in
the 1 6th century; and thus the cathedral belongs to two distinct
periods and represents two distinct styles.
Sebenico is lighted by electric light; the power being supplied
by the celebrated falls of the Kerka, near Scardona, on the
north. Sebenico is a steamship station, with an excellent
harbour. Wine, oil, corn and honey are produced in the neighbour-
hood; many of the inhabitants are fishermen and seamen.
The Latin name of Sicum is adopted in public inscriptions;
but the city cannot be identified with the Roman colony of
Sicum, which was probably situated farther south. Sebenico
first became prominent in the i2th century as a favourite
residence of the Croatian kings. From 1358 to 1412 it was ruled
by Hungary; it subsequently formed part of the Venetian
dominions. In 1647 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the
Turks.
SEBORRHOEA, a medical term applied to describe an accumu-
lation on the skin of the normal sebaceous secretion mixed
with dirt and forming scales or a distinct incrustation. On the
head, where it is commonly seen, it may interfere with the
nutrition of the hair and cause partial baldness. A form of this
disease occurs in young infants. The main treatment consists
in thoroughly cleansing the parts. The crusts may be softened
with oil and the affected skin regularly washed with soft soap
and rectified spirit. The sebum frequently accumulates in the
sebaceous ducts, giving rise to the minute black points often
noticed on the face, back and chest in young adults, to which
the term comedones is applied. A form of this disorder, of larger
size and white appearance, is termed milium. These affections
may to a large extent be prevented by strict attention to ablution
and brisk friction of the skin, which will also often remove them
when they begin to appear. The retained secretion may be
squeezed out or evacuated by incision and the skin treated with
some simple sulphur application.
SECCHI, ANGELO (1818-1878), Italian astronomer, was born
on the 29th of June 1818 at Reggio in Lombardy, and entered
the Society of Jesus at an early age. In 1849 he was appointed
director of the observatory of the Collegio Romano, which was
rebuilt in 1853; there he devoted himself with great perseverance
to researches in physical astronomy and meteorology till his
death at Rome on the 26th of February 1878.
The results of Secchi's observations are contained in a great
number of papers and memoirs. From about 1864 he occupied
himself almost exclusively with spectrum analysis, both of stars
(Catalogo delle stelle di cui si e determinate lo spettro luminoso, Paris,
1867, 8vo; " Sugli spettri prismatici delle stelle fisse," two parts,
1868, in the Atti delta Soc. /to/.) and of the sun (Le Soldi, Paris,
1870, 8vo; 2nd ed., 1877).
For a list of his publications see Poggendorff, Biographisch-
Literarische ; also see Monthly Notices R.A.S., No. 39, and Carlo
Bricarelli, " Vita e opere di A. Secchi," Nuovi Line. Mem. (1888),
vol. 4.
SECESSION, a term used in political science to signify the
withdrawal of a state from a confederacy or composite state,
of which it had previously been a part; and the resumption of
all powers formerly delegated by it to the federal government,
and of its status as an independent state. To secede is a sovereign
right; secession, therefore, is based on the theory that the
sovereignty of the individual states forming a confederacy or
federal union has not been absorbed into a single new sovereignty.
Secession is a right claimed or exercised by weaker states of a
union whose rights are threatened by the stronger states, which
seldom acknowledge such a principle. War generally follows
the secession of a member of a union, and the seceding state,
being weaker, is usually conquered and the union more firmly
consolidated. The history of Europe furnishes several examples
of secession or attempts to secede: in 1309 the Swiss cantons
withdrew from the Empire and formed a confederacy from which,
in 1843-1847, the Catholic cantons seceded and formed a new
confederacy called the Sonderbund, which was crushed in the
war that followed; in 1523 Sweden seceded from the Kalmarian
Union formed in 1397 of Denmark, Sweden and Norway; and in
1814 Norway seceded and entered into a union with Sweden,
from which, hi the same year, it attempted to secede but was
forcibly prevented; Norway, however, accomplished a peaceful
secession from the Union in 1905 and resumed her independent
status; in 1848-1849 Hungary attempted to withdraw from
the union with Austria but the attempt was defeated; Prussia
and other north German states withdrew in 1866-1868 from
the German Confederation and formed a new one; a late
instance of successful secession is that of Panama, which seceded
in 1903 from the Republic of Colombia. But secession in
theory and practice is best exhibited in the history of the United
States. Most of the original states, and many of the later ones,
at some period when rights were in jeopardy proclaimed that
their sovereignty might be exercised in secession. The right
to secede was based, the secessionists claimed, upon the fact that
each state was sovereign, becoming so by successful revolution
against England; there had been no political connexion between
the colonies; the treaty of 1783 recognized them " as free,
sovereign and independent states "; this sovereignty was
recognized in the Articles of Confederation, and not surrendered,
they asserted, under the Constitution; the Union of 1787 was
really formed by a secession from the Union of 1776-1787.
New states claimed all the rights of the old ones, having been
admitted to equal standing. Assertions of the right and
necessity of secession were frequent from the beginning;
separatist conspiracies were rife in the West until 1812; various
leaders in New England made threats of secession in 1790-1796
and 1800-1815 especially in 1803 on account of the purchase
of Louisiana, in 1811 on account of the proposed admission of
Louisiana as a state, and during the troubles ending in the War
of 1812. Voluntary separation was frequently talked of before
1815. Two early commentators on the Constitution, St George
Tucker in 1803 and William Rawle in 1825, declared that the
sovereign states might secede at will. In 1832-1833 the
" Union " party of South Carolina was composed of those
who rejected nullification, holding to secession as the only
remedy; and from 1830 to 1860 certain radical abolitionists
advocated a division of the Union. But as the North grew
stronger and the South in comparison grew weaker, as slavery
came to be more and more the dominant political issue, and as
the South made demands concerning that " peculiar institution "
to which the North was unwilling to accede, less was heard of
secession in the North and more in the South. Between 1845
SECKENDORF, COUNT VON SECKENDORF, V. L. VON 569
and 1860 secession came to be generally accepted by the South
as the only means of preserving her institutions from the inter-
ference of the North. The first general movement toward
secession was in 1850. In 1860-1861, when the federal govern-
ment passed into the control of the stronger section, the Southern
states, individually, seceded and then formed the Confederate
states, and in the war that followed they were conquered and
forced back into the Union. So, in the United States, secession
along with state sovereignty is of the past. From the historical
point of view it may be suggested that neither North nor South
was correct in theory in 1861: the United States were not a
nation; neither were the states sovereign; but from the embryo
political communities of 1776-1787, in which no proper sovereignty
existed anywhere, two nationalities were slowly being evolved
and two sovereignties were in the making; the North and the
South each fulfilled most of the requirements for a nation and
they were mutually unlike and hostile.
See Jefferson Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government
(New York, 1881); A. H. Stephens, Constitutional View of the War
between the States (Philadelphia, 1868-1870); J. L. M. Curry, Civil
History of the Confederate States (Richmond, 1900); J. W. Du Bois,
William L. Yancey (Birmingham, 1892); J. Hodgson, Cradle of the
Confederacy (Mobile, 1876) ; B. J. Sage, Republic of Republics (Boston,
1876); W. Wilson, The State (Boston, 1900); A. L. Lowell, Govern-
ment and Parties in Continental Europe (Boston, 1896); J. W.
Burgess, Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law
(New York, 1895), and C. E. Merriam, American Political Theories
(New York, 1902). See also STATE RIGHTS, NULLIFICATION, and
CONFEDERATE STATES. (W. L. F.)
SECKENDORF, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH, COUNT VON
(1673-1763), German soldier, nephew of Veit Ludwig von
Seckendorf (q.v.), was born at Konigsberg in Franconia. His
father was an official of Saxe-Gotha. In 1693 he served in the
allied army commanded by William III. of England, and in
1694 became a cornet in a Gotha cavalry regiment in Austrian
pay. Leaving the cavalry he became an infantry officer in the
service of Venice, and (1697) in that of the margrave of Anspach,
who in 1698 transferred the regiment in which Seckendorf was
serving to the imperial army. In 1699 he married and returned
to Anspach as a court officer, but the outbreak of the War of the
Spanish Succession called him into the field again as lieutenant-
colonel of an Anspach regiment, which was taken into the
Dutch service. He distinguished himself at Oudenarde (1708),
and was severely wounded at the siege of Ryssel. Disappointed
of promotion in Holland and Austria, he entered the Polish-Saxon
army as a major-general, and fought as a volunteer at the siege of
Tournai and the battle of Malplaquet. He continued to serve in
Flanders to the end of the war, acted in a diplomatic capacity in
the peace negotiations, and in 1713 suppressed an insurrection
in Poland. In 1715, as a lieutenant-general, he commanded
the Saxon contingent at the siege of Stralsund, defended by
Charles XII. of Sweden. In 1717 Seckendorf once more entered
the service of the emperor, with the rank of lieutenant field
marshal, and he was present at the siege of Belgrade by Prince
Eugene. In 1718 and 1719 he fought in Italy, and in the latter
year he was made a count of the empire. In 1726, at the instance
of Prince Eugene, he was made the Austrian representative at
the court of Prussia. He remained at Berlin, with short intervals,
up to 1735, and .for the greater part of this time exercised a
strong influence over Frederick William II. He was deeply
involved in the family quarrels which embittered the lives of
Frederick William, his queen and the crown prince (Frederick
the Great), which culminated in the prince's condemnation to
death by court martial, and is presented by Cartyle (Frederick
the Great, vol. ii.) as a cold, passionless intriguer, taciturn, almost
stolid, and absolutely unscrupulous in the furtherance of Austrian
political aims. In 1726 Seckendorf was appointed general
of cavalry of the army of the Holy Roman Empire, and served
with such distinction as was to be gained in a war of positions
in the Rhine campaigns of the War of the Polish Succession
( I 734~3S)- His dissensions with Prince Leopold of Anhalt-
Dessau (q.v.) the " old Dessauer " was Seckendorf's declared
enemy at the Prussian court made the conduct of operations
impossible, and, after placing the Austrian and German armies
in favourable positions, Seckendorf departed to Hungary to
report on the state of the Austrian army there a task which
brought him fresh enemies. In 1737 the emperor Charles VI.,
however, made Seckendorf commander-in-chief in Hungary,
at the same time giving him the baton of field marshal. The
new commander began well, but failed at the end, and his
numerous enemies at Vienna brought about his recall, trial and
imprisonment. He remained a prisoner till 1740, and was then
reinstated by order of Maria Theresa, but being denied his
arrears of pay he laid down all his Austrian and imperial offices
and accepted from the emperor Charles VII., elector of Bavaria,
the rank of field marshal in the Bavarian service. His last
campaigns were those of 1743 and 1744 in the Austrian Succession
War (q.v.), and, after the death of Charles VII. and the election
of Maria Theresa's husband to the imperial dignity, he became
reconciled with the Austrian court. From 1745 his life was spent
more or less in retirement at Meuselwitz, near Altenburg. In
1757 the death of his wife, for whom, harsh and unamiable as
he was, he had a deep and abiding affection, broke down his
already failing health. He fell into the hands of a Prussian
hussar party in December 1758, and was for five months held
prisoner by Frederick the Great, who had little love for him either
as his former court enemy or as his unsatisfactory ally in the
first Silesian war. He died at Meuselwitz on the 23rd of
November 1763.
See Wurzbach's Biogr. Lexikon, pt. 33, " Versuch einer Lebens-
beschreibung des F. M . Seckendorf " (Leipzig, 1 792-1 794) ; Seelander,
Graf Seckendorf und der Friede v. Passau (Gotha, 1883);' Carlyle,
Frederick the Great, vols. i.-v. passim; and memoir in Attgemeine
deutsche Biographie.
SECKENDORF, VEIT LUDWIG VON (1626-1692), German
statesman and scholar, was a member of a German noble family,
which took its name from the village of Seckendorf between
Nuremberg and Langenzenn. The family was divided into
eleven distinct lines, but only three survive, widely distributed
throughout Prussia, Wurttemberg and Bavaria. 1 Veit Ludwig
von Seckendorf, son of Joachim Ludwig von Seckendorf, was
born at Herzogenaurach, near Erlangen, on the 2oth of December
1626. In 1639 the reigning duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Ernest
the Pious, made him his protege. Entering the university of
Strassburg in 1642, he devoted himself to history and juris-
prudence. The means for his higher education came from
Swedish officers, former comrades of his father who had been
actively engaged in the Thirty Years' War and who was executed
at Salzwedel on the 3rd of February 1642 for his dealings with
the Imperialists. After he finished his university course Duke
Ernest gave him an appointment in his court at Gotha, where
he laid the foundation of his great collection of historical materials
and mastered the principal modern languages. In 1652 he was
appointed to important judicial positions and sent on weighty
embassages. In 1656 he was made judge in the ducal court at
Jena, and took the leading part in the numerous beneficent
reforms of the duke. In 1664 he resigned office under Duke
Ernest, who had just made him chancellor and with whom he
continued on excellent terms, and entered the service of Duke
Maurice of Zeitz (Altenburg), with the view of lightening his
official duties. After the death of Maurice in 1681 he retired
to his estate, Meuselwitz in Altenburg, resigning nearly all his
public offices. Although living in retirement, he kept up a
correspondence with the principal learned men of the day.
He was especially interested in the endeavours of the pietist
Philipp Jakob Spener to effect a practical reform of the German
church, although he was hardly himself a pietist. In 1692 he
1 Besides Friedrich Heinrich, count von Seckendorf, separately
noticed, other members of the family were Adolf Franz Karl (1742-
1818), who was made a count by Frederick William III. of Prussia;
Eduard Christoph Ludwig Karl v. Seckendorf-Gudent (1813-1875),
a Wurttemberg official; Karl Sigmund (1744-1785), writer; Franz
Karl Leopold v. Seckendorf-Aberdar (1775-1809), poet, literary
man and soldier; the brothers Christian Adolf (1767-1833) and
Gustav Anton (" Patrik Peale ") (1775-1823), both literary men of
some note, and Arthur v. Seckendorf-Gudent (1845-1886), student
of forestry.
570
SECKER SECOND SIGHT
was appointed chancellor of the new university of Halle, but
he died a few weeks afterwards, on the i8th of December.
Seckendorf's principal works were the following: Teutscher
Furstenstaat (1656 and 1678), a handbook of German public law;
Der Christenstaat (1685), partly an apology for Christianity and
partly suggestions for the reformation of the church, founded on
Pascal's Pensees and embodying the fundamental ideas of Spener;
Commentarius historicus el apologeticus de Lutheranismo sive de
Reformatione (3 vols., Leipzig, 1692), occasioned by the Jesuit
Maimbourg's Histoire du Lutheranisme (Paris, 1680), his most im-
portant work, and still indispensable to the historian of the Re-
formation as a rich storehouse of authentic materials.
See Richard Pahner, Veil Ludwig von Seckendorff und seine Gedanken
liber Erziehung und Unterricht (Leipzig, 1892), the best sketch of
Seckendorf's life, based upon original sources. See also Theodor
Kolde, " Seckendorf," in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1906).
SECKER, THOMAS (1693-1768), archbishop of Canterbury,
was born at Sibthorpe, Nottinghamshire. He studied medicine
in London, Paris and Leiden, receiving his M.D. degree at Leiden
in 1721. Having decided to take orders he graduated, by special
letters from the chancellor, at Exeter College, Oxford, and was
ordained in 1722. In 1724 he became rector of Houghton-le-
Spring, Durham, resigning in 1727 on his appointment to the
rectory of Ryton, Durham, and to a canonry of Durham. He
became rector of St James's, Westminster, in 1733, and bishop
of Bristol in 1735. About this time George II. commissioned
him to arrange a reconciliation between the prince of Wales
and himself, but the attempt was unsuccessful. In 1737 he was
translated to Oxford, and he received the deanery of St Paul's
in 1750. In 1758 he became archbishop of Canterbury. His
advocacy of an American episcopate, in connexion with which
he wrote the Answer to Dr Mayhem's Observations on the Charter
and Conduct of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts (London 1764), raised considerable opposition
in England and America.
His principal work was Lectures on the Catechism of the Church of
England (London, 1769).
SECOND (through Fr. from Lat. secundus, following, sequi,
to follow), next after the first in order, time, rank, &c., more
particularly the ordinal number corresponding to two. It is
the only French ordinal in English; the older word was " other,"
Ger. ander, Goth, anthar, Skt. anlara. The use of the word
for the sixtieth part of a minute of time and of degree is from
Med. Lat. secunda, abbreviation of minuta secunda, the second
small division of the hour, minuta prima or minuta being the first
division. Another particular meaning is for one who supports
or assists another, especially the friend at a duel, who arranges
for his principal the terms of the encounter and sees that all
rules of the duel are carried out. In the British army an officer
is said to be " seconded " (with the accent on the second
syllable) when he is employed on special service outside his
regiment, his name being retained on the regimental list, but
his place being filled by promotion of other officers. He may
rejoin his regiment when his special employment is at an end.
SECOND SIGHT, a term denoting the opposite of its apparent
significance, meaning in reality the seeing, in vision, of events
before they occur. " Foresight " expresses the meaning of second
sight, which perhaps was originally so called because normal
vision was regarded as coming first, while supernormal vision is
a secondary thing, confined to certain individuals.
Though we hear most of the " second sight " among the Celts
of the Scottish Highlands (it is much less familiar to the Celts
of Ireland), this species of involuntary prophetic vision, whether
direct or symbolical, is peculiar to no people. Perhaps our
earliest notice of symbolical second sight is found in the Odyssey,
where Theoclymenus sees a shroud of mist about the bodies
of the doomed Wooers, and drops of blood distilling from the
walls of the hall of Odysseus. The Pythia at Delphi saw the
blood on the walls during the Persian War; and, in the Argo-
nautica of Apollonius Rhodius, blood and fire appear to Circe
in her chamber on the night before the arrival of the fratricidal
Jason and Medea. Similar examples of symbolical visions
occur in the Icelandic sagas, especially in Njala, before the burning
of Njal and his family. In the Highlands, and in Wales, the
chief symbols beheld are the shroud, and the corpse candle or
other spectral illumination. The Rev. Dr Stewart, of Nether
Lochaber, informed the present writer that one of his parishioners,
a woman, called him to his door, and pointed out to him a rock
ay the sea, which shone in a kind of phosphorescent brilliance.
The doctor attributed the phenomenon to decaying sea-weed,
3Ut the woman said, " No, a corpse will be laid there to-morrow."
This, in fact, occurred; a dead body was brought in a boat for
surial, and was laid at the foot of the rock, where, as Dr Stewart
:ound, there was no decaying vegetable matter.
Second sight flourished among the Lapps and the Red Indians,
the Zulus and Maoris, to the surprise of travellers, who have
recorded the puzzling facts. But in these cases the visions were
usually " induced," not " spontaneous," and should be con-
sidered as " clairvoyance " (q.v.). Ranulf Higdon's Polychronicon
(i4th century) describes Scottish second sight, adding that
strangers " setten their feet upon the feet of the men of that
londe for to see such syghtes as the men of that londe doon."
This method of communicating the vision is still practised, with
success, according to the late Dr Stewart. The present writer
once had the opportunity to make an experiment, but to him
the vision was not imparted. (For the method see Kirk's
Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns and Fairies, 1691, 1815,
1893.) It is, by some, believed that if a person tells what he
has seen before the event occurs he will lose the faculty, and
recently a second-sighted man, for this reason, did not warn
his brother against taking part in a regatta, though he had
foreseen the accident by which his brother was drowned. Where
this opinion prevails it is, of course, impossible to prove that
the vision ever occurred. There are many seers, as Lord Tarbat
wrote to Robert Boyle, to whom the faculty is a trouble, " and
they would be rid of it at any rate, if they could."
Perhaps the visions most frequently reported are those of
funerals, which later occur in accordance with " the sight,"
of corpses, and of " arrivals " of persons, remote at the moment,
who later do arrive, with some distinctive mark of dress or
equipment which the seer could not normally expect, but
observed in the vision. Good examples in their own experience
have been given to the present writer by well-educated persons.
Some of the anecdotes are too surprising to be published without
the names of the seers. A fair example of second sight is the
following from Balachulish. An aged man of the last generation
was troubled by visions of armed men in uniform, drilling in a
particular field near the sea. The uniform was not " England's
cruel red," and he foresaw an invasion. " It must be of
Americans," he decided, " for the soldiers do not look like
foreigners." The Volunteer movement later came into being,
and the men drilled on the ground where the seer had seen them.
Another case was that of a man who happened to be sitting with
a boy on the edge of a path in the quarry. Suddenly he caught
the boy and leaped aside with him. He had seen a runaway
trolly, with men in it, dash down the path; but there were no
traces of them below. " The spirits of the living are powerful
to-day," said the percipient in Gaelic, and next day the fatal
accident occurred at the spot. These are examples of what
is, at present, alleged in the matter of second sight.
" The sight " may, or may not, be preceded or accompanied
by epileptic symptoms, but this appears now to be unusual. A
learned minister lately made a few inquiries on this point in his
parish, at the request of the present writer. His beadle had
" the sight " in rich measure: " it was always preceded by a
sense of discomfort and anxiety," but was not attended by
convulsions. Out of seven or eight seers in the parish, only one
was not perfectly healthy and temperate. A well-known seer,
now dead, whom the writer consulted, was weak of body, the
result of an accident, but seemed candid, and ready to confess
that his visions were occasionally failures. He said that " the
sight " first came on him in the village street when he was a boy.
He saw a dead woman walk down the street and enter the house
that had been hers. He gave a few examples of his foresight of
events, and one of his failure to discover the corpse of a man
drowned in the loch.
SECRET SECRETARY-BIRD
The phenomena, as described, may be classed under " clair-
voyance," " premonition," and " telepathy " (<?..), with a
residuum of symbolical visions. In these, " corpse candles " and
spectral lights play a great part, but, in the region best known
to the writer, the " lights " are visible to all, even to English
tourists, and are not hallucinatory. The conduct of the lights is
brilliantly eccentric, but, as they have not been studied by
scientific specialists, their natural causes remain unascertained.
It is plain that there is nothing peculiar to the Celts in second
sight; but the Gaelic words for it and the prevailing opinion
indicate telepathy, the action of " the spirits of the living " as
the main agents. Yet, in cases of premonition, this explanation
is difficult. Conceivably an engineer, in 1881, was thinking out a
line of railway from Oban to Balachulish, at the moment when
four or five witnesses were alarmed by the whizz and thunder of
a passing train on what was then the road, but was later (1903)
usurped by the railway track. (For this amazing anecdote the
writer has the first-hand evidence of a highly educated percipient.)
If the speculation of the engineer was " wired on," telepathically,
to the witnesses, then telepathy may account for the premonition,
which, in any case, is a good example of collective second sight.
That second sight has died out, under the influence of education
and newspapers, is an averment of popular superstition in the
south.
The examples given, merely a selection from those known to
the present writer, prove that the faculty is believed to be as
common as in any previous age.
The literature of second sight is not insignificant. The Secret
Commonwealth of the Rev. Mr Kirk (1691), edited by Sir Walter
Scott in 1815 (a hundred copies), and by Andrew Lang in 1893, is
in line with cases given in Trials for Witchcraft (cf. Dalyell's Darker
Superstitions of Scotland, and Wodrow's Analecta). Aubrey has
several cases in his Miscellanies, and the correspondence of Robert
Boyle, Henry More, Glanvil and Pepys, shows an early attempt at
scientific examination of the alleged faculty. The great treatise on
Second Sight by Thepphilus Insulanus (a Macleod) may be recom-
mended; with Martin's Description of the Western Isles (1703-
1716), and the work of the Rev. Mr Fraser, Dean of the Isles (1707,
1820). Fraser was familiar with the contemporary scientific theories
of hallucination, and justly remarked that " the sight " was not
peculiar to the Highlanders; but that, in the south, people dared
not confess their experiences, for fear of ridicule. (A. L.)
SECRET (Lat. secretum, hidden, concealed), that which is
concealed from general knowledge. In special senses the word
is applied to (a) a prayer in the Roman and other liturgies, said
during mass by the priest in so low a voice that it does not reach
the congregation, and (V) a covering or skull-cap made of steel
fitting close to the head.
In law, the question of secrecy is an important one. Generally,
English law does not require a solicitor or barrister to disclose
secrets entrusted to them by a client, and the same probably
holds good in the case of medical men. In the case of ministers
of religion, it has never been definitely settled how far they can
be compelled to disclose in evidence what has been confided in
the secrecy of the confessional. But according to the ii3th
Canon, a priest of the Church of England would commit an
ecclesiastical offence in revealing a secret disclosed to him in
confession "except it be such as by the laws of this realm his own
life may be called into question for concealing the same." As to
what are called " trade secrets," it had been decided (Merry-
weather v. Moore, 1892, 2 Ch. 518) that it is a breach of contract
to reveal trade secrets acquired during service.
Official Secrets. By the Official Secrets Act 1889 it was made a
misdemeanour for an official to communicate any information or
documents concerning the military or naval affairs of Her Majesty,
to any person to whom it ought not to be communicated. If the
information be communicated to a foreign state it is a felony. In
Germany the betrayal of military secrets is punishable under an
imperial law of 1893.
Secret Service. In practically every civilized country, there is
always a department of the government charged with the duty of
espionage, either diplomatic or domestic. Its officials work in secret,
and certain sums of money are placed at the disposal of the head of
the department, and expended as he may think fit, without having
to render any specific account of them. Various departments of
governments have also their own departmental secret service, for
the better guarding against frauds, such as in the United States, the
Treasury Department and the Post Office.
The various European codes generally have dealt with breach of
secrecy, e.g. s. 3ooof the German Penal Code imposes a fine up to 1500
marks and imprisonment up to three months on doctors, attorneys
and other professional persons who reveal a secret entrusted to them
in their professional capacity. For this offence also the French
code, art. 378, imposes imprisonment of from one to six months and
a fine of from 100 to 500 francs.
See Brouardel, Le Secret medical (Paris, 1893); Hallays, Le Secret
professionnel (Paris, 1890).
SECRETAN, CHARLES (1815-1895), Swiss philosopher, was
born on the igth of January 1815, at Lausanne, where he died
on the 2ist of January 1895. Educated in his native town and
later under Schelling at Munich, he became professor of philosophy
at Lausanne (1838 to 1846), and at Neuchatel (1850 to 1866).
In 1866 he returned to his old position at Lausanne. In 1837
he founded, and for a time edited, the Revue suisse. His principal
works were La Philosophic de la liberte (1848); La Raison el le
Christianisme (1863); La Civilisation et les croyances (18873 ;
Man Utopie (1892). The object of his writing was to build up'a
rational, philosophical religion, to reconcile the ultimate bases
of Christianity with the principles of metaphysical philosophy.
For a detailed examination of his philosophy, see Pillon, La
Philosophic de Charles Secretan.
SECRETARY-BIRD, a very singular African bird, first
accurately made known, from an example living in the menagerie
of the prince of Orange, in 1769 by A. Vosmaer, 1 in a treatise
published simultaneously in Dutch and French, and afterwards
included in his collected works issued, under the title of Regnum
Animale, in 1804. He was told that at the Cape of Good Hope
this bird was known as the " Sagittarius " or Archer, from its
striding gait being thought to resemble that of a bowman advanc-
ing to shoot, but that this name had been corrupted into that of
" Secretarius." In August 1770 G. Edwards saw an example
Secretary-Bird.
(apparently alive, and the survivor of a pair which had been
brought to England) in the possession of a Mr Raymond near
Ilford in Essex; and, being unacquainted with Vosmaer's work,
he figured and described it as "of a new genus" in the Philoso-
phical Transactions for the following year (Ixi. pp. 55, 56, pl.ii.).
In 1776 P. Sonnerat (Voy. Nouv. Guinee, p. 87, pi. 50) again
described and figured, but not at all correctly, the species, saying
(but no doubt wrongly) that he found it in 1771 in the Philippine
Islands. A better representation was given by D'Aubenton in
1 Le Vaillant (Sec. Voy. Afrique, ii. p. 273) truly states that Kolben
in 1719 (Caput Bonae Spei hodiernum, p. 182, French version, ii.
p. 198) had mentioned this bird under its local name of " Snake-
eater " (Slangenvreeter, Dutch translation, i. p. 214); but that
author, who was a bad naturalist, thought it was a Pelican and also
confounded it with the Spoonbill, which is figured to illustrate his
account of it.
572
SECRETARY OF STATE SECULAR
the Planches znluminees (721); in 1780 BuSon (Oiseaux, vii.
P- 33) published some additional information derived from
Querhoent, saying also that it was to be seen in some English
menageries; and the following year J. Latham (Synopsis, i. p. 20,
pi. 2) described and figured it from three examples which he had
seen alive in England. None of these authors, however, gave
the bird a scientific name, and the first conferred upon it seems
to have been that of Falco serpentarius, inscribed on a plate
bearing date 1779, by John Frederick Miller (///. Nat. History,
xxviii.),. which plate appears also in Shaw's Cimelia Physica
(No. 28) and is a misleading caricature. In 1786 Scopoli called it
Otis secretarius thus referring it to the Bustards, 1 and Cuvier
in 1798 designated the genus to which it belonged, and of which
it still remains the sole representative, Serpentarius. Succeeding
systematists have, however, encumbered it with many other
names, among which the generic terms Gypogeranus and Ophio-
tkeres, and the specific epithets reptilivorus and cristatus, require
mention here. 2 The Secretary-bird is of remarkable appearance,
standing nearly 4 ft. in height, the great length of its legs giving
it a resemblance to a Crane or a Heron; but unlike those birds
its tibiae are feathered all the way down. From the back of the
head and the nape hangs, loosely and in pairs, a series of black
elongated feathers, capable of erection and dilation in periods of
excitement. 3 The skin round the eyes is bare and of an orange
colour. The head, neck and upper parts of the body and wing-
coverts are bluish grey; but the carpal feathers, including the
primaries, are black, as also are the feathers of the vent and
tibiae the last being in some examples tipped with white.
The tail-quills are grey fof the greater part of their length,
then barred with black and tipped with white; but the
two middle feathers are more than twice as long as those next
to them, and drooping downwards present a very unique
appearance.
Its chief prey consists of insects and reptiles, and as a foe to snakes
it is held in high esteem ; although it is undoubtedly also destructive
to young game. It seems to possess a strange partiality for the
destruction of snakes, and successfully attacks the most venomous
species, striking them with its knobbed wings and kicking forwards
at them with its feet, until they are rendered incapable of offence,
when it swallows them. The nest is a huge structure, placed in a
bush or tree, and in it two white eggs, spotted with rust-colour, are
laid. The young remain in the nest for a long while, and even when
four months old are unable to stand upright. They are very fre-
quently brought up tame. The Secretary-bird is found, but not
very abundantly and only in some localities, over the greater part
of Africa, especially in the south, extending northwards on the west
to the Gambia and in the interior to Khartum.
The systematic position of the genus Serpentarius has long been
a matter of discussion, and is still one of much interest, though of
late classifiers have been pretty well agreed in placing it in the
order Accipitres. Most of them, however, have shown great want
of perception by putting it in the family Fakonidae. No anatomist
can doubt its forming a peculiar family, Serpentariidae, differing
more from the Falcontdae than do the Vulturtdae; and the fact of
A. Milne-Edwards having recognized in the Miocene of the Allier
the fossil bone of a species of this genus, S. robustus (Ois.foss. France,
ii. pp. 465-468, pi. 186, figs. 1-6), proves that it is an ancient form,
one possibly carrying on a direct and not much modified descent
from a generalized form, whence may have sprung not only the
Falcontdae but perhaps the progenitors of the Ardeidae and Ciconii-
dae, as well as the puzzling Cariamidae (Seriema, g.r.). (A, N.)
SECRETARY OF STATE, in England, the designation of
certain important members of the administration. The ancient
English monarchs were always attended by a learned ecclesi-
astic, known at first as their clerk, and afterwards as secretary,
who conducted the royal correspondence; but it was not until
the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth that these functionaries
were called secretaries of state. Upon the direction of public
affairs passing from the privy council to the cabinet after 1688
the secretaries of state began to assume those high duties
1 Curiously enough, Boddaert in 1783 omitted to give it a scientific
name.
* The scientific synonymy of the species is given at great length by
Drs Finsch and Hartlaub (Vogel Ost-Afrikas, p. 93) and by R. B.
Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Museum, i. p. 45).
It is from the fancied resemblance of these feathers to the pens
which a clerk is supposed to stick above his ear that the bird's name
of Secretary is really derived.
which now render their office one of the most influential of an
administration.
Until the reign of Henry VIII. there was generally only one
secretary of state, but at the end of his reign a second principal
secretary was appointed. Owing to the increase of business con-
sequent upon the union of Scotland, a third secretary, in 1708, was
created, but a vacancy occurring in this office in 1746 the third
secretaryship was dispensed with until 1768, when it was again in-
stituted to take charge of the increasing colonial business. How-
ever, in 1782 the office was again abolished, and the charge of the
colonies transferred to the home secretary; but owing to the war
with France in 1794 a third secretary was once more appointed to
superintend the business of the war department, and seven years
later the colonial business was attached to his department. In 1854
a fourth secretary of state for the exclusive charge of the war de-
partment and in 1858 a fifth secretaryship for India were created.
There are therefore now five principal secretaries of state, four of
whom, with their political under-secretaries, occupy seats in the
House of Commons. One of these secretaries of state is always a
member of the House of Lords. The secretaries of state are the only
authorized channels through which the royal pleasure is signified
to any part of the body politic, and the counter-signature of one
of them is necessary to give validity to the sign manual. The
secretaries of state constitute but one office, and are coordinate in
rank and equal in authority. Each is competent in general to
execute any part of the duties of the secretary of state, the division
of duties being a mere matter of arrangement. For the existing
division of duties, see under separate headings, COLONIAL OFFICE,
FOREIGN OFFICE, &c.
In the United States the " secretary of state " is a member
of the executive, who deals with foreign affairs, and who, in the
event of a vacancy in the office of president, is next in suc-
cession after the vice-president. The title of " secretary "-
" of the treasury," " of war," &c. is used for some other
members of the executive. In various states there is an
executive officer called " secretary of state."
SECT, a body of persons holding distinctive or separate
doctrines or opinions, especially in matters of religion; thus
there are various sects among the Jews, the Mahommedans,
and the Buddhists, &c. In the Christian Church it has usually
a hostile or depreciatory sense and is applied, like " sectary,"
to all religious bodies outside the one to which the user of the
term belongs.
The latter use has been influenced by the false etymology which
makes the word mean " cut off " (Lat. secare, to cut). The derivation
has been long a matter of dispute. The Latin secta was used in
classical Latin first of a way, a trodden or beaten path; it seems
to be derived from secare, to cut, cf. the phrase secare viam, to
travel, take one's way, Gr. tinvuv b&bv. From the phrase sectam
sequi, to follow in the footsteps of any one, the word came to mean
a party, following, faction. Another transferred sense is a manner
or mode of life, so hanc sectam rationemque vitae . . . secuti
sumus (Cic. Gael. 17, 40). It was also the regular word for a school
of philosophy and so translates alpcaa, lit. choice (eupei<r0cu, to
choose), from which is derived " heresy " (3. P.). The Vulgate
(N.T.) translates aZpeais sometimes by secta, sometimes by haeresis.
In Med. Lat., besides these uses we find secta meaning a suit at law,
a suit of clothes, and a following or suite. These meanings point to
the derivation of secta adopted by Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) ; which
connects the word with sequi, to follow. Whichever derivation is
accepted a " sect " does not mean a part " cut off " from the church.
SECTION (Lat. sectio, cutting, secare, to cut), the act of cutting
or a part cut off, thus used of any division of a subject, as the
paragraph of a book, article, statute, &c., of a division of land,
of a town, &c., or a separate class of a community or race; the
term is more particularly applied to a thin slice of any substance
prepared for examination by the microscope (see MICROTOMY)
or to a diagram of any structure showing the internal plan as
if exposed by the cutting oft of an external surface; thus, in
architecture, a section is a drawing of a building cut in half,
so as to show the relative height of the floors, the depth of the
foundation and its footings, the framing of the roof, if in timber
or iron, or the construction of the vault or dome, if in masonry.
The term is also applied to the details of the structure, such as
the cornice and the various mouldings showing their profile.
SECULAR (Lat. saecularis, of or belonging to an age or genera-
tion, saeculum), a word with two main branches of meaning
(1) lasting or occurring for a long indefinite period of time, and
(2) non-spiritual, having no concern with religious or spiritual
matters. The first sense, which is directly taken from the classical
SECULAR GAMES SECUNDUS, PUBLIUS POMPONIUS 573
Latin, is chiefly found in scientific applications, of processes or
phenomena which are continued through the ages and are not
regularly recurrent or periodical, e.g. the secular cooling of the
earth, secular change of the mean annual change of the tempera-
ture. The word is thus used widely of that which is lasting
or permanent. In medieval and Late Latin, saecularis was
particularly used of that which belongs to this world, hence
non-spiritual, lay. It is thus used, first to distinguish the
" regular " or monastic clergy from those who were not bound
by the rule (regula) of a religious order, the parish priests, the
" seculars," who were living in the world, and secondly in the
wide sense of anything which is distinct, opposed to or not
connected with religion or ecclesiastical things, temporal as
opposed to spiritual or ecclesiastical. Thus property transferred
or alienated from spiritual to temporal hands is said to be
"secularized"; "secularism" (q.v.) is the term applied in
general to the separation of state politics or administration from
religious or church matters; " secular education " is a system*
of training in which definite religious teaching is excluded.
SECULAR GAMES (Ludi Saeculares, originally Terentini).
These were celebrated at Rome for three days and nights to
mark the commencement of a new saeculum or generation. It
is important to note that there was a saeculum civile, the length
of which was definitely fixed at 100 years, and a saeculum
naturale, which, under Greek and Etruscan influence, came to
be accepted by the quindecimviri as no years. According to
tradition, the secular games had their origin in certain sacrificial
rites of the gens Valeria, which were performed at the Terentum,
a volcanic cleft in the Campus Martius. According to the Roman
antiquarians themselves, they were derived from the Etruscans,
who, at the end of a mean period of 100 years (as representing
the longest human life in a generation), presented to the
chthonian deities an expiatory offering on behalf of the coming
generation. The first definitely attested celebration of the games
took place in 249 B.C., on which occasion a vow was made that
they should be repeated every hundredth year (their name
being also changed to Saeculares), a regulation which seems to
have been immediately disregarded, for they were next held in
146 (not 149, although the authorities are not unanimous);
in 49 the civil wars prevented any celebration. They would
probably have fallen entirely into oblivion, had not Augustus
revived them in 17 B.C., for which occasion the Carmen Saeculare
was composed by Horace. In explanation of the selection of
this year it is supposed that the quindecimviri invented celebra-
tions for the years 456, 346, 236, 126, the saeculum being taken
as lasting no years.
In later times various modes of reckoning were adopted. The
dates were: A.D. 47 (under Claudius), celebrating the Sooth year
of the foundation of the city; 88 (under Domitian), an interval of
only 105 instead of no years; 147 (under Antoninus Pius), the
gooth year of the city; 204 (under Septimius Severus), exactly two
saecula (220 years) after the Augustan celebration; 248 (under
Philip the Arabian), the loooth year of the city; 262 (under Gallie-
nus), probably a special ceremony in time of calamity; in 304
(which should have been 314) Maximian intended to hold a cele-
bration, but does not appear to have done so. From this time
nothing more is heard of the secular games, until they were revived
in the year 1300 as the popish jubilees instituted by Boniface VIII.
At the beginning of the harvest, heralds went round and sum-
moned the people to the festival. The quindecimviri distributed to
all free citizens on the Capitol and in the temp'e of Apollo on the
Palatine various means of expiation torches, sulphur and bitumen.
Here and in the temple of Diana on the Aventine, wheat, barley,
and beans were distributed, to serve as an offering of firstfruits.
The festival then began, at which offerings were made to various
deities. On the first night the emperor sacrificed three rams to the
Parcae at an underground altar on the banks of the Tiber, while
the people lighted torches and sang a special hymn. On the same
or following nights a black hog and a black pig were sacrificed to
Tellus, and dark victims to Dis (Pluto) and Proserpine. On the
first day white bulls and a white cow were offered to Jupiter and
Juno on the Capitol, after which scenic games were held in honour
of Apollo. On the second day noble matrons sang supplicatory
hymns to Juno on the Capitol; on the third, white oxen were
sacrificed to Apollo and twenty-seven boys and maidens sang the
" secular hymn " in Greek and Latin.
The above particulars are from Zosimus (ii. 5, and 6, which con-
tain the Sibylline oracle), who, with Censorinus (De Die Natali, 17),
Valerius Maximus, ii. 4, and Horace (Carmen Saeculare} is the chief
ancient authority on the subject; see also Mommsen, Romische
Chronologic (1858) ; C. L. Roth, " t)ber die romischen Sacularspiele "
in the Rheinisches Museum, viii. (1853) ; and Marquardt, Romische
Slaatsverwaltung, iii. (1885), p. 386. The inscription commemorating
the ludi of 17 B.C. was discovered in 1890 and is printed in the
Ephemeris epigraphica, vol. viii. The best account of the whole
subject is in H. Diels, Sibyllinische Blatter (1890), p. 109 foil.
SECULARISM, a term applied specially (see SECULAR) to the
system of social ethics associated with the name of G. J. Holyoake
(q.v.). As the word implies, secularism is based solely on con-
siderations of practical morality with a view to the physical,
social and moral improvement of society. It neither affirms
nor denies the theistic premises of religion, and is thus a particular
variety of utilitarianism. Holyoake founded a society in London
which subsequently under the leadership of Charles Bradlaugh
advocated the disestablishment of the Church, the abolition of
the Second Chamber and other political and economic reforms.
See Holyoake's Principles of Secularism (1885).
SECUND (Lat. secundus, following), a botanical term used of
plants when similar parts are directed to one side only, as
flowers on an axis.
SECUNDERABAD, one of the chief British military stations
in India, situated in the state of Hyderabad or the Nizam's
Dominions, 1830 ft. above sea-level, and 6 m. N.E. of Hyderabad
city. Pop. (1901) 83,550. It is now the headquarters of the
9th division of the southern army. Secunderabad includes
Bolaram, the former cantonment of the Hyderabad contingent
(now merged in the Indian army), and also Trimulgherry, the
artillery cantonment, covering a total area of 22 sq. m. These
two places have an additional population of 12,888.
SECUNDUS, JOHANNES, whose real name was JOHANN
EVERTS (1511-1536), Latin poet, was born at The Hague on the
loth of November 1511. He was descended from an ancient
family in the Netherlands; his father, Nicholas Everts, or
Everard, seems to have been high in the favour of the emperor
Charles V. On what account the son was called Secundus is
not known. His father intended him for the law; but though
he took his degree at Bourges it does not appear that he devoted
much time to legal pursuits. Poetry, painting and sculpture
engaged his mind at a very early period. In 1533 he went to
Spain, and soon afterwards became secretary to the cardinal-
archbishop of Toledo, in a department of business which required
no other qualification than that of writing Latin with elegance.
During this period he composed his most famous work, the Basia,
a series of amatory poems, of which the fifth, seventh, and
ninth Carmina of Catullus seem to have given the hint. In
1534 he accompanied Charles V. to the siege of Tunis. After
quitting the service of the archbishop, Secundus was employed
as secretary by the bishop of Utrecht; and so much did he dis-
tinguish himself by his compositions that he was called upon to
fill the important post of private Latin secretary to the emperor,
who was then in Italy. But, having arrived at St Amand, near
Tournay, he died of fever on the 8th of October 1536.
SECUNDUS, PUBLIUS POMPONIUS, Roman general and
tragic poet, lived during the reigns of Tiberius, Caligula and
Claudius. He was on intimate terms with the elder Pliny, who
wrote a biography of him (now lost). The chief authority for his
life is Tacitus, according to whom Secundus was a man of refine-
ment and brilliant intellect. His friendship with Sejanus and
his brother made him politically suspect, and he only escaped
death by remaining practically a prisoner in his own brother's
house until the accession of Caligula. During his enforced
retirement he composed tragedies, which were put on the stage
during the reign of Claudius. In A.D. 50 he distinguished himself
against the Chatti and obtained the honour of the triumphal
insignia. Quintilian asserts that he was far superior to any
writer of tragedies he had known, and Tacitus expresses a high
opinion of his literary abilities. Secundus devoted much atten-
tion to the niceties of grammar and style, on which he was
recognized as an authority. Only a few lines of his work remain,
some of which belong to the tragedy Aeneas.
See O. Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung, iii. (1892).
574
SECURITY SEDAN
and Tragicorum Romanorum fragments (1897); Tacitus, Annals,
v. 8, xi. 13, xii. 28; Quintilian, Inst. Orat. x. I. 98; Pliny, Nat.
Hist. xiv. 5; M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Literatur, ii. 2
(1900) ; Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 284, 7.
SECURITY (Lat. secure, free from care,' safe), in general,
the condition of being secure. In law, a security is a document
evidencing the right to money, goods or other property, e.g.
stocks, shares, bills of exchange, mortgages, &c. A security is
termed collateral when it is given merely as a guarantee for the
repayment of money; personal, when it gives a right of action
against a person for the recovery of money. A convertible
security is one which can be readily converted into money (e.g.
consols), as contrasted with land or buildings, sometimes termed
" dead " security. A person who holds himself responsible for
the fulfilment of another's obligations or goes surety for him is
called a security.
SEDAINE, MICHEL JEAN (1719-1797), French dramatist,
was born at Paris on the 4th of July 1719. His father, who was
an architect, died when Sedaine was quite young, leaving no
fortune, and the boy began life as a mason's labourer. He was
at last taken as pupil by an architect whose kindness he eventu-
ally repaid by the help he was able to give to his benefactor's
grandson, the painter David. Meanwhile he had done his best
to repair his deficiencies of education, and in 1750 he published a
Recueil de pieces fugitives, which included fables, songs and
pastorals. His especial talent was, however, for light opera.
He produced Le Diable d quatre (1756), the music being by
several composers; Blaise le Savetier (1759), for the music of
Danican Philidor; On ne s'atisejamais de lout (1761) and others
with Pierre Alexandre de Monsigny; Aucassin el Nicolette (1780),
Richard Cceur de Lion (1784), and Amphitryon (1788) with
Andre Gretry. Sedaine's vaudevilles and operettas attracted
the attention of Diderot, and two plays of his were accepted and
performed at the Theatre Fran$ais. The first and longest, the
Philosophe sans le savoir, was acted in 1765; the second, a
lively one-act piece, La Gageure imprevue in 1768. These two
at once took their place as stock pieces and are still ranked among
the best French plays, each of its class. Except these two pieces
little or nothing of his has kept the stage or the shelves, but
Sedaine may be regarded as the literary ancestor of Scribe and
Dumas. He had the practical knowledge of the theatre, which
enabled him to carry out the ideas of Diderot and give him claims
to be regarded as the real founder of the domestic drama in
France. Sedaine, who became a member of the Academy (1786),
and secretary for architecture of the fine arts division, died at
Paris on the i7th of May 1797. He wrote two historical dramas,
Raymond V. comte de Toulouse, and Maillard, ou Paris sauve.
His (Euvres (1826) contain a notice of his life by Ducis.
SEDALIA, a city and the county-seat of Pettis county, Missouri,
U.S.A., a little W. of the centre of the state. Pop. (1900) 15,231 ;
(1725 negroes; 972 foreign-born); (1910) 17,822. Sedalia is served
by the Missouri Pacific and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway
systems, and is a transportation centre with good facilities.
The city has a high and pleasant site (about 990 ft. above sea-
level) on a rolling prairie, and is laid out as an exact square.
Among the public buildings much the handsomest are the court
house, built of Warrensburg blue sandstone (1884), and the
Public Library (1900), given by Andrew Carnegie. Sedalia is
the seat of the George R. Smith College (M. E., founded in 1894)
for negroes. Liberty Park (60 acres), in the W. part of the city,
is owned by the municipality. Broadway, the principal residence
street, is 120 ft. wide, and is parked on either side. The State
Board of Agriculture established fair grounds (now 210 acres)
adjoining the city on the S.W. in 1900, and the annual state fair
attracts many visitors. The water supply is derived from a
storage lake on Flat Creek, 3 m. from the city, settling basins
being used to clarify the water. There are a city hospital and
the May wood, a private hospital; and the Missouri, Kansas &
Texas railway maintains here a hospital for all parts of its
system. The surrounding country is a magnificent livestock and
farming region, and in the immediate vicinity are valuable
deposits of coal, of limestone, of shale suitable for sewer pipe and
of fire clays. The city has important horse and mule yards.
The Missouri Pacific, three of whose operating divisions end at
Sedalia and thus make the city its central division point, in 1904
established large shops (129 acres) in a suburb E. of the city.
These shops and those of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railway,
of which Sedalia is the central division point on the N. end of its
system, add greatly to the industrial importance of the city.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $1,691,727,
showing an increase of 31-8% since 1900.
Sedalia was established as a station on the Missouri Pacific
railroad in 1857. In 1864 it was chartered as a town and was
made the county-seat, succeeding Georgetown (then a flourishing
town, which speedily fell into decay), the transfer of the offices
taking place in 1865. Sedalia was a Union military post through-
out the Civil War; on the isth of October 1864 a detachment
from Sterling Price's raiding column dislodged a small Union
force that was occupying the town, but the Confederate occu-
pation lasted only one day. Sedalia was chartered as a city in
1889. In 1896 a constitutional amendment to remove the
state capital from Jefferson City to Sedalia was defeated by
popular vote.
SEDAN, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Ardennes, on the right bank of the
Meuse, 12 m. E.S.E. of M6zieres by rail. Pop. (1906). town
16,014; commune 19,599- Sedan is built on the right bank of
the Meuse round a bend in the river forming a peninsula. On the
left bank stands the suburb of Torcy, situated partly within the
bend, partly beyond the canal which cuts across the neck of the
peninsula. There is a statue of Turenne (born at Sedan in 161 1),
remains of a castle of the i sth century and a Protestant temple
dating from 1593. Sedan is the seat of a sub-prefect and has
a municipal school of weaving. The manufacture of fine black
cloth established in the middle of the I7th century by Cardinal
Mazarin, held its place as the staple industry of the town
till towards the end of the ipth century. A large variety of
woollen fabrics are produced, and there are flour mills and
factories for industrial machinery, boilers and heavy iron goods,
chocolate, &c.
Sedan was in the I4th century a dependency of the abbey
of Mouzon, the possession of which was disputed by the bishops
of Liege and Reims. United to the crown of France by Charles
V., it was ceded by Charles VI. to Guillaume de Braquemont,
whose son sold it to his brother-in-law Evrard de la Marck.
For two centuries this family continued masters of the place in
spite of the bishops of Li6ge and the dukes of Burgundy and
Lorraine; and Henri Robert adopted the title " prince of
Sedan." In the i6th century the town was an asylum for many
Protestant refugees, who laid the basis of its industrial prosperity,
and it became the seat of a Protestant seminary. Robert I.
de la Marck (d. 1489) was lord of Sedan when he acquired
Bouillon. His grandson, Robert III., seigneur of Fleurange and
Sedan (d. 1537), was marshal of France and left interesting
memoirs. Robert IV. de la Marck (d. 1356), also marshal of
France, erected Sedan on his own authority into an independent
principality. By the marriage of his granddaughter Charlotte
with Henry I. de la Tour d'Auvergne, the duchy of Bouillon and
the principality of Sedan passed to the house of Turenne. When
the new duke attempted to maintain his independence, Henry
IV. captured Sedan in three days; and the second duke Fr6d6ric
Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne, eldest brother of the great
marshal, who had several times revolted against Louis XIII.,
was, after his share in the conspiracy of Cinq-Mars, obliged to
surrender his principality. Sedan thus became part of the royal
domain in 1642. On the ist of September 1870 the fortress was
the centre of the most disastrous conflict of the Franco-German
War (see below). The village of Bazeilles, 3 m. S.E. of Sedan,
contains the great ossuary. The house, rendered famous by
Neuville's paintings, " Les Dernieres Cartouches," now contains
objects found on the battlefield. At Donchery, 3$ m. to the
west of Sedan, is the chateau of Bellevue, where Napoleon III.
surrendered his sword and where the terms of capitulation of
Sedan were agreed upon.
SEDAN
575
Battle of Sedan (September ist, 1870). During the course of
the 3ist of August (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR) the retreating
French army (ist, 5th, 7th and I2th corps) under Marshal
MacMahon assembled in and around Sedan, watched throughout
the day by the German cavalry but not severely pushed by them.
Sedan is a small old-fashioned fortress, lying in a depression
between two ridges which converge in the plateau of Illy about
2 m. north-east of the town. The only part which its
defences played, or might have played, in the ensuing battle
lay in the strategic possibilities contained in the fine and roomy
bridge-head of Torcy, covering an elbow bend of the Meuse
whence the whole French army might have been hurled into the
gap between the German III. and Meuse armies, had there been
a Napoleon to conceive and to execute this plan. But MacMahon
seems to have been too despondent to contemplate anything
further than a battle for the honour of the army, and though
communications with Mezieres, where Vinoy's corps (i3th) was
gathering, lay open throughout the day, he neither sent orders
to it nor made any arrangements to meet the coming danger.
The troops received food and ammunition, the disorders
consequent on the successive days' fighting in retreat were
remedied, and the men themselves got what they needed most
of all, an almost unbroken day's rest. Locally their positions
were strong, particularly to the east, where the stream flowing
through the Fond du Givonne, though fordable, presented a
serious obstacle to the tactical handling of the German infantry.
But as a whole it was far too cramped for the numbers crowded
into it; it could be completely overlooked from the heights of
Frenois, where the king of Prussia's headquarters took their
stand, and whence in the afternoon the German artillery fire
began to cross over the town itself. At nightfall on the 3 ist
the leading German infantry were approaching. The Army of
the Meuse on the right bank of the river, with the II. Bavarians
moving towards Bazeilles to reinforce it, and the III. Army,
consisting of the V. and XI. corps with the Wiirttemberg
division, was heading for Donch6ry to cut off the French from
Mezieres, and only a weak cavalry screen closed the gap between
them.
During the night of the 3 ist of August the Bavarians threw
a pontoon bridge across the Meuse below Remilly, and soon after
daybreak, in a fog which lay thickly over the whole country,
they began their advance towards Bazeilles, held by Vassoigne's
division of the I2th corps
and fairly prepared for de-
fence. The firing called all
troops within reach of the
sound to arms, and before
5 A.M. the Meuse Arrny was
marching to the battle-field,
the Guards on the northern
road via Villers-Arnay, the
Saxons and IVth corps to
the south along the river.
Vassoigne's division con-
tained a number of Marine
battalions, and their stub-
born resistance completely
disconcerted the Bavarians.
Deprived of all artillery co-
operation owing to the fog,
the latter spent themselves
in fruitless and disconnected
efforts in the gardens and
streets of the village, and
reinforcements were soon
urgently needed. About
6 A.M. the fog lifted, and
the German batteries at
once took part in the
struggle. One of the first
shells wounded Marshal
MacMahon. The next senior
officer, General Ducrot, at
once assumed command
(7 A.M.). But it happened
that General Wimpffen, who
had only joined the army
from Algiers on the night of
the 30th, brought with him
a secret commission to
assume command in the
event of the death or dis-
ablement of MacMahon.
Of this power he did not
at first avail himself, since he was a stranger both to the
army and the country, whilst Ducrot possessed the confidence
of the one and the knowledge of the other in the highest degree.
But when about 9 A.M. he learnt that Ducrot proposed to move
the whole army under cover of rearguards to the west towards
Mezieres, he produced his commission and countermanded the
movement, being himself convinced that eastward towards
Bazaine at Metz lay the road to salvation. Orders once issued
on a battle-field are not easily recalled, and the result of this
change of command was dire confusion. The French troops
northward of Bazeilles, along the Fond du Givonne, were already
commencing their withdrawal, when the leading troops of the
Saxon XII. corps began to arrive about Daigny, and being only
opposed by a weak rearguard, easily carried the ridge south
of the Givonne-Sedan road, thus threatening the retreat of
Vassoigne's division in and about Bazeilles, which then fell into
the hands of the Bavarians between 10 and n A.M. At the same
moment the Guard corps had begun to form up between Daigny
576
SEDAN-CHAIR
and Givonne, and there being no serious force of the enemy
in front of them, the artillery was deploying along the western
heights above the valley of Givonne, covered only by weak
advanced guards of infantry, when suddenly a great column of
French infantry, some 6000 strong, moving west in pursuance
of Wimpffen's orders, came over the eastern border of the valley
and charged down at full speed towards the guns. Then followed
one of the most dramatic spectacles of the entire war. The whole
of the corps artillery of the Guard turned upon these devoted
men, and tore the column in half, shrouding it in dense clouds
of dust and smoke from the bursting shells, above which could
be seen the trunks and limbs of men flung upwards by their
explosion. The head of the column, perhaps 2000 strong,
nevertheless kept on its way, but under the combined fire of
the Guard rifle battalion and the flanking fire from other guns
its impetus died out and its debris disappeared by degrees
under convenient cover. The German Guards were now free
to stretch out their right towards the Belgian frontier (where
the scouts of the III. Army were already moving) and prepare
with all deliberation for the attack on the Bois de la Garenne.
The III. Army had moved off as early as 2.30 A.M., and by
4 A.M. was already crossing the Meuse at Donchery, aided by
several pontoon and trestle bridges thrown over during the night.
Their right was covered from sight by the peninsula formed
by a bend of the river, and the march of the several columns
was unopposed till, clearing its northern extremity, they began
to deploy to their right between St Menges and Floing. Here
they encountered French outposts, which fell back on their main
position on the ridge, to the south of the Floing-Illy road.
Against this position the German artillery now pressed forward,
and seeing their exposed position, General Gallifet brought for-
ward his brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique and delivered a most
dashing charge. But being unsupported he was compelled to
withdraw again behind the cover of the Cazal-Illy ridge.
It was now about n A.M., and, whether moved by the belated
impulse of Ducrot's orders or attracted by the apparent weakness
of the Prussians within sight, the French infantry now made a
brilliant counter-attack out of their position in their usual
manner. But German reinforcements coming suddenly into
view, and their flan having spent itself, they fell back again,
holding only to Floing, whence it required nearly two hours more
to expel them.
About noon Wimpffen rode up to General Douay and asked him
whether he could hold on to his position. The latter, possibly
elated by the success of his recent attack, replied in the affirma-
tive, pointing out only the importance of maintaining the
Calvaire d'llly to the north. De Wimpffen promised him support
from the ist corps on the right rear, part of which, hidden in
the Bois de la Garenne, had as yet been little engaged, and then
rode south to Balan, where he found the I2th corps fighting
desperately. He then sent back to Douay for reinforcements,
and the latter despatched all he could spare. These, marching
south, crossed the troops of the ist corps sent to Douay's assist-
ance. The Prussian shells were already crashing into the woods
from all sides, and countless stragglers and riderless horses
caused most serious delay. To gain time, Margueritte's division
was ordered to charge. Margueritte was killed as he rode forward
to reconnoitre, and Gallifet took command. " For the next
half-hour," says the Prussian official account, " the scene defies
description. Gallifet and his squadrons covered themselves with
glory, but he had not 20x30 sabres at his disposal. Under the
storm of shell and over the broken ground manceuvring was
impossible. But a series of isolated charges were delivered with
results which convinced well-nigh every survivor that the day of
cavalry, in sufficient numbers and properly handled on the
battle-field, was by no means spent." About an hour after the
cavalry charges, between 3 and 4 P.M., the Germans at length
gathered weight enough to attempt the assault of the French
main position, and moved by a common instinct, lines of men
almost 2 m. in extent, pressed on, gaining cover from the convex
slope of the hill, till at length they were able to storm the stub-
bornly-defended ridge. Meanwhile, Wimpffen had initiated a
fresh counter-stroke from the Fond du Givonne against Balan
and Bazeilles. Carried out with magnificent courage, it swept
the Bavarians out of both villages, and for a moment the road
seemed open for escape, but Wimpffen did not know that the
IV. Prussian corps stood waiting behind the gap.
Riding back to the town to seek the emperor and implore him
to place himself at the head of all available reinforcements,
he saw a white flag break out from the steeple of the church tower,
but almost instantaneously disappear. He did indeed reach the
emperor, but, delayed by the appalling confusion, was too late.
The flag had gone up again and he knew that further resistance
was hopeless. The fighting did not cease at once. The troops he
had directed to make the final effort, their eyes fixed on the enemy
in front of them, never saw the flag; and until 6 P.M. a series
of isolated attempts were made to break the iron circle with which
the Germans had surrounded them. The emperor, who during
the early hours of the day had fearlessly courted death, at length
overcome by extreme physical pain and exhaustion, had ridden
back to the town, and about 4 P.M., seeing no hope of success,
had sent a parlementaire conveying his personal surrender to the
king of Prussia, at the same time ordering the white flag to be
hoisted. It was torn down by a Colonel Fauve, but was hoisted
again half an hour later, when Prussian troops from Cazal were
almost at the western gates of Sedan. It only remained for
Wimpffen to make terms for the army, and after a long and
gallant effort to avert the inevitable, he at length signed an
unconditional surrender, with the sole alleviation (introduced as
a tribute of respect for the gallantry shown by his men) that all
officers were to retain their swords.
Thus passed into captivity 82,000 men, 558 guns and stores
to an immense amount. The price to the victors for this result
was in round "numbers 9000. The French killed and wounded
numbered about 17,000. It is indicative of the demoralization
in the French army that this figure is 1000 less than the cost of
the victory to the Germans at Worth, although on that occasion
the French troops actually engaged numbered one half those
available at Sedan. The duration of the fighting was the same
in both cases. (F. N. M.)
SEDAN-CHAIR, a portable chair or covered vehicle, with side
windows, and entrance through a hinged doorway at the front,
the roof also opening to allow the occupant to stand. It is
carried on poles by two " chairmen." Alike in Paris and in
London the sedan-chair man was an institution in the one
Sedan-Chair (after Hogarth).
city he was usually an Auvergnat, in the other an Irishman.
The sedan-chair was a fashionable mode of transport in towns
up to a century or so ago. It took its name from the town of
Sedan, in France, where it was first used, and was introduced into
England by Sir S. Duncombe in 1634. Although a typically
18th-century vehicle it was used in the I7th, and had been known
much earlier. Indeed, the ancient sedia gestatoria of the popes
is really a rudimentary form of sedan-chair. These vehicles were
SEDBERGH SEDGWICK, A.
577
often beautifully painted, even the greatest French pastoralists
not disdaining to embellish their panels. It is still in use at
the public baths at Ischl, in Austria, and also in the city of Bath,
England, as a mode of transit in connexion with the medical
baths. The sedan-chair can be taken into the bedroom, and the
invalid conveyed without exposure to the outer air to and from
the mineral-water bath. The poles are so arranged that the
chair may be carried up and down stairs and still preserve
its horizontal position.
SEDBERGH, a market town in the Skipton parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 28! m. S.S.E.
of Penrith by a branch of the London & North- Western railway.
Pop. (1901) 2430. It is pleasantly situated at the junction of
several small streams forming the river Lune, in a deep valley
surrounded by high-lying moors. The church of St Andrew is
principally late Norman. The grammar school was founded by
Dr Roger Lupton, provost of Eton College, in 1528, but as it was
connected with a chantry it was suppressed by Henry VIII., to
be refounded in 1551 by Edward VI.; it now takes rank among
the important public schools.
SEDDON, RICHARD JOHN (1845-1906), New Zealand
statesman, was born at Eccleston, Lancashire, England, in 1845,
his father being a schoolmaster at Eccleston Hill school. He was
brought up to the engineering trade, and when eighteen went
to Australia and entered the railway workshops at Melbourne.
He was caught by the " gold fever " and went to Bendigo, where
he spent some time in the diggings; but in 1866 he joined an
uncle on the west coast of New Zealand, starting work as a miner.
In 1869 he married Miss Louisa Jane Spotswood, of Melbourne.
In the same year he was elected to a seat on his local Road
Board, and he was soon returned to the Westland Provincial
Council for the Arahura district, becoming its first chairman
of committees. In 1879 he was returned to the New Zealand
parliament for Kumara, and sat for that constituency for twenty-
six years, though its name was changed to Westland. He was
a member of the Ballance ministry (1891), holding the portfolios
for public works, defence and mines; and on Ballance 's death
(1893) became premier, a position he retained till his sudden
death on the loth of June 1906. During these years Seddon
held a unique place in the public life of New Zealand, and in
its relations with the empire. He combined his premiership
with various offices as colonial treasurer, minister for education,
postmaster-general, telegraph commissioner, minister of marine,
minister for land purchase, and minister for labour, but his
strenuous personality, and the confidence inspired by his deter-
mination to make New Zealand a living force among the
British dominions, were the dominating features in all his course
of action. His large physique, his profound earnestness, his
gift of popular oratory, his expansive kindliness and his power
of dealing with men, made him supreme among his own people.
He became known in a wider sphere after his attending the
colonial conference in London in 1897, and thenceforth he was
regarded as one of the pillars of British imperialism. During the
Boer War, and afterwards in the movement for preferential
trade with the colonies, he was an enthusiastic supporter of Mr
Chamberlain, though he was characteristically outspoken in
opposition to the introduction of Chinese labour into South
Africa. His rough and ready views were frequently open to
criticism, but his vigorous patriotism and intensity of character
give him a permanent place among those who have worked for
the consolidation of the British dominions.
A Life, by J. Drummond, was published in 1907.
SEDDON, THOMAS (1821-1856), English landscape painter,
was born in London on the 28th of August 1821. His father
was a cabinetmaker, and the son for some time followed the same
occupation; but in 1842 he was sent to Paris to study ornamental
art. On his return he executed designs for furniture for his father.
In 1849 he made sketching expeditions in Wales and France,
and in 1852 began to exhibit in the Royal Academy, sending a
figure-piece, Penelope, and afterwards landscapes, deriving their
subjects from Brittany. In the end of 1853 he joined Holman
Hunt at Cairo. He worked for a year in Egypt and Palestine,
xxrv. 19
executing views which Ruskin pronounced to be " the first
landscapes uniting perfect artistical skill with topographical
accuracy; being directed, with stern self-restraint, to no other
purpose than that of giving to persons who cannot travel trust-
worthy knowledge of the scenes which ought to be most interesting
to them." Seddon's Eastern subjects were exhibited in Berners
Street, London, in 1855, and in Conduit Street in 1856. In
October 1856 Seddon again visited Cairo, where he died on
the 23rd of November. In 1857 his works were exhibited in the
rooms of the Society of Arts, and his important and elaborately
finished picture, " Jerusalem and the Valley of Jehoshaphat,"
was purchased by subscription and presented to the National
Gallery.
A memoir of Seddon, by his brother, was published in 1859.
SEDERUNT, ACT OF, in Scots law, an ordinance for regulating
the forms of judicial procedure before the Court of Session, passed
by the judges under authority of a power originally conferred
by an act of the Scottish parliament, 1540, c. 93. A quorum of
nine judges is required to pass an act of Sederunt.
SEDGLEY, an urban district of Staffordshire, England,
between Dudley and Wolverhampton, in the parliamentary
borough of Wolverhampton. Pop. (1901) 15,951. The district
abounds in coal, lime and ironstone. Nails, rivets, chains,
fire-irons, locks and safes are produced. The parish includes
the large manufacturing districts of Upper and Lower Gornal,
Coseley and Deepfields, the last having a station on the London
& North-Western railway, 10 m. W.N.W. from Birmingham.
SEDGWICK, ADAM (1785-1873), English geologist, was born
on the 22nd of March 1785 at Dent in Yorkshire, the second
son of Richard Sedgwick, vicar of the parish. He was educated
at the Grammar Schools of Dent and Sedbergh, and at Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. as fifth wrangler
in 1808, and two years later was elected a Fellow of his college.
For several years he was occupied as private tutor and afterwards
as assistant mathematical tutor at Trinity College. In 1818
he was admitted to priests' orders. He had at this time paid no
serious attention to geology. As a lad he had collected fossils
from the Mountain Limestone near Dent, and in 1813 he had
visited the mines near Furness and Coniston. Nevertheless,
when the Rev. John Hailstone retired in 1818 from the post of
Woodwardian professor of geology, Sedgwick applied for the
vacancy, and was so strongly supported by his college as a man
of talent that he was elected by a large majority. He now
took up the study of geology with intense zeal, traversed large
areas in the south of England, and, becoming acquainted with
W. D. Conybeare, regarded him as his master in geology. It
is astonishing with what rapidity he grasped the principles of
stratigraphies! geology and the relationships of rocks in the
field. In papers read before the Cambridge Philosophical
Society, 1820-1821, on the structure of parts of Devonshire and
Cornwall, he made observations of exceptional interest and
value. Of this society in 1819 he had been one of the founders
with J. S. Henslow. Every year for a long period now brought
its season of field-work. Sedgwick dealt with the geology of
the Isle of Wight, and with the strata of the Yorkshire coast
(in papers published in the Annals of Philosophy, 1822, 1826);
and he examined the rocks of the north of Scotland with
Murchison in 1827. He contributed an important essay On
the Geological Relations and Internal Structure of the Magnesian
Limestone to the Geological Society of London (1828). As early
as 1822 he had begun to make a detailed geological map of the
older rocks of the Lake District; he continued these researches
whereby the main structure of this mountain region was first
unravelled, in succeeding years; and the principal results were
brought before the Geological Society (1831-1836). Meanwhile
he was elected president of the Geological Society in 1829-1830,
and in 1831 he commenced field-work in North Wales. His chief
attention was now concentrated on the older rocks of England
and Wales. Murchison began the task of unravelling the
structure of the older rocks on the Welsh borders in the same year.
They had intended to start together, but the arrangements
fell through, and thus they began their labours independently
SEDGWICK, J. SEDITION
and from opposite sides of the principality. Eventually Sedg-
wick founded the Cambrian system for the oldest group of
fossiliferous strata, and Murchison the Silurian system for the
great group immediately below the Old Red Sandstone. Their
systems were found to overlap Sedgwick's Upper Cambrian
and Murchison's Lower Silurian being practically equivalent.
Hence arose a painful controversy that has only of late years
been terminated by the adoption of Professor C. Lapworth's
term Ordovician in place of the Upper Cambrian of Sedgwick
and the Lower Silurian of Murchison.
Sedgwick was ever actively interested in the work of his
university. His famous Discourse on the Studies of the University
of Cambridge, delivered in i832,was published in expanded form
in 1833; it reached a fifth edition in 1850. The studies were
reviewed under the headings of (i) The laws of nature, (2)
Ancient literature and language, and (3) Ethics and metaphysics;
and the volume had so grown that it ultimately consisted of
442 pages of preface, or preliminary dissertation on the history
of creation, with arguments against the transmutation of species,
and an essay on the evidences of Christianity; the discourse
occupied 94 pages; and there was an appendix of notes, &c.,
that filled 228 pages.
In 1833 Sedgwick was president of the British Association
at the first Cambridge meeting, and in 1834 he was appointed a
canon of Norwich. In 1836 with Murchison he made a special
study of the Culm-measures of Devonshire, which until that
time had been grouped with the greywacke, and together they
demonstrated that the main mass of the strata belonged to the
age of the true Coal Measures. Continuing their researches into
the bordering strata they were able to show in 1839, from the
determinations of William Lonsdale, that the fossils of the South
Devon limestones and those of Ilfracombe and other parts of
North Devon were of an intermediate type between those of the
Silurian and Carboniferous systems. They therefore introduced
the term Devonian for the great group of slates, grits and lime-
stones, now known under that name in West Somerset, Devon and
Cornwall. These results were published in the great memoir by
Sedgwick and Murchison, " On the Physical Structure of Devon-
shire " (Trans. Geol. Soc., 1839). Of later published works it will
be sufficient to mention A Synopsis of the Classification of the
British Palaeozoic Rocks (1855), which contained a systematic
description of the fossils by F. McCoy. Also the preface by
Sedgwick to A Catalogue of the collection of Cambrian and Silurian
Fossils contained in the Geological Museum of the University of
Cambridge, by J. W. Salter (1873).
The Wollaston Medal of the Geological Society was awarded
to Sedgwick in 1851, and the Copley Medal of the Royal Society
in 1863. He continued to lecture until 1872, when ill-health
rendered necessary the appointment of a deputy (Professor J.
Morris). He died at Cambridge on the 27th of January
1873-
In 1865 the senate of the university received from A. A. Van
Sittart the sum of 500 " for the purpose of encouraging the study
of geology among the resident members of the university, and in
honour of the Rev. Adam Sedgwick." Thus was founded the
Sedgwick prize to be given every third year for the best essay on
some geological subject. The first Sedgwick prize was awarded in
1873. On the death of Sedgwick it was decided that his memorial
should take the form of a new and larger museum. Hitherto the
geological collections had been placed in the Woodwardian Museum
in Cockerell's Building. Through the energy of Professor T. McK.
Hughes (successor to Sedgwick) the new building termed the Sedg-
wick Museum was completed and opened in 1903.
See the Life and Letters,by John Willis Clark and Thomas McKenny
Hughes (1890).
SEDGWICK, JOHN (1813-1864), American general, was born
at Cornwall, Connecticut, on the i3th of September 1813, and
graduated at West Point in 1837. Amongst his classmates were
Joseph Hooker, firaxton Bragg and J. A. Early. He saw active
service against the Seminoles in Florida, and took part as an
artillery officer in the Mexican War, winning the brevets of
captain and major for his conduct at Contreras-Churubusco
and Chapultepec. In command first of a brigade and later of a
division in the Army of the Potomac, he took part in the Seven
Days' and Maryland campaigns. At the battle of Antietam he
was twice wounded, but remained on the field. Soon afterwards
he was given command of the VI. corps, in which position he
took an important part in the battle of Chancellorsville, capturing
the famous lines of Fredericksburg and fighting the severe
battle of Bank's Ford. The VI. corps bore a share in the battle
of Gettysburg, having made a fine forced march to the field.
Sedgwick had been offered the chief command of the army upon
Hooker's resignation; but he declined, -and retained his command
of the VI. corps during the Virginian campaign of the autumn of
1863, being on several occasions placed by Meade in charge of a
wing of the army. He was also given the command of the whole
army in Meade's absence. At the action of Rappahannock
station Sedgwick by a brilliant night attack destroyed two
brigades of Early 's division (November 7th). When Grant
became commanding-general and the Army of the Potomac was
reorganized in three corps, the VI. was one of these, and Sedgwick
thus led his old corps, now greatly augmented, at the battle of
the Wilderness. At the opening of the battle of Spottsylvania
Court House, Sedgwick was killed (gth of May 1864) by a shot
from a Confederate skirmisher. A monument to his memory,
cast from the guns taken in action by the VI. corps, was erected
at West Point in 1868.
SEDILIA (the plural of Lat. sedile, seat), in ecclesiastical
architecture, the term given to the seats on the south side of
the chancel near the altar for the use of the officiating priests.
They are generally three in number, for the priest, deacon and
sub-deacon. The custom of recessing them in the thickness of
the wall began about the end of the i2th century; some early
examples consist only of stone benches, and there is one instance
of a single seat or arm-chair in stone at Lenham in Kent, thought
by some to be a confessional. The niches or recesses in which
they are sunk are often richly decorated with canopies and
subdivided with moulded shafts, pinnacles and tabernacle work;
the seats are sometimes at different levels, the eastern being
always the highest, and sometimes an additional niche is pro-
vided in which the piscina is placed.
SEDITION (Lat. se or sed, apart, and ire, to go, a going apart,
dissension), in law, an attempt to disturb the tranquillity of the
state. In Roman law sedition was considered as majestas or
treason. In English law it is a very elastic term, including
offences ranging from libel to treason (q.v.). It is rarely used
except in its adjectival form, e.g. seditious libel, seditious meeting
or seditious conspiracy. " As to sedition itself," says Mr Justice
Stephen, " I do not think that any such offence is known to
English law " (Hist. Crim. Law, vol. ii. chap, xxiv.). 1 The
principal enactments now in force dealing with seditious offences
were all passed during the last twenty-five years of the reign of
George III. They are the Unlawful Oaths Act 1797, prohibiting
the administering or taking of unlawful oaths (see OATH) or the
belonging to an unlawful confederacy; the Unlawful Drilling
Act 1819-1820 prohibited unlawful drilling and military exer-
cises; and the acts for the suppression of corresponding societies,
the Unlawful Societies Act 1799 and the Seditious Meetings
Act 1817. No proceedings can be instituted under these last
two acts without the authority of the law officers of the crown
(Corresponding Societies, &c., Act, 184^6). Under the head of
statutes aimed at seditious offences may also be classed statutes
of Richard II. (1378, 1388) against scandalum magnalum or
slander of great men, such as peers, judges or great officers of
state, whereby discord may arise within the realm, and a statute
of Charles II. (1661) against tumultuous petitioning (see PETI-
TION) . There has been no prosecution for many years for seditious
words as distinguished from seditious libel, but such words have
been admitted as evidence in proceedings for seditious conspiracy
(q.v.), as in the prosecution of O'Connell in 1844 and of C.
Parnell and others in 1880 (see Reg. v. Parnell, Cox's Criminal
Cases, vol. xiv. 508). By the Prison Act 1877, any prisoner under
sentence for sedition or seditious libel is to be treated as a
misdemeanant of the first division.
'The word " sedition " occurs, however, in the Prison Act 1877,
s. 40.
SEDLEY SEDUCTION
579
Scotland. " All acts by which the minds of the people may be
incited to defeat the government or control legislation by violent
or unconstitutional means are seditious " (Macdonald, Criminal
Law, 229). Sedition is punishable by fine or imprisonment or both
(Punishment of Leasing-making, &c., 1825). A very large number
of acts of the Scottish parliament dealt with sedition, beginning as
early as 1184 with the assize of William the Lion, c. 29. Leasing-
making is to be distinguished from sedition, as it attacked only the
sovereign individually, not the government.
United States. In the acts of Congress the word " sedition "
appears to occur only in the army and navy articles. A soldier
joining any sedition or who, being present at any sedition, does not
use his utmost endeavour to suppress the same, is punishable with
death or such other punishment as a court-martial shall direct
(U.S. Rev. Stats. 1342, arts. 22, 23). A sailor uttering seditious
words is punishable at the discretion of a court-martial. In 1798
an act of Congress called the Sedition Act was passed, which expired
by effluxion of time in 1801. Its constitutionality was violently
assailed at the time and it "was beyond all question condemned by
public sentiment " as " susceptible of being used for purposes of
oppression and terrorism." (See Story on the constitution of the
United States, 1293-1294.) Several prosecutions under the act
will be found in Wharton's State Trials. Sedition is also dealt with
by the state laws mostly in a very liberal spirit. Thus the Louisiana
Code, 394, enacted that " there is no such offence known to our
law as defamation of the government or either of its branches,
either under the name of libel, slander, seditious writing or other
appellation." By in, to constitute the offence of sedition " there
must be not only a design to dismember the state, or to subvert or
change its constitution, but an attempt must be made to do it by
force. It has been held that publications which tend to degrade
and vilify the constitution, to promote insurrection and circulate
discontent through its members, to asperse its justice and anywise
impair the exercise of its functions are seditious and are visited with
the peculiar rigour of the law (1805, Respub. v. Dennie, 4 Yeates
(Penna), 267). The defendant was indicted " as a factitious and
seditious person of a wicked mind and unquiet and turbulent dis-
position and conversation, seditiously, maliciously and wilfully
intending as much as in him lay to bring into contempt and hatred
the independence of the United States, the constitution of this
commonwealth and of the United States, to excite popular dis-
content and dissatisfaction against the scheme of polity instituted
and upon trial in the said United States and in the said common-
wealth, to molest, disturb and destroy the peace and public tran-
quillity of the said United States ... to condemn the principles
of revolution and revile, depreciate and scandalize the characters
of the revolutionary patriots and statesmen, to endanger, subvert
and totally destroy the republican constitutions and free govern-
ments of the United States ... to involve (it) ... in civil war,
desolation and anarchy and to procure by art and force a radical
change and alteration in the principles and forms of the said con-
stitutions and governments without the free will and concurrence
of the people o? the United States, and to fulfil, perfect and bring
to effect his wicked, seditious and detestable intentions aforesaid
he the said Joseph Dennie on the 23rd of April 1803 at the city of
Philadelphia falsely, maliciously, factiously and seditiously did
make, compose, write and publish the following libel, to wit, ' a
democracy is scarcely tolerable at any period of national history.
Its omens are always sinister and its powers are unpropitious ; it
was weak and wicked at Athens, it was bad in Sparta and worse in
Rome. ... It was tried in England and rejected with the utmost
loathing and abhorrence. It is on its trial here and its issue will be
civil war, desolation and anarchy. . . . No honest man but proclaims
its fraud, and no brave man but draws his sword against its force,'
&c., &c." The defendant was found not guilty.
Continent of Europe. The continental codes as a rule are little
more definite than English law in their treatment of sedition. In
Germany a distinction is drawn between Auflauf, the remaining
together of a mob after the authorities have thrice bid it disperse,
and Aufruhr or Auf stand, an organized resistance to the authorities;
but no definition is given of the terms. The Hungarian penal code
defines Auf stand to be an armed assembly which has the intention
of attacking a class of citizens, a nationality or a religious body.
The French penal code recognizes a difference between sedition and
reunion s6ditieu^e. If carried out with sufficient numbers and
sufficient force sedition becomes rebellion. Section 100 exempts
from the penalties of sedition those who have merely been present
at a seditious meeting without taking any active part therein, and
have dispersed at the first warning of the military or civil authorities.
SEDLEY, SIR CHARLES (c. 1630-1701), English wit and
dramatist, was born about 1639, and was the son of Sir John
Sedley of Aylesford in Kent. He was educated at Wadham
College, Oxford, but left without taking a degree. Sedley is
famous as a patron of literature in the Restoration period, and
was the " Lisideius " of Dryden's Essay of Dramatic Poesy.
His most famous song, " Phyllis is my only joy," is much more
widely known now than the author's name. His first comedy,
The Mulberry Garden (1668), hardly sustains Sedley's contem-
porary reputation for wit in conversation. The best, but most
licentious, of his comedies is Bellamira; or The Mistress (1687),
an imitation of the Eunuchus of Terence, in which the heroine
is supposed to represent the duchess of Cleveland, the mistress
of Charles II. His two tragedies, Antony and Cleopatra (1667)
and The Tyrant King of Crete (1702), an adaptation of Henry
Kilh'grew's Pallantus and Eudora, have little merit. He also
produced The Grumbler (1702), an adaptation of Le Grandeur of
Brueys and Palaprat. An indecent frolic in Bow Street, for
which he was heavily fined, made Sedley notorious. He was
member of parliament for New Romney in Kent, and took an
active and useful part in politics. A speech of his on the civil
list after the Revolution is cited by Macaulay as a proof that his
reputation as a man of wit and ability was deserved. His ban
mot at the expense of James II. is well known. The king had
seduced his daughter and created her countess of Dorchester,
whereupon Sedley remarked that he hated ingratitude, and, as
the king had made his daughter a countess, he would endeavour
to make the king's daughter a queen. He died on the 2oth of
August 1701.
His only child, CATHERINE, countess of Dorchester (c. 1657-
1717), was the mistress of James II. both before and after he
came to the throne, and was created a countess in 1686, an ele-
vation which aroused much indignation and compelled Catherine
to reside for a time in Ireland. In 1696 she married Sir David
Colyear, Bart. (d. 1730), who was created earl of Portmore in
1703, and she was thus the mother of Charles Colyear, 2nd earl
of Portmore (1700-1785). She died at Bath on the z6th of
October 1717, when her life peerage became extinct. By
James II. Lady Dorchester had a daughter Catherine (d. 1743),
who married James Annesley, earl of Anglesey (d. 1702), and
after his death married John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham.
Through Catherine, her daughter by her first husband, she was
the ancestress of the Barons Mulgrave.
See The Works of Sir Charles Sedley in Prose and Verse (1778),
with a slight notice of the author.
SEDUCTION (from Lat. seducer e, to lead astray), a term
generally used in the special sense of wrongfully inducing a
woman to consent to sexual intercourse. The action for seduc-
tion of an unmarried woman in England stands in a somewhat
anomalous position. The theory of English law is that the
woman herself has suffered no wrong; the wrong has been
suffered by the parent or person in loco parentis, who must sue
for the damage arising from the loss of service caused by the
seduction of the woman. Some evidence of service must be
given, but very slight evidence will be sufficient, even making
of tea, milking cows, minding children or any small household
work. It is no bar if a daughter is out at work during the day
time, provided she assists in the household when she comes
home hi the evening. The relationship of master and servant
must, however, exist, and the action must be brought by the
person with whom the seduced girl was residing at the time,
whether in the capacity of daughter and servant, ward and
servant, or servant only. It is so seldom indeed that an action
is brought against a seducer when the seduced girl is a servant
only, that what Serjeant Manning wrote many years ago is still
painfully true: " The quasi fiction of seriiitium amisit affords
protection to the rich man whose daughter occasionally makes
his tea, but leaves without redress the poor man whose child
is sent unprotected to earn her bread amongst strangers " (note
to Grinnell v. Wells, 1844, 7 M. & G. 1044). This capricious
working of the action for seduction is somewhat obviated in
Scots law, under which the seduced woman may sue on her own
account, but only if deceit has been used, and most often there
is a difficulty in showing that the deceit alone was the cause of
the injury. Although the action is nominally for loss of service,
still exemplary damages are given for the dishonour of the
plaintiff's family beyond recompense for the mere loss of service.
An action for seduction cannot be brought in the county court
except by agreement of the parties. As to seduction of a married
woman, the old action for criminal conversation was abolished
5 8
SEDULIUS SEELEY
by the Divorce Act 1857 which substituted for it a claim for
damages against the co-respondent in a divorce suit; but if a
married woman were living apart from her husband in her
father's house, and giving her services to her father in the slightest
degree, an action for seduction would lie. Seduction in England
is not as a rule a criminal offence. But a conspiracy to seduce
is indictable at common law. And the Criminal Law Amend-
ment Act 1885 (which extends to the United Kingdom) makes
it felony to seduce a girl under the the age of thirteen, and mis-
demeanour to seduce a girl between thirteen and sixteen ( 4,5).
The same act also deals severely with the cognate offences of
procuration, abduction and unlawful detention with the intent
to seduce a woman of any age. The Children Act 1908 gave
a further protection to young people, enacting that if any
person having the custody, charge or care of a girl under the
age of sixteen causes or encourages the seduction of that girl he
shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and be liable to imprison-
ment, with or without hard labour, for a term not exceeding
two years.
United States. In the United States state legislation has generally
modified the common law. In some states the father brings the
action as the representative of the family whose purity has been in-
vaded; in others the woman herself may bring the action. In many
states there is a criminal as well as a civil remedy. The penal codes
of New York, New Jersey, Louisiana and other states make it a crime
to seduce under promise of marriage an unmarried woman of good
reputation. Subsequent intermarriage of the parties is in most cases
a bar to criminal proceedings. . The state legislation of the United
States is in remarkable opposition to the rule of the canon law, by
which the seduction of a woman by her betrothed was not punish-
able on account of the inchoate right over her person given by the
betrothal.
SEDULIUS. COELIUS or CAELTUS (a praenomen of doubtful
authenticity), a Christian poet of the first half of the 5th century,
is termed a presbyter by Isidore of Seville and in the Gelasian
decree. He must not be confused with Sedulius the Irish-Scot
grammarian of the 9th century. His fame rests mainly upon a
long poem, Carmen paschale, based on the four gospels. In
style a bombastic imitator of Virgil, he shows, nevertheless, a
certain freedom in the handling of the Biblical story, and the
poem soon became a quarry for the minor poets. A hymn by
Sedulius in honour of Christ, consisting of twenty-three quat-
rains of iambic dimeters, has partly passed into the liturgy,
the first seven quatrains forming the Christmas hymn A solis
ortus cardine, and some later ones the Epiphany hymn, Hostis
Herodes impie. A Veleris et novi Teslamenti coUatio in elegiac
couplets has also come down, but we have no grounds for ascrib-
ing to him the Virgilian cento, De verbi incarnatione.
Sedulius's works were edited by F. Arevalo (Rome, 1794), re-
printed in J. P. Migne's Patrol. Lat. vol. xix.; and finally by J.
Huemer (Vienna, 1885). See J. Huemer, De Sedulii poetae vita et
scriptis commentatio (Vienna, 1878); M. Manitius, Geschichte der
Mistlich-lateinischen Poesie (Stuttgart, 1891); Teuffel-Schwabe,
Hist, of Roman Lit. (Eng. trans.), 473; Herzog-Hauck, Realency-
klopddie fur protestantische Theologie, xviii. (Leipzig, 1906) : Smith
and Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography (1887).
SEDUH, in botany, a genus of the natural order Crassulaceae,
containing about 1 20 species, natives chiefly of the north temper-
ate and frigid regions, and mostly perennial herbs with succulent
leaves of varied form, but never compound. The white or'yellow,
rarely pink or blue, flowers are usually small and grouped in
cymes. They have a calyx of fine sepals, as many petals, usually
ten stamens and five distinct carpels, which have as many glands
at their base and ripen into as many dry seed-pods. Several
species are British, including some with tuberous roots and large
leaves ( Telephium\ and others of smaller size, chiefly found on
rocks, walls and dry banks; 5. acre is stonecrop (see fig. i),
well known also in gardens, a variety of which, aureum, is in
cultivation with golden-yellow tips to the leaves and shoots.
Many others are cultivated for the beauty of their foliage or
flowers, and many are remarkable for their vitality under- adverse
circumstances. They succeed on rockwork, old walls or as
border plants; some, e.g. S. Lydium, a native of Asia Minor, are
excellent for carpet bedding. S. spectabile, i to ij ft., with pink
flowers in great cymose heads, is a fine plant for the borders,
and worthy also of pot-culture for greenhouse decoration.
5. Sieboldi and its variegated form, from Japan, are often grown
Sedum acre (Stonecrop), f nat. size. (After Curtis.)
Flora Lindinensis. i, Diagram of flower; 2, flower enlarged.
in hanging pots or baskets in cottage windows. Sedums are very
closely allied to Sempervivums (see HOUSELEEK).
SEE (Lat. sedes, a seat), a seat or throne, particularly the
throne of a bishop, the cathedra, the symbol of his office and
dignity, the placing of which in a church makes it a cathedral
(q.v.). The term is thus applied to the place where the bishop's
cathedral is situated and from which he properly takes his
title, and so is to be distinguished from diocese(g.i>.), the territorial
province over which his jurisdiction extends (see BISHOP).
SEEBACH, MARIE (1830-1897), German actress, was born at
Riga, in Russia, on the 24th of February 1830, being the daughter
of an actor, Wilhelm Friedrich Seebach (1798-1863). After
appearing first at Nuremberg as Julie in Kean, she played
soubrette parts at Liibeck, Danzig and Cassel. In 1852 she
achieved her first great success at the Thaliatheater in Hamburg
as Gretchen in Goethe's Faust, and she remained there until
1854, when she appeared in Vienna. She then played in Munich,
establishing her reputation as a tragic actress with the r61es of
Jane Eyre and Adrienne Lecouvreur. From 1855 to 1866 she was
engaged at the court theatre at Hanover, and there in 1859 she
married the tenor Albert Niemann. In 1866 she followed her
husband to Berlin, but separated from him after two years.
In 1870-1871 she visited the United States, and gave in
seventeen cities no less than 160 performances mostly of
Faust; and in 1886 she accepted a permanent engagement at
the Schauspielhaus in Berlin. She retired from the stage in
1897, and died on the 3rd of August of that year. In 1895 she
endowed a home for poor actors and actresses at Weimar, called
the Marie Seebach Stiftung.
See Gensichen, Aus Marie Seebachs Leben (Berlin, 1900).
SEED (from the root seen in Lat. serere, to sow), the fertilized
ovule of plants. The seeds of the cryptogams or flowerless
plants are not true seeds and are properly designated " spores "
(see FRUIT). For the sowing of seed see SOWING.
SEELEY, SIR JOHN ROBERT (1834-1895), English essayist
and historian, was born in London in 1834. His father, R. B.
Seeley, was a publisher, and author of several religious books
and of The Life and Times of Edward I., which was highly
esteemed by historians. From his father Seeley doubtless derived
his taste for religious and historical subjects. He was educated
at the City of London School and at Christ's College, Cambridge,
where he was head of the classical tripos and senior chancellor's
medallist, was elected fellow and became classical tutor of his
college. For a time he was a master at his old school, and in
1863 was appointed professor of Latin at University College,
London. His essay Ecce Homo, published anonymously in 1866,
and afterwards owned by him, was widely read, and called for
SEES SEGANTINI
581
many replies, being held to be an attack on Christianity. Dealing
only with Christ's humanity, it dwells on his work as the founder
and king of a theocratic state, and points out the effect which
this society, his church, has had upon the standard and active
practice of morality among men. Some who comdemned the
book seem to have forgotten that it was avowedly " a fragment,"
and that the author does not deny the truth of doctrines which
he does not discuss. Its literary merit is unquestionable; it
is written with vigour and dignity; its short and pointed
sentences are never jerky, and there is a certain stateliness in
the admirable order of their sequence. His later essay on Natural
Religion, which, premising that supernaturalism is not essential
to religion, maintains that the negations of science tend to purify
rather than destroy Christianity, satisfied neither the Christian
nor the scientist, and though well written excited far less interest
than his earlier work. In 1869 he was appointed professor of
modern history at Cambridge. His influence as a teacher was
stimulating; he prepared his lectures carefully and they were
largely attended. In historical work he is distinguished as a
thinker rather than a scholar. Avoiding research and disliking
all attempts at a picturesque representation of the past, he valued
history solely in its relation to politics, as the science of the state.
He maintained that it should be studied scientifically and for
a practical purpose, that its function was the solution of existing
political questions. Hence he naturally devoted himself mainly
to recent history, and specially to the relations between England
and other states. His Life and Times of Stein, a valuable
narrative of the anti-Napoleonic revolt, led by Prussia mainly
at Stein's instigation, was written under German influence,
and shows little of the style of his short essays. Its length,
its colourlessness, and the space it devotes to subsidiary matters
render it unattractive. Far otherwise is it with his Expansion
of England (1883). Written in his best manner, this essay
answers to his theory that history should be used for a practical
purpose; it points out how and why Great Britain gained her
colonies and India, the character of her empire, and the light
in which it should be regarded. As an historical essay the book
is a fine composition, and as a defence of the empire is unanswer-
able and inspiring. It appeared at an opportune time, and did
much to make Englishmen regard the colonies, not as mere
appendages, but as an expansion of the British state as well as
of British nationality, and to remind them of the value of Great
Britain's empire in the East. Seeley was rewarded for this
public service by being made K.C.M.G., on the recommendation
of Lord Rosebery. His last book, The Growth of British Policy,
written as an essay and intended to be an introduction to a
full account of the expansion of Great Britain, was published
posthumously. Seeley died on the I3th of January 1895.
He married in 1869 Miss Mary Agnes Phillott, who survived
him.
See G. W. Prothero, Memoir prefixed to Growth of British Policy
(London, 1895). (W. Hu.)
SEES, a town of north-western France, in the department of
Orne, on the river Orne 3 m. from its source and 13 m. N.N.E.
of Alenfon by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 2612; commune, 3982.
The town is a bishop's see and has a Gothic cathedral remarkable
for the boldness of its architecture. The church dates from the
i3th and i4th centuries and occupies the site of three earlier
churches. The west front, which is disfigured by the buttresses
projecting beyond it, has two stately spires of open work 230
ft. high. The nave was built towards the end of the i3th century.
The choir, built soon afterwards, is remarkable for the lightness
of its construction. In the choir are four bas-reliefs of great
beauty representing scenes in the life of the Virgin; and the
altar is adorned with another depicting the removal of the relics
of St Gervais and St Protais. The church has constantly been
the object of restoration and reconstruction. Other noteworthy
buildings are the episcopal palace (1778), with a pretty chapel;
the higher seminary, located in the old abbey of St Martin (sup-
posed to be one of the fourteen or fifteen monasteries founded in
the 6th century by St Evroult); and the sumptuous modern
chapel of the Immaculate Conception, a resort of pilgrims.
The first bishop of Sees (Saium, Sagium) was St Lain, who
lived about the 4th century. In the gth century Sees was a
fortified town and fell a prey to the Normans. At that period
Sees consisted of two distinct parts, separated by the Orne the
bishop's burgh, and to the south, the new or count's burgh
(Bourg le Comte). From 1356 the counts of Alenfon were its
possessors. It was captured and recaptured in the wars between
Henry II. of England and his sons. In the Hundred Years' War
it was one of the first towns of Normandy to fall into the hands of
the English (1418). Pillaged by the Protestants during the Wars
of Religion, Sees attached itself to the League in 1589, but
voluntarily surrendered to Henry IV. in 1590.
SEETZEN, ULRICH JASPER (i 767-18! i), German explorer
of Arabia and Palestine, was born, the son of a yeoman, in the
little lordship of Jever in German Frisia on the 3oth of January
1767. His father, who was a man of substance, sent him to the
university of Gottingen, where he graduated in medicine. His
chief interests, however, were in natural history and technology;
he wrote papers on both these subjects which gained him some
reputation, and had both in view in making a series of journeys
through Holland and Germany. He also engaged in various
small manufactures, and in 1802 obtained a government post in
Jever. In 1801, however, the interest which he had long felt
in geographical exploration culminated in a resolution to travel.
In the summer of 1802 he started down the Danube with a
companion Jacobsen, who broke down at Smyrna a year later.
His journey was by Constantinople, where he stayed six months,
thence through Asia Minor to Smyrna, then again through the
heart of Asia Minor to Aleppo, where he remained from November
1803 to April 1805, and made himself sufficiently at home with
Arabic speech and ways to travel as a native. Now began the
part of his travels of which a full journal has been published (April
1805 to March 1809), a series of most instructive journeys in
eastern and western Palestine and the wilderness of Sinai, and
so on to Cairo and the Fayum. His chief exploit was a tour round
the Dead Sea, which he made without a companion and in
the disguise of a beggar. From Egypt he went by sea to Jidda
and reached Mecca as a pilgrim in October 1809. In Arabia he
made extensive journeys, ranging from Medina to Lahak and
returning to Mocha, from which place his last letters to Europe
were written in November 1810. In September of the following
year he left Mocha with the hope of reaching Muscat, and was
found dead two days later, having, it is believed, been poisoned
by the command of the imam of Sana.
For the parts of Seetzen's journeys not covered by the published
journal (Reisen, ed. Kruse, 4 vols., Berlin, 1854), the only printed
records are a series of letters and papers in Zach's Monatliche Corre-
spondent- and Hammer's Fundgruben. Many papers and collections
were lost through his death or never reached Europe. The collections
that were saved form the Oriental museum and the chief part of
the Oriental MSS. of the ducal library in Gotha.
SEGANTINI, GIOVANNI (1858-1899), Italian painter, was
born at Arco in the Trentino on the isth of June 1858. His
mother, who died in 1863, belonged to an old family of 'the
mountain country. His father, who was a man of the people,
went to Milan, whence he set forth with another son to seek his
fortune, leaving Giovanni behind. At the age of seven the child
ran away; he was found perishing of cold and hunger, and was
obliged to earn his bread by keeping the flocks on the hills. He
spent his long hours of solitude in drawing. Owing to his fame
having reached the ears of a syndic, he was sent back to Milan;
but, unable to endure domestic life, he soon escaped again, and
led a wandering life till he met at Arco with his half-brother,
who offered him the place of cashier in his provision shop. After
more flights and more returns, Segantini remained at Milan to
attend classes at the Brera, earning a living meanwhile by giving
lessons and painting portraits. His first picture, " The Choir
of Sant Antonio," was noticed for its powerful quality. After
painting this, however, he shook himself free by degrees of
academical teaching, as in his picture " The Ship." He subse-
quently painted " The Falconer " and " The Dead Hero," and
then settled in Brianza, near Como. There he gave himself up
to the study of mountain life, and became in truth the painter of
SEGESTA SEGOVIA
the Alps. At this time he painted the " Ave Maria," which took
a gold medal at the Amsterdam Exhibition (1883), " Mothers,"
" After a Storm in the Alps," " A Kiss," and " Moonlight Effect."
Deeply impressed by Millet, the artist nevertheless quickly
strove to reassert his individuality, as may be seen in " The
Drinking-place," which gained a gold medal in Paris (1889),
"In the Sheep-fold," "By the Spinning-wheel," and " Ploughing
in the Engadine," for which he was awarded a gold medal at the
Turin Exhibition (1892). Besides those works in which he studied
simple effects of light and Alpine scenery, such as " Midday on
the Alps " and " Winter at Savognino," he also painted sym-
bolical subjects: "The Punishment of Luxury," and the
" Unnatural Mothers " (in the Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool).
Segantini died at Maloja in October 1899. An exhibition of his
works was held in London, and afterwards at Brussels in 1899,
and at Milan in 1900.
AUTHORITIES. H. Zimmern, Magazine of Art (London, 1897) ;
W. Ritter, Gazette des beaux-arts (Paris, 1898); Robert de la
Sizeranne, Revue de I' art (Paris, 1899); and Revue des deux mondes
(Paris, 1900).
SEGESTA (Gr. "E7*<7Ta),an ancient city of Sicily, 8 m. W.S.W.
of the modern Alcamo and about 15 m. E.S.E. of Eryx.
It was a city of the Elymi, but, though the Elymi were
regarded as barbari, Segesta, in its relations with its neighbours,
was almost like a Greek city. Disputes with Selinus over
questions of boundary seem to have been frequent from 580 B.C.
onwards. In 454 B.C. we hear of dealings possibly even an
alliance with Athens (the authority is a fragmentary inscription,
see E. A. Freeman, History of Sicily, ii. 554), and in 426 an
alliance was concluded by Laches. One of the ostensible objects
of the Athenian expedition to Sicily in 415 was to aid Segesta
against Selinus in a dispute, not only as to questions of boundary,
but as to rights of marriage. After the Athenian debacle, the
Segestans turned to Carthage; but when Hannibal in 409 B.C.
firmly established the Carthaginian power in western Sicily,
Segesta sank to the position of a dependent ally, and was indeed
besieged by Dionysius in 397, being at last relieved by Himilco.
In 307 Agathocles marched on the city, massacred 10,000 men,
sold the rest of the inhabitants into slavery and changed its name
to Dicaeopolis; but it soon recovered its old name and returned
to the Carthaginians. Early in the First Punic War, however,
the inhabitants, having massacred the Carthaginian garrison and
allied themselves with Rome, had to stand a severe siege from the
Carthaginians. Segesta was treated with favour by the Romans,
retaining its freedom and immunity from tithe; indeed it seems
probable that the municipal constitution of Eryx was suppressed
and its territory assigned to Segesta. It received Latin rights
before Caesar's concession of them to the rest of Sicily.
The site is now absolutely deserted. The town lay upon the
Monte Varvaro (1345 ft.); considerable remains of its external
walls, of houses and of a temple of Demcter are to be seen. The
theatre is well preserved: its diameter is 205 ft. It is partly hewn
in the rock, the rest (especially the back wall of the stage) being of
very roughly hewn, long, thin blocks of hard limestone, approxi-
mately rectangular, with smaller pieces filling up the interstices.
To the W.N.W_., 350 ft. below the theatre, is a temple, 2coj ft. lone
and 86} wide, including the steps: it is a hexastyle peripteros, and
has 36 columns, 29 ft. in height, 6J ft. in lower diameter. The
building was, however, not completed; the cella was never built,
and the columns, not having been fluted, have a heavy appearance.
It is, however, extremely well preserved. Its style places the date
of its construction between 430 and 420, so that the interruption of
the work must be due to the events of 416 or of 409 B.C. The
Thermae Segestanae were situated about 5 m. to the north on the
road to Castellammare: the hot springs are still in use. (T. As.)
SEGESVAR (Ger. SchHssburg), a town of Hungary, in Transyl-
vania, the capital of the county of Nagy-Klikullo, 126 m. S.E.
of Koloszvar by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,857. Amongst the principal
buildings are a Gothic church of the i sth century, the town and
county hall, a German gymnasium with a good collection of
antiquities, and the municipal museum. In front of the county
hall is a bronze statue of the Hungarian poet Alexander Petofi
(1823-1849), erected in 1897. Segesvar has a good woollen and
linen trade, as well as exports of wine and fruit.
Segesvar was founded by Saxon colonists at the end of the
1 2th century; its Latin name was Caslrum Sex. Here, on the
3ist of July 1849, the Hungarian army under Bern was defeated
by the overwhelming numbers of the Russian General Luders.
Petofi is generally believed to have met his end in this
battle.
SEGOVIA, a province of central Spain, formerly part of Old
Castile, bounded on the N. and N.E. by the provinces of Burgos
and Soria, S.E. by Guadalajara and Madrid, S.W. by Avila, and
N.W. by Valladolid. Pop. (1900) 159,243; area, 2635 sq. m.
The greater portion of the country consists of an arable tableland,
some 2500 ft. above the sea, monotonous enough in appearance,
and burnt to a dull brown during summer, but yet producing
some of the finest corn in the Peninsula. Along the whole south-
eastern boundary the Sierra de Guadarrama rises up suddenly,
like a huge barrier, separating Old from New Castile and the basin
of the Duero from that of the Tagus. The province is well
watered by the streams which rise in the Guadarrama range
and flow northwards to the Duero, and by careful irrigation.
The Eresma, Cega, Duraton and Riaza are the principal water-
courses. Except the capital, Segovia, there is no town of more
than 5000 inhabitants; but Sepulveda and other small towns
contain monuments of some historical and ecclesiastical interest.
At the foot of the Navacerrada pass lies the royal demesne and
summer residence of La Granja (q.v.). After the completion
(1883) of the railway from Medina del Campo to the city of
Segovia, and its subsequent extensions to Madrid and Aranda de
Duero, the towns adjoining these lines showed signs of increased
prosperity and animation. There are manufactures on a small
scale of coarse pottery, dyes, paper, alcohol, rosin, hats, pins
and needles, flour, oil and beer. Such prosperity, however, as
Segovia retains is dependent upon its agricultural produce
wheat, rye, barley, peas, hemp, flax, &c. together with the
rearing of sheep, cattle, mules and pigs. There are extensive
forests in the sierras, which yield excellent granite, marble and
limestone; but the difficulty of transport has prevented any
systematic development of these resources.
SEGOVIA, the capital of the Spanish province of Segovia;
on the railway from Madrid to Valladolid and Zamora. Pop.
(1900) 14,547. Segovia is built upon a narrow ridge of rock
which rises in the valley of the Eresma, where this river is
joined by its turbulent tributary the Clamores. It is an episcopal
see in the archbishopric of Valladolid. Founded originally as a
Roman pleasure resort, it became in the middle ages a great
religious centre and seat of the Castilian court ; it was surrounded
by Alphonso VI. with the walls and towers which still give to it,
even in their dilapidation, the air of a military stronghold.
The streets are steep, irregular and narrow, and are lined with
quaint old-fashioned houses, built for the most part of granite
from the neighbouring Sierra Guadarrama. The place teems
with records and monuments of the many vicissitudes of fortune
and art through which it has passed, foremost among the latter
being the ancient alcazar or citadel, the cathedral, the aqueduct
of Trajan, and a notable array of churches and other ecclesiastical
edifices.
The alcazar is perched upon the western tip of the long tongue
of rock upon which the city is built. Of the original medieval
fortress but little remains save the noble facade the building
having been wantonly fired in 1862 by the students of the artillery
schoofthen domiciled within its walls, and all but destroyed. The
work is Gotho-Moorish, with an admixture of Renaissance in the
decoration. The 16th-century cathedral (1521-1577), the work of
Juan Gil de Ontanon and his son Rodrigp, occupies the site of a
former church of the nth century, of which the present cloisters,
rebuilt in 1524, formed part. It is a well-proportioned and delicate
piece of Late Gothic the latest of its kind in Spain and con-
tains some very fine stained glass. The most remarkable of the
many other churches are those of La Vera Cruz (Knights Templar,
Romanesque of the' early I3th century), San Millan and San Juan
(both Romanesque of second half of I3th century), El Parral (Gothic
of early 1 6th century), and Corpus Christi, an ancientjewish sanctu-
ary and an interesting specimen of Moorish work. The towers and
external cloistering, or corredores, of several of the later churches
especially those of San Est6ban and San Martin are fine. The
great aqueduct, however, called El Puente del Diablo, usually ranks
as the glory of Segovia, and is remarkable alike for its colossal
proportions, its history, its picturesqueness, and the art with which
SEGRAVE SEGUIER
583
it is put together. Erected or rebuilt, according to fairly trust-
worthy tradition, in the time of the emperor Trajan (c. A.D. 53-1 17),
and several times barely escaping destruction, it is now in perfect
working order, bringing the waters of the Rio Frio down from the
Sierra Fuenfria, 10 m. S. The bridge portion striding across the
valley into the city is 847 yds. long, and consists of a double tier of
superimposed arches, built of rough-hewn granite blocks, laid
without lime or cement. (For illustration, see AQUEDUCT.) Segovia
lost its ancient prosperity when it was taken and sacked by the
French in 1808. Since then, however, suburbs have sprung up on
all sides, outside the walls. The woollen industry decayed, but its
place was taken by dyeing, iron-founding, and manufactures of
paper, flour, earthenware, and coarse porcelain. Segovia has a
botanical garden, a museum and picture gallery, a savings bank,
two public libraries, and two remarkable collections of archives.
Public education is provided by an institute, a dozen primary
schools, a school for teachers, and schools of art and handicrafts.
The royal artillery school of Spain is also established here.
SEGRAVE, the name of an English baronial family. Stephen
de Segrave, or Sedgrave (d. 1241), the son of a certain Gilbert de
Segrave of Segrave in Leicestershire, became a knight and was
made constable of the Tower of London in 1203. He obtained
lands and held various positions under Henry III., and in 1232
he succeeded Hubert de Burgh as chief justiciar of England.
As an active coadjutor of Peter des Roches, bishop of Winchester,
Segrave incurred some share of the opprobrium which was lavished
on the royal favourites, and in 1234 he was deprived of his office.
Soon, however, he was again occupying an influential position
at Henry's court, and he retained this until his death on the
9th of November 1241. His son and heir, Gilbert de Segrave
(d. 1254), who was also a judge, died in prison at Pons in France,
whither he had gone to fight for Henry III.
Gilbert was the father of NICHOLAS DE SEGRAVE, ist Baron
Segrave (c. 1238-1295), who was one of the partisans of Simon
de Montfort; he led the Londoners at the battle of Lewes, and
was a member of Earl Simon's famous parliament of 1265.
He was wounded at the battle of Evesham, and was afterwards
among those who defied the royal authority in the isle of Ely.
Soon, however, he obtained terms of peace, and went to the Holy
Land with his future sovereign, Edward I. In 1283 he was
summoned to parliament as a baron, and he served the king in
various ways. He had six sons, three of whom, John (who
succeeded him), Nicholas and Gilbert (bishop of London from
1313 until his death in December 1316), were men of note.
Nicholas the younger (c. 1 260-13 2 2 ) was summoned to parliament
in 1295, and was present at the battle of Falkirk and at the siege
of Carlaverock Castle. In 1305 he was found worthy of death
for deserting the English army in Scotland and for crossing over
to France in order to fight a duel with Sir John de Cromwell;
he was, however, pardoned, and again served Edward I. in
Scotland. Under Edward II., Nicholas, who was one of Piers
Gaveston's few friends, was made marshal of England, but
lost this office definitely in 1316. Later he associated himself
with Thomas, earl of Lancaster. Through marriage he obtained
the manor of Stowe in Northamptonshire, and he is generally
called lord of Stowe.
JOHN DE SEGRAVE, 2nd Baron Segrave (c. 1256-1325), was
one of those who supported the earls of Norfolk and of Hereford
in their refusal to serve Edward I. in Gascony in 1297. He took
part in campaigns in Scotland, and like his brother Nicholas he
signed the letter which was sent in 1301 by the barons at Lincoln
to Pope Boniface VIII. repudiating the papal claim to the
suzerainty of Scotland. Having been appointed warden of
Scotland, Segrave was defeated at Roslin in February 1303;
after the capture of Stirling he was again left in charge of this
country and was responsible for the capture of Sir William
Wallace, whom he conveyed to London. He was also warden
of Scotland under Edward II., and was taken prisoner at Ban-
nockburn, being quickly released, and dying whilst' on active
service in Aquitaine. His grandson and heir, another John
(c. 1295-1353), married Margaret, daughter and heiress of
Thomas of Brotherton, earl of Norfolk, a son of Edward I.
Their daughter Elizabeth married John de Mowbray, and the
barony of Segrave was united with, and shared the fate of, that
of Mowbray (q.v.).
Other celebrated members of the Segrave family are Sir Hugh
Segrave (d. c. 1386), treasurer of England from 1381 until his death,
and Stephen de Segrave (d. 1333), a noted pluralist, who was arch-
bishop of Armagh from 1323 until his death on the 27th of October
1333,;
SEGUIER, PIERRE (1588-1672), chancellor of France, was
born in Paris on the 28th of May 1588, of a famous legal family
originating in Quercy. His grandfather, Pierre Seguier (1504-
1580), was president d mortier in the parlementof Paris from 1554
to 1576, and the chancellor's father, Jean Seguier, a seigneur
d'Autry, was civil lieutenant of Paris at the time of his death
in 1596. Pierre was brought up by his uncle, Antoine Seguier,
president A mortier in the parlement, and became master of
requests in 1620. From 1621 to 1624 he was intendant of
Guienne, where he became closely allied with the due d'Epernon.
In 1624 he succeeded to his uncle's charge in the parlement,
which he filled for nine years. In this capacity he showed great
independence with regard to the royal authority; but when in
1633 he became keeper of the seals under Richelieu, he proceeded
to bully and humiliate the parlement in his turn. He became
allied with the cardinal's family by the marriage of his daughter
Marie with Richelieu's nephew, Cesar du Cambout, marquis de
Coislin, 1 and in December 1635 he became chancellor of France.
In 1637 Seguier was sent to examine the papers of the queen,
Anne of Austria, at Val de Grace. According to Anquetil, the
chancellor saved her by warning her of the projected inquisition.
In 1639 Seguier was sent to punish the Normans for the insur-
rection of the Nu-Pieds, the military chief of the expedition,
Gassion, being placed under his orders. He put down pillage
with a strong hand, and was sufficiently disinterested to refuse
a gift of confiscated Norman lands. He was the submissive
tool of Richelieu in the prosecutions of Cinq-Mars and Francois
Auguste de Thou in 1642. His authority survived the changes
following on the successive deaths of Richelieu and Louis XIII.,
and he was the faithful servant of Anne of Austria and of Mazarin.
His resolute attitude towards the parlement of Paris made the
chancellor one of the chief objects of the hatred of the Frondeurs.
On the 25th of August 1648, Seguier was sent to the parlement to
regulate its proceedings. On the way he was assailed by rioters
on the Pont-Neuf, and sought refuge in the house of Louis
Charles d'Albert, due de Luynes. In the course of the conces-
sions made to the Fronde in 1650, Seguier was dismissed from
his office of keeper of the seals. He spent part of his retirement
at Rosny, with his second daughter Charlotte and her husband,
the duke of Sully. 2 He was recalled in April 1651, but six
months later, on the king's attaining his majority, Seguier was
again disgraced, and the seals were given to President Mathieu
Mole, who held them with a short interval till his death in 1656,
when they were returned to Seguier. Seguier lived for some
time in extreme retirement in Paris, devoting himself to the
affairs of the academy. When Paris was occupied by the
princes in 1652, he was for a short time a member of their
council, but he joined the king at Pontoise in August, and became
president of the royal council. After Mazarin's death in 1661
Seguier retained but a shadow of his former authority. He
showed a great violence in his conduct of the case against Fouquet
(q.v.), voting for the death of the prisoner. In 1666 he was placed
at the head of a commission called to simplify the police organi-
zation, especially that of Paris; and the consequent ordinances of
1667 and 1 6 70 for the better administration of justice were drawn
up by him. He died at St Germain on the 28th of January 1672.
Seguier was a man of great learning, and throughout his life a
patron of literature. In December 1642 he succeeded Richelieu as
official " protector " of the Academy, which from that time until
his death held its sessions in his house. His library was one of the
most valuable of his time, only second, perhaps, to the royal col-
lection. It contained no less than 4000 MSS. in various languages,
the most important section of them being the Greek MSS. A
catalogue was drawn up in Latin and in French (1685-1686) by the
1 Mme de Coislin became a widow, and in 1644 married clan-
destinely Guy de Laval, chevalier de Bois-dauphin, afterwards
marquis of Laval.
2 She afterwards contracted a second marriage with Henri de
Bourbon, duke of Verneuil, a grandson of Henry IV.
5 8 4
SEGUR SEGUR, COMTE DE
due de Coislin. The chancellor's great-grandson, Henri Charles du
Cambout de Coislin, bishop of Metz, commissioned Bernard de
Montfaucon, a learned Benedictine of St Maur, to prepare a catalogue
of the Greek MSS. with commentaries. This work was published in
folio 1715, as Bibliotheca Coisliniana, olim Segueriana. . . . The
greater part of the printed books were destroyed by fire, in the abbey
of St Germain-des-Pres, in 1794.
See F. Duchesne, Hist, des chanceliers de France (fol. 1680); for
the affair of Val de Gr4ce, Catalogue de documents historiques . . .
relatifs au regne de Louis XIII (Paris, 1847); also R. Kerviler, Le
Chancelier P. Seguier (Paris, 1874). Great part of his correspondence
is preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
SCUR, the name of a French family, the first member of
which to attain distinction was FRANCOIS DE SEGUR, better
known as the seigneur de Sainte-Aulaye (d. c. 1605), who professed
the reformed religion, and was closely associated with Henry
IV., becoming in 1576 president of his council. Jean-Isaac,
marquis de Segur (d. 1707), fought in most of the campaigns of
the France of his time, and remained loyal throughout the
troubles of the Fronde. His son, HENRI JOSEPH, marquis de
S6gur(i66i-i737),was lieutenant-general of Champagne and Brie,
governor of Foix. In his youth he was the hero of an episode
of gallantry with Anne of Beauvilliers, abbess of La Joye, which
led to the suggestion that she was none other than the Portuguese
nun of the famous Letters. His son, HENRI FRANCOIS, comte de
Segur (1680-1751), was colonel at seventeen, when he succeeded
to the command of the Segur regiment which his father had
raised. In 1718 he began a thirty years' tenure of the lieutenant-
generalship of Champagne and Brie. He had married in that
year Angelique de Froissy, a natural daughter of the regent,
Philip of Orleans, but the death of his father-in-law a few years
later prevented his reaping special advancement from his marriage,
though Mme de Segur belonged to the inner circle of Louis XV. 's
intimates. Segur served in Italy during the war of the Polish
Succession under Marshal Villars, and became, in 1736, inspector-
general of cavalry. In 1738 he was sent to Nancy as lieutenant-
general under Marshal Belle-Isle, and to Bohemia in 1741 with
the French troops allied with the Bavarians. But in September
1741 he was compelled by the imperial troops to surrender at
Linz. In 1744 he was again sent to Bavaria, and defeated the
Austrians at Lichtenau on the 28th of January 1745. He served
throughout the Flemish campaigns of 1746 and 1747, and was
commandant of Metz at the time of his death (iSthof June 1751).
His son, PHILIPPE HENRI, marquis de Segur (1724-1801), marshal
of France, his grandson, Louis PHILIPPE, comte de Segur
(1753-1830), and Louis Philippe's son PHILIPPE PAUL, comte
de Segur (1780-1873), are separately noticed.
JOSEPH ALEXANDRE PIERRE, vicomte de Segur (1756-1805),
second son of the marshal, quitted the army at the outbreak of
the Revolution to devote himself to literature. He edited the
Me moires of Besenval in 1795 from the MS. which, originally
in his possession, had been surreptitiously placed with the
printer during Segur's imprisonment under the Terror. These
were printed in 1804-1805. Between 1700 and 1800 he produced
a number of pieces at the Comedie Franchise and the Opera
Comique. He published in 1802 a selection from his works
entitled Comedies, chansons el proverbes, and in 1801 appeared
Les Femmes, leurs mceurs ... (3 vols.), which has often been
reprinted, but is of doubtful authorship.
OCTAVE-HENRI GABRIEL DE SEGUR (1778-1818), elder son of
Louis Philippe de Segur, served in the later Napoleonic campaigns,
and remained in the army under the Restoration. He threw
himself into the Seine on the isth of August 1818. The domestic
unhappiness that led to his suicide is retailed by the comtesse
de Boigne in her Mtmoires (vol. i., 1907). His elder son, EUGENE,
comte de Segur, succeeded his grandfather in the peerage in
1830. He married Sophie Rostopchine (1790-1894), daughter
of Count Feodor Rostopchine, governor of Moscow. The countess
of Segur wrote some famous books for children, the most familiar
of which are perhaps the Malheurs de Sophie and the Mfmoires
d'un dne, and many tales in the Bibliotheque rose. Her letters
to her daughter and son-in-law, the count and countess de Simard
de Petray, were published in 1891, and those to her grandson
in 1898.
RAYMOND JOSEPH PAUL, comte de Segur d'Aguesseau
(1803-1889), third son of Octave de Segur, took his mother's
family name in addition to his own. He studied law at Aix
and Paris. As procureur general of Amiens he gave in March
1830 a decision on the question of the electoral lists which pleased
the liberal party, but late in the year, as substitute in the royal
court of Paris, he ordered the suppression of certain liberal
journals, and in other civil appointments was accused of re-
actionary administration. He gave his adhesion to Prince
Louis Napoleon, and became a member of the consultative
commission in 1851, and of the senate in 1852. After the fall
of the empire he retired into private life.
Louis GASTON ADRIEN DE SEGUR (1820-1881), son of Eugene
de Segur and Sophie Rostopchine, became a prelate of the papal
court, and canon-bishop of Saint-Denis. He was a champion
of the ultra-montane party and wrote a number of Catholic
works, collected in ten volumes (Paris, 1876-1877). His life
was written by his brother Anatole, who edited two collections
of his letters in 1882 and 1899.
ANATOLE HENRI PHILIPPE DE SEGUR (1823-1902), Gaston's
brother, became councillor of state in 1872, serving until 1879.
His works include the life of his grandfather Count Rostopchine
(1872), Fables (1879), Un Episode de la Terreur (1864), Paul
Marie Charles Bernard (1875).
His son, PIERRE MARIE MAURICE HENRI, marquis de Segur
(b. 1853), wrote a life (1895) of the marshal de Segur, which was
crowned by the French Academy. His book on Madame Geoffrin,
Le Royaume de la rue Saint-Honore (1897), also received a prize.
His principal work is the three volumes devoted to Marshal
Luxemburg La Jeunesse du marechal de Luxembourg, 1628-
1668 (1900); Le Marechal de Luxembourg et le prince d'Orange,
1668-1678 (1902); Le Tapissier de Notre-Dame. Dernieres
annees du marechal de Luxembourg, 1678-1695 (1904); Julie
de Lespinasse (1905); English Transl., 1907; and Au couchant
de la monarchie Louis XVI et Turgot, 1774-1776 (Paris, 1910).
He was elected to the French Academy in 1907.
There is much general information on the family of Segur in A. de
Segur's Le Marechal de Segur, 1724-1801 (Paris, 1895), and in L. P.
de Segur's Recueil de famille (1826).
SfcGUR, LOUIS PHILIPPE, COMTE DE (1753-1830), French
diplomatist and historian, son of Philippe Henri, marquis de
Segur, was born in Paris on the loth of December 1753. He
entered the army in 1 769, served in the American War of Indepen-
dence in 1781 as a colonel under Rochambeau. In 1784 he was
sent as minister plenipotentiary to St Petersburg, where he was
received into the intimacy of the empress Catherine II. and wrote
some comedies for her theatre. At St Petersburg he concluded
(n January 1787) a commercial treaty which was exceedingly
advantageous to France, and returned to Paris in 1789. He
took up a sympathetic attitude towards the Revolution at its
outset and in 1791 was sent on a mission to Berlin, where he
was badly received. After fighting a duel he was forced to leave
Berlin, and went into retirement until 1801 when, at Bonaparte's
instance, he was nominated by the senate to the Corps legislatij.
Subsequently he became a member of the council of state,
grand master of the ceremonies, and senator, 1813. In 1814
Segur voted for the deposition of Napoleon and entered Louis
XVIII.'s Chamber of Peers. Deprived of his offices and functions
in 1815 for joining Napoleon during the Hundred Days, he was
reinstated in 1819, supported the revolution of 1830, but died
shortly afterwards in Paris on the 27th August 1830. By his
wife, Antoinette d'Aguesseau, he had two sons, of whom Count
Philippe Paul is separately noticed. Among his writings may
be mentioned Histoire des principaux evfnements du regne de
Frederic-Guillaume II (1800); Penstes politiques (Paris, 1795);
Histoire de France (n vols., 1824-1834); Histoire des juifs
(1827); Mfmoires (3 vols., 1824); and Contes (1809). His
(Euvres completes were published in 34 volumes in 1824 et seq.
See due de Broglie, " Deux Francais aux fitats-Unis " in Melanges
publics par la Societe des Bibliophiles franc.ais (2nd part, 1903);
A. Cornereau, " La Mission du comte de Segur dans la xviii" division
militaire," in the Mtmoires de la Societe bourguignonne de geographic
et d'histoire (vol. 17, 1901).
SEGUR, MARQUIS DE SEHESTED
585
SEGUR, PHILIPPE HENRI, MARQUIS DE (1724-1801), marshal
of France, son of Henri Francois, comte de Segur, and his wife
Angelique de Froissy, was appointed to the command of an
infantry regiment at eighteen, and served under his father in
Italy and Bohemia. He was wounded at Roucoux in Flanders
in October 1746, and lost an arm at Lauffeld in 1747. In 1748 he
succeeded his father as lieutenant-general of Champagne and Brie;
he also received in 1753 the governorship of the county of Foix.
During the Seven Years' War he fought at Hastenbeck (1757),
Crefeld (1758) and Minden (1759). In 1760 he was taken
prisoner at Kloster-campen. The ability which he showed in
the government of Franche-Comte in 1775 led in 1780 to his
appointment as minister of war under Necker. He created in
1783 the permanent general staff, and made admirable regula-
tions with regard to barracks and military hospitals; and
though he was officially responsible for the reactionary decree
requiring four quarterings of nobility as a condition for the
appointment of officers, the scheme is said not to have originated
with him and to have been adopted under protest. In 1783 he
became a marshal of France. He resigned from the ministry of
war in 1787. During the Terror he was imprisoned in La Force,
and after his release was reduced to considerable straits until in
1800 he received a pension from Napoleon. He died in Paris on
the 3rd of October of the next year.
See A. de Segur, Le Marechal de Segur, 1724-1801 (Paris, 1895).
SEGUR, PHILIPPE PAUL, COMTE DE (1780-1873), French
general and historian, son of Louis Philippe, comte de Segur,
was born in Paris on the 4th of November 1780. He enlisted
in the cavalry in 1800, and forthwith obtained a commission.
He served with General Macdonald in the Grisons in 1800-1801,
and published an account of the campaign in 1802. By the
influence of Colonel Duroc (afterwards due de Frioul) he was
attached to the personal staff of Napoleon. He served through
most of the important campaigns of the first empire, and was
frequently employed on diplomatic missions. During the cam-
paign in Poland in 1807 he was taken prisoner by the Russians,
but was exchanged at the peace of Tilsit. His brilliant conduct
in the cavalry charge at Somo Sierra on the 3oth of November
1808 (see PENINSULAR WAR) won him the grade of colonel,
but his wounds compelled him to return to France. As general
of brigade he took part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and
in the campaigns of 1813 and 1814 he repeatedly distinguished
himself, notably at Hanau (October 1813), and in a brilliant
affair at Reims (March 1814). He remained in the army at the
Restoration, but, having accepted a command from Napoleon
during the Hundred Days, he was retired until 1818, and took
no further active part in affairs until the revolution of 1830.
During his retirement he wrote his Histoire de Napoleon et de la
grande armee pendant I'annee 1812 (Paris, 2 vols., 1824), which ran
through numerous editions, and was translated into several
languages. The unfavourable portrait of Napoleon given in this
book provoked representations from General Gourgaud, and
eventually a duel, in which Segur was wounded. On the estab-
lishment of the July monarchy he received, in 1831, the grade of
lieutenant-general and a peerage. In 1830 he was admitted to the
French Academy, and he became grand cross of the Legion of
Honour in 1847. After the revolution of 1848 he lived in retire-
ment. He died in Paris on the 25th of February 1873. His
works include: Histoire de Russie et de Pierre le Giand (1829);
Histoire de Charles VIII, (2 vols., 1834-1842), in continuation of
the history of France begun by his father; and the posthumous
Histoire et memoires (8 vols., 1873).
See Un Aide-de-camp de Napoleon (1800-1812), memoires du
general comte de Segur, new edition by his grandson Louis de Segur
(3 vols., 18941895), of which an abridged English version was
published in 1895.
SEGURA (anc. Tader), a river of south-eastern Spain about
1 50 m. long. It is formed by the confluence of three head-streams,
one of which rises on the northern versant of La Sagra (7875 ft.),
a mountain in Granada, while the other two spring from the
Sierra de Segura, in Jaen. From the junction of these three
streams below Yeste the river winds in an easterly and south-
easterly direction past the towns of Cieza and Archena to
Murcia. Thence it trends N.E. and passing Orihuela falls into
the Mediterranean 19 m. S.W. of Alicante. Its chief tributaries
are the Mundo and Arroyo del Jua on the left, and the Caravaca,
Quipar and Sangonera on the right. It is only navigable by
small sailing-vessels, even in its estuary, but its waters are
extensively utilized for irrigation.
SEGUSIO (mod. Susa, q.v.), an ancient town in north Liguria,
the capital of the Cottii (see Conn REGNUM). Here the son of
King Donnus, Cottius who held the rank of imperial praefect
over the fourteen tribes over which his father had ruled as king,
so that in the inscription he calls himself " M. lulius regis Donni
f(ilius) Cottius praefectus civitatium quae subscriptae sunt "
erected a triumphal arch in honour of Augustus in 0-8 B.C.,
which is still standing. The style of the sculptures on the frieze
is quite barbaric, with archaic elements, and is probably derived
from Gaul. His tomb, situated near the city walls, mentioned
by Ammianus Marcellinus, has long since disappeared. Claudius
restored the royal titles to the family; but, after the death of
its last member, Nero made the district into a province, and
the town into a municipium. It was strongly fortified and
garrisoned, and remains of its walls, including those of a double-
arched gate, exist, while inscriptions testify to its importance,
one of them mentioning baths erected by Gratian. Constantine
captured the town, which offered some resistance to him, on his
march against Maxentius.
See F. Genin, Susa Antica (Saluzzo, 1886); E. Ferrero, L'Arc
d'Auguste & Suse (Turin, 1901); F. Studniczka, Jahrbuch des K. D.
archaologischen Instituts, xviii. (1903), i sqq. (T. As.)
SEHESTED, HANNIBAL (1600-1666), Danish statesman,
born at Arensborg Castle on Osel. After completing his educa-
tion abroad, he returned to Denmark in 1632 and was attached
to the court of Christian IV. Two or three years later he was
sent to Wismar to negotiate a treaty with the Swedish chancellor,
Axel Oxenstjerna, and, if possible, bring about a match between
Christian's son Frederick and Gustavus Adolphus's daughter
Christina. Though failing in both particulars, he retained the
favour of the king, who had marked him out as one of his seven
sons-in-law, by whose influence he hoped to increase the influence
of the crown; and in 1636 he was betrothed to one of the
daughters, the countess Christine, then in her tenth year, whom
he married in 1642. In May 1640 Sehested became a member of
the august Rigsraad. He imagined, with some reason, that the
proper field for the exercise of his talents was diplomacy, and he
openly aspired to be minister of foreign affairs. Despite a success-
ful embassy to Spain in 1640-1641 he did not obtain the coveted
post, but was appointed viceroy of Norway (April 1642). He
had now the opportunity of displaying an administrative and
organizing ability, united with a zeal for reform, as remarkable
as unexpected, which raises him high above his compeers. He
made it his first object thoroughly to develop Norway's material
resources, and reorganize her armaments and fiscal system; and
he aimed at giving her a more independent position as
regards Denmark. During Christian IV.'s second war with
Sweden (1643-1645), Sehested, as viceroy of Norway, assisted
his father-in-law materially. He invaded Sweden four times;
successfully defended Norway from attack; and, though
without any particular military talent, won an engagement at
Nysaker in 1644. After the war he renewed his reforming efforts,
and during the years 1646-1647 strove to withdraw his vice-
royalty from the benumbing influence of the central administra-
tion at Copenhagen, and succeeded with the help of Christian IV.
in creating a separate defensive fleet for Norway and giving her
partial control of her own finances. He was considerably assisted
in his endeavours by the fact that Norway was regarded as the
hereditary possession of the kings of Denmark. At the same
time Sehested freely used his immense wealth and official position
to accumulate for himself property and privileges of all sorts.
His successes finally excited the envy and disapprobation of the
Danish Rigsraad, especially of his rival Korfits Ulfeldt (q.v.),
also one of the king's sons-in-law. The quarrel became acute
when Sehested's semi-independent administration of the finances
586
SEHORE SEIGNORY
of Norway infringed upon Ulfeldt's functions as lord treasurer of
the whole realm; in November 1647 Ulfeldt carried his point,
and a decree was issued that henceforth the Norwegian provincial
governors should send their rents and taxes direct to Copenhagen.
On the accession of Frederick III. (1648), Sehested strove hard
to win his favour ; but an investigation into his accounts as
viceroy, conducted by his enemies, brought to light such whole-
sale embezzlement and peculation that he was summoned to
appear before a herredag, or assembly of notables, in May 1551, and
give an account of his whole administration. Unable to meet the
charges brought against him, he compromised matters by
resigning his viceroyalty and his senatorship, and surrendering
all his private property in Norway to the crown. Throughout
his trial Sehested had shown consummate prudence. He
surrendered voluntarily thrice as much as he had ever embezzled,
and, calculating on the secret fondness of Frederick III. for a
man of his monarchical tendencies, carefully abstained from the
wild and treasonable projects of revenge which were the ruin of
Korfits Ulfeldt. From 1651 to 1660 he lived abroad. At the end
of 1655 he met the exiled Charles II. of England at Cologne, and
lived a part of the following year with him in the Spanish Nether-
lands. In the summer of 1657 he returned to Denmark, but
Frederick III. refused to receive him, and he hastily quitted
Copenhagen. During the crisis of the war of 1658 he was at the
headquarters of Charles X. of Sweden. In seeking the help and
protection of the worst enemy of his country, Sehested ap-
proached the very verge of treason, but he never quite went
beyond it. When, at last, it seemed probable that the war
would not result in the annihilation of Denmark, Sehested
strained every nerve to secure his own future by working in the
interests of his native land while still residing in Sweden. In
April 1660 he obtained permission from Frederick III. to come
to Copenhagen, and was finally instructed by him as pleni-
potentiary to negotiate with the Swedes. The treaty of Copen-
hagen, which saved the honour of Denmark and brought her
repose, was very largely Sehested's work. He was one of the
willing abettors of Frederick III. at the revolution of 1660,
when he re-entered the Danish service as lord treasurer and
councillor of state. Both at home and on his frequent foreign
missions he displayed all his old ability. As a diplomatist he,
in some respects, anticipated the views of Griffenfeldt, supporting
the policy of friendship with Sweden and a French alliance. He
died suddenly on the 23rd of September 1666 at Paris, where
he was conducting important negotiations. His " political testa-
ment " is perhaps the best testimony to his liberal and states-
manlike views.
See Thyra Sehested, Hannibal Sehested (Copenhagen, 1886);
Julius Albert Fridericia, Adelsvaeldens sidste Dage (Copenhagen,
1894). (R. N. B.)
SEHORE, a British station in Central India, within the state
of Bhopal, with a station on the Bhopal-Ujjain section of the
Indian Midland railway, 24 m. E. from Bhopal. Pop. (1901)
16,864. It is the headquarters of the political agent for Bhopal,
and a British military cantonment. For many years it was also
the headquarters of the Bhopal contingent, raised in 1818,
which was in 1903 incorporated in the Indian army. It is an
important centre of trade.
SEICHE (Fr. seche, fem. of sec, dry), in limnology, an irregular
fluctuation of the water-level of lakes, first observed and so
named in Switzerland. (See LAKE, and GENEVA.)
SEIDL, ANTON (1850-1898), Hungarian operatic conductor,
was born at Budapest on the 7th of May 1850. He entered the
Leipzig Conservatorium in October 1870, and remained there
until 1872, when he was summoned to Bayreuth as one of
Wagner's copyists. There he assisted to make the first fair copy
of Der Ring des Nibelungen. Thoroughly imbued with the
Wagnerian spirit, it was natural that he should take a part in
the first Bayreuth Festival in 1876. His chance as a conductor
came when, on Wagner's recommendation, he was appointed
to the Leipzig Stadt-Theater, where he remained until, in 1882,
he went on tour with Angelo Neumann's Nibelungen Ring com-
pany. To his conducting the critics attributed much of such
artistic success as attended the production of the Trilogy at Her
Majesty's Theatre in London in June of that year. In 1883
Seidl went with Neumann to Bremen, but two years later was
appointed successor to Leopold Damrosch as conductor of the
German Opera in New York, and in the same year he married
Fraulein Kraus, the distinguished singer. In America Seidl's
orchestra became famous. In 1886 he was one of the conductors
at Bayreuth, and in 1897 at Covent Garden, London, He died
in New York on the 28th of March 1898.
See the memorial volume prepared by H. T. Finck, H. E. Krehbiel
and others (New York, 1899).
SEIGNIORAGE, the due levied by the authority that possesses
the right of coining on the metal that it manufactures into coin.
The term " brassage " has been used to describe this due, when
confined to the mere cost of the process; the wider term " seig-
niorage " being employed when the charge is so raised as to
become a profit to the imposer. The exercise of the right of
seigniorage has been the instrument by which most of the
debasements of currency have been carried out. Under feud-
alism, especially in France, the chief nobles had this prerogative.
In the modern state it is reserved for the sovereign authority.
Most countries adopt a moderate seigniorage charge. Thus the
fundamental currency law of France (1803) provides that " only
the expense of coining " shall be charged. At present this due
is 6 fr. 70 c. per kilo, of gold fa fine, or 0-24%. The charge by
the same law on silver was 3 fr. per kilo, or 1-66%. The limita-
tion on the coinage of silver in practically all countries has made
the seigniorage on that metal very heavy. The policy of England
in respect to gold has been peculiar. Since 1664 it has been freed
from any charge, though the delay in return amounts to a small
due. In consequence of this gratuitous coinage, English gold
has been regarded as equivalent to bullion, and exchange fluctua-
tions have been reduced. The policy was severely criticized by
Adam Smith, and it does in fact amount to a bounty on the
coinage of gold. The amount is, however, too insignificant to
deserve attention, especially as there are compensating gains.
The employment of a seigniorage of about i% on the
" sovereign " was suggested by the proceedings of the Paris
Monetary Conference of 1867, in order to bring about an assimila-
tion of English and French money. By reducing the amount of
gold in the sovereign to that in the proposed 25-franc piece an
exact par would have been created, and, so it was hoped, the
English currency and accounts need have undergone no change.
The scheme was, however, rejected by a Royal Commission on
the ground that an adjustment of obligations would be required.
The theory of the effects that a seigniorage produces have been
discussed at length. The definitive results obtained may be
briefly stated as follows: (i) A seigniorage charge is the same
as a debasement, but its evil effect may be avoided by limiting
the amount of coin issued. (2) Seigniorage operates as a tax on
the metal subject to it, and this tax tends ultimately to fall on
the producers, or rather on the rent obtained through the pro-
duction. A heavy seigniorage on gold would tend to lower the
profits derived from the gold mines of the world, and might even
compel the abandonment of the least productive ones.
See MONEY, MONETARY CONFERENCES, and TOKEN MONEY.
(C. F. B.)
SEIGNORY, or SEIGNIORY (Fr. seigneur, lord ; Lat. senior, elder) ,
in English law, the lordship remaining to a grantor after the grant
of an estate in fee-simple. There is no land in England without
its lord: " Nulle terre sans seigneur " is the old feudal maxim.
Where no other lord can be discovered the crown is lord as lord
paramount. The principal incidents of a seignory were an oath
of fealty; a " quit " or " chief " rent; a " relief " of one year's
quit rent, and the right of escheat. In return for these privileges
the lord was liable to forfeit his rights if he neglected to protect
and defend the tenant or did anything injurious to the feudal
relation. Every seignory now existing must have been created
before the Statute of Quid Emplores (1290), which forbade the
future creation of estates in fee-simple by subinfeudation.
The only seignories of any importance at present are the lord-
ships of manors. They are regarded as incorporeal hereditaments,
SEINE SEINE-ET-MARNE
587
and are either appendant or in gross. A seignory appendant
passes with the grant of the manor; a seignory in gross that
is, a seignory which has been severed from the demesne lands
of the manor to which it was originally appendant must be
specially conveyed by deed of grant.
Freehold land may be enfranchised by a conveyance of the
seignory to the freehold tenant, but it does not extinguish the
tenant's right of common (Baring v. Abingdon, 1892, 2 Ch. 374).
By s. 3 (ii.) of the Settled Land Act 1882, the tenant for life of a
manor is empowered to sell the seignory of any freehold land within
the manor, and by s. 21 (v.) the purchase of the seignory of any
part of settled land being freehold land, is an authorized application
of capital money arising under the act.
SEINE (Lat. Sequana), one of the chief rivers of France, rising
on the eastern slope of the plateau of Langres, about 5 m. N.W.
of St Seine-l'Abbaye and 18 m. N.W. of Dijon. It keeps the
same general direction (north-westwards) throughout its entire
course, but has numerous windings: between its source and its
mouth in the English Channel the direct distance is only 250 m.,
but that actually traversed by the river (through the departments
of Cote-d'Or, Aube, Marne, Seine-et-Marne, Seine-et-Oise, Seine,
Eure and Seine-Inferieure) is 482 m. Though shorter than the
Loire and Rhone, and inferior in volume to the Loire, Rhone and
Gironde, the Seine derives an exceptional importance from the
regularity of its flow. This feature is due to the geological
character of its basin, an area of 30,000 sq. m., entirely belonging
to France (with the exception of a few communes in Belgium),
and formed in three-fourths of its extent of permeable strata,
which absorb the atmospheric precipitation to restore it gently
to the river by perennial springs. At Paris the average volume
of the river per second is 5300 cub. ft. ; after it has received all
its tributaries the volume is about 10,600 cub. ft. At Paris it
falls as low as 1550 cub. ft., and in exceptional droughts the
figure of 1 200 is reached. During the flood of 1658 the volume
between the quays at Paris is believed to have risen to 88,000
cub. ft. per second. The height of the river above the normal
at Paris was probably on that occasion about 21 ft., whereas in
the disastrous floods of January 1910 it was over 24 ft. Other
notable floods are recorded in 1740, 1799, 1802, 1876 and 1883.
Rising at a height of 1545 ft. above sea-level, at the base of the
statue of a nymph erected on the spot by the city of Paris, the Seine
is at first such an insignificant streamlet that it is often dry in
summer as far as Chatillon (705 ft.) some 31 m. from its source. At
Bar its waters feed the Haute-Seine Canal, though navigation thereon
only begins at Troyes. It next passes Mery, and at Marcilly receives
the Aube (right), at which point the canal terminates and the river
itself is canalized ; here it is deflected from its hitherto north-north-
westerly to a south-westerly direction by the heights of the Brie,
the base of which it skirts past Nogent and Montereau. At the
latter point it receives the Yonne, its most important left-hand
tributary, and is deepened from 5 ft. 3 in. to 6 ft. 6 in. It then
resumes its general north-westerly direction, receiving the Loing
(left) at Moret; having passed Melun it is joined at Corbeil by the
Essonne (left), and after its junction with the Marne (right), a
tributary longer than itself by 31 m. at the confluence, reaches Paris.
From this point to the sea its channel has been so deepened that
vessels of 9 to 10 ft. draught can reach the capital. The river then
winds through a pleasant champaign country past St Cloud, St
Denis, Argenteuil, St Germain, Conflans (where it is joined from
the right by the Oise, 56 ft. above the sea), Poissy, Mantes, Les
Andelys, between which and the sea the rivefc is remarkable for its
detours, as also in the vicinity of Paris. At Poses the tide first
begins to be perceptible. It next receives the Eure (left), and passes
Pont de 1'Arche, Elbeuf and Rouen, where the sea navigation
commences. The river is dyked below Rouen so as to admit vessels
of 20 ft. draught, and large areas have thus been reclaimed for
cultivation. At every tide there is a " bore " (barre or mascaret),
ranging usually from 8 to 9 ft., and attaining its maximum from
Quillebeuf to Caudebec. Below Quillebeuf (where the Risle is
received from the left) the estuary begins, set with extensive sand-
banks, between which flows a narrow navigable channel. Tancar-
ville (right) is the starting-point of a canal to enable river boats for
Havre to avoid the sea passage. The river enters the English
Channel between Honfleur on the left and Havre on the right.
The Marne brings to the Seine the waters of the Ornain, the Ourcq,
and the Morin ; the Oise those of the Aisne ; the Yonne those of the
Armancpn. The low elevation of the bounding hills has rendered
it comparatively easy to connect the Seine and its affluents with
adjoining river basins by means of canals. The Oise and Somme
are connected to the Picardy or Crozat Canal, which in turn is
continued to the Scheldt by means of the St Quentin Canal and the
Oise, and to the Sambre by that of Oise and Sambre. Between the
Aisne and the Meuse is the Ardennes Canal, and the Aisne and the
Marne are united by a canal which passes Reims. The Marne has
similarcommunication with the Meuse and the Rhine, the Yonne with
the Sa6ne (by the Burgundy Canal) and with the Loire by the Loing
Canal dividing at Montargis into two branches those of Orleans
and Briare.
SEINE, the department of northern France which has Paris
as its chief town, formed in 1790 of part of the province of Ile-
de-France. It is entirely surrounded by the department of
Seine-et-Oise, from which it is separated at certain parts by the
Seine, the Marne and the Bievre. The area of the department
is only 185 sq. m., and of this surface about a sixth is occupied
by Paris; the suburban towns also are close together and very
populous. In actual population (3,848,618 in 1906) as well as
in density (23-7 persons per acre) it holds the first place. Flowing
from south-east to north-west through the department, ' the
Seine forms three loops: on the right it receives above Paris
the Marne, and below Paris the Rouillon, and on the left hand
the Bievre within the precincts of the city. The left bank of the
Seine is in general higher than the right, and consists of the
Villejuif and Chatillon plateaus separated by the Bievre; the
highest point (560 ft.) is above Chatillon and the lowest (105)
at the exit of the Seine. Below Paris the river flows between
the plain of Gennevilliers and Nanterre (commanded by Mont
Valerien) on the left and the plain of St Denis on the right.
On the right side, to the east of Paris, are the heights of Avron
and Vincennes commanding the course of the Marne. Com-
munication is further facilitated by canals.
Market gardening is the chief agricultural industry, and by means
of irrigation and manuring the soil is made to yield from ten to
eleven crops per annum. Some districts are specially celebrated,
Montreuil for its peaches, Fontenay-aux-Roses for its strawberries
and roses, and other places for flowers and nurseries. The plain of
Gennevilliers fertilized by the sewage water of Paris yields large
quantities of vegetables. Milch-cows are reared in large numbers.
The principal woods (Boulogne and Vincennes) belong to Paris,
t is partly owing to the number of quarries in the district that
Paris owes its origin: Chatillon and Montrouge in the south yield
freestone, and Bagneux and Clamart in the south and Montreuil and
Rqmainville in the east possess the richest plaster quarries in France.
Within the circuit of Paris are certain old quarries now forming the
catacombs. Most of the industrial establishments in the department
are situated in Paris or at St Denis (qq.v.). The department is
traversed by all the railway lines which converge in Paris, and also
contains the inner circuit railway (Chemin de Fer de Ceinture) and
part_of the outer circuit. There are 3 arrondissements (Paris, St
Denis, and Sceaux), 41 cantons and 78 communes. The department
forms the archiepiscopal diocese of Paris, falls within the jurisdiction
of the Paris court of appeal and the academic (educational division)
of Paris, and is divided between the II., III., IV., V. and VI corps
d'armee. The chief places besides Paris are St Denis, Asnieres,
Aubervilliers, BouIogne-sur-Seine, Clichy-sur-Seine, Courbevoie,
Levallois-Perret, Neuilly-sur-Seine, Pantin, St Ouen, Colombes,
Charenton, Ivry-sur-Seine, Montreuil-sous-Bois, Nanterre, Nogent-
sur-Marne, Vincennes and Arcueil.
SEINE, or SEAN (0. Fr. seigne, mod. seine, Lat. sagena, Gr.
aayrivT], a draw-net), a type of fishing net, consisting of an ex-
panse of netting weighted at the bottom and floated at the top
edge by corks, cast from a boat or ship to enclose a space of water
and then drawn into the vessel or to shore.
SEINE-ET-MARNE, a department of northern France, formed
in 1 790 of almost the entire district of Brie (half of which belonged
to Champagne and half to Ile-de-France) and a portion of
Gatinais (from Ile-de-France and Orleanais). Pop. (1906)
361,939. Area, 2289 sq. m. Seine-et-Marne is bounded N. by
the department of Oise, N.E. by that of Aisne, E. by Marne and
Aube, S.E. by Yonne, S. by Loiret and W. by Seine-et-Oise.
The whole department belongs to the basin of the Seine, and is
drained partly by that river and partly by its tributaries the
Yonne and the Loing from the left, and from the right the
Voulzie, the Yeres and the Marne, with its affluents the Ourcq,
the Petit Morin and the Grand Morin. With the exception of the
Loing, flowing from south to north, all these streams cross the
department from east to west, following the general slope of the
surface, which is broken up into several plateaus from 300 to
500 ft. in height (highest point, in the north-east, 705 ft., lowest
105), and separated from each other by deep valleys. Most of
588
SEINE-ET-OISE SEINE-INFERIEURE
the plateaus belong to the Brie, a fertile well-wooded district o;
a clayey character. In the south lie the dry sandy district 01
the Fontainebleau sandstones and part of the region known as
the Gatinais. The climate is rather more " continental " than
that of Paris the summers warmer, the winters colder; the
annual rainfall does not exceed 16 in. There is a striking differ-
ence in temperature between the south of the department,
where the famous -white grape (chassdas) of Fontainebleau
ripens, and the country to the north of the Marne, this river
marking pretty exactly the northern limit of the vine.
The wheat and oats of Brie are especially esteemed; potatoes,
sugar beet, mangel-wurzel and green forage are also important crops,
and market gardening flourishes. Provins and other places are well-
known for their roses. The cider and honey of the department are of
good quality. Thousands of the well-known Brie cheeses are manu-
factured, and large numbers of calves, sheep and poultry are reared.
The forests (covering a fifth of the surface) are planted with oak,
beech, chestnut, hornbeam, birch, wild cherry, linden, willow, poplar
and conifers. Best known and most important is the forest of
Fontainebleau. Large areas are devoted to game-preserves. Ex-
cellent freestone is quarried in the department, notably at Chateau-
Landon in the valley of the Loing, mill-stones at La Fert6-sous-
Jouarre; the Fontainebleau sandstone is used for pavements, and
the white sand which is found along with it is in great request for the
manufacture of glass. Along the Marne are numerous gypsum
quarries; lime-kilns occur throughout the department; and peat
is found in the valleys of the Ourcq and the Voulzie. Beds of common
clay and porcelain clay supply the potteries of Fontainebleau and
Montereau. Other industrial establishments are numerous large
flour-mills, notably those of Meaux, the chocolate works of Noisiel,
sugar factories, alcohol distilleries, paper-mills (the Jouarre paper-
mill manufactures bank-notes, &c., both for France and for foreign
markets), saw-mills, printing works (Coulommiers, &c.) and tanneries.
Much of the motive-pew;- used is supplied by the streams. Paris is
the chief outlet for the industrial and agricultural products of the
department. Coal and raw material for the manufactures are the
chief imports. The Seine, the Yonne, the Marne, and the Grand
Morin are navigable, and, with the canals of the Loing and the Ourcq
and those of Chalifert, Cornillon and Chelles, which cut off the
windings of the Marne, form a total waterway of over 200 m. Seine-
et-Marne has 5 arrondissements (Melun, Coulommiers, Fontainebleau,
Meaux, Provins), 29 cantons and 533 communes. It forms the
diocese of Meaux (archiepiscopal province of Paris), and part of the
region of the V. army corps and of the accutemie (educational circum-
scription) of Paris. Its court of appeal is at Paris. Melun, the capital,
Meaux, Fontainebleau, Coulommiers, Provins, Nemours and
Montereau (M.V.), are the more important towns in the department.
Among other interesting places are Lagny (pop. 5302), with an abbey-
church of the I3th century; Brie-Comte Robert, with a church of
the early 1 3th century; Ferrieres, with a fine chateau built in 1860
by Baron Alphonse Rothschild; Moret-sur-Loing, which preserves
fortifications dating from the 15th century including two remarkable
gateways; St Loup-de-Naud, with a church of the first half of the
mh century; Jouarre, where there is a church of the isth century,
hnilf over a crypt containing workmanship of the Merovingian
built
period; and Vaux-le-Vicomte with the famous chateau built by
Fouquet, minister of Louis XIV.
SEINE-ET-OISE, a department of northern France, formed
in 1790 of part of the old province of tie-de-France, and traversed
from south-east to north-west by the Seine, which is joined by
the Oise. Pop. (1006) 749,753. Area, 2184 sq. m. It is
bounded by the departments of Seine-et-Marne on the E., Loiret
on the S., Eure-et-Loir on the W., Eure on the N.W. and Oise
on the N. It encloses the department of Seine. The Epte on
the north-west is almost the only natural boundary on the depart-
ment. The streams (all belonging to the basin of the Seine) are:
on the right the Yeres, the Marne, the Oise and the Epte, and on
the left the Essonne (joined by the Juine, which passes Etampes),
the Orge, the Bievre and the Mauldre. Seine-et-Oise belongs in
part of the tableland of Beauce in the south and to that of Brie
in the east. In the centre are the high wooded hills which make
the charm of Versailles, Marly and St Germain. But it is in the
north-west, in the Vexin, that the culminating point (690 ft.) is
reached, while the lowest point, where the Seine leaves the
department, is little more than 40 ft. above the sea. The mean
temperature is 51 F.
Seine-et-Oise is a flourishing agricultural and horticultural de-
partment. Wheat, oats, potatoes and sugar-beet arc important
crops. Versailles, Rambouillet, Argenteuil are among the numerous
market-gardening and horticultural centres, and wine is grown at
Argenteuil and in other localities on the right bank of the Seine.
Milch-cows and draught-oxen are the chief livestock, and poultry
farming is prosperous, the town of Houdan giving its name to a well-
known breed of fowls. Forests occupy about 190,000 acres, the
largest being that of Rambouillet (about 32,000 acres). Oak,
hornbeam, birch and chestnut are the commonest trees. Building]
paving and mill stones, gypsum, cement, &c., are produced by the
department which is very rich in quarries. There are mineral springs
at Enghien and Forges-les-Bains. The most important industrial
establishments are the national porcelain factory at Sevres; the
government powder-mills of Sevran and Bouchet; paper-mills,
especially those of Essonnes and its vicinity, which are among the
most important in Europe; textile works, flour-mills, foundries
and engineering, metallurgical or railway works at Evry-Petit-Bourg,
Villeneuve-St Georges (pop. 9508) and elsewhere; agricultural
implement factories at Dourdan and elsewhere; sugar-refineries and
distilleries; crystal works (Meudon), laundries, large printing
establishments, close to Paris; factories for chemical products,
candles, hosiery, perfumery, shoes and buttons; zinc- works, saw-
mills. Seine-et-Oise exports chiefly the products of its farms and
quarries. Its imports include coal, raw material for its industries
wine, kaolin and wood.
^ The railways of all the great companies of France (except the
Southern) traverse the department, but most of the lines belong to
those of the Western and Northern systems. The Seine and the
Oise, and the canals of Ourcq and Chelles provide about 120 m. of
waterway. Seine-et-Oise is divided into six arrondissements
(Versailles, Corbeil, Etampes, Mantes, Pontoise, Rambouillet) with
37 cantons and 691 communes. It forms the diocese of Versailles and
part of the educational circumscription (acade'mie) of Paris and of the
regions of the 1 1 ., 1 1 1 ., IV. and V. army corps, the troops in its territory
being under the command of the military government of Paris. Its
court of appeal is also at Paris.
The most notable towns in the department are Versailles, the
capital, Corbeil, Sevres, Etampes, Mantes, Pontoise, Rambouillet
Argenteuil, Poissy, St Cloud, St Cyr, St Germain-en-Laye, Meudon,
Montmorency, Rueil and Marly-le-Roi (see separate articles). Other
places of interest are Montfort-l'Amaury, which has a Renaissance
church with fine stained glass, a gateway of the l6th century and a
ruined chateau once the seat of the powerful family of Montfort;
Montlhe'ry, which preserves the keep (I3th century) and other ruins
of a celebrated fortress which commanded the road from Paris to
Orleans; Roche-Guyon, seat of the family of that name, which has
two chSteaus, one a feudal stronghold, the other also medieval but
altered in the l8th century; Vigny, with a Gothic chateau of the
I5th century; Ecouen, where there is a chateau of the i6th century
once the property of the Cond6 family, now a school for daughters of
members of the Legion of Honour; Dampierre, which has a chateau
of the 1 7th century once the property of Charles, Cardinal of
Lorraine; Maisons-Laffitte (pop. 8117), with a chateau of the same
period once belonging to the family of Longueil. The chateau of
Malmaison (i8th century) is famous as the residence of the Empress
Josephine.
Of _ the churches of the department, which are very numerous
mention may be made of those of Jouy-le Moutier (nth and I2th
centuries); Beaumont-sur-Oise (l3th century) ; Taverny (i2th and
I3th centuries) ; Longpont (remains of an abbey-church dating from
the mh to the I3th centuries). Near Cernay-la-Ville are interesting
remains of a Cistercian abbey and near Ldvy-St-Nom those of the
abbey of Notre- Dame de la Roche, including a church (i3th century)
with stalls which are among the oldest in France and the tombs of
the LeVis-Mirepoix family.
SEINE-INFtRIEURE, a department of the north of France,
iormed in 1790 of four districts (Norman Vexin, Bray, Caux
and Roumois) belonging to the province of Normandy Pop.
11906) 863,879. Area 2448 sq. m Seine-Inferieure is bounded
N.W. and N. by the English Channel for a distance of 80 m., N.E
ay Somme, from which it is separated by the Bresle, E'. by Oise,
S. by Eure and the estuary of the Seine, which separates it from
"alvados. It is divided almost equally between the basin of the
Seine in the south and the basins of certain coast streams in the
north. The Seine receives from the right hand before it reaches
the department the Epte and the Andelle from the Bray district,
and then the Darn6tal, the Cailly, the Austreberthe, the Bolbec
and the L6zarde. The main coast streams are the Bresle (which
brms the ports of Eu and Tr6port), the Yeres, the Arques or
Dieppe stream (formed by the junction of the Varennes, the
Bethune and the Eaulne), the Scie, the Saane, the Durdent.
The Pays de Caux, the most extensive natural division, is a
system of plateaus separated by small valleys, terminating along
he Seine in high bluffs and towards the sea in steep chalk cliffs
300 to 400 ft. high, which are continually being eaten away and
transformed into beds of shingle. The Bray district in the
south-east is a broad valley of denudation formed by the sea
as it retired, and traversed by valleys covered with excellent
SEISIN SEISMOMETER
589
pasture. The highest point (about 800 ft.) is on the eastern
border of the department. In the comparatively regular outline
of the coast there are a few breaks, as at Le Treport, Dieppe,
St Valery-en-Caux, Fecamp and Havre, the Cap de la Heve,
which commands this last port, and Cape Antifer, 12 or 13 m.
farther north. Le Treport, Dieppe, Veules, St Valery, Veulettes,
Fecamp, Yport, Etretat and Ste Adresse (to mention only the
more important) are fashionable watering-places. Forges-les-
Eaux (in the east of the department) has cold chalybeate springs
of some note. The winter is not quite so cold nor the summer
so hot as in Paris, but the average temperature of the year is
higher. The rainfall at Rouen is 28 in. per annum, increasing
towards Dieppe.
In general the department is fertile and well cultivated. Along the
Seine fine meadow-land has been reclaimed by dyking; and sandy
and barren districts have been planted with trees, mostly with oaks
and beeches, and they often attain magnificent dimensions, especially
in the forest of Arques and along the railway from Rouen to Dieppe;
Finns sylvestris is the principal component of the forest of Rouvray
opposite Rouen. The forest of Eu covers 36 sq. m. in the north-east.
Of the arable crops wheat and oats are the principal, rye, flax, colza,
sugar beet and potatoes being also of importance. Milch cows are
kept in great numbers especially in the Bray district, and Gournay
butter and Gournay and Neufchatel cheese are in repute. The farms
of the Caux plateau are each surrounded by an earthen dyke, on
which are planted forest trees, generally beech and oak. Within the
shelter thus provided apple and pear trees grow, which produce the
cider generally drunk by the inhabitants. With the exception of a
little peat and a number of quarries, Seine-Inferieure has no mineral
source of wealth; but manufacturing and especially the textile
industry is well developed. Rouen is the chief centre of the cotton
trade, which comprises spinning and the weaving of rouenneries,
indiennes (cotton prints), cretonnes and other cotton goods. Elbeuf
is the centre of woollen manufacture. Flax-spinning, the dyeing
and printing of fabrics and other accessory industries also employ
many hands. Engineering works, foundries and iron ship-building
yards are found at Havre and Rouen. Wooden ships are also built
at Havre, Rouen, Dieppe and Fe'camp. Other establishments of
importance are the national tobacco-factories at Dieppe and Havre,
sugar-refineries, distilleries, glass-works, potteries, paper works, soap-
works, chemical works, flour-mills, oil-factories, leather works, &c.
The fisheries are the great resource for the inhabitants of the sea-
board. Fe'camp, which plays a very important part at the Newfound-
land fisheries, sends large quantities of cod, herrings, mackerel, &c.,
into the market; Dieppe supplies Paris with fresh fish; St Valery
sends boats as far as Iceland. The principal ports for foreign trade
are Havre, Rouen and Dieppe.
The chief imports of the department are cotton, wool, cereals,
hides, coffee, timber and dye-woods, indigo and other tropical pro-
ducts, coal, petroleum, &c. The exports include industrial and dairy
products. Seine-Interieure is served principally by the Western
railway, but the Northern railway also has several lines there. The
Seine and other rivers provide 85 m. of navigable waterway. The
canal of Tancarville from Quillebeuf to Havre is about i m. long,
that from Eu to Tr6port about 2 m. The department is divided
into five arrondissements (Rouen, Dieppe, Havre, Neufchatel and
Yvetqt) 55 cantons and 760 communes. It forms the diocese of the
archbishopric of Rouen and part of the region of the III. army corps
and of the academie (educational division) of Caen. Its court of
appeal is at Rouen, the capital.
Rouen, Havre and Dieppe and in a lesser degree, Elbeuf, Fe'camp,
Harfleur, Lillebonne, Yvetot, Eu, Le Tr6port, Aumale, Etretat,
Bolbec, Barentin and Caudebec-en-Caux (see separate articles) are
noteworthy towns for commercial, architectural or other reasons.
The following places are also of architectural interest. St Martin-de
Boscherville, where there are remains of an important abbey includ-
ing a fine church in the Romanesque style of the early I2th century
and a Gothic chapter-house of the latter half of the I2th century;
Valmont, which has fine ruins (:6th century) of the choir of a
Cistercian abbey-church; Varengeville, well known for the manor
(l6th century) of Jacques Ango (see DIEPPE) ; Graville-Ste Honorine,
with a Romanesque church and other remains of an ancient abbey;
Montivilliers, which has a fine abbey-church of the nth, I2th and
i6th centuries; and Arques, Boos, Martainville, Mesni&res and
Tancarville which have old chateaus of various periods.
SEISIN (from M. Eng. saysen, seysen, in the legal sense of to
put in possession of, or to take possession of, hence, to grasp, to
seize; the O. Fr. seisir, saisir, is from Low Lat. satire, generally
referred to the same source as Goth, satjan, O. Eng. settan, to put
in place, set), the possession of such an estate in land as was
anciently thought worthy to be held by a free man (Williams,
On Seisin, p. 2). Seisin is of two kinds, in law and in deed.
Seisin in law is where lands descend and the heir has not actually
entered upon them; by entry he converts his seisin in law into
seisin in deed. Seisin is now confined to possession of the
freehold, though at one time it appears to have been used for
simple possession without regard to the estate of the possessor. 1
Its importance is considerably less than it was at one time,
owing to the old form of conveyance by feoff ment with livery of
seisin having been superseded by a deed of grant (see FEOFF-
MENT), and the old rule of descent from the person last seised
having been abolished in favour of descent from the purchaser.
At one time the right of the wife to dower and of the husband
to an estate by curtesy depended upon the doctrine of seisin.
The Dower Act (1833-1834), however, rendered the fact of the
seisin of the husband of no importance, and the Married Women's
Property Act 1882 practically abolished the old law of curtesy.
Primer seisin was a feudal burden at one time incident to the
king's tenants in capite, whether by knight service or in socage.
It was the right of the crown to receive of the heir, after the
death of a tenant in capite, one year's profits of lands in possession
and half a year's profits of lands in reversion. The right was
abandoned by the act abolishing feudal tenures (12 Car. II.
c. 24, 1660).
In Scots law the corresponding term is " sasine." Like seisin in
England, sasine has become of little legal importance owing to
modern legislation. By an act of 1845 actual sasine on the lands
was made unnecessary. By an act of 1858 the instrument of sasine
was superseded by the recording of the conveyance with a warrant
of registration thereon.
SEISMOMETER (from Gr. crettrpios, earthquake, and fapov, a
measure). This name was originally given to instruments de-
signed to measure the movement of the ground during earth-
quakes (q.v.). Observations have shown that, in addition to the
comparatively great and sudden displacements which occur in
earthquakes, the ground is subject to other movements. Some
of these, which may be called " earth-tremors," resemble earth-
quakes in the rapidity with which they occur, but differ from
earthquakes in being imperceptible (owing to the smallness of
the motion) until instrumental means are used to detect them.
Others, which may be called " earth-tiltings," show themselves
by a slow bending and unbending of the surface, so that a post
stuck in the ground, vertical to begin with, does not remain
vertical, but inclines now to one side and now to another, the
plane of the ground in which it stands shifting relatively to the
horizon. No sharp distinction can be drawn between these classes
of movements. Earthquakes and earth-tremors grade into one
another, and in almost every earthquake there is some tilting
of the surface. The term " seismometer " may conveniently
be extended (and will here be understood) to cover all instruments
which are designed to measure movements of the ground.
Popularly it is supposed that earthquake recorders are instruments
so sensitive to slight vibrations that great care is necessary in
selecting a site for their installation. Although this sup-
position is correct for a certain class of apparatus, as for
example that which will record rapid elastic vibrations pro-
duced by the movement of a train a mile distant, it is far from being
so for the ordinary apparatus employed by the seismologist. What he
usually aims at is either to record the more or less rapid movements
of jthe ground which we can feel, or the slow but large disturbances
which do not appeal to our unaided senses. Generally speaking, the
instruments used for these purposes are not disturbed by the vibra-
tions resulting from ordinary traffic. In almost every household
something may be found which will respond to a gentle shaking of
the ground. Sometimes it is a loosely-fitting shutter or window-
frame, a hanging drawer-handle, or a lamp-shade which will rattle;
the timbers in a roof may creak, or a group of wine-glasses with their
rims in contact may chatter. Any of these sounds may call attention
to movements which otherwise would pass unnoticed. Specially
arranged contrivances which tell us that the ground has been shaken
are called seismoscopes or earthquake indicators. A small column,
as for example a lead pencil standing on end, or a row of pins propped
up against suitable supports, or other bodies which are easily over-
turned, may be used as seismoscopes. Experience, however, has
1 Up to the middle of the I5th century " seisin " was applied to
chattels equally with freeholds, the word " possessed " being rarely
used. In course of time the words acquired their modern meaning.
See F. W. Maitland, " Seisin of Chattels," Law Quarterly Review,
vol. 1. p. 324 and " The Mystery of Seisin," Law Q. R. ii. 481.
Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law, vol. ii. 29 seq.; Fry, L. J.,
in Cochrane v. Moore (1890), 25 Q.B.D. 57.
59
SEISMOMETER
shown that contrivances of this order are wanting in sensibility,
and often remain standing during movements that are distinctly
perceptible. A more satisfactory arrangement is one where the
body to be overturned is placed upon a platform which exaggerates
the movements of the ground. For example, the platform h (see
ng. l) may be on the top of a small rod r, fixed at its lower end by
plaster of Paris in a watch-
glass w, and carrying a
disk or sphere of lead at /.
When the stand on which
w rests is shaken, a multi-
plied representation of this
movement takes place at
h, and any small body
resting on that point, as
for example a small screw
s standing on its head,
may be caused to topple
over. If the loaded rod is
elastic its lower end may
be fixed in a stand, and
the spherically curved base
w is no longer required.
In this case the motion at
h is that of elastic switch-
ing. Apparatus of this
kind may be employed for
several purposes beyond
F IG - ' merely indicating that an
earthquake has taken place.
For example, if the falling body s is attached by a thread to the
pendulum of a timepiece, it may be used to stop it and indicate the
approximate time at which the tremor occurred. In its most
sensitive form r is a steel wire, the upper end of which passes freely
through a small hole in a metal plate. By the movement of the
wire or the movement of the plate, especially if the latter projects
from the top of a second and similar piece of apparatus, an electrical
contact can be established by means of which an electromagnet may
ring a bell, stop a clock, or set free machinery connected with a
cylinder or other surface upon which an earthquake machine may
record the movement of the ground.
The next class of instruments to be considered are seismometers
or earthquake measurers, and seismographs or instruments which
give diagrams of earthquake motion. Although a seismo-
graph may be designed that will not only respond to
fairly rapid elastic vibrations, but will also record very
slow and slight undulatory movements of the ground,
experience has shown that the most satisfactory results are
obtained when special instruments are employed for special purposes.
First we will consider the types of apparatus which are used to
record the rapid back-and-forth movements of earthquakes which
can be distinctly felt and at times are even destructive. The essential
feature in these seismographs is a fairly heavy mass of metal, so
suspended that although its supports are moved, some point in the
mass remains practically at rest. For small earthquakes, in which
the movement is rapid, the bob of a very long and heavy pendulum
will practically comply with these conditions. If a style projecting
from this pendulum rests upon
say the smoked surface of a glass
plate fixed to the ground, the
vibratory motion of the ground
will be recorded on the glass plate
as a set of superimposed vibra-
tions. To obtain an open diagram
of these movements the plate must
be moved, say by clockwork.
Experience, however, has shown
that even when the movements of
the ground are alarming the actual
range of motion is so small that
a satisfactory record can be ob-
tained only by some mechanical
(or optical) method of multiplica-
tion. This is usually accomplished
as shown in fig. 2. b is the bob
of a pendulum, with its style s
passing through a slot in the short
arm of a light lever, sop, pivoted
at o, and with its outer end resting
upon a revolving cylinder covered
with smoked paper. As shown in
the figure, it is evident that the
motion of o in the line sop would
not be recorded, and to obtain a complete record of horizontal
movements it is necessary to have two levers at right angles to
each other. A complete arrangement of this kind is shown in the
plan of fig. 2. Here the style s of the pendulum rests in slots in
the short arms of two writing levers pivoted at o and o'. Motion
of the ground in the direction os actuates only the lever so'p',
motion in the direction o's actuates only sop, whilst motion in inter-
-Sc/smo-
mettr.
Stltmo-
graph.
FlG. 2.
pexrdif-
lums.
mediate directions actuates both. The length of the short arms of
the levers is usually 5 or j 1 , of the long arms.
This type of apparatus has been replaced in Japan by what are
called duplex pendulum seismographs. The change was
made because it frequently happened that in consequence
of the movement of the ground agreeing with the period
of the pendulum, the latter no longer acted as a steady
point, but was caused to swing, and the record became little better
than that given by a seismoscope. Very long pendulums (30 to
40 ft.) are less subject to this disadvantage, but on
the other hand their installation is a matter of some
difficulty. A duplex pendulum (fig. 3) consists of
an ordinary pendulum diagrammatically repre-
sented by ab, connected by a universal joint to an
inverted pendulum dc. The latter, which is a rod
pointed at its lower end and loaded at c, would be
unstable if it were not connected with b. Now
imagine this system to be suddenly displaced so
that a moves to a' and d moves to d'. In the new
position b would tend to follow the direction of its
point of support, whilst c would tend to fall in the
opposite direction, and the bob of one pendulum
would exercise a restraint upon the motion of the
other. If, as in practice, the moment of b is made
slightly greater than that of c, the system will
come slowly to a vertical position beneath a'd'. In
this way, by coupling together an ordinary pendulum
about 3 ft. in length with an inverted pendulum
2 ft. 6 in. long, it is easy to obtain the equivalent of
a slowly-moving very long pendulum which is too
sluggish to follow the back-and-forth movements of
its supports.
To complete an instrument of this description (see
FIG. 3.
fig. 4) a point in the steady mass b is used as the fulcrum for the short
arm of a light-writing index. This has a ball joint at i, a universal
joint at o and a writing point at p, resting upon a piece of smoked
glass. Attention was first directed to the possibility of rendering
ordinary pendulums more truly astatic by Professor Thomas Gray,
who suggested methods by which this might be accomplished. The
method shown in fig. 4 is that devised by Professor J. A. Ewing.
Records obtained from instruments of this description give informa-
tion respecting the range and principal direction of motion, and
show us that in a given earthquake the ground may move in many
azimuths.
For obtaining an open diagram of an earthquake the best type of
apparatus consists of a pair of horizontal pendulums writing their
movements upon a moving surface. A simple form of .
horizontal pendulum as shown in fig. 5, consists of a rod,
op, free to swing like a gate round a vertical or nearly ? en
vertical axis,_ oo', and loaded at some point b. In practice
the weight b is pivoted on the rod whilst its outer end, bp, which writes
on a smoked surface, is made extremely
light. When the frame of this arrange-
ment is rapidly displaced through a small
horizontal range to the right and left of
the direction in which the rod points, the
weight b by its inertia tends to remain at
rest, and the motion of the frame, which
is that of the earth, is magnified in the
ration op to bp. This apparatus, of which
there are many types, was first intro-
duced into seismometry by Professor
Ewing.
To obtain a complete record of hori-
zontal motion, two of these pendulums
are placed at right angles; and by crank-
ing one of the writing levers, o'p', as
shown in the plan of fig. 5, two rect-
angular components of the earth's move-
ments are written side by side. Since the
movements of the ground are frequently
accompanied by a slight tilting, which
would cause b or b' to swing or wander
away from its normal position, a sufficient
stability is given to the weights by
inclining the axis of the instrument
slightly forwards. Although by com-
pounding corresponding portions of the
diagrams given by instruments of this
type, it is possible to determine the
range and direction of the movement
of which they are the resolved parts,
FIG. 4.
their chief value is that they enable us to measure with ease the
extent of any vibration, half of which is called its amplitude, and
the time taken to make any complete back-and-forth movement,
or its period. Now if a be the amplitude expressed in millimetres,
and / the period expressed in seconds, then the maximum velocity
of an earth particle as it vibrates to and fro equals 2ira/t, whilst
the maximum acceleration equals ^-r'a/P. The former quantity
determines the distance to which a body, as for example the capping
SEISMOMETER
59 1
of a pillar, may be projected, whilst the latter measures the effort
exerted by an earthquake to overturn or shatter various bodies.
If after a heavy earthquake we find bodies that have been projected
or overturned, then by observing the distance of projection, and the
height through which they have fallen, or their dimensions, we can
FIG. 5.
by means of simple formulae calculate quantities closely agreeing
with those obtained from the seismogram. For example, if a body,
say a coping-stone, has been thrown horizontally through a distance
a, and fallen from a height b, the maximum horizontal velocity with
which it was projected equals V (ga^l^b); or if the height of the
centre of gravity of a column like a gravestone above the base on
which it rests is y, and x is the horizontal distance of this centre
from the edge over which it has turned, then the acceleration or
suddenness of motion which caused its overthrow is measured, as
pointed out by C. D. West, with fair accuracy by gxjy.
To measure vertical motion, which with the greater number of
earthquakes is not appreciable, a fairly steady mass to which a
, multiplying light-writing index can be attached is ob-
tained from a weight carried on a lever held by any
form of spring in a horizontal position. Such an arrange-
ment, for which seismologists are indebted to Professor
T. Gray, is shown in fig. 6, in which B is the mass used as the steady
point. This, when supported as shown, can be arranged to have
an extremely slow period of
vertical motion, and in this
respect be equivalent to a
weight attached to a very
long spring, an alternative
which is, however, impracti-
cable. The value of these
records, as is the case with
other forms of seismographs,
is impaired by pronounced
tiltings of the ground.
We next turn to types of
instruments employed to
record earthquakes which
have radiated from their
origins, where they may
FIG. 6. have been violent, to such
distances that their move-
ments are no longer perceptible. In these instruments the same
principles are followed as in the construction of horizontal pendulums,
the chief difference being that the so-called steady mass is
arranged to have a much longer period than that required
when recording perceptible earthquakes. Instruments
largely employed for this purpose in Italy are ordinary
pendulum seismographs as in fig. 2. One at Catania
consists of a weight of 300 kilos suspended by a wire 25
metres in length, the movements of which by means of writing
indexes are multiplied 12-5 times. With pendulums of shorter
length, say 2 metres, it is necessary to have a multiplication 80 to
100 fold by a double system of very light levers, in order to render
the extremely slight tilting of their support perceptible. This
arrangement, as devised by Professor G. Vicentini of Padua, will
yield excellent diagrams of the gentle undulations of earthquakes
Instru-
ments to
record dig'
tant earth
qttakes.
which have originated at great distances, but for local disturbances,
even if the bob of the pendulum acts as a steady point, the highly
multiplied displacements are usually too great to be recorded.
In Japan, Germany, Austria, England and Russia horizontal
pendulums of the yon Rebeur-Paschwitz type are employed, which
by means of levelling screws are usually adjusted to have a natural
period or double swing
of from 15 to 30
seconds. These pen-
dulums are usually
small. The swinging
arm or boom is from
4 to 8 in. long hori-
zontally, and carries
at its extremity a
weight of a few ounces.
A simple form, which
is sometimes referred
to as a conical pen-
dulum, may be con-
structed with a large
sewing needle carrying
a galvanometer mirror,
suspended by means
of a silk or quartz
fibre as shown in fig.
7. To avoid the possi-
bility of displacements
due to magnetic in-
fluences, the needle
may be replaced by a
brass or glass rod. FIG. 7.
The adjustment of the
instrument is effected by means of screws in the bed-plate, by
turning which the axis o'o* may be brought into a position nearly
vertical. As this position is approached the period of swing becomes
greater and greater, and sensibility to slight tilting at right angles
to the plane of o'o"m is increased. The movements of the apparatus,
which when complete should consist of two similar pendulums in
planes at right angles to each other, are recorded by means of a
beam of light, which, after reflection from the mirror or mirrors,
passes through a cylindrical lens and is focussed upon a moving
surface of photographic paper. The more distant this is from the
pendulum the greater is the magnification of the angular movements
of the mirror. With a period of 1 8 seconds, and the record-receiving
paper at a distance of about 15 ft., a deflection of I millimetre of the
light spot may indicate a tilting of T$B part of a second of arc, or
I in. in 326 miles. _ Although this high degree of sensibility, and even
a sensibility still higher, may be required in connexion with investi-
gations respecting changes in the vertical, it is not necessary in
ordinary seismometry. A very sensitive modified von Rebeur
instrument was employed by O. Hecker in his measurement of the
variation in the vertical and of tidal earth tremors.
A type of instrument which has sufficient sensibility to record
the various phases of unfelt earthquake motion, and which, at the
suggestion of a committee of the British Association, has been
adopted at many observatories throughout the world, is shown
in fig. 8. With an adjustment to give a i5-second period, a deflection
Boom -<
Balance Weight
Table
u
Pivot on Boom
Masonry
Column
Stand
Boom
FIG. 8.
of i mm. at the outer end of the boom corresponds to a tilting
of the bed-plate of o"-5, or I in. in 6-4 m. The record is obtained
by the light from a small lamp reflected downwards by a mirror so
as to pass through a slit in a small plate attached to the outer end
of the boom. The short streak of light thus obtained moves with
592
SEISTAN
the movement of the boom over a second slit perpendicular to the
first and made in the lid of a box containing clockwork driving a
band of bromide paper. With this arrangement of crossed slits
a spot of light impinges on the photographic surface and, when the
boom is steady, gives a sharp fine line. The passage of the long
hand of a watch across the end of the slit every hour cuts off the
light, and gives hour marks enabling the observer to learn the time
at which a disturbance has taken place. The chief function of the
instrument is to measure slow displacements due to distant earth-
quakes. For local earthquakes it will move relatively to the pivoted
balance weight like -an ordinary bracket seismograph, and for very
rapid motion it gives seismoscopic indications of slight tremors due
to the switching of the outer end of the boom, which is necessarily
somewhat flexible. If we wish to obtain mechanical registration
from a horizontal pendulum of the above type, we may minimize
the effect of the friction of the writing index say a glass fibre
touching the smoked surface of moderately smooth paper by
using a considerable weight and placing it near to the outer end of
the boom. In the Isle of Wight there is a pair of pendulums ar-
ranged as in fig. 5. The stand is 3 ft. in height. Weights of 10 Ib
each are carried at a distance of 10 in. from the pivots of booms
which have a total length of 34 in. With these, or even with booms
half the above length, actuating indices arranged as shown in fig. 2,
but multiplying the motion six or seven times, good results may be
obtained. At Rocca di Papa near Rome there is a pair of horizontal
pendulums with booms 8 ft. 9 in. in length, 17 ft. in vertical height,
which carry near their outer ends weights exceeding half a hundred-
weight. Although such apparatus is far too cumbersome to be used
by ordinary observers, it yields valuable results.
An apparatus of great value in measuring slight changes in the
vertical which have a bearing upon seismometrical observation is
the Darwin bifilar pendulum. This consists of a mirror about half
an inch in diameter, which, when it is suspended as
shown in fig. 9, rotates by tilting at right angles to
the paper. By this rotation a beam of light re-
flected from the surface suffers displacement. It
is possible to adjust the apparatus so that a tilt of
TJ'JJJ sec. of arc, or a change of slope of i in. in
looo miles, can be detected. (See Sir G. H. Darwin,
Scientific Papers, vol. i. (1907).)
The principle of the Vicentini instrument described
above has been adopted by G. Agamennone, director
of the observatory at Rocca di Papa,, near Rome,
and also by E. Wiechert of Gottingen. In the
Agamennone seismometrograph the pendulum is
cheese-shaped, and weighs 500 kilos in one form and
2000 kilos, or over two tons, in the largest. This
cylinder, which is suspended from a stand rigidly
attached to the earth, has a vertical hole in its
FIG. 9.
centre extending from its upper surface to its centre of gravity,
and to the bottom of this well a light rod is fixed. The motion
of the frame is communicated to this rod by an extension of the
frame which makes contact with it just above its point of attach-
ment to the well. The motion is first magnified by the lever, and,
on its communication to a complex lever system above the station-
ary mass, is still further magnified before registration, which is
effected by a pen supplied with ink writing on white paper.
Mechanism is provided whereby the speed of the paper is doubled
on receipt of a shock, an electric bell ringing at the same time
to summon an attendant. In the Wiechert astatic pendulum
seismometer the stationary mass is also cheese-shaped, but it is
supported by a conical extension from its base, which balances it on
the floor of its case. There is also an extension from the upper
surface of the pendulum, in contact with a system of levers and rods
attached to the case; an air-dampkig cylinder is fitted to annul the
free vibrations of the pendulum. The motion of the rod consequent
to a motion of the case is modified by the projecting axle of the
stationary mass, and after much magnification is recorded on a sheet
of smoked paper. This instrument was made with a pendulum
weight of 1 1 oo kilos or over a ton; and with a modified construction
the weight was increased to 17,000 kilos or nearly 19 tons, porta-
bility being obtained by replacing the solid pendulum of the smaller
instrument by a shell which can be filled with barytes, a heavy
mineral readily obtainable in most places. This instrument, which
has a magnification of 2200, detects the slightest tremors, and is
consequently most useful in recording earthquakes of distant origin;
its high sensitiveness and complications, however, militate against its
common use. Wiechert has also constructed a seismometer on the
same principle, but in which the stationary mass is smaller, being
adjustable between 80 and 200 kilos (180 and 440 Ib).
The Strassburg or Bosch seismograph differs from those just de-
scribed in resembling the Milne instrument, i.e. it is a horizontal and
not a vertical pendulum. The steady mass, however, is much larger,
being 100 kijos (or 220 Ib); the magnification is from 80 to 100; and
the registration is effected on a roll of smoked paper. An air-damping
apparatus is attached in order to annul the natural oscillations of the
pendulum. Two of these instruments are set up, one in the N.-S.
direction and the other in the E.-W. so as to record the two horizontal
components. A morepopular Strassburg instrument has a stationary
mass of 25 kilos. The Galitzin seismograph, devised by Prince
Galitzin, is of the same type, but it essentially differs from the Milne
instrument in having its pendulum dead-beat ; this is brought about
by an electromagnetic device. Magnification and registration of
the motion is effected in the following way. Attached to the pen-
dulum is a coil of fine wire which moves in the field of a pair of
magnets. The currents induced in the coil are led to a dead-beat
D'Arsonval galvanometer having the same natural period of vibra-
tion as the pendulum. It is found that the motion of the galvano-
meter mirror faithfully records, except in a few special cases, the
motion of the pendulum; the actual record is made on sensitized
paper. Two instruments are set up, and the two components are
recorded on one strip.
AUTHORITIES. For older forms see R. Mallet's Report of the
British Association (1858). For modern forms see J. Milne, Seismology
(London, 1898); Transactions of the Seismolpgical Society of Japan,
vols. i.-xvi. ; Seismological Journal, vols. i.-v. (Yokohama, 1880-
1895); Bollettino delta Societd Sismologica Italiana, vols. i.-v. (Rome,
!895); J- A. Ewing, Memoir on Earthquake Measurement (Tokyo,
1883); Reports of the British Association (1887-1902); E. von
Rebeur-Paschwitz, Das Horizontalpendel (Halle, 1892); A. Sieberg,
Handbuch der Erdbebenkunde (Braunschweig, 1904).
SEISTAN, or SISTAN (SEJISTAN), the ancient Sacastane (" land
of the Sacae ") and the Nimruz or " Meridies " of the Vendidad,
a district of Persia and Afghanistan, situated generally between
30 o' and 31 35' N., and between 61 o' and (including Rudbar)
62 40' E. Its extreme length is about 100 and its breadth
varies from 70 to over 100 m., but the exact limits are vague,
and the modern signification of the name practically comprehends
the peninsula formed by the lower Helmund and its embouchure
on the one side and the Hamun (lake) on the other. Its area is
7006 sq. m.; 2847 sq. m. are Persian territory, while 4ispsq. m.
belong to Afghanistan. When British arbitration was brought
to bear upon the disputed claims of Persia over this country in
1872, it was found necessary to suppose two territories one
compact and concentrated, which was called " Seistan Proper,"
the other detached and irregular, called " Outer Seistan."
i. Seistan Proper is bounded on the north by the Naizar, or
reed-bed which fringes the Hamun; west by the Hamun itself,
of which the hill called Kuh-i-Khwajah marks the central point;
south by a line shutting in Sikuha and all villages and lands
watered by the main Seistan canal; and east by the old bed of
the Helmund, from i m. above the dam at Kohak to the mouth.
Kal'ab-i-nau and Rindan are among the more northerly inhabited
villages. The Kuh-i-Khwajah is a sufficient indication of the
western side. Burj-i-'Alam Khan should be included within the
southern boundary as well as Sikuha. Khwajah Ahmad and
Jahanabad, villages on the left bank, or west of the true bed of
the Helmund, denote the eastern line. The whole area is esti-
mated at 947 sq. m. The fixed population may be roughly stated
at 35,000 some 20,000 Seistanis and 15,000 settlers the greater
part of whom are Parsiwans, or rather, perhaps, a Persian-
speaking people. To the above numbers may be added 10,000
Baluch nomads. Taking the aggregate at 45,000, we find nearly
48 persons to the square mile. These figures are eight times in
excess of the proportional result found for the whole of Persia.
It should be explained that the designation Seistan Proper is
not arbitrarily given. The territory comprehended in it is
spoken of as Seistan by the dwellers on the right bank of the
Helmund, in contradistinction to their own lands. At the same
time it could only be but a fractional part as indeed the whole
country under consideration could only be of the Seistan of
Persian history.
Seistan Proper is an extensive tract of sand and clay alluvium,
generally flat, but irregular in detail. It has heaps, but no hills;
bushes, but no trees, unless indeed three or four tamarisks of
aspiring height deserve the name; many old ruins and vestiges
of civilization, but few monuments or relics of antiquity. It is
well watered by rivers and canals, and its soil is of proved
fertility. Wheat or barley is perhaps the staple cultivation;
but pease, beans, oil-seeds and cotton are also grown. Among
fruits, grapes and mulberries are rare, but melons and water-
melons, especially the latter, are abundant. Grazing and fodder
are not wanting, and besides the reeds peculiar to Seistan there
are two grasses which merit notice that called bannu, with
which the bed of the Hamun abounds on the south and the taller
and less salt kirta on the higher ground.
SEISTAN
593
2. Outer Seistan, the country on the right bank of the Hel-
mund, and east of its embouchure in the Hamun, extends more
than 100 m. in length, or from a point between the Charboli and
Khuspas rivers north to Rudbar south. In breadth the district
of Chakhansur, measuring from the old bed of the Helmund,
inclusive of Nad Ali, to Kadah, may be estimated at some 30 m.
It produces wheat and barley, melons, and perhaps a few vege-
tables and oil seeds. Beyond the Chakhansur limits, southward
or up to the Helmund, there is probably no cultivation save
that obtained on the river bank, and ordinarily illustrated by
patches of wheat and barley with melon beds. On the opposite
side of the river, in addition to the cultivated portions of the
bank, there is a large tract extending from south of Kuhak, or
the Seistan dam (band), to the gravelly soil below the mountain
ranges which separate Seistan from Baluchistan and Narmashir.
The distance from north to south of this plain may be computed
at 40 m., and from east to west at 80 or 90 m. Lands north of
the Naizar not belonging to the Afghan district of Lash Juwain
may also be included in Outer Seistan; but it is unnecessary to
make any distinction of the kind for the tract marked Hamun on
the west, where it merges into the Persian frontier. The in-
habitants are Seistanis or Parsiwans, Baluch nomads and
Afghans. Between the Kuhak band and Rudbar they are mainly
Baluch. Most of the less nomad tribesmen are Sanjurani and
Toki, the sardars jealously claiming the former appellation.
The most remarkable geographical feature of Seistan generally, in
the modern acceptation of the term, is the Hamun, which stretches far
and wide on the north, west and south, but is for a great part of the
year dry or a mere swamp. It is a curious feature in the physical
conformation of northern and western Afghanistan that none of the
rivers flow to the sea, but that the Helmund and all the other rivers
of western Afghanistan empty themselves into these lagoons, which
spread over thousands of square miles. A noteworthy feature of the
Seistan lagoon is that in times of excessive flood it overspreads a vast
area of country, both to the north and south, shutting off the capital
of Seistan (Nusretabad) from surrounding districts, and spreading
through a channel southwards, known as Shelag, to another great
depression, called the Gaud-i-Zirreh. This great salt swamp is about
1000 ft. lower in elevation and is situated so close to the Helmund as
to leave but a few miles of broken ridge between. By that ridge all
communication with Seistan must pass in time of flood. Seistan
becomes a promontory connected with the desert south of the
Helmund by that isthmus alone. In the early spring the existence of
a lake could only be certified by pools or hollows of water formed at
the mouths of the principal feeders, such as the Khash Rud on the
north-east, the Farah Rud on the north-west, and the Helmund,
where its old bed terminates at no great distance from the Khash
Rud. Bellew describes the aspect of that portion of Seistan limited
to the actual basin of the Helmund as indicating the former existence
of a lake which covered with its waters a considerable area. On the
north this tract has been raised to a higher level than the remainder
by the deposit at the mouths of rivers of the solid matter brought
down. It is still, however, from 200 to 500 ft. below the level of the
desert cliffs that bound it, and at some former period formed the
shores of the lake ; and it is from 50 or 60 to 200 ft. above the level of
the beds of the rivers now flowing into the existing Hamun.
The water-supply of Seistan is about as uncertain as that of Sind,
though the general inclination to one bank, the left, is more marked
in the Helmund than in the Indus. Therefore the boundary lines
given must be received with slight reservation. It is easy tc see that
a good year of inundation extends the borders of the so-called lake
to within the Naizar; and there are well-defined beds of dry canals
intersecting the country, which prove the existence formerly of an
extensive water-system no longer prevailing. The main canal of
Seistan, confounded by some writers with the parent river, bears the
waters of the Helmund westward into the heart of the country.
They are diverted by means of a large band or dam, known indiffer-
ently as the " Amir's," the '' Seistan " or the " Kuhak " band, It is
constructed of horizontally laid tamarisk branches, earth and per-
pendicular stakes, and protected from damage by a fort on the left
and a tower on the right bank of the river. Although this diversion
of the stream may be an artificial development of a natural channel,
and undoubtedly dates from a period long prior to recent Persian
occupation, it appears that the later arrangements have been more
maturely and better organized than those carried on by the pre-
decessors of the amir of Kaian. The towns of Deshtak, Chelling,
Burj-i-'Alam Khan, Bahramabad, Kimmak and others of less note are
actually on the banks of this main canal. Moreover, it is the indirect
means of supplying water to almost every town and village in Seistan
Proper, feeding as it does a network of minor canals, by which a
system of profuse irrigation is put in force. The yearly rainfall is only
2 to 3 in. The Seistan depression receives the drainage of a tract of
country over 125,000 sq. m. in area.
Provisions in Seistan are as a rule sufficient, though sheep and
oxen are somewhat poor. Bread is cheap and good, being procurable
to natives at less than a halfpenny the pound. Vegetables are scarce,
and rice is chiefly obtained from Herat. The inundated lands abound
with water-fowl. Partridges and sand-grouse are occasionally seen.
River fish are plentiful enough, but confined to one species, the
barbel.
The population is about 205,000, but the country, even with
the lazy methods of the present day, furnishes a very large
amount of grain and food-supplies in excess of local require-
ments, and it could, of course, be made to furnish very much
more. Under improved government Seistan could with but
little trouble be made into a second Egypt.
The inhabitants of Seistan are mainly composed of Kaianis,
descendants of the ancient rulers of the land; Sarbandis and
Shahrakis, tribes supposed to have consisted originally of immi-
grants from western Persia; and Baluchis of the Nharui and
Sanjurani (Toki) clans. Bellew separates the " Seistanis ";
but it is a question whether this term is not in a large measure
applied to fixed inhabitants of the country, whatever their
descent and nationality. The dense reed-beds (Naizar) skirting
the Hamun, often several miles in width and composed of reeds
10 ft. or more in height, look impenetrable, but narrow winding
lanes exist in them, known only to the Sayads (Arab, for
" hunter "), a strange aboriginal race of Seistan, who live by
netting fish and water-fowl. These people live all the year round
at the water's edge, in huts made of reeds, and change their
abodes as the waters advance or recede. They have a language
of their own, and are an unsociable people, suspicious of strangers,
ever ready to decamp if they think a tax-collector is near.
History. The ancient Drangiana (Zaraya, Daranka, " lake
land ") received the name of " land of the Sacae " after this
country was permanently occupied by the " Scythians " or
Sacae, who overran Iran in 128 B.C. It was included in the
Sassanian empire, and then in the empire of the caliphs. About
A.D. 860, when it had undergone many* changes of government
under lieutenants of the Bagdad caliphs, or bold adventurers
acting on their own account, Yakub b. Laith al-Saffar
made it the seat of his power. In 901 it fell under the power of
the Samanids, and a century later into that of the Ghaznevids.
An invasion of Jagatais and the irruption of Timur are salient
points in the history of Seistan prior to the Sefavid conquest
(1508). Up to 1722 Seistan remained more or less a Persian
dependency. At the time of the Afghan invasion of Mir Mahmud
(1722), Malik Mahommed Kaiani was the resident ruler in Seistan,
and by league with the invader or other intrigue he secured for
himself that particular principality and a great part of Khorasan
also. He was slain by Nadir Kuli Khan, the general of Shah
Tahmasp, who afterwards, as Nadir Shah, became possessor of
Seistan as part of his Persian dominions. Shortly after the death
of Nadir (1751) Seistan passed, together with other provinces,
into the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali, the first sovereign in a
united Afghanistan. On the death of Ahmad Shah in 1773 the
country became a recognized bone of contention, not so much
between Persians and Afghans as between Herat and Kandahar;
but eventually the internal dissensions of Afghanistan gave
Persia the desired opportunity; and by a steady course of
intrigue and encroachment she managed to get within her grasp
the better lands on the left bank of the lower Helmund and some-
thing on the right bank besides. When the British arbitrator
appeared on the scene in the beginning of 1872, though compelled
to admit the shah's possession of what has been called " Seistan
Proper," he could in fairness insist on the evacuation of Nad Ali,
Kala Path, and all places occupied on the right bank by Persian
troops; and furthermore he left to the Afghans both sides of
the river Helmund from the dam of Kuhak to its elbow west of
Rudbar. A part of the work of General Sir Frederic J. Goldsmid,
K.C.S.I., who conducted the first Seistan demarcation commission
in 1872, was left undone and completed only in 1903-1905 by
Col Sir Henry McMahon, K.C.I.E.
See Eastern Persia, vol. i.; Bellew's " Record of Seistan Mission,"
Journal of R. Geog, Society, vol. xliii. (1873); Col. Sir H. McMahon's
paper in Geographical Journal (September to October, 1906) ; also
PERSIA. (F. J. G.; A. H.-S.)
594
SEJANUS, LUCIUS AELIUS, favourite and minister of the
Emperor Tiberius. He was the son of Sems Strabo, prefect
of the praetorians, and was adopted into the Aelian gens. After
his father's departure from Rome to take up the governorship
of Egypt, Sejanus was made prefect in his stead. He gained the
confidence of Tiberius, and, supported by the praetorians, whom
he concentrated in a camp on the Viminal Hill, became virtually
ruler of Rome. But he aimed still higher, and determined to
put all the members of the royal house out of his way. Having
removed Drusus (the son of Tiberius) by poison, he persuaded
the emperor to retire to the island of Capreae. The death of
Drusus was followed some years later by those of Agrippina
(the wife of Germanicus) and her sons Drusus and Nero. Tiberius
at last saw through his designs, and caused Sejanus to be put
to death (A.D. 31).
Tacitus, Annals, iv. I, 2, 3, 8, 39-59, 74, v. 6-9; Suetonius,
Tiberius, 62; Dio Cassius 1'vii. Iviii. ; Juvenal x. 65-86; J.
Julg, Vita Aelii Sejani (1882), with notes giving full references to
authorities; J. C. Tarver, Tiberius the Tyrant (London, 1902),
chap. xvii.
SEKONDI, a port on the Gold Coast in 4 57' N., i 42' W., and
167 m. by rail S. by W. of Kumasi. Pop. (1908) about 5000,
of whom some 200 were whites. Sekondi is one of the old trading
stations on the Guinea coast, and Fort Orange was built here by
the Dutch about 1640, the English later on building another fort
near by. In 1694 the Dutch fort was plundered by the Ahanta,
who in 1698 burnt the English fort. It was not rebuilt, and it
was not until 1872 that the place became definitely British.
The town was of comparatively little importance until it was
chosen as the sea terminus of the railway serving the gold-mining
districts and Ashanti. The railway reached the Tarkwa gold-
fields in 1901 and the Obuassi mines in 1902. From that date
Sekondi became the chief port of the Gold Coast colony, gold,
rubber and timber being.the principal exports. In 1908 the total
trade of the port was 2,121,420. There is no sheltered harbour,
but at the landing place are piers provided with cranes. Landing
is effected in lighters, ships anchoring in the roadstead half a
mile from the shore. The public buildings include Fort Orange,
a church, court-house, government offices and hospital. The mean
temperature is about 79 F. ; the rainfall about 40 in. a year.
The climate is unhealthy for Europeans, but by the reclamation
,of the neighbouring lagoons its sanitary condition has been im-
proved. Sekondi is governed by a municipality, created in 1903.
It isin telegraphic communication withEuropebysubmarinecable,
and is served by British, German and Belgian lines of steamers.
SELACHIANS, or ELASMOBRANCHII, a subclass of fishes,
including the various kinds of Sharks and Rays.
Structural Features. The general shape is somewhat spindle-
like in the Sharks, while in the Rays in correlation with the
ground-feeding habits the body has become greatly depressed.
Departures from the normal are seen in the Hammerheads
(Sphyrna), where the sides of the head are so produced as to
give a hammer shape, and in the Saw-fishes (Pristis), where the
head is prolonged forwards as a greatly elongated flattened
rostrum. In regard to the fins, the tail is heterocercal in the
adults of living forms, except in Chlamydoselachus, where the
protocercal condition persists; the pectoral fins are greatly
enlarged in the Rays, in which movement is effected mainly by
the passage backwards of waves of flexure along the pectoral
fins; the pelvic fins in the last-named fishes have their hinder
portions modified in the male to form special copulatory organs,
the myxipterygia or " claspers."
The mouth opening is a ventrally placed crescentic slit except in
Chlamydoselachus, where it is nearly terminal. The olfactory organs,
lying in front of the mouth, are widely open to the exterior, and in
some cases are connected with the mouth by oronasal grooves. The
spiracular opening frequently retains in the adult an opening to the
exterior behind or below the eye. In the Rays it is used mainly for
inspiration. The post-spiracular clefts open freely to the exterior,
each guarded by a flap-like extension of its anterior margin which
serves as a valve to allow water to pass only in one direction, viz.
outwards. In the Holocephali the anterior flap, that arising from the
hyoid arch, is greatly enlarged so as to form an operculum covering
over all the clefts lying posterior to it.
SEJANUS SELACHIANS
The postspiracular clefts are usually five in number, but six in
Chlamydoselachus and Notidanus griseus, and seven in N. cinereus.
The gill lamellae are strap-like and attached by their edges to the
gill septa. Fully developed lamellae are present on the anterior
wall of the hyobranchial clefts and vestigial lamellae on the anterior
wall of the spiracle where they form the " pseudobranch."
In the Basking Shark Cetorhinus the pharyngeal openings of the
gill clefts are guarded by series of long slender rods the greatly
elongated representatives of the small conical " gill rakers " found
in this position in other fishes. These structures form a sieve-
like arrangement for preventing the minute creatures (plankton)
upon which this shark feeds from passing out through the gill
clefts.
There appears to be no representative of the lung or swimbladder,
and there are no pyloric caeca. The intestine is provided with a
spiral valve in its interior which varies in character in different
forms (i). A glandular caecum the rectal caecum opens into the
dorsal side of the rectum. In regard to the coelomic spaces the
Selachians exhibit the interesting feature that the pericardiac cavity
is in the adult in communication with the general splanchnocoele
by an open channel sometimes forked at its posterior end. This
communication apparently arises secondarily and is not due to a per-
sistence of the embryonic communication (2). In the case of Torpedo
and in the ordinary Rays certain portions of the muscular system
are converted into electrical organs. In the Skates and Rays the
electrical disturbance is relatively small imperceptible by human
beings but in Torpedo it is very considerable. No doubt the
electric organs subserve a defensive function.
The kidney of the adult is a mesonephros. The pronephros is
never functional, though it appears in a vestigial form in the embryo.
The mesonephros shows a division into a broader posterior portion
which alone is renal in function, and a slender anterior portion which
in the male subserves a genital function. The female genital duct
is a typical Mullerian duct having at its anterior end a wide coelomic
funnel and lined by glandular epithelium whose secretion forms
adventitious coats round the egg during its downward passage.
The spermatozoa find their way to the cloaca by way of the rnesone-
phric duct, the hinder portion of which is dilated to form a vesicula
seminalis. The urino-genital sinus formed by the fusion of the
mesonephric ducts at their hinder ends projects forward as a
pair of pockets (the so-called sperm sacs).
The skeleton of the Selachian shows remarkably archaic features,
inasmuch as the internal skeleton is entirely cartilaginous, the
bony or placoid skeleton retaining its primitive superficial position
and not showing in any part a tendency to sink or spread inwards
for the reinforcement of the cartilaginous skeleton. The vertebral
column is of the chordacentrous type, although in some of the more
archaic of known fossil forms (Pleuropterygii, Ichthyotomi, Acan-
thodei, Hybodus) the chondrified secondary sheath of the notochord
apparently retained in the adult the unsegmented condition. The
same holds for the Holocephali and for the hinder part of the vertebral
column of the existing Chlamydoselachus. The centra are usually,
if not always, strengthened in the adult by the deposition of lime
salts in the intercellular matrix: such calcified cartilage must be
carefully distinguished from true bone. The arrangement of the
calcified tracts shows differences which are of taxonomic importance.
In the cyclospondylous type (fig. I, A) the calcified tract has the
form of a double cone of the wall of a dice-box and in the
transverse section
appears as a simple
circle (Pa laeo-
spinax, A canthias,
Scymnus). In the
tectospondylous (fig.
i, B) type, ad-
ditional calcified
tracts are developed
outside and concen-
tric with the original
double cone (Bato-
idei) , while in the as-
no.
eocm,
ha,'.
ABC
From Zittel's Bandbuch der Palaantotogie, by permission
terospondylous (fig. of Herrcn R. Oldenbourg, Publishers, Munich.
I, Q type the ad- pi G . Ig Diagrammatic transverse sections
ditional calcifica- to illustrate the Cyclospondylous (A), the
tion takes the form Tectospondylous (B) and the Asterospondylous
of longitudinally (Q type of vertebra.
arranged plates ^ d', d", Calcified tracts, h.a, Haemal arch,
radiating outwards exMi Primary sheath. n.a, Neural arch,
from the original
double cone, so as to produce a star-like appearance in cross section
(Scyllium, Lamna). Eventually in the adult the calcification may
extend from the special tracts above mentioned throughout the
whole centrum. In certain cases (Carchariidae, &c.) the transverse
section of the centrum is modified by its surface becoming indented
by the ingrowth of cartilage tracts (calcified or not) situated external
to the primary sheath, thus producing an appearance something
like a Maltese cross.
The arch elements of the vertebral column have lost in variable
degrees the numerical correspondence with the centra which they
possibly once possessed. The same applies to the relations of the
SELACHIANS
595
centra with the fundamental body metamerism, as shown by the
neuro-muscular segments; e.g. there are frequently in the caudal
region in sharks (3) two centra to each neuro-muscular segment, while
in part of the trunk in Notidanidae one centrum corresponds to two
neuro-muscular segments.
The chondrocranium retains through life its primitive character.
The ethmoidal region is prolonged forwards into a rostrum which
may be of enormous size (Pristis), or may be of insignificant dimen-
sions as in most sharks.
The jaw apparatus is also remarkably archaic: the functional
jaws being the palatopterygoquadrate cartilage and Meckel's cartilage
respectively. The suspension from the skull is typically hyostylic,
except in Notidanus where it is amphistylic, in the Holocephali
where it is autostylic, and in Heterodontus where it approaches the
autostylic condition.
The skeleton of the postmandibular visceral arches consists of a
half hoop of cartilage on each side divided into a number of seg-
ments: the two half hoops are connected ventrally by a median
copula (basihyal, or basibranchial) . The hyoid arch most usually
shows a division into a dorsal (hyomandibular) and a ventral (cera-
tohyal) element, and except in the Notidanidae the dorsal segment
is of large size in correlation with its function in the suspension of
the jaws. This enlargement of the hyomandibular is particularly
marked in the case of the Rays (Raia) where it may become freed
from the ventral segmented part of the arch which articulates
directly with the skull. The branchial arches usually are segmented
on each side into four pieces (pharyngobranchial, epibranchial,
ceratobranchial and hypobranchial) in addition to the median copula.
All these visceral arch skeletons bear on their outer surface a
number of cartilaginous rays which radiate outwards and support
the gill septa. Those attached to the hyoid arch (branchiostegal
rays) show by their specially large size a foreshadowing of the
development of the operculum of the higher group of fishes.
In addition to the elements already mentioned slender cartila-
ginous rods of doubtful significance are found superficial to the jaw
cartilage (labials) and to certain of the branchial arches (extra
branchials).
The limb girdles of the Selachians are very simple a hoop of
cartilage incomplete dorsally in the case of the pectoral, a transverse
bar of cartilage in the case of the pelvic girdle.
In the ancient Pleuracanthids the two halves of the pectoral
girdle remained distinct in the adult, and each was segmented into
three pieces, thus showing a remarkable correspondence with the
visceral arches lying in front of them. (For the bearing of this on
theories of the origin of limbs see ICHTHYOLOGY : Anatomy.) In some
existing sharks (e.g. Acanthias) a relic of this condition is found the
dorsal extremity of the girdle being segmented off from the rest.
The cartilaginous skeleton of the pectoral limb consists of numerous
cartilaginous rays which typically are connected with the girdle
through the intermediary of three basal pieces known as propterygium,
mesopterygium and metapterygium. In the Rays, in correlation with
the gigantic development of the pectoral fins, the propterygium and
metapterygium become greatly enlarged in an anteroposterior
direction the former becoming attached to the side of the cranium
or even meeting and fusing with its fellow in front (Trygon). In
the pelvic limb the rays are except a few in front borne on the
outer side of a single backwardly projecting basal piece (metaptery-
gium). In the male this is continued backwards to form the skeleton
of the clasper.
The limb skeleton shows remarkably interesting features in the
ancient extinct sharks Cladoselache and Pleuracanthus.
The placoid or bony skeleton is seen in its most archaic form in
Selachians in the form of superficially placed placoid scales. These
may be uniform in size forming the characteristic shragreen of the
various sharks, or scattered scales may be greatly enlarged as in
the thornbacks, or finally the scales may have completely atrophied
as in the electric ray (Torpedo).
Local placoid elements or aggregations of placoid elements may
become specially enlarged to form defensive or offensive weapons.
In the sawfish (Pristis) a row of greatly enlarged placoid spines
along each side of the rostrum form the " teeth " of the saw, and a
similar condition occurs in the sharks of the genus Pristiophorus.
In the sting-rays the tail is armed with a large serrated spine taking
the place of the dorsal fin and having behind it smaller spines, the
front one of which increases in size and becomes functional if the
previously functional spine is broken off.
The portion of skin involuted to line the buccal cavity carries
with it its armature of placoid scales (Chlamydoselachus). Normally
these undergo atrophy except near the margin of the cavity where
they are greatly enlarged to form the teeth. These vary greatly, as
might be expected, in accordance with the nature of the food they
may be sharp prehensile spines, or triangular cutting blades with
serrated edges (e.g. carcharodon and other sharks) or flattened
plates adapted to crushing Molluscan shells (e.g. various rays).
Vascular System. The heart possesses a single atrium and a single
ventricle. Opening into the atrium is a well-developed sinus venosus
and leading from ventricle into ventral aorta is a well-developed
rhythmically contractile conus arteriosus, containing a complex
arrangement of pocket valves. These pocket valves are arranged in
longitudinal rows, each row representing the remains of a longi-
tudinal ridge in the conus of the embryo. The valves of each row
tend to become differentiated in size, e.g. in Rhina the anterior valve
in each row is considerably enlarged. Finally a condition may be
reached in which all the valves of the row disappear except two as in
Scyllium canicula. As regards the remaining parts of the blood-
vascular system, probably the most characteristic feature is the
tendency seen in various Selachians for the main venous trunks
(cardinals and hepatic veins^to become dilated at their front ends
into a special sinus which fills the cavity of the orbit. The kidneys
are provided with a well-developed renal portal system.
Nervous System. The brain of the Selachians shows a mixture of
primitive and specialized characters. The hemisphere region is
remarkable for the indistinctness of the two hemispher'J;i. This has
been looked on by some, e.g. Gegenbaur, as a primitive feature, the
hemispheres haying not yet been developed. To others, including
the writer of this article, the balance of evidence seems in favour of
the condition in Selachians being due to a secondary disappearance
of the separation between the two hemispheres. In such com-
paratively primitive forms as the Notidanidae the paired character
of the hemisphere region is still clearly indicated. In the Raiidae on
the other hand even the lateral ventricles have lost their paired
character, while in Myliobatis the ventricle of the region has dis-
appeared entirely, leaving a solid unpaired mass. Although the
hemisphere region has in great part lost its paired character, this
does not apply to the anterior outgrowths from the hemispheres,
the olfactory lobes. In the Holocephali the olfactory lobes remain
close to the hemisphere surface. In other Selachians, however, the
olfactory organ, with the olfactory lobe attached to it, becomes
carried away by differential growth to a lesser or greater distance
from the hemisphere. The result is that the middle part of the ol-
factory lobe becomes greatly drawn out (Olfactory tract or peduncle).
The swelling at its anterior end is now spoken of as the olfactory lobe,
while its hinder end, where it passes into the brain, is the olfactory
tubercle.
In the region of the thalamencephalon there is a well-developed
infundibular gland, and the pineal body is present in the form of a
greatly elongated slender tube which passes upwards and forwards to
end in contact with the cranial roof about the level of the anterior
boundary of the hemisphere region. The pineal body ends in a small
bulbous enlargement but shows no trace of eye structure. In the
mesencephalon are a pair of well-developed optic lobes.
The cerebellum is highly developed as in the case of other fishes
which perform active and complex movements. The medulla
oblongata shows a characteristic feature in Torpedo, where the nucleus
of origin of the electric nerves forms a large swelling on the floor of
the fourth ventricle on each side of the mesial plane. In connexion
with the organs of special sense in the Selachians, there are various
points of general interest. In various forms, e.g. Scyllium and Raia,
the olfactory organ is connected with the mouth by means of an open
gutter the oronasal groove in which we may probably see the
hpmologue of the similar groove which appears in the embryo of the
higher vertebrates and which, becoming covered in, gives rise to the
communication between nose and buccal cavity via the internal
nares. The otocyst or auditory organ, which arises in ontogeny as an
involution of the ectoderm, is remarkable in the Selachians from the
fact that it does not become completely enclosed. Throughout life
the ductus endolymphaticus remains open to the exterior by a minute
pore on the dorsal side of the head. In Rhina (4) this communication
of otocyst with exterior is relatively wide, and through it grains
of sand gain admission to the interior of the otocyst, where they
take the place functionally of the small calcareous otoconia of
other forms.
Cutaneous Sense Organs. As in other fishes there is a rich develop-
ment of sense buds scattered over the general surface of the head
and body. Certain of these retain their superficial position through-
out life, while others are carried inwards by involution of the ecto-
derm so that they come to be sunk in pits. These pits may become
prolonged into tubes with dilatations at their inner ends containing
the sense buds (" Ampullae of Lorenzini " of the head region), or
their external opening may be narrowed to a fine slit, or they may
become completely shut off from the exterior (" Savi's vesicles " on
ventral side in Torpedo). Another series of these cutaneous sense
buds is arranged in rows on the head and trunk to form the character-
istic organs of the lateral line. These are innervated by the lateralis
system of nerves. These organs, like the sense buds already
mentioned, become sunk beneath the surface, lying first in the floor
of an open groove (Chimaera) and later, as this becomes covered in,
in a canal which opens to the exterior at intervals by pores.
Ontogenetic Development. The Selachians possess large heavily
yolked eggs and show corresponding modifications in their develop-
mental processes. Segmentation is partial, resulting in the formation
of a blastoderm. The process of gastrulation is much less modified
than in the Sauropsida (where similar conditions prevail as regards
quantity of yolk), and can be readily compared with the method
seen in the larger types of holoblastic egg.
Fertilization is internal, the myxipterygia or claspers serving as
intromittent organs. On its passage down the oviduct the egg
normally becomes surrounded by a layer of albumen and by a tough
external envelope of flattened quadrangular shape. The corners of
the external capsule may be produced into points (Raia) or into long
SELACHIANS
tendril-like structures (Scyllium) which serve to anchor it to sea-
weeds.
In a large number of Selachians the adoption of internal fertiliza-
tion has been followed by the retention of the embryo within the
oviduct (uterus) for a prolonged period. In such cases we fine
interesting adaptive arrangements for aiding the nutrition anc
respiration of the young individual. The highly vascular wall ol
the yolk sac may come into intimate relation with the uterine lining
so as to form a simple yolk sac placenta (Mustelus laevis, &c.). Ir
other forms the uterine lining secretes a nutritive fluid or uterine
milk which apparently is taken into the alimentary canal of the
embryo through the spiracles (Myliobatis sp., Taeniura sp.). In
certain Ra; lr(Pteroplataea micrura) this secretory activity of the
uterine lining IB concentrated in long villous processes known as
trophonemata, which pass through the wide spiracles of the young
fish and pour their secretion directly into the cavity of its alimentary
canal.
CLASSIFICATION
The following table gives a convenient classification (taken
from Bridge (5)) of those Selachians at present known:
Order I. Pleuropterygii (Extinct: palaeozoic).
II. Acanthodii (Extinct: palaeozoic mainly).
III. Ichthyotomi (Extinct: palaeozoic mainly).
IV. Plagiostomi.
Suborder I. Squali (Selachii s.s.).
Fam. i. Notidanidae (-/Vo/t<iatts = Hexanchusand Heptanchus).
,, 2. Chlamydoselachidae (Chlamydoielachus).
3. Heterpdontidae (Heterodontus = Cestracion).
4. Cochliodontidae (Extinct: palaeozoic).
,, 5. Psammodontidae (Extinct: palaeozoic).
6. Petalpdontidae (Extinct: mainly palaeozoic).
7. Scylliidae (Scyllium, Pristiurus, Stegostoma) .
,, 8. Carchariidae (Carcharias, Galeus, Galeocerdo, Mustelus).
9. Sphyrnidae (S/>Ayrna = Zygaena).
,, 10. Lamnidae (Lamna, Carcharodon, Alopecias, Mitsukurina).
II. Cetorhinidae (Cetorhinus).
12. Rhinodontidae (Rhinodon).
13. Spinacidae (Acanthias, Spinax, Scymnus, Laemargus,
Efhinorhinus).
14. Rhinidae (Rhino).
15. Pristiophoridae (Pristiophorus).
Suborder II. Batoidei.
Fam. i. Pristidae (Pristis).
2. Rhinobatidae (Rhinobatus).
3. Raiidae (Raia).
4. Tamiobatidae (Extinct: palaeozoic).
,, 5. Torpedinidae (Torpedo: Narcine).
6. Trygonidae (Try eon, Pteroplataea, Taeniura).
7. Myhobatidae (Myliobatis, Aetobatis, Ceratoptera).
Order V. Holocephali.
Fam. i. Ptychodontidae (Extinct: palaeozoic).
,. 2. Squaloraiidae (Extinct: mesozoic).
,, 3. Myriacanthidae (Extinct: mesozoic).
4. Chimaeridae (Chimaera, CaUorhynchus, Harriotta).
Existing Forms. The Selachians known to survive to the
present day are confined to orders IV. and V., the former in-
cluding the Sharks (Squali) and Rays (Batoidei), and the latter
including the remarkable Chimaera and its allies. For the more
interesting members of the Plagiostomi see SHARK and RAY.
The general morphological features of the Plagiostomi are
dealt with in the article Ichthyology. It remains now to refer
shortly to one or two of the subdivisions which contain forms
of special morphological interest from their in many respects
primitive character. Such families are the Notidanidae, the
Chlamydoselachidae and the Heterodontidae. The second of
these is of very special interest: it contains the single living
genus Chlamydoselachus, specimens of which have been obtained
in considerable numbers from deep water off the coast of Japan,
while isolated specimens have been taken off the coasts of
Australia and Norway and near Madeira.
The general shape of Chlamydoselachus is elongated, almost eel-
like (fig. 2). The mouth is nearly terminal, instead of being well
back on the ventral surface as in other sharks. The teeth are very
characteristic, flattened in shape, pointing backwards and over-
lapping one another in longitudinal rows. Each tooth has three
slender pointed cusps and closely resembles the teeth of various
members of the extinct group Ichthyotomi. The small placoid
elements which cover the general body surface are seen to become
enlarged at the margin of the mouth, especially posteriorly, these
enlarged placoid elements functioning as accessory teeth and in
fact being practically teeth in an early stage of evolution. It is
interesting to note also'that the lining of the mouth still develops
a covering of placoid elements. (In the typical gnathostome the
placoid elements have of course disappeared from the mouth lining,
except in the case of the functional teeth.) There is no oronasal
groove in the adult, and the spiracle is greatly reduced. The
valvular flaps guarding the external openings of the gill (6) cletts
are much larger than in other sharks,, particularly the most anterior
(hyoidean) which meets
its fellow ventrally and is
prolonged backwards for
some distance as an in-
cipient operculum. The
tail is practically proto-
cercal, although the
median fin-fold is con-
siderably more developed
From Challenger Reports Zool.. published by
H.M. Stationery Office. (After Gunther.)
FIG. 2.
on its ventral side than
dorsally. The lateral line
organs on the sides of the body are situated at the bottom of an open
groove ; only in the head region has this become covered in.
The Notidanidae, like Chlamydoselachus, show more than the
ordinary number of gill clefts. Notidanus gnseus (Hexanchus) has
six, while N. cinereus (Heptanchus) has seven postspiracular gill-
clefts. In both Notidanidae and Chlamydoselachidae the vertebral
column shows very primitive features with either very slight calcifica-
tion or none at all.
The Heterodontidae include the recent genus Heterodontus ( = Ces-
tracion), the Port Jackson shark or Bullhead shark, widely distri-
buted through the Pacific. Numerous Mesozoic and possibly also
Palaeozoic forms belong to this family. The small and nearly
terminal mouth, the amphistylic skull, and the egg cases with an
external spiral lamina are characteristic features.
Palaeontological History (6). It must be borne in mind that the
sharply delimit^ groups into which animals appear to be divided
are due to our imperfect knowledge, to the fact that our knowledge
is limited to short isolated periods of geological time. Were our
knowledge of palaeontology complete, it would be found that the
various groups graded into one another by insensible gradations, so
that it would be quite impossible to set definite limits to any one
group. Already even in the extraordinarily imperfect condition of
palaeontological knowledge this difficulty is making itself felt, and
m the remains from the older deposits it becomes difficult to decide
which of the recognized groups the various forms are most closely
allied to.
Amongst the most ancient forms of fishes known at present are
the remarkable Ostracodermi of the Upper Silurian and Devonian.
The general form of these creatures gives the impression that they
were ground-feeding fishes which had become highly specialized
along much the same lines as the rays amongst existing Selachians.
In the highly interesting Coelolepidae described by Traquair (7)
from the Upper Silurian and Devonian and comprising the genera
Thelodus and Lanarkia a placoid skeleton is present, the individual
elements being in the form of small hollow spines without any
basal plate of bone. The main organ of propulsion seems to have
been the heterocercal tail, while the broad anterior region passes
out on each side into a flap-like portion which may represent a
pectoral fin. On the under surface of Thelodus there occur trans-
verse markings which probably are caused by the presence of a
branchial apparatus of the ordinary Selachian type. In the Drepan-
aspidae (Lower Devonian) and Pteraspidae (Upper Silurian and
Lower Devonian) the isolated placoid elements of the Coelolepidae
have undergone fusion to a less or greater extent into large plates
which ensheath the anterior body region, the posterior portion
possessing rhombic scales. The Ostracoderms sp far mentioned are
grouped together under the name Heterostraci. The Osteostraci
form another main division of the Ostracoderms, distinguished from
the Heterostraci by the presence of true unmodified bone in their
skeletal plates. The orbits are more dorsal in position and a dorsal
fin is known to occur, while none has as yet been recognized in the
Heterostraci. The most familiar members of the group are the
Cephalaspidae of the Silurian and Devonian with their highly
characteristic crescentic shield covering the dorsal side of the head
region. From behind the posterior horns of this shield there project
n some specimens paddle-like structures which may be pectoral
ins, or possibly structures serially homologous with limbs and not
represented in modern Selachians.
Among the less doubtful members of the Selachii among fossil
brms first place must be given to the Pleuropterygii represented by
:he genus Cladoselache (8) from the Upper Devonian of Ohio. This
was a shark-like creature with the mouth apparently terminal.
The body was covered with shagreen placoid elements: there were
a series (five or seven) of gill slits on each side and the skull was
irobably hyostylic. The notochord was apparently persistent.
The chief interest of Cladoselache, however, lies in its paired fins
which are held by upholders of the " lateral fold " theory to be
remarkably primitive. The unpaired fins are obviously highly
developed the tail being almost homocercal with a lateral keel on
each side as in various existing sharks, and it seems on the whole
unlikely that the paired fins should be very primitive while the
unpaired fins are so highly developed. Moreover, the facts of structure
of the paired fins so far as at present known seem to fit in quite well
with the view that they are modifications of the unisenal archi-
pterygial type (see ICHTHYOLOGY, fig. 2).
SELBORNE, IST EARL OF
597
The Ichthyotomi, including the family Pleuracanthidae (Lower
Carboniferous to Permian), are again of special interest as regards
their paired fins which are obviously of the uniserial archipterygial
type. The tail is protocercal and the mouth nearly terminal.
The Acanthodei are small fishes ranging from the Upper Silurian
to Permian. They had strongly heterocercal tail, gill clefts ap-
parently opening independently to the exterior, but they are specially
characterized by the strong spines in front of each fin and by the
calcified plates lying superficial to the cranium, jaw apparatus and
pectoral girdles.
AUTHORITIES. (i) T. J. Parker, Trans. Zool. Soc. xi. (1879);
(2) Hochstetter, Morphol. Jahrb. xxix. (1900) ; (3) W. G. Ridewood,
Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. vol. xxvii. ; (4) C. Stewart, Journ. Linn.
Soc. Zool. xxix. (1906) ; (5) T. W. Bridge, Cambridge Nat. History,
" Fishes " (1904) ; (6) A. Smith Woodward, Vertebrate Palaeontology
(1898), for references to special literature; (7) R. H. Traquair,
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., xxxix. (1899); (8) Bashfprd Dean, Journ.
Morph. ix. (1894), and Trans. New York Acad. Sci. xiii. (1894).
(J. G. K.)
SELBORNE, ROUNDELL PALMER, IST EARL OF (1812-
1895), English lawyer and statesman, was born at Mixbury,
in the county of Oxford, on the 27th of November 1812. His
father was rector of the parish: his grandfather and great-grand-
father were merchants in the City of London, where their
descendants for a long while continued to be influential people;
his mother belonged to the family of Roundell, which had been
settled for four centuries in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He
was educated at Rugby and at Winchester, and in 1830 went into
residence in the university of Oxford as a scholar of Trinity College.
Here he lived in intimacy with many friends, especially P. C.
Claughton and Charles Wordsworth. In 1834 he took a first
class in Liter ae Humaniores; he won the Eldon scholarship
and was elected to a fellowship at Magdalen College; and after
a year, spent chiefly in private tuition, partly in Lord Winchilsea's
house and partly in the university, he removed to London
(November 1835) and commenced reading for the bar.
He was called to the bar on the 7th of June 1837, the same
day on which John Roll (1804-1871), a man of very different
antecedents, but afterwards a worthy rival of Palmer, was also
called. Through his family connexions in the City of London,
clients soon came to Palmer's chambers, and his business at
the Chancery bar increased rapidly. Meanwhile his interests were
not wholly confined to law: for some time (1840-1843) he wrote
for The Times and the British Critic; he made a plunge into
patristic learning, from which he soon recoiled; he was much
interested in the controversies which distracted the Church
on the subject of Tract 90; in the treatment of the Episcopal
Church in Canada by the Canadian government and the Colonial
Office; in the establishment by the crown, in conjunction with
the king of Prussia, of the Jerusalem bishopric; and in the contest
for the professorship of poetry at Oxford on Keble's retirement.
In 1847, and again in 1853, Palmer was returned as member
of Parliament for Plymouth, as a Peelite, and in the House of
Commons he took an active and independent part. He advo-
cated the admission of Jews to parliament; he opposed Lord
John Russell's measure to repel the so-called papal aggression;
he opposed the admission of Dissenters into the university of
Oxford; and he was hostile to the action of the government in
the Crimean War. On the question of the reform of the university
of Oxford, he sympathized with the reformers, but felt himself
prohibited, by the oaths which he had taken, from assuming
any active part. In 1855 he supported Gladstone in the efforts
to bring about peace with Russia before the capture of Sebastopol;
in 1856 he opposed the opening of museums on Sunday; in the
following year he supported Cobden in his disapproval of the
second opium war with China. At the general election on March
1857, Palmer, finding that the independent part he had taken,
especially in reference to the Chinese question, had alienated
from him many of his constituents in Plymouth, abandoned the
prospect of re-election for that borough, and did not seek for
election elsewhere. In 1848 he married Lady Laura Waldegrave,
daughter of Earl Waldegrave. In 1849 he had become a Q.C.;
and in 1851 he took his seat in the Rolls Court, where he soon
obtained a leading practice, and was engaged in many of the most
important cases in the Court of Chancery. In July 1861 he
accepted from Lord Palmerston the office of solicitor-general,
a knighthood, and a safe seat for the borough of Richmond in
Yorkshire, secured for him through the friendly action of Lord
Zetland, and thus began the second spell of Palmer's membership
of the House of Commons, which continued till his elevation to
the woolsack and the peerage. In September 1863 he became
attorney-general, and so continued till the government of which
he was a member resigned in 1866.
The Civil War in America, and the questions which arose from
the relations of Great Britain with both belligerents, rendered
the duties of the law officers of the crown more than usually
onerous, and Palmer was called upon to take part, as adviser of
the ministry, in the courts, and in the House, in the questions
which arose in respect of the " Trent " and the " Peterhoff,"
the cruisers " Alabama " and " Florida " and the " Alexandra,"
a ship which was seized by the government, and other matters.
In 1865 he took a large part in the passing of the act under which
all the law courts were gathered together in the Strand. In
1866 he expressed himself favourable to the making of household
suffrage the basis of representation, an expression of opinion
which probably influenced the Reform Bill of the following year
in the discussions on which Palmer took a prominent part, and
especially in opposition to the so-called " fancy franchises "
originally proposed by its authors. In the same year he took
part in supporting the measure for the abolition of compulsory
Church rates.
In 1868 occurred an event of great importance in his career.
In April of that year Gladstone proposed his resolutions with
reference to the Irish Church on which the bill for its disestablish-
ment was subsequently based. This measure was opposed to
many of the dearest beliefs and feelings of Palmer, and he
evidenced his disapproval by abstaining from voting on the
resolutions. At the election of November 1868 Palmer was again
returned for Richmond, and Gladstone offered him the office of
lord chancellor or the office of a lord justice with a peerage;
both offers were declined by Palmer, and he assumed a position
of independent opposition to the measure relative to the Irish
Church. On the 22nd of_March 1869 he delivered a very powerful
speech against the second reading of the bill, and during its later
stages exercised a considerable influence in modifying the
severity of its provisions. The position of Palmer at this time
was .very remarkable. The foremost advocate at the bar, he
was known to have declined the highest prize in the profession
rather than promote a measure of which he disapproved; a
very prominent member of the House of Commons, whose action
had been more than usually independent of party, he had
separated himself from his political friends and maintained a
position as the dignified and forcible opponent of disestablish-
ment. Without office and without combination with the
Conservative Opposition, he exercised great influence within and
without the walls of St Stephen's. What made his position the
more remarkable was that he was frequently consulted by the
government which he had declined to join, and that on some
occasions they invoked the assistance which his great influence
in the House enabled him to afford to them.
In 1869 he sought to modify rather than to oppose the bill for
the abolition of tests in the universities. In 1870 he gave a
qualified support to Gladstone's first Irish Land Act, and in the
same year he supported Forster's Education Act. In 1872 he
undertook the defence of his friend Lord Chancellor Hatherley,
when attacked for his appointment of Sir Robert Collier to the
judicial committee of the Privy Council, and, by a line of argu-
ment more ingenious than convincing, secured a majority for
the government.
The treaty of Washington was the means of casting a great
duty upon Palmer. After the conclusion of the Civil War in
America very large claims were preferred against Great Britain
for alleged breaches of her duty as a neutral power; and after
long negotiations, England and the United States agreed to
arbitration. Palmer, who had been advising the British govern-
ment during these negotiations, and who (4th August 1871)
had defended the treaty in the House of Commons, was briefed
SELBORNE, IST EARL OF
on behalf of Great Britain. In the end the Geneva tribunal made
an award requiring the payment by Great Britain to the United
States of a sum of about 3,000,000. To those who, in order to
promote the cause of international arbitration, are desirous of
acquiring a knowledge of the dangers and difficulties which beset
this mode of settling disputes, the account which Palmer has left
of his part in this arbitration may be commended.
In September 1872 Gladstone again offered him the great seal,
which Lord Hatherley had resigned; in the same year he took
up his residence in his newly erected house at Blackmoor, in the
parish of Selborne, in the county of Hampshire, from which he
took his new title as a peer. In the following year (1873) Lord
Selborne carried through parliament the Judicature Act. The
foundations of this measure were laid so long ago as February
1867, when Palmer had moved for a royal commission on the
constitution of the courts, and had taken an active part in the
work of that commission, of which the first report was made in
1869. The result of this act of 1873 was to effect a fundamental
change in the judicature system. By the operation of the
Judicature Act one supreme court with several divisions was
constituted; each division could administer the whole law;
the conflict of divergent systems of law was largely overcome
by declaring that when they were at variance, the principles of
equity should prevail over the doctrines of the common law.
The details of this great change were embodied in a code of general
rules prepared by a committee of judges, over which Lord Sel-
borne for two years presided week by week, with unfaltering
attention to the minutest detail. " If, " wrote Lord Selborne
in his memoirs, speaking of the Judicature Act of 1873, " I
leave any monument behind me which will bear the test of time,
it may be this." It is impossible to separate this fusion of law
and equity, this union of all the higher courts into one supreme
tribunal, from the construction of a single home for this great
institution; and the opening of the Royal Courts in the Strand
in the year 1882, when Queen Victoria personally presided in
her one supreme court, and handed over the care of the building
to Lord Selborne, as her chancellor and as the head of this great
body, was impressive as an outward and visible sign of the silent
revolution, which owed more to Lord Selborne than to any other
individual. To the student of the natural history of juris-
prudence the fusion of the two systems of law and equity may
well recall a similar result brought about in Imperial Rome;
to the student of British institutions, the supreme court, for once
presided over in person by the sovereign, could not but recall
the Aula Regia, where the Norman kings sat amid their coun-
sellors before equity had arisen to correct law, and before the
separation between the three great common law courts had begun.
A small incident may illustrate the novelty of the assemblage
of the one great court on that day. The queen, on the prayer of
the attorney -general, ordered that the proceedings of the day
should be recorded, an order which caused a momentary embar-
rassment to the lord chancellor, as the court had no existing
registrar, and no existing book in which the record should be
made. On the occasion of the opening of the Royal Courts Lord
Selborne received an earldom.
The year 1885 was marked in Lord Selborne's life by the death
of his wife, and by his final separation from the party of which
Gladstone was the acknowledged leader. That statesman had
in the latter part of the year indicated his leaning towards the
disestablishment of the Church of England, and towards Home
Rule for Ireland. Both these leanings were opposed to the
deepest convictions of Lord Selborne; and it was an inevitable
result that when in January 1886 Gladstone resumed office as
premier, Lord Selborne should not be again his chancellor: on
the 30th of January in that year they parted for ever; and
Lord Selborne felt that his public life, except so far as he might
serve his country by voice or pen, was now over. But neither
his courage nor his industry forsook him; and he found, in
opposing the new views of his old colleague, ample scope for both
voice and pen; and as a member of the House of Lords he
continued almost to the last to take part in hearing and deciding
appeals, and sometimes in the ordinary business of the House.
In addressing the electors of Midlothian in September 1885,
Gladstone had suggested the severance of the Church of England
from the state as a subject on which the foundation of discussion
had already been laid, and he averred the existence of " a current
almost throughout the civilized world, slowly setting in the direc-
tion of disestablishment." Such an utterance from such a man
greatly excited the hopes of Nonconformists, who had previously
published a manifesto under the title of " The Case for Dis-
establishment." This stirring of the question deeply moved
Lord Selborne, who was strongly opposed alike to disestablish-
ment and disendowment, and in the following year, 1886, he
published a work entitled A Defence of the Church of England
against Disestablishment, with an introductory letter addressed
to Gladstone. In the introductory letter he criticized Gladstone's
pronouncement on the subject, and especially examined the
allegation of a general tendency towards disestablishment in the
civilized world at large, and arrived at. a negative conclusion.
In the body of the book the learned author treated of the history
of the English Church, its endowments and the case of the
advocates of disestablishment. The work is throughout charac-
terized by an abundant supply of learning and of information
as to the history and the state of the Church of England at thai
time, and by great dialectical acuteness. It is a powerful
defence as well as a valuable summary of the history of the
established Church in England. In 1888 Lord Selborne published
a second work on the Church question, entitled Ancient Facts and
Fallacies concerning Churches and Tithes, in which he examined
more critically than in his earlier book the developments of early
ecclesiastical institutions, both on the continent of Europe and
in Anglo-Saxon England, which resulted in the formation of the
modern parochial system and its general endowment with tithes.
A second edition of this work, embodying the result of its author's
subsequent researches in the Vatican library and elsewhere, was
published in the year 1892. A perusal of these books will show
with how wide a range of investigation and with what care Lord
Selborne prepared himself for the discussion of these ecclesiastical
questions which deeply stirred him. But Lord Selborne did
not carry on his opposition to Gladstone's proposals only in his
library or by his pen; in the year 1886-1887 he travelled to
many parts of the country, and addressed meetings in defence
of the union between the Church and state and against Home
Rule; and in September 1893, in his eighty-first year, he
addressed a powerful speech to the House of Lords in opposition
to the Home Rule Bill.
Lord Selborne's health had, with the exception of two collapses
in 1883 and 1888, which appear to have been due to overwork,
continued excellent till February 1895, when he was attacked
by influenza. He died on the 4th of May 1895 at his seat in
Hampshire, full of years and of honours.
To the subject of university education Lord Selborne at
different times in his life gave much time and attention. As a
fellow of Magdalen College, he had been desirous of changes
which he felt himself bound by his oath from advocating; and
he had taken part in the discussions on the abolition of tests
in the old universities. 1 He gave much time and attention to
his duties as chairman of the second Oxford commission under
the act of 1876; in 1878 he filled the office of lord rector of the
university of St Andrews; and in the following year he presided
over a commission on the subject of university education in
London. Lord Selborne's literary labours included the publi-
cation in 1862 of a selection of hymns, under the title of The
Book of Praise, a work in which he was greatly assisted by Daniel
Sedgwick (1814-1879), a bookseller and publisher in the city of
London. The work was characterized by the great pains taken
to ascertain the true authorship of hymns which were either
anonymous or attributed to those who had not composed them,
and by a like effort to exclude all variations grafted on the
1 In 1867 he founded an association for the improvement of legal
education, in the hope of bringing about the establishment or the
restoration of " a general school of law in London on a scale worthy
of the importance of the law and of the resources of the Inns of
Court." This enterprise was not successful. The opposing forces
were too strong to permit Lord Selborne to succeed.
SELBORNE, 2ND EARL OF SELBY
599
original language, and to give the hymns " in the genuine un-
corrupted text of the authors themselves." In the course of his
labours as editor of this volume he was struck by the unity which
was presented by Christian hymnody, " binding together by the
force of a common attraction, more powerful than all causes of
difference, times ancient and modern, nations of various race
and language, Churchmen and Nonconformists, Churches re-
formed and unreformed " (Preface). In the same field of
literature Lord Selborne further laboured by the publication of
another collection called The Book of Praise Hymnal; a contri-
bution to an edition of Bishop Ken's hymns; a paper on English
Church Hymnody at a Church Congress; and the article in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica on " Hymns " (?..), which was re-
oublished as a separate volume in 1892.
During the last few years of his life Lord Selbome engaged in
the composition, for the benefit of his children, of memorials of
his own life and of the lives of many members of his family.
These Memorials, Part I., Family and Personal, in 2 vols.,
which were published in 1896, Memorials, Part II., Personal and
Political, also in 2 vols., were edited by his daughter, Lady
Sophia Palmer, and published in 1898. In the years 1880-1881
Lord Selborne wrote to his son a series of letters on religious
subjects, dealing in an elementary way with natural and revealed
religion, the inspiration of the Bible and Biblical criticism.
These were published in 1898, under the title of Letters to His
Son on Religion, by Roundell, First Earl of Selborne.
In person Lord Selborne was of about the average height: his
manners when among strangers were somewhat reserved; his style,
both in speaking and writing, was fluent, tending to diffuseness; his
oratory was marked by uniform good sense and lucidity, both of
arrangement and language; and if he never reached the highest
level of oratorical excellence, he never descended to what was
commonplace or irrelevant. As a judge, whether in the Supreme
Court or in the House of Lords, he displayed high qualities: he was
patient, courteous, logical and learned, and his judgments contain
many valuable expositions of the principles of law. The fusion of
law and equity, the reorganization of the whole judicial system of
England, and the association of all the supreme tribunals in one
common home were works of no ordinary magnitude or importance,
and give a character of unusual importance to his chancellorship.
That Lord Selborne was a truly religious man it is impossible to
doubt: his whole life was regulated and inspired by a sense of his
duty towards God and his fellowmen, and a long life spent amid the
temptations of legal and public life left not the faintest stain on his
memory. He was a devout member of the Church of England, to
which he looked up with unstinted affection and reverence; and he
found in its service and formularies an adequate satisfaction for all
his religious feelings. He belonged to the High Church school, which
was influenced by the teaching of Newman and Pusey and the
Oxford teachers of their day; but he by no means slavishly followed
them. With the later High Church movement, usually described
as Ritualism, he had less sympathy. His life was prosperous, for
from his first prize at the university till his acquisition of an earldom,
he went on a course of almost unbroken success. He had the double
dignity of having refused the highest prize in his profession for
conscience' sake, and of having accepted that dignity without loss
of consistency; in his life he acquired a high reputation and the
sincere admiration of his fellowmen, as well as an abundant fortune
and ample titular distinctions. His life was also happy, for he had
Pleasure in his work, he loved and was loved by his wife and children;
e had a strong constitution, and retained his bodily and mental
powers to the last; his faith in the religion of his youth was un-
shaken to the end; and he lived throughout his long life with the
consciousness of rectitude. (E. F.)
SELBORNE, WILLIAM WALDEGRAVE PALMER, 2ND EARL
OF (1859- ), son of the preceding, was educated at Winchester
and University College, Oxford, where he took a first class in
history. In 1883, being then Viscount Wolmer, he married
Lady Beatrix Cecil, 3rd daughter of the 3rd marquess of Salisbury.
He served a political apprenticeship as assistant private secretary
to the chancellor of the exchequer (Mr Childers) from 1882 to
1885, when he was elected Liberal member of parliament for East
Hampshire. Like his father, he became a Liberal Unionist
when in 1886 Mr Gladstone proposed Home Rule for Ireland,
and he retained his seat till 1892, when he was elected for West
Edinburgh. From 1895 to 1900 he was under-secretary for the
colonies, having Mr Chamberlain as his chief, and during the
difficult period before the outbreak of the South African War he
came rapidly to the front. In 1900 he entered the cabinet as
first lord of the admiralty, and held this office till 1905, when he
succeeded Lord Milner as high commissioner for South Africa and
governor of the Transvaal and Orange River colonies. He
assumed office at Pretoria in May of that year. He had gone
out with the intention of guiding the destinies of South Africa
during a period when the ex-Boer republics would be in a transi-
tional state between crown colony government and self-govern-
ment, and letters patent were issued granting the Transvaal
representative institutions. But the Liberal party came into
office in England in the December following, before the new
constitution had been actually established, and the decision was
now taken to give both the Transvaal and Orange River colonies
self-government without delay. Lord Selborne loyally accepted
the changed situation, and it was due in considerable measure
to his moderation, common sense, administrative gifts and
appreciation of the Boers' standpoint, that the experiment
proved successful. He ceased to be governor of the Orange
River Colony on its assumption of self-government in June 1907,
but retained his other posts until May 1910, retiring on the eve
of the establishment of the Union of South Africa. No one had
done more to effect that union. The despatch, dated January
7th, 1907, in which he reviewed the situation in its economic and
political aspects, was a masterly and comprehensive statement
of the dangers inherent in the existing system and of the ad-
vantages likely to attend union. The force of its appeal had a
marked influence on the course of events, while the loyalty with
which Lord Selborne co-operated with the Botha administration
was an additional factor in reconciling the Dutch and British
communities. He returned to England with his reputation as a
statesman enhanced by the respect of all parties, and with a
practical experience, second only to that of Lord Milner, of
British imperialism in successful operation. This experience
made him a valuable ally in the movement among the Unionist
party at home for Tariff Reform and Colonial Preference, to
which he could now give his whole-hearted support.
SELBORNE, a village in the Petersfield parliamentary division
of Hampshire, England, 4^ m. S.S.E. of Alton station ,on the
London & South- Western, railway. It is pleasantly situated in
a thickly wooded valley, and is celebrated as the birthplace and
scene of the work of Gilbert White the naturalist; his house is
in the village, and his memorial and grave are in the ancient
church. Fine views over the district of which he wrote are
obtained from the hills (between 500 and 700 ft.) in the neighbour-
hood.
SELBY, WILLIAM COURT GULLY, IST VISCOUNT (1835-
1909), Speaker of the British House of Commons, was born on
the 29th of August 1835, the son of Dr James Manby Gully of
Malvern. His grandfather was Daniel Gully, a Jamaican coffee-
planter. He was' educated at Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he was president of the Union. He was called to the bar
in 1860, went the northern circuit, and took silk in 1877. In
1880 and 1885 he unsuccessfully contested Whitehaven as a
Liberal, but was elected for Carlisle in 1886, and continued to
represent that constituency until his elevation to the peerage.
In April 1895 he was elected Speaker by a majority of eleven
votes over Sir Matthew White Ridley (cr. Viscount Ridley, 1900),
the Unionist nominee. In 1905 he resigned and was raised to
the peerage with the title of Viscount Selby, the name being that
of his wife, Miss Elizabeth Selby (d. 1906), whom he married
in 1865. He died on the 6th of November 1909, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, James William Herschell Gully (b. 1867).
SELBY, a market town in the Barkston Ash parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 13^ m. S.
of York on the Great Northern and North-Eastern railways.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 7786. It stands in a level plain on
the left bank of the river Ouse, by which communication is
provided with the Humber. The church of St Mary and St
German belonged to a Benedictine abbey founded under a grant
from William the Conqueror in 1069 and raised to the dignity of
a mitred abbey by Pope Alexander II. The monastic buildings
have practically disappeared, but the church was a splendid
building of various dates from Norman to Decorated, the choir
6oo
SELDEN
and Lady chapel representing the later period. The nave passes
from Norman to Early English in the course of its eight bays from
east to west and also from the arcade through the triforium to
the clerestory. About midnight of the igth-2oth of October
1906, a fire broke out in the Latham chapel adjoining the north
choir aisle, in which a new organ had recently been erected, and
soon involved the whole building. Specially serious damage
was done in the immediate neighbourhood of the chapel, the
oak-groined roof and rich fittings of the choir were wholly
destroyed, but the finely moulded arches and the magnificent
tracery of the east window survived in great part. Much
damage was done to the tower, and the nave roof perished, for
the fire reached practically every part of the building, though the
stonework of the nave suffered comparatively little. Schemes
for the collection of funds and the complete restoration of the
church were immediately set on foot, the architect being Mr
Oldrid Scott.
Selby is the centre of a rich agricultural district, and its
industries include rope and twine making, flax-scutching, boat-
building, iron-founding, tanning and brewing. Tradition in-
dicates Selby as the birth-place of Henry I., and thus accounts
for the high privileges conferred upon the abbey. The town had
a considerable part in the operations of the Civil Wars, being held
at the outset by the Parliamentarians, and captured by the
Royalists in 1644, but soon retaken by Sir Thomas Fairfax.
SELDEN, JOHN (1584-1654), English jurist, legal antiquary
and oriental scholar, was born on the i6th of December 1584 at
Salvington, in the parish of West Tarring, Sussex. His father,
also John Selden, held a small farm. It is said that his accom-
plishments as a violin-player gained him his wife, whose social
position was somewhat superior to his own. She was Margaret,
the only child of Thomas Baker of Rustington, a village in the
vicinity of West Tarring, and was more or less remotely descended
from a knightly family of the same name in Kent. John Selden
commenced his education at the free grammar-school at Chi-
chester, whence in 1600 he proceeded to Hart Hall, Oxford.
In 1603 he was admitted a member of Clifford's Inn, London, and
in 1604 migrated to the Inner Temple, and in 1612 he was-called
to the bar. His earliest patron was Sir Robert Cotton, the
antiquary, by whom he seems to have been employed in copying
and abridging certain of the parliamentary records then pre-
served in the Tower. For some reason which has not been
explained, Selden never went into court as an advocate, save on
rare and exceptional occasions. But his practice in chambers
as a conveyancer and consulting counsel is stated to have been
large, and, if we may judge from the considerable fortune he
accumulated, it must also have been lucrative.
It was, however, as a scholar and writer that Selden won his
reputation both amongst his contemporaries and with posterity.
His first work, an account of the civil administration of England
before the Norman Conquest, is said to have been completed
when he was only two- or three-and-twenty years of age. But
if this was the Analecton Anglo- Britannicon, as is generally
supposed, he withheld it from the world until 1615. In 1610
appeared his England's Epinomis and Janus Anglorum; Fades
Alter a, which dealt with the progress of English law down to
Henry II.; and The Duello, or Single Combat, in which he traced
the history of trial by battle in England from the Norman
Conquest. In 1613 he supplied a series of notes, enriched by
an immense number of quotations and references, to the first
eighteen cantos of Drayton's Polyolbion. In 1614 he published
Titles of Honour, which, in spite of some obvious defects and
omissions, has remained to the present day the most com-
prehensive and trustworthy work of its kind that we possess;
and in 1616 his notes on Fortescue's De laudibus legum Angliae
and Ralph de Hengham's Summae magna et parva. In 1617 his
De diis Syriis was issued, and immediately established his fame
as an oriental scholar among the learned in all parts of Europe.
It is remarkable for its brilliant use of the comparative method,
in which it was far ahead of its age, and is still consulted by
students of Semitic mythology. In i6i8'his History of Tithes,
although only published after it had been submitted to the cen-
sorship and duly licensed, nevertheless aroused the apprehension
of the bishops and provoked the intervention of the king. The
author was summoned before the privy council and compelled
to retract his opinions, or at any rate what were held to be his
opinions. Moreover, his work was suppressed and himself
forbidden to reply to any of the controversialists who had come
or might come forward to answer it.
This seems to have introduced Selden to the practical side of
political affairs. The discontents which a few years later broke
out into civil war were already forcing themselves on public
attention, and it is pretty certain that, although he was not in
parliament, he was the instigator and perhaps the draftsman of
the memorable protestation on the rights and privileges of the
House affirmed by the Commons on the i8th of December 1621.
He was with several of the members committed to prison, at
first in the Tower and subsequently under the charge of Sir
Robert Ducie, sheriff of London. During his detention, which only
lasted a short time, he occupied himself in preparing an edition
of Eadmer's History from a manuscript lent to him by his host
or jailor, which he published two years afterwards. In 1623 he
was returned to the House of Commons for the borough of
Lancaster, and sat with Coke, Noy and Pym on Sergeant
Glanville's election committee. He was also nominated reader
of Lyon's Inn, an office which he declined to undertake. For
this the benchers of the Inner Temple, by whom he had been
appointed, fined him 20 and disqualified him from being chosen
one of their number. But he was relieved from this incapacity
after a few years, and became a master of the bench. In the
first parliament of Charles I. (1625), it appears from the " returns
of members " printed in 1878 that, contrary to the assertion
of all his biographers, he had no seat. In Charles's second
parliament (1626) he was elected for Great Bedwin in Wiltshire,
and took a prominent part in the impeachment of George
Villiers, duke of Buckingham. In the following year, in the
" benevolence " case, he was counsel for Sir Edmund Hampden
in the court of king's bench. In 1628 he was returned to the
third parliament of Charles for Ludgershall in Wiltshire, and had
a large and important share in drawing up and carrying the
Petition of Right. In the session of 1629 he was one of the
members mainly responsible for the tumultuous passage in the
House of Commons of the resolution against the illegal levy of
tonnage and poundage, and, along with Eliot, Holies, Long,
Valentine, Strode, and the rest, he was sent once more to the
Tower. There he remained for eight months, deprived for a
part of the time of the use of books and writing materials. He
was then removed, under less rigorous conditions, to the Marshal-
sea, until not long afterwards owing to the good offices of Arch-
bishop Laud he was liberated. Some years before he had been
appointed steward to the earl of Kent, to whose seat, Wrest in
Bedfordshire, he now retired. In 1628 at the suggestion of
Sir Robert Cotton he had compiled, with the assistance of
two learned coadjutors, Patrick Young and Richard James, a
catalogue of the Arundel marbles. He employed his leisure at
Wrest in writing De successionibus in bona defuncti secundum
leges Ebraeorum and De successione in pontificatum Ebraeorum,
published in 1631. About this period he seems to have inclined
towards the court rather than the popular party, and even to
have secured the personal favour of the king. To him in 1635
he dedicated his Mare clausum, and under the royal patronage
it was put forth as a kind of state paper. It had been written
sixteen or seventeen years before; but James I. had prohibited
its publication for political reasons; hence it appeared a
quarter of a century after Grotius's Mare liberum, to which
it was intended to be a rejoinder, and the pretensions advanced
in which on behalf of the Dutch fishermen to poach in the waters
off the British coasts it was its purpose to explode. The fact
that Selden was not retained in the great case of ship money
in 1637 by John Hampden, the cousin of his former client,
may be accepted as additional evidence that his zeal in the
popular cause was not so warm and unsuspected as it had once
been. During the progress of this momentous constitutional
conflict, indeed, he seems to have been absorbed in his oriental
SELENE SELENIUM
60 1
researches, publishing De jure nalurali et gentium juxta disci-
flinam Ebraeorum in 1640. He was not elected to the Short
Parliament of 1640; but to the Long Parliament, summoned in
the autumn, he was returned without opposition for the university
of Oxford. He opposed the resolution against episcopacy
which led to the exclusion of the bishops from the House of Lords,
and printed an answer to the arguments used by Sir Harbottle
Grimston on that occasion. He joined in the protestation of
the Commons for the maintenance of the Protestant religion
according to the doctrines of the Church of England, the authority
of the crown, and the liberty of the subject. He was equally
opposed to the court on the question of the commissions of
lieutenancy of array and to the parliament on the question of
the militia ordinance. In 1643 he participated in the discussions
of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and was appointed
shortly afterwards keeper of the rolls and records in the Tower.
In 1645 he was named one of the parliamentary commissioners
of the admiralty, and was elected master of Trinity Hall in
Cambridge an office he declined to accept. In 1646 he sub-
scribed the Solemn League and Covenant, and in 1647 was voted
5000 by the parliament as compensation for his sufferings in
the evil days of the monarchy. He had not, however, relaxed
his literary exertions during these years. He published in 1642
Privileges of the Baronage of England when they sit in Parliament
and Discourse concerning the Rights and Privileges of the Subject;
in 1644, Dissertatio de anno civili et calendario reipublicae
Judaicae; in 1646 his treatise on marriage and divorce among
the Jews entitled Uxor Ebraica; and in 1647 the earliest printed
edition of the old English law-book Fleta. In 1650 Selden
passed the first part of De synedriis et prefecturis juridicis
veterum Ebraeorum through the press, the second and third
parts being severally published in 1653 and 1655, and in 1652
he wrote a preface and collated some of the manuscripts for
Sir Roger Twysden's Historiae Anglicae scriptores decent. His
last publication was a vindication of himself from certain
charges advanced against him and his Mare clausum in 1653
by Theodore Graswinckel, a Dutch jurist.
After the death of the earl of Kent in 1639 Selden lived
permanently under the same roof with his widow. It is believed
that he was married to her, although their marriage does not
seem to have ever been publicly acknowledged. He died at
Friary House in Whitefriars on the 3oth of November 1654,
and was buried in the Temple Church, London. In 1880 a brass
tablet was erected to his memory by the benchers of the Inner
Temple in the parish church of West Tarring.
Several of Selden's minor productions were printed for the first
time after his death, and a collective edition of his writings was
published by Archdeacon Wilkins in 3 vpls. folio in 1725, and again
in 1726. His Table Talk, by which he is perhaps best known, did
not appear until 1689. It was edited by his amanuensis, Richard
Milward, who affirms that " the sense and notion is wholly Selden's,"
and that " most of the words " are his also. Its genuineness has
sometimes been questioned, although on insufficient grounds.
See Wood's Athenae Oxonienses, ed. Bliss (London, 1817, 4 vols.);
Aikin, Lives of John Selden and Archbishop Usher (London, 1812);
Johnson, Memoirs of John Selden, &c. (London, 1835); Singer,
Table Talk of John Selden (London, 1847); and Wilkins, Johannis
Seldeni opera omnia, &c. (London, 1725).
SELENE, in Greek mythology, the divine personification of
the moon, daughter of Hyperion and Theia, sister of Helios and
Eos. By Zeus she was said to have been the mother of Pandia
(the all-bright), who was worshipped with her father at the
festival named after her Pandia. 1 She was also wooed by Pan
in the form of a white ram, or she had selected a white ram
from his flock as the price of her favours. The most famous of
her amours was with Endymion (q.v.). Selene was represented
as a beautiful young woman with wings and a golden diadem,
sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by two white, sometimes
winged, horses (or cows, symbolizing the moon's crescent, or
bulls), or herself mounted on a horse, a bull, a mule or a ram.
At Elis there was a statue of Selene, her head surmounted by a
crescent. Later, she was identified with Artemis, and as such
1 The connexion of Selene or Pandia with this festival is denied by
Wilamowitz-Mollendorff (Aus Kydathen, p. 133).
called Phoebe, the sister of Phoebus Apollo. She was worshipped
on the days of the new and the full moon. Another name for
Selene was Mene, in reference to the monthly changes of the
moon. The existence of a male moon-god (Men), whose cult
probably came to Attica from Asia Minor, is attested by in-
scriptions. The Roman goddess of the moon was Luna, who
possessed sanctuaries on the Aventine and Palatine hills. In
the former she was worshipped on the last day of March (the first
month of the old Roman year); in the latter as Noctiluca
(giving light by night), her sanctuary being illuminated on such
occasions.
See W. H. Roscher, tlber Selene und Verwandtes (1890), with
Nachtrdge (1895); Preller, Griechische Mythologie (4th ed., 1894),
PP.- 443-446; A. Legrand, s.v. " Luna " in Daremberg and Saglio's
Dictionnaire des antiquites.
SELENGA-ORKHON, a river of Central Asia, which rises in
two principal head-streams, the Selenga and the Orkhon, on
the plateau of N.W. Mongolia, not far apart in 101 E. Both
flow generally E.N.E. as far as their confluence near Kiakhta,
on the frontier of Mongolia and Siberia, at the eastern extremity
of the Sayan Mountains. Beyond Kiakhta the river flows
generally N. nearly as far as 52 N., when it turns W. and enters
Lake Baikal on the S.W., forming a delta. It is navigable from
Kiakhta downwards, a distance of 210 m., its total length being
750 m. From the left it receives the Eghin-gol and the Jida,
and from the right the Tala, Kharagoy, Chikoy, Khilok and Uda,
streams each 150 to 300 m. in length. Near the upper Orkhon
was the permanent camp of Karakorum, from the 8th century
down to the end of the i3th the centre of the Mongol power,
especially under the sway of Jenghiz Khan and his son Ogotai
or Ogdai in the i2th and i3th centuries.
Several remarkable inscriptions were discovered here in the end
of the igth century, and were interpreted by Professor V. Thomsen
of Copenhagen Inscriptions de I'Orhhon (Helsingfors, 1900).
SELENIUM [symbol Se, atomic weight 79-2 (0=i6)], a non-
metallic chemical element, discovered in 1817 by J. J. Berzelius,
who called it selenium (Gr. <rt\r)vri, the moon) on account of its
close analogy with tellurium (Lat. tellus, the earth). It is
occasionally found in the native condition, but more frequently in
combination with metals in the form of selenides, the more
important seleniferous minerals being euchairite, crookesite,
clausthalite, naumannite and zorgite. It is also found as a
constituent of various pyrites and galenas, and in some specimens
of native sulphur. The element is usually obtained from the flue
dust or chamber deposits of sulphuric-acid works in which a
seleniferous pyrites is burned. In this process, the residues are
boiled with a dilute sulphuric acid to which nitric acid and
potassium chlorate are added in order to transform the element
into selenic acid, ftSeO^, which is then reduced to selenious
acid, H 2 SeO3, by boiling with hydrochloric acid, and finally to
selenium by sulphur dioxide. L. F. Nilson (Ber., 1874, 7,
p. 1719) digests the well- washed chamber mud with a moderately
concentrated solution of potassium cyanide, whereby the
element goes into solution in the form of potassium seleno-
cyanide, KSe(CN), from which it is precipitated by hydrochloric
acid. As alternative methods, F. Wohler (Ann., 1859, 109,
P- 375) heats the well- washed chamber residues with potassium
nitrate and carbonate in order to obtain an alkaline selenate,
which is then boiled with hydrochloric acid, yielding selenious
acid, from which the element is obtained as above; whilst
H. Rose (Pogg. Ann., 1828, 90, p. 471) by the action of chlorine
obtains selenium tetrachloride, which is converted into selenious
acid by water, and the acid so prepared is finally reduced to
selenium by treatment with sodium sulphite (see also G. Magnus,
Pogg. Ann., 1830, 96, p. 165; O. Pettersson, Ber., 1873, 6,
p. 1477; H. Koch, German Patent 167457, 1903). It is obtained
from .zorgite by heating the mineral with aqua regia; the
excess of acid is evaporated, and the resulting syrupy liquid
diluted, filtered and decomposed by sulphur dioxide, when the
selenium is precipitated (Billandot, Ency. chimique, 1883, 5,
p. 198).
The commercial element usually contains a certain amount of
sulphur, and some tellurium, and various methods have been devised
602
SELENIUM
for its purification. L. Oppenheim (Jour, prakt. Chem., 1857, 71,
p. 279) fuses the commercial selenium with potassium cyanide in a
stream of hydrogen, takes up the melt in water and passes air through
the solution ; the precipitated tellurium is filtered off, and the
solution then supersaturated with hydrochloric acid, when selenium
is gradually deposited. E. Divers, (Chem. News, 1885, 51, p. 199)
dissolves the element in boiling concentrated sulphuric acid and
reduces the resulting selenious acid with sulphur dioxide, filters off
the precipitate and washes it with water and alcohol. The resulting
product, however, still contains traces of sulphur. C. Hugot (Ann.
chim. phys., 1900 (7), 21, p. 34) converts the element by dilute nitric
acid into selenium dioxide which is then sublimed, and dissolved in
water. Any sulphuric acid present is removed by baryta water, the
precipitated barium sulphate filtered off, the solution acidified by
hydrochloric acid and reduced by sulphur dioxide.
Several allotropic forms of selenium have been described, but
the work of A. P. Saunders (Jour. Phys. Chem., 1900, 4, p. 423)
seems to establish that the element exists in three distinct
forms, namely liquid selenium (which includes the vitreous,
soluble and amorphous forms), crystalline red selenium (which
includes, perhaps, two very closely allied forms), and crystalline,
grey or metallic selenium. Liquid selenium becomes more and
more viscous in character as its temperature falls from 220 C.
to 60 C.; it is soft at about 60, but is hard and brittle between
30 and 40. It shows a conchoidal fracture. The amorphous
variety, which only differs from the^sdtreous form in its state of
aggregation, is obtained by reducing solutions of selenious acid
with sulphur dioxide. It is slightly soluble in carbon bisulphide.
The red crystalline variety is obtained by crystallization of
selenium from carbon bisulphide, or by leaving the amorphous
form in contact with the same solvent. The grey crystalline
form is obtained by heating the other varieties, and is the most
stable form from ordinary temperatures up to 2 1 7. All varieties
of selenium dissolve in concentrated sulphuric acid, forming a
green solution (see also R. Marc, Ber., 1906, 39, p. 697; and
W. Oechsner de Coninck, Comptes rendus, 1906, 143, p. 682).
A colloidal selenium was obtained by C. Paal and C. Koch (Ber.,
1905, 38, p. 526) by reducing selenious acid dissolved in an
aqueous solution of sodium protalbate with hydrazine hydrate
and hydrochloric acid, the precipitate obtained being then dis-
solved in sodium carbonate. The specific gravity of selenium is
4-8; the specific heat varies from 0-0716 to 0-1147, depending
upon the particular form. Selenium combines directly with
hydrogen when heated in the gas, and with fluorine in the cold.
It burns with a blue flame when heated in the air or in oxygen,
at the same time giving a characteristic smell of rotten horse-
radish, a reaction which serves for the recognition of the element.
It combines directly with nitrogen, phosphorus, antimony and
carbon, and with all the metals (except gold) to form selenides,
of which those of the alkali and alkaline earth metals are soluble
in water. Metallic selenium is a conductor of electricity, and
its conductivity is increased by light; this property has been
utilized in apparatus for transmitting photographs by telegraphy
(sec TELEGRAPH).
Seleniuretted Hydrogen, HiSe, is obtained by the direct union of its
constituent elements in the heat; by the decomposition of various
selenides with mineral acids; by the decomposition of aluminium
selcnide, or phosphorus selenidc with water; by the action of
selenium on a concentrated solution of hydriodic acid; and by
heating selenium with colophene (H. Moissan), or better with paraffin
wax (H. Wuyts and A. Stewart, Bull. Soc. chim. Belg., 1909, 23,
p. 9). It is a colourless gas which possesses a characteristic smell,
more unpleasant than sulphuretted hydrogen. Its physiological
effects are much more persistent and injurious than sulphuretted
hydrogen, producing temporary paralysis of the olfactory nerves and
inflammation of the mucous membrane. It may be liquefied, the
liquid boiling at -41 to-42C. and becoming solid at-68C.
(K. Olszewski). It is somewhat soluble in water and forms a hydrate.
ft is decomposed by heat, burns with a blue flame, and behaves as a
reducing agent. It precipitates many of the heavy metals as
selenides when passed into solutions of their salts. Its aqueous
solution is unstable, gradually depositing red selenium on standing.
Selenium fluoride, SeF, is obtained as a colourless liquid by the
direct action of fluorine or selenium (P. Lebeau, Camples rendus, 1907,
144, p. 1042). It boils at about 100 C., attacks glass readily, is
decomposed by water, and dissolves iodine. Selenium dichloride,
SejCli, is obtained by the action of chlorine on selenium; by the
action of phosphorus pentachloride on selenium or the dioxide;
by the action of hydrochloric acid on seleno-sulphur trioxide (E.
Divers, Chem. News, 1884, 49, p. 212): 2S-SeO,+2HCl = H 2 SO 4 +
S-SeO 3 -SeCU(+H 2 O)->Se,Clj+SO 2 (OH)Cl; and by heating selenium
and selenium tetrachloride to 100 C. in a sealed tube. It is a
yellowish-brown oily liquid which commences to distil at 130 C.
with partial decomposition into selenium and the tetrachloride. It
is decomposed by water with formation of selenium and selenious
acid: 2Se 2 Cl 2 +3H 2 O = H 2 SeO 3 +3Se-|-4HCl. Selenium tetrachloride,
SeC\4, is obtained by passing excess of chlorine over selenium; by
the action of phosphorus pentachloride on selenium dioxide-
SeO 2 -r-PCl 6 = SeOCl 2 -|-PpCl,;
and by the action of thionyl chloride on selenium oxychloride. It
is a white solid which can be obtained crystalline by sublimation in a
current of chlorine. It dissociates when heated, and is decomposed
by water with production of selenious acid. It dissolves selenium.
Similar bromides and iodides are known. Selenyl chloride, SeOCl 2 , is
formed when selenium tetrachloride is heated with the dioxide to
150 C. (R.Weber, Pogg.Ann., 1859, 184, p. 615), or when the dioxide
is heated with common salt. 2SeO2+2NaCl = SeOCl 2 -r-Na 2 SeO 3 .
It is a yellow-coloured liquid which solidifies at o C., and
fumes on exposure to air. It combines with titanium and tin
bichlorides and with antimony trichloride, and it is decomposed
by water, r
Selenium dioxide, SeO 2 , is prepared by burning selenium in oxygen,
or by oxidizing selenium with nitric acid and heating the residue.
It may also be prepared by the action of selenium on sulphur
oxyfluoride (H. Moissan, Butt. Soc. chim., 1902 (3) 27 p. 251)-
2SO 2 F 2 +Se+SiO 2 = SeO 2 +2SO 2 +SiF < . It crystallizes in needles
or prisms and volatilizes when heated, giving a pale yellow vapour.
It is very hygroscopic, and dissolves in water and alcohol. It reacts
with the caustic alkalis to form selemtes, and combines directly with
hydrocyanic acid. It is decomposed by hydriodic acid with liberation
of selenium and iodine, and by ammonia with formation of selenium
and nitrogen. Selenious acid, H 2 SeO 8 , is obtained in the crystalline
form when a solution of selenium dioxide in water is concentrated
over sulphuric acid. It effloresces on exposure to air. Oxidizing
agents readily convert it into selenic acid, whilst reducing agents
transform it into selenium. It yields normal, acid and super-acid
salts (e.g. KHSeO3'H 2 SeO). It is decomposed by many acids with
liberation of selenium. Selenic acid, H 2 SeO4, was discovered by
E. Mitscherlich (Pogg. Ann., 1827, 85, p. 623). Its salts, the selen-
ates, are obtained by the oxidation of the selenites, and the free acid
may be obtained by the decomposition of the lead or barium salt.
It is also obtained in the electrolysis of solutions of selenious acid
(C. Manuelli and G. Lazzarini, Gazz., 1909, 39, I, p. 50). The acid
crystallizes in hexagonal prisms and melts at 58 C. It dissolves in
water and yields a hydrate of composition H 2 SeO 4 -H s O. It is very
hygroscopic, dissolves sulphur readily and acts on organic compounds
in a manner similar to sulphuric acid. It decomposes when strongly
heated. The selenates are isomorphous with the chromates and
sulphates. A compound of selenium and sulphur has been described
as_ resulting from the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on selenious
acid, but A. Gutbier (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1905, 43, p. 384) is of the
opinion that in this reaction, at ordinary temperature, a simple
reduction takes place, leading to the formation of a mixture of sulphur
and selenium. Selenium sulphoxide, SeSOs, is formed as a yellowish
crystalline mass when selenium is warmed with sulphur trioxide.
It decomposes when heated above 35 C., and also in the presence of
water. A compound of composition, SeSOs, has been obtained by the
addition of selenium dioxide to sulphuric acid saturated with sulphur
trioxide (R. Metznen, Ann. chim. phys., 1898, (7), 15, p. 203). It
crystallizes in colourless needles. Selenosulphuric actd, HtSeSOs, is
only known in the form of its salts, which are usually obtained by
the action of selenium on solutions of the metallic sulphites, a seleno-
trithionate being simultaneously produced. The salts are unstable
and readily decompose when heated. Selenotrithionic acid, H 2 SeS 2 O!,
is also obtained in the form of its potassium salt by the action of
potassium hydrogen sulphite on a selenosulphate. It is readily
decomposed by acids with liberation of sulphur dioxide and
selenium.
Nitrogen selenide, N 2 Se 2 , is formed by the decomposition of selenium
chloride with ammonia (A. Verneuil, Bull. soc. chim., 1882, 38, p.
548). It crystallizes readily from benzene or acetic acid and ex-
plodes when subjected to shock or when heated. It is also obtained
when dry ammonia gas is passed into a dilute solution of selenyl
chloride in benzene, the precipitate produced being digested with
potassium cyanide to remove any selenium (V. Lenher and E.
Wolesensky, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1907, 29, p. 215). It is a brick-
red powder which explodes when heated to 130 C. Selenium
cyanide, Se(CN) 2 , is obtained by decomposing silver selenocyanide
with cyanogen iodide, or by the action of silver cyanide on a solution
of selenium bromide in carbon bisulphide. It crystallizes in tables
and is very soluble in water. A more complex cyanide, Sej(CN) 2 ,
is obtained by passing a current of chlorine and air into an aqueous
solution of potassium selenocyanide (A. Verneuil, Ann. chim. phys.,
1886 (6), 9, p. 289). It crystallizes in golden yellow needles and is
decomposed by boiling water: 2Se 8 (CN) 2 +2H 2 O = 4HCN+SeO ? +
5Se. When heated to 180 C. in vacua it yields the simple cyanide
Se(CN) 2 . Potassium selenocyanide, KSeCN, is obtained by the action
of selenium on a concentrated aqueous solution of potassium cyanide,
or by heating selenium with anhydrous potassium ferrocyanide
(W. Crookes, Ann., 1851, 78, p. 177). It crystallizes in needles,
SELEUCIA SELEUCID DYNASTY
603
possesses an alkaline reaction, and is readily decomposed by acids
with liberation of selenium. It forms numerous double salts.
Numerous determinations of the atomic weight of selenium have
been made. The earlier results of J. J. Berzelius from an analysis
of the chloride gave values from 79-2 to 79-35. Later determinations
by V. Lenher (Jour. Amer. Chent. Soc., 1898, 20, p. 595), from the
analysis of silver selenite and the reduction of the double selenium
ammonium bromide, give values from 79-277 to 79-367; whilst
J. Meyer (Ber., 1902, 35, p. 1591) by the electrolysis of silver selenite
in the presence of potassium cyanide obtained the value 79-22.
SELEUCIA (Gr. SeXeuwta), the name of several ancient
Greek cities named after Seleucus I. Nicator, founder of the
Seleucid dynasty. The following are the most important.
i. SELEUCIA on the Tigris, at the mouth of the great royal
canal (Nakarmalka, mod. Radhwaniya) from the Tigris to the
Euphrates, about 50 m. N. of Babylon and ism. S. of Bagdad.
It was founded by Seleucus Nicator (see SELEUCID DYNASTY),
ruler of Babylonia from autumn 312. Seleucus, departing
from the precedent of Alexander the Great, who, after his return
from India, had settled in Babylon, preferred to build a new
capital of a decidedly Greek character. The new city " was
foupded with the object of exhausting Babylon " (Plin. vi. 122;
Strabo xvi. 738) ; a legend says that the Chaldaean priests, when
they were consulted about the right hour for the initiation of the
city, tried to frustrate the design of the king by naming a wrong
hour, but that by chance the work was begun in the moment
predicted by the stars and the decree of fate accomplished
(Appian, Syr. 58). Seleuciawas peopled with Macedonians and
Greeks; Syrians and Jews were admitted to the citizenship
(Joseph. Ant. xviii. 9. 8). It obtained a free constitution. A
great many other Greek cities were founded in Babylonia by
Seleucus I. and Antiochus I., while Babylon and the other
ancient cities (Sippara, Erech, Ur, Borsippa) decayed into mere
villages. Here the Chaldaean priests continued to teach their
astrological wisdom (we possess many astrological tablets in
cuneiform writing from the time of the Seleucids and the earlier
Arsacids); but Seleucia became the centre of the new hellenistic
civilization (see HELLENISM). A great many Greek authors were
born here (e.g. the Stoic Diogenes of Babylonia, 2nd century),
though the inhabitants of Seleucia in Babylonia generally are
simply called Babylonians by the Greeks. In the time of Pliny
the town was said to have 600,000 inhabitants ( vi. 1 2 2) . Seleucia
suffered from the rebellion of the satrap Molon of Media, who was
put down by Antiochus III. the Great in 220 (Polyb. v. 54).
Antiochus IV. Epiphanes once more restored the Seleucid
supremacy in the east; but after his death (163) the decay of
the empire began and was accelerated by the intrigues of the
Romans. In Babylonia the governor Timarchus rebelled and
was acknowledged by the Roman senate. But he was defeated
and killed by Demetrius I. (c. 158), who was hailed as deliverer
(Soter, "saviour") by the inhabitants (Appian, Syr. 45. 4 f.;
Trogus, Prol. 34; Diod. 31. 2?a). Soon after, the great conquests
of the Arsacid king Mithradates I. began; Babylonia became
subject to the Parthians (c. 140). The Greek towns were very
unwilling to submit to the foreign rule, and welcomed Antiochus
VII. Sidetes, when in 130 he attempted to restore his empire;
but his defeat by Phraates II. in 129 ended the Seleucid rule in
the east. Seleucia and other towns were cruelly punished by
Phraates and his prefect Himerus, who also devastated Babylon
(Justin xlii. i; Trog. Prol. 42; Diod. xxxv. 19. 2i;cf. Posi-
donius ap. Athen. xi. 466 B). Seleucia, however, maintained
her self-government and her spirit of Greek independence
(Plin. vi. 122; Tac. Ann. vi. 42; cf. Joseph. Ant. xviii. 9. 8 f.),
and remained the greatest commercial town of the east. The
Arsacids did not dare to bring their host of barbarian soldiers
and retinue into Seleucia, but fixed their residence opposite to it
on the left bank of the Tigris in Ctesiphon (Strabo xvi. 743;
see CTESIPHON). In all the wars with the Romans Seleucia
inclined to the western deliverers; from A.D. 37 to 43 it was in
open rebellion against the Parthians (Tac. Ann. xi. 8 f.). Volo-
gaeses I. (A.D. 50-91) " founded the town Vologesocerta (near
Ctesiphon) with the intention of draining the stormy Seleucia "
(Plin. vi. 122). Trajan occupied Seleucia in 116. In the war of
Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus against the Parthians, Seleucia
was taken by Avidius Cassius in 164, and then the Romans did
what the Parthians had not dared to do: they burnt down the
great Greek town with 300,000 inhabitants (Dio Cass. bud. 2;
Zonar, xii. 2; Capitol. Vit. Veri, 8; Eutrop. 8. 10; Ammian.
Marc, xxiii. 6. 24; xxiv. 5. 3). The great plague, which laid
waste the Roman empire during the next years, is said to have
sprung from the ruins of Seleucia. The destruction of Seleucia
may be considered as the end of Hellenism in Babylonia. (See
also SELEUCID DYNASTY and HELLENISM.) (Eo. M.)
2. A city on the north frontier of Syria towards Cilicia about
4 m. N. of the mouth of the Orontes, near the shore at the foot
of Mount Pieria (hence called Seleucia Pieria). This town also
was founded by Seleucus I. It served as the port of Antioch
(Acts xiii. 4), and with Apamea, Laodicea and Antioch formed
the Syrian tetrapolis. Considerable remains are still visible:
the chief are those of a cutting through the solid rock nearly
i loo yds. long, which Polybius describes as the road from the
city to the sea; the triple line of walls; amphitheatre, cemetery,
citadel, temples. It was of great importance in the struggle
between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies; captured by Ptolemy
Euergetes in 246, it was recovered by Antiochus III. the Great
in 219. It was recognized as independent by the Romans in 70,
but little of its subsequent history is known. It had practically
ceased to exist in the sth century A.D. The district stretching
inland was known as Seleucis.
3. SELEUCIA TRACHEOTIS, sometimes called TRACHEA, a city
of Cilicia on the Calycadnus (Geiik Su), also founded by Seleucus I.
about 300 B.C., near the older Olbia. It had considerable
commercial prosperity as the port of Isauria, and was even a rival
of Tarsus. In 1137 it was besieged by Leon, king of Cilician
Armenia. On the loth of June 1190 the emperor Frederick
Barbarossa was drowned in trying to cross the Calycadnus. In
the I3th century it was captured by the Seljuks. There are
many ancient remains, and on the Acropolis the ruins of a castle;
many rock-cut tombs with inscriptions have been found. On
the site is the modern Selefke, the chief town of the Ichili
sanjak.
Other towns bearing the name Seleucia were: (4) Seleucia in
Mesopotamia, the modern Birejik; (5) in the Persian Margiana,
founded as Alexandria by Alexander the Great and rebuilt as
Seleucia by Antiochus I. (of Syria); (6) in Pisidia; (7) in Pamphylia;
(8) on the Belus in Syria. The city of Tralles (q.v.) also bore the
name for a short period.
SELEUCID DYNASTY, a line of kings who reigned in Nearer
Asia from 312 to 65 B.C.
The founder SELEUCUS (surnamed for later generations Nicator)
was a Macedonian, the son of Antiochus, one of Philip's generals.
Seleucus, as a young man of about twenty-three, accompanied
Alexander into Asia in 333, and won distinction in the Indian
campaign of 326. When the Macedonian empire was divided in
323 (the "Partition of Babylon ") Seleucus was given the office
of chiliarch (Gr. xCKioi, a thousand), which attached him closely
to the person of the regent Perdiccas. Seleucus himself had a
hand in the murder of Perdiccas in 321. At the second partition,
at Triparadisus (321), Seleucus was given the government of the
Babylonian satrapy. In 316, when Antigonus had made himself
master of the eastern provinces, Seleucus felt himself threatened
and fled to Egypt. In the war which followed between Antigonus
and the other Macedonian chiefs, Seleucus actively co-operated
with Ptolemy and commanded Egyptian squadrons in the
Aegean. The victory won by Ptolemy at Gaza in 3 1 2 opened the
way for Seleucus to return to the east. His return to Babylon
in that year was afterwards officially regarded as the beginning
of the Seleucid empire. Master of Babylonia, Seleucus at once
proceeded to wrest the neighbouring provinces of Persis, Susiana
and Media from the nominees of Antigonus. A raid into Baby-
lonia conducted in 311 by Demetrius, son of Antigonus, did not
seriously check Seleucus's progress. Whilst Antigonus was
occupied in the west, Seleucus during nine years (311-302)
brought under his authority the whole eastern part of Alexander's
empire as far as the Jaxartes and Indus. In 305, after the
extinction of the old royal line of Macedonia, Seleucus, like the
other four principal Macedonian chiefs, assumed the style of king.
604
SELEUCID DYNASTY
His attempt, however, to restore Macedonian rule beyond the
Indus, where the native Chandragupta had established himself,
was not successful. Seleucus entered the Punjab, but felt himself
obliged in 302 to conclude a peace with Chandragupta, by which
he ceded large districts of Afghanistan in return for 500 elephants.
The pressing need for Seleucus once more to take the field against
Antigonus was at any rate in large measure the cause of his
abandonment of India. In 301 he joined Lysimachus in Asia
Minor, and at Ipsus Antigonus fell before their combined power.
A new partition of the empire followed, by which Seleucus added
to his kingdom Syria, and perhaps some regions of Asia Minor.
The possession of Syria gave him an opening to the Mediterranean,
and he immediately founded here the new city of Antioch upon
the Orontes as his chief seat of government. His previous
capital had been the city of Seleucia which he had founded upon
the Tigris (almost coinciding in site with Bagdad), and this
continued to be the capital for the eastern satrapies. About 293
he installed his son Antiochus there as viceroy, the vast extent
of the empire seeming to require a double government. The
capture of Demetrius in 285 added to Seleucus's prestige. The
unpopularity of Lysimachus after the murder of Agathocles gave
Seleucus an opportunity for removing his last rival. His interven-
tion in the west was solicited by Ptolemy, Ceraunus, who, on the
accession to the Egyptian throne of his brother Ptolemy II.
(285), had at first taken refuge with Lysimachus and then with
Seleucus. War between Seleucus and Lysimachus broke out,
and on the field of Coru-pedipn in Lydia Lysimachus fell (281).
Seleucus now saw the whole empire of Alexander, Egypt alone
excepted, in his hands, and moved to take possession of Mace-
donia and Thrace. He intended to leave Asia to Antiochus and
content himself for the remainder of his days with the Macedonian
kingdom in its old limits. He had, however, hardly crossed into
the Chersonese when he was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus
near Lysimachia (281).
ANTIOCHUS I. SOTER (324 or 323-262) was half a Persian, his
mother Apame being one of those eastern princesses whom
Alexander had given as wives to his generals in 324. On the
assassination of his father (281), the task of holding together the
empire was a formidable one, and a revolt in Syria broke out
almost immediately. With his father's murderer, Ptolemy,
Antiochus was soon compelled to make peace, abandoning
apparently Macedonia and Thrace. In Asia Minor he was
unable to reduce Bithynia or the Persian dynasties which ruled
in Cappadocia. In 278 the Gauls broke into Asia Minor, and a
victory which Antiochus won over these hordes is said to have
been the origin of his title of Soter(Gr. for" saviour "). Attheend
of 275 the question of Palestine, which had been open between
the houses of Seleucus and Ptolemy since the partition of 301,
led to hostilities (the " First Syrian War "). It had been con-
tinuously in Ptolemaic occupation, but the house of Seleucus
maintained its claim. War did not materially change the out-
lines of the two kingdoms, though frontier cities like Damascus
and the coast districts of Asia Minor might change hands. About
262 Antiochus tried to break the growing power of Pergamum
by force of arms, but suffered defeat near Sardis and died soon
afterwards (262). His eldest son Seleucus, who had ruled in the
east as viceroy from 275 (?) till 268/7, was put to death in that
year by his father on the charge of rebellion (Wace, J.H.S. xxv.,
1905, p. 101 f.). He was succeeded (261) by his second son
ANTIOCHUS II. THEOS (286-246), whose mother was the Mace-
donian princess Stratonice, daughter of Demetrius Poliorcetes.
War with Egypt still went on along the coasts of Asia Minor (the
" Second Syrian War "). Antiochus also made some attempt
to get a footing in Thrace. About 250 peace was concluded
between Antiochus and Ptolemy II., Antiochus repudiating
his wife Laodice and marrying Ptolemy's daughter Berenice,
but by 246 Antiochus had left Berenice and her infant
son in Antioch to live again with Laodice in Asia Minor.
Laodice poisoned him and proclaimed her son SELEUCUS II.
CALLiNicus(reigned 246-227) king, whilst her partisans at Antioch
made away with Berenice and her son. Berenice's brother,
Ptolemy III., who had just succeeded to the Egyptian throne,
at once invaded the Seleucid realm and marched victoriously to
the Tigris or beyond, receiving the submission of the eastern
provinces, whilst his fleets swept the coasts of Asia Minor. In
the interior of Asia Minor Seleucus maintained himself, and when
Ptolemy returned to Egypt he recovered Northern Syria and the
nearer provinces of Iran. In Asia Minor his younger brother
Antiochus Hierax was put up against him by a party to which
Laodice herself adhered. At Ancyra (about 235?) Seleucus
sustained a crushing defeat and left the country beyond the
Taurus to his brother and the other powers of the peninsula.
Of these Pergamum now rose to greatness under Attalus I., and
Antiochus Hierax perished as a fugitive in Thrace in 228/7. A
year later Seleucus was killed by a fall from his horse. His
elder son, SELEUCUS III. SOTER (reigned 227-223), took up the
task of reconquering Asia Minor from Attalus, but fell by a
conspiracy in his own camp.
ANTIOCHUS III. THE GREAT (242-187), CaUinicus's younger
son, a youth of about eighteen, now succeeded to a disorganized
kingdom (223). Not only was Asia Minor detached, but the
further eastern provinces had broken away, Bactria under the
Greek Diodotus (q.v.), and Parthia under the nomad chieftain
Arsaces. Soon after Antiochus's accession, Media and Persis
revolted under their governors, the brothers Molon and Alex-
ander. The young king was in the hands of the bad minister
Hermeias, and was induced to make an attack on Palestine
instead of going in person to face the rebels. The attack on
Palestine was a fiasco, and the generals sent against Molon and
Alexander met with disaster. Only in Asia Minor, where the
Seleucid cause was represented by the king's cousin, the ablp
Achaeus, was its prestige restored and the Pergamene power
driven back' to its earlier limits. In 221 Antiochus at last went
east, and the rebellion of Molon and Alexander collapsed. The
submission of Lesser Media, which had asserted its independence
under Artabazanes, followed. Antiochus rid himself of Hermeias
by assassination and returned to Syria (220). Meanwhile
Achaeus himself had revolted and assumed the title of king in
Asia Minor. Since, however, his power was not well enough
grounded to allow of his attacking Syria, Antiochus considered
that he might leave Achaeus for the present and renew hi?
attempt on Palestine. The campaigns of 219 and 218 carried
the Seleucid arms almost to the confines of Egypt, but in 217
Ptolemy IV. confronted Antiochus at Raphia and inflicted a
defeat upon him which nullified all Antiochus's successes and
compelled him to withdraw north of the Lebanon. In 216
Antiochus went north to deal with Achaeus, and had by 214
driven him from the field into Sardis. Antiochus contrived to
get possession of the person of Achaeus (see POLYBIUS), but
the citadel held out till 213 under Achaeus's widow and then
surrendered. Having thus recovered the central part of Asia
Minor for the dynasties in Pergamum, Bithynia and Cappadocia
the Seleucid government was obliged to tolerate Antiochus
turned to recover the outlying provinces of the north and east.
Xerxes of Armenia was brought to acknowledge his supremacy
in 212. In 209 Antiochus invaded Parthia, occupied the capital
Hecatompylus and pushed forward into Hyrcania. The
Parthian king was apparently granted peace on his submission.
In 209 Antiochus was in Bactria, where the original rebel had
been supplanted by another Greek Euthydemus (see further
BACTRIA and articles on the separate rulers). The issue was
again favourable to Antiochus. After sustaining a famous siege
in his capital Bactra (Balkh), Euthydemus obtained an honour-
able peace by which the hand of one of Antiochus's daughters
was promised to his son Demetrius. Antiochus next, following
in the steps of Alexander, crossed into the Kabul valley, received
the homage of the Indian king Sophagasenus and returned west
by way of Seistan and Kerman (206/5). From Seleucia on the
Tigris he led a short expedition down the Persian Gulf against
the Gerrhaeans of the Arabian coast (205/4). Antiochus seemed
to have restored the Seleucid empire in the east, and the achieve-
ment brought him the title of " the Great King." In 205/4
the infant Ptolemy V. Epiphanes succeeded to the Egyptian
throne, and Antiochus concluded a secret pact with Philip of
SELEUCID DYNASTY
605
Macedonia for the partition of the Ptolemaic possessions. Once
more Antiochus attacked Palestine, and by 199 he seems to have
had possession of it. It was, however, recovered for Ptolemy
by the Aetolian Scopas. But the recovery was brief, for in 198
Scopas was defeated by Antiochus at the battle of the Panium,
near the sources of the Jordan, a battle which marks the end of
Ptolemaic rule in Palestine. In 197 Antiochus moved to Asia
Minor to secure the coast towns which had acknowledged
Ptolemy and the independent Greek cities. It was this enterprise
which brought him into antagonism with Rome, since Smyrna
and Lampsacus appealed to the republic of the west, and the
tension became greater after Antiochus had in 196 established a
footing in Thrace. The evacuation of Greece by the Romans
gave Antiochus his opportunity, and he now had the fugitive
Hannibal at his court to urge him on. In 192 Antiochus invaded
Greece, having the Aetolians and other Greek states as his allies.
In 191, however, he was routed at Thermopylae by the Romans
under Manius Acilius Glabrio, and obliged to withdraw to Asia.
But the Romans followed up their success by attacking Antiochus
in Asia Minor, and the decisive victory of L. Cornelius Scipio
at Magnesia ad Sipylum (190), following on the defeat of
Hannibal at sea off Side, gave Asia Minor into their hands. By
the peace of Apamea (188) the Seleucid king abandoned all the
country north of the Taurus, which was distributed among the
friends of Rome. As a consequence of this blow to the Seleucid
power, the outlying provinces of the empire, recovered by
Antiochus, reasserted their independence. Antiochus perished
in a fresh expedition to the east in Luristan (187).
The Seleucid kingdom as Antiochus left it to his son, SELEUCUS
IV. PHILOPATOR (reigned 187-176), consisted of Syria (now
including Cilicia and Palestine), Mesopotamia, Babylonia and
Nearer Iran (Media and Persis). Seleucus IV. was compelled by
financial necessities, created in part by the heavy war-indemnity
exacted by Rome, to pursue an unambitious policy, and was
assassinated by his minister Heliodorus. The true heir,
Demetrius, son of Seleucus, being now retained in Rome as a
hostage, the kingdom was seized by the younger brother of
Seleucus, ANTIOCHUS IV. EPIPHANES (i.e. "the Manifest [god]";
parodied Epimanes, " the mad "), who reigned 176-164. In
170 Egypt, governed by regents for the boy Ptolemy Philo-
metor, attempted to reconquer Palestine; Antiochus not only
defeated this attempt but invaded and occupied Egypt. He
failed to take Alexandria, where the people set up the younger
brother of Philometor, Ptolemy Eurgetes, as king, but he left
Philometor as his ally installed at Memphis. When the two
brothers combined, Antiochus again invaded Egypt (168), but
was compelled to retire by the Roman envoy C. Popillius Laenas
(consul 172), after the historic scene in which the Roman drew a
circle in the sand about the king and demanded his answer before
he stepped out of it. Antiochus exercised his contemporaries
by the riddles of his half-brilliant, half-crazy personality. He
had resided at Rome as a hostage, and afterwards for his pleasure
at Athens, and had brought to his kingdom an admiration for
republican institutions and an enthusiasm for Hellenic culture
or, at any rate, for its externals. There is evidence that the forms
of Greek political life were more fully adopted under his sway by
many of the Syrian cities. He spent lavishly on public buildings
at home and in the older centres of Hellenism, like Athens.
Gorgeous display and theatrical pomp were his delight. At
the same time he scandalized the world by his riotous living and
undignified familiarities. But he could persevere in an astute
policy under the cover of an easy geniality and had no scruples.
It is his contact with the Jews which has chiefly interested later
ages, and he is doubtless the monarch described in the pseudo-
prophetic chapters of Daniel (<?..) Jerusalem, near the Egyptian
frontier, was an important point, and in one of its internal revolu-
tions Antiochus saw, perhaps not without reason, a defection to
the Egyptian side. His chastisement of the city, including as it
did the spoliation of the temple, served the additional purpose
of relieving his financial necessities. It was a measure of a very
different kind when, a year or two later (after 168), Antiochus
tried to suppress the practices of Judaism by force, and it was
this which provoked the Maccabaean rebellion (see MACCABEES) .
In 166 Antiochus left Syria to attempt the reconquest of the
further provinces. He seems to have been signally successful.
Armenia returned to allegiance, the capital of Media was re-
colonized as Epiphanea, and Antiochus was pursuing his plans
in the east when he died at Tabae in Persis, after exhibiting some
sort of mental derangement (winter 164/3).
He left a son of nine years, ANTIOCHUS V. EUPATOR (reigned
164-162), in whose name the kingdom was administered by
a camarilla. Their government was feeble and corrupt. The
attempt to check the Jewish rebellion ended in a weak com-
promise. Their subservience to Rome so enraged the Greek cities
of Syria that the Roman envoy Graeus Octavius (consul 165 B.C.)
was assassinated in Laodicea (162). At this juncture Demetrius,
the son of Seleucus IV., escaped from Rome and was received in
Syria as the true king. Antiochus Eupator was put to death.
DEMETRIUS I. SOTER (reigned 162-150) was a strong and
ambitious ruler. He crushed the rebellion of Timarchus in
Media and reduced Judaea to new subjection. But he was
unpopular at Antioch, and fell before a coalition of the three
kings of Egypt, Pergamum and Cappadocia. An impostor, who
claimed to be a son of Antiochus Epiphanes, ALEXANDER BALAS
(reigned 150-145), was installed as king by Ptolemy Philometor
and given Ptolemy's daughter Cleopatra to wife, but Alexander
proved to be dissolute and incapable, and when Demetrius, the
son of Demetrius I., was brought back to Syria by Cretan con-
dottieri, Ptolemy transferred his support and Cleopatra t to the
rightful heir. Alexander was defeated by Ptolemy at the battle
of the Oenoparas near Antioch and murdered during his flight.
Ptolemy himself died of the wound he had received in the battle.
DEMETRIUS II. NICATOR (first reign 145-140) was a mere boy, 1 and
the misgovernment of his Cretan supporters led to the infant son of
Alexander Balas, ANTIOCHUS VI. DIONYSUS, being set up against
him (145) by Tryphon, a magnate of the kingdom. Demetrius was
driven from Antioch and fixed his court in the neighbouring Seleucia.
In 143 Tryphon murdered the young Antiochus and assumed the
diadem himself. Three years later Demetrius set off to reconquer
the eastern provinces from the Parthians, leaving Queen Cleopatra
to maintain his cause in Syria. When Demetrius was taken prisoner
by the Parthians, his younger brother ANTIOCHUS VII. SIDETES (164-
129) appeared in Syria, married Cleopatra and crushed Tryphon.
Antiochus VII. was the last strong ruler of the dynasty (138129).
He took Jerusalem and once more brought the Jews, who had won
their independence under the Hasmonaean family, to subjection
(see MACCABEES). He led a new expedition against the Parthians
in 130, but, after signal successes, fell fighting in 129 (see also PERSIA,
History). Demetrius (second reign 129-126), who had been allowed
by the Parthians to escape, now returned to Syria, but was soon
again driven from Antioch by a pretender, ALEXANDER ZABINAS,
who had the support of the king of Egypt. Demetrius was murdered
at the instigation of his wife Cleopatra in 1 26. The remaining history
of the dynasty is a wretched story of the struggle of different
claimants, while the different factors of the kingdom, the cities and
barbarian races, more and more assert their independence. Both
Demetrius II. and Antiochus VII. left children by Cleopatra, who
form rival branches of the royal house. To the line of Demetrius
belong his son SELEUCUS V. (126), assassinated by his mother Cleo-
patra, ANTIOCHUS VIII. GRYPUS (141-96), who succeeded in 126
the younger brother of Seleucus V., the sons of Grypus, SELEUCUS VI.
EPIPHANES NICATOR (reigned 96-95), ANTIOCHUS XI. EPIPHANES
PHILADELPHUS (reigned during 95), PHILIP I. (reigned 95-83),
DEMETRIUS III. EUKAIROS (reigned 95-88), and ANTIOCHUS XII.
DIONYSUS EPIPHANES (reigned 86?-85?), and lastly PHILIP II., the
son of Philip I., who appears momentarily on the stage in the last
days of confusion. To the line of Antiochus VII. belong his son
ANTIOCHUS IX. CYZICENUS (reigned 116-95), the son of Cyzicenus,
ANTIOCHUS X. EUSEBES (reigned 95-83?), and the son of Eusebes,
ANTIOCHUS XIII. ASIATICUS (reigned 69-65). In 83 Tigranes, the
king of Armenia, invaded Syria, and by 69 his conquest had reached
as far as Ptolemais, when he was obliged to evacuate Syria to defend
his own kingdom from the Romans. When Pompey appeared in
Syria in 64, Antiochus XIII. begged to be restored to his ancestral
1 Some of the indications of our documents would make him
older, and these are followed by Niese (iii. p. 276, note 5). But in that
case Demetrius I. must have already had a wife and son when he
escaped from Rome, and it seems to me highly improbable that
such a material factor in the situation would have been left out of
account in Polybius's full narrative. After all, it is only a question
of probabilities, and the difficulties of fitting a wife and child into
the story seem to be very great, whether we conceive them left
behind by Demetrius in Italy, or sent out of the country before him.
6o6
SELF SELIM
kingdom or what shred was left of it. Pompey refused and made
Syria a Roman province. Antiochus Grypus had given his daughter
in marriage to Mithradates (q.v.), a king of Commagene, and the
subsequent kings of Commagene (see under ANTIOCHUS) claimed in
consequence still to represent the Seleucid house after it had become
extinct in the male line, and adopted Antiochus as the dynastic
name. The kingdom was extinguished by Rome in 72. The son
of the last king, Gaius Julius Antiochus Epiphanes Philopappus,
was Roman consul for A.D. 100.
AUTHORITIES. E., R. Bevan, House of Seleucus (1902), and the
earlier literature of the subject there cited. In addition may be
mentioned Dssa. Adalgisa Corvatta, Divisions amministrativa del-
l' impero dei Seleucidi (1901); Haussoullier, Histoire de Milet et du
Didymeion (1902); B. Niese, Gesch. d. grtech. u. maked. Slaaten,
Teil 3 (1903); J. Beloch. Griechische Geschichte, vol. iii.; G. Mac-
donald, " Early Seleucid Portraits," Journ. of Hell. Stud, xxiii.
(1903), p. 92 f.; A. J. B. Wace, "Hellenistic Royal Portraits,"
Journ. of Hell. Stud. xxv. (1905), p. 86 f. For the chronology of
the end of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes and the Maccabaean
revolt, see a paper by J. Wellhausen, " Uber den geschichtlichen
Wert des 2ten Makkabaerbuchs," Nachrichten d. k. Gesellschaft d.
Wissensch. zu Gotlingen. Philol.-hist. Klasse, 1905, Heft 2; and
MACCABEES, History. (E. R. B.)
SELF (O.Eng. seolf, silf, &c., cf. Dutch zelf, Ger. selbe, selbst),
as a pronoun, an element attached to a personal pronoun or pro-
nominal adjective to give emphasis, or to indicate a reflexive use;
as an adjective a word properly meaning same, identical, also
very (seen in the expression " self-same "), hence single, plain,
not mixed with another colour. It is also a florist's term for a
flower which has uniformity of tint, without markings or other
tints. As a noun " self " means one's own person; for the
psychological use of the term see PSYCHOLOGY, &c., and for its
ethical aspect EGOISM.
SELIGMAN, EDWIN ROBERT ANDERSON (1861- ),
American economist, was born at New York on the 25th of April
1861. He was educated at Columbia University, and, after
studying for three years in Germany and France, became prize
lecturer at Columbia University in 1885, being made adjunct
professor of political economy in 1888. He became McVickar
professor of political economy in the same university in 1904.
His principal works are Railway Tariffs (1887), The Shifting and
Incidence of Taxation (1899; 3rd ed., 1910), Progressive Taxation
in Theory and Practice (1894; 2nd ed. 1908), Economic Interpre-
tation of History (1902; 2nd ed. 1907), and Principles of Eco-
nomics (1907).
SELIM. the name of three sultans of Turkey.
SELIM I. (1465-1521) succeeded in 1512 his father Bayezid
II., whom he dethroned, and whose death, following immediately
afterwards, gave rise to suspicions which Selim's character
certainly justified. He signalized his accession by putting to
death his brothers and nephews; and gave early proof of resolu-
tion by boldly cutting down before their troops two officers
who showed signs of insubordination. A bigoted Sunni, he
resolved on putting down the Shi'ite heresy, which had gained
many adherents in Turkey: the number of these was estimated
as high as 40,000. Selim determined on war with Persia, where
the heresy was the prevalent religion, and in order that the
Shi'ites in Turkey should give no trouble during the war,
" measures were taken," as the Turkish historian states, which
may be explained as the reader desires, and which proved fully
efficacious. The campaign which followed was a triumph for
Selim, whose firmness and courage overcame the pusillanimity
and insubordination of the Janissaries. Syria and Egypt next
fell before him; he became master of the holy cities of Islam;
and, most important of all, he induced the last Caliph of the
Abbasid dynasty formally to surrender the title of caliph (q.v.),
as well as its outward emblems, viz. the holy standard, the
sword and the mantle of the prophet. The dignity with which
the Ottoman sultans have thereby become invested lends them
that prestige throughout the Mussulman world which is of such
importance to the present day, and which has thrown into
oblivion the condition that the caliph ought to be an Arab of
the tribe of Koreish. After his return from his Egyptian campaign,
he was preparing an expedition against Rhodes when he was
overtaken by sickness and died, on the 22nd of September 1521,
in the ninth year of his reign, near the very spot where he had
attacked his father's troops, not far from Adrianople. He was
about fifty-five years of age. He was bigoted, bloodthirsty
and relentless, though one Turkish historian praises his humanity
for having forbidden the cutting up alive of condemned persons,
or the roasting of them before a slow fire; and at one time he
was with difficulty dissuaded from ordering the complete extirpa-
tion of all the Christians in Turkey. His ambition was insatiable ;
he is said to have exclaimed when looking at a map that the
whole world did not form a sovereignty vast enough for one
monarch. His four months' victorious campaign against Persia
was undertaken and successfully carried through contrary to
the advice of his ministers, several of whom he executed for their
opposition to his plans; and he achieved an enterprise which
neither Jenghiz Khan nor Timur was able to carry out. It is
said that he contemplated the conquest of India and that he was
the first to conceive the idea of the Suez Canal.
SELIM II. (1524-1574) was a son of Suleiman I. and his favourite
Roxelana, and succeeded his father in 1566. He was the first
sultan entirely devoid of military virtues and willing to abandon
all power to his ministers, provided he were left free to pursue
his orgies and debauches. Fortunately for the country, an able
grand vizier, Mahommed Sokolli, was at the head of affairs, and
two years after Selim's accession succeeded in concluding at
Constantinople an honourable treaty with the emperor Maxi-
milian II., whereby the emperor agreed to pay to Turkey an
annual " present " of 30,000 ducats (Feb. 17, 1568). Against
Russia he was less fortunate, and the first encounter between
Turkey and her future northern rival gave presage of disaster
to come. A plan had been ^elaborated at Constantinople for
uniting the Volga and Don by a canal, and in the summer of
1569 a large force of Janissaries and cavalry were sent to lay
siege to Astrakhan and begin the canal works, while an Ottoman
fleet besieged Azov. But a sortie of the garrison of Astrakhan
drove back the besiegers; 15,000 Russians, under Knes Sere-
bianov, attacked and scattered the workmen and the Tatar
force sent for their protection; and, finally, the Ottoman fleet
was destroyed by a storm. Early in 1570 the ambassadors
of Ivan the Terrible concluded at Constantinople a treaty which
restored friendly relations between the sultan and the tsar.
Expeditions in the Hejaz and Yemen were more successful, and
the conquest of Cyprus in 1571, which provided Selim with
his favourite vintage, led to the calamitous nava! defeat of
Lepanto in the same year, the moral importance of which has
often been under-estimated, and which at least freed the Mediter-
ranean from the corsairs by whom it was infested. Turkey's
shattered fleets were soon restored, and Sokolli was preparing
for a fresh attack on Venice, when the sultan's death on the
1 2th of December 1574 cut short his plans. Little can be said of
this degenerate son of Suleiman, who during the eight years of
his reign never girded on the sword of Osman, and preferred the
clashing of wine-goblets to the shock of arms, save that with the
dissolute tastes of his mother he had not inherited her ferocity.
SELIM III. (1762-1808) was a son of Sultan Mustafa III.
and succeeded his uncle Abd-ul-Hamid I. in 1 789. The talents
and energy with which he was endowed had endeared him to
the people, and great hopes were founded on his accession.
He had associated much with foreigners, and was thoroughly
persuaded of the necessity of reforming his state. But Austria
and Russia gave him no time for anything but defence, and it
was not until the peace of Jassy (1792) that a breathing space
was allowed him in Europe, while Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt
and Syria soon called for Turkey's strongest efforts and for the
time shattered the old-standing French alliance. Selim profited
by the respite to abolish the military tenure of fiefs; he intro-
duced salutary reforms into the administration, especially in
the fiscal department, sought by well-considered plans to extend
the spread of education, and engaged foreign officers as instructors,
by whom a small corps of new troops called nizam-i-jedid were
collected and drilled. So well were these troops organized that
they were able to hold their own against rebellious Janissaries
in the European provinces, where disaffected governors made no
scruple of attempting to make use of them against the reforming
SELINUS
607
sultan. Emboldened by this success, Selim issued an order that
in future picked men should be taken annually from the
Janissaries to serve in their ranks. Hereupon the Janissaries
and other enemies of progress rose at Adrianople, and in view
of their number, exceeding 10,000, and the violence of their
opposition, it was decided that the reforms must be given up
for the present. Servia, Egypt and the principalities were
successively the scene of hostilities in which Turkey gained no
successes, and in 1807 a British fleet appeared at Constantinople,
strange to say to insist on Turkey's yielding to Russia's demands
besides dismissing the ambassador of Napoleon I. Selim was,
however, thoroughly under the influence of this ambassador,
Sebastiani, and the fleet was compelled to retire without effect-
ing its purpose. But the anarchy, manifest or latent, existing
throughout the provinces proved too great for Selim to cope with.
The Janissaries rose once more in revolt, induced the Sheikh-
ul-Islam to grant a fetva against the reforms, dethroned and
imprisoned Selim (1807), and placed his nephew Mustafa on the
throne. The pasha of Rustchuk, Mustafa Bairakdar, a strong
partisan of the reforms, now collected an army of 40,000 men and
marched on Constantinople with the purpose of reinstating
Selim. But he came too late; the ill-fated reforming sultan had
been strangled in the seraglio, and Bairakdar's only resource was
to wreak his vengeance on Mustafa and to place on the throne
Mahmud II., the sole surviving member of the house of Osman.
For authorities see TURKEY : History.
SELINUS (StAH/ow), an ancient city on the S. coast of Sicily,
27 m. S.E. direct from Lilybaeum (the modern Marsala) and
7 m. S.E. of Castel Vetrano, which is 74 m. S.S.W. of Palermo
by rail. It was founded, according to Thucydides, in 628 B.C.
by colonists from Megara Hyblaea, and from the parent city of
Megara (see SICILY: History). The name, which belonged both
to the city and to the river on the W. of it, was derived from the
wild celery 1 which grows there abundantly, and which appears
on some of its coins (see NUMISMATICS, Greek, " Sicily "). We
hear of boundary disputes with Segesta as early as 580 B.C.
Selinus soon grew in importance, and extended its borders from
the Mazarus to the Halycus. Its wealth is shown by the fact
that several of its temples belong to the first half of the 6th
century B.C. Its government was at first oligarchical, but about
510 B.C. a short-lived despotism was maintained by Peithagoras
and, after him, Euryleon (Herod, v. 43, 46). In 480 B.C. Selinus
took the Carthaginian side. After this it seems to have enjoyed
prosperity: Thucydides (vi. 20) speaks of its wealth and of the
to, and an overwhelming force (the Siceliot cities delaying too
much in coming to the rescue) under Hannibal took and destroyed
the city in 409 B.C.; the walls were razed to the ground; 6000
inhabitants were killed, 5000 taken prisoners, and only 2600
escaped to Agrigentum (Acragas). 3 In 408 Hermocrates, return-
ing from exile, occupied Selinus and rebuilt the walls; and it is
to him that the fine fort on the neck of the acropolis must be
attributed. Hence he attacked Motya and Panormus and the
rest of Punic Sicily. He fell, however, in 407 in an attempt
to enter Syracuse, and, as a result of the treaty of 405 B.C.,
Selinus became absolutely subject to Carthage, and remained so
until its destruction at the close of the first Punic War, when
its inhabitants were transferred to Lilybaeum. It was never
afterwards rebuilt, and Strabo (vi. p. 272) mentions it as one of
the extinct cities of Sicily.
The ancient city occupied a sand-hill running N. and S.; the
S. portion, overlooking the sea, which was the acropolis, is
surrounded by fine walls of masonry of rectangular blocks of
stone, which show traces of the reconstruction of 408 B.C.
It is traversed by two main streets, running N. and S. and E.
and W., from which others diverged at right angles. There are,
however, some traces of earlier buildings at a different orientation.
Only the S.E. portion of the acropolis, which contains several
temples, has been excavated: in the rest private houses seem
to predominate. The deities to whom the temples were dedi-
cated not being certainly known, they are as a rule indicated by
letters. In all the large temples the cella is divided into two
parts, the smaller and inner of which (the adytum) was intended
for the cult image. The opisthodomus is 'sometimes omitted.
All of them lie in a state of ruin, and, from the disposition of the
drums of the columns, it is impossible to suppose that their fall
was due to any other cause than an earthquake. Temple C is the
earliest of those on the acropolis. It had six columns at each end
(a double row in the front) and seventeen on each long side.
From it came the three archaic metopes now in the museum at
Palermo, which are of great importance in the history of the
development of art, showing Greek sculpture in its infancy.
Portions of the coloured terra-cotta slabs which decorated the
cornice and other architectural members have also been dis-
covered. Next to it on the N. lies temple D, both having been
included in one temenos, with other buildings of less importance:
to the E. of D is a large altar. B is a small temple of compara-
tively late date; while A and O lie on the S. side of the main
street from E. to W. in another peribolos.
Table of Measurements of the Temples (in feet).
A.
B.
C.
O.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Length excluding
steps ....
132
3i*
20Qi
183!
2225
203
362
Breadth excluding
steps
Length of cella .
53i
94i
18*
78*
136!
n\
129
83
163!
80*
(?)
226ft)
Breadth of cella
28i
34*
32|
46f
30*
69
Height of columns
with capitals .
23i (?)
28*
27*
33*
Diameter of columns
at bottom
4i
6J
6
6!
5J
8! (n4)
Number of columns
in peristasis
Class ....
36
Penpteros-
hexastylos
4
Prostylos-
tetrastylos
42
Penpteros-
hexastylos
36(?)
34
Penpteros-
hexastylos
.38
Penpteros-
hexastylos
36
Penpteros-
hexastylos
4 6
Pseudo-dipteros-
octostylos
Approximate date .
480 B.C.
After 240
581 B.C.
480 B.C.
570-554 B-C-
Soon after
570-554 B -C-
B.C.
480 B.C.
treasures in its temples, and the city had a treasury of its own
at Olympia.
A dispute between Selinus and Segesta (probably the revival
of a similar quarrel about 454, when an Athenian force appears
to have taken part 2 ) was one of the causes of the Athenian
expedition of 415 B.C. At its close the former seemed to have
the latter at its mercy, but an appeal to Carthage was responded
1 The plant was formerly thought to be wild parsley. It is now
generally agreed that it is celery.
2 Cf. Timaeus, fr. 99, with Diod. xi. 86 and I.C. xiv. p. 45, No. 268.
At the N. end of the acropolis are extensive remains of the fortifica-
tions of Hermocrates across the narrow neck connecting it with the
rest of the hill. In front of the wall lies a deep trench, into which
several passages descend, as at the nearly contemporary fort of
Euryelus above Syracuse (q.v.). Outside this again lies a projecting
semicircular bastion, which commands the entrance from the ex-
terior of the city on the E., a winding trench approached by a pair
of double gateways, which are not vaulted but covered by the
gradual projection of the upper courses. Capitals and triglyphs
3 The figures are those of Diodorus (xiii. 58), but seem strangely
small.
6o8
SELJUKS
from earlier buildings have been used in the construction of these
fortifications: from their small size they may be mostly attributed
to private houses. A way across the curving trench leads to an open
space, where the Agora may have been situated: beyond it lay the
town, the remains of which are scanty, though the line of the walls
can be traced.
Outside the ancient city, on the W. of the river Selinus, lie the
ruins of a temple of Demeter, with a propylpn leading to the sacred
enclosure: the temple itself has a cella with a narrow door and
without columns. A large number of votive terra-cotta figures,
vases and lamps were found in the course of the excavations. The
earliest temple must have been erected soon after the foundation
of the city, while the later building which superseded it dates from
shortly after 600 B.C. The propylon, on the other hand, may date
from after 409 B.C.
On the hill E. of Selinus, separated from it by a small flat valley,
lies a group of three huge temples. No other remains have been
found round them, though it seems improbable that they stood
quite alone and unprotected. It is likely that they were outside
the town, but stood in a sacred enclosure. All of them have fallen,
undoubtedly owing to an earthquake. The oldest of the three is
F. A peculiarity of the construction of this temple is that all the
intercolumniations were closed by stone screens. In it were found
the lower parts of two metopes. Next in date comes the huge
temple G, which, as an inscription proves, was dedicated to Apollo ;
though it was never entirely completed (many of the columns still
remain unfluted), it was in use. The columns vary somewhat in
diameter (more than even the difference caused by fluting would
warrant) and three different types of capital are noticeable. The
plan is a curious one: despite the comparative narrowness of the
cella, it had two rows of ten columns in it, in line with the front
angles of the inner shrine. The third temple, E, has been proved
by the discovery of an inscription to have been dedicated to Hera.
It is famous for its fine metopes now in the museum at Palermo,
belonging to the beginning of the 5th century B.C.
See R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die griechischen Tempel in
Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin, 1899), 77-131. (T. As.)
SELJUKS, SELJUKS, or SELJUQS, the name of several Turkish
dynasties issued from one. family, which reigned over large) parts
of Asia in the nth, I2th and I3th centuries of the Christian era.
The history of the Seljuks forms the first part of the history
of the Turkish empire. Proceeding from the deserts of Turkes-
tan, the Seljuks reached the Hellespont; but this barrier was
crossed and a European power founded by the Ottomans (Os-
manli). The Seljuks inherited the traditions and at the same
time the power of the Arabian caliphate, of which, when they
made their appearance, only the shadow remained in the person
of the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad. It is their merit from a
Mahommedan point of view to have re-established the power
of orthodox Islam and delivered the Moslem world from the
subversive influence of the ultra-Shlite tenets, which constituted
a serious danger to the duration of Islam itself. Neither had
civilization anything to fear from them, since they represented
a strong neutral power, which made the intimate union of Persian
and Arabian elements possible, almost at the expense of the
national Turkish literary monuments in that language being
during the whole period of the Seljuk rule exceedingly rare.
The first Seljuk rulers were Toghrul Beg, Chakir Beg and
Ibrahim Niyal, the son of Mikail, the son of Seljuk, the son of
Tukak, or Tuqaq (also styled Timuryalik, " iron bow "). They
belonged to the Turkish tribe of the Ghuzz (OBfw of Const.
Porphyr. and the Byzantine writers), which traced its lineage
to Oghuz, the famous eponymic hero not only of this but of all
Turkish tribes. There arose, however, at some undefined epoch
a strife on the part of this tribe and some others with the rest of
the Turks, because, as the latter allege, Ghuzz, the son (or grand-
son) of Yafeth (Japhet), the son of Nub. (Noah), had stolen the
genuine rain-stone, which Turk, also a son of Yafeth, had inherited
from his father. By this party, as appears from this tradition,
the Ghuzz were not considered to be genuine Turks, but to be
Turkmans (that is, according to a popular etymology, resembling
Turks). But the native tradition of the Ghuzz was unquestion-
ably right, as they spoke a pure Turkish dialect. The fact,
however, remains that there existed a certain animosity between
the Ghuzz and their allies and the rest of the Turks, which in-
creased as the former became converted to Islam (in the course
of the 4th century of the Flight). The Ghuzz were settled at
that time in Transoxiana, especially at Jand, a well-known city
on the banks of the Jaxartes, not far from its mouth. Some of
them served in the armies of the Ghaznavids Sabuktagm (Sebuk-
tegin) and Mahmud (997-1030) ; but the Seljuks, a royal family
among them, had various relations with the reigning princes of
Transoxiana and Khwarizm, which cannot be narrated here. 1
But, friends or foes, the Ghuzz became a serious danger to the
adjoining Mahommedan provinces from their predatory habits
and continual raids, and the more so as they were very numerous.
It may suffice to mention that, under the leadership of Pigu
Arslan Israil, they crossed the Oxus and spread over the eastern
provinces of Persia, everywhere plundering and destroying.
The imprisonment of this chieftain by Masud, the son and suc-
cessor of Mahmud, was of no avail: it only furnished his nephews
with a ready pretext to cross the Oxus likewise in'arms against
the Ghaznavids. We pass over their first conflicts and the
unsuccessful agreements that were attempted, to mention the
decisive battle near Merv (1040), in which Masud was totally
defeated and driven back to Ghazni (Ghazna). Persia now lay
open to the victors, who proclaimed themselves independent at
Merv (which became from that time the official capital of the
principal branch of the Seljuks), and acknowledged Toghrul Beg
as chief of the whole family. After this victory the three princes
Toghrul Beg, Chakir Beg and Ibrahim Niyal separated in different
directions and conquered the Mahommedan provinces east of the
Tigris; the last named, after conquering Hamadan and the
province of Jebel (Irak i Ajami), penetrated as early as 1048,
with fresh Ghuzz troops, into Armenia and reached Manzikert,
Erzerutn and Trebizond. This excited the jealousy of Toghrul
Beg, who summoned him to give up Hamadan and the fortresses
of Jebel; but Ibrahim refused, and the progress of the Seljukian
arms was for some time checked by internal discord an ever-
recurring event in their history. Ibrahim was, however,
compelled to submit.
At this time the power of Qaim, the Abbasid caliph of Bagdad
(see CALIPHATE, section C, 26), was reduced to a mere shadow,
as the Shiite dynasty of the Buyids and afterwards his more
formidable Fatimite rivals had left him almost wholly destitute
of authority. The real ruler at Bagdad was a Turk named
Basasiri, lieutenant of the last Buyid, Malik-ar-Rahim. Nothing
could, therefore, be more acceptable to the caliph than the
protection of the orthodox Toghrul Beg, whose name was read
in the official prayer (kholba) as early as 1050. At the end of the
same year (1055) the Seljuk entered the city and after a tumult
seized the person of Malik-ar-Rahim. Basasiri had the good
fortune to be out of his reach; after acknowledging the right
of the Fatimites, he gathered fresh troops and incited Ibrahim
Niyal to rebel again, and he succeeded so far that he re-entered
Bagdad at the close of 1058. The next year, however, Toghrul
Beg got rid of both his antagonists, Ibrahim being taken prisoner
and strangled with the bowstring, while Basasiri fell in battle.
Toghrul Beg now re-entered Bagdad, re-established the caliph,
and was betrothed to his daughter, but died before the con-
summation of the nuptials (September 1063). Alp Arslan, the
son of Chakir Beg, succeeded his uncle and extended the rule
of his family beyond the former frontiers. He made himself
master, e.g. of the important city of Aleppo; and during his
reign a Turkish amir, Atsiz, wrested Palestine and Syria from
the hands of the Fatimites. He made successful expeditions
against the Greeks, especially that of 1071, in which the Greek
emperor Romanus Diogenes was taken prisoner and forced
to ransom himself for a large sum (see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER).
The foundation of the Seljuk empire of Rum (q.v.) was the
immediate result of this great victory. Alp Arslan afterwards
undertook an expedition against Turkestan, and met with his
death at the hands of a captured chief, Barzami Yussuf (Yussuf
Kothnal), whom he had intended to shoot with his own hand.
Malik Shah, the son and successor of Alp Arslan, had to
encounter his uncle Kavurd, founder of the Seljukian empire
of Kerman (see below), who claimed to succeed Alp Arslan
in accordance with the Turkish laws, and led his troops towards
Hamadan. However, he lost the battle that ensued, and the
1 Comp. Sachau, " Zur Geschichte und Chronologic von Khw&-
rizm," in Sitzungsberichte of the Vienna Acad., Ixxiv. 304 seq.
SELJUKS
609
bowstring put an end to his life (1073). Malik Shah regulated
also the affairs of Asia Minor and Syria, conceding the latter
province as an hereditary fief to his brother Tutush, who estab-
lished himself at Damascus and killed Atsiz. He, however,
like his father Alp Arslan, was indebted for his greatest fame
to wise and salutary measures of their vizier, Nizam ul-Mulk.
This extraordinary man, associated by tradition with Omar
Khayyam (q.v.), the well-known mathematician and free-thinking
poet, and with Hassan (ibn) Sabbah, afterwards the founder
of the sect of the Assassins (q.v.), was a renowned author and
statesman of the first rank, and immortalized his name by the
foundation of several universities (the Nizamiyah at Bagdad),
observatories, mosques, hospitals and other institutions of
public utility. At his instigation the calendar was revised, and
a new era, dating from the reign of Malik Shah and known as
the Jelalian, was introduced. Not quite forty days before the
death of his master this great man was murdered by the Assassins.
He had fallen into disfavour because of his unwillingness to
join in the intrigues of the princess Turkan Khatun, who wished
to secure the succession to the throne for her infant son Mahmud
at the expense of the elder sons of Malik Shah.
Constitution and Government of the Seljuk Empire. It has been
already observed that the Seljuks considered themselves the de-
fenders of the orthodox faith and of the Abbasid caliphate, while
they on their side represented the temporal power which received
its titles and sanction from the successor of the Prophet. All
the members of the Seljuk house had the same obligations in this
respect, but they had not the same rights, as one of them occupied
relatively to the others a place almost analogous to that of the
great khan of the Mongols in later times. This position was inherited
from father to son, though the old Turkish idea of the rights of the
elder brother often caused rebellions and violent family disputes.
After the death of Malik Shah the head of the family was not strong
enough to enforce obedience, and consequently the central govern-
ment broke up into several independent dynasties. Within the
limits of these minor dynasties the same rules were observed, and
the same may be said of the hereditary fiefs of Turkish amirs not
belonging to the royal family, who bore ordinarily the title of
atabeg or alabek (properly " father bey "), e.g. the atabegs of Fars, of
Azerbaijan, of Syria, &c. The title was first given to Nizam ul-Mulk
and expressed the relation in which he stood to the prince, as lala,
" tutor." The affairs of state were managed by the divan under
the presidency of the vizier; but in the empire of Rum its authority
was inferior to that of the pervaneh, whom we may name " lord
chancellor." In Rum the feudal system was extended to Christian
princes, who were acknowledged by the sultan on condition of
paying tribute and serving in the armies. The court dignitaries
and their titles were manifold; not less manifold were the royal
prerogatives, in which the sultans followed the example set by their
predecessors, the Buy ids.
Notwithstanding the intrigues of Turkan Khatun, Malik
Shah was succeeded by his elder son Barkiyaroq (1092-1104),
whose short reign was a series of rebellions and strange adventures
such as one may imagine in the story of a youth who is by turns
a powerful prince and a miserable fugitive. 1 Like his brother
Mahommed (1104-1118), who successfully rebelled against him,
his most dangerous enemies were the Isma'ilites, who had suc-
ceeded in taking the fortress of Alamut (north of Kazvln) and
become a formidable political power by the organization of bands
of fedais, who were always ready, even at the sacrifice of their
own lives, to murder any one whom they were commanded to
slay.
Mahommed had been successful by the aid of his brother
Sinjar, who from the year 1097 held the province of Khorasan
with the capital Merv. After the death of Mahommed, Sinjar
became the real head of the family, though Irak acknowledged
Mahmud, the son of Mahommed. Thus there originated a
separate dynasty of Irak with its capital at Ramadan (Ecbatana) ;
but Sinjar during his long reign often interfered in the affairs
of the new dynasty, and every occupant of the throne had to
acknowledge his supremacy. In 1117 he led an expedition
against Ghazni and bestowed the throne upon Bahrain Shah,
who was also obliged to mention Sinjar's name first in the
official prayer at the Ghaznavid capital a prerogative that
neither Alp Arslan nor Malik Shah had attained. In 1134
Bahrain Shah failed in this obligation and brought on himself
1 See DefrSmery, Joitrn. asiatique (1853), i. 425 seq., ii. 217 seq.
xxrv. 20
a fresh invasion by Sinjar in the midst of winter; a third one
took place in 1152, caused by the doings of the Ghorids (Hosain
Jihansuz, or " world-burner "). Other expeditions were under-
taken by him against Khwarizm and Turkestan; the govern-
ment of the former had been given by Barkiyaroq to Mahommed
b. Anushtagln, who was succeeded in 1128 by his son Atsiz,
and against him Sinjar marched in 1138. Though victorious
in this war, Sinjar could not hinder Atsiz from afterwards joining
the gurkhan (great khan) of the then rapidly rising empire of
the Karakitai, at whose hands the Seljuk suffered a terrible
defeat at Samarkand in 1141. By the invasion of these hordes
several Turkish tribes, the Ghuzz and others, were driven beyond
the Oxus, where they killed the Seljuk governor of Balkh, though
they professed to be loyal to Sinjar. Sinjar resolved to punish
this crime; but his troops deserted and he himself was taken
prisoner by the Ghuzz, who kept him in strict confinement during
two years (1153-1155), though treating him with all outward
marks of respect. In the meantime they plundered and destroyed
the flourishing cities of Merv and Nishapur; and when Sinjar,
after his escape from captivity, revisited the site of his capital
he fell sick of sorrow and grief and died soon afterwards (1157).
His empire fell to the Karakitai and afterwards to the shah
Khwarizm. The successors of Mahommed in Irak were:
Mahmud (d. 1131); Toghrul, son of Mahommed, proclaimed
by Sinjar (d. 1134); Masud (d. 1152); Malik Shah and Mahom-
med (d. 1159), sons of Mahmud; Suleiman Shah, their brother
(d. 1161); Arslan, son of Toghrul (d. 1175); and Toghrul,
son of Arslan, killed in 1194 by Inanej, son of his atabeg,
Mahommed, who was in confederation with the Khwarizm
shah of the. epoch, Takash. This chief inherited his possessions;
Toghrul was the last representative of the Seljuks of Irak.
The province of Kerman was one of the first conquests of the
Seljuks, and became the hereditary fief of Kavurd, the son of
Chakir Beg. Mention has been made of his war with Malik
Shah and of his ensuing death (1073) . Nevertheless his descend-
ants were left in possession of their ancestor's dominions; and
till 1170 Kerman, to which belonged also the opposite coast of
Oman, enjoyed a well-ordered government, except for a short
interruption caused by the deposition of Iran Shah, who had
embraced the tenets of the Isma'ilites, and was put to death
(1101) in accordance with a fatwa of the ulema. But after the
death of Toghrul Shah (1170) his three sons disputed with each
other for the possession of the throne, and implored foreign
assistance, till the country became utterly devastated and fell
an easy prey to some bands of Ghuzz, who, under the leadership
of Malik Dinar (1185), marched into Kerman after harassing
Sinjar's dominions. Afterwards the shahs of Khwarizm took
this province. 2
The Seljukian dynasty of Syria came to an end after three
generations, and its later history is interwoven with that of the
crusaders. The first prince was Tutush, mentioned above,
who perished, after a reign of continuous fighting, in battle
against Barkiyaroq near Rai (Rhagae) in 1095. Of his two
sons, the elder, Ridwan, established himself at Aleppo (d. 1113);
the younger, Duqaq, took possession of Damascus, and died
in 1103. The sons of the former, Alp Arslan and Sultan Shah,
reigned a short time nominally, though the real power was
exercised by Lulu till 1117.
After the great victory of Alp Arslan in which the Greek
emperor was taken prisoner (1071), Asia Minor lay open to the
inroads of the Turks. Hence it was easy for Suleiman, the son
of Kutulmish, 3 the son of Arslan Pigu (Israil), to penetrate as
far as the Hellespont, the more so as after the captivity of Romanus
two rivals, Nicephorus Bryennius in Asia and Nicephorus
Botaneiates in Europe, disputed the throne with one another.
The former appealed to Suleiman for assistance, and was by his
aid brought to Constantinople and seated on the imperial throne.
But the possession of Asia Minor was insecure to the Seljuks
2 An outline of the history of this branch of the Seljuks is given
in Z.D.M.G. (1885), pp. 362-401.
3 This prince rebelled against Alp Arslan in 1064, and was found
dead after a battle.
5
6io
SELJUKS
as long as the important city of Antioch belonged to the Greeks,
so that we may date the real foundation of this Seljuk empire
from the taking of that city by the treason of its commander
Philaretus in 1084, who afterwards became a vassal of the Seljuks.
The conquest involved Suleiman in war with the neighbouring
Mahommedan princes, and he met his death soon afterwards
(1086), near Shaizar, in a battle against Tutush. Owing to these
family discords the decision of Malik Shah was necessary to
settle the affairs of Asia Minor and Syria; he kept the sons of
Suleiman in captivity, and committed the war against the un-
believing Greeks to his generals Bursuk (Ilpocroux) and Buzan
1 (Ilouf avos) . Barkiyaroq, however, on his accession (1092),
allowed Kilij Arslan, the son of Suleiman, to return to the
dominions of his father. Acknowledged by the Turkish amirs
of Asia Minor, he took up his residence in Nicaea, and defeated
the first bands of crusaders under Walter the Penniless and
others (1096); but, on the arrival of Godfrey of Bouillon and
his companions, he was prudent enough to leave his capital in
order to attack them as they were besieging Nicaea. He suffered,
however, two defeats in the vicinity, and Nicaea surrendered
on the 23rd of June 1097. As the crusaders marched by way of
Dorylaeum and Iconium towards Antioch, the Greeks subdued
the Turkish amirs residing at Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, Phila-
delphia, Laodicea, Lampes and Poly botus; 1 and Kilij Arslan,
with his Turks, retired to the north-eastern parts of Asia Minor,
to act with the Turkish amirs of Sivas (Sebaste), known under
the name of the Danishmand.
The history of the dynasty of the Danishmand is still very obscure,
notwithstanding the efforts of Mordtmann, Schlumberger, Kara-
bacek, Sallet and others to fix some chronological details, and it is
almost impossible to harmonize the different statements of the
Armenian, Syriac, Greek and Western chronicles with those of the
Arabic, Persian and Turkish. The coins are few in number, very
difficult to decipher, and often without date. The founder of the
dynasty was a certain Tailu, who is said to have been a schoolmaster
(danishmand), probably because he understood Arabic and Persian.
His descendants, therefore, took the style of " Ibn Danishmand,"
often without their own name. They took possession of Sivas,
Tokat, Niksar, Ablast&n, Malatia, probably after the death of
Suleiman, though they may have established themselves in one or
more of these cities much earlier, perhaps in 1071, after the defeat of
Romanus Diogenes. During the first crusade the reigning prince
was Kumushtegin (Ahmed Ghazi), who defeated the Franks and took
prisoner the prince of Antioch, Bohemund, afterwards ransomed.
He died probably in 1 106, and was succeeded by his son Mahommed
(d. 1143), after whom reigned Jaghi Basan; but it is very probable
that other members of the same dynasty reigned at the same time in
the cities already named, and in some others, e.g. Kastamuni.
Afterwards there arose a natural rivalry between the Seljuks
and the Danishmand, which ended with the extinction of the
latter about 1175. Kilij Arslan took possession of Mosul in
1107, and declared himself independent of the Seljuks of Irak;
but in the same year he was drowned in the Khaboras through
the treachery of his own amirs, and the dynasty seemed again
destined to decay, as his sons were in the power of his enemies.
The sultan Mahommed, however, set at liberty his eldest son
Malik Shah, who reigned for some time, until he was treacherously
murdered (it is not quite certain by whom), being succeeded by his
brother Masud, who established himself at Konia (Iconium), from
that time the residence of the Seljuks of Rum. During his reign
he died in 1155 the Greek emperors undertook various expedi-
tions in Asia Minor and Armenia; but the Seljflk was cunning
enough to profess himself their ally and to direct them against
his own enemies. Nevertheless the Seljukian dominion was
petty and unimportant and did not rise to significance till his
son and successor, Kilij Arslan II., had subdued the Danishmands
and appropriated their possessions, though he thereby risked
the wrath of the powerful atabeg of Syria, Nureddin, and after-
wards that of Saladin. But as the sultan grew old his numerous
sons, who held each the command of a city of the empire,
embittered his old age by their mutual rivalry, and the eldest,
Kutb ed-dln, tyrannized over his father in his own capital,
exactly at the time that Frederick I. (Barbarossa) entered his
1 The Turkmans who dwelt in these western parts of Asia Minor,
which were never regained by the Seljuks, were called Utch (Out-
siders).
dominions on his way to the Holy Sepulchre (1190). Konia
itself was taken and the sultan forced to provide guides and
provisions for the crusaders. Kilij Arslan lived two years longer,
finally under the protection of his youngest son, Kaikhosrau]
who held the capital after him (till 1199) until his elder brother,
Rukneddin Suleiman, after having vanquished his other brothers,
ascended the throne and obliged Kaikhosrau to seek refuge
at the Greek emperor's court. This valiant prince saved the
empire from destruction and conquered Erzerum, which had been
ruled during a considerable time by a separate dynasty, and was
now given in fief to his brother, Mughit ud-dln Toghrul Shah.
But, marching thence against the Georgians, Suleiman's troops
suffered a terrible defeat. After this Suleiman set out to subdue
his brother Masud Shah, at Angora, who was finally taken prisoner
and treacherously murdered. This crime is regarded by Oriental
authors as the reason of the premature death of the sultan (in
1204); but it is more probable that he was murdered because
he displeased the Mahommedan clergy, who accused him of
atheism. His son, Kilij Arslan III., was soon deposed by
Kaikhosrau (who returned), assisted by the Greek Maurozomes,
whose daughter he had married in exile. He ascended the
throne the same year in which the Latin empire was established
in Constantinople, a circumstance highly favourable to the
Turks, who were the natural allies of the Greeks (Theodore
Lascaris) and the enemies of the crusaders and their allies, the
Armenians. Kaikhosrau, therefore, took in 1207 from the Italian
Aldobrandini the important harbour of Attalia (Adalia); but
his conquests in this direction were put an end to by his attack
upon Lascaris, for in the battle that ensued he perished in single
combat with his royal antagonist (1211). His son and successor,
Kaikaus, made peace with Lascaris and extended his frontiers
to the Black Sea by the conquest of Sinope (1214). On this
occasion he was fortunate enough to take prisoner the Comnenian
prince (Alexius) who ruled the independent empire of Trebizond,
and he compelled him to purchase his liberty by acknowledging
the supremacy of the Seljuks, by paying tribute, and by serving
in the armies of the sultan. Elated by this great success and by
his victories over the Armenians, Kaikaus was induced to
attempt the capture of the important city of Aleppo, at this
time governed by the descendants of Saladin; but the affair
miscarried. Soon afterwards the sultan died (1219) and was
succeeded by his brother, Ala ud-dln Kaikobad I., the most
powerful and illustrious prince of this branch of the Seljuks,
renowned not only for his successful wars but also for his magnifi-
cent structures at Konia, Alaja, Sivas and elsewhere, which
belong to the best specimens of Saracenic architecture. The town
of Alaja was the creation of this sultan, as previously there existed
on that site only the fortress of Candelor, at that epoch in the
possession of an Armenian chief, who was expelled by Kaikobad,
and shared the fate of the Armenian and Frankish knights who
possessed the fortresses along the coast of the Mediterranean
as far as Selefke (Seleucia). Kaikobad extended his rule as far
as this city, and desisted from further conquest only on condition
that the Armenian princes would enter into the same kind of
relation to the Seljuks as had been imposed on the Comncnians
of Trebizond. But his greatest military fame was won by a war
which, however glorious, was to prove fatal to the Seljuk empire
in the future: in conjunction with his ally, the Ayyubite prince
Ashraf, he defeated the Khwarizm shah Jalal ud-dln near
Erzingan (1230). This victory removed the only barrier that
checked the progress of the Mongols. During this war Kaikobad
put an end to the collateral dynasty of the Seljuks of Erzerum
and annexed its possessions. He also gained the city of Khclat
with dependencies that in former times had belonged to the
Shah-i-Armen, but shortly before had been taken by Jalal
ud-dln; this aggression was the cause of the war just mentioned.
The acquisition of Khelat led, however, to a new war, as Kaikobad's
ally, the Ayyubite prince, envied him this conquest. Sixteen
Mahommedan princes, mostly Ayyubite, of Syria and Mesopo-
tamia, under the leadership of Malik al-Kamil, prince of Egypt,
marched with considerable forces into Asia Minor against him.
Happily for Kaikobad, the princes mistrusted the power of the
SELKIRK, A. SELKIRK, 5 TH EARL OF
611
Egyptian, and it proved a difficult task to penetrate through the
mountainous, well-fortified accesses to the interior of Asia
Minor, so that the advantage rested with Kaikobad, who took
Kharput, and for some time even held Harran, Ar-Roha and
Rakka (1232). The latter conquests were, however, soon lost,
and Kaikobad himself died in 1 234 of poison administered to him
by his son and successor, Ghiyass ed-din Kaikhosrau II. This
unworthy son inherited from his father an empire embracing
almost the whole of Asia Minor, with the exception of the
countries governed by Vatatzes (Vataces) and the Christian
princes of Trebizond and Lesser Armenia, who, however, were
bound to pay tribute and to serve in the armies an empire
celebrated by contemporary reports for its wealth. 1 But the
Turkish soldiers were of little use in a regular battle, and the
sultan relied mainly on his Christian troops, so much so- that an
insurrection of dervishes which occurred at this period could
only be put down by their assistance. It was at this epoch also
that there flourished at Konia the founder of the order of the
Mevlevis or Mawlawis, Jelal ed-din Ruml (see RUMI), and that
the dervish fraternities spread throughout the whole country
and became powerful bodies, often discontented with the
liberal principles of the sultans, who granted privileges to the
Christian merchants and held frequent intercourse with them.
Notwithstanding all this, the strength and reputation of the
empire were so great that the Mongols hesitated to invade it,
although standing at its frontiers. But, as they crossed the
border, Kaikhosrau marched against them, and suffered a formid-
able defeat at Kuzadag (between Erzingan and Sivas), in 1243,
which forced him to purchase peace by the promise of a heavy
tribute. The independence of the Seljuks was now for ever
lost. The Mongols retired for some years; but, Kaikhosrau II.
dying in 1 245, the joint government of his three sons gave occasion
to fresh inroads, till one of them died and Hulagu divided the
empire between the other two, Izz ed-din (Kaikaus II.) ruling
the districts west of the Halys, and Rukneddin (Kilij Arslan IV.)
the eastern provinces (1259). But Izz ed-din, intriguing with
the Mameluke sultans of Egypt to expel his brother and gain
his independence, was defeated by a Mongol army and obliged
to flee to the imperial court. Here he was imprisoned, but
afterwards released by the Tatars of the Crimea, who took him
with them to Sarai, where he died. Rukneddin was only a
nominal ruler, the real power being in the hands of his minister,
Muln ed-din Suleiman, who in 1267 procured an order of the
Mongol Khan Abaka for his execution. The minister raised
his infant son, Ghiyass ed-din Kaikhosrau III., to the throne,
and governed the country for ten years longer, till he was
entangled in a conspiracy of several amirs, who proposed to expel
the Mongols with the aid of the Mameluke sultan of Egypt,
Bibars (Beibars or Beybars). The latter marched into Asia
Minor and defeated the Mongols in the bloody battle of Ablastan,
the modern Albistan (1277); but, when he advanced farther
to Caesarea, Muln ed-din Suleiman retired, hesitating to join
him at the very moment of action. Bibars, therefore, in his turn
fell back, leaving Suleiman to the vengeance of the khan, who
soon discovered his treason and ordered a barbarous execution.
Kaikhosrau III. continued to reign in name till 1284, though
the country was in reality governed by a Mongol viceroy. Masud,
the son of Izz ed-din, who on the death of his father had fled
from the Crimea to the Mongol khan and had received from him
the government of Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum during the
lifetime of Kaikhosrau III., ascended the Seljuk throne on the
death of Kaikhosrau. But his authority was scarcely respected
in his own residence, for several Turkish amirs assumed independ-
ence and could only be subdued by Mongol aid, when they retired
to the mountains, to reappear as soon as the Mongols were gone.
Masud fell, probably about 1295, a victim to the vengeance of
one of the amirs, whose father he had ordered to be put to death.
After him Kaikobad, son of his brother Faramarz, entered
Konia as sultan in 1298, but his reign is so obscure that nothing
can be said of it; some authors assert that he governed only
1 See the details in Vincent of Beauvais, Speculum Historiale, bk.
xxx. chaps. 143, 144.
till 1300, others till 1313. With him ended the dynasty of the
Seljuks; but the Turkish empire founded by them continued
to exist under the rising dynasty of the Ottomans. (See
TURKEY.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best, though insufficient, account of the
Seljuks is still de Guignes, Histoire generate des Huns, bks. x.-xii.,
from whom Gibbon borrowed his dates. Among translations from
original sources (of which the most trustworthy are yet unedited),
comp. Mirkhond's Geschichte der Seldschuken (ed. Vullers), Giessen,
(1838); Tarikh-l-Guzideh, French translation by Defremery in the
Journal asiatique, 1848, i. 417 sqq., ii. 259 sqq., 334 sqq. ; Seid Locmani
ex libra Turcico qui Oghuzname inscribitur excerpta (ed. J. H. W.
Lagus, Helsingfors, 1854) ( n * he Seljuks of Asia Minor exclusively,
but of little value). Information respecting certain periods is given
incidentally in the works of von Hammer and d'Ohsson (see biblio-
graphy to TURKEY: History), and in Stanley Lane Poole's Mahom-
medan Dynasties (1894). (M. T. H.)
SELKIRK (or SELCRAIG), ALEXANDER (1676-1721), Scottish
sailor, the prototype of " Robinson Crusoe," seventh son of John
Selcraig, shoemaker and tanner of Largo, Fifeshire, was born
in 1676. In his youth he displayed an unruly disposition, and,
having been summoned on the 27th of August 1695 before the
kirk-session for his indecent behaviour in church, " did not
compear, being gone away to the seas." In May 1703 he joined
Dampier in a privateering expedition to the South Seas, going
with the " Cinque Ports " galley as sailing master. In September
1704 the " Cinque Ports" put in at Juan Fernandez Island,
west of Valparaiso; here Selkirk had a dispute with his captain,
Thomas Stradling, and at his own request was put ashore with
a few ordinary necessaries. Before the ship left he begged to
be readmitted, but this was refused, and Selkirk remained alone
in Juan Fernandez four years and four months, till on the 3ist
of January 1709 he was found, and on the i2th of February
following taken off, by Captain Woodes Rogers, commander of
the " Duke" privateer (with Dampier as pilot), who made him
his mate and afterwards gave him command of one of his prizes,
" The Increase " (March agth). Selkirk returned to the Thames
on the 1 4th of October 1711; he was back at Largo in 1712,
in 1717 we find him again at sea, and in 1721 he died as master's
mate of H.M.S. " Weymouth " (December i2th).
See Woodes Rogers, Cruising Voyage round the World (1712), and
Edward Cooke, Voyage in the South Sea and round the World (1712),
the earliest descriptions of Selkirk's adventures; also Providence
Displayed, or a Surprising Account of one Alexander Selkirk . . .
written by his own Hand (reprinted in Harl. Miscell. for 1810, v. 429) ;
and Funnell's Voyage round the World (1707). Steele made Selkirk's
acquaintance, and gave a sketch of the adventurer and his story in
the Englishman for the 3rd of December 1713. In 1719, shortly
after a second edition of Rogers' Voyage had appeared (1718), Defoe
published Robinson Crusoe. While this is clearly indebted in its
main outlines to Selkirk's story, most of its incidents are, of course,
fairly independent of the latter; thus the decidedly tropical de-
scription of Crusoe's island and the whole narrative of the cannibals'
visits, &c., agree rather with one of the West Indies than with Juan
Fernandez.
The best modern biography is the Life and Adventures of Alexander
Selkirk by John Howell (1829). In 1868 a tablet was put up on Juan
Fernandez at a point on the hill road called " Selkirk's Look-out,"
where in a gap in the trap rock a magnificent view may be had of the
whole island, and of the sea north and south, over which the exile
must have often watched for an approaching sail. It bears the
following inscription: " In memory of Alexander Selkirk, mariner,
a native of Largo in the county of Fife, Scotland, who was on this
island in complete solitude for four years and four months. He was
landed from the ' Cinque Porte ' (sic) galley, 96 tons, 16 guns,
1704 A.D., and was taken off in the ' Duke ' privateer, I2th February
1709. He died lieutenant of the ' Weymouth ' 1723 A.D., aged forty-
seven years. This tab'et is erected near Selkirk's look-out by
Commodore Powell and officers of H.M.S. ' Topaze,' 1868 A.D."
SELKIRK, THOMAS DOUGLAS, STH EARL OF (1771-1820),
was born at St Mary's Isle, Kirkcudbrightshire, on the 2oth of
June 1771. He succeeded his father in 1799, his six elder brothers
having predeceased him. At this time the Highlands of Scotland
were being changed into grazing land and deer forests. Selkirk
took deep interest in the evicted peasants, and tried to organize
emigration to the British colonies. In 1803-1804 he founded
a large and prosperous settlement in Prince Edward Island, and
at about the same time a smaller one at Baldoon in Upper Canada.
He later turned his attention to the Canadian west, and gradually
6l2
SELKIRK SELKIRKSHIRE
acquired control of the Hudson's Bay Company. In May 1811
an immense tract was granted to him in the Red River valley,
and he at once proceeded to send out settlers; but the hostility
of the North-West Fur Company, with its headquarters at
Montreal, eventually ruined the colony (see RED RIVER SETTLE-
MENT), and the influence of his rivals led to the defeat of Selkirk
in various legal proceedings. On the 8th of April 1820 he died
broken-hearted at Pau. One of the most generous and dis-
interested men in the history of colonization, he fell a victim
to the predatory selfishness of his rivals.
Copies of his papers, most of which are unpublished, are in the
Canadian Archives Department at Ottawa.
SELKIRK, a royal and police burgh and the county town of
Selkirkshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 6292. It lies on Ettrick
Water, about 3 m. above its confluence with the Tweed, 6J m.
S. of Galashiels by the North British Railway Company's branch
line, of which it is the terminus. It is picturesquely situated on
a hill on the right bank of the river, close to which are the mills
and factories. The public buildings include the county buildings,
public hall, library and the town hall (with a spire no ft. high).
There are statues of Sir Walter Scott in his sheriff's robes, and
Mungo Park, the African explorer, who was educated at the
grammar school. Woollen manufactures (tweeds, tartans,
plaids and shawls) are the principal industry, but the town is
also an important agricultural centre. With Galashiels and
Hawick it belongs to the Hawick or Border group of parlia-
mentary burghs. Immediately south of the town are the beautiful
grounds of the Haining.
As its early name (Scheleschyrche) indicates, Selkirk originally
consisted of a number of shids (huts), in the forest beside which
a church had been planted by the Culdees of Old Melrose.
David I., while prince of Cumbria, founded in 1113 the abbey,
which was removed fifteen years afterwards to Kelso, and also
erected a castle. Captured by Edward I., by whom it was en-
larged and strengthened, the fortress was retaken by Wallace in
1297, and remained in the hands of the Scots till the battle of
Halidon Hill (1333), when it was delivered to the English. It was
probably destroyed in 1417 when Sir Robert Umfraville, governor
of Berwick, set fire to the town, and nothing remains of it save
some green mounds and the name Peel Hill. It is significant
of the havoc wrought during the Border warfare that there
is not in Selkirk, in spite of its antiquity, any building two
hundred years old. Of the eighty burghers who marched to
Flodden (1513) under William Brydone, the town clerk, only
the leader survived, with a banner captured from the English;
he was knighted by James V. This banner is locally supposed
to be the one borne by the Weavers' Corporation in the annual
ceremony of Riding the Common, but the claim cannot be
verified. The charter granted by David I. and other muniments
having perished, James V. renewed the charter in 1533, with the
right to enclose 1000 acres of the common and leave to elect a
provost. After the battle of Philiphaugh (1645), David Leslie,
the Covenanters' general, had some prisoners confined in the
tolbooth of Selkirk and afterwards massacred in the market-
place. From an early period the souters (shoemakers) were a
flourishing craft, and in the rebellions of 1715 and 1746 were
required to furnish the Jacobites with several thousand pairs of
shoes. Though shoemaking is extinct, " the souters of Selkirk"
is still a nickname for the inhabitants. Tradition of the ancient
craft yet survives also in connexion with the enrolment of bur-
gesses, when the burgess elect has to go through the ceremony of
" licking the birse " (i.e. bristles). When the loving-cup reaches
the candidate he dips in the wine a brush of bristles like that
used by shoemakers and passes it through his lips.
SELKIRK MOUNTAINS, a range in the S.E. of British Columbia,
Canada, extending N. for about 200 m. from the American
frontier with a breadth of about 80 m. and bounded E., W. and
N. by the Columbia river. Though often spoken of as part of
the Rocky Mountain system, they are really distinct, and belong
to an older geological epoch, consisting mainly of crystalline
or highly metamorphosed rocks, granites, gneiss, schists; their
outline too is rounder and less serrated than that of the Rockies.
On the S.E. is the Purcell range, with the main chain of the
Rockies still farther E., and on the W. the Gold range, prolonged
northward as the Cariboo Mountains. They do not rise much
above 10,000 ft., the highest peaks being Sir Donald (named
after Lord Strathcona), 10,645 ft.; Macdonald (named after
Sir John Macdonald), 9440 ft.; and Mount Tupper (after Sir
Charles Tupper), 9030 ft. The scenery is wild and magnificent;
below the snow-line, especially on the western side, the slopes
are densely wooded, and enormous glaciers fill the upper valleys;
of these the most celebrated is that of the Illecillewaet, near
Glacier House, on the Canadian Pacific railway. The Selkirks
are crossed by the railway at Rogers Pass, discovered in 1883.
The engineering difficulties overcome are greater than at any
other portion of the line, and the grades are in places very steep.
A magnificent series of caverns, called the Nakimu Caves, occur
in the Glacier Park Reserve not far from Glacier on the Canadian
Pacific railway. These caves are formed by the Cougar Creek,
and were first comprehensively surveyed in 1905-1906 (see the
Canadian Surveyor-General's Report for that year).
SELKIRKSHIRE, a southern county of Scotland, bounded
N. by the shires of Peebles and Midlothian, E. and S.E. by
Roxburghshire, S. and S.W. by Dumfriesshire and W. by Peebles-
shire. Its area is 1 70,762 acres or 266-8 sq. m. Almost the whole
of the surface is hilly, the only low-lying ground occurring in
the valleys of the larger streams. The highest hills are found in
the extreme west and south-west. On the confines of Peebles-
shire the chief heights are Dun Rig (2433 ft.), Black Law (2285),
Broad Law (2723) and Lochcraig Head (2625); and on the
Dumfriesshire borders, Bodesbeck Law (2173), Capel Fell (2223),
Wind Fell (2180) and Ettrick Pen (2269). In the north, close
to the Midlothian boundary, is Windlestraw Law (2161). The
principal rivers are the Ettrick (32 m.) and its left-hand affluent
the Yarrow (14 m.), but for a few miles the Tweed traverses the
north of the county. Gala Water (21 m.), though it joins the
Tweed a little below Galashiels, belongs rather to Midlothian,
since it rises in the Moorfoot Hills and for most of its course
flows in that shire. St Mary's Loch and its adjunct, the Loch
of the Lornes, in the uplands, are the chief lakes, and of numerous
small lakes in the south-east the two lochs of Shaws, Clearburn,
Akermoor and Essenside may be mentioned. The vales of
the Tweed and Yarrow and Ettrickdale are the principal
valleys.
Geology. This county is entirely occupied by Silurian and Ordo-
vician rocks which are very much folded and crumpled; the axes of
the folds run in a south-westerly, north-easterly direction. The
Ordovician rocks, represented by the Glenkiln and Hartfell shales,
appear in the crests of the anticlinal folds ; in the western part of the
county they are frequently sandy in character. Above the black
Ordovician shales come the Birkhill graptolitic shales followed by the
Queensberry grits, a series of greywackes, grits, flags and shales,
which pass upwards into the Hawick rocks, shales with brown-
weathering greywackes. Some of the Queensberry grits and under-
lying greywackes in the Ordovician are used as building stones.
Igneous rocks are represented by the Tertiary basalt dikes of Bower-
hope Law and dikes of quartz-felsite near Windlestraw Law and
Caddon Water; dikes of minette occur near Todrig. A great deal
of boulder-clay covers the older rocks; the ice-borne material
travelled from west to east, and many of the hills show steep and
bare slopes towards the west, but have gentle slopes covered with
glacial deposits on the eastern side.
Climate and Agriculture. The rainfall for the year, based on ob-
servations at Bowhill, between the confluence of the Yarrow and
Ettrick, at a height of 537 ft. above the sea, averages 33-65 in. The
mean temperature for the year, calculated at Galashiels (416 ft. above
the sea), is 46-3 F., for January 36-2 F., and for July 58-2 F. The
climate is thus cold and wet on the whole, and as the soil is mostly
thin, over a subsoil of clayey till, agriculture is carried on at a dis-
advantage. About one-sixth of the surface is under cultivation, oats
being almost the only grain crop and turnips the chief green crop.
Live stock is pursued more profitably, the sheep walks carrying
heavy stocks. Blackfaced are the principal breed on the higher
ground, but on the lower pure Cheviots and a cross of Cheviot with
Leicester are common. Cattle also are raised, and horses (mainly
for agricultural operations) and pigs to only a moderate extent.
There are comparatively few small holdings, farms between 100 and
300 acres being the most usual. More than one-third of the county
(upwards of 60,000 acres) belongs to the duke of Buccleuch. The
land between the Ettrick and the Tweed was formerly covered with
forest to such an extent that the sheriffdom was described as Ettrick
SELLA
613
Forest. The chief trees were oak, birch and hazel ; and the wood
being well stocked with the finest breed of red deer in the kingdom
became the hunting-ground of the Stuarts. James V., however, to
increase his revenues, let the domain for grazing, and it was soon
converted into pasture for sheep, with the result that now only
about 5000 acres in the shire are under wood.
Manufactures and Communications. Woollen manufactures
(tweeds, tartans, plaiding, yarn and hosiery) are the predominant
industry at Galashiels and Selkirk. Tanning, dyeing, engineering,
iron-founding and bootmaking also are carried on at Galashiels, and
there are large vineries at Clpvenfords.
The only railway communication is in the north, where there is a
branch line from Galashiels to Selkirk, besides part of the track of
the Waverley route from Edinburgh to the south and the line from
Galashiels to Peebles. There are coaches from Selkirk to St Mary's
Loch and periodically to Moffat.
Population and Administration. In 1891 the population
numbered 27,712, and in 1901 it was 23,356, or 88 to the sq. m.,
a decrease of 1 5- 78 %, much the largest for the decade in Scotland.
Fifty-seven persons spoke Gaelic and English, none Gaelic
only. The chief towns are Galashiels (pop. 13,615) and Selkirk
(6292). Selkirkshire combines with Peeblesshire to return a
member to Parliament, and the county town and royal burgh
of Selkirk and the municipal burgh of Galashiels united with
Hawick (in Roxburghshire) to constitute the Border or Hawick
group of parliamentary burghs. The shires of Selkirk, Roxburgh
and Berwick form a sheriffdom, and a resident sheriff-substitute
sits at Selkirk and Galashiels. There is a combination poorhouse
at Galashiels. The county is under school board jurisdiction, and
there are high schools at Selkirk and Galashiels, while some of the
other schools in the shire earn grants for higher education. Part
of the " residue" grant is spent in supporting short courses
of instruction in dairying, and Selkirk town council subsidizes
popular science classes in the burgh school.
History and Antiquities. There are no Roman remains in
Selkirkshire, the natives probably being held in check from the
station at Newstead near the Eildons. The Standing Stone near
Yarrow church bearing a Latin inscription is ascribed to the
5th or 6th century and is only a quasi-Roman relic. No so-
called British camps have been found on the upper and middle
waters of the Ettrick and Yarrow, and of the few situated in
the lower valleys of these streams the most important is the
large work on Rink Hill in the parish of Galashiels, the district
containing various interesting prehistoric remains. At Torwood-
lee, 2 m. north-west of Galashiels, are the ruins of the only
example of a broch (round tower) in the Border counties. The
diameter of the structure measures 75 ft., and that of the enclosed
court 40 ft., giving a thickness for the wall of 17$ ft. The broch
stands in an enclosure of mounds and a ditch, the whole being
protected by an outer entrenchment at a considerable distance,
of which only a fragment survives. Locally the works are called
Torwoodlee Rings, or Eye Castle. The barrier known as the
Catrail, or Picts' Work, starts near Torwoodlee, whence it runs
southwards to Rink Hill. There it sweeps round to the south-
west as far as Yarrow church, from which it again takes a due
south direction to the valley of the Rankle, where it passes into
Roxburghshire. Some Arthurian romance touches the shire
at points, for the field of the battle of Coit Celidon (the Wood
of Celidon) was probably in Ettrick Forest, and that of Guinnion
in the vale of Gala. The history of the shire for six centuries
following the retreat of the Romans is that of the whole of south-
eastern Scotland. The country formed part, first, of the British
kingdom of Strathclyde, then of the Saxon kingdom of North-
umbria, and finally, about 1020, was annexed to Scotland.
The first sheriff of whom there is record was Andrew de Synton,
appointed by William the Lion (d. 1214). After Edward I.
had overrun Scotland substantial burgesses of Selkirk were
among those who took the oath of allegiance to him at Berwick
in 1296, but next year William Wallace sought the covert of
the forest to organize resistance. To the north of Hangingshaw
in the country between the Yarrow and Tweed he constructed
an earthwork, still called Wallace's Trench, 1000 ft. long and
deep enough to conceal a moss horse and his rider, and paved
in part with flat whinstones laid on edge. At the higher end on
the top of a hill it terminated in a large square enclosure. Here
he lay till his plans were completed and at last departed, his
forces including a body of Selkirk archers, for a raid into the
north of England. During the prolonged strife that followed
the death of Robert Bruce (1329) the foresters were constantly
fighting, and the county suffered more heavily at Flodden
(1513) than any other district. The lawlessness of the Borderers
was at length put down by James V. with a strong hand. He
parcelled out the forest in districts, and to each appointed a
keeper to enforce order and protect property. In 1529 the
ringleaders, including William Cockburn of Henderland, Adam
Scott of Tushielaw and the notorious Johnnie Armstrong,
were arrested and promptly executed. This severity gradually
had the desired effect, though after the union of the crowns
in 1603 the freebooters and mosstroopers again threatened
to be troublesome, until James VI. 's lieutenants ruthlessly
stamped out disaffection. The Covenanters held many con-
venticles in the uplands, and their general, David Leslie, routed
the marquis of Montrose at Philiphaugh in 1645.
The manufacture of woollen goods was introduced into
Selkirk and Galashiels and attained great success, thus adding
largely to the prosperity of the neighbourhood. In another
direction the beauty and romance of Yarrow and Ettrick have
proved a most stimulating force in modern Scottish literature.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir George Douglas, Roxburgh, Selkirk and
Peebles (Edinburgh, 1899); T. Craig-Brown, History of Selkirkshire;
George Reaveley, History of Galashiels (Galashiels, 1875); William
Angus, Ettrick and Yarrow (Selkirk, i8g4);W. S. Crockett, The
Scott Country (Edinburgh, 1902) ; In Praise of Tweed (Selkirk,
1899); J. Russell, Reminiscences of Yarrow (2nd ed., Selkirk, 1894).
SELLA, QUINTINO (1827-1884), Italian statesman and
financier, was born at Mosso, near Biella, on the 7th of July
1827. After studying engineering at Turin, he was sent in 1843
to study mineralogy at the Parisian school of mines. In Paris
he witnessed the revolution of 1848, and only returned to Turin
in 1852, when he taught applied geometry at the technical
institute. In 1853 be became professor of mathematics at
the university, and in 1860 professor of mineralogy in the
school of applied engineering. In 1860 he was elected deputy
for Cossato. A year later he was selected to be secretary-general
of public instruction, and in 1862 received from Rattazzi the
portfolio of finance. The Rattazzi cabinet fell before Sella
could efficaciously provide for the deficit of 17,500,000 with
which he was confronted; but in 1864 he returned to the
ministry of finance in the La Marmora cabinet, and dealt energeti-
cally with the deficit of 8,000,000 then existing. Persuading
the king to forgo 120,000 of his civil list, and his colleagues
in the cabinet to relinquish part of their ministerial stipends,
he effected savings amounting to 2,400,000, proposed new
taxation to the extent of 1,600,000, and induced landowners
to pay one year's instalment of the land tax in advance. A vote
of the chamber compelled him to resign before his preparations
for financial restoration were complete; but in 1869 he returned
to the ministry of finance in a cabinet formed by himself, but
of which he made over the premiership to Giovanni Lanza. By
means of the grist tax (which he had proposed in 1865, but
which the Menabrea cabinet had passed in 1868), and by other
fiscal expedients necessitated by the almost desperate condition
of the national exchequer, he succeeded, before his fall from power
in 1873, in placing Italian finance upon a sound footing, in spite
of fierce attacks and persistent misrepresentation. In 1870 his
great political influence turned the scale against interference
in favour of France against Prussia, and in favour of an immedi-
ate occupation of Rome. From 1873 until his premature death
on the i4th of March 1884, he acted as leader of the Right, and
was more than once prevented by an ephemeral coalition of
personal opponents from returning to power as head of a Moderate
Conservative cabinet. After the failure of an attempt to form
a cabinet in May 1881 he practically retired from public life,
devoting himself to his studies and his linen factory.
His Discorsi parlamentari were published (5 vols., 1887-1890) by
order of the Chamber of Deputies. An account of his life and his
scientific labours was given by A. Cossa in the Proceedings of the
Accademia dei Lincei (1884-1885).
614
SELLAR SELVE
SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG (1825-1890), Scottish classical
scholar, was born at Morvich, Sutherlandshire, on the 22nd of
February 1825. Educated at the Edinburgh Academy and
afterwards at Glasgow University, he entered Balliol College,
Oxford, as a scholar. Graduating with a first-class in classics,
he was elected fellow of Oriel, and, after holding assistant
professorships at Durham, Glasgow and St Andrews, was ap-
pointed professor of Greek at St Andrews (1857). In 1863 he
was elected professor of humanity in Edinburgh University,
and occupied that chair down to his death on the I2th of October
1890. Sellar was one of the most brilliant of modern classical
scholars, and was remarkably successful in his endeavours to
reproduce the spirit rather than the letter of Roman literature.
His chief works, The Roman Poets of the Republic (3rd ed., 1889)
and The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age (Virgil, 3rd ed., 1897),
and Horace and the Elegiac Poets (2nd ed., by W. P. Ker, 1899), with
memoir by Andrew Lang, are standard authorities. Sellar contri-
buted to the gth edition of the Ency. Brit, a series of brilliant articles
on the Roman poets, the substance of which has been retained in
the present edition.
SELMA, a city and the county-seat of Dallas county, Alabama,
U.S.A., altitude 126 ft., on the right bank of the Alabama river,
a little S. of the centre of the state, and known as the Central
City. Pop. (190x1) 8713, of whom 4429 were negroes; (1910
U.S. census) 13,649. It is served by the Louisville & Nashville,
the Southern and the Western of Alabama railways. It has a
Carnegie library, two parks and two Y.M.C.A. buildings. In
the city are the Selma Military Institute (1907), and the Alabama
Baptist Colored University (opened in 1878), which is one
of the largest schools in the South owned and controlled by
negroes, and has industrial, domestic, normal, collegiate and
(especially) theological courses. The Society of United Charities
supports the Selma Hospital (1889) for negroes and the Selma
Infirmary (1890). The city has a large trade, principally in
cotton (the chief crop of the surrounding country), and in
lumber from the great pineries. There are cotton compresses,
cotton warehouses, &c.; in 1905 the value of the factory pro-
ducts was $1,138,817. The water supply is obtained from
artesian wells. The site was originally called Moore's Bluff,
from one Thomas Moore, who owned a steamboat landing here
about 1815. A town was established about 1817, and in 1820
was incorporated under its present name (from the Ossianic
legend). Selma was first chartered as a city in 1852. During
the Civil War it was the seat of Confederate arsenals, shipyards
and military factories. On the 2nd of April 1865 it was captured
by Federal troops under General James H. Wilson (b. 1837)
and much of the city was destroyed by fire. Near Selma lived
William Rufus King (1786-1853), a Democratic representative
in Congress from North Carolina in 1811-1816, a member of the
United States Senate from Alabama in 1819-1844 and 1846-
1853, minister to France in 1844-1846, and vice-president of
the United States from the 4th of March 1853 until his death
on the 1 8th of April; and Selma was the home of John Tyler
Morgan (1824-1907), a brigadier-general in the Confederate
army in 1863-1865 and a prominent Democratic member of
the United States Senate in 1877-1907; and of Edmund Winston
Pettus (1821-1907), also a brigadier-general in the Confederate
Army and, in 1897-1907, a Democratic member of the United
States Senate.
SELMECZBANYA, officially called SELMECZ-ES BELABANYA
(Ger. Schemnitz), the capital of the county of Hont, Hungary,
152 m. N. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,370, about two-
thirds Slovaks. It is an old mining town, situated at an altitude
of 1945 ft. in a deep ravine in the Hungarian Ore Mountains,
and is built in terraces. Selmeczbanya is encircled by high
mountains, notably the isolated peak of the Calvarienberg
(2385 ft.) on the S.W., on which are situated a castle and a
church, and the Paradiesberg (2400 ft.) on the N.W. It possesses
a famous academy of mining and forestry, founded by Maria
Theresa in 1760, to which are attached a remarkable collection
of minerals, and a chemical laboratory. Among other buildings
are a picturesque old castle dating from the i3th century, now
in ruins with the exception of a few rooms used as a prison ; the
new castle, used as a fire watch-tower; and the town hall. The
mines, chiefly the property of the state and of the corporation,
yield silver, gold, lead, copper and arsenic. The town contains
also flourishing potteries, where well-known tobacco pipes are
manufactured. About 7 m. to the S.W. of the town lie the baths
of Vihnye, with springs of iron, lime and carbonic acid, and about
the same distance to the W. are the baths of Szkleno with springs
of sulphur and lime.
Selmeczbanya is an old town whose mines existed in the 8th
century. In the I2th century, together with the whole mining
region of northern Hungary, it was colonized by German
settlers, who later embraced the Reformation. Owing to the
counter-reformation the German element was driven out during
the i8th century, and its place taken by the actual Slovak
population.
SELOUS, FREDERICK COURTNEY (1851- ), British
explorer and hunter, was born in London on the 3151 of December
1851, and was educated at Rugby and in Germany. His love
for natural history led to the resolve to study the ways of wild
animals in their native haunts. Going to South Africa when he
was nineteen he travelled from the Cape to Matabeleland, reached
early in 1872, and was granted permission by Lobengula to shoot
game anywhere in his dominions. From that date until 1890,
with a few brief intervals spent in England, Selous hunted and
explored over the then little-known regions north of the Transvaal
and south of the Congo basin, shooting elephants, and collecting
specimens of all kinds for museums and private collections. His
travels added largely to the knowledge of the country now known
as Rhodesia. He made valuable ethnological investigations,
and throughout his wanderings often among people who had
never previously seen a white man he maintained cordial
relations with the Kaffir chiefs and tribes, winning their confid-
ence and esteem, notably so in the case of Lobengula. In 1890
Selous entered the service of the British South Africa Company,
acting as guide to the pioneer expedition to Mashonaland. Over
400 m. of road were constructed through a country of forest,
mountain and swamp, and in two and a half months Selous took
the column safely to its destination. He then went east to Manica,
concluding arrangements there which brought the country under
British control. Coming to England in December 1892 he was
awarded the Founder's medal of the Royal Geographical Society
"in recognition of his extensive explorations and surveys," of
which he gave a summary in " Twenty Years in Zambesia" (Ceo.
Journ. vol. i., 1893). He returned to Africa to take part in the
first Matabele War (1893), being wounded during the advance on
Bulawayo. While back in England he married, but in March
1896 was again settled with his wife on an estate in Matabeleland
when the native rebellion broke out. He took a prominent part
in the fighting which followed, and published an account of the
campaign entitled Sunshine and Storm in Rhodesia (1896). On
the restoration of peace Selous settled in England. He continued,
however, to make shooting and hunting expeditions visiting
Asia Minor, Newfoundland, the Canadian Rockies and other parts
of the world. In none of his expeditions was his object the
making of a " big bag," but as a hunter-naturalist and slayer
of great game he ranks with the most famous of the world's
sportsmen.
Besides the works mentioned he published A Hunter's Wanderings
in Africa (1881, 5th ed., 1907), Travel and Adventure in South-East
Africa (1893), Sport and Travel, East and West (1900), Recent Hunting
Trips in British North America (1907), African Nature Notes and
Reminiscences (1908), a valuable addition to the knowledge of
African fauna, and made numerous contributions to The Geographical
Journal, the Field and other journals.
SELVE, ODET DE (c. 1504-1563), French diplomatist, was the
son of Jean de Selve, first president at the parlements of Rouen
and Bordeaux, vice-chancellor of Milan, and ambassador of the
king of France. In 1540 Odet was appointed councillor at the
parlement of Paris and in 1542 at the grand council. In 1546,
after the signature of the treaty of Ardfes, he was sent on an
embassy to England, in 1550 to Venice, and afterwards to
Rome, where he obtained the election of Pope Paul IV. in
I5S5-
SELWYN, A. R. C. SEMAPHORE
615
SELWYN, ALFRED RICHARD CECIL (1824-1902), British
geologist, son of the Rev. Townshend Selwyn, Canon of
Gloucester, was born at Kilmington in Somerset on the
28th of July 1824. Educated in Switzerland, he there became
interested in geology, and in 1845 he joined the staff of the
Geological Survey of Great Britain. He was actively engaged
in the survey of North Wales and bordering portions of
Shropshire, and a series of splendid geological maps resulted
from his joint work with A. C. Ramsay and J. B. Jukes.
In 1852 he was appointed director of the Geological Survey
of Victoria, Australia, where he gave special attention to the
gold-bearing rocks, until in 1869 the Colonial Legislature
brought the Survey to an abrupt termination. At this date Sir
W. E. Logan had just retired from the office of director of the
Geological Survey of Canada, and Selwyn was appointed his
successor. In this new sphere of activity he continued his
geological work with marked success, devoting particular atten-
tion to the Pre-Cambrian rocks of Quebec. He retired in 1894.
Meanwhile in 1874 he had been elected F.R.S., in 1876 he was
awarded the Murchison Medal of the Geological Society of
London, and he was created C.M.G. in 1886 for his distinguished
work as assistant to the Canadian Commissioners at the exhibi-
tions in Philadelphia (1876), Paris (1878) and London (1886).
He retired to Vancouver in British Columbia, where he died on
the i gth of October 1902.
See memoir with portrait in Geol. Mag. (Feb. 1899).
SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS (1719-1791), English wit,
son of Colonel John Selwyn (d. 1751) of Matson, Gloucestershire,
was born on the nth of August 1719. Educated at Eton and
Oxford, he became member of parliament for the family borough
of Ludgershall in 1.747, and from 1754, three years after he
inherited Matson, to 1780 he represented Gloucester. In parlia-
ment he took no part in debate, but he managed to obtain two
or three lucrative sinecures; in society he was very popular and
won a great reputation as a wit. He is said to have been very
fond of seeing corpses, criminals and executions, and Horace
Walpole says he loved " nothing upon earth so well as a criminal,
except the execution of him." He died in London on the 25th
of January 1791. Like the eccentric duke of Queensberry
Selwyn claimed to be the father of Maria Fagniani, who became
the wife of Francis Charles Seymour, 3rd marquess of Hertford.
See T. H. Jesse, George Selwyn and his Contemporaries (1843-1844;
newed., 1882); and S. P. Kerr, George Selwyn and the Wits (1909).
SELWYN, GEORGE AUGUSTUS (1809-1878), English bishop,
second son of William Selwyn (1775-1855), a distinguished
legal writer, was born at Hampstead, London, on the 5th of April
1809. He was educated at Eton and at St John's College,
Cambridge, where in 1829 he rowed in the first university
boat-race. He took his degree (second in the classical tripos)
in 1831. He returned to Eton as private tutor, was ordained
deacon in 1833, and devoted himself with characteristic energy
to work in the parish of Windsor. In 1841 it was proposed that
he should go out as first bishop to New Zealand, then just begin-
ning to be colonized. Despite the advice of his friends he accepted
the offer. He studied navigation and the Maori language on the
voyage, and gave himself up to a life of continual strain and
hardship. He spent days and sometimes nights in the saddle,
swam broad rivers and provided himself with a sailing vessel.
Unfortunately, just when he had gained the confidence of the
natives, his ascendancy was rudely shaken by the first Maori
war. Selwyn endeavoured to mediate, but incurred the hostility
of both parties. He went to the battlefield to minister to the
sick and wounded in both camps; but the Maoris were persuaded
that he had gone out to fight against them, and years afterwards
one of them pointed out a scar on his leg to an Anglican bishop
which he declared had been inflicted by Selwyn V own hands.
It was long before he regained the confidence he had forfeited by
his strict adherence to duty. In 1854 he returned to England
for a short furlough; but he spent much of it in pleading the
needs of his diocese. He returned to New Zealand with a band
of able associates, including J. C. Patteson, and began to divide
his large diocese into sees of more manageable proportions.
The colonists came to respect his uprightness, and the Maoris
learned to regard him as their father. In 1868, while he was in
England to attend the first pan-Anglican synod, the bishopric
of Lichfield became vacant, and after some hesitation he accepted
it. In his new sphere of work he displayed the same unselfish
activity as before, and in the " Black Country " portion of his
diocese he won the hearts of the working classes. He called his
clergy and laity together for consultation in the diocesan con-
ference, an innovation the value of which he had proved by his
colonial experience. On his death, on the nth of April 1878,
his great work for the church was celebrated by a remarkable
memorial, Selwyn College, Cambridge, being erected by public
subscription and incorporated in 1882.
See Lives by H. W. Tucker (2 vols., 1879) and G. H. Curteis (1889).
His son, JOHN RICHARDSON SELWYN (1844-1898), bishop of
Melanesia, was born in New Zealand on the 2oth of May 1844.
He was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
and was ordained deacon in 1869. At first he laboured with
energy and tact as vicar of Wolverhampton in his father's
diocese of Lichfield; but the martyrdom of John Coleridge
Patteson, bishop of Melanesia, led him to volunteer for service
in the Australasian Archipelago. After three years' service,
during which the bishopric remained vacant, he was nominated
as Patteson's successor (1877). For twelve years he threw himself
with intense energy into his arduous work, but his health
broke down and he returned to England in 1890. There
he found an appropriate sphere in the mastership of Selwyn
College, where he remained until his death on the i2th of
February 1898.
SEMANG, an aboriginal people of the Malay peninsula, found
in northern Perak, Kedah, Kelantan, Trengganu and the
northern districts of Pahang. They are a fairly pure branch of
the woolly-haired Negrito race, which includes the natives of
the Andaman islands, the Aetas of the Philippines and the
dwarfs of Central Africa. The men average about 4 ft. 9 or
10 in., while the women are 35 in. shorter. Their colour is a
very dark brown or black. The shape of the head is round, or
intermediate between round and long. The forehead is low and
rounded, and projects over the root of the nose, which is short,
depressed and pyramid-shaped. The eyes are wide open and
round, showing no obliquity, the iris being of a very rich, deep
brown. Lips vary from moderate to full, the mouth is rather
large, the chin feebly developed, and the jaws are often slightly
projecting. The hair is very dark-brown black, never blue-black
as among Chinese and Malays. It grows in short, spiral tufts,
curling closely all over the head. The arm-stretch is almost
always greater than their height. The feet are usually short and
splayed, with a remarkable inward curve of the great toe, and
are very prehensile. The Semangs live in caves or leaf-shelters
formed between branches. A waistcloth for the men, made of
tree bark hammered out with a wooden mallet from the bark
of the terap, a species of wild bread-fruit tree, and a short
petticoat of the same for the women, is the only dress worn;
many go naked. Tattooing, or rather scarring, is practised,
by drawing the finely serrated edge of a sugar-cane leaf across
the skin and rubbing in charcoal powder. They have bamboo
musical instruments, a kind of Jews' harp and a nose flute.
On festive occasions there is song and dance, both sexes decorat-
ing themselves with leaves. The Semangs bury their dead
simply, food and drink being placed in the grave.
SEMAPHORE, a town of Adelaide county, South Australia,
95 m. by rail from the city of Adelaide. It is one of the chief
watering-places of the state, with a pier 1800 ft. long. Pop.
about 8000.
SEMAPHORE (Gr. OTJ^O., sign, and <t>opa, carrying, from fepfiv,
to bear) , the name of an apparatus or mechanical device by which
information or messages can be signalled to a distance. It
consists of movable arms or blades of wood, worked by levers and
affixed to a high post or pole. The most familiar semaphore is
that used in railway signalling on the block system, where the
blade if horizontal signifies danger, if dropped safety. Used
with a code, the semaphore is still used in the navy for signalling
6i6
SEMELE SEMIPALATINSK
from ship to ship. Until the invention of the electric telegraph,
the semaphore was used for transmitting messages over long
distances.
SEMELE, in Greek mythology, daughter of Cadmus and
Harmonia, and mother of Dionysus by Zeus. It is said that
Hera, having assumed the form of Semele's nurse, persuaded
her rival to ask Zeus to show himself to her in all his glory.
The god, who had sworn to refuse Semele nothing, unwillingly
consented. He appeared seated in his chariot surrounded by
thunder and lightning; Semele was consumed by the flames and
gave birth prematurely to a child, which was saved from the fire
by a miraculous growth of ivy which sprang up round the palace
of Cadmus. Dionysus afterwards descended to the nether
world, and brought up his mother, henceforth known as Thyone
(the raging one), to Olympus. Zeus and Semele probably
represent the fertilizing rain of spring, and the earth, afterwards
scorched by the summer heat. Another tradition represents
Actaeon as the lover of Semele, and his death as due to the
jealousy of Artemis. A statue and grave were to be seen in
Thebes.
See Apollodorus iii. 4; Pausanias iii. 24. 3, ix. 2. 3; Ovid,
Metam. iii. 260.
SEHENDRIA (Smederevo), an important commercial town
and capital of the Smederevo 'department, Servia, on the Danube,
between Belgrade and the Iron Gates. Pop. (1900) 6912. It is
believed to stand on the site of the Roman settlement Mons
aureus, and there is a tradition that its famous vineyards
supplying Budapest and Vienna with some of the finest table
grapes were planted by the Roman emperor Probus (A.D.
276-282). In the i $th century, when the Servian prince George
Brankovich became lord of Tokay, in Hungary, he planted vines
from Semendria on his estates there; and from these came the
famous white wine Tokay. At the eastern end of the town,
close to the river, there is a picturesque triangular castle with
twenty-four square towers, built by George Brankovich in 1430
on the model of the Constantinople walls. Semendria was the
residence of that Servian ruler and the capital of Servia from
1430 to 1459. It is the seat of the district prefecture and a
tribunal, and has a garrison of regular troops. Besides the
special export of grapes and white wine, a great part of the
Servian export of pigs, and almost all the export of cereals,
pass through Semendria. In 1886 the town was connected
with the Belgrade-Nish railway by a branch line.
SEMINARY (Lat. seminarium, from semen, seed), a term
originally applied to a nursery-garden or place where seeds are
sown to produce plants for transplanting. It was early used hi
its present sense of a place of education. Its most frequent use
is for a training college for the Roman Catholic priesthood, and in
a transferred sense for a priest who has been trained in a foreign
seminary, also often termed a "seminarist." A German usage,
adopted in America, applies the term seminar to a class for
advanced study or research.
SEMINOLE (properly Simanoli, " renegade," " runaway,"
in allusion to their secession from the Creek confederacy), a
tribe of North American Indians of Muskhogean stock. They
originally formed part of the Creek'confederacy, but separated
from it early in the i8th century, and occupied the greater part
of Florida. In 1817-1818 their attacks on the Georgian and
Alabama settlements resulted in the invasion of their territory
by General Andrew Jackson, who defeated them and hanged
two British traders, named Arbuthnot and Ambrister, who were
alleged to be the instigators of the raids. The long Seminole War
of 1835-42, the hardest-fought of all the Indian wars, was due
to the tribe's refusal to cede their lands and remove to
Arkansas in accordance with the treaty (see OSCEOLA) of
Payne's Landing (1832). At the close of this struggle, costing
thousands of lives and millions of dollars, the Seminoles were
removed to Arkansas. They were recognized as " the Seminole
Nation," and as one of the " Five Civilized Tribes, " and
granted autonomy upon the scale permitted the other four,
the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw and Creek. They live now
mainly in Oklahoma, and a few in Florida.
SEMIPALATINSK, a province of the Russian dominions in
Central Asia; administratively it forms a part of the general-
governorship of the Steppes, although its northern portions
really belong to the Irtysh plains of West Siberia. It is bounded
on the N. by Tobolsk and Tomsk, on the S.E. by China, on the
S. by Semiryechensk, and on the W. by Akmolinsk. As regards
configuration, it differs widely in its northern and southern parts.
The snow-clad ranges (9000 to 10,000 ft.) of the Altai andNarym
enter it in the S.E., stretching S. to Lake Zaisan. Another
complex of mountains, Kalbin, rising 5000 and 6000 ft. above
the sea, continues them towards the west. A broad valley
intervenes, through which the Irtysh finds its way from the
Zaisan terrace to the lowlands of Siberia. Many extensions
of these mountains and subordinate ranges stretch towards the
north. The still lower but wild Chinghiz-tau mountains diversify
the south-western part of Semipalatinsk, sending out their rocky
spurs into the steppe region. In the south, the Tarbagatai
(Marmots') range (9000 to 10,000 ft.) separates Semipalatinsk
from Semiryechensk and Dzungaria. Wide steppes fill up the
spaces between the mountains: e.g. the Zaisan steppe (1200 to
1500 ft.), between the Tarbagatai and the Altai ranges; the plains
of Lake Balkash, some 300 ft. lower, to the south of the Chinghiz-
tau; and the plains of the Irtysh, which hardly rise 600 ft. above
the sea. All kinds of crystalline rocks granites, syenites,
diorites and porphyries, as also slates of all descriptions are
met with in the mountainous tracts. There also occur rich
gold-bearing sands, silver and lead mines, graphite, coal and
the less valuable precious stones. The geology of the region and
even its topography are still but imperfectly known. Numerous
boulders scattered over the mountains testify to a much wider
extension of glaciers in former times. The chief river of the
province, the Irtysh, which issues from Lake Zaisan, flows north
and north-west and drains Semipalatinsk for more than 760 m.
Between Bukhtarma and Ust-Kamenogorsk it cuts its way
through the Altai by a wild gorge, with dangerous rapids, through
which, however, boats are floated. Lake Zaisan, 80 m. long and
10 to 20 m. wide, has depth sufficient for steamboat navigation;
steamers traverse also for some 100 m. the lower course of the
Black Irtysh, which flows from Kulja to Lake Zaisan. The
Kurchum, the Narym and the Bukhtarma are the chief right-
hand tributaries of the Irtysh, while the Char-urban, Chagan and
many smaller streams join it from the left; none are navigable;
neither are the Kokpekty and Bugaz, which enter Lake Zaisan
on the west. Lake Balkash, which borders Semipalatinsk on
the south-west, formerly received several tributaries from the
Chinghiz-tau. Many smaller lakes (some of them merely tem-
porary) occur on the Irtysh plain, and yield salt.
The climate is severe. The average yearly temperature reaches
43 in the south and 34 in the north; the winter is very cold, and
frosts of 44 F. are not uncommon, while the thermometer rises
to 122 in the shade in the summer. The yearly amount of rain and
snow is trifling, although snow-storms are very common; strong
winds prevail. Forests are plentiful in the hilly districts and on the
Irtysh plain, the flora being Siberian in the north and more Central
Asiatic towards lakes Balkash and Zaisan.
The area of the province is 183,145 sq. m., and in 1906 its popula-
tion was estimated at 767,500. Only about 6 % of the population is
settled, the remainder, chiefly Kirghiz, being nomads. The province
is divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Semi-
palatinsk, Pavlodar, Kokpekty, Karkaralinsk and Ust-Kamenogorsk.
The Russians are chiefly agriculturists, and have wealthy settle-
ments on the right bank of the Irtysh, as well as a few patches in the
south, at the foot of the mountains. The Kirghiz are almost ex-
clusively live-stock breeders and keep large flocks of sheep, horses
and cattle, as also camels. Hunting is a favourite and profitable
occupation with the Cossacks and the Kirghiz. Bee-keeping is
extensively followed, especially among the Cossacks. Fishing, which
is carried on in lakes Zaisan and Balkash, as also in the Black Irtysh,
is of considerable importance. Gold is mined, also silver, copper, salt
and coal. Tljere are two ironworks, but the only other industrial
establishments of any size are a steam flour-mill and a distillery.
A considerable amount of trade is carried on within the province, m
which twenty fairs are held every year.
SEMIPALATINSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the
province of the same name, on the right bank of the Irtysh, and
on the highway from Dzungaria to Omsk, 683 m. by river S.E.
of the latter. Pop. (1881) 17,820, (1897) 26,353. It carries on a
SEMIRAMIS SEMITIC LANGUAGES
617
considerable trade, especially with the Kirghiz, and has a flour-
mill, distillery and tanneries. Steamers ply on the Irtysh down
to Omsk and up to Lake Zaisan.
SEMIRAMIS (c. 800 B.C.), a famous Assyrian princess, round
whose personality a mass of legend has accumulated. It was
not until 1910 that the researches of Professor Lehmann-Haupt
of Berlin restored her to her rightful place in Babylonian- Assyrian
history. The legends derived by Diodorus Siculus, Justin and
others from Ctesias of Cnidus were completely disproved, and
Semlramis had come to be treated as a purely legendary figure.
The legends ran as follows: Semlramis was the daughter of the
fish-goddess Atargatis (q.v.) of Ascalon in Syria, and was miracul-
ously preserved by doves, who fed her until she was found and
brought up by Simmas, the royal shepherd. Afterwards she
married Onnes, one of the generals of Ninus, who was so struck
by her bravery at the capture of Bactra that he married her,
after Onnes had committed suicide. Ninus died, and Semlramis,
succeeding to his power, traversed all parts of the empire,
erecting great cities (especially Babylon) and stupendous monu-
ments, or opening roads through savage mountains. She was
unsuccessful only in an attack on India. At length, after a
reign of forty-two years, she delivered up the kingdom to her
son Ninyas, and disappeared, or, according to what seems to
be the original form of the story, was turned into a dove and
was thenceforth worshipped as a deity. The name of Semlramis
came to be applied to various monuments in Western Asia,
the origin of which was forgotten or unknown (see Strabo
xvi. i. 2). Ultimately every stupendous work of antiquity by
the Euphrates or in Iran seems to have been ascribed to her
even the Behistun inscriptions of Darius (Diod. Sic. ii. 3).
Of this we already have evidence in Herodotus, who ascribes
to her the banks that confined the Euphrates (i. 184) and knows
her name as borne by a gate of Babylon (iii. 155). Various
places in Media bore the name of Semlramis, but slightly changed,
even in the middle ages, and the old name of Van was Shamirama-
gerd, Armenian tradition regarding her as its founder. These
facts are partly to be explained by observing that, according to
the legends, in her birth as well as in her disappearance from earth,
Semlramis appears as a goddess, the daughter of the fish-goddess
Atargatis, and herself connected with the doves of Ishtar or
Astarte. The same association of the fish and dove is found at
Hierapolis (Bambyce, Mabbog), the great temple at which,
according to one legend, was founded by Semlramis (Lucian,
De dea Syria, 14), where her statue was shown with a golden
dove on her head (33, 39). The irresistible charms of Semlramis,
her sexual excesses (which, however, belong only to the legends:
there is no historical groundwork), and other features of the
legend, all bear out the view that she is primarily a form of
Astarte, and so fittingly conceived as the great queen of Assyria .
Professor Lehmann-Haupt, by putting together the results of
archaeological discoveries, has arrived at the following con-
clusions. Semlramis is the Greek form of Sammuramat. She
was probably a Babylonian (for it was she who imposed the
Babylonian cult of Nebo or Nabu upon the Assyrian religion).
A column discovered in 1909 describes her as " a woman of the
palace of Samsi-Adad, King of the World, King of Assyria, . . .
King of the Four Quarters of the World." Ninus was her son.
The dedication of this column shows that Semlramis occupied
a position of unique influence, lasting probably for more than one
reign. She waged war against the Indo-Germanic Medes and
the Chaldaeans. The legends probably have a Median origin.
A popular etymology, which connected the name with the
Assyrian summat, " dove," seems to have first started the
identification of the historical Semlramis with the goddess
Ishtar and her doves.
See F. Lenormant, La Ltgende de Semiramis (1873) ; A. H. Sayce,
" The Legend of Semlramis," in Hist. Rev. (January, 1888).
SEMIRYECHENSK, a province of Russian Turkestan, including
the steppes south of Lake Balkash and parts of the Tian-shan
Mountains around Lake Issyk-kul. It has an area of 147,300
sq. m., and is bounded by the province of Semipalatinsk on the
N., by China (Dzungaria, Kulja, Aksu and Kashgaria) on the
E. and S., and by the Russian provinces of Ferghana, Syr-darya,
and Akmolinsk on the W. It owes its name (Jity-su, Semi-
ryechie, i.e. " Seven Rivers ") to the rivers which flow from the
south-east into Lake Balkash. The Dzungarian Ala-tau
Mountains, which separate it from Kulja, extend south-west
towards the river Hi, with an average height of 6000 ft. above
the sea, several isolated snow-clad peaks reaching 1 1 ,000 to 14,000
ft. In the south Semiryechensk embraces the intricate systems
of the Ala-tau and the Tian-shan. Two ranges of the former,
the Trans-Ili Ala-tau and the Kunghei Ala-tau, stretch along the
north shore of Lake Issyk-kul, both ranging from 10,000 to 15,000
ft. and both partially snow-clad. South of the lake two ranges
of the Tian-shan, separated by the valley of the Naryn, stretch
in the same direction, lifting up their icy peaks to 16,000 and
18,000 ft.; while westwards from the lake the precipitous
slopes of the Alexander chain, 9000 to 10,000 ft. high, with
peaks rising 3000 to 4000 ft. higher, extend into the province
of Syr-darya. Another mountain-complex of much lower
elevation runs north-westwards from the Trans-Ili Ala-tau
towards the southern extremity of Lake Balkash. In the
north, where the province borders Semipalatinsk, it includes
the western parts of the Tarbagatai range, the summits of which
(10,000 ft.) do not reach the limit of perpetual snow. The
remainder of the province consists of a fertile steppe in the
north-east (Sergiopol), and vast uninhabitable sand-steppes on
the south of Lake Balkash. Southwards from the last-named,
however, at the foot of the mountains and at the entrance to
the valleys, there are rich areas of fertile land, which are being
rapidly colonized by Russian immigrants, who have also pene-
trated into the Tian-shan, to the east of Lake Issyk-kul.
The climate is thoroughly continental. In the Balkash steppes
the winter is very cold ; the lake freezes every year, and the ther-
mometer falls to 13 F. In the Ala-kul steppes the winds blow away
the snow. The passage from winter to spring is very abrupt, and
the prairies are rapidly clothed with vegetation, which, however, is
soon scorched up by the sun. The average temperatures are: at
Vyernyi (2405 ft. high), for the year 46-4 F., for January 17, for
July 74; at Przhevalsk (5450 ft.), for the year 36-5, for January
23, for July 63; still higher in the mountains, at Naryn (6900 ft.)
the average temperatures are only, for the year 4_3 - 7, for January
i -4, for July 64-4. The yearly rainfall at these three places is 2 1 -o,
16-0, and u-8 in. respectively.
The most important river is the Hi, which enters the province from
Kulja and drains it for 250 m. before it enters Lake Balkash. The
Chu rises in the Tian-shan Mountains and flows north-westwards
through Akmolinsk; and the Naryn flows south-westwards along a
longitudinal valley of the Tian-shan, and enters Ferghana to join the
Syr-darya. Lake Balkash, or Denghiz, Lake Ala-kul (which was
connected with Balkash in the post-Pliocene period, but now stands
some hundred feet higher, and is connected by a chain of smaller
lakes with Sissy k-kul), Lake Issyk-kul and the alpine lakes of
Son-kul and Chatyr-kul are the principal sheets of water.
The population was estimated in 1906 as 1 ,080,700. Kirghiz form
76% of the population, Taranchis 5-7 %, Russians 14 % and
Dzungans most of the remainder. The province is divided into six
districts, the chief towns of which are Vyernyi (the capital), Jarkent,
Kopal, Pishpek, Przhevalsk and Sergiopol. The chief occupation
of the Russians, the Taranchis and the Dzungans, and partly also
of the Kirghiz, is agriculture. The most important crops are wheat,
barley, oats, millet, rice and potatoes. A variety of oil-bearing
plants and green fodder, as also cotton, hemp, flax and poppies, are
grown. Live-stock breeding is very extensively carried on by the
Kirghiz, namely, horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats and pigs.
Orchards and fruit gardens are well developed ; the crown maintains
two model gardens. Bee-keeping is widely spread. The factories
consist of flour-mills, distilleries, tanneries and tobacco works;
but a great many domestic trades, including carpet-weaving and
the making of felt goods, saddlery and iron goods, are carried on,
among both the settled inhabitants and the nomad Kirghiz. There
is a trade with China, valued at less than half a million sterling
annually. Previous to 1899 this province formed part of the general-
governorship of the Steppes.
SEMITIC LANGUAGES, the general designation of a group
of Asiatic and African languages, some living and some dead,
namely Assyrian, Hebrew, Phoenician, Aramaic, Arabic,
Ethiopic, Mahri-Socotri. The name, which was introduced by
Schlozer, is derived from the fact that most nations which speak
or spoke these languages are descended, according to Genesis,
6i8
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
from Shem, son of Noah. 1 But the classification of nations in
Genesis x. is founded neither upon linguistic nor upon ethno-
graphical principles: it is determined rather by geographical
and political considerations. For this reason Elam and Lud
are also included among the children of Shem; but neither the
Elamites (in Susiana) nor the Lydians appear to have spoken
a language connected with Hebrew. On the other hand, the
Phoenicians (Canaanites), whose dialect closely resembled that
of Israel, are not counted as children of Shem. Moreover, the
compiler of the list in Genesis x. had no clear conceptions
about the peoples of south Arabia and Ethiopia. Nevertheless
it would be undesirable to give up the universally received
terms " Semites " and " Semitic."
The connexion of the Semitic languages with one another
is somewhat close, in any case closer than that of the Indo-
European languages. The more ancient Semitic
tongues differ from one another scarcely more than do
the various Teutonic dialects. Hence even in the
1 7th century such learned Orientalists as Hottinger,
Bochart, Castell and Ludolf had a tolerably clear notion of the
relationship between the different Semitic languages with which
they were acquainted; indeed the same may be said of some
Jewish scholars who lived many centuries earlier, as, for instance,
Jehuda ben Koreish. It is not difficult to point out a series
of characteristic marks common to these languages, the pre-
dominance of triconsonantal roots, or of roots formed after the
analogy of such, similarity in the formation of nominal and verbal
stems, a great resemblance in the forms of the personal pronouns
and in their use for the purpose of verbal inflection, the two
principal tenses, the importance attached to the change of
vowels in the interior of words, and lastly, considerable agreement
with regard to order and the construction of sentences. Yet
even so ancient a Semitic language as the Assyrian appears to
lack some of these features, and in certain modern dialects, such
as New Syriac, Mahri and more particularly Amharic, many of
the characteristics of older Semitic speech have disappeared.
And the resemblance in vocabulary generally diminishes in pro-
portion to the modernness of the dialects. Still we can trace the
connexion between the modern and the ancient dialects, and show,
at least approximately, how the former were developed out of
the latter. Where a development of this kind can be proved to
have taken place, there a relationship must exist, however much
the individual features may have been effaced. The question
here is not of logical categories but of organic groups.
All these languages are descendants of a primitive Semitic
language which has long been extinct. Of course this should not
be taken literally as implying an absolute unity. If, in the
strictest sense of the words, no two men ever speak the same
language, it must apply with still greater force to any considerable
mass of men not living in the closest conjunction; and as such
we must conceive the ancient Semites, so soon as they had
severed themselves from other races. As long as the primitive
Semitic people occupied no great extent of territory, many
linguistic differences existent in their midst might still be recon-
ciled. Other differences, however, might even then have formed
the germs of the subsequent dialectical distinction. Thus, if
the gradual, or sudden, separation of individual sections of the
people led to alienation on a large scale, their dialects must
necessarily have developed decided lines of cleavage and become
finally distinct languages. With all this, it is still possible that,
even in that pre-historic era, peaceful or warlike intercourse
may have exercised an influence tending to assimilate these
languages once .again. Within the limitations which we have
intimated rather than discussed, the expression " proto-Semitic
language " is thoroughly justifiable.
Many of its most important features may be reconstructed
with at least tolerable certainty, but we must beware of attempt-
ing too much in this respect. When the various cognate
languages of a group diverge in essential points, it is by no
1 In Eichhorn's Repertorium, viii. 161 (1781). Universally
accepted from Eichhorn's Einleitung in das Alle Testament, 2nd ed.,
i. 15 (Leipzig, 1787).
means always possible to determine which of them has retained
the more primitive form. The history of the development of
these tongues during the period anterior to the docu-
ments which we possess is often extremely obscure in
its details. Even when several Semitic languages agree
in important points of grammar we cannot always
be sure that in these particulars we have what is primitive,
since in many cases analogous changes may have taken place
independently. To one who should assert the complete re-
construction of the primitive Semitic language to be possible, we
might put the question, Would the man who is best acquainted
with all the Romance languages be in a position to reconstruct
their common mother, Latin, if the knowledge of it were lost ?
And yet there are but few Semitic languages which we can know
as accurately as the Romance languages are known. As far
as the vocabulary is concerned, we may indeed maintain with
certainty that a considerable number of words which have in
various Semitic languages the form proper to each were a part
of primitive Semitic speech. Nevertheless even then we are apt
to be misled by independent but analogous formations and by
words borrowed at a very remote period. 2 Each Semitic lan-
guage or group of languages has, however, many words which
we cannot point out in the others. Of such words a great
number no doubt belonged to primitive Semitic speech, and
either disappeared in some of these languages or else remained in
use, but not so as to be recognizable by us. In the case of certain
proto-Semitic words, we can even yet observe how they gradually
recede from the foreground. So, for instance, in Hebrew,
Aramaic and Arabic, the common designation of the lion, laith,
has disappeared, almost before our eyes, in order to make room
for other expressions. Yet many isolated words and roots may
in very early times have been borrowed by the Hebrew, the
Aramaic, the Ethiopic, &c., perhaps from wholly different
languages, of which no trace is left. To what extent the separate
languages created new roots is an extremely obscure problem.
The question which of the known Semitic dialects most
resembles the primitive Semitic language is less important than
one might at first suppose, since the question is one not of
absolute but only of relative priority. After scholars had given
up the notion (which, however, was not the fruit of scientific
research) that all Semitic languages, and indeed all the languages
in the world, were descendants of Hebrew or of Aramaic, it was
long the fashion to maintain that Arabic bore a close resemblance
to the primitive Semitic language. 3 But, just as it is now re-
cognized with ever-increasing clearness that Sanskrit is far from
having retained in such a degree as was even lately supposed
the characteristics of primitive Indo-European speech, so in the
domain of the Semitic tongues we can assign to Arabic only a
relative antiquity. It is true that in Arabic very many features
are preserved more faithfully than in the cognate languages, for
instance, nearly all the original abundance of consonants, the
short vowels in open syllables, particularly in the interior of
words, and many grammatical distinctions which in the other
languages are more or less obscured. On the other hand, Arabic
has coined, simply from analogy, a great number of forms which,
owing to their extreme simplicity, seem at the first glance to be
primitive, but which nevertheless are only modifications of the
primitive forms; whilst perhaps the other Semitic languages
exhibit modifications of a different kind. In spite of its great
wealth, Arabic is characterized by a certain monotony, which
can scarcely have existed from the beginning. Both Hebrew
and even Aramaic are in many respects more ancient than
Arabic. This would no doubt be far more apparent if we knew
Hebrew more completely and according to the original pro-
nunciation of its vowels, and if we could discover how Aramaic
was pronounced about the I3th century before our era. It must
always be borne in mind that we are far more fully and accurately
1 The more alike two languages are the more difficult it usually is
to detect, as borrowed elements, those words which have passed
from one language into the other.
' This theory is carried to its extreme limit in Olshausen's very
valuable Hebrew Grammar (Brunswick, 1861).
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
619
acquainted with Arabic than with the other Semitic languages
of antiquity. The opinion sometimes maintained by certain
over-zealous Assyriologists, that Assyrian is the " Sanskrit of
the Semitic world," has not met with the approval even of the
Assyriologists themselves, and is unworthy of a serious refutation.
A comparative grammar of the Semitic languages must of
course be based upon Arabic, but must in every matter of detail
take into consideration all the cognate languages, as far as they
are known to us. In the reconstruction of the primitive Semitic
tongue Hebrew might perhaps afford more assistance than
Ethiopic; but Aramaic, Assyrian, and even the less known and
the more modern dialects might furnish valuable materials.
The method by which these younger languages, especially
the dialects of to-day, have received their present form, may be
traced with tolerable comprehensiveness. Thus we gain valuable
analogies for determining the genetic process in the older tongues.
At the same time, a conscientious investigation forces upon us the
conviction that there are many and important phenomena which
we are powerless to explain; and this applies, in part, to cases
where, at first, the solution appears perfectly simple. So,
although we have seen that the main features of the correspond-
ence between the Semitic languages have long been definitely
established years before Bopp scientifically demonstrated the
connexion of the Indo-European tongues still in our domain
it is a task of extreme difficulty to create a comparative grammar
which shall be minutely exact and yield permanent results.
Only the most accomplished philologist could attempt the task,
and it is very doubtful whether the time is yet ripe for such an
attempt. 1 Much careful and minute investigation is still indis-
pensable. One great obstacle lies in the fact, that, in most
Semitic languages, the sounds are very inadequately transmitted.
It would probably be easier to give a comparative presentment
of Semitic syntax than of Semitic phonetics and the theory of
Semitic forms.
It is not a formidable undertaking to describe in general
terms the character of the Semitic mind, as has been done, for
example, by Lassen (Indische Altertumskunde, i. 414
Character S q ) anc j fry R enan m t ne introduction to his Histoire
min& des langues sSmitiques? But still there is a danger
of assuming that the most important characteristics
of particular Semitic peoples, especially of the Israelites and of
the Arabs, are common to all Semites, and of ascribing to the
influence of race certain striking features which are the result
of the external conditions of life, and which, under similar
circumstances, are also developed among non-Semitic races.
And, though it is said, not without reason, that the Semites
possess but little talent for political and military organization on
a large scale, yet we have in the Phoenicians, especially the
Carthaginians, in Hamilcar and in Hannibal, a proof that under
altered conditions the Semites are not incapable of distinguishing
themselves in these domains. It is a poor evasion to deny that
the Phoenicians are genuine Semites, since even our scanty sources
of information suffice to show that in the matter of religion,
which among Semites is of such supreme importance, they bore
a close resemblance to the ancient Hebrews and Aramaeans.
In general descriptions of this kind it is easy to go too far. But
to give in general terms a correct idea of the Semitic languages is
a task of very much greater difficulty. Kenan's brilliant and
most interesting sketch is in many respects open to serious
criticism. He cites, for example, as characteristic of the Semitic
tongues, that they still retain the practice of expressing psycho-
logical processes by means of distinct imagery. In saying this
he is taking scarcely any language but Hebrew into account.
But the feature to which he here alludes is owing to the particular
1 By this we do not wish to call in question the merits of the
following works: William Wright, Lectures on the Comparative
Grammar of the Semitic Languages (Cambridge, 1890, a posthumous
work); O. E. Lindberg, Vergleichende Grammatik d. semitischen
Sprachen (pt. I, Goteborg, 1897); Heinr. Zimmern, Vergl. Gramm.
d. semit. Sprachen (Berlin, 1898); C. Brockelmann, Semilische
Sprachwissenschaft (Leipzig, 1906) and Grundriss der vergl. Gramm.
d. semit. Sprachen, vol. i. (Berlin, 1908).
2 Cf. Th. Noldeke, Some Characteristics of the Semitic Races, in
Sketches from Eastern History (London and Edinburgh, 1892), i ff.
stage of intellectual development that had been reached by the
Israelites, is in part peculiar to the poetical style, and is to be
found in like manner among wholly different races. That the
Semitic languages are far from possessing the fixity which Renan
attributes to them we shall see below. But, however this may
be, certain grammatical peculiarities of the Semitic languages
above all, the predominance of triliteral roots are so marked
that it is scarcely possible to doubt whether any language with
which we are tolerably well acquainted is or is not Semitic.
Only when a Semitic language has been strongly influenced
not only in vocabulary but also in grammar by some non-
Semitic speech, as is the case with Amharic, can such a doubt be
for a moment entertained.
Many attempts have been made, sometimes in a very super-
ficial fashion and sometimes by the use of scientific methods,
to establish a relationship between the Semitic Relations
languages and the Indo-European. It was very with other
natural to suppose that the tongues of the two races ffiiiies of
which, with the single exceptions of the Egyptians * peech -
and the Chinese, have formed and moulded human civilization,
who have been near neighbours from the earliest times, and who,
moreover, seem to bear a great physical resemblance to one
another, can be nothing else than two descendants of the same
parent speech. But all these endeavours have wholly failed.
It is indeed probable that the languages, not only of the Semites
and of the Indo-Europeans, but also those of other races, are
derived from the same stock, but the separation must have taken
place at so remote a period that the changes which these languages
underwent in prehistoric times have completely effaced what
features they possessed in common; if such features have some-
times been preserved, they are no longer recognizable. It must
be remembered that it is only in exceptionally favourable cir-
cumstances that cognate languages are so preserved during long
periods as to render it possible for scientific analysis to prove
their relationship with one another. 3
On the other hand, the Semitic languages bear so striking
a resemblance in some respects to certain languages of northern
Africa that we are forced to assume the existence of a tolerably
close relationship between the two groups. We allude to the
family of languages known in modern times as the " Hamitic,"
and composed of the Egyptian, Berber, Beja (Bishari, &c.), and
a number of tongues spoken in Abyssinia and the neighbouring
countries (Agaw, Galla, Dankali, &c.). It is remarkable that
some of the most indispensable words in the Semitic vocabulary
(as, for instance, " water," " mouth " and certain numerals)
are found in Hamitic also, and that these words happen to be
such as cannot well be derived from triliteral Semitic roots, and
are more or less independent of the ordinary grammatical rules.
We notice, too, important resemblances in grammar for ex-
ample, the formation of the feminine by means of a t prefixed
or affixed, that of the causative by means of s, similarity in the
suffixes and prefixes of the verbal tenses, and, generally, similarity
in the personal pronouns, &c. It must be admitted that there is
also much disagreement for instance, the widest divergence in
the mass of the vocabulary; and this applies to the Semitic
languages as compared not only with those Hamitic languages
that are gradually becoming known to us at the present day,
but with the Egyptian, of which we possess documents dating
from the fourth and perhaps fifth millennium before the Christian
era. The question is here involved in great difficulties. Some
isolated resemblances may, improbable as it appears, have been
produced by the borrowing of words. Uncivilized races, as has
been proved with certainty, sometimes borrow from others
elements of speech in cases where we should deem such a thing
impossible for example, numerals and even personal suffixes.
But the great resemblances in grammatical formation cannot
be reasonably explained as due to borrowing on the part of the
3 The following is an instance of the manner in which we may be
deceived by isolated cases. " Six " is in Hebrew shesh, almost
exactly like the Sanskrit and modern Persian shash, the Latin sex,
&c. But the Indo-European root is sweks, or perhaps even ksweks,
whereas the Semitic root is shidth, so that the resemblance is a
purely accidental one, produced by phonetic change.
620
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
Hamites, more especially as these points of agreement are also
found in the language of the Berbers, who are scattered over an
enormous territory, and whose speech must have acquired its
character long before they came into contact with the Semites.
We are even now but imperfectly acquainted with the Hamitic
languages; and the relation in which Egyptian stands to Berber
on the one hand and to the south Hamitic languages on the other
requires further elucidation. The attempt to write a com-
parative grammar of the Semitic and Hamitic languages would
be, to say the least, very premature. 1
The connexion between the Semitic languages and the Hamitic
appears to indicate that the primitive seat of the Semites is to be
sought in Africa; for it can scarcely be supposed that the
final Hamites, amongst whom there are gradual transitions
from an almost purely European type to that of the
Negroes, are the children of any other land than " the
dark continent." There seems, moreover, to be a considerable
physical resemblance between the Hamites and the Semites, especi-
ally in the case of the southern Arabs; we need mention only the
slight development of the calf of the leg, and the sporadic appearance
amongst Semites of woolly hair and prominent jaws. 2 But both
Semites and Hamites have been mingled to a large extent with
foreign races, which process must have diminished their mutual
similarity. All this, however, is offered not as a definite theory, but
as a modest hypothesis.
It was once the custom to maintain that the Semites came origin-
ally from certain districts in Armenia. This supposition was founded
on the book of Genesis, according to which several of the Semitic
nations i are descended from Arphaxad, i.e. the eponym of the
district of Arrapachitis, now called Albak, on the borders of Armenia
and Kurdistan. It was also thought that this region was inhabited
by the primitive race from which both the Semites and the Indo-
Europeans derived their origin. But, as we saw above, this ancient
relationship is a matter of some doubt; in any case, the separation
does not date from a period so recent that the Semites can be sup-
posed to have possessed any historical tradition concerning it.
There cannot be a greater mistake than to imagine that nations
have been able to preserve during long ages their recollection of the
country whence their supposed ancestors are said to have emigrated.
The fantastic notion once in vogue as to the permanence of historical
memories among uncivilized races must be wholly abandoned. The
period in which the Hebrews, the Arabs and the other Semitic
nations together formed a single people is so distant that none of
them can possibly have retained any tradition of it. The opinion
that the Hebrews and the tribes most closely related to them were
descendants of Arphaxad is apparently due to the legend that
Noah's ark landed near this district. The notion has therefore a
purely mythical origin. Moreover, in Genesis itself we find a totally
different account of the matter, derived from another source, which
represents all nations, and, therefore, the Semites among them, as
having come from Babylon. Scarcely any man of science now
believes in the northern origin of the Semites.
Some prominent scholars consider the birthplace of the Semitic
race to have been in Arabia. There is much that appears to support
this theory. History proves that from a very early period tribes
from the deserts of Arabia settled on the cultivable lands which
border them and adopted a purely agricultural mode of life. Various
traces in the language seem to indicate that the Hebrews and the
Aramaeans were originally nomads, and Arabia with its northern
prolongation (the Syrian desert) is the true home of nomadic peoples.
The Arabs are also supposed to display the Semitic character in its
purest form, and their language is, on the whole, nearer the original
Semitic than are the languages of the cognate races. To this last
circumstance we should, however, attach little importance. It is
by no means always the case that a language is most faithfully
preserved in the country where it originated. The Romance dialect
spoken in the south of Sardinia is far more primitive than that
spoken at Rome; and of all living Teutonic languages the most
ancient is the Icelandic. Besides, we cannot unreservedly admit
that the Arabs display the Semitic character in its purest form;
it would be more correct to say that, under the influence of a country
indescribably monotonous and of a life ever changing yet ever the
same, the inhabitants of the Arabian deserts have developed most
exclusively certain of the principal traits of the Semitic race. All
1 This of course applies yet more strongly to Benfey's work,
Ober das Verhaltnis der dgyptischen Sprache zum semitischen
Sprachstamm (Leipzig, 1844); but his book has the permanent merit
of having for the first time examined the relationship in a scientific
manner. The investigation of the relationship between Egyptian
and Semitic has been greatly advanced by the distinguished
Egyptologist Ad. Erman: cf. especially his treatise, " Die Flexion
des agyptischen Verbums," in the Silzungsberichte der Berliner
Akademte der Wissenschaften (1900), xix., especially p. 34 sq. See
also HAMITIC LANGUAGES.
1 Cf. G. Gerland, Atlas der Ethnographic (Leipzig, 1876), p. 40
of the text.
Con-
nexion*
between
these considerations are indecisive; but we willingly admit that
the theory which regards Arabia as the primitive seat of all Semites
is by no means untenable.
Finally, one of the most eminent of contemporary Orientalists,
Ignazio Guidi, 3 has attempted to prove that the home of the Semites
is on the lower Euphrates. He contends that the geographical,
botanical and zoological conceptions which are expressed in the
various Semitic languages by the same words, preserved from the
time of the dispersion, correspond to the natural characteristics of
no country but the above-mentioned. Great as are the ingenuity
and the caution which he displays, it is difficult to accept his con-
clusions. Several terms might be mentioned which are part of the
common heritage of the northern and the southern Semites, but
which can scarcely have been formed in the region of the Euphrates.
Moreover, the vocabulary of most Semitic languages is but very
imperfectly known, and each dialect has lost many primitive words
in the course of time. It is therefore very unsafe to draw conclusions
from the fact that the various Semitic tongues have no one common
designation for many important local conceptions, such as " moun-
tain." The ordinary words for " man," " old man," " boy," " tent,"
" block," "to beat," &c., are quite different in the various Semitic
languages, and yet all these are ideas for which the primitive Semites
must have had names.
It is not very easy to settle what is the precise connexion
between the various Semitic languages, considered individually.
In this matter one may easily be led to hasty con-
clusions by isolated peculiarities in vocabulary or
grammar. Each of the older Semitic languages
occasionally agrees in grammatical points with some **
other to which in most respects it bears no very close
resemblance, while dialects much more nearly related
to it are found to exhibit different formations. Each Semitic
tongue also possesses features peculiar to itself. For instance, the
Hebrew-Phoenician group and the Arabic have a prefixed definite
article (the etymological identity of which is, however, not very
probable); the dialect nearest to Arabic, the Sabaean, expresses
the article by means of a suffixed n; the Aramaic, which in
general more closely resembles Hebrew than does the Arabic
group, expresses it by means of a suffixed a; whereas the Assyrian
in the north and the Ethiopic in the south have no article at all.
Of the termination n for the definite article there is no certain
trace in either Arabic or Hebrew; the Sabaean, the Ethiopic,
and the Aramaic employ it to give emphasis to demonstrative
pronouns; and the very same usage has been detected in a single
Phoenician inscription. 4 In this case, therefore, Hebrew and
Arabic have, independently of one another, lost something which
the languages most nearly related to them have preserved. In
like manner, the strengthening of the pronoun of the third
person by means of t (or tu) is only found in Ethiopic, Sabaean
and Phoenician and perhaps in some Arabic particles too.
Aramaic alone has no certain trace of the reflexive conjugation
formed with prefixed n; Hebrew alone has no certain trace of the
causative with sha* In several of the Semitic languages we can
see how the formation of the passive by means of internal vocal
change (as kullima, " he was addressed," as distinguished from
kallama, " he addressed '') gradually dropped out of use; in
Ethiopic this process was already complete when the language
first became literary; in Aramaic it was not wholly so and in
most modern Arabic dialects the old passive forms have nearly
or totally disappeared. In a few cases phonetic resemblances
have been the result of later growth. For example, the termina-
tion of the plural masculine of nouns is in Hebrew im, in Aramaic
in, as in Arabic. But we know that Aramaic also originally had
m, whereas the ancient Arabic forms have after the n an a,
which appears to have been originally a long a (una, ina);
in this latter position (that is, between two vowels) the change
of m into n is very improbable. 6 These two similar terminations
were therefore originally distinct. We must indeed be very
cautious in drawing conclusions from points of agreement
between the vocabularies of the various Semitic tongues. The
1 '' Delia sede primitiva dei popoli semitici," in the Proceedings
of the Accademia dei Lincei (1878-1879).
4 Viz. the great inscription of Byblus, C.I.S., fasc. i. No. I.
6 Shalhebeth, " flame, is borrowed from Aramaic.
* Arabic seems to have transplanted the termination from the
verb _ to the noun, or to have at least modified the substantival
termination in accordance with the verbal.
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
621
Ethiopians and the Hebrews have the same word for many
objects which the other Semites call by other names for
instance, "stone," "tree," "enemy," "enter," "go out";
and the same may be said of Hebrew as compared with Sabaean.
But to build theories upon such facts would be unsafe, since the
words cited are either found, though with some change of mean-
ing, in at least one of the cognate languages, or actually occur,
perhaps quite exceptionally and in archaic writings, with the
same signification. The sedentary habits of the Ethiopians and
the Sabaeans may possibly have rendered it easier for them to
retain in their vocabulary certain words which were used by
the civilized Semites of the north, but which became obsolete
amongst the Arabian nomads. To the same cause we may
attribute the fact that in religion the Sabaeans seem to resemble
the northern Semites more closely than do the tribes of central
Arabia; but these considerations prove nothing in favour of
a nearer linguistic affinity.
One thing at least is certain, that Arabic (with Sabaean,
Mahri and Socotri) and Ethiopic stand in a comparatively close
Northern relationship to one another, and compose a group by
and themselves, as contrasted with the other Semitic
Southern languages, Hebraeo-Phoenician, Aramaic and Assyrian.
Only in these southern dialects do we find, and that
under forms substantially identical, the important innovation
known as the " broken plurals," consisting in the employment
of certain forms, denoting abstracts, for the expression of plurals.
They agree, moreover, in employing a peculiar development of
the verbal root, formed by inserting an a between the first and
second radicals (qdtala, taqatala), in using the vowel a before the
third radical in all active perfects for example, (h)aqtala,
qattala, instead of the haqlil, qaltil of the northern dialects and in
many other grammatical phenomena. This is not at all con-
tradicted by the fact that certain aspirated dentals of Arabic
(th, dh, z) are replaced in Ethiopic, as in Hebrew and Assyrian,
by pure sibilants that is, s (Hebrew and Assyrian sh), z $
whereas in Aramaic they are replaced by simple dentals (t, d, t),
which seem to come closer to the Arabic sounds. Still, after the
separation of the northern and the southern groups, we suppose,
the Semitic languages possessed all these sounds, as the Arabic
does, but afterwards simplified them, for the most part, in one
direction or the other. Hence there resulted, as it were by chance,
occasional similarities. Even in many modern Arabic dialects
th, dh become t, d. 1 Ethiopic, moreover, has kept d, the most
peculiar of Arabic sounds, distinct from s, whereas Aramaic has
confounded it with the guttural 'ain, and Hebrew and Assyrian
with s. It is therefore evident that all these languages once
possessed the consonant in question as a distinct one. One sound,
sin, appears only in Hebrew, in Phoenician, and in the older
Aramaic. It must originally have been pronounced very like sh,
since it is represented in writing by the same character; in later
times it was changed into an ordinary s. Assyrian does not
distinguish it from sh. 2 The division of the Semitic languages
into the northern group and the southern is therefore justified
by facts. Even if we were to discover really important gram-
matical phenomena in which one of the southern dialects agreed
with the northern, or vice versa, and that in cases where such
phenomena could not be regarded either as remnants of primitive
Semitic usage or as instances of parallel but independent develop-
ment, we ought to remember that the division of the two groups
was not necessarily a sudden and instantaneous occurrence, that
even after the separation intercourse may have been carried on
between the various tribes who spoke kindred dialects and were
therefore still able to understand one another,andthatintermediate
dialects may once have existed, perhaps such as were in use
1 In words borrowed from the literary language, s, z, habitually
appear in place of th, dh.
2 It is not quite certain whether all the Semitic languages originally
had the hardest of the gutturals gh and kh in exactly the same places
that they occupy in Arabic. In the case of kh we may assume so;
since not only Arabic here agrees with Ethiopic, but Assyrian, also,
has a particular guttural in roots which in Arabic have kh. But
it would appear that in Hebrew and Aramaic the distinction between
g& and 'ayin, between kh and h was often different from what it is
in Arabic.
amongst tribes who came into contact sometimes with the agri-
cultural population of the north and sometimes with the nomads
of the south (see below). All this is purely hypothetical, whereas
the division between the northern and the southern Semitic
languages is a recognized fact. It is perfectly certain, moreover,
that Hebraeo-Phoenician and Aramaic are closely related with each
other, and form a group of their own, distinct even from Assyrian.
In fact, Assyrian seems to be so completely sui generis that we
should be well advised to separate it from all the cognate
languages, as an independent scion of proto-Semitic. We should
classify these languages consequently in the following order:
(i) Assyrian; (2) the remaining Semitic languages, viz.: A.
Hebraeo-Phoenician and Aramaic, B. the southern Semitic
tongues.
Although we cannot deny that there may formerly have
existed Semitic languages quite distinct from those with which
we are acquainted, yet that such was actually the
case cannot be proved. Nor is there any reason to ij?**,^
think that the domain of the Semitic languages ever i aa guages.
extended very far beyond its present limits. Some
time ago many scholars believed that they were once spoken in
Asia Minor and even in Europe, but, except in the Phoenician
colonies, this notion rested upon no solid proof. It cannot be
argued with any great degree of plausibility that even the
Cilicians, who from a very early period held constant intercourse
with the Syrians and the Phoenicians, spoke a Semitic language.
Assyrian.
Long before there existed any other Semitic culture, there flourished
on the Lower Euphrates a sister language which has been preserved
to us in the cuneiform inscriptions. It is usually called the Assyrian,
after the name of the country where the first and most important
excavations were made; but the term " Babylonian " would be
more correct, as Babylon was the birthplace of this language and of
the civilization to which it belonged. Certain Babylonian inscriptions
go back to the fourth millennium before our era; but the great
mass of these cuneiform inscriptions date from between 1000 and
500 B.C.
Assyrian differs in many respects from all the cognate languages.
The ancient perfect has wholly disappeared, or left but few traces,
and the gutturals, with the exception of the hard kh, . .
have been smoothed down to a degree which is only '
paralleled in modern Aramaic dialects. So at least it would appear
from the writing, or rather from the manner in which Assyriologists
transcribe it. The Babylonian form bel (occurring in Isa. xlvi. I;
Jer. 1. 2 and li. 44 passages all belonging to the 6th century B.C.,
and in many other ancient monuments), the name of the god who
was originally called ba'l, is a confirmation of this; but, on the
other hand, the name of the country where Babylon was situated,
viz. Shin'ar, and that of a Babylonian god, 'Anammelek (2 Kings
xvii. 31), as well as those of the tribes Sho'a and Qo'a (Ezek. xxiii.
23) who inhabited the Assyrio-Babylonian territory, seem to militate
against this theory, as they are spelt in the Old Testament with 'ain.
So, too, is the biblico-Aramaic word (e'em, (a'am, " order," " decree,"
which is derived from the Assyrian ; and we may also compare some
Babylonian local names, e.g. 'Anal. H is found in the name of the
town Hit, and in the name of a man, written in Aramaic characters
but formed quite in the Babylonian manner, Hadadnadinakh.
Thus the Babylonians may have pronounced some gutturals, though
they did not write them, precisely as the Persian cuneiform in-
scriptions omit many h's, which, no doubt, were audible. The
Assyrian system of writing is so complicated, and, in spite of its
vast apparatus, is so imperfect an instrument for the accurate
representation of sounds, that we are hardly yet bound to regard
the transcriptions of contemporary Assyriologists as being in all
points of detail the final dictum of science. However this may be,
the present writer does not feel able to speak at greater length upon
Assyrian. Attention may, however, be called to the fact, that, as
might have been expected from the important r&le played by the
Babylonians and Assyrians in the history of civilization and of
peoples, many words passed over from their language into Hebrew
and, more especially, into Aramaic, some of which attained a still
wider vogue. 3 (Compare the article CUNEIFORM.)
Hebrew.
Hebrew and Phoenician are but dialects of one and the same
language. It is only as the language of the people of Israel that
Hebrew can be known with any precision. Since in the Old
8 So the Assyrian mashkenu was adopted into Hebrew and Aramaic
as misken; from the Aramaic it was borrowed by Arabic and
Ethiopic (misken), and from Arabic it found its way into the Romance
languages (mesquinho, mezquino, mesM.no, mesquin).
622
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
Testament a few of the neighbouring peoples are represented as being
descended from Eber, the eponym of the Hebrews, that is, are re-
garded as nearly related to the latter, it was natural to suppose that
they likewise spoke Hebrew a supposition which, at least in the
case of the Moabites, has been fully confirmed by the discovery of
the Mesha inscription (date, soon after 900 B.C.). The language of
this inscription scarcely differs from that of the Old Testament;
the only important distinction is the occurrence of a reflexive form
(with t after the first radical), which appears also in Arabic and
Assyrian. We may remark in passing that the style of this in-
scription is quite that of the Old Testament, and enables us to
maintain with certainty that a similar historical literature existed
amongst the Moabites. But it must be remembered that ancient
Semitic inscriptions exhibit, in a sense, nothing but the skeleton of
the language, since they do not express the vowels at all, or do so
only in certain cases; still less do they indicate other phonetic
modifications, such as the doubling of consonants, &c. It is therefore
very possible that to the ear the language of Moab seemed to differ
considerably from that of the Judaeans.
The Mesha inscription is the only non-Israelite source from which
any knowledge of ancient Hebrew can be obtained. Still several
. . Hebrew words occur even in the Tellel-Amarna letters, dis-
. covered in Egypt, and written in the Babylonian language
by princes of Palestine during the second millennium B.C.
They clearly show that the " Hebrew " language existed in Palestine
even before the migration of the Israelites into Canaan. Some
fragments in the Old Testament belong to the last centuries of the
second millennium before our era particularly the song of Deborah
(Judges v.), a document which, in spite of its many obscurities in
matters of detail, throws much light on the condition of the Israelites
at the time when the Canaanites were still contending with them
for the possession of the country. The first rise of an historical
literature may very probably date from before the establishment
of the monarchy. Various portions of the Old Testament belong to
the time of the earlier kings; but it was under the later kings that
a great part of extant Hebrew literature came into shape. To this
age also belong the Gezer and the Siloam inscriptions and a daily
increasing number of seals and gems bearing the names of Israelites.
The Hebrew language is thus known to us from a very ancient
period. But we are far from being acquainted with its real phonetic
I'ronua- condition in the time of David or Isaiah. For, much as
elation w ? owe to t ' le ' a b urs f the later Jewish schools, which
with infinite care fixed the pronunciation of the sacred-
text by adding vowels and other signs, it is evident that even at
the best they could only represent the pronunciation of the language
in its latest stage, not that of very early ages. Besides, their object
was not to exhibit Hebrew simply as it was, but to show how it
should be read in the solemn chant of the synagogue. Accordingly,
the pronunciation of the older period may have differed considerably
from that represented by the punctuation. Such differences are now
and then indicated by the customary spelling of the ancient texts, 1
and sometimes the orthography is directly at variance with the
punctuation.* In a few rare cases we may derive help from the
somewhat older tradition contained in the representation of Hebrew
words and proper names by Greek letters, especially in the ancient
Alexandrine translation of the Bible (the so-called Septuagint).
It is of particular importance to remark that this older tradition
still retains an original o in many cases where the punctuation has
the later t or e. We have examined this point somewhat in detail,
in order to contradict the false but ever-recurring notion that the
ordinary text of the Bible represents without any essential modifica-
tion the pronunciation of ancient Hebrew, whereas in reality it
expresses (in a very instructive and careful manner, it is true) only
its latest development, and that for the purpose of solemn public
recitation. A clear trace of dialectal differences within Israel is
found in Judges xii. 6, which shows that the ancient Ephraimites
pronounced samek instead of shin.
The destruction of the Judaea n kingdom dealt a heavy blow to
the Hebrew language. But it is going too far to suppose that it
Period of was *l to S et h er banished from ordinary life at the time
exile la ^ t ' le ex " e> anc ' t ' lat Aramaic came into use among all
Bab to *^ e J ews- I" 'he East even small communities, especially
if they form a religious body, often cling persistently to
their mother-tongue, though they may be surrounded by a population
of alien speech ; and such was probably the case with the Jews in
Babylonia. See HEBREW LANGUAGE. Even so late as the time of
Ezra, Hebrew was in all probability the ordinary language of the
new community. In Neh. xiii. 24 we find a complaint that the
children of Jews by wives from Ashdod and other places spoke half
in the " Jewish " language and half in the language of Ashdod, or
whatever else may have been the tongue of their mothers. No one
1 For example, we may conclude with tolerable certainty, from
the presence and absence of the vowel-letters y and w, that in older
times the accented e and o were not pronounced long, and that, on
the other hand, the diphthongs au and at were used for the later
o and f.
'.The very first word of the Bible contains an Aleph (spiritus lenis),
which is required by etymology and was once audible, but which the
pronunciation represented by the point-system ignores.
can suppose that Nehemiah would have been particularly zealous
that the children of Jews should speak an Aramaic dialect with
correctness. He no doubt refers to Hebrew as it was then spoken
a stage in its development of which Nehemiah's own work gives a
very fair idea.
After the time of Alexander large bodies of the Jewish population
were settled in Alexandria and other western cities, and were very
rapidly Hellenized. Meanwhile the principal language .
of Syria and the neighbouring countries, Aramaic, which
had already become the language of the older Jewish * up '' aot
colonies in Egypt (see below), and the influence of which *?
may be perceived even in some pre-exilic writings, began
to spread more and more among the Jews of Palestine.
Hebrew gradually ceased to be the language of the oeople and
became that of religion and the schools. The book of Daniel, written
in 167 or 166 B.C., begins in Hebrew, then suddenly passes into
Aramaic, and ends again in Hebrew. Similarly the redactor of
Ezra (or more correctly of the Chronicles, of which Ezra and Nehe-
miah form the conclusion) borrows large portions from an Aramaic
work, in most cases without translating them into Hebrew. No
reason can be assigned for the use of Aramaic in Jewish works
intended primarily for Jerusalem, unless it were already the dominant
speech, whilst, on the other hand, it was very natural for a pious
Jew to write in the ancient " holy " language even after it had
ceased to be spoken. Esther, Ecclesiastes, and a few Psalms, which
belong to the 3rd and 2nd centuries before our era, are indeed written
in Hebrew, but are so strongly tinctured by the Aramaic influence
as to prove that the writers usually spoke Aramaic. It is certain, of
course, that there were still many Jews capable both of writing and
speaking Hebrew. So the Book of Sirach, composed shortly after
200 B.C., was written in an almost absolutely pure Hebrew, as is
proved by the portions of the original, amounting to about two-
thirds of the whole, which have come to light in our day. But we
are not likely to be far wrong in saying that in the Maccabean age
Hebrew had died put among the Jews as a current popular language,
and there is nothing to show that it survived longer among any of
the neighbouring peoples.
But in the last period of the history of Jerusalem, and still more
after the destruction of the city by Titus, the Jewish schools played
so important a part that the life of the Hebrew language was in a
manner prolonged. The lectures and discussions of the learned
were carried on in that tongue. We have very extensive specimens
of this more modern Hebrew in the Mishnah and other works, and
scattered pieces throughput both Talmuds. But, just as the
" classical ' Sanskrit, which has been spoken and written by the
Brahmans during the last twenty-five centuries, differs considerably
from the language which was once in use among the people, so this
" language of the learned " diverges in many respects from the
" holy language "; and this distinction is one of which the rabbis
were perfectly conscious. The " language of the learned " borrows
a great part of its vocabulary from Aramaic, 3 and this exercises a
strong influence upon the grammatical forms. The grammar is
perceptibly modified by the peculiar style of these writings, which
for the most part treat of legal and ritual questions in a strangely
laconic and pointed manner. But, large as is the proportion of
foreign words and artificial as this language is, it contains a con-
siderable number of purely Hebrew elements which by chance do
not appear in the Old Testament. Although we may generally as-
sume, in the case of a word occurring in the Mishnah but not found
in the Old Testament, that it is borrowed from Aramaic, there are
several words of this class which, by their radical consonants, prove
themselves to be genuine Hebrew. And even some grammatical
phenomena of this language are to be regarded as a genuine de-
velopment of Hebrew, though they are unknown to earlier Hebrew
speech.
From the beginning of the middle ages down to our own times
the Jews have produced an enormous mass of writings in Hebrew,
sometimes closely following the language of the Bible,
sometimes that of the Mishnah, sometimes introducing
in a perfectly inorganic manner a great quantity of
Aramaic forms, and occasionally imitating the Arabic
style. The study of these variations has but little interest
for the linguist, since they are nothing but a purely artificial imita-
tion, dependent upon the greater or less skill of the individual.
The language of the Mishnah stands in much closer connexion with
real life, and has a definite raison d'etre; all later Hebrew is to
be classed with medieval and modern Latin. The dream of some
Zionists, that Hebrew a would-be Hebrew, that is to say will
again become a living, popular language in Palestine, has still less
prospect of realization than their vision of a restored Jewish empire
in the Holy Land. Much Hebrew also was written in the middle
ages by the hostile brethren of the Jews, the Samaritans; but for
the student of language these productions have, at the most, the
charm attaching to curiosities.
Medieval
and
Modem
Hebrew.
1 It is a characteristic feature that "my father" and "my
mother " are here expressed by purely Aramaic forms. Even the
learned did not wish to call their " papas " and " mammas " by
any other names than those to which they had been accustomed
in infancy.
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
623
The ancient Hebrew language, especially in the matter of syntax,
has an essentially primitive character. Parataxis of sentences
prevails over hypotaxis to a greater extent than in any
Character ot j, er literary Semitic language with which we are well
of ancient ac q ua i n t e d. .The favourite method is to link sentences
"*"' together by means of a simple "and." There is a great
lack of particles to express with clearness the more subtle connexion
of ideas. The use of the verbal tenses is in a great measure deter-
mined by the imagination, which regards things unaccomplished
as accomplished, and the past as still present. There are but few
words or inflexions to indicate slight modifications of meaning,
though in ancient times the language may perhaps have distinguished
certain moods of the verb somewhat more plainly than the present
punctuation does. But in any case this language was far less suited
for the definite expression of studied thought, and less suited still
Ifor the treatment of abstract subjects, than for poetry. We must
remember, however, that as long as Hebrew was a living language
it never had to be used for the expression of the abstract. Had it
lived somewhat longer it might very possibly have learnt to adapt
itself better to the formulating of systematic conceptions. The only
book in the Old Testament which attempts to grapple with an
abstract subject in plain prose namely, Ecclesiastes -dates fro.m
a time when Hebrew was dying out or was already dead. That the
gifted author does not always succeed in giving clear expression to
his ideas is partly due to the fact that the language had never been
employed for any scientific purposes whatsoever. With regard to
grammatical forms, Hebrew has lost much that is still preserved in
Arabic; but the greater richness of Arabic is in part the result of
later development.
The vocabulary of the Hebrew language is, as we have said,
known but imperfectly. The Old Testament is no very large work;
. it contains, moreover, many repetitions, and a great
ocaba " number of pieces which are of little- use to the lexico-
grapher. On the other hand, much may be derived
from certain poetical books, such as Job. 1 The numerous oira
Xe-yAjieco are a sufficient proof that many more words existed than
appear in the Old Testament, the writers of which never had occasion
to use them. Were we in possession of the whole Hebrew vocabulary
in the time of Jeremiah, for example, we should be far better able
to determine the relation in which Hebrew stands to the other
Semitic languages, the Old Testament would be far more intelligible
to us, and it would be very much easier to detect the numerous
corrupt passages in our text.
Phoenician. _
The Phoenician dialect closely resembles Hebrew, and is known
to us from only one authentic source, namely, inscriptions, some of
. , which date from about 600 B.C. or earlier; but the great
mass of them begin with the end of the 5th century before
our era. These inscriptions 2 we owe to the Phoenicians of
the mother-country and the neighbouring regions (Cyprus, Egypt
and Greece), as well as to the Phoenicians of Africa, especially
Carthage. Inscriptions are, however, a very insufficient means for
obtaining the knowledge of a language. The number of subjects
treated in them is not large; many of the most important gram-
matical forms and many of the words most used in ordinary life do
not occur. Moreover, the " lapidary style " is often very hard to
understand. The repetition of obscure phrases, in the same con-
nexion, in several inscriptions does not help to make them more
intelligible. Of what use is it to us that, for instance, thousands of
Carthaginian inscriptions begin with the very same incomprehensible
dedication to two divinities? The difficulty of interpretation is
greatly increased by the fact that single words are very seldom
separated from one another, and that vowel-letters are used ex-
tremely sparingly. We therefore come but too often upon very
ambiguous groups of letters. In spite of this, our knowledge of
Phoenician has made considerable progress of late. Some assistance
is also got from Greek and Latin writers, who cite not only many
Phoenician proper names, but single Phoenician words: Plautus in
particular inserts in the Poenulus whole passages in Punic, some of
which are accompanied by a Latin translation. This source of in-
formation must, however, be used with great caution. It was not
the object of Plautus to exhibit the Punic language with precision,
a task for which the Latin alphabet is but ill adapted, but only to
make the populace laugh at the jargon of the hated Carthaginians.
Moreover, he had to force the Punic words into Latin senarii; and
finally the text, being unintelligible to copyists, is terribly corrupt.
Much ingenuity has been wasted on the Punic of Plautus; but the
passage yields valuable results to cautious investigation which does
not try to explain too much. 3
In its grammar Phoenician closely resembles Hebrew. In both
dialects the consonants are the same, often in contrast to Aramaic
1 The Siloam inscription affords us one new word, the original
of Sirach some others. In the Gezer inscription there seem to be
some new words of dubious interpretation. .
2 The scattered materials are being collected in the Corpus in-
scriptionum Semiticarum of the Paris Academy.
8 See Gildemeister, in Ritschl's Plautus (vol. ii. fasc. v., Leipzig,
1884).
and other cognate languages. 4 As to vowels, Phoenician seems to
diverge rather more from Hebrew. The connecting of clauses is
scarcely carried farther in the former language than in the latter.
A slight attempt to define the tenses more sharply appears once at
least in the joining of kan (fuit) with a perfect, to express complete
accomplishment (or the pluperfect). 6 One important difference is
that the use of waw conversive with the imperfect so common in
Hebrew and in the inscription of Mesha is wanting in Phoenician.
The vocabulary of the language is very like that of Hebrew, but
words rare in Hebrew are often common in Phoenician. For instance,
" to do " is in Phoenician not 'as a but pa'al (the Arabic fa'ala), which
in Hebrew occurs only in poetry and elevated language. " Gold "
is not (zahab as in most Semitic languages) , but karus. (Assyrian hura) ,
which is used occasionally in Hebrew poetry. Traces of dialectical
distinctions have been found in the great inscription of Byblus, the
inhabitants of which seem to be distinguished from the rest of the
Phoenicians in Josh. xiii. 5 (and I Kings v. 32? [A.V. v. 18]). It is
probable that various differences between the language of the
mother-country and that of the African colonies arose at an early
date, but our materials do not enable us to come to any definite
conclusion on this point. It is tolerably certain that the language of
Carthage possessed many dull vowels which were strange to Greek
and Latin, so that the manner in which they are reproduced in proper
names by the Greeks and Romans shows great diversity. In the
later African inscriptions there appear certain phonetic changes,
especially in consequence of the softening of the gutturals changes
which show themselves yet more plainly in the so-called Neo-Punic
inscriptions (beginning with the 1st, if not the 2nd, century before
our era). In these the gutturals, which had lost their real sound,
are frequently interchanged in writing; and other modifications may
also be perceived. Unfortunately the Neo-Punic inscriptions are
written in such a debased indistinct character that it is often im-
possible to discover with certainty the real form of the words. This
dialect was still spoken about 400, and perhaps long afterwards,
in those districts of North Africa which had once belonged to Car-
thage. It would seem that in the mother-country the Phoenician
language withstood the encroachment of Greek on the one hand and
of Aramaic on the other somewhat longer than Hebrew did.
Aramaic.
Aramaic is nearly related to Hebraeo-Phoenician ; but there is
nevertheless a sharp line of demarcation between the two groups.
Of its original home nothing certain is known. In the Old
Testament " Aram " appears at an early period as a
designation of certain districts in Syria (" Aram of f'f 1 "
Damascus," &c.) and in Mesopotamia (" Aram of the Two *
Rivers "). The language of the Aramaeans gradually Aramaic '
spread far and wide, and occupied all Syria, both those regions which
were before in the possession ot the Kheta, probably a non-Semitic
people, and those which were most likely inhabited by Canaanite
tribes; last of all, Palestine became Aramaized. Towards the east
this language was spoken on the Euphrates, and throughout the
districts of the Tigris south and west of the Armenian and Kurdish
mountains; the province in which the capitals of the Arsacids
and the Sassanids ware situated was called " the country of the
Aramaeans." In Babylonia and Assyria a large, or perhaps the
larger, portion of the population were most probably Aramaeans,
even at a very early date, whilst Assyrian was the language of the
government.
The oldest extant Aramaic documents consist of inscriptions on
monuments and on seals, weights and gems. Latterly, a very
remarkable inscription of a king of Hamath 6 belonging to the
8th century B.C. has been found in Central Syria, and a few years
before excavations in the extreme north of Syria (Zengirli and
district ; Nerab) brought to light some not less remarkable inscrip-
tions which go back to the same century. The language of all these
inscriptions is Aramaic, though in certain places it agrees with
Hebrew. It is especially surprising that in the case of the Arabic
sounds th, dh, z, they have not t, d, t, as Aramaic generally has,
but sh, z, f, as'is the rule in Hebrew and Assyrian. It is extremely
strange, however, that, in place of the Arabic 4, 'oin does not appear,
as elsewhere in Aramaic, nor yet j as in Hebrew and Assyrian, and,
in isolated cases, even in Aramaic, but q. These phenomena may
be observed on several smaller monuments. We have no entirely
satisfactory explanation at our disposal: perhaps Assyrian
influence has been at work. Individual monuments prove, however,
that the phonetic system of general Aramaic was already in existence
4 At an early period the Phoenician pronunciation may have
distinguished a greater number of original consonants than are
distinguished in writing. It is at least remarkable that the Greeks
render the name of the city of Sur (Hebrew Sor), which must origin-
ally have been pronounced Thurr, with a T (Tipos), and the name of
Sidon (where the radical $ runs through all the Semitic languages, with
a <r (Si5<!w). Distinctions of this kind, justified by etymology, have
perhaps been obscured in Hebrew by the imperfection of the alphabet.
In the case of sin and shin this can be positively proved.
6 Kan nadar, " had vowed," Idal. 5 (C.I.S. Phoen. No. 93).
6 The consonants of his name are ZKR; the pronunciation,
perhaps, was Zakkur.
624
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
in the period of our inscriptions: it would seem, therefore, that we
must assume a dialectical cleavage, perhaps originated by the
influence of Hebrew or Canaanean. Particularly remarkable is the use
of the waw consecutivum in the inscriptions of the king of Hamath
hitherto only known from Hebrew. Traces of the divergent phonetic
treatment are found in the Hellenistic era, and here and there
even later. Still, at the most, these can scarcely be more than
conscious archaisms, a view which is particularly corroborated
by the fact, that, in certain Aramaic documents of the Persian
period, both forms are used interchangeably, e.g. arqa, " earth,"
and ar'a. The latter orthography doubtless represents the actual
pronunciation of the writer. It is to be observed, however, that zi
for dl, held its ground with especial tenacity as a form of the relative
pronoun and in other capacities. In the Persian period Aramaic
was the official language of the provinces west of the Euphrates;
and this explains the fact that coins which were struck by governors
and vassal princes in Asia Minor, and of which the stamp was in some
cases the work of skilled Greek artists, bear Aramaic inscriptions,
whilst those of other coins are Greek. This, of course, does not prove
that Aramaic was ever spoken in Asia Minor and as far north as
Sinope and the Hellespont. In Egypt some Aramaic inscriptions
have been found of the Persian period, one bearing the date of the
fourth year of Xerxes (482 B.C.). We possessed, even before this, a
few official documents and other written pieces in Aramaic, inscribed
upon papyrus, and dating from this period, but unfortunately
in a very dilapidated condition. Latterly, however, we have had a
whole series of similar documents of trie 5th century B.C., in a
very good state of preservation, bearing upon the affairs of Jewish
colonists in the far south of Egypt. In that country, where the
native writing was so formidable to the learner, the Aramaic language
and script may well have appeared peculiarly serviceable. Thus
they were employed, and frequently, even by indigenous Egyptians.
But we need not doubt that, in Egypt, Aramaic was also spoken by
many who had migrated from Syria; and this must be assumed
to have been the case with the Jewish colonists mentioned. The
fact is now established that these Jews who had come to Egypt
before the Persian period were military colonists, and were often
referred to in documents as " Aramaeans." According to Deut. xvii.
16, the kings of Judah sold their subjects to the kings of Egypt,
who at that time obtained numbers of warriors from foreign countries,
instead of employing their own unwarlike subjects. The Syrian
kings also sent soldiers to Egypt, from whom the Jews learned
Aramaic. That this was used not only as an official language, but
also as a vernacular, is shown by the fact that fragments of ordinary
speech are found in Judaeo-Aramaic papyri. That the Egyptian-
Aramaic documents exhibit traces of Hebrew and Phoenician
influence is a matter for no surprise. Probably the preference shown
by the Persians for Aramaic originated under the Assyrian empire,
in which a very large proportion of the population spoke Aramaic,
and in which this language would naturally occupy a more important
position than it did under the Persians. We therefore understand
why it was taken for granted that a great Assyrian official could
speak Aramaic (2 Kings xviii. 26; Isa. xxxvi. ll), and for the same
reason the dignitaries of J udah appear to have learned the language
(ibid.), namely, in order to communicate with the Assyrians. The
short dominion of the Chaldaeans very probably strengthened this
preponderance of Aramaic. A few ancient Aramaic inscriptions have
been discovered far within the limits of Arabia, in the palm oasis of
TeimS (in the north of the Hijaz); the oldest and by far the
most important of these was very likely made before the Persian
period. We may presume that Aramaic was introduced into the
district by a mercantile colony, which settled in this ancient seat
of commerce, and in consequence of which Aramaic may have re-
mained for some time the literary language of the neighbouring Arabs.
The Aramaic portions of the Old Testament show us the form of
the language which was in use among the Jews of Palestine. Isolated
Biblical passages in Ezra perhaps belong to the Persian period, but
Aramaic. " ave certainly been remodelled by a later writer. 1 Yet in
Ezra we find a few antique forms which do not occur in
Daniel. The Aramaic pieces contained in the Bible have the great
advantage of being furnished with vowels and other orthographical
signs, though these were not inserted until long after the composition
ofthe books, and are sometimes at variance with the text itself. But,
since Aramaic was still a living language when the punctuation came
into existence, and since the lapse of time was not so very great, the
tradition ran less risk of corruption than in the case of Hebrew.
Its general correctness is further attested by the innumerable points
of resemblance between this language ana Syriac, with which we
are accurately acquainted. The Aramaic of the Bible still exhibits
various antique features, found in the Egyptian papyri too, which
afterwards disappeared, for example,, the formation of the passive
by means of internal vowel-change, and the causative with ha
instead of with a, phenomena which have been falsely explained as
Hebraisms. Biblical Aramaic agrees in all essential points with the
language used in the numerous inscriptions of Palmyra (beginning
soon before the Christian era and extending to about the end of the
3rd century), and on the Nabataean coins and stone monuments
1 The decree which is said to have been sent by Ezra (vii. 12 sqq.)
is in its present form a comparatively late production.
(concluding about the year 100). Aramaic was the language of Pal-
myra, the aristocracy of which were to a great extent of Arabian
extraction. In the northern portion of the Nabataean kingdom (not
far from Damascus) there was probably a large Aramaic population,
but farther south Arabic was spoken. At that time, however,
Aramaic was highly esteemed as a cultivated language, for which
reason the Arabs in question made use of it, as their own language
was not reduced to writing, just as in those ages Greek inscriptions
were set up in many districts where no one spoke Greek. That the
Nabataeans were Arabs is sufficiently proved by the fact that, with
the exception of a few Greek names, almost all the numerous names
which occur in the Nabataean inscriptions are Arabic, in many cases
with distinctly Arabic terminations. A further proof of this is that
in the great inscriptions over the tombs of Hejr (not far from Teima)
the native Arabic continually shows through the foreign disguise,
for instance, in the use of Arabic words whenever the writer does not
happen to remember the corresponding Aramaic terms, in the use
of the Arabic ghair, " other than," and in several syntactic features.
The great inscriptions cease with the overthrow of the Nabataean
kingdom by Trajan (105) ; but the Arabian nomads in those countries,
especially in the Sinaitic peninsula, often scratched their names on
the rocks down to a later period, adding some benedictory formula
in Aramaic. We know hundreds of these Sinaitic inscriptions. 2
In any case Aramaic then exercised an immense influence. This is
also proved by the place which it occupies in the strange Pahlavi
writing, various branches of which date from the time of the Parthian
empire (see PAHLAVI). Biblical Aramaic, as also the language of
the Palmyrene and Nabataean inscriptions, may be described as an
older form of Western Aramaic. The opinion that the Palestinian
Jews brought their Aramaic dialect direct from Babylon whence
the incorrect name " Chaldee " is altogether untenable.
We may now trace somewhat farther the development of Western
Aramaic in Palestine; but unhappily few of the sources from which
we derive our information can be thoroughly trusted. In
the synagogues it was necessary that the reading of the * a
Bible should be followed by an oral " targum " or trans- 'fJP" 01 -
lation into Aramaic, the language of the people. The e
Targum was at a later period fixed in writing, but the officially
sanctioned form of the Targum to the Pentateuch (the so-called
Targum of Onkelos) and of that to the prophets (the so-called
Jonathan) was not finally settled till the 4th or 5th century,
and not in Palestine, but in Babylonia. The redactors of the
Targum preserved on the whole the older Palestinian dialect;
yet that of Babylon, which differed considerably from the former,
exercised a vitiating influence. The text of the Targums was punctu-
ated later in Babylonia, in the supra-linear system there prevalent.
Although this task was performed carefully, the punctuation is
hardly as trustworthy as that of the Aramaic pieces of the Bible,
much less the transcriptions in the known Tibenan system used in the
European Targum manuscripts. The language of Onkelos and
Jonathan differs but little from Biblical Aramaic. The language
spoken some time afterwards by the Palestinian Jews, especially in
Galilee, is exhibited in a series of rabbinical works, the so-called
Jerusalem Targums (of which, however, those on the Hagiographa
are in some cases of later date), a few Midrashic works, and the
Jerusalem Talmud. Unfortunately all these books, of which the
M idrashim and the Talmud contain much Hebrew as well as Aramaic,
have not been handed down with care, and require to be used with
great caution for linguistic purposes. Moreover, the influence of the
older language and orthography has in part obscured the character-
istics of these popular dialects; for example, various gutturals are
still written, although they are no longer pronounced. The adapta-
tion of the spelling to the real pronunciation is carried farthest in
the Jerusalem Talmud, but not in a consistent manner. Besides,
all these books are without vowel-points; but the frequent use of
vowel-letters in the later Jewish works renders this defect less
noticeable. Attempts have been made latterly to utilize the above-
mentioned books as a means of reconstructing to some extent the
dialect spoken by Jesus and the Apostles, and of retranslating the
utterances of Jesus into their original Galilacan form. This, however,
is a far too venturesome undertaking. How far these Jewish works
actually exhibit the Galilean language can hardly be definitely
determined; and to this must be added the inexactitude of the
traditional text, and, finally, the by no means inconsiderable difference
in time.
Not only the Jews, but also the Christians of Palestine retained
their native dialect for some time as an ecclesiastical and literary
language. We possess translations of the Gospels and _. . .
fragments of other works in this dialect by the Palestinian
Christians dating from about the th century, partly
accompanied by a scanty punctuation which was not
added till some time later. This dialect closely resembles that of the
Palestinian Jews, as was to be expected from the fact that those who
spoke it were of Jewish origin.
1 Even to the Cosmos Indicopleustes (first half of the 6th century)
the Sinaitic inscriptions, the latest of which were then no more than
200-300 years old, were described as memorials of the Israelite
exodus under Moses. And similar views have been propounded
down to a short while ago!
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
625
Babylon-
ian and
Mandaean
dialects.
Finally, the Samaritans, among the inhabitants of Palestine,
translated their only sacred book, the Pentateuch, into their own
dialect. The critical study of this translation proves that
Samaritan the i an g uage w hich lies at its base was very much the
dialect. game as that of the neighbouring Jews. Perhaps,
indeed, the Samaritans may have carried the softening of the
gutturals a little farther than the Jews of Galilee. Their absurd
attempt to embellish the language of the translation by arbitrarily
introducing forms borrowed from the Hebrew original has given rise
to the false notion that Samaritan is a mixture of Hebrew and
Aramaic. The introduction of Hebrew and even of Arabic words and
forms was practised in Samaria on a still larger scale by copyists who
lived after Aramaic had become extinct. The later works written
in the Samaritan dialect are, from a linguistic point of view, as
worthless as the compositions of Samaritans in Hebrew; the writers,
who spoke Arabic, endeavoured to write in languages with which they
were but half acquainted.
All these Western Aramaic dialects, including that of the oldest
inscriptions, have this feature among others in common, that they
form the third person singular masculine and the third person plural
masculine and feminine in the imperfect by prefixing y, as dp the
other Semitic languages. And in these dialects the termination d
(the so-called " status emphaticus ") still retained the meaning of a
definite article down to a tolerably late period.
As early as the 7th century the conquests of the Moslems greatly
circumscribed the domain of Aramaic and a few centuries later it
was almost completely supplanted in the west by Arabic. For the
Christians of those countries, who, like every one else, spoke Arabic,
the Palestinian dialect was no longer of importance, and they adopted
as their ecclesiastical language the dialect of the other Aramaean
Christians, the Syriac (or Edessene). The only localities where a
Western Aramaic dialect, much changed from the old language,
still survives are a few villages in Anti-Libanus.
The popular Aramaic dialect of Babylonia from the 4th to the
6th century of our era is exhibited in the Babylonian Talmud, in
which, however, as in the Jerusalem Talmud, there is a
constant mingling of Aramaic and Hebrew passages. To
a somewhat later period, and probably not to exactly
the same district of Babylonia, belong the writings of the
Mandaeans (q.v.), a strange sect, half Christian and half
heathen, who from a linguistic point of view possess the
peculiar advantage of having remained almost entirely free from the
influence of Hebrew, which is so perceptible in the Aramaic writings
of Jews as well as of Christians. The orthography of the Mandaeans
comes nearer than that of the Talmud to the real pronunciation,
and in it the softening of the gutturals is most clearly seen. In other
respects there is a close resemblance between Mandaean and the
language of the Babylonian Talmud. The forms of the imperfect
which we have enumerated above take in these dialects n or /. In
Babylonia, as in Syria, the language of the Arabic conquerors
rapidly drove out that of the country. The latter has long been
totally extinct, unless possibly a few surviving Mandaeans still
speak among themselves a more modern form of their dialect.
At Edessa, in the west of Mesopotamia, the native dialect had
already been used for some time as a literary language, and had
been reduced to rule through the influence of the schools
Syriac or ( as ; s p rovec l by the fixity of the grammar and orthography)
even before Christianity acquired power in the country in
Aramaic. ^ 2m j century At an ear l y period the Old and New
Testaments were here translated, with the help of Jewish tradition.
This version and its transformations became the Bible of Aramaean
Christendom, and Edessa became its capital. Thus the Aramaean
Christians of the neighbouring countries, even those who were
subjects of the Persian empire, adopted the Edessan dialect as the
language of the church, of literature, and of cultivated intercourse.
Since the ancient name of the inhabitants, " Aramaeans," just like
that of "EXXTjpes, had acquired in the minds of Jews and Christians
the unpleasant signification of " heathens," it was generally avoided,
and in its place the Greek terms " Syrians " and " Syriac " were
used. But " Syriac " was also the name given by the Jews and
Christians of Palestine to their own language, and both Greeks and
Persians designated the Aramaeans of Babylonia as " Syrians."
It is therefore, properly speaking, incorrect to employ the word
" Syriac " as meaning the language of Edessa alone; but, since it
was the most important of these dialects, it has the best claim to
this generally received appellation. It has, as we have said, a shape
very definitely fixed; and in it the above-mentioned forms of the
imperfect take an re. As in the Babylonian dialects, the termination
o has become so completely a part of the substantive to which it is
added that it has wholly lost the meaning of the definite article,
whereby the clearness of the language is perceptibly impaired. The
influence exercised by Greek is very apparent in Syriac. From the
3rd to the 7th century an extensive literature was produced in this
language, consisting chiefly, but not entirely, of ecclesiastical
works. In the development of this literature the Syrians of the
Persian empire took an eager part. In the eastern Roman empire
Syriac was, after Greek, by far the most important language; and
under the Persian kings it virtually occupied a more prominent
position as an organ of culture than the Persian language itself.
The conquests of the Arabs totally changed this state of things.
But meanwhile, even in Edessa, a considerable difference had arisen
between the written language and the popular speech, in which the
process of modification was still going on. About the year 700 it
became a matter of absolute necessity to systematize the grammar
of the language and to introduce some means of clearly expressing
the vowels. The principal object aimed at was that the text of the
Syriac Bible should be recited in a correct manner. But, as it
happened, the eastern pronunciation differed in many respects from
that of the west. The local dialects had to some extent exercised
an influence over the pronunciation of the literary tongue; and,
on the other hand, the political separation between Rome and
Persia, and yet more the ecclesiastical schism since the Syrians of
the east were mostly Nestorians, those of the west Monophysites and
Catholics had produced divergencies between the traditions of the
various schools. Starting, therefore, from a common source, two
distinct systems of punctuation were formed, of which the western
is the more convenient, but the eastern the more exact and generally
the more in accordance with the ancient pronunciation; it has, for
example, a in place of the western o, and d in many cases where the
western Syrians pronounce u. In later times the two systems have
been intermingled in various ways.
Arabic everywhere put a speedy end to the predominance of
Aramaic a predominance which had lasted for much more than a
thousand years and soon began to drive Syriac out of use. At
the beginning of the llth century the learned metropolitan of
Nisibis, Elias bar Shinnaya, wrote his books intended for Christians
either entirely in Arabic or in Arabic and Syriac arranged in parallel
columns, that is, in the spoken and in the learned language. Thus,
too, it became necessary to have Syriac-Arabic glossaries. Up to
the present day Syriac has remained in use for literary and ecclesiasti-
cal purposes, and may perhaps be even spoken in some monasteries
and schools; but it has long been a dead language. When Syriac
became extinct in Edessa and its neighbourhood is not known with
certainty (see SYRIAC LANGUAGE).
This language, called Syriac par excellence, is not the immediate
source whence are derived the Aramaic dialects still surviving in the
northern districts. In the mountains known as the TOr 'Abdin in
Mesopotamia, in certain districts east and north of Mosul, in the
neighbouring mountains of Kurdistan, and again beyond them on
the western coast of the Lake of Urmia, Aramaic dialects are spoken
by Christians and occasionally by Jews, and some of these dialects
we know with tolerable precision. The dialect of Tur 'Abdin differs
considerably from all the rest; the country beyond the Tigris is,
however, divided, as regards language, amongst a multitude of local
dialects. Among these, that of Urmia has become the most im-
portant, since American missionaries have formed a new literary
language out of it. Moreover, the Roman Propaganda has printed
books in two of the Nep-Syriac dialects. All these dialects exhibit
a complete transformation of the ancient type, to a degree incom-
parably greater than is the case, for example, with Mandaean. In
E articular, the ancient verbal tenses have almost entirely disappeared,
ut have been successfully replaced by new forms derived from
participles. _ There are also other praiseworthy innovations. The
dialect of fur ' Abdin has, for instance, again coined a definite article.
By means of violent contractions and phonetic changes some of these
dialects, particularly that of Urmia, have acquired a euphony
scarcely known in any other of the Semitic languages, with their
" stridentia anhelantiaque verba " (Jerome). These Aramaeans
have all adopted a motley crowd of foreign words, from the Arabs,
Kurds, Persians and Turks, on whose borders they live and of whose
languages they can often speak at least one.
Aramaic is frequently described as a poor language. This is an
opinion which we are unable to share. It is quite possible, even
now, to extract a very large vocabulary from the more
ancient Aramaic writings, and yet in this predominantly
theological literature a part only of the words that existed
in the language have been preserved. It is true that
Aramaic, having from the earliest times come into close contact
with foreign languages, has borrowed many words from them,
firstly from Assyrian, later from Persian and Greek; but, if
we leave out of consideration the fact that many Syrian authors
are in the habit of usipg, as ornaments or for convenience (especially
in translations), a great number of Greek words, some of which were
unintelligible to their readers, we shall find that the proportion of
really foreign words in older Aramaic books is smaller than the
proportion of Romance words in German or Dutch. The influence
of Greek upon the syntax and phraseology of Syriac is not so great
as that which it has exercised, through the medium of Latin, upon
the literary languages of modern Europe. The literal reproduction
of Greek phraseology and Greek construction is contrary to the
whole spirit of the language. With regard to sounds, the most
characteristic feature of Aramaic (besides its peculiar treatment of
the dentals) is that it is poorer in vowels than Hebrew, not to speak
of Arabic, since nearly all short vowels in open syllables either
wholly disappear or leave but a slight trace behind them (the so-
called shewa). In this respect the punctuation of Biblical Aramaic
agrees with Syriac, in which we are able to observe from very early
times the number of vowels by examining the metrical pieces con-
structed according to the number of syllables, and with the Man-
daean, which expresses every vowel by means of a vowel-letter.
626
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
Early
Arabic
Inscrip-
tions.
Thamudic
(Llnyani)
Inscrip-
tion*.
When several distinct dialects so agree, the phenomenon in question
must be of great antiquity. There are nevertheless traces which
prove that the language once possessed more vowels, and the
Aramaeans, for instance, with whom David fought may have
pronounced many vowels which afterwards disappeared. Another
peculiarity of Aramaic is that it lends itself far more readily to the
linking together of sentences than Hebrew and Arabic. It possesses
many conjunctions and adverbs to express slight modifications of
meaning. It is also very free as regards the order of words. That
this quality, which renders it suitable for a clear and limpid prose
style, is not the result of Greek influence may be seen by the Man-
daean, on which Greek has left no mark. In its attempts to express
everything clearly Aramaic often becomes prolix, for example,
by using additional personal and demonstrative pronouns. The
contrast between Aramaic as the language of prose and Hebrew as
the language of poetry is one which naturally strikes us, but we must
beware of carrying it too far. Even the Aramaeans were not wholly
destitute of poetical talent. Although the religious poetry of the
Syrians has but little charm for us, yet real poetry occurs in the few
extant fragments of Gnostic hymns. Moreover, in the modern
dialects popular songs have been discovered which, though very
simple, are fresh and full of feeling. It is therefore by no means
improbable that in ancient times Aramaic was used in poems which,
being contrary to the theological tendency of Syrian civilization,
were doomed to total oblivion.
Arabic.
The southern group of Semitic languages consists of Arabic,
Ethiopic and Mahri-Socotri. Arabic, again, is subdivided into the
dialects of the larger portion of Arabia and those of the
south (the Sabaean). At a very much earlier time than
we were but lately justified in supposing, some of the
northern Arabs reduced their language to writing. For
travellers have recently discovered at al Ula in the
northern Hijaz inscriptions in a hitherto unknown character, de-
rived from the Sabaean (see below), which appear to have been
written before our era. Since it is probable that TLMJ,
the name of two kings mentioned in them, is IlroXe^cuos,
we are directed to the Hellenistic period, and other cir-
cumstances confirm this conjecture. These inscriptions
have been called " Thamudic," because they were found
in the country of the Thamud; but this designation is scarcely a
suitable one, because during the period when the power of the
Thamud was at its height, and when the buildings mentioned in the
Koran were hewn in the rocks, the language of this country was
Nabataean (see above). A more commendable proposal is to call
the inscriptions Lihyani, since the tribe of Lihyan is sometimes
mentioned in them. Unfortunately the inscriptions hitherto dis-
covered are all short and for the most part fragmentary, and con-
sequently furnish but little material to the student of languages.
But there can be no doubt that they are written in an Arabic dialect.
The treatment of the dentals, among other things, is a sufficient
proof of this.
In some districts of the northern Hijaz and the neighbouring
portion of Nejd, other brief inscriptions, for the most part cursorily
scratched upon rocks, have been discovered. These have been
not very happily named " Proto-Arabic," while the title Thamudic
has been proposed for them also. Their writing is a somewhat later
form of the Lihyani, and the dialect, as well, seems to be very
similar te Lihyani. Unfortunately, the brevity of the inscriptions,
which generally contain only proper names, together with the
incertitude of the meaning of many, does not allow an accurate
insight into their language.
To the first centuries ofthe Christian era belong the thousands of
Arabic inscriptions, found in the wild, rocky districts south-east
of Damascus, which are commonly termed Safaitic, after Safa, a
locality in their neighbourhood. For the most part, these also are
short fugitive pieces scratched on rough stones, though a few of them
show more careful execution. Their writing is, again, a later stage
of development of the Sabaean. The task of decipherment was at
first rendered extremely difficult by the scanty number of exemplars
and the lack of perfectly exact facsimiles. To this must be added
the fact that the Safaites insert extraordinarily few vowel letters.
But the zeal of several scholars and the ever increasing number of
good copies have rapidly brought us farther towards the goal;
and we now know the language of the Safa inscriptions much better
than that of the Lihyani ana" Proto-Arabic," to which it stands
in a close relationship. Although the inscriptions yield us no
information as to unknown events of importance, still they teach
us much with regard to the life and occupation of Arabian tribes who
seem to have been subsequently displaced by others. The great
mass of proper names, alone, is enough to make them of value to the
philologist.
The _ Arabs who inhabited the Nabataean kingdom wrote in
Aramaic, but, as has been remarked above, their native language,
Arabic, often shows through the foreign disguise. We are thus able
to satisfy ourselves that these Arabs, who lived a little before and
a little after Christ, spoke a dialect closely resembling the later
classical Arabic. The nominative of the so-called " triptote " nouns
has, nearly as in classical Arabic, the termination u or 5; the genitive
has t (the accusative therefore probably ended in a), but without
the addition of n. Generally speaking, those proper names which in
classical Arabic are " diptotes " are here devoid of any inflexional
termination. The u of the nominative appears also in Arabic
proper names belonging to more northern districts, as, for example,
Palmyra and Edessa, All these Arabs were probably of the same
race. It is possible that the inscription of Nemara, south-east of
Damascus, Arabic, but in Nabataean letters, dating from A.D. 328,
and the two oldest known specimens of distinctively Arabic writing
namely, the Arabic portion of the trilingual inscription of Zabad,
south-east of Haleb (Aleppo), written in Syriac, Greek and Arabic,
and dating from 512 or 513 A.D., and that of the bilingual inscription
of Harran, south of Damascus, written in Greek and Arabic, of
568 represent nothing but a somewhat more modern form of this
dialect. In these inscriptions proper names take in the genitive
the termination u, which shows that the meaning of such inflexions
was no longer felt. The three inscriptions have not yet been satis-
factorily interpreted in all their details.
During the whole period of the preponderance of Aramaic this
language exercised a great influence upon the vocabulary of the
Arabs. The more carefully we investigate the more clearly does it
appear that numerous Arabic words, used for ideas or objects which
presuppose a certain degree of civilization, are borrowed from the
Aramaeans. Hence the civilizing influence of their northern neigh-
bours must have been very strongly felt by the Arabs, and contri-
buted in no small measure to prepare them for playing so important
a part in the history of the world.
In the 6th century the inhabitants of the greater part of Arabia
proper spoke everywhere essentially the same language, which, as
being by far the most important of all Arabic dialects, is
known simply as the Arabic language. Arabic poetry,
at that time cultivated throughout the whole of central
and northern Arabia as far as the lower Euphrates and even beyond
it, employed one language only. The extant Arabic poems belonging
to the heathen period were not indeed written down till much later,
and meanwhile underwent considerable alterations; but the absolute
regularity of the metre and rhyme is a sufficient proof that on the
whole these poems all obeyed the same laws of language. It is indeed
highly probable that the rhapsodists and the grammarians have
effaced many slight dialectical peculiarities; in a great number of
passages, for example, the poems may have used, in accordance with
the fashion of their respective tribes, some other case than that
prescribed by the grammarians, and a thing of this kind may after-
wards have been altered, unless it happened to occur in rhyme;
but such alterations cannot have extended very far. A dialect that
diverged in any great measure from the Arabic of the grammarians
could not possibly have been made to fit into the metres. More-,
over, the Arabic philologists recognize the existence of various small
distinctions between the dialects of individual tribes and of their
poets, and the traditions of the more ancient schools of Koran readers
exhibit very many dialectical nuances. It might indeed be con-
jectured that for the majority of the Arabs the language of poetry
was an artificial one, the speech of certain tribes having been
adopted by all the rest as a dialeclus poetica. And this might be
possible in the case of wandering minstrels whose art gained them
their livelihood, such as Nabigha and A'sha. But, when we find
that the Bedouin goat-herds, for instance, in the mountainous
district near Mecca composed poems in this very same language
upon their insignificant feuds and personal quarrels, that in it the
proud chiefs of the Taghlibites and the Bekrites addressed defiant
verses to the king of Hira (on the Euphrates), that a Christian in-
habitant of Hira, Adi b. Zaid, used this language in his serious
poems, when we reflect that, as far as the Arabic poetry of the
heathen period extends, there is nowhere a trace of any important
linguistic difference, it would surely be a paradox to assume that all
these Arabs, who for the most part were quite illiterate and yet
extremely jealous of the honour of their tribes, could have taken the
trouble to clothe their ideas and feelings in a foreign, or even a
perfectly artificial, language. The Arabic philologists also invariabjy
regarded the language of the poets as being that of the Arabs in
general. Even in the 3rd century after Mahomet the Bedouins of
Arabia proper, with the exception of a few outlying districts, were
considered as being in possession of this pure Arabic. The most
learned grammarians were in the habit of appealing to any unedu-
cated man who happened to have just arrived with his camels from
the desert, though he did not know by heart twenty verses of the
Koran, and had no conception of theoretical grammar, in order that
he might decide whether in Arabic it were allowable or necessary
to express oneself in this or that manner. It is evident that these
profound scholars knew of only one classical language, which was
still spoken by the Bedouins. The tribes which produced the
principal poets of the earlier period belonged for the most part to
portions of the Hijaz, to Najd and its neighbourhood, and to the
region which stretches thence towards the Euphrates. A great part
of the Hijaz, on the other hand, plays a very unimportant part in
this poetry, and the Arabs of the north-west, who were under the
Roman dominion, have no share whatever in it. The dialects of
these latter tribes probably diverged farther from the ordinary
language. The fact that they were Christians does not explain this,
since the Taghlibites and other tribes who produced eminent poets
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
627
also professed Christianity. Moreover, poets from the interior were
gladly welcomed at the court of the Ghassanian princes, who were
Christian vassals of the emperor residing near Damascus; in this
district, therefore, their language was at least understood. It may
be added that most of the tribes which cultivated poetry appear to
have been near neighbours at an epoch not very far removed from
that in question, and afterwards to have been scattered in large
bands over a much wider extent of country. And nearly all those
who were not Christians paid respect to the sanctuary of Mecca.
It is a total mistake, but one frequently made by Europeans, to
designate the Arabic language as " the Koraishite dia-
lect. This expression never occurs in any Arabic author.
K aLft True, in a few rare cases we do read of the dialect of the
' Koraish, by which is meant the peculiar local tinge that
distinguished the speech of Mecca; but to describe the Arabic
language as " Koraishite " is as absurd as it would be to speak of
English as the dialect of London or of Oxford. This unfortunate
designation has been made the basis of a theory very often repeated
in modern times namely, that classical Arabic is nothing else but
the dialect of Mecca, which the Koran first brought into fashion. So
far from this being the case, it is certain that the speech of the towns
in the Hijaz did not agree in every point with the language of the
poets, and, as it happens, the Koran itself contains some remarkable
deviations from the rules of the classical language. _ This would be
still more evident if the punctuation, which was introduced at a
somewhat later time, did not obscure many details. The traditions
which represent the Koraish as speaking the purest of all Arabic
dialects are partly the work of the imagination and partly compli-
ments paid to the rulers descended from the Koraish, but are no
doubt at variance with the ordinary opinion of the Arabs themselves
in earlier days. In the Koran Mahomet has imitated the poets,
though, generally speaking, with little success; the poets, on the
other hand, never imitated him. Thus the Koran and its language
exercised but very little influence upon the poetry of the following
century and upon that of later times, whereas this poetry closely
and slavishly copied the productions of the old heathen period.
The fact that the poetical literature of the early Moslems has been
preserved in a much more authentic form than the works of the
heathen poets proves that our idea of the language of its pattern, the
ancient poetry, is on the whole just.
The Koran and Islam raised Arabic to the position of one of the
principal languages of the world. Under the leadership of the
Koraish the Bedouins subjected half the world to both
their dominion and their faith. Thus Arabic acquired the
. .. additional character of a sacred language. But soon it
became evident that not nearly all the Arabs spoke a
language precisely identical with the classical Arabic of
the poets. The north-western Arabs played a particularly important
part during the period of the Omayyads. The ordinary speech of
Mecca and Medina was, as we have seen, no longer quite so primitive
as that of the desert. To this may be added that the military ex-
peditions brought those Arabs who spoke the classical language into
contact with tribes from out-of-the-way districts, such as 'Oman,
Bahrain (Bahrein), and particularly the north of Yemen. The fact
that numbers of foreigners, on passing over to Islam, became rapidly
Arabized was also little calculated to preserve the unity of the
language. Finally, the violent internal and external commotions
which were produced by the great events of that time, and stirred
the whole nation, probably accelerated linguistic change. In any
case, we know from good tradition that even in the 1st century of
the Flight the distinction between correct and incorrect speech was
in places quite perceptible. About the end of the 2nd century the
system of Arabic grammar was constructed, and never underwent
any essential modification in later times. The theory as to how one
should express oneself was now definitely fixed. The majority of
those Arabs who lived beyond the limits of Arabia already diverged
far from this standard; and in particular the final vowels which
serve to indicate cases and moods were no longer pronounced. This
change, by which Arabic lost one of its principal advantages, was no
doubt hastened by the fact that even in the classical style such
terminations were omitted whenever the word stood at the end of a
sentence (in pause) ; and in the living language of the Arabs this
dividing of sentences is very frequent. Hence people were already
quite accustomed to forms without grammatical terminations. But
in the language of certain Bedouin tribes remnants of those termina-
tions have been preserved down to our time.
Through the industry of Arabic philologists we are able to make
ourselves intimately acquainted with the system, and still more with
Vocabu- e voca bulary of the language. Although they have not
always performed their task in a critical manner, we are
obliged to thank them sincerely. We should be all the
more disposed to admire the richness of the ancient Arabic vocabu-
lary when we remember how simple are the conditions of life
amongst the Arabs, how painfully monotonous their country, and
consequently how limited'the range of their ideas must be. Within
this range, however, the slightest modification is expressed by a
particular word. It must be confessed that the Arabic lexicon has
been greatly augmented by the habit of citing as words by themselves
such rhetorical phrases as an individual poet has used to describe
an object : for example, if one poet calls the lion the " tearer "
and another calls him the " mangier," each of these terms is ex-
plained by the lexicographers as equivalent to " lion." One branch
of literature in particular, namely, lampoons and satirical poems,
which for the most part have perished, no doubt introduced into the
lexicon many expressions coined in an arbitrary and sometime in
a very strange manner. Moreover, Arabic philologists seem to have
underrated the number of words which, though they occur now and
then in poems, were never in general use except among particular
tribes. But in spite of these qualifications it must be admitted that
the vocabulary is surprisingly rich, and the Arabic dictionary will
always remain the principal resource for the elucidation of obscure
expressions in all the other Semitic tongues. This method, if pursued
with the necessary caution, is a perfectly legitimate one.
Poems seldom enable us to form, a clear idea of the language of
ordinary life, and Arabic poetry happens to have been distinguished
from the very beginning by a certain tendency to artificiality and
mannerism. Still less does the Koran exhibit the language in its
spoken form. This office is more performed by the prose of the
ancient normative traditions (Hadlth). And the genuine accounts of
the deeds of the Prophet and of his companions, and esjpecially the
stories concerning the battles and adventures of the Bedouins in
the heathen period and in the earlier days of Islam, are excellent
models of a prose style, although in some cases their redaction
dates from a later time.
Classical Arabic is rich not only in words but in grammatical forms.
The wanton development of the broken plurals, and sometimes of
the verbal nouns, must be regarded as an excess of wealth. _^
The sparing use of the ancient terminations which mark ,..".
the plural has somewhat obscured the distinction between f onns aod
plurals, collectives, abstract nouns, and feminines in -.v.
general. In its manner of employing the verbal tenses
genuine Arabic still exhibits traces of that poetical freedom which
we see in Hebrew ; this characteristic disappears in the later literary
language. In connecting sentences Arabic can go much further than
Hebrew, but the simple parataxis is by far the most usual con-
struction. Arabic has, however, this great advantage, that it
scarcely ever leaves us in doubt as to where the apodosis begins.
The attempts to define the tenses more clearly by the addition of
adverbs and auxiliary verbs lead to no very positive result (as is
the case in other Semitic languages also), since they are not carried
out in a systematic manner. The arrangement of words in a
sentence is governed by very strict rules. As the subject and object,
at least in ordinary cases, occupy fixed positions, and as the genitive
is invariably placed after the noun that governs it, the use of case-
endings loses much of its significance.
This languge of the Bedouins had now, as we have seen, become
that of religion, courts and polished society. In the streets of the
towns the language already diverged considerably from
this, but the upper classes took pains to speak " Arabic."
The poets and the beaux esprits never ventured to employ xlety
any but the classical language, and the " Atticists," with
pedantic seriousness, convicted the most celebrated among the later
poets (for instance, Motanabbi) of occasional deviations from the
standard of correct speech. / 1 the same time, however, classical
Arabic was the language of business and of science, and at the
present day still holds this position. There are, of course, many
gradations between the pedantry of purists and the use of what is
simply a vulgar dialect. Sensi' le writers employ a kind of noir/i,
which does not aim at being strictly correct and calls modern things
by modern names, but which, nevertheless, avoids coarse vulgarisms,
aiming principally at making itself intelligible to all educated men.
The reader may pronounce or omit the ancient terminations as he
chooses. This language lived on, in a sense, through the whole of
the middle ages, owing chiefly to the fact that it was intended for
educated persons in general and not only for the learned, whereas
the poetical schools strove to preserve exactly the grammar and the
lexicon of the long extinct language of the Bedouins. As might be
expected, this KOLVTI, like thexoin? of the Greeks, has a comparatively
limited vocabulary, since its principle is to retain only those ex-
pressions from the ancient language which were generally understood,
and it does not borrow much new material from the vulgar dialects.
It is entirely a mistake to suppose that Arabic is unsuited for the
treatment of abstract subjects. On the contrary, scarcely any
language is so well adapted to be the organ of scholasticism in all
its branches. Even the tongue of the ancient Bedouins had a strong
preference for the use of abstract verbal nouns (in striking contrast
to the Latin, for example); thus they oftener said " Nee_dful is thy
sitting " than " It is needful that thou shouldest sit." This tendency
was very advantageous to philosophical phraseology. The strict
rules as to the order of words, though very unfavourable to the
development of a truly eloquent style, render it all the easier to
express ideas in a rigidly scientific form.
In the meantime Arabic, like every other widely spread language,
necessarily began to undergo modification and to split up into
dialects. The Arabic scholars are mistaken in attributing
this development to the influence of those foreign languages
with which Arabic came into contact. Such influences can
Minor
Arabic
dialects.
have had but little to do with the matter; for were it
otherwise the language of the interior of Arabia must have remained
unchanged, yet even in this region the inhabitants are very far from
628
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
speaking as they did a thousand years back. A person who in
Arabia or elsewhere should trust to his knowledge of classical Arabic
only would resemble those travellers from the north who endeavour
to make themselves understood by Italian waiters through the
medium of a kind of Latin. The written language has, it is true,
greatly retarded the development of the dialects. Every good
Moslem repeats at least a few short suras several times a day in his
prayers. Nor is this all: the sacred book meets him everywhere.
Now the majority of Arabian Moslems understand something at
least of the passages they recite or hear; so that the Koran was
bound to exercise, on the language of the widest circles, an influence
such as has been exercised by no other book in the world. The
idiom of the church, of learning and of diplomacy was brought
partially at least nearer to the average man, with the result that
many of its words and locutions passed, with more or less correcti-
tude, into the language of common life, or that its mode of expression
was taken as a model, precisely as Latin, the language of the church,
science and the state, exerted a powerful influence on the living
Romance tongues, even before the Renaissance. Yet, in spite of
this, the Arabic dialects have developed on their own lines and
have diverged widely from each other. Our knowledge of them has
made rapid progress in late years, and we have now good grammars
of several dialects. We are best acquainted with the present speech
of Egypt, and we are well posted in the dialects of the Maghrib
the African coastal lands from Tripoli to Morocco. To the Maghrib
group of dialects belonged that once spoken in Sicily, of which
we know little in especial, together with the Spanish Arabic of
former times, which is better known to us through several literary
monuments and the Grammar and Lexicon of Pedro de Alcala
(1505). The shibboleth of these Western dialects is that, in the
imperfect, they pronounce the 1st person plural with the ending u
fas the 2nd and 3rd), and give to the 1st person singular the prefix n
(as in the plural form). Maltese, also, is of the Maghrib family.
This Arabic dialect, the only one spoken exclusively by Christians,
is of peculiar interest to the philologist, owing to the fact that for
some 900 years it has been completely withdrawn from the action
of literary Arabic. On the other hand, it has been exposed to the
influence of Italian. Nevertheless, it has developed in a very
similar manner to the dialects of the neighbouring African coast:
still it possesses many features which are peculiar to itself. Of the
dialects of Syria, inner and southern Arabia, and other oriental
countries, we also know more than was the case a short while ago;
but the gaps in our knowledge are still too great to allow us to
classify them in fixed groups. For the most part the Bedouin
language is somewhat strongly distinguished from that of the
sedentary tribes; but we should hardly be justified in believing that
the Bedouin dialects form a contrasting unity as against the other
idioms.
There can be no doubt that the development of these dialects is
in part the result of older dialectical variations which were already
in existence in the time of the Prophet. The histories of dialects
which differ completely from one another often pursue an ana-
logous course. In general, the Arabic dialects still resemble one
another more than we might expect when we take into considera-
tion the immense extent of country over which they are spoken and
the very considerable geographical obstacles that stand in the way
of communication. But we must not suppose that people, for
instance, from Mosul, Morocco, San'a, and the interior of Arabia
would be able to understand one another without difficulty. It is
a total error to regard the difference between the Arabic dialects
and the ancient language as a trifling one, or to represent the de-
velopment of these dialects as something wholly unlike the develop-
ment of the Romance languages. No living Arabic dialect diverges
from classical Arabic so much as French or Rouman from Latin ;
but, on the other hand, no Arabic dialect resembles the classical
language so closely as the Lugodoric dialect, which is still spoken
in Sardinia, resembles its parent speech, and yet the lapse of time
is very much greater in the case of the latter. Side by side with the
poetry of the old literary language there arose, in quite early days,
another school of poetry which availed itself of the younger, living
dialects. So, even in the I2th century, dialectic poetry was flourish-
ing in Spain; and down to the present day, in the most diverse
quarters of the vast linguistic domain of Arabic, songs have been
composed in the various dialects. But this poetry, probably with
the sole exception of Maltese, stands in some connexion or other
with the antique, and is subject, more or less, to the influence of the
classical language. And this is still more the case in other depart-
ments of , literature. Marchen, and other tales, written by the un-
educated, merely show a dialectic colouring, frequently combined
with a catachrestic use of the grammatical forms of classical Arabic,
not the genuine aspect of the dialect itself. These features are
particularly evident in works by Jews and Christians. Purely
vulgar " texts, of any magnitude, would be hard to discover.
The isolated Maltese alone has succeeded in producing a new written
language distinct from the classical tongue; and in this a fair
amount of material has already been printed in Latin characters.
In recent years, however, earnest attempts have been made to
elevate the Egyptian dialect to the rank of a literary language:
whether these attempts will be crowned with permanent success is
a question to be resolved by time. In any case, the ancient written
language, though with all kinds of modifications, will long continue
to exist. The very fact that it does not express the vocalization
with exactitude is an advantage; for thus the Arabs, from the
Persian Gulf to the Atlantic, can recognize the same word, although
they may pronounce it with different vowels.
Sabaean.
Long before Mahomet, a peculiar and highly developed form of
civilization had flourished in the table-land to the south-west of
Arabia. The more we become acquainted with the
country of the ancient Sabaeans and with its colossal
edifices, and the better we are able to decipher its in- </ ons
scriptions, which are being discovered in ever-increasing
numbers, the easier it is for us to account for the haze of mythical
glory wherewith the Sabaeans were once invested. The Sabaean
mcriptions (which till lately were more often called by the less
correct name of " Himyaritic ") begin long before our era and
continue till the 6th century. The somewhat stiff character is
always very distinct; and the habit of regularly dividing the words
from one another renders decipherment easier, which, however, has
not yet been performed in a very satisfactory manner, owing in part
to the fact that the vast majority of the documents in question
consist of religious votive tablets with peculiar sacerdotal expressions,
or of architectural notices abounding in technical terms. These
inscriptions fall into two classes, distinguished partly by grammatical
peculiarities and partly by peculiarities of phraseology. One dialect,
which forms the causative with ha, like Hebrew and others, and
employs, like nearly all the Semitic languages, the termination h
(hu) as the suffix of the third person singular, is the Sabaean properly
speaking. The other, which expresses the causative by sa (corre-
sponding to the Shaphel of the Aramaeans and others), and for the
suffix uses s (like the Assyrian sh), is the Minaic. To this latter
branch belong the numerous South Arabic inscriptions recently
found in the north of the Hijiiz, near yejr, where the Minaeans
must have had a commercial settlement. On the other hand, the
very old inscriptions, emanating from a colony at Jeha in Abyssinia,
are Sabaean. The difference between the two classes of inscriptions
is no doubt ultimately based upon a real divergence of dialect. But
the singular manner in which districts containing Sabaean inscriptions
and those containing Minaic alternate with one another seems to
point in part to a mere hieratic practice of clinging to ancient modes
of expression. Indeed it is very probably due to conscious literary
conservatism that the language of the inscriptions remains almost
entirely unchanged through many centuries. A few inscriptions
from districts rather more to the east exhibit certain linguistic
peculiarities, which, however, may perhaps be explained by the
supposition that the writers did not, as a rule, speak this dialect,
and therefore were but imperfectly acquainted with it.
A great hindrance to the completion of our knowledge of the
Sabaean language lies in the paucity of vowel-letters in the in-
scriptions. The unvarying style of the inscriptions
excludes further a great number of the commonest
grammatical forms. Not a single occurrence of the first
or second person has yet been detected, with the possible
exception of one proper name, in which " our god " apparently
occurs. But the knowledge which we already possess amply suffices
to prove that Sabaean is closely related to Arabic as we are acquainted
with it. The former language possesses the same phonetic elements
as the latter. It possesses the broken plural, a dual form resembling
that used in Arabic, &c. It is especially important to notice that
Sabaean expresses the idea of indefiniteness by means of an appended
m, just as Arabic expresses it by means of an n, which in all prob-
ability is a modification of the former sound. But we may main-
tain that, in the later centuries, the m had fallen away in the pro-
nunciation, either completely or in the majority of cases. .Both in
this point and in some others Sabaean appears more primitive than
Arabic, as might be expected from the earlier date of its monuments.
The article is formed by appending an n. In its vocabulary also
Sabaean bears a great resemblance to Arabic, although, on the
other hand, it often approaches more nearly to the northern Semitic
languages in this respect; and it possesses much that is peculiar to
itself.
Soon after the Christian era Sabaean civilization began to decline,
and completely perished in the wars with the Abyssinians, who
several times occupied the country, and in the 6th century remained
in possession of it for a considerable period. In that age the language
of central Arabia was already penetrating into the Sabaean domain.
It is further possible that many tribes which dwelt not far to the
north of the civilized districts had always spoken dialects resembling
central Arabic rather than Sabaean. About the year 600 "Arabic '
was the language of all Yemen, with the exception perhaps of a few
isolated districts, and this process of assimilation continued in later
times. True, a few echoes of Sabaean have survived in certain
grammatical forms and the vocabulary of present-day dialects in
those districts; but these dialects are, on the whole, thoroughly
" Arabic." Several centuries after Mahomet, learned Yemenites
were acquainted with the characters of the inscriptions which
abounded in their country; they were also able to decipher the
proper names and a small number of Saoaean words the meaning of
which was still known to them, but they could no longer understand
Gram-
matical
forms.
SEMITIC LANGUAGES
629
the inscriptions as a whole. Being zealous local patriots, they
discovered in those inscriptions which they imagined themselves to
be capable of deciphering many fabulous stories respecting the glory
of the ancient Yemenites.
Mahri and Socotri.
Farther to the east, in the sea-coast districts of Shihr and Mahra,
up to the borders of the barren desert of the interior, and also in
the island of Socotra, dialects very unlike Arabic are still spoken.
Allusions to this fact are found in Arabic writers of the loth century.
Mahri, from which Shkhauri forms a distinct dialect, and Socotri are
probably scions of dialects which were related to Sabaean and
Minaean ; but they have developed on altogether independent lines,
and we can scarcely hope that they will render us any great assistance
in the interpretation of the inscriptions. They certainly show the
southern Semitic type in a most pronounced manner. The strange
form of the words is produced, inter alia, by all manner of vowel
lengthenings and violent mutations of consonants (e.g. in Socotri s
frequently becomes h, a phonetic change otherwise unknown in
Semitic philology). Exact investigation will undoubtedly still dis-
cover an old acquaintance in many a strange-seeming word. Here
and there, however, in Mahri we discover words which at the first
glance we recognize as common in Hebrew or Aramaic, while Arabic
knows them either not at all or only in derivative significations.
Still, a very large part perhaps the preponderating part of the
Mahri vocabulary is formed by words which have been borrowed
from the Arabic at different periods. Many of them have subse-
quently undergone drastic phonetic alterations, so that at first they
might be taken for genuine Mahri. In Socotri, which has been more
protected by its insular position, the borrowed Arabic words are
rarer, but even here they are not lacking. These languages, how-
ever, especially Socotri, still contain a number of words, with regard
to which we may well doubt whether they are Semitic at all. The
conjecture that Hamites also were once settled in those districts
and have left traces of themselves in the language, appears to be
favoured by the bodily characteristics of the inhabitants. 1
Ethiopic.
In Abyssinia, too, and in the neighbouring countries we find
languages which bear a certain resemblance to Arabic. The Geez, or
Ethiopic 2 proper, the language of the ancient kingdom
Oeez, or Q f A x u mi was reduced to writing at an early date. At
Ethiopia rst s a baean letters were employed. But even the
proper. mon ument of King Aeizanas (c. A.D. 550), as is now well
established, bears, in addition to the Greek inscription, one in
Ethiopian. This, however, is both in Sabaean and in Geez char-
acters, i.e. in a systematic transformation of the Sabaean. Here the
Geez is still unvocalized; and some few inscriptions besides, without
vowel signs, have been discovered. But twtfgreat inscriptions of the
same king of Axum so it appears to be after the newest researches
already have the full vocalization which obtains in the Ethiopian
Bible and the remaining literature: the language, too, is identically
the same. The indication of the vowels gives Ethiopic an advantage
over all other Semitic scripts. By whom it was introduced is un-
known. Not long after the time of the inscriptions the Bible was
translated into Geez from the Greek, in part by Jews; for Jews and
Christians were at that time actively competing with one another,
both in Arabia and in Abyssinia; nor were the former unsuccessful
in making proselytes. The missionaries who gave the Bible to the
Abyssinians must, at least in some cases, have spoken Aramaic as
their mother-tongue, for this alone can explain the fact that in the
Ethiopic Bible certain religious conceptions are expressed by Aramaic
words. During the following centuries various works were producec
by the Abyssinians in this language; they were all, so far as we
are able to judge, of a more or less theological character, almosi
invariably translations from the Greek. We cannot say with
certainty when Geez ceased to be the language of the people, but it
was probably about a thousand years ago. From the time when the
Abyssinian kingdom was reconstituted, towards the end of the I3th
century, by the so-called Solomonian dynasty (which was of southern
origin), the language of the court and of the government was Am
haric; but Geez remained the ecclesiastical and literary language
and Geez literature even showed a certain activity in numerou
translations from those Arabic and Coptic works which were in use
amongst the Christians of Egypt; besides these, original writing
were composed by monks and priests, namely, lives of saints
hymns, &c. This literary condition lasted till modern times. The
language, which had long become extinct, was by no means invariably
written in a pure form: we may often observe, inter alia, a servil
imitation of Arabic modes of expression. Even in manuscripts o
more ancient works we find many linguistic corruptions, which hav
crept in partly through mere carelessness and ignorance, parti}
through the influence of the later dialects. On points of detail w
What certain knowledge we possess of Mahri and Socotri i
almost wholly based on the researches of Vienna scholars. We hop
to receive from them still more light on these strange tongues.
'This name is due to the fact that the Abyssinians, under th
influence of false erudition, applied the name Alflioiria to their ow
kingdom.
re still sometimes left in doubt, as we possess no manuscripts be-
onging to the older period.
Geez is more nearly related to Sabaean than to Arabic, though
carcely to such a degree as we might expect. The historical inter-
ourse between the Sabaeans and the people of Axum charoc-
oes not, however, prove that those who spoke Geez were teristlcs
imply a colony from Sabaea; the language may be O tdeez.
escended from an extinct cognate dialect of south
Arabia, or may have arisen from a mingling of several such dialects.
\nd this colonization in Africa probably began much sooner than
s usually supposed. In certain respects Geez represents a more
modern stage of development than Arabic ; we may cite as instances
tie loss of some inflexional terminations and of the ancient passive,
he change of the aspirated dentals into sibilants, &c. In the
manuscripts, especially those of later date, many letters are con-
ounded, namely, h, ft, and kh, s and sh, $ and d; this, however,
s no doubt due only to the influence of the modern dialects. To
his same influence, and indirectly perhaps to that of the Hamitic
anguages, we may ascribe the very hard sound now given to certain
etters, q, f, ?, and d, in the reading of Geez. The last two are at
jresent pronounced something like (s and ts (the German z). A
)eculiar advantage possessed by Geez and by all Ethiopic languages
s the sharp distinction between the imperfect and the subjunctive:
n the former a vowel is inserted after the first radical, a formation
which exists also in Mahri and Socotri, and though in another
ignification in Assyrian as well. Geez has no definite article, but
s very rich in particles. In the ease with which it joins sentences
ogether and in its freedom as to the order of words it resembles
Aramaic. The vocabulary is but imperfectly known, as the theologi-
cal literature, which is for the most part very arid, supplies us with
comparatively few expressions that dp not occur in the Bible, whereas
:he more modern works borrow their phraseology in part from the
spoken dialects, particularly Amharic. With regard to the voca-
julary, Geez has much in common with the other Semitic tongues,
jut at the same time possesses many words peculiar to itself; of
these a considerable proportion may be of Hamitic origin. However,
:he grammar shows, at most, some slight and dubious traces of
Hamitic influence. Geez seems to have been originally the language
of a tribe almost exempt from non-Semitic blood. But we must
not suppose that all the inhabitants of the ancient kingdom of
Axum were pure Semites. The immigration of the Semites from
Arabia was, in all probability, a slow process, beginning at a very
ancient period, and under such circumstances there is every reason
to assume that they largely intermingled with the aborigines. This
opinion seems to be confirmed by anthropological facts.
Tigre and Tigrina.
Not only in what is properly the territory of Axum (namely,
Tigre, north-eastern Abyssinia), but also in the countries bordering
upon it to the north, including the islands of Dahlak, dialects are
still spoken which are but more modern forms of the linguistic
type clearly exhibited in Geez, viz. that spoken in Tigre proper and
that of the neighbouring countries. In reality, the name of Tigre
belongs to both, and it would be desirable to distinguish them from
one another as Northern and Southern Tigre. But it is the custom
to call the northern dialect Tigre simply, whilst that spoken in Tigre
itself bears the name of Tigrai or, with an Amharic termination,
Tigrina. Tigre bears a somewhat closer resemblance to Geez than
does Tigrina, although this latter is spoken in the very home of
Geez for Tigrina has during several centuries been very strongly
influenced by Amharic, which has not been the case with Tigre,
which is spoken mostly by nomads. But Tigre, on the other hand,
seems to have been greatly influenced by Hamitic dialects. In late
years careful observations on both languages have been made by
scholars in loco, and we already have a number of printed texts,
comprising partly original works, partly translations of Biblical
books and so forth. But in this domain our knowledge still stands
in great need of being perfected.
Amharic.
Although Tigre and Tigrina are not free from foreign influences,
yet at the core they are purely Semitic. This is not fundamentally the
case with Amharic, a language of which the domain extends from
the left bank of the Takkaze into regions far to the south. Although
by no means the only language spoken in these countries, it always
tends to displace those foreign tongues which surround it and with
which it is interspersed. We here refer especially to the Agaw
dialects. Although Amharic has been driven back by the invasions
of the Galla tribes, it has already compensated itself to some extent
for this loss, as the Yedju and Wpllo Gallas, who penetrated into
eastern Abyssinia, have adopted it as their language. With the
exception, of course, of Arabic, no Semitic tongue is spoken by so
large a number of human beings as Amharic. The very fact that the
Agaw languages are being gradually, and, as it were, before our own
eyes, absorbed by Amharic makes it appear probable that this
language must be spoken chiefly by people who are not of Semitic
race. 3 This supposition is confirmed by a study of the langui
3 Only an advanced guard of the Agaw languages, the BIHn or
dialect of the Bogos, is being similarly absorbed by the Tigre.
630
SEMLER
itself. Amharic has diverged from the ancient Semitic type to a far
greater extent than any of the dialects which we have hitherto
enumerated. Many of the old formations preserved in Geez are
completely modified in Amharic. Of the feminine forms there
remain but a few traces; and that is the case also with the ancienl
plural of the noun. The strangest innovations occur in the persona
pronouns. And certainly not more than half the vocabulary can
without improbability be made to correspond with that of the other
Semitic languages. In this, as also in the grammar, we must leave
out of account all that is borrowed from Geez, which, as being the
ecclesiastical tongue, exercises a great influence everywhere in
Abyssinia. On the other hand, we must make allowance for the fact
that in this language the very considerable phonetic modifications
often produce a total change of form, so that many words which
at first have a thoroughly foreign appearance prove on further
examination to be but the regular development of words with which
we are already acquainted. But the most striking deviations occur
in the syntax. Things which we are accustomed to regard as usual
or even universal in the Semitic languages, such as the placing of the
verb before the subject, of the governing noun before the genitive,
and of the attributive relative clause after its substantive, are here
totally reversed. Words which are marked as genitives by the
prefixing of the relative particle, and even whole relative clauses,
are treated as one word, and are capable of having the objective
suffix added to them. It is scarcely going too far to say that a person
who has learnt no Semitic language would have less difficulty in
mastering the Amharic construction than one to whom the Semitic
syntax is familiar. What here appears contrary to Semitic analogy
is sometimes the rule in Agaw. Hence it is probable that in this
case tribes originally Hamitic retained their former modes of thought
and expression after they had adopted a Semitic soeech, and that
they modified their new language accordingly. And it is not certain
that the partial Semitization of the southern districts of Abyssinia
(which had scarcely any connexion with the civilization of Axum
during its best period) was entirely or even principally due to
influences from the north.
In spite of its dominant position, Amharic did not for several
centuries show any signs of becoming a literary language. The
oldest documents which we possess are a few songs of the I5th and
I6th centuries, which were not, however, written down till a later
time, and are very difficult to interpret. There are also a few Geez-
Amharic glossaries, which may be tolerably old. Since the 1 7th
century various attempts have been made, sometimes by European
missionaries, to write in Amharic, and in modern times this language
has to a_ considerable extent been employed for literary purposes;
nor is this to be ascribed exclusively to foreign influence. A literary
language, fixed in a sufficient measure, has thus been formed.
Books belonging to a somewhat earlier period contain tolerably
clear proofs of dialectical differences. Scattered notices by travellers
seem to indicate that in some districts the language diverges in a very
much greater degree from the recognized type.
The Abyssinian chronicles have for centuries been written in
Geez, largely intermingled with Amharic elements. This " language
of the chronicles," in itself a dreary chaps, often enables us to dis-
cover what were the older forms of Amharic words. A similar mixture
of Geez and Amharic is exemplified in various other books, especially
such as refer to the affairs of the government and of the court.
Harari and Gurague.
The town of Harar, situated at some distance east of Shoa, forms
a Semitic island ; for its language is extremely similar to Amharic.
In comparison with this, it exhibits sometimes later, sometimes
older formations. A few centuries ago, Harari was perhaps a dialect
only slightly divergent from Amharic. To-day, Amharians and the
inhabitants of Harar can no longer understand each other, especially
as the latter have drawn largely on the languages of the surrounding
Hamites (Galla, Somal, and probably also Danakil), and on Arabic,
which exercises a strong influence upon them as Moslems. We may
fairly regard them as an old- colony of Abyssinians. As the case is
with Harari, so it_is probably with the dialects of Gurague (south of
Shoa). These dialects, which are markedly divergent from one
another and have assumed a highly peculiar form, placed as they are
in the midst of entirely alien idioms, yet give unmistakable signs of
an origin either from Amharic or a dialect extremely close to Amnaric.
It is certainly a matter for desire that we should soon receive some
really comprehensive and at the same time trustworthy account of
Harari and the language of Gurague. We repeat that the immigra-
tion of the Semites into these parts of Africa was probably no one
single act, that it may have taken place at different times, that the
immigrants perhaps belonged to different tribes and to different
districts of Arabia, and that vejy heterogeneous peoples and
languages appear to have been variously mingled together in these
regions. (T H . N.)
SEMLER, JOHANN SALOMO (1725-1791), German church
historian and biblical critic, was born at Saalfeld in Thuringia
on the i8th of December 1725, the son of a clergyman in poor
circumstances. He grew up amidst pietistic surroundings,
which powerfully influenced him his life through, though he
never became a Pietist. In his seventeenth year he entered the
university of Halle, where he became the disciple, afterwards the
assistant, and at last the literary executor of the orthodox
rationalistic professor S. J. Baumgarten (1706-1757). In 1749
he accepted the position of editor, with the title of professor,
of the Coburg official Gazette. But in 1751 he was invited to
Altdorf as professor of philology and history, and in 1752 he
became a professor of theology in Halle. After the death of
Baumgarten (1757) Semler became the head of the theological
faculty of his university, and the fierce opposition which his
writings and lectures provoked only helped to increase his fame
as a professor. His popularity continued undiminished for more
than twenty years, until 1779. In that year he came forward
with a reply (Beantwortung der Fragmente eines Ungenannten)
to the Wolfenbuttd Fragments (see REIMAXUS) and to K. F.
Bahrdt's confession of faith, a step which was interpreted by the
extreme rationalists as a revocation of his own rationalistic
position. Even the Prussian government, which favoured
Bahrdt, made Semler painfully feel its displeasure at this new
but really not inconsistent aspect of his position. But, though
Semler was really not inconsistent with himself in attacking
the views of Reimarus and Bahrdt, his popularity began from
that year to decline, and towards the end of his life he felt the
necessity of emphasizing the apologetic and conservative value of
true historical inquiry. His defence of the notorious edict of
July 9, 1788, issued by the Prussian minister for ecclesiastical
affairs, Johann Christoph von Wollner (1732-1800), the object
of which was to enforce Lutheran orthodoxy, might with greater
justice be cited as a sign of the decline ofhis powers and of an
unfaithfulness to his principles. He died at Halle on the I4th
of March 1791, worn out by his labours, and disappointed at the
issue of his work.
The importance of Semler , sometimes called " the father of German
rationalism," in the history of theology and the human mind is
that of a critic of biblical and ecclesiastical documents and of the
history of dogmas. He was not a philosophical thinker or theologian,
though he insisted, with an energy and persistency before unknown,
on certain distinctions of great importance when properly worked
out and applied.^ e.g. the distinction between religion and theology,
that between private personal beliefs and public historical creeds,
and that between the local and temporal and the permanent elements
of historical religion. His great work was that of the critic. He
was the first to reject with sufficient proof the equal value of the
Old and the New Testaments, the uniform authority of all parts of
the Bible, the divine authority of the traditional canon of Scripture,
the inspiration and supposed correctness of the text of the Old and
New Testaments, and, generally, the identification of revelation with
Scripture. Though to some extent anticipated by the English deist
Thomas Morgan, Semler was the first to take due note of and use for
critical purposes the opposition between the Judaic and anti-Judaic
parties of the early church. He led the way in the task of dis-
covering the origin of the Gospels, the Epistles, the Aets of the
Apostles, and the Apocalypse. He revived previous doubts as to
the direct Pauline origin of the Epistle to the Hebrews, called in
question Peter's authorship of the first epistle, and referred the
second epistle to the end of the and century. He wished to remove
the Apocalypse altogether from the canon. In textual criticism
Semler pursued further the principle of classifying MSS. in families,
adopted by R. Simon and ]. A. Bengel. In church history Semler
did the work of a pioneer in many periods and in several depart-
ments. Friedrich Tholuck pronounces him " the father of the
iistory of doctrines," and F. C. Baur " the first to deal with that
listory from the true critical standpoint." At the same time, it is
admitted by all that he was nowhere more than a pioneer.
Tholuck gives 171 as the number of Semler's works, of which only
two reacheda second edition, and none is now read for its own sake.
Amongst the chief are: Commentatio de demoniacis (Halle, 1760,
4th ed. 1779), Umstandliche Untersuchung der ddmonischen Leute
,1762), Versuch einer biblischen Ddmonologie (1776), Selecta capita
listoriae ecclesiasticae (3 vols., Halle, 1767-1769), Abhandlung von
'reier Untersuchung des Kanon (Halle, 1771-1775), Apparatus ad
'iberalem N.T. interpretationem (1767; ad V.T., 1773), Institutio ad
doctrinam Christ, liberaliter discendam (Halle, 1774), Ober histor-
ische, gesellschaftliche, und moralische Religion der Christen (1786),
and his autobiography, Semler's Lebensbeschreibung, von ihm selbst
abgefasst (Halle, 1781-1782).
For estimates of Semler's labours, see W. Gass, Gesch. der prot.
logmatik (Berlin, 1854-1867); Isaak Dorner, Gesch. der prot. Theol.
Munich, 1867); the art. in Herzog's Realencyklopadie; Adolf
lilgenfeld, Einleitung in das Neue Test. (Leipzig, 1875) ; F. C. Baur,
Zpochen tier kirchlichen Geschichtsschreibung (1852); and Albrecht
Ritschl, Gesch. des Pietismus (Bonn, 1880-1884).
SEMLIN SEMO SANCUS
631
SEMLIN (Hungarian, Zimony; Servian, Zemun), a town of
Croatia-Slavonia, in the county of Syrmia, situated beside the
south bank of the Danube, on a tongue of land between that
river and the Save. Pop. (1900) about 15,079; the majority
being Serbs, the remainder Croats, Jews, Germans, Magyars and
Gipsies. Semlin is the seat of an Orthodox archbishop; but
most of the inhabitants are Roman Catholic. Apart from
numerous churches, its chief buildings are the law-courts, prison,
theatre, synagogue, a higher grade school or real-gymnasium,
and two technical schools, one being for girls. Much of the town
is modern, but its suburb Franzenthal near the Danube consists
partly of mud huts thatched with reeds. Standing at the con-
fluence of two navigable rivers, and on the main line from
Buda-Pest to Constantinople and Salonica, Semlin is the principal
customs and quarantine station for travellers between Austria-
Hungary and the Balkan states. It communicates with Vienna
and the Black Sea, by the Danube; with Sissek, by the Save;
and with Belgrade by a steam-ferry and a bridge over the Save.
There are a few factories, but far more important is the transit
trade in grain, fruit, livestock and timber.
Various Roman remains have been discovered near Semlin.
On the top of Zigeunerberg, a hill overlooking the Danube, are the
ruins of the castle of Hunyadi Janos, who died here in 1456. Until
1881 the town belonged to the Military frontier (q.v.).
SEMMELWEISS, IGNATZ PHILIPP (1818-1865), Hungarian
physician, was born at Buda on the ist of July 1818, and was
educated at the universities of Pest and Vienna. At first he
intended to study law, but soon abandoned it for medicine;
and such was his promise that, even as an undergraduate, he
attracted the attention of men like Joseph Skoda and Carl
Rokitansky. He graduated M.D. at Vienna in 1844, and was
then appointed assistant professor in the maternity depart-
ment, under Johann Klein. In Klein's time the deaths in this
department from what was then known as " puerperal fever "
became portentous, the ratio being rarely under 5-03 and some-
times exceeding 7-45%. Between October 1841 and May 1843,
f 5 I 39 parturient women 829 died; giving the terrible death-rate
of 1 6%, not counting those of patients transferred to other
wards. It was observed that this rate of mortality prevailed
in the students' clinic; in the midwives' clinic it ruled much
lower. Semmelweiss- found no satisfactory explanations of this
mortality in such causes as overcrowding, fear, mysterious
atmospheric influences or even contaminated wards; yet that
the cause lay in some local conditions he felt certain. The
patients would die in rows, others escaping; and women de-
livered before arrival, or prematurely, would escape. At last, he
tells us, the death of a colleague from a dissection wound " un-
veiled to my mind an identity " with the fatal puerperal cases;
and the beginning of a scientific pathology of septicaemia was
made. The students often came to the lying-in wards from the
dissecting-room, their hands cleansed with soap and water only.
In May 1847 Semmelweiss prescribed ablutions with chlorinated
lime water: in that month the mortality stood at 12-24%;
before the end of the year it had fallen to 3-04, and in the second
year to 1-27; thus even surpassing the results in the midwives'
clinic. Skoda and other eminent physicians were convinced
by these results (Zeitschrift d. k. k. Gesellschaft der Arzte in Wien,
J.vi. B. i. p. 107). Klein, however, apparently blinded by jealousy
and vanity, supported by other reactionary teachers, and aided
by the disasters which then befell the Hungarian nation, drove
Semmelweiss from Vienna in 1849. Fortunately, in the following
year Semmelweiss was appointed obstetric physician at Pest in
the maternity department, then as terribly afflicted as Klein's
clinic had been; and during his six years' tenure of office he suc-
ceeded, by antiseptic methods, in reducing the mortality to
0-85%. Semmelweiss was slow and reluctant as an author, or
no doubt his opinions would have obtained an earlier vogue;
moreover, he was not only tender-hearted, but also irascible,
impatient and tactless. Thus it cannot be said that the stupidity
or malignity of his opponents was wholly to blame for the
tragical issue of the conflict which brought this man of genius
within the gates of an asylum on the 2oth of July 1865. Strange
to say, he brought with him into this retreat a dissection wound
of the right hand, and on the i?th of the following August he
died, a victim of the very disease for the relief of which he had
already sacrificed health and fortune.
His chief publication was Die Atiologie der Begriff und die Prophy-
laxis des Kindbettfiebers (Vienna, 1861). There are biographies by
Hegar (Freiburg, 1882), Bruck (Vienna and Tischen, 1887), Duka
(Hertford, 1882), Grosse (Vienna. 1898) and Schiirer von Waldheim
(Vienna, 1905). For the relations in the order of discovery of
Semmelweiss to Lister see LISTER. (T. C. A.)
SEMMERING PASS, the lowest of all the great passes across
the Alps. The hospice, near the summit, was founded about
1 1 60, but the pass was certainly used at a much earlier date.
Between 1848 and 1854 a railway line (the first in any sense to
cross the Alps) was constructed, but passes 282 ft. below the
summit of the pass (3225 ft.) by a tunnel about i m. long. The
line runs from Wiener Neustadt (305 m. from Vienna) past Bruck
to Graz (139 m. from Vienna), the capital of Styria, whence it is
227 m. by rail to Trieste.
SEHOIS (also spelt SEMOY and SEMOYS), a river of less than
1 20 m. in length rising near Arlon in Belgium, and flowing into the
Meuse near Montherme in France. It is Belgian for about 100 m.
and French for the remainder, entering France a short distance
west of the village of Bohan. It passes through the most pictur-
esque scenery in Belgium and is remarkable for its sinuous course,
its length of 120 m. representing only 47 in a straight line.
Bouillon is the only town on its banks, and since it is not navigable
it has escaped the contamination of manufacturing life; its
valley remains an ideal specimen of sylvan scenery and medieval
tranquillity.
SfiMONVILLE, CHARLES LOUIS HUGUET, MARQUIS DE
(1759-1839), French diplomat, was born in Paris on the gth of
March 1759, the son of one of the royal secretaries. Minister
and envoy extraordinary of France at Genoa in 1790-1791,
he was instructed by Dumouriez to go to Turin to detach Victor
Amadeo III. of Sardinia from the Austrian alliance, but was not
permitted to cross the Sardinian frontier. In 1 793 he had started
with H. B. Maret (afterwards due de Bassano) for Italy where
they had missions to Florence and Naples respectively, when the
two envoys were kidnapped by Austrian orders in the Valtelline.
They remained in a Tirolese prison until December 1795, when
there was an exchange of prisoners on the release of Madame
Royale, daughter of Louis XVI., from the Temple. In 1799
Bonaparte, through whose influence his release had been obtained,
sent him to the Hague to consolidate the alliance between
France and the Batavian Republic. In this mission he was
entirely successful, and he is credited with another diplomatic
success in the inception of the Austrian marriage. He accepted
the Restoration and sat on the commission which drew up the
charter. Semonville, who enjoyed a great measure of Louis
XVIII. 's confidence, took no part in the Hundred Days. A frank
opponent of the extremist policy of Charles X., he tried to save
him in 1830; in company with Antoine d'Argout he visited the
Tuileries and persuaded the king to withdraw the ordinances and
to summon the Council. He had been made a count of the
Empire in 1808, and marquis in 1819. He died in Paris on the
nth of August 1839.
SEMO SANCUS, an Italian divinity worshipped by the Sabines,
Umbrians and Romans, also called Dius Fidius and (perhaps
wrongly) identified with the Italian Hercules. His dual nature,
as a god of light and good faith, is indicated by the names Dius
Fidius. Sancus is obviously from sancire, meaning one who
hallows the acts in which he takes part. Semo has been variously
explained as: (i) one who presides over seed-time and harvest
(serere, cf. the female Semonia); (2) a being apart from and
superior to man (se-homo) ; (3) a demi-god (semis). The priests
called bidentales, whose existence is attested by inscriptions,
were specially connected with his worship, since lightning which
fell from heaven during the day was looked upon as sent by Dius
Fidius, and a special class of birds (sanquales) was under his
protection. As the god of oaths, he protected the sanctity of
the marriage tie, the rights of hospitality, international treaties
and alliances. In his sanctuary on the Quirinal, the foundation
632
SEMPACH SEMPILL
of which was celebrated on the 5th of June, there were shown
the distaff and spindle of Tanaquil, the wife of Tarquinius
Priscus, and in the eyes of Roman matrons the embodiment of
all wifely virtues. Dionysius of Halicarnassus (iv. 58) states
that the treaty concluded between Tarquinius Superbus and the
town of Gabii was deposited in the same temple of Sancus,
whose name he translates by Zew iriortos. He could only be
invoked under the open sky, as partaking of the nature of a god
of light and day; hence a round opening was made in the roof
of his temple through which prayers might ascend to heaven. If
he was invoked in a private house, those who called upon his name
stood beneath the opening in the roof called complumum. The
bronze orbs mentioned by Livy (viii. 20. 8) as having been set
up in his temple are also supposed to have some connexion with
this, although they may be merely symbols of the eternal power
of Rome. There was a second chapel of Semo Sancus on the
island in the Tiber with an altar, the inscription on which led
Christian writers (Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Eusebius) to con-
fuse him with Simon Magus, and to infer that the latter was
worshipped at Rome as a god. The cult of Semo Sancus never
possessed very great importance at Rome; authorities differ as to
whether it was of Sabine origin or not. The plural Semones
was used of a class of supernatural beings, a kind of tutelary
deities of the state.
See Preller, Romische Mythologie; article " Dius Fidius," by
Wissowa, in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie, and his Religion und
Kultus der Romer (1902), who rejects the identity of Semo Sancus
Dius Fidius with Hercules; W. W. Fowler, The Roman Festivals
(1899); E. Jannettaz, tude sur Semo Sancus Fidius (Paris, 1885),
according to whom he was a Sabine fire god.
SEMPACH, a small town in the Swiss canton of Lucerne,
built above the eastern shore of the lake of the same name, and
about 1 1 m. by road north of the Sempach railway station (9 m.
N.W. of .ILucerne) on the main line between Lucerne and Olten.
In 1900 it had 2592 inhabitants, German-speaking and Romanists.
It has retained some traces of its medieval appearance, especially
the main gateway, beneath a watch tower, and reached by a
bridge over the old moat. About half an hour distant to the
north-east, on the hillside, is the site of the famous battle of
Sempach (9th July 1386), in which the Swiss defeated the
Austrians, whose leader, Duke Leopold, lost his life. The legend-
ary deed of Arnold of Winkelried (q.v.) is associated with this
victory. The spot is now marked by an ancient and picturesque
Battle Chapel (restored in 1886) and by a modern monument
to Winkelried. Some miles north of Sempach is the quaint
village of Miinster or Beromiinster (973 inhabitants in 1900),
with a collegiate church founded in the loth century and dating,
in parts, from the nth and 1 2th centuries (fine 1 7th-century choir
stalls and altar frontals), the chapter of secular canons now
consisting of invalided priests of the canton of Lucerne: it
was in Beromiinster that the first dated book was printed (1470)
in Switzerland, by care of the canons, while thence came Gering
who introduced printing into France.
See Th. von Liebenau, Die Schlacht bei Sempach (Lucerne, 1886).
(W. A. B. C.)
SEMPER, GOTTFRIED (1803-1879), German architect and
writer on art, was born at Altona on the 29th of November 1803.
His father intended him for the law, but his impulses towards an
artistic career were irresistible. His early mastery of classical
literature led him to the study of classic monuments in classic
lands, while his equally conspicuous talent for mathematics gave
him the laws of form and proportion in architectural design.
At the university of Gottingen he fell under the influence of
K. O. Miiller. His architectural education was carried out
successively in Hamburg, where later, upon his return from
Greece, he built the Dormer Museum, in Berlin, in Dresden, in
Paris under Gau and in Munich under Gartner; afterwards he
visited Italy and Greece. While in Greece he made observations
which showed that in ancient architecture the use of polychrome
was frequent. In the diffusion of this discovery he was much
aided by Jacques Ignace Hittorff. In 1834 he was appointed
professor of architecture in Dresden, and during fifteen years
received many important commissions from the Saxon court.
He built the opera-house in Renaissance style, the new museum
and picture gallery, and a Byzantine synagogue. In 1848 his
turbulent spirit led him to side with the revolution against his
royal patron; he furnished the rebels with military plans, and
was eventually driven into exile. Semper came to London at the
timeof the Great Exhibition of 1851, and Prince Albert found him
an able ally in carrying out his plans. He was appointed teacher
of the principles of decoration; his lectures in manuscript are
preserved in the art library, South Kensington. He was also em-
ployed by the prince consort to prepare a design for the Kensing-
ton Museum; and he made the drawings for the Wellington
funeral car. In 1853 Semper left London for Zurich on his
appointment as professor of architecture, and with a commission
to build in that town the polytechnic school and the hospital.
He also built the observatory and the railway station in that city.
Here, too, he made plans for a large theatre in Rio Janeiro.
In 1870 he was called to Vienna to assist in the great archi-
tectural projects since carried out around the Ring. A year later,
after an exile of over twenty years, he received a summons to
Dresden, on the rebuilding of the first opera-house, which had
been destroyed by fire in 1869; his second design was a modifica-
tion of the first. The closing years of his life were passed in
comparative tranquillity between Venice and Rome, and in the
latter city he died on the isth of May 1879. In 1892 a bronze
statue of Semper, by Johannes Schelling, was unveiled on the
Briihlsche Terrasse in Dresden.
Semper's style was a growth from the classic orders through the
Italian Cinque Cento. He forsook the base and rococo forms he
found rooted in Germany, and, reverting to the best historic ex-
amples, fashioned a purer Renaissance. He stands as a leader in
the practice of polychrome, since widely diffused, and by his writings
and example did much to reinstate the ancient union between archi-
tecture, sculpture and painting. Among his numerous literary
works are Uber Polychromie u. ihren Ur sprung (1851), Die An-
wendung der Farben in der Architektur u. Plastik bei den Allen, Der
Stil in den technischen u. tektonischen Kiinsten (1860-1863). His
Notes of Lectures on Practical Art in Metals and Hard Materials:
its Technology, History and Style, were left in MS.
SEMPILL, the name of a Scottish family long seated in
Renfrewshire. An early member, Sir Thomas Sempill (d. 1488),
was killed whilst fighting for James III. at the battle of Sauchie-
burn, and his son John (d. 1513), who was made a lord of parlia-
ment about 1489, fell at Flodden. John's grandson, Robert, 3rd
Lord Sempill (c. 1505-1572), assisted the Scottish regent, Mary
of Lorraine, in her struggle with the lords of the congregation, and
was afterwards one of the partisans of Mary, queen of Scots;
about 1566, however, he deserted the queen, against whom
he fought at Carberry Hill and at Langside. His grandson,
Robert (d. 1611), became the 4th Lord Sempill, and another
grandson was Sir James Sempill of Beltrees (<?..).
The title of Lord Sempill descended to Francis, the 8th lord
(d. 1684), who was succeeded by his sister Anne (d. 1695), tne
wife of Francis Abercromby (d. 1703), who was created a peer
for life as Lord Glassford. Their sons, Francis, John and Hugh,
who took the surname of Sempill, succeeded in turn to the title.
Hugh, 1 2th Lord Sempill (d. 1746), fought in Spain and in
Flanders, and held a command in the English army at Culloden ;
in 1747 he was made colonel of the Black Watch. His title
descended to Selkirk Sempill, the isth lord (1788-1835), who
was succeeded by his sister, Maria Janet (1790-1884). She was
succeeded by a cousin, William Forbes (1836-1905), a descendant
of the 1 3th lord, who took the name of Forbes-Sempill; in 1905
his son, John Forbes-Sempill (b. 1863), became the i8th lord.
A certain Robert Sempill, who served James Edward, the Old
Pretender, in France, and is described as a captain in Dillon's famous
Irish regiment, was created Lord Sempill by this prince after 1723.
This circumstance has given rise to a certain amount of confusion
between the different holders of the title.
SEMPILL (OR SEMPLE), SIR JAMES, ROBERT AND FRANCIS,
three Scottish ballad-writers, known as the Sempills of Beltrees
from their place in Renfrewshire.
SIR JAMES SEMPILL (1566-1626) was the son of John Sempill of
Beltrees, and Mary Livingstone, one of the " four Marys,"
companions of Mary, queen of Scots. He was brought up with
James VI. under George Buchanan, and later assisted the king
SEMPILL, R. SENAC DE MEILHAN
633
in the preparation of his Basilikon Doron. Ambassador to
England 1590-1600, he was made a knight bachelor, and in
1601 was sent to France. He died at Paisley in 1626. His wife
was Egidia or Geillis Elphinstone of Blythswood. He wrote
some theological works in prose, but is chiefly remembered for
the poem " The Packman's Pater Noster," a vigorous attack
upon the Church of Rome. An edition was published at Edin-
burgh in 1669 entitled " A Pick-tooth for the Pope, or the
Packman's Pater Noster, translated out of Dutch by S. I. S., and
newly augmented and enlarged by his son R. S." (reprinted by
Paterson). Seven poems, chiefly of an amorous character,
are printed in T. G. Stevenson's edition of The Sempill Ballates.
ROBERT SEMPILL [the younger] (1595 ?-i 665 ?), son of the above,
was educated at the university of Glasgow, having matriculated
in March 1613. During the Civil War he fought for the Stuarts,
and seems to have suffered heavy pecuniary losses under the
Commonwealth. He died between 1660 and 1669. He married
Mary, daughter of Sir Thomas Lyon of Auldbar. His reputation
is based on the ballad, " The Life and Death of Habbie Simpson,
Piper of Kilbarchan," written c. 1640. It is an interesting
picture of the times; and it gave fresh vogue to the popular six-
lined stanza which was much used later by Ramsay, Fergusson
and Burns (see particularly, Burns's " Poor Mailie's Elegy ").
Two broadside copies were printed before 1 700, and it appeared in
James Watson's Collection of Poems (1706-1710). Sempill is
supposed to be the author also of an epitaph on " Sawney Briggs,
nephew to Habbie Simpson," written in the same stanza. He
wrote a continuation of his father's " Packman's Pater Noster."
FRANCIS SEMPILL (i6i6?-i682) was a son of Robert Sempill
the younger. No details of his education are known. His
fidelity to the Stuarts involved him in money difficulties, to
meet which he alienated portions of his estates to his son.
Before 1677 he was appointed sheriff-depute of Renfrewshire.
He died at Paisley in March 1682. Sempill wrote many occa-
sional pieces, and his fame as a wit was widespread. Among his
most important works is the " Banishment of Poverty," which
contains some biographical details. " The Blythsome Wedding,"
long attributed to Francis Sempill, has been more recently
asserted to be the work of Sir William Scott of Thirlestane.
SempilTs claim to the authorship of the celebrated song " She
raise and let me in," and of the ballad " Maggie Lauder," has
been discussed at considerable length. It seems probable that
he had some share in both.
See the works mentioned below in the article on the elder Robert
Sempill, and The Poems of the Sempills of Beltrees, ed. James Paterson
(Edinburgh, 1849); A Literary History of Scotland, by J. H. Millar
(1903); an d Notes and Queries, gth series (xi., 1903, pp. 436-437).
SEMPILL, ROBERT [the elder] (c. 1530-1595), Scottish
ballad-writer, was in all probability a cadet of illegitimate birth
of the noble house of Sempill or Semple. Very little is known
of his life. He appears to have spent some time in Paris. He
was probably a soldier, and must have held some office at the
Scottish court, as his name appears in the lord treasurer's books in
February 1567-1568, and his writings show him to have had an
intimate knowledge of court affairs. He was a bitter opponent
of Queen Mary and of the Catholic Church. Sempill was present
at the siege of Leith (1559-1560), was in Paris in 1572, but was
driven away by the massacre of St Bartholomew. He was prob-
ably present at the siege of Edinburgh Castle (1573), serving with
the army of James Douglas, earl of Morton. He died in 1595.
His chief works are: " The Ballat maid vpoun Margret Fleming
callit the Flemyng bark"; "The defence of Crissell Sande-
landis"; "The Claith Merchant or Ballat of Jonet Reid, ane
Violet and Ane Quhyt," all three in the Bannatyne MS. They
are characterized by extreme coarseness, and are probably among
his earlier works. His chief political poems are " The Regentis
Tragedie," a broadside of 1570; "The Sege of the Castel of
Edinburgh " (1573), interesting from an historical point of view;
" Ane Complaint vpon fortoun ..." (1581), and "The Legend
of the Bischop of St Androis Lyfe callit Mr Patrik Adamsone "
(1583)-
See Chronicle of Scottish Poetry (ed. James Sibbald, Edinburgh,
1802) ; and"Essayson the Poets of Renfrewshire," by William Mother-
well, in The Harp of Renfrewshire (Paisley, 1819; reprinted 1872).
Modern editions of Sempill are: " Sege of the Castel of Edinburgh,"
a facsimile reprint with introduction by David Constable (1813);
The Sempill Ballates (T. G. Stevenson, Edinburgh, 1872) containing
all the poems; Satirical poems of the Reformation (ed. James Cran-
stoun, Scottish Text Soc., 2 vpls., 1889-1893), with a memoir of
Sfempill and a bibliography of his poems.
SEMDR-EN-AUXOIS, a town of eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of C&te-d'Or, 45 m. W.N. W. of
Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 3278. Semur
occupies one of the finest sites in France, on the extremity of a
plateau dominating the river Arman^on, which surrounds the
town on three sides. The river forms this extremity into a
peninsula which is occupied by the old town, once surrounded by
ramparts, the remains of which are still to be seen. An isthmus,
on which stands the castle, unites the older to the newer quarter,
in which are situated an old gateway of the isth century and the
church of Notre-Dame. This building, which belongs mainly to
the i3th century, is one of the purest examples of Gothic archi-
tecture in Burgundy, though the narrowness of the nave, to some
degree, spoils its proportions. The portal with its three arched
openings projects from the facade, which is flanked by two square
towers surmounted by balustrades. Of the artistic features of the
interior one of the most noteworthy is the sculptured keystone of
the vaulting of the apse, representing the crowning of the Virgin.
The castle (i3th and i4th centuries) consists of )a rectangular keep
flanked by four towers. Portions of it are still in use. Among
the numerous old houses in the town is one belonging to the time
of Louis XIV. of which the last proprietor was Florent Claude du
Chatelet, husband of the friend of Voltaire. It is now used as a
hospital. Semur possesses a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first
instance and a communal college. It is an important market
centre for the Auxois and Morvan, and has trade in horses, grain,
sheep, fruit and vegetables. Cement, leather, oil, and chemical
manures are among its industrial products.
Semur (Sinemurum) was a Gallic fortress in the dark ages and in
feudal times a castle of the dukes of Burgundy. In the I ith century
it became capital of Auxois. Its communal charter dates from 1276.
The incorporation of Burgundy with France was resisted by the
town, which was taken and pillaged by the royal troops in 1478.
During the wars of religion in the i6th century it served as refuge
for the Leaguers, and though it submitted to Henry IV. at his acces-
sion its fortifications were destroyed in 1602.
SENAC DE MEILHAN, GABRIEL (1736-1803), French writer,
son of Jean Senac, physician to Louis XV., was born in Paris
in 1736. He entered the civil service in 1762; two years later
he bought the office of master of requests, and in 1766 further
advanced his position by a rich marriage. He was successively
intendant of La Rochelle, of Aix and of Valenciennes. In 1776
he became intendant-general for war, but was soon compelled
to resign. He had hoped to be made minister of finance, and
was disappointed by the nomination of Necker, of whom he
became a bitter opponent. He was intimate with thecomtesse
de Tesse, sister of the due de Choiseul, and in 1781 met Madame
de Crequy, then sixty-seven years of age, and began a long friend-
ship with her. His first book was the fictitious M (moires d'Anne
de Gonzague, princesse palatine (1786), thought by many people
at the time to be genuine. In the next year followed the Con-
siderations sur les richesses et le luxe, combating the opinions of
Necker; and in 1788 the more valuable Considerations sur
I 'esprit et les mceurs, a book which abounds in sententious, but
often excessively frank, sayings. Senac witnessed the beginnings
of the Revolution in Paris, but emigrated in 1790, making his
way first to London, and then, in 1791, to Aix-la-Chapelle, where
he met Pierre Alexandre de Tilly, who asserts in his Memoirs
that Senac attributed the misfortunes of Louis XVI. to the
refusal of his own services. In 1793, while his recollections of
the Revolution were still fresh, he wrote a novel, L' Emigre (Ham-
burg, 4 vols., 1797), which shows perspicacity and good judgment
in its treatment of events. It was reprinted in 1904 in an
abridged form by Casimir Stryienski and Frantz Funck-Brentano.
At the invitation of Catherine II. Senac went in 1792 to Russia,
where he hoped to become imperial historiographer, but his
manners displeased Catherine, who contented herself with dis-
missing him with a pension. From Russia he went to Hamburg.
SENANCOUR SENATE
and thence to Vienna, where he found a friend in the prince
de Ligne. He died on the i6th of August 1803. Senac also
wrote a moderate exposition of the causes that led to the revolu-
tion, entitled Du gouvernement, des moeurs et des conditions en
France want la Revolution, avec les caracteres des principaux
personnages du regne de Louis XVI; the last part was reprinted
(1813) by the due de Levis with a notice of the author as Por-
traits et caracteres. Senac collected his own (Enures philosophlques
et litteraires (2 vols.) at Hamburg in 1795.
See his CEuvres choisies, edited by M. de Lescure in 1862; Lettres
inedites de Madame de Cregui a Senac de Meilhan (1856), edited by
Edouard Fournier; Louis Legrand, Senac de Meilhan et I' intendance
du Hainaul et du Cambresis (1868); and the notice by Fernand
Caussy prefixed to his edition (1905) of the Considerations sur
I'esprit et les mteurs.
SENANCOUR, ETIENNE PIVERT DE (1770-1846), French
author, was born in Paris in November 1770. His father desired
him to enter the seminary of Saint-Sulpice preparatory to be-
coming a priest, but Senancour, to avoid a profession for which
he had no vocation, went on a visit to Switzerland in 1789.
At Fribourg he married in 1790 a young Frenchwoman, Made-
moiselle Daguet, but the marriage was not a happy one. His
wife refused to accompany him to the Alpine solitude he desired,
and they settled in Fribourg. His absence from France at the
outbreak of the Revolution was interpreted as hostility to the
new government, and his name was included in the list of emi-
grants. He visited France from time to time by stealth, but
he only succeeded in saving the remnants of a considerable
fortune. In 1799 he published in Paris his Reveries sur la nature
primitive de I'homme, a book containing impassioned descriptive
passages which mark him out as a precursor of the romantic
movement. His parents and his wife died before the close of the
century, and Senancour was in Paris in 1801 when he began
Obermann, which was finished in Switzerland two years later,
and printed (Paris, 2 vols.) in 1804. This singular book, which
has never lost its popularity with a limited class of readers, was
followed in the next year by a treatise De I'amour, in which he
attacked the accepted social conventions. Obermann, which is
to a great extent inspired by Rousseau, was edited and praised
successively by Sainte-Beuve and by George Sand, and had a
considerable influence both in France and England. It is a series
of letters supposed to be written by a solitary and melancholy
person, whose headquarters are placed in a lonely valley of the
Jura. The idiosyncrasy of the book in the large class of Wer-
therian-Byronic literature consists in the fact that the hero, in-
stead of feeling the vanity of things, recognizes his own inability
to be and do what he wishes. Professor Brandes has pointed out
that while Rene was appreciated by some of the ruling spirits of
the century, Obermann was understood only by the highly gifted,
sensitive temperaments, usually strangers to success. Senancour
was tinged to some extent with the older philosophe form of
free-thinking, and had no sympathy with the Catholic reaction.
Having no resources but his pen, Senancour was driven to hack-
work during the period which elapsed between his return to
France (1803) and his death at St Cloud (loth of January 1846);
but some of the charm of Obermann is to be found in the Libres
Mfditations d'un solitaire inconnu. Thiers and Villemain succes-
sively obtained for Senancour from Louis Philippe pensions
which enabled him to pass his last days in comfort. He wrote
late in life a second novel in letters entitled Isabelle (1833). He
composed his own epitaph; EterniU, sois man asile.
Senancour is immortalized for English readers in the Obermann
of Matthew Arnold. Obermann itself was translated into English,
with biographical and critical introduction, by A. G. Waite (1903).
See the preface by Sainte-Beuve to his edition (1833, 2 vols.) of
Obermann, and two articles Portraits contemporains (vol. i.); Un
Precurseur and Senancour (1867) by J. Levallois, who received much
information from Se'nancour's daughter, Eulalie de Senancour,
herself a journalist and novelist; and a biographical and critical
study Senancour, by J. Merlant (1907).
SENARMONT, ALEXANDRE ANTOINE BUREAU DE (1760-
1810), French artillery general, was born at Strassburg, and
educated at the Metz school for engineer and artillery cadets.
In 1785 he was commissioned in the artillery, in which he served
as a regimental officer for fifteen years. In 1800 he won great
credit both by his exertions in bringing the artillery of the Army
of Reserve over the Alps and by his handling of guns in the
battle of Marengo. In 1806, as a general of brigade, and com-
mander of the artillery of an army corps, he took part in the Jena
and Eylau campaigns. But he is remembered chiefly in con-
nexion with the " caseshot attack " which was the central
feature of Napoleon's matured tactical system, and which
Senarmont put into execution for the first time at Friedland
(q.v.). For this feat he was made a baron, and in 1808 he was
promoted general of division by Napoleon on the field of battle
in front of Madrid. He was killed at the siege of Cadiz on the
26th of October 1810.
SENARMONT, HENRI BUREAU DE (1808-1862), French
mineralogist and physician, was born at Brou6, Eure et Loire, on
the 6th of September 1808. He became engineer-in-chief of
mines, and professor of mineralogy and director of studies at the
Ecole des Mines at Paris. He was distinguished for his researches
on polarization and on the artificial formation of minerals. He
also wrote essays and prepared maps on the geology of Seine et
Marne and Seine et Oise for the Geological Survey of France
(1844). He died in Paris on the 3oth of June 1862.
SENATE (Lat. senatus, from root sen-, as in senex, old; the
root is the Sanskrit sana, cf. Gr. Ivos; the same element
appears in seiior, seigneur, seneschal) literally the assembly of
old men, 1 originally the heads of the chief families, and hence,
in general, the upper council in a governmental system. The
Latin word corresponds with the Greek gerousia (q.v.), the name
of the similar body at Sparta; it must not be used of the Cleis-
thenic council (see BOULE) at Athens, which was in all respects
a different body. The Athenian Areopagus (q.v.) represents the
Roman senate. The word is applied primarily to the aristocratic
Roman assembly (see below). It is also used to designate the
second chamber in the legislatures of France, Italy and the
United States, as also in those of the separate states composing
the Union; in the British legislature it is represented by the
House of Lords. By analogy the title is used for the governing
bodies of various educational institutions, e.g. in the universities
of Cambridge and London, and also in certain American colleges
and universities, where it denotes an advisory body composed of
representatives of the students as well as members of the faculty.
So in the Scottish colleges the governing body is the Senatus
Academicus. In Scottish law, the lords of session (i.e. judges)
are called senators of the College of Justice, which is itself
spoken of as a senate.
The Ancient Roman Senate. (A) History. The senate or
council of elders formed the oldest and most permanent element
in the Roman constitution. The authorities are
. ... * . f , Unaer the
unanimous in ascribing the origin of the senate to monaK by.
Romulus, who chose out 100 of the best of his subjects
to form his advising body. They are, however, far from unani-
mous in their account of the subsequent history of the senate
down to the foundation of the republic. The only facts on
which they are all agreed are that in 509 B.C. it already con-
tained 300 members, and that a distinction already existed
within it between patres maiorum gentium and minorum gentium
(Livy i. 35; Cic. De rep. ii. 20. 35; Dionys. ii. 47). Moreover,
with one exception they agree in asserting that throughout the
monarchical period the senate consisted entirely of patricians.
There is undoubtedly some connexion between the increase in the
numbers of the senate by the admission of new members and the
distinction between two classes of patres. The most probable
view seems to be that the rise in the number of the senators was
due to the gradual incorporation of fresh elements into the
patrician community, with a consequent increase of gentes; and
that the new clans, out of which new members came into the
senate, were the gentes minores. The exclusively patrician char-
acter of the senate at this period seems an inevitable inference
from all that we know of the political position of the plebs at the
1 With the idea of age is conjoined that of superior wisdom and
experience, worthy of respect and qualified to decide; cf. the Anglo-
Saxon Witanagemot, the assembly of the wise men. Originally the
members were the advisers of the king, and their spirit was generally
aristocratic and conservative.
SENATE
635
time, and the evidence of Zonaras to the contrary is universally
discredited. The appointment of senators depended entirely
upon the king. They were not appointed for life, but at the
pleasure of the king who summoned them. It is possible that
a king might change his advisers during his reign, and a new
king could certainly abstain from summoning some of those con-
vened by his predecessors. 1 The powers of the senate at this time
were very indefinite. Tradition ascribes to it the control of the
interregnum and a power of sanctioning acts of state (patmm
auctoritas), to which it is difficult to give any significance for
this early period. It seems also to have possessed a customary
right of controlling foreign policy, for the ancient formula of the
Fetiales refers to the sanction of the patres (Livy 1.32). From the
senate also must have been chosen the delegates appointed by
the king either to be his executive representative when he was
absent in the field (praefectus urbi), or to assist him in jurisdiction
(Ilmri perduellionis, quaestorcs parricidii).
The abolition of monarchy, and the substitution of two
annually elected consuls did not at first bring any important
change in the position of the senate. It was the con-
silting body of the consuls, meeting only at their
pleasure, and owing its appointment to them, and
remained a power distinctly secondary to the magistrates, as it
had been formerly to the king. The magistrates at this time
were chosen entirely from the patrician houses, and the senate
long remained a stronghold of patrician prejudice. Tradition
ascribes to the first consuls some change in the class from which
senators were drawn, but various accounts of the change are
given (Livy ii. i; Festus, p. 254; Dionys. v. 13; cf. Tac. Ann.
xi. 25). Whatever the exact nature of the change, we may be
certain that plebeians were not introduced into the senate at this
time. Such a change is utterly improbable at the crisis of a
patrician coup d'etat, such as the expulsion of the Tarquins
certainly was; and there is no evidence for the existence of a
plebeian senator before the year 401 B.C. The statement that some
modification in the original principle of selection was made in this
year is invariably introduced as an explanation of the title
patres conscripli, which is held to imply a Distinction of rank
within the senate, as derived from the formula of summons
" qui patres, qui conscripti (estis)."- But either this formula
is not as early as 509 B.C. or the term conscripti does not refer
only to plebeians. In one respect the substitution of consuls for
kings tended to the subordination of the chief magistrates to
the senate. The consuls held office only for one year, while the
senate was a permanent body; in experience and prestige its
individual members were often superior to the consuls of the year.
It was therefore improbable that the magistrate would venture
to disregard the advice of his consilium, especially as he himself
would pass into the senate at the close of his year of office,
according to a recognized custom which was gradually modifying
the theoretical freedom of choice that the consuls possessed with
regard to their consilium. It was probably in their capacity
of ex-magistrates that plebeians first entered the senate; for
the first plebeian senator mentioned by Livy, P. Licinius Calvus,
was also the first plebeian consular tribune. This is hardly
likely to be mere coincidence. Of the two standing powers
which the senate inherited from the monarchy, the interregnum
and the patrum auctoritas, the first had become even rarer of
exercise than before; for if either consul existed to nominate a
successor, interregnum could not be resorted to. The patrum
auctoritas, on the other hand, developed into a definite right
claimed by the senate to give or withhold its consent to any
legislative or elective act of the comitia, which could not be
valid without such consent. The control, too, which it had long
exercised over foreign policy must have increased the importance
of the senate in a period of constant warfare with the nations of
Italy. But in the early republic the senate remained primarily
1 For other views on this point see Dionys. ii. 12, who maintains
that the senators were elected by the clans, and T. Mommsen,
Staatsrecht, iii. 844, 854, who maintains an automatic composition of
the early senate.
* For another view, however, see Willems, Le Senat, i. p. 37 seq.
an advising body, and had as yet assumed no definite executive
powers.
In the last two centuries of the republic we find that a great
change has taken place in the position of the senate. It is
now a self -existent, automatically constituted body, independent
of the magistrates, a recognized factor in the constitution and
the wielder of extensive powers. Its self-existence could only
be secured by a transference of the selection of the senate from
the magistrate to some other authority, and was actually effected
by entrusting the selection to the recently instituted college
of censors. The censorship was instituted in 443 B.C., and some
time before the year 311 it was placed in charge of the lectio
senatus. Conditions of selection had also been imposed by 311,
which made the constitution of the senate practically automatic.
Ex-curule magistrates were now admitted as a matter of course,
together with any other persons who had done conspicuous
public service in the lower grades of the magistracy or the higher
ranks of the army; and for some time before Sulla's dictatorship
little power of choice can really have rested with the censors.
L. Cornelius Sulla, while abolishing the censorship (immediately
revived), also secured an entirely automatic composition for the
senate by increasing the number of quaestors, and enacting that
all ex-quaestors should pass at once into the senate. This en-
actment provided for the maintenance even of the increased
number of 600 senators, twenty quaestorians passing into the
senate every year. The senate's powers had now extended far
beyond its two ancient prerogatives of appointing an interrex,
and ratifying decisions of the comitia. The first of these powers,
as has been shown above, had fallen into practical disuse, and the
second had for some reason become a mere form by the last
century of the republic. It is improbable that the change was
entirely the result of the lex Publilia of 287 B.C., which decreed
that the senate should exercise its auctoritas before the voting
instead of after, though this law may have formed part of a
process very imperfectly known to us by which senatorial control
of legislation in this form was gradually nullified. But the
senate had acquired a far more effective control over the popular
vote through the observance of certain unwritten rules regulating
the relation between senate and magistrates. It was generally
understood that the magistrate should not question the people
on any important matter without the senate's consent, nor refuse
to do so at its request; that one magistrate should not employ
his veto to quash the act of another except at the senate's
bidding, nor refuse to do so when directed. Such was the
situation which had developed out of the tendency noticed above
for the magistrate to be advised by his council in all important
matters. Again, the earlier control of foreign policy developed
into a definite claim put forward by the senate and recognized
by the constitution to conduct all negotiations with a foreign
power and frame an alliance which should merely be offered to the
people for ratification. For the organization of a new Roman
province even this formal ratification was dispensed with, and a
commission of senators alone aided the victorious general in the
organization of his conquests. The senate also held an important
power in its right to distribute spheres of rule among the various
magistrates. It seems also to have had entire control over the
external relations of the free cities which were scattered through-
out the provinces, but formed no administrative parts of those
provinces, holding their rights by charter for which they de-
pended upon the senate. The control of finance was also en-
tirely in the senate's hands. Three circumstances had combined
to bring about this result. The censors, who were only occasional
officials, were entrusted with the leasing of the public revenues;
the senate not only directed the arrangements made by them,
and received appeals against oppressive contracts, but also con-
trolled any financial assignments that had to be made during the
vacancy in the censorship. Again, the details of public ex-
penditure had been in very early times entrusted to the quaestors,
who, when the magistracies were multiplied, occupied an en-
tirely subordinate position; this strengthened the position of
the senate as the natural director of a young and inexperienced
magistrate. Thirdly, the general control exercised by the senate
6 3 6
SENATE
over provincial affairs implied its direction of the income derived
from the provinces, which in the later republic formed the chief
property of the state. It had also claimed a right, unchallenged
till the time of Tiberius Gracchus, of granting occupation and
decreeing alienation of public lands, or of accepting or rejecting
gifts and bequests to the state. Every branch of state finance
was therefore in its hands. In matters of criminal jurisdiction
the senate claimed the right to set free by its decree in case of
emergency the full powers of coercitio contained in the imperium
of a magistrate, but limited normally in capital cases by successive
laws of appeal. The exercise of this right amounted to a declara-
tion of martial law, and had the effect of giving the consul the
same powers of summary jurisdiction which had resided in the
dictatorship. It was only resorted to in cases of special urgency,
such as the epidemic of poisoning in 331 B.C. (Livy viii. 18),
the prevalence of Bacchanalian licence in the city in 186 B.C.
{id: xxxix. 18) and the formidable preponderance of the re-
volutionary tribune Tiberius Gracchus in 133 B.C. The action
of the senate on this last occasion evoked a vigorous protest from
the people, on the ground that the senate was not acting on
behalf of the state against its enemies, but in the interest of one
party in the state against the other; and a law of C. Gracchus
subsequently forbade any such exercise of capital jurisdiction
on the part of a magistrate, whether authorized by the senate or
not. The senate continued, however, to make use of this decree,
and the question of its right to do so was one of the chief points
at issue in the final struggle between the senatorial and demo-
cratic parties. The best known instance of this decretum idtimum
in the last century of the republic is that of 63 B.C., when Cicero
took summary action against the Catilinarians, and justified
his action on the plea that this decree had authorized him to do
so. The senate also exercised a police control in Rome in sudden
emergencies. It dissolved by a decree passed in 64 B.C. a number
of trade gilds which had become the centres of political disturb-
ance, and framed decrees from time to time dealing with bribery
and corruption. The chief feature of the democratic revolution
at Rome which occupied the century following the tribunate of
T. Gracchus was an uncompromising opposition to the tenure
of these extensive powers by the senate. Sulla's enactments in
81 B.C., which aimed at restoring its ascendancy, show clearly
how much power it had already lost; and his attempts to
reinstate it were short-lived (see ROIIE: History II. " The
Republic "). The Gracchi and Caesar alike found themselves
obliged to override senatorial prerogative in the interests of
progressive legislation, and though the senate, owing to its strong
hold over the magistracy, succeeded repeatedly in dealing death
to its opponents, it never regained the popular confidence; and
the practical extinction of the old senate in 49 B.C. was hardly
lamented.
Caesar's revision of the senatorial list and his increase of the
senate to 900 was a return to the old practice by which kings
and the early magistrates had chosen their own body
councillors. And though after this revision Sulla's
arrangement for the automatic replenishing of the
senate was restored, yet the growing influence exercised by
Caesar and his successors over elections secured their control
over the personnel of the senate. Still, the senate was regarded
in the early principate as the great representative of republican
institutions, and Augustus took elaborate pains to divide his
authority with the senate. In legislation, indeed, the senate was
supreme under the principate. The legislative powers of the
comitia became very gradually extinct; but long before they had
disappeared senatus consulla had come to take the place of leges
in ordinary matters, and with this prerogative of the senate the
princeps never directly interfered. Jurisdiction remained largely
in the hands of the republican courts, but such cases as did not
come under their cognizance were divided between princeps and
senate. The senate, moreover, was left at the head of the ordinary
administration of Rome and Italy, together with those provinces
which, not requiring any military force nor presenting special
administrative difficulties, were left to the care of the Roman
people. It also retained control of the public treasury (see
*
AERARIUM), while Caesar administered his own treasury .
It gradually became the electing body for the annual magistracies;
and, as entrance to it was still won chiefly through the magistracy,
co-optation became practically the principle of admission. But
the power the senate theoretically possessed of creating and
deposing a princeps was, formally at least, the chief of its pre-
rogatives at this time, though considerably limited in practice.
It had, on the other hand, lost all its control of foreign administra-
tion, which had once been the bulwark of its power; and though
occasionally consulted by the princeps, it was entirely subordinate
to him in this department. It was clearly to the advantage of the
early Caesars to pay an apparent deference to the senate, and so
give to their rule an appearance of constitutionalism. But even
in this capacity the senate did not long survive the overthrow
of republican government. Though occasionally roused into
activity during the 2nd and 3rd centuries, it ceased after the
period of the Julian emperors to have any real control of affairs.
Vespasian had admitted Italians and provincials into the senate,
with a view, no doubt, to increasing its value ds a representative
council of the empire; but this widening was counterbalanced
by the institution of an hereditary senatorial order by Augustus,
who thus gave recognition to the practical exclusiveness which
had grown up in the later republican period, while reserving to
himself the right of recruiting the order.
B. Procedure. Senatorial procedure remained comparatively
unchanged throughout the republic and the first three centuries of the
empire. The right of summoning the senate belonged originally to
the consuls, and later to the consuls, praetors, and tribunes of the
plebs. In the Ciceronian period, when all these were entitled to
summon the meeting, the right belonged to them in the above order
of precedence. The magistrate who summoned the senate also
presided and brought business before it. He first made statements
to the house on important public affairs, and might then at his
discretion ask the opinion of the house on points arising out of
them, or invite other senators to speak without himself putting
forward any definite proposition. In both of these cases he was
expected to follow a regular order of precedence in asking for votes
or speeches, and the magistrates of the year were precluded from
expressing their opinion. When the chief senators had expressed
their opinion on the motion of the president, or made proposals of
their own, in the former case the house divided on the motion, in
the latter the president put to the house in succession the various
proposals made. The only important modification of this procedure
mtroduced ( by the principate was the extension of all the presiding
magistrate's rights to the princeps, who, however, enjoyed also the
right of giving his opinion as a private senator.
C. Insignia. The senatorial insignia were not at first distinguished
from those of ex-curule magistrates. But by degrees the broad
stripe (latus clavus) on the tunic and the red shoe (calceus mulleus)
became distinctive of the senator (hence laticlavius, a senator).
Seats in the theatre were reserved for senators; and even the sons
of senators adopted the latus clavus as early as the reign of Augustus,
and probably at an earlier time. Certain disqualifications were
attached to senators in republican times, chief of which was their
exclusion from trade; and these were increased under the principate.
Failure to observe these disqualifications, or any public disgrace or
gross misconduct, was punished by removal from the senate by the
censors, until that office fell into abeyance after the time of Sulla.
The censorial right of removing unworthy members from the senate
was revived by Augustus, and was exercised by subsequent emperors
at a yearly revision of the list, which supplemented the formal
lectiones senatus periodically held by the princeps in his capacity
of censor.
It has been questioned whether the two traditional prerogatives
of the senate, the control of then interregnum and the patrum
auftoritas, belonged in historical times to the senate as a body, or
to its patrician members only, or, as some have maintained, to the
whole body of patricians. For conflicting views on this subject, see
P. Willems, Le Senat, vol. ii. p. l; T. Momm'sen, Staatsrecht, iii.
1037 et seq.; and Rom. Forschungen, i. 218-249; C. C. L. Lange,
De patrum auct. comtn. (Leipzig, 1876-1877); O. Clason, Kritische
Erorterungen uber den rom. Stoat (Rostock, 1817), p. 41 et seq. In
favour of the view that the words patres and patricii are used in this
connexion as the equivalent of senators may be cited the parallel
use of the term patrician magistrates as the equivalent of curule
magistrates, a usage due to the fact that these magistracies were for
more than a century reserved for patricians.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. T. Mommsen, Staatsrecht, iii. 2 (3rd
edition, Leipzig, 1887) ; P. Willems, Le Senat de la rfpublique romaine
(2nd ed., Louvain, 1883); J. Rubino, Untersuchungen (iii. "von
dem Senate und clem Patriciate," Cassel, 1839) ; A. H. J. Greenidge,
Roman Public Life, p. 261 et seq. (1901); G. W. Botsford, Roman
Assemblies (1909) ; also art. ROME, History. (A. M. CL.>
SENEBIER SENECA
6 37
SENEBIER, JEAN (1742-1809), Swiss pastor and voluminous
writer on vegetable physiology, was born at Geneva on the 6th
of May 1742. He is remembered on account of his contributions
to our knowledge of the influence of light on vegetation. Though
Marcello Malpighi and Stephen Hales had shown that a great part
of the substance of plants must be obtained from the atmosphere,
no progress was made until Charles Bonnet observed on leaves
plunged in aerated water bubbles of gas, which Joseph Priestley
recognized as oxygen. Jan Ingenhousz proved the simultaneous
disappearance of carbonic acid ; but it was Senebier who clearly
showed that this activity was confined to the green parts, and
to these only in sunlight, and first gave a connected view of the
whole process of vegetable nutrition in strictly chemical terms.
He died at Geneva on the 22nd of July 1809.
See Sachs, Geschichte d. Botanik, and Arbeiten, vol. ii.
SENECA, the name of two famous men (father and son),
natives of Corduba (Cordova) in Spain, who attained eminence
in Rome under the Early Empire.
Locius ANNAEUS SENECA (c. 54 B.C.-A.D. 39), called Seneca
" the elder " or " the rhetorician," belonged to a well-to-do
equestrian family of Corduba. His praenomen is uncertain, but in
any caseMarcus is an arbitrary conjecture of Raphael of Volterra.
During a lengthy stay on two occasions at Rome he attended the
lectures of famous orators and rhetoricians, to prepare for an
official career as an advocate. His ideal orator was Cicero, and
he disapproved of the florid tendencies of the oratory of his time.
During the civil wars (which kept him in Spain and thus prevented
him from ever hearing Cicero speak) his sympathies, like those of
his native place, were prsbably with Pompey, as were those of
his son and his grandson (the poet Lucan). By his wife Helvia of
Corduba he had three sons: L. Annaeus Novatus, adopted by his
father's friend, the rhetorician Junius Gallio, and subsequently
called L. Junius Gallio; L. Annaeus Seneca, the philosopher;
Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet Lucan. As he died before
his son was banished by Claudius (41 ; Seneca, ad Helviam, ii. 4) ,
and the latest references in his writings are to the period immedi-
ately after the death of Tiberius, he probably died about A.D. 39.
At an advanced age, at the request of his sons, he prepared, it is
said from memory, a collection of various school themes and their
treatment by Greek and Roman orators. These he arranged in
ten books of Conlr overside (imaginary legal cases) in which 74
themes were discussed, the opinions of the rhetoricians upon
each case being given from different points of view, then their
division of the case into different single questions (divisio), and,
finally, the devices for making black appear white and ex-
tenuating injustice (colores). Each book was introduced by a
preface, in which the characteristics of individual rhetoricians
were discussed in a lively manner. The work is incomplete, but
the gaps can be to a certain extent filled up with the aid of an
epitome made in the 4th or 5th century for the use of schools.
The romantic elements were utilized in the collection of anecdotes
and tales called Gesta Romanorum (q-v.}. For books i., ii., vii., ix.,
x. we possess both the original and the epitome; for the re-
mainder we have to rely upon the epitome alone. Even with the
aid of the latter, only seven of the prefaces are available. The
Controversial were supplemented by the Suasoriae (exercises in
hortatory or deliberative oratory), in which the question is dis-
cussed whether certain things should or should not be done.
The whole forms the most important authority for the history
of contemporary oratory. Seneca was also the author of a lost
historical work, containing the history of Rome from the begin-
ning of the civil wars almost down to his own death, after which
it was published by his son. Of this we learn something from the
younger Seneca's De vita patris (H. Peter, Historicorum Roma-
norum fragmenta, 1883, pp. 292, 301), of which the beginning
was discovered by B. G. Niebuhr. The father's claim to the
authorship of the rhetorical work, generally ascribed to the son
during the middle ages, was vindicated by Raphael of Volterra
and Justus Lipsius.
EDITIONS. N. Faber (Paris, 1587); J. F. Gronovius (Leiden,
1649, Amsterdam, 1672); (critical) C. Bursian (Leipzig, 1857); A.
Kiessling (Leipzig, 1872); H. J. Muller (Prague, 1887, with many
unnecessary conjectures). See also article by O. Rossbach in Pauly-
Wissowa's Realencyklopiidie, i. pt. 2 (1894); Teuffel-Schwabe,
Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans., 1900), 269; M. Schanz,
Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, ii. i (1899) ; and the chapter on
" The Declaimers," in G. A. Simcox, History of Latin Literature, i.
(1883). On Seneca's style, see Max Sander, Der Sprachgebrauch des
Rhetor A. 5. (Waren, 1877-1880); A. Ahlheim, De Senecae rhetoris
usu dicendi (Giessen, 1886); E. Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa
(1898), p. 300; on his influence upon his son the philosopher,
E. Holland , De I 'influence de Seneque le pere et des rheteurs sur Seneque
le philosophe (1906). On the use of Seneca in the Gesta Romanorum,
see L. Friedlander, Darstellungen aus der Sittengeschichte Roms
(Eng. trans., iii. p. 16 and appendix in iv.).
Lucius ANNAEUS SENECA (c. 3 B.C.-A.D. 65), statesman and
philosopher, was the second son of the rhetorician. His teachers
were Attalus, a Stoic, and Sotion, a pupil of the Sextii. In his
youth he was a vegetarian and a water-drinker, but his father
checked his indulgence in asceticism. He devoted himself to
rhetorical and philosophical studies and early won a reputation
at the bar. Gaius criticised his style as mere mosaic (commissuras
meras) or " sand without lime," yet being in reality jealous of his
successes he would have put him to death had he not been assured
that he was too consumptive to live long (Suet. Calig. 63; Dio
Cassius lix. 19. 7). Under Claudius his political career (he had
been quaestor) received a sudden check, for the influence of
Messallina having effected the ruin of Julia, the sister of Gaius,
Seneca, who was compromised by her downfall, was banished
to Corsica, A.D. 41. There eight weary years of waiting were
relieved by study and authorship, with occasional attempts to
procure his return by such gross flattery of Claudius as is found
in the work Ad Polybium de consolatione or the panegyric on
Messallina which he afterwards suppressed. At length the tide
turned; the next empress, Agrippiha, had him recalled, appointed
praetor, and entrusted with the education of her son Nero, then
(48) eleven years old. Seneca became in fact Agrippina's con-
fidential adviser; and his pupil's accession increased his power.
He was consul in 57, and during the first bright years of the new
reign, the quinquennium Neronis, he shared the administration
of affairs with Burrus, the praetorian prefect. The govern-
ment in the hands of these men was wise and humane; their
influence over Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though some-
times maintained by doubtful means (see NERO). We must,
however, regard the general tendency of Seneca's measures;
to judge him as a Stoic philosopher by the counsels of perfection
laid down in his writings would be much the same thing as to
apply the standard of New Testament morality to the career of a
Wolsey or Mazarin. He is the type of the man of letters who
rises into favour by talent and suppleness (comitas honesta),
and is entitled as such to the rare credit of a beneficent rule.
In course of time Nero got to dislike him more and more; the
death of Burrus in 62 gave a shock to his position. In vain did he
petition for permission to retire. Even when he had sought
privacy on the plea of ill-health he could not avert his doom;
on a charge of being concerned in Piso's conspiracy he was forced
to commit [suicide. His manly end might be held in some
measure to redeem the weakness of his life but for the testimony
it bears to his constant study of effect and ostentatious self-
complacency. His second wife, Pompeia Paulina, of noble
family, attempted to die with him. His enormous wealth was
estimated at 300 millions of sesterces. He had 500 ivory tables
inlaid with citron wood (Dio Ixi. 10, Ixii. 2) . Some of the Fathers,
probably in admiration of his ethics, reckoned Seneca among the
Christians; this assumption in its turn led to the forgery of a
correspondence between St Paul and Seneca which was known
to Jerome (cf. Augustin, Ep. 153: " Seneca . . . cujus etiam
ad Paulum apostolum leguntur epistolae "). This has given
rise to an interesting historical problem, most thoroughly dis-
cussed in many works on the Church in the Roman Empire.
Seneca is at once the most eminent among the Latin writers of the
Silver Age and in a special sense their representative, not least
because he was the originator of a false style. The affected and
sentimental manner which gradually grew up in the first century
A.D. became ingrained in him, and appears equally in everything
which he wrote, whether poetry or prose, as the most finished pro-
duct of ingenuity concentrated upon declamatory exercises, sub-
stance being sacrificed to form and thought to point. Every variety
of rhetorical conceit in turn contributes to the dazzling effect, now
6 3 8
SENECA SENEFELDER
tinsel and ornament, now novelty and versatility of treatment, or
affected simplicity and studied absence of plan. But the chief
weapon is the epigram (sententia) , summing up in terse incisive
antithesis the gist of a whole period. " Seneca is a man of real
genius," writes Niebuhr, " which is after all the main thing; not
to be unjust to him, one must know the whole range of that litera-
ture to' which he belonged and realize how well he understood the
art of making something even of what was most absurd." His
works were upon various subjects. (l) His Orations, probably the
speeches which Nero delivered, are lost, as also a biography of his
father, and (2) his earlier scientific works, such as the monographs
describing India and Egypt and one upon earthquakes (Nat. Qu.
vi. 4. 2). The seven extant books of Physical Investigations (Natu-
rales Quaestiones; trans. John Clarke, with introd. by Sir Archibald
Geikie, 1910) treat in a popular manner of meteorology and
astronomy; the work has little scientific merit, yet here and there
Seneca, or his authority, has a shrewd guess, e.g. that there is a
connexion between earthquakes and volcanoes, and that comets
are bodies like the planets revolving in fixed orbits. (3) The Satire
on the Death (and deification, literally " pumpkinification ") of
Claudius (ed. Biicheler, Berlin, 1882) is a specimen of the " satira
Menippea " or medley of prose and verse. The writer's spite against
the dead emperor before whom he had cringed servilely shows in a
sorry fashion when he fastens on the wise and liberal measure of
conferring the franchise upon Gaulish nobles as a theme for abuse.
(4) The remaining prose works are of the nature of moral essays,
bearing various titles twelve so-called Dialogues, three books
On Clemency dedicated to Nero, seven On Benefits, twenty books of
Letters to Lucilius (ed. Hense, Leipzig, 1898; W. C. Summers
published a selection in 1910). They are all alike in discussing
practical questions and in addressing a single reader in a tone of
familiar conversation, the objections he is supposed to make being
occasionally cited and answered. Seneca had the wit to discover that
conduct, which is after all " three-fourths of life," could furnish
inexhaustible topics of abiding universal interest far superior to the
imaginary themes set in the schools and abundantly analysed in his
father's Controversiae and Suasoriae, such as poisoning cases, or
tyrannicide, or even historical persons like Hannibal and Sulla.
The innovation took the public taste, plain matters of urgent
personal concern sometimes treated casuistically, sometimes in a
liberal vein with serious divergence from the orthodox standards,
but always with an earnestness which aimed directly at the reader's
edification, progress towards virtue and general moral improve-
ment. The essays are in fact Stoic sermons; for the creed of the
later Stoics had become less of a philosophical system and more of
a religion, especially at Rome, where moral and theological doctrines
alone attracted lively interest. The school is remarkable for its
anticipation of modern ethical conceptions, for the lofty morality
of its exhortations to forgive injuries and overcome evil with good ;
the obligation to universal benevolence had been deduced from the
cosmopolitan principle that all men are brethren. In Seneca, in
addition to all this, there is a distinctively religious temperament,
which finds expression in phrases curiously suggestive of the spiritual
doctrines of Christianity. Yet the verbal coincidence is sometimes
a mere accident, as when he uses sacer spiritus; and in the same
writings he sometimes advocates what is wholly repulsive to Christian
feeling, as the duty and privilege of suicide.
In the tragedies which bear Seneca's name (Hercules Furens,
Thyestes, Phoenissae, Phaedra, Oedipus, Troades, Medea, Agamemno,
Hercules Oetaeus) the defects of his prose style are exaggerated: as
specimens of pompous rant they are probably unequalled ; and the
rhythm is unpleasant owing to the monotonous structure of the
iambics and the neglect of synapheia in the anapaestic systems.
The praetexta Octavta, also ascribed to him, contains plain allusions
to Nero's end, and must therefore be the product of a later hand.
The doubt as to his authorship of the tragedies is due to a blunder
of Sidonius Apollinaris (ix. 229-231); against it must be set Quin-
tilian's testimony (" ut Medea apud Senecam," ix. 2. 8). The
judgment of Tacitus (Ann. xiii. 4, 13, 42 sq., xiv. 52-56, xv. 60 sq.)
is more favourable than that of Dio, who may possibly derive his
account from the slanders of some personal enemy like Suilius. At
least eighteen prose works have been lost, among them De super-
stitione, an attack upon the popular conceptions of the gods, and
De matrimonio, which, to judge by the extant fragments, must have
been interesting reading. Since Gellius (xii. 2. 3) cites a book xxii.
of the Letters to Lucilius, some of these have been lost.
The best text of the prose works, that of Haase in Teubner's
series (1852), was re-edited in 1872-1874 and 1898. More recently
Gertz has revised the text of Libri de beneficiis et de dementia (Berlin,
1876), H. A. Koch that of the Dialogorum libri xii. (completed by
Vahlen,_ Jena, 1879), and Gertz the Dialogi (Copenhagen, 1886).
There is no_ complete exegetical commentary, either English or
German. Little has been done systematically since the notes of
Lipsius and Gronovius. There is, however, Ruhkopf's ed. with
Latin notes, 5 vols. (Leipzig, 1797-1811), and Lemaire's variorum
ed. (Paris, 1827-1832, 8 vols., prose and verse). The text of the
tragedies was edited by Peiper and Richter, 1867, 2nd ed. 1902,
and by F. Leo (2 vols., Berlin, 1878-1879); verse trans, by F. T-
Miller (Chicago and London, 1908). Nisard, tudes de mceurs et de
critique sur les poetes de la decadence (4th ed., Paris, 1878), has
criticized them in detail. Of some 300 monographs enumerated in
Engelmann may be mentioned, in addition to the above, G. Boissier,
Les Tragedies de Seneyue ont-ils ete representes ? (Paris, 1861); A.
Dorgens, Senec. disciplinae moralis cum Antoniniana comparatio
(Leipzig, 1857); E. F. Gelpke, De Senec. vita et moribus (Bern,
1848); Holzherr, Der Philosoph Seneca (Rastadt, 1858). See also
Sir S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to Marcus Aurelius (1904).
(R. D. H.; X.)
SENECA, a tribe of North American Indians of Iroquoian
stock. They call themselves Tshoti-nondawaga, " people of the
mountain." The French called them Tsonnontouan. Their
former range was in western New York state between Seneca
lake and the Genesee river. They were one of the Six Nations
League of the Iroquois, and eventually became the most im-
portant tribe of the league. They were foremost in all the
Iroquoian wars, and were the official guardians of the western
frontier of the league. On the defeat of the Erie and Neuter
tribes they occupied the county west of Lake Erie and south along
the Alleghany to Pennsylvania. They fought on the English
side in the War of Independence. About 2700 are now on
reservations in New York State, while a few are in Oklahoma
and on Grand River reservation, Ontario.
For Seneca Cosmology see 2ist Ann. Report Bureau Amer. Ethnol.
(1899-1900).
SENECA FALLS, a village of Seneca county, New York,
U.S.A., in the township of Seneca Falls, on Seneca Outlet, or
river (which connects Lake Seneca and Lake Cayuga), about
42 m. W.S.W. of Syracuse. Pop. (1900) 6519, of whom 801
were foreign-born; (1905) 6733; (1910) 6588; of the town-
ship, including the village (1910) 740^. The village is served by
the New York Central & Hudson River, the Lehigh Valley and
electric suburban railways, and by the Seneca & Cayuga Canal.
In the village are the Mynderse (public) Library and the Johnson
Home for Old Ladies ( 1 868) . Cayuga Lake Park, a pleasure resort ,
is 3 m. distant and is reached by electric railway. The village is
the shipping point for a farming and dairying region. The river
here falls 50 ft. and provides a good water power; among the
manufactures are pumps and hydraulic machinery, woollen goods,
wagons and farm implements. Seneca Falls was settled about
1790, and was first incorporated as a village in 1831, its charter
as revised in 1902 being similar in some respects to that of a city.
In Seneca Falls on the igth and 2oth of July 1848 was held a
Woman's Rights Convention, the first in the United States. 1 ^
SENEFELDER, ALOIS (1771-1834), German inventor of
lithography, was born at Munich on the 6th of November 1771,
his father Peter being an actor at the Theatre Royal. Owing to
the death of his father he was unable to continue his legal studies
at the university of Ingolstadt, and tried to support himself as a
performer and author, but without success. In order to accelerate
the publication of one of his works, he frequently spent whole
days in the printing office, and found the process of printing so
simple that he conceived the idea of purchasing a small printing
press, thus enabling himself to print and publish his own com-
positions. Unable to pay for the engraving of his compositions,
he attempted to engrave them himself. He made numerous
experiments with little success; tools and skill were alike
wanting. Copper-plates were expensive, and the want of a
sufficient number entailed the tedious process of grinding and
polishing afresh those he had used. About this period his atten-
tion was accidentally directed to a fine piece of Kellheim stone
which he had purchased for the purpose of grinding his ink.
His first idea was to use it merely for practice in his exercises in
writing backwards, the ease with which the stone could be ground
and polished afresh being the chief inducement. While he was
engaged one day in polishing a stone slab on which to continue his
exercises, his mother entered the room and desired him to write
1 The convention, under the leadership of Lucretia Mott and
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, adopted a " Declaration of Sentiments "
modelled after the American Declaration of Independence, and
resolved " that it is the duty of the women of this country to secure
to themselves their sacred right to the elective franchise," and
" that the same amount of virtue, delicacy and refinement of be-
haviour that is required of woman in the social state should also be
required of man, and the same transgressions should be visited with
equal severity on both man and woman."
SENEGA SENEGAL
639
her a bill for the washer-woman, who was waiting for the linen.
Neither paper nor ink being at hand, the bill was written on the
stone he had just polished. The ink used was composed of wax,
soap and lamp-black. Some time afterwards, when about to wipe
the writing from the stone, the idea all at once struck him to try
the effect of biting the stone with aqua fortis. Surrounding the
stone with a border of wax, he covered its surface with a mixture
of one part of aqua fortis and ten parts of water. The result of the
experiment was that at the end of five minutes he found the
writing elevated about the tenth part of a line (yiiy in.). He
then proceeded to apply the printing ink to the stone, using at
first a common printer's ball, but soon found that a thin piece of
board covered with fine cloth answered better, communicating
the ink more equally. He was able to take satisfactory im-
pressions, and, the method of printing being new, he hoped to
obtain a patent for it, or even some assistance from the govern-
ment. For years Senefelder continued his experiments, until the
art not only became simplified, but reached a high degree of
excellence in his hands. In later years the king of Bavaria
settled a handsome pension on Senefelder. He died at Munich
in 1834, having lived to see his invention brought to compara-
tive perfection.
SENEGA, the dried root of the Polygala Senega, which is
official in the British and United States pharmacopoeias. Senega
contains an active principle, saponin. Senega is used chiefly
as a stimulating expectorant in chronic bronchitis. It is occasion-
ally used as a diuretic in renal dropsy. It is a cardiac depressant,
and is contra-indicated in diseased conditions of the heart.
It has a tendency to upset the digestion, and is therefore only
used in combination with other drugs in what are termed ex-
pectorant mixtures.
SENEGAL, a river of West Africa, entering the Atlantic about
16 N., some 10 m. below St Louis, after a course of fully 1000 m.
It is formed by the junction of the Bafing or Black river and
the Bakhoy or White river, and its chief affluent is the Faleme.
North of the Senegal the Sahara reaches the coast, and for
over 1000 miles no river enters the ocean.
The Bafing rises in the Futa Jallon highlands about 2400 ft.
above sea-level, in 10 28' N., 10 5' W., its source being within
125 m. of Konakry on the Gulf of Guinea. It is joined in about
11 10' N. and 11 45' W. by the Tene, which rises in 13 W. and
10 37' N. and flows north-east. A little south of 12 N. the
Bafing is a large stream 250 yds. wide r and is here separated from
the sources of the Faleme by a line of hills 2600 ft. high, which
send to the latter river four important streams rising in about 12
N. The Bafing follows a northward course for about 350 m.,
during which it descends by a series of rapids till it reaches a level
of 360 ft. above the sea. The headstreams of the Bakhoy rise
between 11 30' and 12 N. and 9 20' and 9 50' W. on theN.E.
versant of the hills which here form a narrow divide between the
basin of the Senegal and that of the upper Niger. The Bakhoy,
in its upper course much interrupted by rapids, flows N.E., but
about 12 15' N. turns north-westward. Its principal affluent,
the Baule (Red river), and its headstreams rise farther east on
the northern slopes of the hills which above Bamako shut in the
Niger. The eastern headwaters of the Senegal thus drain a large
area adjacent to the upper Niger. The Baule flows north and in
a series of loops reaches 14 20' N., where it turns westward and
in about 13 30' N. and 10 W. joins the Bakhoy. After receiving
the Baule, the Bakhoy, now a river of fine proportions, flows
W. by N. through rocky country in a narrow valley. In 11 55'
W. and 13 48' N. it unites with the Bafing. At the confluence the
Bakhoy is 800 ft. wide, the Bafing at this point having a width
of 360 ft.
After the junction of the Black and White rivers the united
stream is known as the Senegal. The confluence is called Bafulabe,
i.e. " meeting of the waters." Below Bafulabe the river flows
N.W. through a valley bordered on either side by hills which throw
out rocky spurs, over which the Senegal descends in a succession of
falls, those of Guina (160 ft.) and of Felu (50 or 60 ft.) being the most
important. It receives from the north several intermittent streams,
the chief, usually carrying a fair amount of water, being the Khulu
or Kplimbine, coming from the Kaarta plateau. From the south
it is joined by the Faleme, a considerable river which rises in hilly
country in about 11 50' N. and 11 30' W. The first rise in the
lower Senegal is due to the rains in the source region of the Faleme,
the flood water passing down that stream more quickly than down
the Bafing owing to its shorter course. A short distance below the
Felu Falls is the town of Kayes on the left bank of the river. Be-
tween the falls and Bakel (85 m.) there are twenty-seven " narrows,"
of which several, such as that at Kayes, are difficult. Kayes is the
limit of navigability from the sea. From that town a railway
connects with the navigable waters of the upper Niger at Bamako
(see SENEGAL: Country, I.).
Below Bakel the river passes through flatter country and presents
a series of great reaches. It sends off numbers of divergent channels
(called marigots) forming several islands, the largest being that of
Morfil, no m. long. The river attains its most northerly point,
16 30' N., in about 15 10' W. Thereafter it runs S.W. and finally
due S. In the last 10 m. of its course it runs parallel to the sea, from
which it is separated by a narrow line of dunes. On an island at
the head of this 10 m. is St Louis, the capital of the colony of Senegal.
At this point the right branch of the river is only 500 ft. from the
open Atlantic. A marigot, called the Ndiadier or Maringuins,
leaves the river 40 m. above St Louis, pierces the dunes at flood time
and reaches the sea, 50 m. N. of the mouth of the river. The Senegal
indeed has what is styled an interior delta, but, with the exception
of the marigot named, all the divergent branches rejoin the main
stream before the sea is reached.
The comparative scantiness of its sources, the steepness of its
upper course and the rapid evaporation which takes place after the
short rainy season would make the Senegal an insignificant stream
for more than half the year; but natural dams cross the channel at
intervals and the water accumulates behind them in deep reaches,
which thus act as reservoirs. In the rainy season the barriers are
submerged in succession, the reaches are filled and the plains of the
lower Senegal are changed into immense marshes. Lake Cayor
on the right side of the lower Senegal and Lake Panieful (Guier) on
the left constitute reserve basins, receiving the surplus waters of the
river during flood and restoring them in the dry season. In the
upper part of the river the reservoirs are partially protected by
curtains of verdure from the effects of the evaporation which makes
itself so severely felt on the treeless seaboard. Owing to these
natural " locks," the Senegal never discharges less than 1700 or
1800 cubic ft. per second. The lower Senegal forms the boundary
between the Sahara and the western Sudan; the line of its in-
undations is an ethnographic march between the nomadic Berber
and the settled Negro.
From July to October the level of the Senegal shows a series of
fluctuations, with, however, a general increase till the end of August
or beginning of September, when the maximum occurs. Boats
drawing from I ft. to 2 ft. 6 in. can ascend to Kayes from the be-
ginning of June to the middle of November; steamers drawing
4 ft. 3 in., from July to October inclusive; and ocean steamers,
lightened so as to draw 11-13 ft-, during August and September.
From Mafu to the sea, a distance of 215 m., the Senegal is navigable
all the year round by vessels drawing not more than 10 ft.
The existence of the Senega] appears to have been known
to the ancients. It is usually regarded as the Chretes or
Chremetes of Hanno, and the Nachyris and Bambotus of the
Greeks and Romans, but it is not possible definitely to identify it
with any of the rivers on Ptolemy's map. Idrisi and other medieval
Arabian geographers undoubtedly refer to it. The seamen of
Dieppe are said to have discovered the river about 1360, and even
to have built a fort which became the nucleus of the town of
St Louis, but this claim is unproved (see GUINEA). The mouth
of the Senegal, then called Senaga, was entered in 1445 by the
Portuguese navigator Dinas Diaz (who thought it a western arm
of the Nile), and in 1455 Cadamosto ascended the river for some
distance. Leo Africanus rightly describes its lower course as
" severing by its winding channel the barren and naked soil from
the green and fruitful." It was not until 1637 that the explora-
tions of the upper river began, Jannequin, Sieur de Rochfort,
in that year ascending the river some 200 m. above St Louis.
In 1697 Andre Brtie reached the island of Morfil, while in 1698
he penetrated past the Felu Falls. At that period geographers
regarded the Senegal as the termination of the Niger, a theory
held until Mungo Park's demonstration of the eastward course of
that stream. Park himself added much to the knowledge of the
upper basin of the Senegal. It was not until 1818 that the source
(i.e. of the Bafing) was located, by Gaspard Mollien.
See G. Mollien, Decouverte des sources du Senegal el de la Gambie
(Paris, ed. 1889), with introduction by L. Ravaisson-Mollien ;
J. Ancelle, Les Explorations au Senegal el dans les contrees voisines
(Paris, 1886); M. Olivier, Le Senegal (Paris, 1908); Captain
Fromaget, u L'Hydrographie du fleuve Senegal," in B.S.G. Comm.
Bordeaux, xxxii. (1909).
640
SENEGAL
SENEGAL, a country of West Africa belonging to France.
As a geographical expression it is the land watered by the Senegal
river; politically it has a much wider significance. The French
possessions in this region are divided into (i) the colony of
Senegal, and dependent native states; (2) the colony of Upper
Senegal and Niger, with a dependent Military Territory; (3)
the Territory of Mauretania. The first colony includes the most
westerly coast regictn of Africa; a large part of the second colony
is the country enclosed in the great bend of the Niger; while the
Military Territory is east of that river. The Territory of Maure-
tania is part of the western Sahara, stretching indefinitely north
from the Senegal river. It includes the oasis of Adrar Temur
(see ADRAR) and the coast regions between Cape Blanco and
the Senegal river. In the present article the two colonies are
dealt with in separate sections (I. and II. below), the story of
French conquest and colonization throughout this vast region
forming section III.
I. SENEGAL
Senegal is bounded N. by the Territory of Mauretania, W. by
the Atlantic, S. by Portuguese Guinea and French Guinea, and
E. by the Faleme, which separates it from Upper Senegal and
Niger. Wedged into Senegal and surrounded by it save seawards
is the British colony of the Gambia. Senegal colony proper
consists of the towns of Dakar, St Louis, Goree and Rufisque, a
narrow strip of territory on either side of the Dakar-St Louis
railway, and a few detached spots, and has an area of 438 sq. m.
with a population (census of 1004) of 107,826. The rest of the
country consists of native states under French protection, and
includes, since 1009, the northern bank of the river Senegal
below Bakel. In this larger sense, which is that employed in this
article, Senegal covers about 74,000 sq. m., with an estimated
population of 1,800,000. Among the protected states is Bondu
(q.v.) lying immediately west of the lower Faleme.
Physical Features. The coast follows a S.S.W. direction from the
mouth of the Senegal to Cape Verde, the most western point of the
African continent ; thence it bends south as far as Cape Roxo, where
the Portuguese frontier begins. The only gulf on the coast is that
which lies to the south of Cape Verde and contains the island of
Goree (^.r.). The coast in the northern part is low, arid, desolate and
dune-skirted, its monotony relieved only here and there by cliffs and
plateaus. Further south it becomes marshy, and clothed with luxuri-
ant vegetation. A little to the north of the Gambia the coast-line is
much broken by the archipelago of islands formed by the Salum
estuary, whilst south of the Gambia is the broad estuary of the Casa-
mance. Between the Senegal and the Gambia and as far east as
about 13 W., the country behind the seaboard is a slightly elevated
and, for the most part, barren plain. Further east is a mountainous
and fertile region with altitudes of over 4000 ft. The mountains sink
abruptly towards the Niger valley, while southwards they join the
Futa Jallon highlands. On the north they extend to the left bank
of the Senegal and throw out spurs into the desert beyond. The
Senegal (O.P.), its tributary the Faleme, and the upper course of the
Gambia (q.v.) are the chief rivers which drain the country. The
Salum, already mentioned, is a river-like estuary which penetrates
fully loo m. and is split into many channels. It is navigable from
the sea for 60 m. The Casamance flows between the Gambia to
the north and the Cacheo to the south, and has a drainage area of
some 6000 sq. m. Rising in the Futa Jallon, the river has a
course of about 212 m., and at Sedhiu, 105 m. from the sea, is I j m.
broad. Forty miles lower down it is joined by a northern tributary,
the Songrogu, and thence to the ocean forms, with its numerous
lateral channels, an estuary. The mouth of the river is fully 6 m.
wide. Six to seven feet of water cover the bar at low tide, the river
being navigable by shallow draught vessels for the greater part of its
length.
Geology. The low region of the seaboard has a very uniform
character. It consists of sandstones or clay rocks and loose beds of
reddish soil, containing marine shells. At certain points, such as
Cape Verde and Cape Roxo (or Rouge), the red sandstones crop out,
giving to the latter its name. Clay slates also occur, and at intervals
these sedimentary strata are interrupted by basaltic amygdaloid and
volcanic rocks. For instance, the island of Goree is basaltic. The
base of the mountains is formed in certain places of clay slate, but
more generally of granite, porphyry, syenite or trachyte. In those
districts mica-schists and iron ores occur. Iron and gold are found
in the mountains and the alluvial deposits. Many of the valleys are
covered with fertile soils; but the rest of the country is rather arid
and sterile.
Climate. There are two seasons, the dry and the rainy or winter,
the latter contemporaneous with the European summer. In the
rainy season the wind blows from the sea, in the dry season the har-
mattan sweeps seaward from the Sahara. Along the seaboard the
dry season is cool and agreeable ; in the interior it is temperate in the
three months which correspond to the European winter, for the rest
of the year the heat is excessive. The maximum readings (90 to
1 00 F.), which are exceptional at St Louis, become almost the rule
at Bakel on the upper Senegal. The mean temperature at St Louis
is 68 to 70 F. The rainy season begins at Goree between the 27th
of June and the I3th of July. During this period storms are frequent
and the Senegal overflows and floods the lowlands, the heat and
humidity rendering the country affected very unhealthy. Several
districts formerly covered with forest, to which fact Cape Verde
owed its name, are now treeless, a continual slow diminution in the
rainfall being the result. 1 No part of the country is suited for per-
manent occupation by Europeans. Yellow fever, malaria, &c., once
prevalent in the towns, have been successfully combated by attention
to sanitation.
Flora. The principal tree is the baobab (Adansonia digitata),
which sometimes at the height of 24 ft. has a diameter of 34 and a
circumference of 104 ft. Acacias are numerous, one species, A.
adansonia, being valuable for ship-timber. Among the palm-trees
is the ranter, whose wood resists moisture and the attacks of insects;
in some places, as in Cayor, it forms magnificent forests. The
mampatas grows sometimes 100 ft. high, its branches beginning at a
height of about 25 ft. Landolphia and other rubber plants, and the
oil-palm, grow luxuriantly in the Casamance district. The karite,
or shea-butter tree, is common. Wild indigo is abundant, and the
cotton plant is indigenous.
Fauna. The lion of Senegal and the neighbouring countries differs
from the Barbary lion; its colour is a deeper and brighter yellow,
and its mane is neither so thick nor so long. Other beasts of prey
are the leopard, the wild cat, the cheetah, the civet and the hyena.
The wild boar is clumsier than the European variety. Antelopes and
gazelles occur in large herds; the giraffe is found in the region of the
upper Senegal; the elephant is rare; the hippopotamus is gradually
disappearing. Crocodiles swarm in the upper Senegal. Monkeys and
apes of different species (the chimpanzee, the colobus, the cyno-
cephalus, &c.), the squirrel, rat and mouse abound. The hedgehog,
marmot, porcupine, hare, rabbit, &c., are also met with. Among the
more noteworthy birds are the ostrich, which migrates to the Sahara;
the bustard, found in desert and uncultivated districts; the mara-
bout, a kind of stork, with its beak black in the middle and red at the
point, which frequents the moist meadowlands and the lagoons; the
brown partridge, the rock partridge and the quail in the plains and on
the mountain sides; and the guinea-fowl in the thickets and brush-
wood. Along the coast are caught the sperm whale, the manatee and
the cod-fish.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Senegal are, mainly," Moors"
and allied Berber races, and Negroids. The Moors, or rather
Berbers (Trarzas, Braknas and Duaish), inhabit the right bank
of the Senegal. Fula (Peuls) are found in various parts of the
country. Negroids, however, form the bulk of the population.
There are few, if any, tribes of unmixed Negro blood, though
in most of them the Negro element largely predominates. The
best known of these tribes are the Wolofs and Mandingos, the
last-named a widespread group of allied peoples bearing many
names such as Sarakoles and Bambaras. Mandingos inhabit
the basins of the upper Niger and the upper Senegal, and the
western slope of the mountains of Futa Jallon. Under the name
of Wakore or Wangara they are also found in all the immense
tract enclosed in the bend of the Niger. The Berbers, Fula and
Mandingos are Moslems. The Wolofs and the Serers inhabit
the seaboard from St Louis to the Gambia, and the left bank of
the Senegal from its mouth to Dagana. The Balanta inhabit
the left bank of the Casamance; they are allied to the Mandingos.
The principal languages spoken are Wolof, Fula, Serer, Mandingo
and Arabic. The river Senegal marks the line of separation
between Wolof and Arabic. Fula is the language of the Fula
and Tukulors (Fula half-breeds) ; Mandingo comprises several
dialects and is widely spoken. Polygamy is generally practised.
Slave raiding has been stopped and domestic slavery is not
recognized by the French. (See BERBERS, FULA, WOLOF,
MANDINGO, &c.)
Towns. The chief towns of Senegal are St Louis, pop. (1904)
28,469, Dakar (23,452), Goree (1500) (all separately noticed) and
Rufisque. Rufisque (12,446; including suburbs, 19,177) is a seaport
14 m. E. of Dakar and is on the railway connecting that town with
St Louis. It is the chief place in the colony for the export of ground-
nuts. Portudal and Joal are small places on the coast south of
Rufisque. (Midway between Cape Verde and Cape Blanco is the small
port of Marsa or Portendic, a little south of Jeil [Old Portendic],
1 See A. Knox, " The Isohyets 'twixt Sahara and Western Sudan,"
in Geog. Journ. (June 1909).
SENEGAL
641
which was formerly noted for the export of gum arabic, and on the
shores of the bay formed by Cape Blanco is Port Etienne, a fishing
station provided with jetties and guarded by a military post. These
last-named ports are in the Territory of Mauretania, but are most
conveniently mentioned here.) On the river Senegal are the towns
of Richard-toll (Richard's garden), Dagana and Bakel, all three
founded by the French government in 1821. Carabane, Zighinchor
and Sedhiu are settlements on the Casamance river. St Louis,
Dakar, Goree and Rufisque are communes, with a franchise exercised
by natives and Europeans alike. The total white population of the
four towns is about 5000.
Agriculture and Trade. Senegal's chief commercial product is the
ground-nut, which, since 1888, has yielded about 30,000 tons a year.
Millet, the staple food of the native population, maize and rice occupy
about two-thirds of the cultivated land. Acacia gum is gathered by
the Moors in the northern region; the kola nut is cultivated and
rubber is collected in the district of Casamance, which projects
between Portuguese Guinea and British Gambia. There are large
herds of cattle and flocks of sheep and goats, besides numerous camels,
asses and horses. Gold, iron, quicksilver and copper are found.
The natives carry on weaving, pottery, brickmaking, and manufacture
trinkets. Cotton goods (chiefly from England) form the most im-
portant articles of import, and after them come kola nuts (mainly
from Sierra Leone), rice, wines and spirits, tobacco, implements, sugar,
coal and fancy goods; the exports are mostly ground-nuts; rubber
(much of which comes from the Niger regions), gum and gold coming
next in value. The imports and ^exports of Senegal are not
shown separately, the figures for Upper Senegal and Niger being
included. The average annual value for the five years ending 1905
was 3,100,000. By 1910 the value had risen to nearly 4,000,000.
France takes 75% of the exports; Belgium, the Netherlands and
Denmark the bulk of the remainder In value ground-nuts form
four-fifths of the exports.
Communications. A railway, 163 m. long, goes from Dakar to St
Louis, from which point the Senegal river is navigable by steamer
from August to November, both inclusive, for about 500 m., the
navigable reach terminating at Kayes, whence a railway runs to the
Niger. Direct communication between Dakar and the Niger is
afforded by a railway starting from Thies, a station on the way to
St Louis, and ending at Kayes. The construction of this line began
in 1907. Telegraph lines connect the colony with all other parts of
French West Africa. Dakar is in direct cable communication with
Brest, and another cable connects St Louis with Cadiz. Steamship
communication between Europe and Dakar and Rufisque is main-
tained by several French, British and German lines. Over 50% of
the shipping is French, Great Britain coming second.
II. UPPER SENEGAL AND NIGER
This colony is bounded N. by the Saharan territories dependent
on Algeria, W. by Senegal and the Territory of Mauretania, S.
by the French colonies of Guinea and the Ivory Coast, the
Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British), Togoland
(German) and Dahomey (French). The Military Territory
dependent on the colony extends E. of the Niger to the Lake
Chad territory of French Congo, being bounded S. by Nigeria
(British). The colony and its dependent territory thus form
the link connecting all the possessions of France in north, west
and central Africa. Their area is estimated at 210,000 sq. m.,
with a population of some 3,000,000. Those tribes living north
and east of the Niger are mainly of Berber (Tuareg) stock;
the inhabitants of the Niger bend are chiefly Negroids, such as
the Mandingo, with Fula in certain districts.
The colony, as a whole, consists of a great plateau of granite
and sandstone, rarely more than 1600 ft. high, and in its N.W.
part, the Kaarta, all but desert. Hydrographically the western
portion belongs to the basin of the Senegal, the central to that
of the Niger. At Mopti, 200 m. S.W. of Timbuktu, the Niger
receives the Mahel Balevel, which rises in about 9|N. and with
its tributaries drains a very large area. In its lower courses its
divergent channels, uniting with offshoots from the Niger, form
in the flood season an immense lake. This region apparently
the Wangara country of Idrisi is sometimes called Bambara,
the name of the chief race inhabiting it. The lakes or widenings
of the Niger itself occupy vast areas; Lake Debo, the Lake of
Horo, the Lake of Dauna, Lake Faguibini are all to the south or
west of Timbuktu, and are permanent. The greater part of the
colony lies within the bend of the Niger, but westward it includes
both banks of the Senegal as far as the Faleme confluence. It
also extends north of the Niger so as to include the fertile land on
the borders of the Sahara. On the S.W. and S. the country is
somewhat mountainous and the general trend of the land and
xxrv. 21
the course of the rivers is south to north. East of the Niger the
conditions are mostly Saharan, but there is a belt of fairly fertile
country, bordering northern Nigeria and extending to Lake
Chad. This region includes the state of Zinder (q.v.) and the
oases of Air or Asben and Bilma (q.v.). The country west of the
Niger contains patches of forest, but it consists mainly of open
land well adapted to agriculture and stock-raising. The fauna
includes the lion, elephant, hippopotamus, wild boar, panther and
various kinds of antelope. The climate is tropical, but, apart from
the districts inundated by the Niger floods, dry and not unhealthy.
T/te Protected States. Of the native states included in the
colony Bambuk lies between the Senegal and the Faleme and
Baling. It is traversed from N.W. to S.E. by the steep and
wall-like range of the Tamba-Ura Mountains. The soil in a
large part of the country is of remarkable fertility; rice, maize,
millet, melons, manioc, grapes, bananas and other fruits grow
abundantly; the forests are rich in a variety of valuable trees;
and extensive stretches are covered with abundant pasturage of
the long guinea-grass. The inhabitants, a branch of the Mandingo
race, own large herds of cattle and sheep. The reports which
reached Europe during the i7th and i8th centuries of a country
in Upper Senegal rich in gold referred to this district, where both
alluvial and quartz deposits have been found, though the stories
of " bills of gold " remain unverified. In all the protected states
the native rulers retain a considerable degree of authority and
native law is administered.
Towns. The principal towns in the colony are, in Upper Senegal,
Kayes, Bafulabe and Kita; in the Niger regions Sikaso, the centre
of the rubber trade; Bamako, 1 the seat of government ; Kulikoro,
Segu, Sansandig, Bambara, Jenne (q.v.) and Timbuktu (q.v.). Nioro
is the capital of the Kaarta country; between it and Timbuktu
are Gumbu and Sokolo; Gao (q.v.), Zinder or Sinder' (not to be con-
founded with the Zinder mentioned above), Sansanne Hausa,
Niamey and Say are towns on the Niger below Timbuktu, Say (q.v.)
being an entrepot for the trade of the east Nigerian regions. In the
centre of the Niger bend is the important city of Wagadugu.the
capital of Mossi, a negroid and pagan state dating from the I4th
century. Satadugu is on the upper course of the Faleme. Sati and
Leo are towns just north of the British Gold Coast hinterland.
Of these towns Kayes is situated on the Senegal at the point of
which that river ceases to be navigable from the sea a distance of
460 m. from St Louis. Bamako, chosen in 1904 as the capital of the
colony, is on the upper Niger at the head of its navigable waters and
is in railway communication with Kayes. Segu, where Mungo Park
first reached the Niger, is regarded as the capital of Bambara rather
than the town of Bambara, which is on a backwater of the Niger some
100 m. S. of Timbuktu. Before the French occupation the possessor
of Segu was the ruler of the surrounding country; and the town was
the headquarters of the emirs Omar and Ahmadu (see below, History).
Sansandig stands on the north bank of the Niger below Segu. It
was visited by Mungo Park in 1796, and Lieut. E. Mage and
Dr Quintin, French officers, witnessed the stand it made in 1865
against a siege by Ahmadu, sultan of Segu, from whom it had re-
volted. Before its conquest by the Tuareg in the first half of the
I9th century Sansandig was an important mart, owing to its position
at the upper end of the stretch of the Niger navigable for large
vessels all the year round. After its occupation by France in 1900
its commercial importance gradually returned. It possesses good
anchorage and landing places.
Communications. There is regular communication by rail and
river between Dakar, the principal port of Senegal, and Timbuktu,
the journey occupying ten to twelve days. A railway linking the
Senegal and Niger rivers starts at Kayes on the Senegal, passes S.E.
through Bafulabe and Kita, whence it goes E. to Bamako on the
Niger, and follows the left bank of that river to Kulikoro, the
term-nus, from which point the Niger is navigable down stream all
the year round for a distance of 900 m., while from Bamako the
Niger is navigable up stream to Kurussa, a distance of 225 m., for
the greater part of the year. The Senegal-Niger railway is 347 m.
long, and occupied twenty-four years in construction, owing to bad
management and periods of retrogressive policy in Paris. The total
cost was upwards of 3,500,000. Construction of the line was
sanctioned in 1880; by 1882, when 700,000 had been spent, but
10 m. of rails had been laid. The 33rd mile was reached at a cost
of 7,252 per mile for actual construction. Notwithstanding this
heavy expense the line was condemned as hopelessly defective. In
1888 it reached Bafulabe (82 m.) when work was suspended, not to be
vigorously resumed until 1898. The entire line was opened for traffic
in 1905. Steamers ply on the Niger between Kabara, the port of
Timbuktu, and Kulikoro and Bamako. Good roads connect Mossi
1 For a monograph on Bamako see Quest, dipl. et col. (1907),
PP- 561-576.
5
642
SENEGAL
and other countries in the Niger bend with the river ports and the
colonies on the Gulf of Guinea. There is a complete system of tele-
graphic communication with all the French colonies in West Africa.
The principal line (over 2000 m. long) connects Dakar with Timbuktu
and from Timbuktu goes east to Zinder. At Burrem on the Niger,
212 m. below Timbuktu, starts a line across the Sahara to Algeria.
Trade and Agriculture. The chief exports are gum (which comes
largely from the northern districts such as Kaarta), rubber, gold, kola
nuts, leather and. ostrich feathers. Part of the trade is still done by
caravans across the Sahara to Morocco and Algeria, and a goodly
proportion of the exports from the middle Niger are shipped from
Konakry in French Guinea. Under the direction of French officials,
cotton-growing on scientific methods was begun in the Niger basin
in 1904. American and Egyptian varieties were introduced, the
American varieties proving well adapted to the soil. Indigenous
varieties of cotton are common and are cultivated by the natives for
domestic use, weaving being a general industry. Gold is found in
the basin of the Faleme and of the Tankisso. Rubber is abundant in
the southern part of the Niger bend, the latex being extracted by the
natives in large quantities. The people are great agriculturists, their
chief crops being millet, maize, rice, cotton and indigo. Tobacco is
cultivated by the river folk along the banks inundated by the floods.
Wheat is grown in the neighbourhood of Timbuktu, the seed having
been, in all probability, brought from Morocco at the time of the
Moorish invasion (see TIMBUKTU). The oil of the karite or shea-
butter tree, common in the southern and western regions, is largely
used. Cattle are plentiful; there are several good breeds of horses;
donkeys are numerous and largely used as transport animals; wool-
bearing sheep distinct from the smooth-haired sheep of the coast
regions are bred in many districts, the natives using the wool
largely in the manufacture of blankets and rugs. Ostriches are
fairly numerous in the upper portion of the Niger bend and on the
left bank of the Niger east of Timbuktu, and their feathers form a
valuable article of trade. Most of the trade of this vast region is
with France and through Senegal.
III. HISTORY AND ADMINISTRATION
The story of the French conquests throughout West Africa
is inseparably connected with the history of Senegal. Trading
stations were established elsewhere on the coast, but the line
of penetration into the interior of the continent was, until the
last few years of the igth century, invariably by way of the
river Senegal. Hence there is a peculiar interest in the record
of the early settlements on this coast. The Portuguese had
some establishments on the banks of the Senegal in the isth
century; they penetrated to Bambuk in search of gold, and were
for some time masters of that country, but the inhabitants
rose and drove them out. Remains of their buildings are still
to be seen. The first French settlement was probably made
in 1626 (see SENEGAL, river). Between 1664, when the French
settlements were assigned to Colbert's West India Company,
and 1758, when the colony was seized by the British, Senegal
had passed under the administration of seven different companies,
none of which attained any great success, though from 1697 to
1724 affairs were conducted by a really able governor, Andr6
Brue, who did not, however, spend the whole of his time in
Africa; from 1703 to 1714 he directed the affairs of Senegal from
Paris. Brue made many exploring expeditions and was on one
occasion (1701) captured by the natives, who extorted a heavy
ransom. Under his direction the auriferous regions of Bambuk,
long since abandoned by the Portuguese, were revisited (1716)
and the first map of Senegal drawn (1724). In the meantime
(1677) the French had captured from the Dutch Rufisque,
Portudal, Joal and Goree and they were confirmed in possession
of these places by the treaty of Nijmwegen (1678). In 1717 the
French acquired Portendic, a roadstead half way between capes
Verde and Blanco, and in 1724 Arguin, an island off the coast
of the Sahara, which still belongs to the colony. Goree and the
district of Cape Verde were captured by the British under
Commodore Keppel in 1758, but were surrendered to the French
in 1763, and by the treaty of peace in 1783 the whole of the
Senegal was also restored. The British again captured the
colony in the wars of the First Empire (Goree 1800, St Louis
1809) and, though the treaty of Paris authorized a complete
restitution, the French authorities did not enter into possession
till 1817. At that time the authority of France did not extend
beyond the island of Goree and the town of St Louis, whilst
up to 1854 little was effected by the thirty-seven governors who
followed each other in rapid succession. Of these governors
Captain (afterwards Admiral) Bouet-Willaumez had previously
explored the Senegal river as far as Medine and was anxious
to increase French influence, but his stay in Senegal (1842-1844)
was too brief to permit him to accomplish much.
The appointment of General Faidherbe as governor in 1854
proved the turning-point in the history of Senegal. In the
meantime the Niger had been explored, Timbuktu visited by
Europeans and the riches of the region were attracting attention.
General Faidherbe sought to bring these newly opened-up lands
under French sway, and dreamed of a French empire stretching
across Africa from west to east. As far as concerned West
Africa he did much to make that dream a reality. On taking
up the governorship he set about subduing the Moorish (Berber)
tribes of the Trarzas, Braknas and Duaish, whose " kings,"
especially the king of the Trarzas, had subjected the French
settlers and traders to grievous and arbitrary exactions; and
he bound them by treaty to confine their authority to the north
bank of the Senegal. In 1855 he annexed the country of Walo
and, ascending the river beyond Kayes, erected the fort of,
Medine for the purpose of stemming the advancing tide of
Moslem invasion, which under Omar al-Haji (Alegui) threatened
the safety of thecolony. In 1857 Medine was brilliantly defended
by the mulatto Paul Holle against Omar, who with his army of
20,000 men had to retire before the advance of General Faidherbe
and turn his attention to the conquest of the native states within
the bend of the Niger. The conquest of the Senegambian region
by the French folio wed < The outbreak of the Franco- Prussian
War in 1870 checked the French schemes of penetration for
some five or six years, but the delay proved to be no disadvantage
for Great Britain, France's only serious rival in West Africa at
the time, remained inert.
The first French expedition into the heart of the Niger country
was undertaken in 1863, when General Faidherbe sent Lieut.
E. Mage 1 and Dr Quintin to explore the country east Cgn uest
of the Senegal. The two travellers pushed as far as O nt>e
Segu on the Niger, then the capital of the almany upper
Ahmadu, a son of Omar al-Haji. At Segu they were ^fj ns
forcibly detained from February 1864 to March 1866. re ** 01
During this period they gathered much valuable information
concerning the geography, ethnology and history of the middle
Niger region. In 1878 the explorer Paul Soleillet (1842-1886)
also penetrated to Segu. In 1879 Colonel Briere de 1'Isle
(governer of Senegal, 1876-1881) appointed Captain Joseph S.
Gallieni to investigate the route for a railway and to reopen
communications with the almany Ahmadu; and at this time the
post of Bafulabfi was constructed. The armed conquest began
in 1880, and for more than fifteen years was carried on by
Borgnis-Desbordes, J. S. Gallieni, H. N. Frey, Louis Archinard,
Col. Combes, Tite Pierre Eugene Bonnier and other officers. In
1 88 1 the Niger was reached; the fort of Kita was erected to
the south-east of M6dine to watch the region between the
Senegal and the Joliba (upper Niger) ; the fort of Bamako on
the Niger was built in 1883; a road was made, 400 m. of tele-
graph line laid down and the work of railway construction
begun. In 1887 Ahmadu, who had formerly been anxious to
obtain British protection, signed a treaty placing the whole of
his country under French protection. 2 Besides Ahmadu the
principal opponent of the French was a Malink6 (Mandingo)
chieftain named Samory, a man of humble origin, born about
1846, who first became prominent as a reformer of Islam, and
1 Lieut. E. Mage (1837-1869) of the French navy, an officer of
brilliant promise, first visited Senegal in 1856 when, under Faid-
herbe's direction, he went on a mission to the Duaish Moors. The
" Gorgone," which he commanded, was wrecked off Brest in
December 1869 and Mage was drowned.
* It was in this year (1887) that the governor of Senegal took
possession of a small uninhabited group of islands, named the
Alcatras, lying off the coast of French Guinea. TWs act had a tragic
sequel. By agreement with the governor, a chieftain of the neigh-
bouring mainland sent four of his warriors to the islands to guard the
tricolour. These soldiers were, however, like the islands themselves,
completely forgotten by the authorities, and, the Alcatras producing
nothing but sand, the four men starved to death, after exhausting
the supplies with which they had been originally provided.
SENEGAL
643
had by' 1880 made himself master of a large area in the upper
Niger basin. In 1887, and again in 1889, he was induced to
recognize a French protectorate, but peace did not long prevail
either with him or with Ahmadu. The struggle was resumed
in 1890; Ahmadu lost Segu; Nioro the capital of Kaarta was
occupied (1891); Jenne was taken in 1893. Samory proved a
veritable thorn in the flesh to his opponents. Wily and elusive,
he made and broke promises, tried negotiation, shifted his
" empire " to the states of Kong, and after numberless encounters
was finally defeated on the Cavalla to the north of Liberia, and
taken prisoner in September 1898. He was deported to the
Gabun, where he died in 1900. Timbuktu was occupied in
December 1893, in defiance of orders from the civil authorities.
Colonel Bonnier, who went to the relief of the advance party,
after having effected that purpose, was slain by the Tuareg
(iSth of January 1894), whom he had pursued into the desert.
In the meantime France had signed with Great Britain the
convention of the 5th of August 1890, which reserved the
country east of the Niger and south of the Sahara to Great
Britain.
Determined to profit by the convention, the French govern-
ment despatched Colonel P. L. Monteil to West Africa to visit
the countries on the Anglo-French frontier. That officer, starting
from St Louis in 1891, traversed the Niger bend from W. to E.,
visited Sokoto and Zinder and arrived at Kuka on Lake Chad,
whence he made his way across the Sahara to the Mediterranean.
In the following years French expeditions from Senegal penetrated
south-east into the hinterland of the British colonies and pro-
tectorates on the Guinea coast and descended the Niger (February
1897) as far as Bussa, the limit of navigation from the ocean.
These actions brought them into contact with the British
outposts in the Gold Coast, Lagos and Nigeria. A period of
tension between the two countries was put an end to by a con-
vention signed on the i4th of June 1898 whereby the territories
in dispute were divided between the parties, Great Britain
retaining Bussa, while France obtained Mossi and other territories
in the Niger bend to which Great Britain had laid claim. In the
same year it was determined to send an expedition to Lake Chad,
which should co-operate with other expeditions from Algeria and
the Congo. The Senegal expedition was entrusted to Captains
Voulet and Chanoine, officers who had served many years in
West Africa. Reports of the misconduct and cruelty of these
officers reaching St Louis, Lieut.-Colonel Klobb of the Marines
was sent to supersede them. Colonel Klobb overtook the
expedition at a spot east of the Niger on the i4th of July 1899.
Voulet, fearing arrest and punishment, ordered his men to fire
on Klobb and his escort, and the colonel was killed. Thereupon
Voulet, joined by Chanoine, declared his intention to set up an
independent state, and with the majority of his troops marched
away, leaving the junior officers, who remained loyal to France,
with a small remnant. Within a fortnight both Voulet and
Chanoine had been killed by their own men, who returned to the
French camp. Lieut. Pallier assumed command and led the
force to Zinder, reached on the 29th of July. Here, in the
November following, they were joined by F. Foureau and
Commandant Lamy, who had crossed the Sahara from Algeria.
The combined force marched to Lake Chad, and, having been
joined by the Congo expedition, met and defeated the forces of
Rabah (g.v.). Thus was accomplished in fact the linking up
of the French possessions in Africa, an object of French ambition
since 1880, and theoretically effected by the Anglo-French
convention of 1890.
In 1904, in virtue of another convention between Great
Britain and France, the Senegal colony obtained a port (Yarba-
tenda) on the Gambia accessible to sea-going vessels, while the
trans-Niger frontier was again modified in favour of France,
that country thereby obtaining a fertile tract the whole way from
the Niger to Lake Chad. During 1905-1906 the oases of Air and
Bilma, in the central Sahara, were brought under French control,
notwithstanding a claim by Turkey to Bilma as forming part of
the Tripolitan hinterland.
At first the whole of the conquered or protected territories
were either administered from Senegal, or placed under military
rule. Subsequently the upper Senegal country and the states
included in the bend of the Niger were formed into
a separate administration and were given the title
" French Sudan. " As the result of further reorgan-
ization (October 18, 1899) the colonies of French
Guinea, Ivory Coast and Dahomey were given their geographical
hinterlands, and in October 1902 the central portion was created
a protectorate under the style of the Territories of Senegambia
and of the Niger. A further change was made in 1904 (decree of
the 1 8th of October) when this central portion was changed into
" The Colony of Upper Senegal and Niger." The new colony
was placed under a lieutenant-governor.
Soon after the reorganization of the country in 1902, the
effective area of French control was increased by M. Coppolani,
secretary-general of French West Africa, who in February 1903
induced the emirs of certain Trarza and Brakna Moors inhabiting
a fertile region on the northern bank of the lower Senegal to
place their country under the direct supervision of French
officials. In the following year these regions were formally
constituted the Territory of Mauretania, being placed under
the direct control of the governor-general of French West Africa
represented on the spot by a civil commissioner. In 1905
M. Coppolani, the commissioner, was murdered by a band of
fanatics at an oasis in the Tagant plateau. During 1908-1909
a force under Colonel Gouraud, after considerable fighting the
natives receiving help from Morocco made effective French
influence in Adrar Temur.
For the history of^the native states in this vast region, see TIM-
BUKTU, JENNE, MANDINGO, GUINEA, &c. Consult also the article
NIGERIA.
The general oversight of both colonies is in the hands of the
governor-general of French West Africa. Senegal proper has
been the subject of special legislation, its government
being modelled on that of a department in France.
The lieutenant-governor, who controls the military as
well as the civil administration, is assisted by a secretary-general
and by a privy council (conseil prive) consisting of high officials
and a minority of unofficial nominated members, but he is not
bound to follow its advice. This council corresponds to the
prefectural council of a department. There is also a council-
general (conseil general) with powers analogous to those of the
similar councils in France. The Senegal council, however, does
not share the right, possessed by the councils of other French
colonies, of voting the budget, which is fixed by the governor-
general of French West Africa. The inhabitants of " communes
with full powers " (i.e. St Louis, Dakar, Goree and Rufisque)
alone have the right of electing the council-general. The same
constituencies in which no distinction of colour or race is made
elect (law of April 1879) to the French chambers one deputy,
who is also a member of the superior council of the colonies, a
consultative body sitting in Paris. The communes named
have the same municipal rights as in France. There have been,
in addition, since 1891, " mixed " and native communes with
restricted powers of local government. The judicial system
applied to Europeans resembles that of France, and the judicature
is independent of the executive. Native laws and customs not
repugnant to justice are respected. Education is given in village,
commercial and technical schools, all maintained by the state.
Arabic is taught in all Mahommedan districts.
The colony of Upper Senegal and Niger has a more rudimentary
constitution. Its administrative council contains three "not-
ables," unofficial members nominated by the lieutenant-governor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Une Mission au Senegal (Paris, 1900), by Dr
Lasnet, A. Chevalier, A. Cligny and P. Rambaud, is an authoritative
scientific memoir, as is still M. Adanson's Histoire naturelle du
Senegal (Paris, 1757); M. Olivier, Le Senegal (Paris, 1908), is an
official monograph; A. de la Salle, Notre vieux Senegal (Paris, 1909)
is a general survey of the country and its resources. Sur les routes du
Soudan (Toulouse, 1902), by E. Baillaud, deals with travel, com-
munications, &c.; maps of the country are issued by the Service
gographique de 1'armee, Paris, on the scale of 1-100,000 (1905-
1909) ; " Etude sur le Senegal," by Courtet, in the Revue coloniale,
new series (Paris, 1901-1902 and 1902-1903), deals with economic
644
SENEGAMBIA SENIOR
questions, and gives a chronological table of leading events. For
history, consult " Les Compagnies de colonisation en Afrique occi-
dentale sous Colbert," by P. Chemin-Dupontes, in Revue coloniale
(1902-1903 and 1903-1904) ; J. Machat, Documents sur les etablisse-
ments franfais de I' Afrique occidentale au XVIII' siecle (Paris, 1906) ;
and J. Ancelle, Les Explorations au Senegal et dans les contrees
voisines depuis Vantiquite jusqu'a nos jours (Paris, 1906). For a
summary of the military operations see the Jnl. Roy. United Service
Inst., vol. 38 (1894) and vol. 44 (1900), containing articles by
Capt. S. Pasfield Oliver and Capt. A. Hilliard-Atteridge.
For the countries of the Niger see Le Haul Senegal et Niger (Paris,
1908), an official compilation; H. Earth, Travels and Discoveries in
North and Central Africa (London, 18571858), a standard authority ;
L. Desplagnes, Le Plateau central-nigerien: une mission archeologique
et elhnographique au Soudan franqais (Paris, 1907), another standard
work; P. L. Monteil, De St-Louis a Tripoli . . . voyage au trovers du
Soudan . . . [Paris, N.D. (1895)]; G. Binger, Du Niger au golfe de
Guinee par le pays de Kong et le Mossi (Paris, 1892); Lady Lugard,
A Tropical Dependency (London, 1905), L. Marc, Le Pays Mossi
(Paris, 1909). Consult also for native history " Legendes historiques
du pays de Nioro (Sahel)" by M. G. Adam in Revue coloniale (1903-
1904). For Mauretania see La Mauritanie (Paris, 1908), an official
record of the French protectorate, and A. Gruvel and R. Chudeau,
A Trovers la Mauritanie occidentale (Paris, 1909).
See further the works of Faidherbe and Gallieni quoted in their
biographies, and the reports on the trade, &c., of French West Africa
issued by the British Foreign Office. (F. R. C.)
SENEGAMBIA, a term used to denote the region between the
rivers Senegal and Gambia on the west coast of Africa. The
country south of the Gambia as far as Sierra Leone was formerly
also regarded as part of Senegambia. As a geographical expres-
sion Senegambia fell into disuse towards the end of the igth
century. Part of the hinterland is included in the French colony
of Upper Senegal and Niger (see SENEGAL, II.)
SENESCHAL (the O. Fr. form, mod. stnechal, of the Low
Lat. senescalcus, a word of Teutonic origin, meaning " old
or senior servant," Goth, sini- old; cf. Lat. senex and scalks,
servant; Du Cange's derivation from seneste, flock, herd, must
be rejected), the title of an official equivalent to i" steward."
The seneschal began presumably by being the major-domo of
the German barbarian princes who settled in the empire, and
was therefore the predecessor of the mayors of the palace of the
Merovingian kings. But the name seneschal became prominent
in France under the third or Capetian dynasty. The seneschal,
called in medieval Latin the dapifer (from daps, a feast, and
ferre, to carry), was the chief of the five great officers of state of
the French court between the nth and the I3th centuries, the
others being the butler, the chamberlain, the constable and the
chancellor. His functions were described by the term major
regiae domus, and regni Franciae procurator major-domo of
the royal household, and agent of the kingdom of France. The
English equivalent was the lord high steward, but the office never
attained the same importance in England as in France. Under
the earlier Capetian sovereigns the seneschal was the second
person in the kingdom. He inherited the power and position
of the mayor of the palace had a general right of supervision
over the king's service, was commander-in-chief of the military
forces (princeps mUitiae regis, or Francorum), was steward of
the household and presided in the king's court in the absence
of the king. Under weak rulers the seneschal would no doubt
have played the same part as the mayors of the palace of the
Carolingian line. It was the vast possibilities of the office which
must be presumed to have tempted the counts of Anjou of the
Plantagenet line to claim the hereditary dapifership of France,
and to support their claim by forgeries. A count of Anjou
who was also in effective possession of the office would soon
have reduced his feudal lord to absolute insignificance. French
historical scholars have shown that the pretension of the Anjevins
was unfounded, and that the treatise concocted to support it
the De majoratu et senescalia Franciae, attributed to Hugues
de Cleres is a medieval forgery. At the close of the nth century
the seneschalship was in the hands of the family of Rochefort,
and in the early part of the following century it passed from them
'to the. family of Garlande. The power of the office was a perpetual
temptation to the vassal, and a cause of jealousy to the king.
The Garlandes came to open conflict with the king, and were
forcibly suppressed by Louis VI. in 1127. After their fall the
seneschalship was conferred only on great feudatories who were
the king's kinsmen on Raoul of Vermandois till 1152, and on
Thibaut of Blois till 1191. From that time forward no seneschal
was appointed except to act as steward at the coronation of the
king. The name of the seneschal was added with those of the
other great officers to the kings in charters, and when the office
was not filled the words dapifero vacante were written instead.
The great vassals had seneschals of their own, and when the
great fiefs, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, Poitou, Saintonge, Guienne,
were regained by the crown, the office was allowed to survive
by the king. In the south of France, Perigord, Quercy, Toulouse,
Agenais, Rouergue, Beaucaire and Carcassonne were royal
senechaussees. In Languedoc the landlords' agent and judicial
officer, known in the north of France as a bailli, was called
senechal. The office and title existed till the Revolution.
See Du Cange, Glossarium mediae et infimae Latinitatis (Paris, 1840-
1 850) ; A. Luchaire, Histoire des institutions monarchiques de la
France sous les premiers Capetiens (Paris, 1883-1885); Manuel des
institutions franfaises (Paris, 1892); Paul Viollet, Droit publique
Hist, des institutions politiques et administralives de la France (Paris,
1890-1898).
SENIGALLIA, or SINIGAGLIA (anc. Sena Gallica), a city and
episcopal see of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ancona,
on the coast of the Adriatic, 15 m. by rail N. of Ancona. Pop.
(1901) 5556 (town), 23,195 (commune). It is situated at 14 ft.
above sea-level, and, despite its ancient origin, presents a modern
appearance, with wide streets. The Palazzo Comunale dates
from the I7th century. The cathedral was erected after 1787.
The castle, of Gothic origin, was restored by Baccio Pontelli,
a famous military architect, in 1492. The church of S Maria
delle Grazie outside the town is one of the only two churches
which he is known to have executed (the other is at Orciano
near Mondavio, about 15 m. to the west by road). The small
port is formed by the lower reaches of the Misa, a stream which
flows through the town between embankments constructed
of Istrian marble. The inhabitants are chiefly occupied in
fishing, and in the summer the town is greatly frequented by
visitors for the good sea-bathing. Senigallia used to hold one
of the largest fairs in Italy, which dated originally from 1200,
when Sergius, count of Senigallia, received from the count of
Marseilles, to whose daughter he was affianced, certain relics
of Mary Magdalene; this fair used to be visited by merchants
from France, Switzerland, Austria, Germany and especially the
Levant. Senigallia is the residence of the Mastai-Ferretti
family; the house in which Pope Pius IX. was born is preserved,
and contains a few memorials of him.
The ancient Sena Gallica was a city of Umbria. A colony
was founded there by the Romans after their victory over the
Senones, rather before 280 B.C. The place is also mentioned
in connexion with Hasdrubal's defeat at the Metaurus (q.v.)
in 207 B.C. It was destroyed by Pompey in 82 B.C., and is not.
often mentioned afterwards. No ancient remains and very few
inscriptions exist. The name Gallica distinguishes it from
Saena (Siena) in Etruria. Ravaged by Alaric, fortified by the
exarch Longinus, and again laid waste by the Lombards in the
8th century and by the Saracens in the oth, Senigallia was at
length brought so low by the Guelph and Ghibelline wars,
and especially by the severities of Guido de Montefeltro, that it
was chosen by Dante as the typical instance of a ruined city.
In the 1 5th century it was captured and recaptured again and
again by the Malatesta and their opponents. Sigismondo
Malatesta of Rimini erected strong fortifications round the town
in 1450-1455. The lordship of Senigallia was bestowed by
Pius II. on his nephew Antonio Piccolomini, but the people
of the town in 1464 placed themselves anew under Paul II.,
and Giacomo Piccolomini in 1472 failed in his attempt to
seize the place. Sixtus IV. assigned the lordship to the Delia
Rovere family, from whom it was transferred to Lorenzo de'
Medici in 1516. After 1624 it formed part of the legation of
Urbino.
SENIOR, NASSAU WILLIAM (1790-1864), English economist,
was born at Compton, Berks, on the 26th of September 1790,
SENLIS
645
the eldest son of the Rev. J. R. Senior, vicar of Durnford, Wilts.
He was educated at Eton and Magdalen College, Oxford; at
the university he was a private pupil of Richard Whately,
afterwards archbishop of Dublin, with whom he remained
connected by ties of lifelong friendship. He took the degree of
B.A. in 1811, was called to the bar in 1819, and in 1836, during
the chancellorship of Lord Cottenham, was appointed a master
in chancery. On the foundation of the professorship of political
economy at Oxford in 1825 Senior was elected to fill the chair,
which he occupied till 1830, and again from 1847 to 1852. In
1830 he was requested by Lord Melbourne to inquire into the
state of combinations and strikes, to report on the state of the
law and to suggest improvements in it. He was a member of
the Poor Law Inquiry Commission of 1832, and of the Handloom
Weavers Commission of 1837; the report of the latter, published
in 1841, was drawn up by him, and he embodied in it the substance
of the report he had prepared some years before on combinations
and strikes. He was also one of the commissioners appointed
in 1861 to inquire into popular education in England. In the
later years of his life, during his visits to foreign countries, he
studied with much care the political and social phenomena they
exhibited. Several volumes of his journals have been published,
which contain much interesting matter on these topics, though
the author probably rated too highly the value of this sort of
social study. Senior was for many years a frequent contributor
to the Edinburgh, Quarterly, London and North British Reviews,
dealing in their pages with literary as well as with economic
and political subjects. He died at Kensington on the 4th of
June 1864.
His writings on economic theory consisted of an article in the
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, afterwards separately published as An
Outline of the Science of Political Economy (1836), and his lectures de-
livered at Oxford. Of the latter the following were printed: An
Introductory Lecture (1827); Two Lectures on Population, with a
correspondence between the author and Malthus (1831); Three
Lectures on the Transmission of the Precious Metals from Country to
Country, and the Mercantile Theory of Wealth (1828) ; Three Lectures
on the Cost of obtaining Money and on some Effects of Private and
Government Paper Money (1830); Three Lectures on Wages and on
the Effects of Absenteeism* Machinery and War, with a Preface on the
Causes and Remedies of the Present Disturbances (1830, and ed.
1831); A Lecture on the Production of Wealth (1847); and Four
Introductory Lectures on Political Economy (1852). Several of his
lectures were translated into French by M. Arrivabene under the title
of Principes Fondamentaux d' Economic Politique (1835). Senior also
wrote on administrative and social questions A Letter to Lord
Howick on a Legal Provision for the Irish Poor, Commutation of
Tithes and a Provision for the Irish Roman Catholic Clergy (1831, 3rd
ed., 1832, with a preface containing suggestions as to the measures
to be adopted in the " present emergency "); Statement of the Pro-
vision for the Poor and of the Condition of the Labouring Classes in a
considerable portion of America and Europe, being the Preface to the
Foreign Communications in the Appendix to the Poor Law Report
(1835); On National Property, and on the Prospects of the Present
Administration and of their Successors (anon. ; 1835) ; Letters on the
Factory Act, as it affects the Cotton Manufacture (1837); Suggestions
on Popular Education (1861); American Slavery (in part a reprint
from the Edinburgh Review, 1862); An Address on Education
delivered to the Social Science Association (1863). His contributions
to the reviews were collected in volumes entitled Essays on Fiction
(1864); Biographical Sketches (1865, chiefly of noted lawyers); and
Historical and Philosophical Essays (1865). In 1859 appeared his
Journal kept in Turkey and Greece in the Autumn of 1857 and the
Beginning of 1858 ; and the following were edited after his death by
his daughter: Journals, Conversations and Essays relating to Ireland
(1868); Journals kept in France and Italy from 1848 to 1852, with
a Sketch of the Revolution of 1848 (1871) ; Conversations with Thiers,
Guizot and other Distinguished Persons during the Second Empire
(1878); Conversations with Distinguished Persons during the Second
Empire, from 1860 to 1863 (1880); Conversations and Journals in
Egypt and Malta (1882); also in 1872 Correspondence and Conver-
sations with_ Alexis de Tocqueville from 1834 to 1859.
Senior's literary criticisms do not seem to have ever won the favour
of the public; they are, indeed, somewhat formal and academic in
spirit. The author, while he had both good sense and right feeling,
appears to have wanted the deeper insight: the geniality and the
catholic tastes which are necessary to make a critic of a high order,
especially in the field he chose that, namely, of imaginative litera-
ture. His tracts on practical politics, though the theses they sup-
ported were sometimes questionable, were ably written and are still
worth reading, but cannot be said to be of much permanent interest.
But his name continues to hold an honourable, though secondary,
place in the history of political economy. Senior regards political
economy as a purely deductive science, all the truths of which are
inferences from four elementary propositions. It is, in his opinion,
wrongly supposed by J. S. Mill and others to be a hypothetic science
founded, that is to say, on postulates not corresponding with social
realities. The premises from which it sets out are, according to him,
not assumptions but facts. It concerns itself, however, with wealth
only, and can therefore give no practical counsel as to political
action : it can only suggest considerations which the politician should
keep in view as elements in the study of the questions with which he
has to deal. The conception of economics as altogether deductive is
certainly erroneous, and puts the science from the outset on a false
path. But deduction has a real, though limited, sphere within it.
Hence, though the chief difficulties of the subject are not of a logical
kind, yet accurate nomenclature, strict definition and rigorous
reasoning are of great importance. To these Senior gave special
attention, and, notwithstanding occasional pedantries, with very
useful results. In several instances he improved the forms in which
accepted doctrines were habitually stated. He also did excellent
service by pointing out the arbitrary novelties and frequent in-
consistencies of terminology which deface Ricardo's principal
work as, for example, his use of " value " in the sense of " cost
of production," and of " high " and " low " wages in the sense of a
certain proportion of the product as distinguished from an absolute
amount, and his peculiar employment of the epithets " fixed " and
" circulating " as applied to capital. He shows, too, that in numer-
ous instances the premises assumed by Ricardo are false. Thus he
cites the assertions that rent depends on the difference of fertility of
the different portions of land in cultivation; that the labourer
always receives precisely the necessaries, or what custom leads him
to consider the necessaries, of life; that, as wealth and population
advance, agricultural labour becomes less and less proportionately
productive; and that therefore the share of the produce taken by
the landlord and the labourer must constantly increase, whilst that
taken by the capitalist must constantly diminish ; and he denies the
truth of all these propositions. Besides adopting some terms, such
as that of " natural agents," from Say, Senior introduced the word
" abstinence " which, though obviously not free from objection, is
for some purposes useful to express the conduct of the capitalist
which is remunerated by interest ; but in defining " cost of produc-
tion " as the sum of labour and abstinence necessary to production he
does not seem to see that an amount of labour and an amount of
abstinence are disparate, and do not admit of reduction to a common
quantitative standard. He added some important considerations to
what had been said by Smith on the division of labour. He dis-
tinguishes usefully between the rate of wages and the price of labour.
But in seeking to determine the law of wages he falls into the error of
assuming a determinate wage-fund, and states as an economic truth
what is only an identical proposition in arithmetic. Whilst enter-
taining such an exaggerated estimate of the services of Malthus that
he extravagantly pronounces him " as a benefactor of mankind on a
level with Adam Smith," he yet shows that he modified his opinions
on population considerably in the course of his career, regards his
statements of the doctrine with which his name is associated as vague
and ambiguous, and asserts that, " in the absence of disturbing
causes, subsistence may be expected to increase in a greater ratio
than population." It is urged by H. X. C. Pe'rin, and must, we think,
be admitted, that by his isolation of economics from morals, and his
assumption of the desire of wealth as the sole motive-force in the
economic domain, Senior, in common with most of the other followers
of Smith, tended to set up egoism as the legitimate ruler and guide of
practical life. It is no sufficient answer to this charge that he makes
formal reserve in favour of higher ends. From the scientific side
Cliffe Leslie has abundantly proved the unsubstantial nature of the
abstraction implied in the phrase " desire of wealth," and the in-
adequacy of such a principle for the explanation of economic pheno-
(J. K. I.)
SENLIS, a town of northern France, in the department of
Oise, on the right side of the Nonette, a left-hand affluent of
the Oise, 34 m. N.N.E. of Paris by the Northern railway on
the branch line (Chantilly-Cre'py) connecting the Paris-Creil
and Paris-Soissons lines. Pop. (1906) 6074. Its antiquity, its
historical monuments and its situation in a beautiful valley,
in the midst of the three great forests of Hallatte, Chantilly
and Ermenonville, render it interesting. Its Gallo-Roman
walls, 23 ft. high and 13 ft. thick, are, with those of St Lizier
(Ariege) and Bourges, the most perfect in France. They enclose
an oval area 1024 ft. long from E. to W. and 794 ft. wide from
N. to S. At each of the angles formed by the broken lines of
which the circuit of 2756 ft. is composed stands or stood a tower;
numbering originally twenty-eight, and now only sixteen, they
are semicircular in plan, and up to the height of the wall are
unpierced. The Roman city had only two gates; the present
number is five. The site of the praetorium was afterwards
occupied by a castle occasionally inhabited by the kings of
SENNA SENNACHERIB
France from Clovis to Henry IV., and still represented by ruins
dating from the nth, i3th and i6th centuries. In the neighbour-
hood of Senlis the foundations of a Roman amphitheatre have
also been discovered. The old cathedral of Notre Dame (i2th,
i3th and i6th centuries) was begun in 1155 on a vast scale;
but owing to the limited resources of the diocese progress was
slow and the transept was finished only under Francis I. The
total length is 312 ft. (outside measurement), but the nave
(92 ft. high) is shorter than the choir. At the west front there
are three doorways and two bell towers. The right-hand tower
(256 ft. high) is very striking: it consists, above the belfry
stage, of a very slender octagonal drum with open-work turrets
and a spire with eight dormer windows. The left-hand tower,
altered in the i6th century, is crowned by a balustrade and a
sharp roof. In the side portals, especially in the southern, the
flamboyant Gothic is displayed in all its delicacy. Externally
the choir is extremely simple. In the interior the sacristy
pillars with capitals of the roth century are noteworthy. The
episcopal palace, now an archaeological museum, dates from
the I3th century; the old collegiate church of St Frambourg
was built in the i2th century in the style which became
characteristic of the " saintes chapelles " of the I3th and I4th
centuries; St Pierre, (chiefly of the isth and i6th centuries)
serves as a market. The ecclesiastical college of St Vincent,
occupying the old abbey of this name, has an interesting church
probably of the i2th century. Its date has, however, been
greatly disputed by archaeologists, who sometimes wrongly
refer it to Queen Anne of Russia, foundress in the nth century
of the abbey. The town hall (isth century) and several private
houses are also of architectural interest.
Senlis has tribunals of first instance and of commerce and a
sub-prefecture. The manufacture of bricks and tiles, cardboard,
measures and other wares are among the industries. The
town is an agricultural market.
Senlis can be traced back to the Gallo-Roman township
of the Silvanectes, which afterwards became Augustomagus.
Christianity was introduced by St Rieul probably about the
close of the 3rd century. During the first two dynasties of
France Senlis was a royal residence and generally formed part
of the royal domain; it obtained a communal charter in 1173.
In the middle ages local manufactures, especially that of cloth,
were active. The burgesses took part in the Jacquerie of the
i4th century, then sided with the Burgundians and the English;
whom, however, they afterwards expelled. The Leaguers were
there beaten in 1589 by Henry I., duke of Longueville, and
Francois de La Noue. The bishopric was suppressed at the
Revolution, and this suppression was confirmed by the Concordat.
Treaties between Louis XI. and Francis II., duke of Brittany
(1475), and between Charles VIII. and Maximilian of Austria
(1493) were signed at Senlis.
SENNA (Arab, sand), a popular purgative, consisting of
the leaves of two species of Cassia (natural order Leguminosae),
viz. C. aculijolia and C. angustifolia. These are small shrubs about
2 ft. high, with numerous lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate
leaflets arranged pinnately on a main stalk with no terminal
leaflet; the yellow flowers are borne in long-stalked racemes
in the leaf-axils, and are succeeded by broad flattish pods
about 2 in. long. C. acutifolia is a native of many districts
of Nubia, e.g. Dongola, Berber, Kordofan and Senaar, but is
grown also in Timbuctoo and Sokoto. The leaflets are
collected twice a year by the natives, the principal crop
being gathered in September after the rainy season and a
smaller quantity in April. The leaves are dried in the simplest
manner by cutting down the shrubs and exposing them on the
rocks to the burning sun until quite dry. The leaflets then
readily fall off and are packed in large bags made of palm leaves,
and holding about a quintal each. These packages are conveyed
by camels to Assouan and Darao and thence to Cairo and
Alexandria, or by ship by way of Massowah and Suakim. The
leaflets form the Alexandrian senna of commerce. Formerly
this variety of senna was much adulterated with the leaves of
Soknostemma Argel, which, however, are readily distinguishable
by their minutely wrinkled surface. Of late years Alexandrian
senna has been shipped of much better quality. Occasionally
a few leaves of a similar species with broader obovate leaves,
C. obovata, may be found mixed with it. C, angustifolia affords
the Bombay, East Indian, Arabian or Mecca senna of commerce.
This plant grows wild in the neighbourhood of Yemen and
Hadramaut in the south of Arabia, in Somaliland, and in Sind
and the Punjab in India. .The leaves are chiefly shipped from
Mocha, Aden, Jeddah and other Red Sea ports to Bombay
and thence to Europe, the average imports into Bombay amount-
ing to about 250 tons annually, of which one-half is re-exported.
Bombay senna is very inferior in appearance to the Alexandrian,
as it frequently contains many brown and decayed leaflets and
is mixed with leaf-stalks, &c. C. angustifolia is also cultivated
in the extreme south of India, and there affords larger leaves,
which are known in commerce as Tinnevelly senna. This
variety is carefully collected, and consists almost exclusively
of leaves of a fine green colour, without any admixture of stalks.
It is exported from Tuticorin. American senna is Cassia
marilandica.
The British Pharmacopoeia recognizes both Senna Alexandrine,
and Senna Indica. The composition of the leaves is the same
in either case. The chief ingredient is cathartic acid, a sulphur
containing glucoside of complex formula. It occurs combined
with calcium and magnesium to form soluble salts. That this is
the active principle of senna is shown by the fact that the
cathartate of ammonia, when given separately, acts in precisely
the same manner as senna itself. Cathartic acid can easily
be decomposed into glucose and cathartogenic acid. The
leaves contain at least two other glucosides, sennapicrin and
sennacrol, but as these are insoluble in water, they are not
contained in most of the preparations of senna. Senna also
contains a little chrysophanic acid.
Of the numerous pharmacopoeial preparations three must be
mentioned. The confectio sennae, an admirable laxative for children,
contains senna, coriander fruit, figs, tamarind, cassia, pulp, prunes,
extract of liquorice, sugar and water. When coated with chocolate
it is known as Tamar Indien. The pulvis glycerhizae compositus
contains two parts of senna in twelve, the other ingredients being
unimportant. A third preparation, rarely employed nowadays, is
the nauseous " black draught," once in high favour. It is known as
the mistura sennae composita, and contains sulphate of magnesium,
liquorice, cardamoms, aromatic spirit of ammonia and infusion of
senna. All the preparations are made indifferently from either kind
of leaflet.
When taken internally, senna stimulates the muscular coat of the
bowel in its entire length, the colon being more particularly affected.
As some congestion of the rectum is thereby produced, senna is
contra-indicated whenever haemorrhoids are present. The secretions
of the bowel are not markedly stimulated, and the flow of bile is
only slightly accelerated. The drug has the advantage, for most cases,
of not producing subsequent constipation. The chief purgative
ingredients are the cathartates already described. Partial absorption
occurs, so that the colour of the urine may be darkened, and as the
drug is also excreted by the active mamma it may cause purgation
in a baby to whose mother it has been given.
Senna should not be used alone, as its taste and the pain induced
by its muscular stimulation are both objectionable. There are
many ways of using it. A few of the leaflets may be put into a dish
of prunes, when a convenient aperient for children is desired. It
is especially valuable in cases of atony of the colon, and the com-
pound liquorice powder is safe and useful in the treatment of the
constipation of pregnancy.
SENNACHERIB (Ass. Sin-akhi-erba, " the Moon-god has
increased the brethren "), the son and successor of Sargon,
mounted the throne on the I2th of Ab 705 B.C. His first cam-
paign was against Babylonia, where Merodach-baladan had
reappeared. The Chaldaean usurper was compelled to fly, and
Bel-ibni was appointed king of Babylon in his place. Then
Sennacherib marched against the Kassi in the northern moun-
tains of Elam and ravaged the kingdom of Ellip where Ecbatana
afterwards stood. In 701 B.C. came a great campaign in the west,
which had revolted from Assyrian rule. Sidon and other
Phoenician cities were captured, but Tyre held out, while its
king Lulia (Elulaeus) fled to Cyprus. Ashdod, Ammon, Moaband
Edom now submitted, but Hezekiah of Judah with the dependent
Philistine princes of Ashkelon and Ekron defied the Assyrian
SENNAR SENONES
647
army, trusting to the fortifications of Jerusalem and Egyptian
help. Hezekiah, however, was forced to restore the anti- Jewish
Padi to the government of Ekron, from which he had been re-
moved by the Jewish party, and, after the defeat of his Egyptian
allies at Eltekeh, to see his country wasted with fire and sword,
forty-six fortresses being taken and 200,150 persons carried
into captivity. He then endeavoured to buy off the invaders
by numerous presents 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of silver,
precious stones, couches and thrones inlaid with ivory, girls and
eunuchs but all in vain. Jerusalem was saved eventually by a
plague, which decimated the Assyrian army and obliged Senna-
cherib" to return to Nineveh. I The following year he was again
in Babylonia, where he made his son Assur-nadin-sum king in
place of Bel-ibni and drove Merodach-baladan out of the marshes
in which he had taken refuge. A few years later he had a fleet
of ships built near Birejik on the Euphrates by his Phoenician
captives; these were manned by lonians and transported from
Opis overland to the Euphrates and so to the Persian Gulf.
Then they sailed to the coast of Elam, and there destroyed
the colony of Merodach-baladan's followers at Nagitu. In
return for this unprovoked invasion of Elamite territory the
Elamites descended upon Babylonia, carried away Assur-nadin-
sum (694 B.C.) and made Nergal-yusezib king. Three years later
a great battle was fought at Khalule on the Tigris between the
Assyrians on the one side and the Elamites and Babylonians on
the other. Both sides claimed the victory, but the advantage
remained with Sennacherib, and in 689 B.C. he captured Babylon
and razed it to the ground, a deed which excited the horror of all
western Asia. Some time previously the date is not known
he had overrun the mountain districts of Cilicia. On the zoth
of Tebet 681 B.C. he was murdered by his two sons, who fled to
Armenia after holding Nineveh for forty-two days. Sennacherib
was vainglorious and a bad administrator; he built the palace
of Kuyunjik at Nineveh, 1500 ft. long by 700 ft. broad, as well as
the great wall of the city, 8 m. in circumference.
See George Smith, History of Sennacherib (1878). (A. H. S.)
SENNAR, a country of north-east Africa, part of the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan. Its boundaries have varied considerably, but
Sennar proper is the triangular-shaped territory between the
White and Blue Niles north of 10 N. This region is called by
the Arabs " The Island of Sennar " and by the negro inhabitants
" Hui." The northern part, where the two Niles approach
nearer one another, is also known as El Gezira, i.e. " the Island."
Whilst Sennar has never been held to extend westward of the
White Nile, the term has often been used to embrace " the
Island of Meroe," i.e. the country between the Blue Nile and
the Atbara, and the land between the Blue Nile and its most
eastern tributary the Rahad, this latter district being known as
the " Isle of Isles." South-east Sennar stretches to the Abys-
sinian hills. By the Sudan administration this region has been
divided into mudirias (provinces), one, including the central
portion, retaining the name of Sennar. The present article deals
with the country as a whole.
In general Sennar is a vast plain, lying for the most part much
higher than the river-levels and about 2000 ft. above the sea, its
western part, towards the White Nile, being largely wilderness.
From the plain rise isolated granitic hills, attaining heights of 1000 to
2000 ft. above the general level. Jebel Segadi is red granite of the
finest quality. The plain, sandy in its northern part, is in the south
a deep bed of argillaceous marl, scattered over with great granite
boulders and fragments of greenstone.
Sennar lies in the region of light rain, increasing in the S.E. districts
to as much as 20 in. in the year. The rainy season is from July to
September. The climate is generally unhealthy during that period
and the months following. The miasmatic exhalations caused by the
sun playing on stagnant waters after the floods give rise to the
" Sennar fever," which drives even the natives from the plains to the
southern uplands. The temperature, which rises at times to over
120 Fahr., is also very changeable, often sinking from 100 during
the day to under 60 at night.
The soil, mainly alluvial, is naturally very fertile, and_ wherever
cultivated yields abundant crops, durra being the principal grain
grown. Many kinds of vegetables, and cotton, wheat and barley are
also grown. The forest vegetation, largely confined to the " Isle of
Isles " and the southern uplands, includes the Adansonia (baobab),
which in the Fazogli district attains gigantic proportions, the
tamarind, of which bread is made, the deleb palm, several valuable
gum trees (whence the term Sennari often applied in Egypt to gum-
arabic), some dye woods, ebony, ironwood and many varieties of
acacia. In these forests are found the two-horned rhinoceros, the
elephant, lion, panther, numerous apes and antelopes, while the
crocodile and hippopotamus frequent the rivers. The chief domestic
animals are the camel, horse, ass, ox, buffalo (used both as a beast of
burden and for riding), sheep with a short silky fleece, the goat and
the pig, which last here reaches its southernmost limit.
The country is occupied by a partly settled, partly nomad popula-
tion of an extremely mixed negroid character. There is evidence of
the existence of a once dominant fair race, of which the still surviving
Sienetjo, a people of a yellow or fair complexion, are regarded as
descendants. The great plain of Sennar is mainly occupied by
Hassania Arabs in the north, by Abu-Rof (Rufaya) Hamites of Beja
stock in the east as far as Fazogli, and elsewhere by the negroid
Funj (q.v.) and the group of tribes collectively known as Shangalla
(the Bertat, Legas, Sienetjo, Gumus, Kadalos, &c. ; see SHANGALLA).
The chief towns are on the banks of the Blue Nile. They are:
Wad Medani (q.v .), 148 m. above Khartum, one of the most thriving
towns in the eastern Sudan; Sennar, 241 m above Khartum, the
capital of the Funj empire and chief town of the mudiria of Sennar
of the ancient city little remains except a mosque with a high
minaret ; and Roseires, 426 m. from Khartum and the limit of naviga-
tion up stream from that city. Near the Abyssinian frontier are
Fazogli (left bank) and Famaka (right bank) on a navigable stretch
of the Blue Nile above the rapids at Roseires and close to the Tumat
confluence and the gold district of Beni Shangul. On the river
Dinder is the town of Singa. A railway, built in 1909-1910, connects
Khartum, Wad Medani and Sennar with Kordofan, the White Nile
being bridged near Goz Abu Guma.
History. Sennar, lying between Nubia and Abyssinia, was in
ancient times under Egyptian or Ethiopian influence and its
inhabitants appear to have embraced Christianity at an early
period. The capital of Aloa, which appears to have been at one
time a powerful Christian state, was at Soba on the Blue Nile.
In the 7th or 8th centuries A.D. there was a considerable emigra-
tion of Arabs into the country. Christianity very gradually
died out (see DONGALA, mudiria). The Funj who had meantime
settled in Sennar became the dominant race by the isth century.
They adopted the Mahommedan religion and founded an empire
which in the I7th and i8th centuries ruled over a large part of
the -eastern Sudan. This empire was finally overthrown by the
Egyptians in 1821. Since that period Sennar has had no history
distinct from that of the rest of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (see
SUDAN, ANGLO-EGYPTIAN, History). The chief ambition of
the people under Anglo-Egyptian rule was to own cattle rather
than to improve their houses, food or clothing (vide Egypt, No. i,
1910, p. 79).
The country was visited by few Europeans before the time of
the Egyptian conquest. In 1699 a French surgeon, J. C. Poncet,
passed through Sennar on his way from Egypt to Abyssinia, and
an account of his experiences has been published (Lettres . . . des
missions Urangeres, Paris, ed. of 1870, tome iii.) . He was followed
by Janus de Noir, le sieur du Roule, who was sent by Louis XIV.
to open diplomatic relations with Abyssinia, but was murdered
(1703) in Sennar. The most noteworthy, however, of the earlier
travellers was James Bruce, the explorer of the Blue Nile. He
spent some time in Sennar in 1772, and in his Travels has left an
interesting account of the kingdom in its decadence. Various
Egyptian expeditions added considerably to the knowledge of
the district, which between 1854 and 1864 was explored by the
Belgian scientist E. Pruyssenaere. Later explorers included the
Viennese Ernst Marno (1870) and the Dutchman J. M. Schuver,
who in 1881-1882 visited the sources of the Tumat. To this list
should be added the names of those who, like Sir Samuel Baker,
explored the Blue Nile. Since the establishment of the Anglo-
Egyptian condominium (1899) the country has been thoroughly
surveyed.
Lists of the kings of Sennar, and of the tributary rulers of Halfaya,
Shendi, and Fazokl are given in vol. i. pp. 437-438 of A. M. N. J.
Stokvis' Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1888).
SENONES, in ancient geography, a Celtic people of Gallia
Celtica, who in Caesar's time inhabited the district which now
includes the departments of Seine-et-Marne, Loiret and Yonne.
From 53-51 B.C. they were engaged in hostilities with Caesar,
brought about by their expulsion of Cavarinus, whom he had
appointed their king. In the last-named year a Senonian named
Drappes threatened the Provincia, but was captured and starved
648
SENS SENTENCE
himself to death. From this time the Gallic Senones disappear
from history. In later times they were included in Gallia
Lugdunensis. Their chief towns were Agedincum (later Senones,
whence Sens), Metiosedum (Melun; according to A. Holder,
Meudon), and Vellaunodunum (site uncertain).
See Caesar, Bell. Gall. v. 54, vii. 75, viii. 30, 44; T. R. Holmes,
Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899), pp. 482-483, 755-766, 819; A.
Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz, ii. (1904).
More important historically was a branch of the above (called
Sevwej, Senones, by Polybius), who about 400 B.C. made their
way over the Alps and, having driven out the Umbrians, settled
on the east coast of Italy from Ariminum to Ancona, in the
so-called ager Gallicus, and founded the town of Sena Gallica
(Sinigaglia), which became their capital. In 391 they invaded
Etruria and besieged Clusium. The Clusines appealed to Rome,
whose intervention, accompanied by a violation of the law of
nations, led to war, the defeat of the Romans at the Allia (i8th of
July 300) and the capture of Rome. For more than 100 years
the Senones were engaged in hostilities with the Romans, until
they were finally subdued (283) by P. Cornelius Dolabella and
driven out of their territory. Nothing more is heard of them in
Italy. It is probable that they formed part of the bands of
Gauls who spread themselves over the countries by the Danube,
Macedonia and Asia Minor. A Roman colony was established
at Sena, called Sena Gallica to distinguish it from Sena Julia
(Siena) in Etruria.
For ancient authorities see A. Holder as above ; on the subjugation
of the Senones by the Romans, Mommsen, Hist, of Rome (Eng. trans.),
bk. ii. ch. vii.
SENS, a town of north-central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Yonne, 71 m. S.E. of Paris on the
Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 13,701. It is
situated on the right bank of, and on an island in, the Yonne
just below its confluence with the Vanne. The streets of the
town are narrow, but it is surrounded by fine promenades. The
cathedral of St Etienne, one of the earliest Gothic buildings
in France, is additionally interesting because the architecture
of its choir influenced through the architect, William of Sens,
that of the choir of Canterbury cathedral. St Etienne was begun
in 1 140 and only completed early in the i6th century. It belongs
mainly to the I2th century, and it is characterized by solidity
rather than by beauty of proportion or richness of ornamentation.
The west front is pierced by three portals; that in the middle
has good sculptures, representing the parable of the virgins
and the story of St Stephen. The right-hand portal contains
twenty-two remarkable statuettes of the prophets, which have
suffered considerable injuries. Above this portal rises the stone
tower, decorated with armorial bearings and with statues repre-
senting the principal benefactors of the church. The bells in the
campanile by which the tower is surmounted enjoyed immense
reputation in the middle ages; the two which still remain,
La Savinienne and La Potentienne, weigh respectively 15 tons
7 cwt. and 13 tons 13 cwt. The left portal is adorned with
two bas-reliefs, Liberality and Avarice, as well as with the story
of John the Baptist. The portal on the north side of the cathedral
is one of the finest examples of French 16th-century sculpture,
that on the south side is surmounted by magnificent stained-
glass windows. Other windows of the i2th to the i6th century
are preserved, some of them representing the legend of St Thomas
of Canterbury. Among the interior adornments are the tomb of
the dauphin (son of Louis XV.) and his consort, Marie Josephe
of Saxony, one of the works of William Coustou the younger,
and bas-reliefs representing scenes from the life of Cardinal
Duprat, chancellor of France and archbishop of Sens from 1525
to 1535. The mausoleum from which they came was destroyed
at the Revolution. The treasury, one of the richest in antiquities
in France, contains a fragment of the true cross presented by
Charlemagne, and the vestments of St Thomas of Canterbury.
It was in the cathedral of Sens that St Louis, in 1 234, married
Marguerite of Provence, and five years later deposited the crown
of thorns. To the south of the cathedral are the official buildings,
dating from the I3th century, but restored by Viollet-le-Duc.
The old judgment-hall and the dungeons had remained intact;
in the former is a collection of fragments of sculpture from the
cathedral; on the first story is the synod hall, vaulted with stone
and lighted by beautiful grisaille windows. A Renaissance
structure connects the buildings with the archiepiscopal palace,
which also dates from that period. The oldest of the other
churches of Sens is St Savinian, the foundation of which dates
from the 3rd century; the crypt and other portions of the
church are of Romanesque architecture. The museum of Sens
contains, among other antiquities, some precious MSS., notably
a famous missal with ivory covers, and a collection of sculptured
stones mainly derived from the old Roman fortifications, which
were themselves constructed from the ruins of public monuments
at the beginning of the barbarian invasions. The town has statues
of Baron J. J. Thenard, the famous chemist, and of the sculptor
Jean Cousin. Sens is the seat of a sub-prefect, and includes
among its public institutions a tribunal of first instance, a tri-
bunal of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a council of trade
arbitrators and a lycee for boys. Among the industries are flour-
milling, tanning and the manufacture of agricultural implements,
boots and shoes, chemicals and cutlery; there is trade in wine,
grain, wood, coal and wool, in which the port on the Yonne
has some share.
Sens, when the capital of the Senones, one of the most powerful
peoples of Gaul, bore the name of Agedincum. It was not finally
subdued by the Romans till after the defeat of Vercingetorix.
On the division of Gaul into seventeen provinces under the
emperor Valens, Agedincum became the metropolis of the
4th Lugdunensis. Theatres, circuses, amphitheatres, triumphal
arches and aqueducts were all built in the town by the Romans.
It was the meeting-point of six great highways. The inhabitants,
converted to Christianity by the martyrs Savinian and Potentian,
held out against the Alamanni and the Franks in 356, against
the Saracens in 731 or 738, and finally against the Normans
in 886 the last having besieged the town for six months.
At the beginning of the feudal period Sens was governed by
counts, who had become hereditary towards the middle of the
loth century; and the contests of these counts with the arch-
bishops or with their feudal superiors often led to much blood-
shed and disaster, until, in 1055, the countship was united to
the royal domain. Several councils were held at Sens, notably
that of 1 140, at which St Bernard and Abelard met. The burgesses
in the middle of the I2th century formed themselves into a
commune which carried on war against the clergy. This was
suppressed by Louis VIII., and restored by Philip Augustus.
In the ardour of its Catholicism Sens massacred the Protestants
in 1562, and it was one of the first towns to join the League.
Henry IV. did not effect his entrance till 1594, and he then
deprived the town of its privileges. In 1622 Paris, hitherto
suffragan to Sens, was made an archbishopric, and the bishoprics
of Chartres, Orleans and Meaux were transferred to the new
jurisdiction. In 1 791 the archbishopric was reduced to a bishopric
of the department of Yonne. Suppressed in 1801, the see was
restored in 1817 with the rank of archbishopric. The town was
occupied by the Allies in 1814 and by the Germans in 1870-1871.
SENSATIONALISM, in psychology, the theory that all know-
ledge comes from sensation (see PSYCHOLOGY). Thus Aristippus
the Cyrenaic held that there could be no knowledge save that
which the senses give, but the Stoics, while finding the origin of
knowledge in the senses, do not restrict it to this. Sensationalism
in modern times is chiefly associated with Hobbes, Locke,
Hume and the French philosophers of the Enlightenment,
Voltaire, Condillac and others. In its extreme sense it has rarely
been held, and is practically abandoned by modern philosophers
on the plain ground that a sensation as such lasts only as long
as the stimulus is applied. Any connexion of sensation is some-
thing over and above sensation, and without this connexion
there can be no knowledge (see EMPIRICISM, PHENOMENON, &c.).
The term has also come into colloquial use for the practice of
appealing e.g. in art, literature and especially in journalism solely
to the emotions, disregarding proportion and fact.
SENTENCE (Lat. sententia, a way of thinking, opinion, judg-
ment, vote, sentire, to feel, think), a word of which the principal
SENTINEL SENUSSI
649
meanings now are: (a) in grammar, a thought expressed in
words in complete grammatical form and composed of subject
and predicate, and (b) in law, a judicial decision. In law, the
term signifies either (i) a judgment of a court of criminal juris-
diction imposing a punishment such as a fine or imprisonment,
or (2) a decree of certain competent courts, as ecclesiastical
and admiralty courts. In sense (i) a sentence may be either
definite or final, i.e. one giving finality to the case, or interlocutory,
determining some point in the progress of the case (see, however,
JUDGMENT). The sentences inflicted by the courts of various
countries vary according to the gravity of the offence (see
CRIMINAL LAW; also CAPITAL PUNISHMENT; and, for the
" indeterminate " sentence, RECIDIVISM). Concurrent sentences
are those which run from the same date in respect of convictions
on various indictments. A cumulative sentence is the sum
total of consecutive sentences passed in respect of each distinct
offence of which an accused person has been found guilty on
several counts of an indictment. A sentence, in the case of
trials before a court of assize, commences to run from the first
day of the sitting of the court, but in that of courts of quarter
sessions from the time the sentence is pronounced.
SENTINEL, or SENTRY, a guard or watch, a soldier posted at a
particular spot to challenge all comers, passing those who give
a countersign, and refusing those who do not, and giving alarm
in case of attack. The etymology has been the subject of much
controversy. The original word seems to be Ital. sentinella,
adapted as Fr. sentinelle (the modern French military term is
factionnaire, and the Ger. Fachmann). For the Italian word the
source has been suggested in sentire, to perceive, but there are
philological objections to this, and more plausibility attaches
to a connexion with senlina, the bilge- water in a ship, figuratively
rabble, camp-followers. If an Italian origin, as agreed on by
most authorities, be set aside, the French word suggests a more
appropriate formation as the diminutive of senlier, path, Lat.
semita, meaning properly the sentry's beat. The O. Fr. senterel
(a form of sender) would account for the English form " sentry."
SENTINUM, an ancient town of Umbria, Italy, lying to the
S. of the modern town of Sassoferrato, in the low ground. The
foundations of the city walls are preserved, and a road and
remains of houses have been discovered, including several mosaic
pavements (T. Buccolini in Notizie degli semi, 1890, 346) and
inscriptions of the latter half of the 3rd century A.D., including
three important tabulae patronatus. In the neighbourhood the
battle took place in which the Romans defeated the combined
forces of the Samnites and Gauls in 295 B.C. It was taken and
destroyed in 41 B.C. by the troops of Octavian, but continued to
exist under the Empire. It was, however, only a municipium,
never (as some wrongly suppose) a colonia. Sassoferrato gave
its name to Giambattista Salvi, surnamed Sassoferrato (1605-
1685), a painter celebrated for his Madonnas.
SENUSSI [SANUSI] and SENUSSITES, the names respectively
of a Moslem family (and especially its chief member) and of the
fraternity or sect recognizing the authority of the Senussi.
Considerable diversity of opinion has prevailed among writers
and travellers claiming knowledge of the Senussia; it is possible,
however, to distinguish the main facts in the lives of the Senussi
sheiks and to indicate the range of their direct political influence.
The extent of their spiritual influence, the ramifications of the
fraternity and the aims of its chiefs cannot be gauged so
accurately.
Seyyid or Sidi (i.e. Lord) Mahommed ben Ali ben Es Senussi
el Khettabi el Hassani el Idrissi el Mehajiri, the founder of the
order, commonly called the Sheik es Senussi, was born near
Mostaganem, Algeria, and was called es Senussi after a much
venerated saint whose tomb is near Tlemcen. The date of his
birth is given variously as 1791, 1792, 1796 and 1803. He was
a member of the Walad Sidi Abdalla tribe of Arabs and his
descent is traced from Fatima, the daughter of Mahomet. As
a young man he spent several years at Fez, where he studied
theology. When about thirty years old he left Morocco and
travelled in the Saharan regions of Algeria preaching a reform of
the faith. From Algeria he went to Tunisia and Tripoli, gaining
many adherents, and thence to Cairo, where he was opposed by
the Ulema of El Azhar, who considered him unorthodox. Leaving
Egypt Senussi went to Mecca, where he joined Mahommed b.
Idris el Fassi, the head of the Khadirites, a fraternity of Moroccan
origin. On the death of el Fassi Senussi became head of one of
the two branches into which the Khadirites divided, and in 1835
he founded his first monastery at Abu Kobeis near Mecca. While
in Arabia Senussi visited the Wahhabites, and his connexion
with that body caused him to be looked upon with suspicion by
the Ulema of Mecca. It was at Mecca, however, that Senussi
gained his most powerful supporter, Mahommed Sherif,
a prince of Wadai, who became in 1838 sultan of his ^, ouad ^.
. f tloaoftae
native state, the most powerful Mahommedan kingdom order.
in the Central Sudan. Finding the opposition to him
at Mecca too powerful Senussi quitted that city in 1843 and
settled in the Cyrenaica, where in the mountains near Derna
he built the Zawia Baida or White Monastery. There he was in
close touch with ah 1 the Maghribin, gaining many followers
among the Tripolitans and Moroccans. He also maintained a
close correspondence with the sultan of Wadai, who greatly
favoured the spread of the Senussia in his state. The sultan of
Turkey viewed with some disfavour the growth of Senussi's
influence as likely to become detrimental to his own position as
the Khalifa of Islam. Probably with the desire to be independent
of pressure from the Turks, Senussi removed in 1855 to Jarabub
(Jaghbub), a small oasis some 30 m. N.W. of Siwa. Here he
died in 1859 or 1860, leaving two sons, one Mahommed Sherif
(named after the sultan of Wadai), born in 1844, and the other,
El Mahdi, born in 1845. To the second son was left the succession.
It is related that as the younger son showed a spirit in all things
superior to that of his brother the father decided to put them to
the test. Before the whole zawia at Jarabub he bade both sons
climb a tall palm tree and then adjured them by Allah and His
Prophet to leap to the ground. The younger lad leapt at once
and reached the ground unharmed; the elder boy refused to
spring. To El Mahdi, " who feared not to commit himself to the
will of God," passed the birthright of Mahommed Sherif.
Mahommed appears to have accepted the situation without
complaint. He held the chief administrative position in the
fraternity under his brother until his death in 1895.
Senussi el Mahdi, only fourteen when his father died, was at
first under the guidance of his father's friends Amran, Reefi
and others. He enjoyed all his father's reputation
for holiness and wisdom, attributes consistent with
all that is known of his life. Mahommed Sherif,
the sultan of Wadai, had died in 1858, but his successors the
Sultan Ali (who reigned until 1874) and the Sultan Yusef (reigned
from 1874 to 1898) were equally devoted to the Senussia. Under
the Senussi el Mahdi the zawias of the order extended from Fez
to Damascus, to Constantinople and to India. In the Hejaz
members of the order were numerous. In most of these countries
the Senussites occupied a position in no respect more powerful
than that of numbers of other Moslem fraternities. In the
eastern Sahara and in the central Sudan the position was different.
From the western borders of Egypt south to Darfur, Wadai and
Bornu, east to Bilma and Murzuk, and north to the coast lands
of Tripoli, Senussi became the most powerful sheik, acquiring
the authority of a territorial sovereign. The string of oases
leading from Siwa to Wadai Kufra, Borku, &c. were occupied
and cultivated by the Senussites, trade with Tripoli and Benghazi
was encouraged, law and order were maintained among the savage
Bedouin of the desert. But the eastern Sahara, though vast
(covering approximately about 500,000 sq. m.), is among the most
desolate and thinly populated parts of the world, and of more
importance to the order was the dominating influence possessed
by the sheik at the court of Wadai.
Although named El Mahdi by his father there is no evidence
to show that the younger Senussi ever claimed to be the Mahdi,
though so regarded by some of his followers. When, however,
Mahommed Ahmed, the Dongalese, rose against the Egyptians
in the eastern Sudan and proclaimed himself the Mahdi, Senussi
was disquieted. He sent an emissary via Wadai to Mahommed
650
SENUSSI
Ahmed, this delegate reaching me Mahdi's camp in 1883 soon
after the sack of El Obeid.
" The moral and industrial training of the Senussi *' [delegate],
writes Sir Reginald Wingate, " revolted from the slaughter and
rapine he saw around him. The sincere conviction of the regenera-
tion of the world by a mahdi whose earnest piety should influence
others to lead wholesome and temperate lives, the dignity of honest
labour and self-restraint, these were the sentiments which filled the
mind of the emissary from Wadai."
The sheik Senussi, there is reason to believe, shared the lofty
views which Wingate attributes to his agent. He decided to
have nothing to do with the Sudanese Mahdi, though Mahommed
Ahmed wrote twice asking him to become one of his four great
khalif s. In his second letter, the text of which has been preserved,
the Mahdi urged Senussi either to attack Egypt or to join him
in the Sudan. To neither letter did Senussi reply, and he warned
the people of Wadai, Bomu and neighbouring states against
the new creed. In 1890 the Mahdists advancing from Darfur
were stopped on the frontier of Wadai, the sultan Yusef being
firm in his adherence to the Senussi teaching. As evidence of
the influence of the sheik may be instanced the appeal made to
him in 1888 by the sultan of Borku (or Borgo), a state to the north
of Wadai, when invited by the chiefs of Darfur to rise against
the khalifa Abdullah. Senussi advised Borku to abstain from
Sudan affairs and only to fight against the Mahdists should they
attack his kingdom. The Darfurian revolt of 1888-1889 against
the khalifa was nevertheless carried out in the name of the
Senussi.
The growing fame of the sheik Senussi el Mahdi drew upon him
the unwelcome attention of the Turks. In many parts of
Tripoli and in Benghazi the power of the sheik was greater
than that of the Ottoman governors, and though Abdul Hamid
II. looked favourably on an organization which might become
actively anti-Christian, he did not desire that a new mahdi
should ansert o dispute his authority. In 1889 the sheik Senussi
was visited at Jarabub by the pasha of Benghazi at the head
of some troops. This event showed the sheik the possibility
of danger and led him (in 1894) to leave Jarabub and fix his
headquarters at Jof in the oases of Kufra, a place sufficiently
remote to secure him from any chance of sudden attack. By
this time a new danger to Senussia had arisen; the French
were advancing from the Congo towards the western and southern
borders of Wadai. In 1898 Senussi, in his character of peace-
maker, wishing also to range together all the states menaced by
the French advance, sought to reconcile Rabah Zobeir (</.r.)
and the sultan of Bagirmi; neither of those chieftains belonged
to the Senussi order and the sheik's appeal was unavailing. At
the end of the previous year, at the request f Sultan Yusef,
the sheik had sent an envoy to Wadai to be his permanent
representative in that country. Yusefs successor Ibrahim,
who ascended the throne of Wadai in 1898, showed signs of
resenting the advice of the sheik, stirred perhaps by the over-
throw of the khalifa Abdullah at Omdurman. Senussi retaliated,
says Captain Julien in his history of Wadai, by prohibiting the
people of Wadai from smoking tobacco or drinking merissa,
the native beer, " which is to the Wadaiin what the skin is to the
body." Sultan Ibrahim rejoined that his people would fight
and die for merissa; rather than give it up they would
renounce Senussiism. The sheik had the wisdom to give way,
declaring that in response to his prayers Allah had deigned to
make an exception in favour of the faithful Wadaiins. Ibrahim
died in 1900 and his successors fell again under the influence of
the sheik, who again changed his headquarters, leaving Kufra for
Geni, in Dar Gorane, a western province of Wadai, where he
was welcomed with veneration. He built and strongly fortified
a savia on the top of a rocky hill, difficult of access. His object
in taking up this position was, presumably, to prevent
<* the advance of the French. But, as Julien points out,
French. Senussi was too late; Rabah had been slain by the
French (April 1000), and Bagirmi was occupied by
them. Nevertheless the sheik made an effort to prevent the
French obtaining possession of Kanem, a country north-east
of Lake Chad and on its northern and eastern frontiers bordering
Saharan territory, which the Senussites considered their particular
preserve. A zawia was built at Bir Allah', in Kanem, that site
being chosen as it was an entrepot for the trade of Tripoli with
all the Chad countries. Bir Allali was strongly garrisoned by
the Senussites and war with the French followed. 1 After a severe
engagement Bir Allali was captured by a French column under
Commandant Tetard in January 1902. The sheik Senussi,
much affected by the loss of Kanem, died shortly afterwards
(May 30, 1902). He was succeeded by his nephew Ahmed-el-
Sherif , who in view of the presence of the French on the borders
of Dar Gorane removed to Kufra.
The new head of the Senussites maintained the friendly rela-
tions of his predecessors with Wadai, and, following the example
of his uncle, made advances to Ali Dinar, the sultan of Darfur,
which were not reciprocated. To keep in touch with Darfur
a zawia had been built on the caravan route from Kufra to that
country. The adherents of the Senussi cl Mahdi in the deserts
bordering Egypt maintained for years that he was not dead,
and in March 1006 a public declaration was made at Siwa that
" Sidi Mahommed-el- Mahdi had returned from his secret journey
to Kufra." Commenting on this announcement Sir R. Wingate
wrote: " It is well known that the body of the late sheik lies
in a tent at Zawia-el-Taj in the identical shrine which was made
for it at Geru when he died " (Egypt No. i (1007), p. 1 20).
It will be seen that the Senussites occupy desert fastnesses
which could only be attacked by Europeans after overcoming
great difficulties. By Henri Duveyrier and other writers of the
last half of the igih century they were regarded as likely to pro-
claim a. jihad or holy war against the Christians of North Africa.
This view was founded upon the supposed tenets of the order
and upon geographical and political considerations. The record
of the first and second Senussi sheiks shows them, however,
to have acted chiefly on the defensive. A study of all available
data up to 1906 led M L. G. Binger, one of the greatest
authorities, to the conclusion that the politics of the sect were
subordinated to the material interests of their chief, and that the
Senussi sheik was as unable as were other noted Moslem leaders
(such as Abd el Kader in Algeria; Samory in the western
Sudan and the Dongolese Mahdi in the Egyptian Sudan) to
overcome the rivalries and divergence of interests of their own
co-religionists. This view received confirmation in the events of
1906-1910 when the French came in conflict with the sultanate
of Wadai. Although there was severe fighting the French found
less difficulty than had been expected in seizing the capital of
Wadai, nor was there any general movement of the Senussites
against them. The French also sent flying columns into Borku
and Enndi. The comparative ease with which these operations
were carried out seemed to demonstrate the weakness of the
Senussites (see WADAI). Nevertheless, like any other Moslem
fraternity, and perhaps more readily, the Senussites might be
speedily transformed into a powerful fighting organization.
Through the seaports of Tripoli and Benghazi, with the connivance
(or in defiance) of the Turks, the importation of arms and
ammunition into the eastern Sahara is a matter of little or no
difficulty, and the Bedouin of that region could furnish a
numerous and well-armed fighting force. A Senussi sheik would
also recruit many followers in the central Sudan. At the same
time the Senussi organization is not so widespread The power
in the Sudan and the western Sahara as would appear of the
from the exaggerated reports once current. The f^"~
Senussi sheiks, with the doubtful exception of Darfur,
are without followers in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Bagirmi,
Kanem and other states once dependent on Wadai did not
embrace Senussiism. In the Hausa States and in the greater
part of the western Sudan as far as Timbuktu the Moslems
acknowledge the spiritual headship of the emir of Sokoto,
1 In the accounts of the fighting in French equatorial Africa at
this period it is necessary to distinguish between the sheik Senussi el
Mahdi and the sultan Mahommed el Senussi (b. r. 1850) of N'Del, a
prince who had married the sister of Rabah Zobeir. Senussi of
N'Del6 became an ally of the French. The state of N'Del6 lies S. of
Wadai and is cut by 9 N., and 20" E. (See Karl Kumm in Grog. Jour.,
Aug. 1910.)
SEONI SEOUL
651
whose influence is believed to be sufficiently strong to prevent
the spread of Senussiism among his followers. The general
attitude of the Mahommedans in the western Sudan towards
the Senussi emissaries was described by European observers
in 1907 as one of good-natured tolerance. They are occasionally
allowed to preach, but apparently with little effect. In Bornu,
which does not acknowledge the spiritual supremacy of Sokoto,
the Senussi propaganda meets with less opposition, but the
adherents of the order are not numerous. Here and there in the
western Sahara are tribes professing Senussiism, but they are
regarded as unimportant.
It should, however, be remembered that while other dervish
fraternities are mystical and latitudinarian in theology, and
Tenets. on ^ v sporadically meddle in politics, the Senussites
have exercised a continuous political influence and
have sought to revive the faith and usages of the early days of
Islam. The order is in a sense an outcome of the Wahhabite
movement, but, as gathered from the writings of Mahommed
el Hechaish, a Tunisian sheik, and other trustworthy sources,
appears to be neither mystical nor puritan. There is less of secrecy
about their rites than is usual in Moslem fraternities. The
use of tobacco and coffee is forbidden, but the drinking of tea
is encouraged, and the wearing of fine clothes is allowed. While
they profess to belong to the Malikite rite (one of the four
orthodox sects of Islam), the Senussites are charged by the
Ulema of Cairo with many deviations from the true faith;
chiefly they are accused of interpreting the Koran and Sunna
without consulting one of the recognized glosses. Thus the
Egyptian theologians regard the Senussites as inaugurating
a new rite rather than forming a simple fraternity; in this,
if not in puritanism, resembling the Wahhabites. Their great
work in the eastern Sahara, apart from proselytism, has been
colonization and the encouragement of trade. Wells have been
dug and oases cultivated, rest houses built along caravan routes,
merchants from Tripoli, Bornu, Wadai and Darfur welcomed.
Such at least is the report of Mahommedan writers and of French
and British political agents; very few Europeans have had
opportunities of making personal observations. Gustav Nachtigal
was in Wadai in 1873, Gerhard Rholfs traversed the Cyrenaica
and visited Kufra in 1879; but in general the Senussi, supported
by the Turks at Tripoli, have closed the regions under their
control to Europeans. At the oasis of Si wa (Jupiter Ammon),
however, they are in contact with the Egyptian administration.
Siwa was visited by Silva White in 1898 and by Freiherr von
Griinau in 1899. The last-named reports that he found the
representative of Sheik Senussi living in perfect agreement with
the Egyptian authorities, the inhabitants of the oasis being
divided into two sections, known respectively as the Mussulmans
and the Senussites, a distinction which goes to show the special
position occupied by the Senussites in Islam.
The missionary zeal of the Senussites is undoubted. Outside
the regions adjacent to their headquarters they appear to be
most strongly represented in Arabia. In the eastern Sahara
and Wadai practically all the population are Senussites; the
order in other countries draws its adherents from a higher social
rank than the generality of Moslem secret societies. Its chief
agents are personages of wealth and importance and highly
educated in Oriental lore. They are in general on good terms
with the rulers of the countries in which they live, as instanced
in 1902 by the conferment of the Legion of Honour on the head
of the zawia at Hillil in Algeria. These agents make regular
tours to the various zawias placed under their charge, and
expound the Senussi doctrines at the Moslem universities.
From all that has been said it is apparent that the Senussi sheik
controls a very powerful organization, an organization probably
unique in the Moslem world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. L. Rinn, Marabouts et Khouan, a good historical
account up to the year 1884; O. Deppnt and X. Coppolani, Les
Confr fries religieuses musulmanes (Algiers, 1897), an authoritative
v.'ork; Si Mohammed el Hechaish, " Chez les Senoussia et les Toua-
reg," in L'Expansion col. francaise for 1900 and the Revue de Paris
for 1901. These are translations from the Arabic of an educated
Mahommedan who visited the chief Senussite centres. An obituary
notice of Senussi el Mahdi by the same writer appeared in the Arab
journal El Hadira of Tunis, Sept. 2, 1902; a condensation of this
article appears in the Bull, du Com. de I Afr. frangaise for 1902;
" Les Senoussia," an anonymous contribution to the April supple-
ment of the same volume, is a judicious summary of events, a short
bibliography being added; Capt. Julien, in " Le Dar Ouadai "
published in the same Bulletin (vol. for 190^.), traces the connexion
between Wadai and the Senussi; L. G. Bmger, in " Le PeYil de
1' Islam " in the 1906 volume of the Bulletin, discusses the position and
prospects of the Senussite and other Islamic sects in North Africa.
Von Grunau, in Verhandl. ges.f. Erdk. for 1899, gives an account of
his visit to Siwa. Sir F. R. Wingate, in Mahdiism and the Egyptian
Sudan (London, 1891), narrates the efforts made by the Mahdi
Mahommed Ahmed to obtain the support cf the Senussi ; Sir W.
\Yallace, in his report to the Colonial Office on Northern Nigeria for
1906-1907, deals with Senussiism in that country. Consult also
H. Duveyrier, La Confrerie musulmane de Sidi Mohammed ben
AH es Seno&ssi (Paris, 1884), a book containing much exaggera-
tion, and A. Silva White, From Sphinx to Oracle (London, 1898),
which, while repeating the extreme views of Duveyrier, contains
useful information.
The present writer, in endeavouring to arrive at a just con-
clusion on an obscure and much controverted subject, is indebted, in
addition to the above, to the article by D. A. Cameron in the loth
ed. of this encyclopaedia, and to communications from Prof. D. B.
Macdonald. (F. R. C.)
SEONI, a town and district of British India, in the Jubbulpore
division of the Central Provinces. The town is 2043 ft. above
sea-level, half-way on the road between Nagpur and Jubbulpore.
Pop. (1001) 11,864. It was founded in 1774, and contains
large public gardens, a fine market place and a handsome tank.
The DISTRICT OF SEONI forms part of the Satpura tableland,
containing the headwaters of the Wainganga. It is largely
covered with forest, and 40% of the inhabitants belong to
aboriginal tribes. Area 3206 sq. m. The district is remarkable
for the beauty of its scenery and the fertility of its valleys. The
northern and western portions include the plateaus of Lakhnadon
and Seoni; the eastern section consists of the watershed and
elevated basin of the Wainganga; and in the south-west is a
narrow strip of rocky land known as Dongartal. The plateaus
of Seoni and Lakhnadon vary in height from 1800 to 2000 ft.;
they are well cultivated and clear of jungle, and their temperature
is always moderate and healthy. Geologically the north part
of Seoni consists of trap hills and the south of crystalline rock.
The soil of the plateaus is the rich black cotton soil formed
by distintegrated trap, of which about two-thirds of the district
are said to consist; but towards the south, where cliffs of gneiss
and other primitive formations occur, the soil is silicious and
contains a large proportion of clay. The chief river is the
Wainganga, with its affluents the Hiri, Sagar, Theli, Bijna and
Than war; other streams are the Timar and the Sher, tributaries
of the Nerbudda. The annual rainfall averages 53 in. The
population in 1001 was 327,709, showing a decrease of 12% in
the decade due to the effects of famine. The principal crops
are wheat, millets, rice, pulse, oil-seeds and cotton. Three lines of
the Bengal-Nagpur system traverse the district.
There is also a town called Seoni, or Seoni-Malwa, in the
Central Provinces, a railway station in Hoshangabad district.
Pop. (1901) 7531.
See R. A. Sterndale, Seonee, or Camp Life on the Satpura Range
(1877) ; Seoni District Gazetteer (Allahabad, 1907).
SEOUL (Han-yang), the capital of Korea (Chosen), situated
m 37 34' N. and 127 6' E., at an altitude of 120 ft., 25 m. from
Chemulpo, its seaport, and 4 from Mapu, its river-port. Pop.
about 200,000. It lies in a basin among granite hills, nowhere
exceeding 2627 ft., remarkable for their denudation and their
abrupt black crags and pinnacles. A well-built, crenelated
stone wall from 20 to 30 ft. high, about n m. in circuit, and
pierced by 8 gateways with double-roofed gate towers, surrounds
it. The native houses are built of stone or mud, deeply eaved,
and either tiled or thatched. Above these rise the towers of the
Roman Catholic cathedral, the high curved roofs of the royal
audience halls, the palace gateways, and the showy buildings
of the Russian and French legations. The antiquities are the
Bell Tower, with a huge bronze bell dated 1468, a marble pagoda
elaborately carved, but not of Korean workmanship, seven
centuries old, and a " Turtle-Stone " of about the same date.
652
SEPIA SEPSIS
Seoul has some wide streets of shops, hundreds of narrow alleys,
and is very fairly clean. It has an electric tramway 4 m. long,
and is the centre of the railway system of the country.
SEPIA (Gr. oTjiria, cuttlefish), a deep brown pigment obtained
from the ink-sacs of various species of cuttlefish (q.v.). To
obtain sepia the ink-sac, immediately on the capture of the
animal, is extracted from the body and speedily dried to prevent
putrefaction. The contents are subsequently powdered, dissolved
in caustic alkali, and precipitated from the solution by neutraliz-
ing with acid. The precipitate after washing with water is
ready to make up into any form required for use.
Sepia-bone or cuMe-bone consists of the internal " shell " or
skeleton of Sepia officinalis and other allied species. It is an oblong
convex structure from 4 to 10 in. in length and I to 3 in. in greatest
width, consisting internally of a highly porous cellular mass of
calcium carbonate with some animal matters covered by a hard thin
glassy layer. It is used principally as a polishing material and for
tooth powder, and also as a moulding material for fine castings in
precious metals.
SEPOY, the usual English spelling of sipahl, the Persian and
Urdu term for a soldier of any kind, cf. spahi. The word sipah,
" army," from which sipahl, " soldier," is derived, corresponds
to the Zend fpadha, Old Persian Qpada, and h,as also found a
home in the Turkish, Kurdish and Pashto (Pushtu) languages
(see Justi, Handbuch der Zendsprache, p. 303, 6), while its deriva-
tive is used in all Indian vernaculars, including Tamil and
Burmese, to denote a native soldier, in contradistinction to gora,
" a fair-complexioned (European) soldier." A sepoy is at the
present day strictly a private soldier in the native infantry of
the Indian army.
SEPPINGS, SIR ROBERT (1767-1840), English naval architect,
was born at Fakenham, Norfolk, in 1767, and in 1782 was
apprenticed in Plymouth dockyard. In 1800, when he had risen
to be master shipwright assistant in the yard, he invented a
device which, as compared with the laborious process of lifting
then in vogue, greatly reduced the time required for effecting
repairs to the lower portions of ships in dry dock. His plan was
to make the keel of the ship rest upon a series of supports placed
on the floor of the dock and each consisting of three parts two
being wedges arranged one on each side of the keel at right
angles to it, with their thin ends together, while the third was a
vertical wedge fitting in and supported by the lower pair. The
result was that it became possible in a comparatively short time
to remove these supporting structures by knocking out the side
wedges, when the workmen gained free access to the whole of
the keel, the vessel remaining suspended by the shores. For
this invention Seppings received 1000 from the Admiralty, and
in 1804 was promoted to be a master shipwright at Chatham.
There, in spite of the repugnance to innovation displayed by
the naval authorities of that period, he was able to introduce
important improvements in the methods of ship-construction.
In particular he increased the longitudinal strength of the
vessels by a system of diagonal bracing, and modified the design
of the bows and stern, so that they became stronger, not only
offering better protection than the old forms to the crews against
the enemy's fire, but also permitting a powerful armament to be
fitted. Seppings, who received a knighthood in 1819, was ap-
pointed surveyor of the navy in 1813, and held that office till
his retirement in 1832. He died at Taunton on the 25th of
September 1840.
SEPSIS (Gr. (riji/as, putrefaction), or SEPTIC INFECTION, a
term applied in medicine and surgery to indicate the resultant
infection of a wound or sore by micro-organisms or by their
products. Under this general heading come three great con-
stitutional diseases, differing radically from each other in their
aetiology and pathology: sapraemia, septicaemia and pyaemia.
Sapraemia (Gr. <rairp6s, rotten, afyio, blood), or septic intoxi-
cation, is the result of the absorption of a dose of the toxins
produced by micro-organisms from some area of infection without
the entrance of the micro-organisms themselves into the blood.
This condition was for a long time confounded with septicaemia,
but is distinguished from it in being a chemical intoxication.
The blood in sapraemia if injected into an animal is incapable
of reproducing the disease as in septicaemia. Any condition
in which there is a mass of decomposing tissue in the neighbour-
hood of an unhealed wound may give rise to sapraemia. In
surgical practice it may be met with in.large, deep and badly-
drained wounds where a quantity of putrifying material is
pent up. When it arises in connexion with wounds accidentally
received, it may be unavoidably due to the dirty state of the
skin or to foreign bodies entering the wound. Absorption of
toxins is notably frequent in portions of decomposing placental
tissue which may accidentally have remained behind in the
uterus after childbirth, and may give rise to puerperal sapraemia.
Sapraemia is acute or subacute directly according to the amount
of toxin absorbed. By some writers it is divided as follows:
(i) Hectic fever is a chronic blood poisoning with continual
absorption of small doses of the toxins. This variety usually
arises in long-continued suppuration of bones and joints, and in
decomposition occurring in a pulmonary cavity. The marked
symptom is a sharp rise of temperature in the evenings; the
face becomes flushed and the pulse rapid. After profuse sweating
the temperature drops. Diarrhoea and wasting are a usual
accompaniment. (2) Septic traumatic fever is a slight form
which may follow burns or compound fractures and which
tends to subside in a few days. (3) In acute septic intoxication
large amounts of the poison are absorbed. It generally starts
with a severe rigor followed by a continuous high temperature,
dry tongue, rapid pulse and severe headache, together with
nausea and vomiting, and in the later stages diarrhoea. If
the case be a severe one rapid prostration speedily conies on
with low muttering delirium, the temperature may fall to
subnormal, and a gradually deepening coma may end in death;
other cases pass into a typically " typhoid state," death occurring
from exhaustion at the end of about a week. (4) Amyloid
(Gr. a.nv\ov, starch, tl&os, form), or lardaceous disease, usually
of the liver, spleen, kidneys or other organs, is one of the results
of long-continued septic intoxication. A substance derived
from the breaking down of pus and tissue cells is carried in the
blood and deposited in the connective tissue of the coats of the
smaller arteries, and the viscera become infiltrated with a
material looking like lard. The liver and spleen, being the organs
most usually affected, become immensely enlarged.
No form of septic infection yields so easily to treatment as
sapraemia. The prompt removal of the cause of septic absorp-
tion, the flushing out of the wound with weak antiseptic solutions,
in order to mechanically remove any decomposing masses, and
the establishment of proper drainage in deep wounds, is usually
followed by a fall in temperature and an improvement in the
general condition. A strong, preferably mercurial, purgative
should be given to aid in the elimination of toxic material.
For the same purpose the injection into the veins or into the
cellular tissue of large quantities of normal saline solution is
useful. Heart depression should be overcome by diffusible
stimulants and hypodermic injections of strychnine. When
the wound has become " surgically clean " recovery is usually
rapid.
Septicaemia is an acute infective disease differing from
sapraemia in that the micro-organisms themselves are absorbed,
entering the general circulation, and may on examination be
found in greater or lesser number in the blood-stream itself.
The organism or organisms grow and reproduce themselves
in the blood or tissues. A number of different organisms have
been isolated from the blood-stream in cases of septicaemia.
The most frequently found is the Streptococcus pyogenes, which
is present in 50% of the cases and is common in puerperal
septicaemia and in ulcerative endocarditis. The Stapttylococcus
Pyogenes aureus et albus is also a frequent cause, but sometimes
septicaemia may be due to other pathogenic microbes such as
the Pneumococcus, the Bacillus coli communis, Bacillus pyo-
cyaneus. Bacillus oedematis maligni and the Gonococcus. The
micro-organisms are conveyed by the blood-stream to different
parts of the body, in which as in the original wound itself they
both multiply and set up factories for the production of toxins.
The disease commonly follows blows or wounds which have
SEPT SEPTUAGINT
653
not been treated on surgical lines. Much laceration of the tissues
at the time of the injury offers increased liability to infection.
Septicaemia is frequent in spreading gangrene, in diseases of
the periosteum, and in fevers such as scarlatina, diphtheria or
plague, and in the puerperal state. The period of incubation
may be from a few hours to several days. The condition of the
wound or site of injury shows marked changes. In severe cases
following a prick received in conducting a post-mortem the
finger in a few hours becomes greatly swollen and painful, the
pain spreading up the lymphatic vessels to the nearest lymphatic
glands, which may become enlarged, and sloughing or gangrene
of the parts involved may take place. In milder cases the wound
remains with reddened and oedematous margins in a more or
less unhealthy state. In mild cases of septicaemia the local
condition of the wound, high temperature and feeling of illness
are the distinguishing features. The treatment of septicaemia
may be preventive or active. The preventive side consists
in the performance of operations with all due aseptic pre-
cautions. Since the days when I. P. Semmelweiss (q.v.) of
Vienna insisted on cleanliness in his maternity wards, the
death-rate of puerperal septicaemia has been enormously
reduced. In the British registrar-general's returns for 1868
it was stated that in twenty-two years no less than 23,689
women in England and Wales had died of puerperal septic
diseases. In the reports of the Rotunda Hospital, Dublin, the
largest maternity hospital in the United Kingdom, we ascertain
that of 30,023 women delivered during the ten years 1894-
1903 there was only a mortality of 21 due to sepsis, a ratio of
0-066%, while the registrar-general's returns for England
and Ireland for the period have a ratio for sepsis' of 0-216%.
When dealing with a wound that is already septic, free incision
and swabbing the surface with pure carbolic acid may have
to be resorted to, and constitutional treatment must be under-
taken at once. Should the infection be due to a Streptococcus,
an antistreptococcic serum may be injected. There are, however,
many strains of Streptococci, and a polyvalent serum may give
good results. Menzer's antistreptococcic serum has been
successful in puerperal septicaemia not of gonococcic origin.
Many cases have also now been recorded in which the systemic
infection is combated by means of an autogenous vaccine.
The first case was described by Sir James Barr before the Liver-
pool Medical Institute in May 1906. In urgent cases, where
time will not allow of the manufacture of a vaccine, quinine in
large doses, stimulants and liquid nourishment must be given,
and the temperature controlled by tepid sponging.
Pyaemia (Gr. irvov, pus, at/m, blood), which got its name
from an erroneous idea that the pus passed into the blood, is
now understood to mean an acute disease with the formation
of metastatic abscesses. The first definite account of the disease
was published by Boerhaave in 1720. Virchow in 1846 pointed
out that it was not pus in the veins, but altered blood-clot. Jean
D'Arcet showed the separate processes of poisoning by products
of decomposition and the blocking of the veins with emboli.
Any pyogenic organism may give rise to pyaemia, or it may
follow any acute abscess. The cause of pyaemia may be said
to be any condition favouring the formation of emboli. An
occasional cause of pyaemia is infective endocarditis, while
puerperal pyaemia may arise from infection of the genital tract.
When the emboli lodge in the lung there is a breaking down of
the tissue in front of the embolus, a haemorrhagic infarct being
formed. The clinical symptoms of acute pyaemia generally
start with a rigor repeated at periodic intervals; the skin
'becomes hot and the patient soon develops an earthy colour,
the pulse becomes frequent and weak and the tongue dry. In
about a week secondary abscesses appear, most frequently
in the region of joints. There may be little or no pain to herald
the formation of an abscess, but usually there is intense pain
followed by suppuration. Unless early treatment is undertaken
the joint may be rapidly destroyed. In acute cases multiple
abscesses in the kidney may give rise to pain and albuminuria,
abscesses in the lungs to dyspnoea, while acute peritonitis may
arise from rupture of a splenic abscess into the peritoneal cavity,
and sudden blindness be the result of the plugging of the arteria
centralis retinae. The duration of a case of pyaemia depends
on the severity of the infection. Death may occur from the
formation of abscesses in vital organs such as the brain and
heart, or from exhaustion from continued suppuration, or
chronic forms may after months pass on to complete recovery.
Unfortunately pyaemia cannot be recognized apart from other
blood infections until abscesses begin to form. The local treat-
ment is to endeavour to prevent the detachment of infected
emboli and the infection of the general blood-stream thereby.
An infected limb may be dealt with by amputation above the
seat of the lesion, or it may be feasible to dissect out the infected
veins. When abscesses have formed they must be dealt with
by opening and washing out the cavities. Antistreptococcic
serum may be tried, as in septicaemia; and if there be time to
prepare a vaccine it offers the best prospects, more particularly
in the subacute and chronic forms of pyaemia. The usual
administration of nourishing diet and stimulants when required
should be undertaken, and every effort made to keep up the
patient's strength.
REFERENCES. Watson Cheyne in Clifford Albutt's System of
Medicine (1906) ; Horder in the Practitioner (May 1908) ; Spencer
and Cask's System of Surgery (1910); Barr, Bell and Douglas,
Lancet (Feb. 1907); H. Jellett, Manual of Midwifery (1905);
Whyte in Edinburgh Medical Journal (Dec. 1907); Sir A. Wright
in the Lancet (Nov. 1907) ; Whitridge Williams in American Journal
of Obstetrics (May 1909) ; R. Park, The Principles of Surgery (1908) ;
George Taylor in the Practitioner (March 1910). (H. L. H.)
SEPT, a clan, the term generally applied to the tribes or
families of Ireland, used also sometimes as by Sir H. Maine
(Early History of Institutions, 231) of the Indian joint undivided
family, the " combined descendants of an ancestor long since
dead." Wedgewood (Diet, of Eng. Etym.), quoted by Skeat,
takes the word as a corruption of " sect " (q.v.), and cites from
the State Papers of 1536 and 1537, where secte and seple are
used respectively. If so, the word must have been influenced
by Lat. saeplum, fence or enclosure (saepire, to enclose, saepes,
hedge), a word which has been adopted as " septum " into
scientific terminology for any partition or wall dividing two
cavities e.g. in anatomy, of the partition between the nostrils,
septum naris, or that between the right and left ventricles of
the heart, septum cordis.
SEPTEMBER (Lat. septem, seven), the seventh month of the
old Roman year, in which it had thirty days assigned to it.
In the Julian calendar, while retaining its former name and
number of days, it became the ninth month. The Ludi Magni
(Ludi Romani) in honour of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva began
on the 4th of September. The principal ecclesiastical feasts
falling within the month are: the Nativity of the Blessed
Virgin on the 8th, the Exaltation of the Holy Cross on the i4th,
St Matthew the apostle on the 2ist, and St Michael the archangel
on the 29th. September was called " harvest month " in Charle-
magne's calendar, and it corresponds partly to the Fructidor
and partly to the Vendemiaire of the first French republic.
The Anglo-Saxons called the month Gerstmonath, barley month,
that crop being then usually harvested. It is still called Herbst-
monat, harvest month, in Switzerland.
SEPTUAGINT, THE (Gr. ol 0', Lat. LXX.), or the " Alex-
andrian version of the Old Testament," so named from the legend
of its composition by seventy (Lat. septuaginta) , or more exactly
seventy-two, translators. In the Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates l
this legend is recounted as follows: Demetrius of Phalerum,
keeper of the Alexandrian library, proposed to King Ptolemy II.
Philadelphus (285-247 B.C.) to have a Greek translation of the
Jewish law made for the library. The king consented and,
after releasing 100,000 Jewish captives in his kingdom, sent an
embassy with rich presents to the high priest Eleazar at Jerusalem
asking him to send six ancient, worthy and learned men from
each of the twelve tribes to translate the law for him at Alex-
andria. Eleazar readily sent the seventy-two men with a precious
1 Edited by H. St J. Thackeray in H. B. Swete's Inlrod. to the
Old Testament in Greek (1900), and by P. Wendland in the Teubner
series (1900).
6 54
SEPTUAGINT
roll of the law. They were honourably received at the court
of Alexandria and conducted to the island (Pharos), that they
might work undisturbed and isolated. When they had come
to an agreement upon a section Demetrius wrote down their
version; the whole translation was finished in seventy-two
days. The Jewish community of Alexandria was allowed to
have a copy, and accepted the version officially; indeed a curse
was laid upon the -introduction of any changes in it.
There is no question that this Letter (which is condensed in
Josephus, Ant. xii. 2) is spurious. 1 Aristeas, an official at
Ptolemy's court, is represented as a heathen, but the real writer
must have been a Jew and no heathen. Aristeas is represented
as himself a member of the embassy to Eleazar; but' the author
of the Letter cannot have been a contemporary of the evehts he
records, else he would have known that Demetrius fell out of
favour at the very beginning of the reign of Philadelphus, on a
charge of intriguing against his succession to the throne. 2 Nor
could a genuine honest witness have fallen into the absurd
mistake of making delegates from Jerusalem the authors of the
Alexandrian version. There are also one or two passages
( 28, 182) where the author seems to forget that he is playing
the r61e of Aristeas. The forgery, however, seems to be an early
one. 3 " There is not a court-title, an institution, a law, a
magistracy, an office, a technical term, a formula, a peculiar
phrase in this letter which is not found on papyri or inscriptions
and confirmed by them." 4 That in itself would not necessarily
imply a very early date for the piece; but what is decisive is
that the author limits canonicity to the law and knows of no
other holy book already translated into Greek. Nor does he
claim any inspiration for the translators. Further, what he
tells about Judaea and Jerusalem is throughout applicable to
the period when the Ptolemies bore sway there and gives not
the slightest suggestion of the immense changes that followed
the conquest of Palestine by the Seleucids. It is probable that
the Jewish philosopher Aristobulus, who lived under Ptolemy
VI. Philometor (180-145 B.C.), derived his account of the origin
of the LXX. from this Letter, with which it corresponds. 6 There
seems good ground for believing that the letter contains some
elements derived from actual tradition as to the origin of the
LXX. Ptolemy Philadelphus was a king of eclectic literary
tastes, and the welcome he gave to a Buddhist mission from
India might well have been extended to Jews from Palestine.
The letter lays great stress on the point that the LXX. is the
official and authoritative Bible of the Hellenistic Jews, having
not only been formally accepted by the synagogue at Alexandria,
but authorized by the authorities at Jerusalem. This, and the
fact that the style of the version is not that of a book intended
for literary use, points to the conclusion that the translation was
made to satisfy the religious needs of the Jews in Alexandria,
and possibly also in the hope of gaining proselytes. In view
of the Jewish prejudice against writing Scripture in any but the
old holy form (the Targum, for instance, was for centuries handed
down orally), it is quite possible that some impulse to the
Alexandrian version came from without. Philadelphus may
have encouraged it both to satisfy his own curiosity and to
promote the use of Greek among the large Jewish population
of the city. That the work is purely Jewish in character is
1 Its claims were demolished by Humphry Hody, Regius Pro-
fessor of Greek at Oxford, in 1684.
1 Hermippus Callimachius, ap. Diog. Laert. v. 78. Irenaeus
jndeed, evidently following some other account, fixes the translation
in the time of Ptolemy I.
1 P. Wendland, however, puts it after the Maccabean age (say 96
B.C.) and before the Roman invasion of Palestine (63 B.C.).
4 G. Lumbroso, Recherches' sur I'econ. pol. de I'Egypte sous les
Lagid.es (Turin, 1870), p. xiii.
* Clem. Alex. Strom, i. p. 342, ed. Sylb. ; Eusebius, Praep. Ev.
ix. 6, p. 410 seq. ; cf. Valckenaer, Diatribe de Aristobulo (Leiden, 1806),
reprinted in Gaisford's edition of the Praep. Ev. One must not over-
look the possibility that Aristobulus's Interpretation of the Holy Laws
may itself be the pseudonymous work of some otherwise unknown
Jewish author. It and the Letter of Aristeas seem to be of the same
date, if not even by the same hancl. And Philo (Vita Mosis, ii. 7,
ii. 141) describes an annual festival held at Pharos in honour of the
origin of the Greek Bible.
only what was inevitable in any case. The translators were
necessarily Jews, though Egyptian and not Palestinian Jews, and
were necessarily and entirely guided by the living tradition
which had its focus in the synagogal lessons. 6 And hence it is
easily understood that the version was ignored by the Greeks,
who must have found it barbarous and largely unintelligible,
but obtained speedy acceptance with the Jews, first in private
use and at length also in the synagogue service.
The next direct evidence which we have as to the origin of
the LXX. is the prologue to Ecclesiasticus, from which it appears
that about 130 B.C. not only the law but "the prophets and the
other books " were extant in Greek.' With this it agrees that
the text of Ecclesiasticus and the other ancient relics of Jewish
Greek literature, preserved in the extracts made by Alexander
Polyhistor (Eusebius, Praep. Ev. ix.), all show acquaintance
with the LXX. 8 The experiment on the Pentateuch (of which
alone Aristeas speaks) had evidently been extended to other
rolls as they arrived from Jerusalem. These later translations
were not made simply to meet the needs of the synagogue, but
express a literary movement among the Hellenistic Jews,
stimulated by the favourable reception given to the Greek
Pentateuch, which enabled the translators to count on finding
an interested public. If a translation was well received by
reading circles among the Jews, it gradually acquired public
acknowledgment and was finally used also in the synagogue,
so far as lessons from other books than the Pentateuch were
used at all. But originally the translations were mere private
enterprises, as appears from the prologue to Ecclesiasticus and
the colophon to Esther. It appears also that it was long before
the whole Septuagint was finished and treated as a complete
work. We may grant that the Pentateuch (and perhaps part of
Joshua) was translated in the 3rd century B.C. The other books
followed, generally speaking, in the order in which they occur
in the Hebrew Canon. Isaiah perhaps dat es from c. 180, Jeremiah,
Ezekiel and the Twelve Prophets, as also i Kings (= i Samuel),
c. 150. Most of the " Writings," together with Judges and
2-4 Kings, were probably translated in the ist century B.C.,
while Ecclesiastes and Daniel (the latter incorporated from
Theodotion) date only from the 2nd century of the Christian era.
As the work of translation went on so gradually, and new
books were always added to the collection, the compass of the
Greek Bible came to be somewhat indefinite. The law always
maintained its pre-eminence as the basis of the canon ; but the
prophetic collection changed its aspect by having various
Hagiographa incorporated with it according to an arbitrary
arrangement by subjects. The distinction made in Palestine
between Hagiographa and Apocrypha was never properly
established among the Hellenists. In some books the translators
took the liberty of making considerable additions to the original,
e.g. those to Daniel, and these additions became a part of the
Septuagint. Nevertheless, learned Hellenists were quite well
aware of the limits of the canon and respected them. Philo can
be shown to have known the Apocrypha, but he never cites them,
much less allegorizes them or uses them in proof of his tenets.
And in some measure the widening of the Old Testament
canon in the Septuagint must be laid to the account of Christians.
The vocabulary and accidence of the Greek of the Septuagint
are substantially those of the mini/ 5idXcTos or Hellenistic Greek
spoken throughout the empire of Alexander. The language of the
Pentateuch attains the higher level shown by the papyri of the early
Ptolemaic age, that of the prophets reflects the less literary style of
the papyri of c. 130-100 B.C. In the latest parts of the translation
Mr St John Thackeray notes two opposing influences, (a) the growing
reverence for the letter of Scripture, tending to a pedantic literalism,
(b) the influence of the Atticistic school, strongest in free writings like
4 Maccabees but leaving its mark also on 4 Kings. But if in
some respects the Septuagint is the great monument of the * 011-17, in
6 It is quite likely that they worked on rolls newly brought from
Jerusalem. There was no desire to found an Alexandrian canon or
type of text.
7 This does not necessarily mean that the whole of the section of
the Hebrew Old Testament known as " The Writings " was trans-
lated by that date.
8 Philo seems to have known the Greek version of most of the Old
Testament except Esther, Ecclesiastes, Canticles and Daniel.
SEPULCHRE
655
others, especially in syntax, it is strongly tinged with Hebraisms, and
there are many passages where it is difficult, if not impossible, to
extract any rational meaning. In some cases a book bears the marks
of two hands: thus Jeremiah i.-xxviii. was not translated by the
worker that undertook ch. xxix.-li. (the former is indifferent, the
latter unintelligible Greek), and in Ezekiel one hand is responsible for
ch. i.-xxvii., xl.-xlviii., and another for ch. xxviii.-xxxix. (except
xxxvi. 24-38). So I Kings stands apart from 2-4 Kings. Isaiah is
more akin to classical Greek; like the Pentateuch and I Maccabees
it is good Koivfi. The two chief MSS. of Judges vary so much as to
point to different recensions. In some books, especially Jeremiah
xxv.-li., the order of the Septuagint is totally different from that of
the Massoretic Hebrew text (cf. also Proverbs xxiv.-xxix.). In other
cases, notably in Job, the original LXX. text was much shorter than
that of the Massoretes; in Esther and Daniel there are numerous
additions. The Septuagint does not keep the triple Hebrew division
of Law, Prophets and Hagiographa or Writings, but instead of this
order of canonization principle it groups its books according to
subject matter, Law, History, Poetry, Prophecy, a divergence which
had much importance for the history of the Old Testament canon in
the Christian church. The early Christians generally accepted the
LXX. canon, which through the old Latin, despite Jerome's Vulgate
adoption of the Hebrew canon, passed into the West, and into the
Latin Bibles, where the Apocrypha (except I Esdras) are still in-
cluded. The German and English churches followed Jerome in
giving a less honoured place to the impugned books.
The Septuagint came into general use with the Grecian Jews
even in the synagogue. Philo and Josephus use it, and so do
the New Testament writers. But at an early date small correc-
tions seem to have been introduced, especially by such
Palestinians as had occasion to use the LXX., in consequence
partly of divergent interpretation, partly of differences of text
or of pronunciation (particularly of proper names). The Old
Testament passages cited by authors of the first century of the
Christian era, especially those in the Apocalypse, show many
such variations from the Septuagint, and, curiously enough,
these often correspond with the later versions (particularly
with Theodotion), so that the latter seem to rest on a fixed
tradition. Corrections in the pronunciation of proper names
so as to come closer to the Massoretic pronunciation are especially
frequent in Josephus. Finally a reaction against the use of the
Septuagint set in among the Jews after the destruction of the
temple a movement which was connected with the strict
definition of the canon and the fixing of an authoritative text
by the rabbins of Palestine. But long usage had made it im-
possible for the Jews to do without a Greek Bible, and to meet
this want a new version was prepared corresponding accurately
with the canon and text of the Pharisees. This was the version
of Aquila, which took the place of the Septuagint in the
synagogues, and long continued in use there. On this, together
with the versions of Theodotion and Symmachus, Origen's
Hexapla, and the recensions of Hesychius and Lucian, see BIBLE
{Old Testament, " Texts and Versions ").
The LXX. is of great importance in more than one respect. " It
was the first step towards that fusion of the Hebraic with the Hellenic
strain, which has issued in the mind and heart of modern Christendom.
Like the opening of tne Suez Canal it let the waters of the East mingle
with those of the West, bearing with them many a freight of precious
merchandise." Again, it is probably the oldest translation of con-
siderable extent that ever was written, and at any rate it is the
starting-point for the history of Jewish interpretation and the Jewish
view of Scripture. And from this its importance as a document of
exegetical tradition, especially in lexical matters, may be easily
understood. It was in great part composed before the close of the
canon nay, before some of the Hagiographa were written and in it
alone are preserved a number of important ancient Jewish books
that were not admitted into the canon. As the book which created
or at least codified the dialect of Biblical Greek, it is the key to the
New Testament and all the literature connected with it. To many its
chief value lies in the fact that it is the only independent witness for
the text of the Old Testament which we have to compare with the
Massoretic text. It may seem that the critical value of the LXX. is
greatly impaired, if not entirely cancelled, by the corrupt state of
the text. If we have not the version itself in authentic form we
cannot reconstruct with certainty the Hebrew text from which it
was made, and so cannot get at various readings which can be confi-
dently confronted with the Massoretic text; and it may be a long
time before we possess a satisfactory edition of the genuine Septua-
gint. The difficulties in getting behind the confusion of versions and
recensions to produce such a result are indeed formidable. The
materials at our disposal are of the usual threefold kind, Manuscripts,
Versions and Patristic Quotations. The earliest MSS. are about a
score of fragments on papyrus, a few of which go back to the 3rd
century A.D. The chief uncial MSS. are, as for the New Testament K,
A, B, C and others. Of these A and B are largely complete, but
though both of Egyptian origin vary considerably. A (with which
the quotations in the New Testament generally agree) may represent
the edition of Hesychius ; B, which is often, especially in the Psalms,
in accord with the Bohairic version, resembles the text used by
Origen in the Hexapla. Of versions the Bohairic (Lower Egypt), the
Sahidic (Upper Egypt), the various Syriac translations (unfortun-
ately we have no Old Syriac for the Old Testament), and the Latin
(Old Latin and Vulgate, especially the former) are the most im-
portant. The evidence of the Fathers is valuable as helping to dis-
tinguish local types of text. The testimony of the earliest patristic
quotations seems to be in favour of A rather than B. The immediate
aim of textual criticism is a recovery of the three main editions, those
of Origen, Lucian and Hesychius, and then of the pre-Origenian LXX.
text, which lies behind them all. When this has been accomplished
there still remains the problem of the relation of the LXX. to the
Hebrew. There is no doubt that the Hebrew text from which the
LXX. translators worked was often divergent from that represented
by the Massoretic. For the Pentateuch we have additional material
in the Samaritan version, but here the variants are least. In view
of the palpable mistakes made by the Septuagint translators and their
often inadequate knowledge of Hebrew, we must not hastily assume
that in cases of difference the Greek is to be preferred. The book of
Ecclesiasticus (the Hebrew of which has recently been discovered)
furnishes a useful lesson here. Yet there is no doubt that much
(e.g. in i Samuel) may be learned from the Septuagint; all one can
say is that each case must be treated on its own merits.
EDITIONS. The Septuagint was first printed in the Complutensian
Polyglot (1514-1517), but before it was published in 1521 Aldus
published another edition in 1519. The Textus Receptus issued by
Pope Sixtus V. (Rome, 1587) was based mainly on Cod. Vaticanus
(B) with some collection of the Venice MS. (V). This edition was the
basis of the great work of R. Holmes and J. Parsons (Oxford, 1798-
1827), who furnished the Sixtine text with an apparatus (not always
accurate) drawn from 20 uncials and nearly 280 minuscule MSS., in
addition to versions. In 1707-1720 Grabe had published an edition
based on Cod. Alexandrinus (A). C. Tischendorf's text (1850; 7th
ed., 1887) was a revision of that of Holmes and Parsons with an
apparatus drawn from the chief uncials. H. B. Swete's edition in
3 vols. (1887-1894; revised 1895-1899) gives the text of B, and,
where this fails, that of A or x, with variant readings from the chief
uncials. The larger Cambridge edition, begun in 1906 by A. E.
Brooke and N. McLean, follows the same plan with the text, but its
apparatus includes all the uncials, the best and most representative
minuscules, and the chief versions and patristic quotations.
LITERATURE. H. B. Swete, Introduction to the Old Testament in
Greek (1900); E. Nestle, Septuagintastudien (1886-1907); F. G.
Kenvon, Our Bible and the Ancient MSS., pp. 48-92 (1898); A.
Rahlfs, Septuaginta-Studien (1904, Kings; 1907, Psalms); E. Hatch
and H. A. Redpath, A Concordance to the Septuagint (Oxford,
1897-1906); H. St J. Thackeray, A Grammar of the Old Testament
in Greek, vol. i. (Cambridge, 1909), containing a useful Septuagint
bibliography; F. C. Conybeare and St G. Stock, Selections from the
Septuagint (Boston and London, 1905); the articles in the various
Bible-dictionaries, and other works mentioned in the course of this
article. (A. J. G.)
SEPULCHRE, CANONS HEGULAR OF THE HOLY, an order
said to have been founded in 1 1 14 (or, according to other accounts,
during the rule of Godfrey of Bouillon in Jerusalem) on the rule
of St Augustine. Pope Celestine III., in 1 143, confirms the Church
and Canons of the Holy Sepulchre in all their possessions, and
enumerates several churches both in the Holy Land and in Italy
belonging to the Canons. According to Jacques de Vitry, the
canons served the churches on Mount Sion and Mount Olivet
in addition to that of the Holy Sepulchre. The canons survived
in Europe till the French Revolution. In Italy they seem to
have been suppressed by Innocent VIII. in 1489, and their
property given to the Knights of St John. The canons are now
extinct, but canonesses of the Holy Sepulchre are still to be
found in various countries of Western Europe.
SEPULCHRE, EASTER, in church architecture an arched
recess, generally in the north wall of the chancel, in which from
Good Friday to Easter day were deposited the crucifix and
sacred elements in commemoration of Christ's entombment
and resurrection. It was generally only a wooden erection,
which was placed in a recess or on a tomb. There are throughout
England many fine examples in stone, some of which belong to
the Decorated period, such as at Navenby and Heckington
(1370) in Lincolnshire, Sibthorpe and Hawton (1370) in Notting-
hamshire, Patrington in Yorkshire, Bampton in Oxfordshire,
Holcombe Burnell in Devonshire, and Long Itchington and other
churches in Warwickshire.
656
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY, the tomb in which, after His
crucifixion, the body of Jesus Christ was laid. Although
the facts of the crucifixion and of the interment of the body of
Christ in the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea are related in the
New Testament with considerable detail, sufficient indications
are not supplied to locate the actual position of the tomb with
reference to the city of Jerusalem. It would appear that
Golgotha, the plac.e of crucifixion, was outside the city, near a
public thoroughfare leading to one of the gates, and visible
from some distance. There is, however, no reason for supposing
that it was a hill, and the expression " Mount Golgotha " was
not used until some centuries later. Adjoining the place Gol-
gotha was a garden, in which was a new rock-cut tomb, the
property of Joseph of Arimathea. Rock-cut tombs were common
in the vicinity of Jerusalem, as, in consequence of the geological
formation, the faces of the hills are frequently broken by low
cliffs with terraces between. The comparatively level terraces
were used for cultivation while the tombs were excavated in the
rock faces. Many instances of tombs so situated can be seen
on the hillsides near Jerusalem, and it is not unreasonable to
suppose that the tomb of Joseph was of a similar character.
As it was outside the city, the question of the validity of the
traditional site, upon which the church of the Holy Sepulchre
now stands, necessarily depends, to a great extent, upon whether
this place was within or without the walls at the date of
the crucifixion. At that time, it is clear, judging from the care-
ful description written by Josephus a few years later, that
Jerusalem was defended by two walls, as the third wall was not
begun by King Herod Agrippa until A.D. 41. Of these, the first,
or old wall, ran from the palace of Herod the Great, which was
situated at the N.W. corner of the city, and, following an easterly
direction, crossed the Tyropoeon Valley and terminated at the
west wall of the Temple enclosure. On the other hand, going
south from Herod's palace, it encircled the city on the west
Plan of Jerusalem
to illustrate the question of the site of the Holy Sepulchre
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and south, and then turning at Siloam it followed the direction
of the Kidron Valley and ended at the east wall of the Temple
enclosure.
The second wall, which was built at some period between the
return of the Jews from Babylon and the reign of Herod the Great,
was on the north, and in front of the old wall. According to
Josephus, it started " from the Gate Genath in the first wall,
and, enclosing only the northern quarter of the city, went up to
the fortress of Antonia." The site of the Antonia, which was
situated on the rising ground north of the Temple, is known
with tolerable certainty, but the position of the Gate Genath
has not been fixed, and, as no certain traces of the second wall
have hitherto been found, the line it followed is purely a matter
of conjecture. Various theories on the subject are maintained
by different authorities. Some of these are indicated on the
plan. One suggestion is that the second wall started from a point
in the first wall near the palace of Herod, and that some remains
of an old wall, situated at the point A, formed part of it. The
wall is then supposed to have been carried in a direction slightly
west of north, up to the line of the existing city wall, to have
followed this line to the Damascus gate, and then turned south-
east to the Antonia. If this theory were correct, it is clear that
the traditional site of the Holy Sepulchre would be impossible,
as it would be some way within the city wall. The arguments
against the proposal are, that, according to the account of the
siege of Jerusalem given by Josephus, it is improbable that the
second wall started from a point so near to Herod's palace, that
the line of the present city wall is more likely to be that of the
third wall, and that Josephus states that the second wall went
" up to " and not " down to " the fortress of Antonia. Another
theory is that the Gate Genath was at a point marked B on plan,
and that some ancient masonry which lies east of the so-called
Pool of Hezekiah, and over which the houses on the west side of
Christian Street are built, represents a portion of the second
wall. The wall is then supposed to have been carried north to
the point C, and either to have turned east to D,and again north
to F, and from this to the Antonia; or to have continued north
to E, and thence east to the Antonia. The first supposition ex-
cludes the site of the Holy Sepulchre, while the second includes
it within the wall. A third theory is that the Gate Genath was
at the point G, and that the second wall ran north to F, and
thence to the Antonia. This proposal places the site of the Holy
Sepulchre outside the wall, but it makes the part of the city
protected by the latter smaller than is probable. Speaking
generally, it may be stated that there is no certain evidence as
to the line followed by the second wall, and it is impossible to
say whether the traditional site lies inside or outside this wall.
From the description in the Gospels of the burial of Jesus, it
is not clear whether the tomb of Joseph was intended to be the
final resting-place, or whether the body was only placed in it
temporarily because the feast of the Passover was at hand and
the disciples intended to remove it to some other place after the
Passover. But whatever may have been proposed, the Resur-
rection of Jesus Christ on the first day of the week, leaving the
tomb empty, turned the attention of the disciples from the
sepulchre to the living presence of their Master. After He had
risen from the dead, the place of His burial does not appear to
have had any attraction for His followers, and there is nothing
in the writings of the first three centuries to lead us to suppose
that the actual rock-cut tomb was regarded with any special
feelings of veneration. Whether even a recollection of the site
was preserved traditionally is doubtful. There have been many
who consider that the early Christians could not have forgotten
the exact locality of so important a place; on the contrary,
others maintain that to the followers of Jesus Christ it was the
fact of the Resurrection that was important and not the empty
tomb; and that knowledge of the latter was lost during the
vicissitudes from which Jerusalem suffered in the years succeeding
the crucifixion. About forty years after the crucifixion, the great
revolt of the Jewish people against the Romans took place, and
ended with the siege and capture of Jerusalem by Titus. Prior
to the siege, the Christians, following the orders of their Master,
SEPULCHRE, THE HOLY
657
had retired to the city of Pella, east of Jordan, and the date of
their return to Jerusalem is uncertain. Whether any of the
disciples returned after the triumph of the Romans and recognized
the tomb of Christ is matter of conjecture.
Among the temples built by Hadrian about A.D. 135 was one
dedicated to Aphrodite or Venus; it was erected at that place
where the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but it is
impossible to say whether it was purposely so placed because
it was the site of the tomb of the Lord, or whether the selection
of this position was accidental. The extent of the walls of Aelia
Capitolina is not known with any accuracy, but it is probable
that the northern wall followed the same line as the present north
wall of Jerusalem, and therefore that the site of the temple of
Aphrodite was then within the walls. Although it is doubtful
whether the Christians returned to Jerusalem immediately
after the destruction of the city by Titus, they were certainly
there when Hadrian built Aelia Capitolina; according to
Epiphanius, they had a small place of worship on Sion at the
place where Jesus Christ ate the Last Supper. Eusebius also
states that the Christians worshipped at the Mount of Olives
where Jesus instructed His disciples, but no writer up to the time
of Constantino speaks of the tomb, or of worship being performed
there.
Constantine the Great became emperor of Rome in A.D. 306,
and was converted to Christianity six years afterwards. Embrac-
ing his new religion with enthusiasm he attributed his victories
to the power of the Divine Cross, which was placed on the ensigns
of the army. After the great council of the Church had been held
at Nicaea in A.D. 325, the emperor decided to find the sites of
the crucifixion and resurrection at Jerusalem, and to build a
church at this place. Full descriptions of the discovery of the
Holy Sepulchre and of the churches that were built are given by
Eusebius in his Life of Constantine, but it is difficult to say from his
account if the main object of Constantine was to find the sepulchre
of the Lord or the cross upon which He suffered. Eusebius
does not mention the cross directly and lays more stress on the
recovery of the sepulchre; whereas later writers imply that the
great wish of the emperor and of his mother Helena, who visited
Jerusalem for the purpose, was to find the Holy Cross. The task
of searching for the tomb and the cross was entrusted to Bishop
Macarius. Whether the bishop was guided in his selection of the
site by tradition or not is difficult to say, but he decided that the
desired place was under Hadrian's temple of Aphrodite. By
imperial order the temple was removed, and a rock-cut Jewish
tomb, which lay below, was identified as the sepulchre of the Lord.
In another cavity in the rock, 280 ft. to the east, three crosses
were discovered, which were assumed to be the crosses upon which
Jesus Christ and the two thieves were crucified, the cross of
Jesus being identified by its power of healing the sick. Immedi-
ately on the receipt of the intelligence of this remarkable dis-
covery, the emperor wrote to Macarius, ordering the erection
of magnificent buildings on the site. Two churches were built,
one over the tomb, and the second, which was larger and grander,
over the place where the crosses had been found. Between the
two churches was a small hill, which was identified as Mount
Golgotha. The ground surrounding the two churches was levelled
and surrounded with porticoes or colonnades. The description
of the buildings as detailed by Eusebius is rather obscure, but
fortunately there still exists, in the church of Santa Pudenziana
at Rome, a mosaic, supposed to have been originally executed
in the 4th or sth century, which shows the buildings clearly.
The church of the Anastasis or Holy Sepulchre is herein delineated
as a round church with a domed roof; the church of the Martyrion
or Holy Cross, as a polygonal building, also with a domed roof;
while between the two churches is Mount Golgotha, with the
cross erected upon it. In another ancient mosaic, which still
exists in a church of Madeba, east of the Jordan, a map of
Palestine is represented which contains a rough plan of the walls
and gates of Jerusalem. In this plan, also, it is possible to
recognize the churches built by Constantine. The Bordeaux
oilgrim who visited Jerusalem about A.D. 333, when the church
of the Holy Sepulchre was in course of construction, describes
the place, which was evidently the same as that on which the
existing church of the Holy Sepulchre stands. There can, there-
fore, be no reasonable doubt that the present site is that which
was fixed upon by Bishop Macarius in the time of Constantine.
The churches were completed about A.D. 336, and were
doubtless visited by numbers of pilgrims. Among these a lady
from the west of Europe, who is supposed to have been St
Sylvia of Aquitania and who came to Jerusalem about A.D. 385,
fortunately kept a diary of her travels, and she identifies very
distinctly the great church of the Cross, the church of the Holy
Sepulchre, and Mount Calvary between them. In A.D. 614
Jerusalem was captured by the Persians under Chosroes II.,
who did considerable damage to the churches, but they were
repaired by Modestus after the defeat of the Persians by the
emperor Heraclius. The caliph Omar, who captured the city
in 636, behaved with leniency to the Christians, and left them in
undisputed possession of the church of the Holy Sepulchre.
In 1010 the third Fatimite caliph Hakim practically destroyed it.
It is remarkable that from the beginning of the Sth century,
while the church of the Holy Sepulchre is always mentioned in
the accounts written by visitors to Jerusalem, the church of
the Cross seems to have ceased to exist, although the place where
the crosses were found was shown to pilgrims, and a church
was built on Mount Calvary. After the capture of Jerusalem
by the Crusaders in A.D. 1099, the church of the Holy Sepulchre
was repaired and enlarged by the addition of a nave and chancel,
and other churches were erected, so that the Holy Sepulchre
became the centre of a group of ecclesiastical buildings and has
so remained up to the present time.
The Authenticity of the Traditional Site. From early times
doubts have arisen as to whether the tomb discovered by Bishop
Macarius was the veritable sepulchre. As early as 754, when
the pilgrim Wildebald visited Jerusalem, he remarked, in
describing the Holy Places, that " Calvary was formerly outside
the city, but that the Empress arranged that place so that it
should be within the city Jerusalem." Saewulf in 1 102, Wilbrand
of Oldenburg in 1211, Jacques de Vitry in 1226, and Burchard
of Mount Sion in 1 283, had evidently some doubts about the site,
and explained the difficulty by suggesting that Hadrian had
enclosed it within the walls but that it was outside before he
rebuilt the city. Jacques le Saige in 1518, Gretzer in 1598, and
F. Quaresmius in 1639, also alluded to the difficulty felt by some
in believing in the traditional site. Monconys in 1647 stated
that Calvary was formerly outside Jerusalem, but that it was
now in the centre of the city, which was smaller than at the time
of the crucifixion. In 1738 Jonas Korte of Altona visited
Jerusalem and published a book on his travels, in which he
expressed the view that the Calvary shown to visitors could not
be the true Calvary because it was in the middle of the town.
He placed the true site to the west of Jerusalem, near the Birket
Mamilla which lies % m. west of the Jaffa gate. This view was
supported by J. F. Plessing in 1789. Dr E. Clarke in 1812 came
to the conclusion that Calvary was outside the Sion gate, while
Dr E. Robinson, who published his Biblical Researches in
Palestine in 1841, expressed himself satisfied that the traditional
site could not be the true one, but did not venture to suggest
an alternative. In 1842 Otto Thenius asserted that the cruci-
fixion must have taken place on the north of Jerusalem on the
rising ground outside the Damascus gate above the quarry
known as Jeremiah's Grotto. Thenius considered that the
Holy Sepulchre was on the west side of the hill, and his views
were adopted by a number of later writers, including Canon
Tristram, Dr Selah Merrill, Fisher Howe and General C. G.
Gordon. Colonel C. R. Conder, R.E., who carried out the survey
of Palestine under the Palestine Exploration Fund, also adopted
the same hill as the probable scene of the crucifixion, but
considered that the tomb of Christ was an ancient rock-cut
tomb, about 200 yds. west of Jeremiah's Grotto. Since General
Gordon gave his opinion in favour of the site, it has been adopted
by many, and the tomb in the face of the hill is sometimes called
" Gordon's Tomb of Christ " or " The Garden Tomb." A careful
examination of the question, however, leads to the conclusion
658
SEQUANI SEQUEIRA
that the sites are not probable either for Calvary or the tomb.
The hill in question, though not far outside the present north
wall of the city, is at too great a distance from the probable
line of the second wall, which was the outside line of fortification
at the time of the crucifixion. The quarry, known as Jeremiah's
Grotto, is likely to be of later date than the third wall, which
was built some years after the crucifixion, and the tomb identified
as that of Christ has with good reason been attributed to the
Christian rather than to the Jewish period. On the whole,
therefore, the balance of argument is against the identification
proposed by Thenius.
An entirely different theory regarding the site of the tomb
of Christ was proposed by James Fergusson, the architect, who,
in 1847, in his Essay on the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem,
made the startling proposal that the Dome of the Rock, generally
believed to have been erected by Abdalmalik (Abd el Melek)
in A.D. 691, was the church built by the emperor Constantine
over the Holy Sepulchre. He further elaborated his views in
the interesting work entitled The Temples of the Jews and other
buildings in the Haram area at Jerusalem (1878). Fergusson's
proposal, which found a considerable number of supporters,
was based on architectural evidence, and he maintained that
the building must have been designed in the time of Constantine
and could not have been constructed by the Mahommedans at
the end of the ?th century. Fergusson's views were strongly
supported by F. W. Unger in Die Bauten Constantins des
Grossen am Heiligen Grab zu Jerusalem, published at Gottingen
in 1863, but the objections to them on historical and topographi-
cal grounds are so considerable that they can hardly now be
maintained. The theory involves placing the Temple of the
Jews at the S. W. part of the Haram enclosure, and the explora-
tions made by General Sir C. Warren showed conclusively that
if the Temple had been in this position, it would have stood over
the deepest part of the Tyropoeon Valley, and the foundations
must have been of a most unnecessarily gigantic character.
Sir C. Warren, in The Temple and the Tomb, 1880, replied seriatim
to Fergusson's proposals. The historical evidence also is entirely
against the latter, and the discovery of the Madeba mosaic,
which, as has been already explained, shows the church of the
Holy Sepulchre in the same position as at present, is another
proof that the latter was not placed by Constantine on Mount
Moriah.
The final conclusion that may be arrived at with regard to
the authenticity of the traditional site of the Holy Sepulchre
is as follows. It may be taken as certain that the present site
is that which was adopted by Macarius as the correct one early
in the 4th century, but there is not sufficient evidence to prove
that this tomb was the one in which the body of Christ was laid,
or that remembrance of the latter had been preserved during
the three centuries that had elapsed between the time of the
crucifixion and the conversion of Constantine. No other sug-
gested site, however, has more claim to be the true one than
that over which the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands.
LITERATURE. By far the most important of the many works
which have been published on the subject is Golgotha and the Holy
Sepulchre, by Sir C. W. Wilson (Palestine Exploration Fund, London,
1906). Sir C. Wilson was employed upon the Ordnance Survey of
Jerusalem in 1864-1865, and made careful plans of the church of the
Holy Sepulchre; ne had an extensive knowledge of the question, and
his work forms a valuable index to the topographical and historical
considerations which are involved. Among ancient writers, see
Eusebius, The Life of Constantine, The Praise of Constantine, Theo-
phania; Rufinus (A.D. 345-410), Ecclesiastical History; Sulpicius
Severus (A.D. 363-420), Sacred History; Sozomen (A.D. 375-450),
Ecclesiastical History; Socrates (circa A.D. 379), Ecclesiastical
History. The Publications of the Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society
contain a collection of translations of the records of pilgrims, who
visited the Holy Places after the erection of Constantino's churches;
among these are included (the dates are approximate) : The Bordeaux
Pilgrim, A.D. 333; St Sylvia, A.D. 385; Eucherius, A.D. 440; Theo-
dosiuS; A.D. 530; Antoninus Martyr, A.D. 530; Arculfus, A.D. 630;
Willibalu, A.D. 754; Bernard the Wise, A.D. 870; Saewulf, A.D.
1102; Burchard of Mount Sion, A.D. 1283; Ludolph von Suchem,
A.D. 1350; Felix Fabri, A.D. 1483. Among the writers of the i6th,
I7th and i8th centuries, see J. Gretzer, Omnia opera (Ingoldstadt,
1598); F. Quaresmius, Histortca, theologica et moralis Terrae Sanctae
elucidalio (Antwerp, 1639); T. Fuller, A Pisgah Sight of Palestine
(London, 1650); B. de Monconys, Journal des voyages (Paris, 1665);
A. Bynoeus, De morte Jesu Christi (Amsterdam, 1698); J. Korte,
Reise nach dem wetland Gelobten Lande (2nd ed., Altona, 1743) ; J. F.
Plessing, Uber Golgotha und Christi Grab (Halle, 1789). Of the
numerous writers of the igth century some of the more important
are: E. D. Clarke, Travels in the Holy Land (Cambridge, 1823);
F. R. de Chateaubriand, Itineraire de Paris a Jerusalem (Paris, 1837) ;
E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in Palestine (London, 1841 and
1856); O. Thenius, " Golgatha et Sanctum Sepulchrum " in
Zeitschrift fur die historische Theologie (1842); J. Fergusson, The
Ancient Topography of Jerusalem (London, 1847), The Holy Sepul-
chre and the Temple (1865), The Temples of the Jews (1878); G.
Williams, The Holy City (2nd ed., London, 1849); Hayter Lewis,
The Holy Places of Jerusalem (London, 1888); J. T. Barclay, The
City of the Great King (1857); F. Bovet, Voyage en Terre Sainte
(Paris, 1862); F. W. Unger, Die Bauten Constantins des Grossen am
Heiligen Grabe zu Jerusalem (Gottingen, 1863); General Sir C.
Warren, G.C.M.G., The Recovery of Jerusalem (London, 1871), The
Temple and the Tomb (1880); Colonel C. R. Conder, R.E., Handbook
to the Bible (London, 1887); General C. G. Gordon, C.B., Reflections
in Palestine (London, 1884); C. Clermont Ganneau, Archaeological
Researches in Palestine (London, 1899); C. Mommert, Golgatha und
das Heilige Grab zu Jerusalem (Leipzig, 1900). See also articles in
The Quarterly Statement of the Palestine Exploration Fund; Basting's
Dictionary of the Bible; Smith's Dictionary of the Bible; Recueil
d' archeologie orientale; Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palastina-Vereins.
A large scale plan of the church of the Holy Sepulchre forms part
of the Survey of Jerusalem, published by the Ordnance Survey,
Southampton. ' (C. M. W.)
SEQUANI, in ancient geography, a Celtic people who occupied
the upper basin of the Arar (Sa6ne), their territory corresponding
to Franche-Comt6 and part of Burgundy. Before the arrival
of Caesar in Gaul, the Sequani had taken the part of the Arverni
against their rivals the Aedui and hired the Germans under
Ariovistus to cross the Rhine and help them (71 B.C.). But
although his assistance enabled them to defeat the Aedui, the
Sequani were worse off than before, for Ariovistus deprived them
of a third of their territory and threatened to take another
third. The Sequani then appealed to Caesar, who drove back
the Germans (58), but at the same time obliged the Sequani
to surrender all that they had gained from the Aedui. This so
exasperated the Sequani that they joined in the revolt of
Vercingetorix (52) and shared in the defeat at Alesia. Under
Augustus, the district known as Sequania formed part of Belgica.
After the death of Vitellius, the inhabitants refused to join the
Gallic revolt against Rome instigated by Julius Civilis and Julius
Sabinus, and drove back Sabinus, who had invaded their territory.
A triumphal arch at Vesontio (Besancon), which in return for
this service was made a colony, possibly commemorates this
victory. Diocletian added Helvetia, and part of Germania
Superior to Sequania, which was now called Provincia maxima
Sequanorum, Vesontio receiving the title of Metropolis civitas
Vesontiensium. Fifty years later Gaul was overrun by the
barbarians, and Vesontio sacked (355). Under Julian it recovered
some of its importance as a fortified town, and was able to
withstand the attacks of the Vandals. Later, when Rome was
no longer able to afford protection to the inhabitants of Gaul,
the Sequani became merged in the newly formed kingdom of
Burgundy.
See T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul (1899), p. 483; A.
Holder, Altceltischer Sprachschatz, li. (1904) ; Mommsen, Hist, of
Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. vii.; Dunod de Charnage, Hist, des
Sequanois (1735); J. D. Schopflin, Alsatia illustrata, i. (1751;
French trans, by L. W. Ravenez, 1849).
SEQUEIRA, DOMINGO ANTONIO DE (1768-1837), Portuguese
painter, was born at Lisbon in 1768, and studied art first at the
academy of Lisbon, and subsequently under A. Cavallucci in
Rome. By the age of thirteen he had evinced such marked
talent that F. de Setubal employed him as assistant in his work
for the Joao Ferreiras Palace. Sequeira sojourned in Rome from
1 788 to 1 794, when he was made honorary member of the Academy
of St Luke. After another two years' travel and study in Italy,
he returned to his native country preceded by so great a reputa-
tion that important commissions for churches and palaces were
immediately entrusted to him scriptural subjects, large historical
compositions and cabinet pictures. In 1802 he was appointed
first court painter, in which capacity he executed many works
SEQUESTER SEQUOIA
659
for the prince regent, for Donna Maria Teresa, and for the
members of the court. He designed the valuable silver service
which was presented by the Portuguese nation to Wellington, and
a monument that was erected in 1820 in the Rocio square at
Lisbon. In 1823 he visited Paris, where he is known to have
tried his skill in lithography and etching. The last years of his
life he spent in Rome, devoting himself chiefly to devotional
subjects and to his duties as head of the Portuguese Academy.
He died in Rome in 1837. His best-known pictures are the
" Last Moments of the Poet Camoens," " Flight into Egypt,"
" Ugolino," the " St Bruno " at the Lisbon Academy, and the
" Descent from the Cross. " Numerous paintings by Sequeira
are in the royal palace at Mafra, the convent of Laveinas, the
new palace of Ajuda, and in the principal palaces and churches
of Lisbon.
SEQUESTER, VIBIUS (4th or sth century, A.D.), the supposed
author of an alphabetical list of geographical names occurring
in the Roman poets, with special reference to Virgil, Ovid and
Lucan. Several of the names given cannot be traced; unless
this is the result of carelessness or ignorance, the compiler must
have had access to sources no longer extant.
Editions by C. Bursian (Zurich, 1867), and in A. Riese, Geograpki
Latini minores (1878); see also Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature
(Eng. trans., 1900), 445, I.
SEQUESTRATION, the act of removing, separating or seizing
anything from the possession of its owner, particularly in law,
of the taking possession of property under process of law for the
benefit of creditors or the state. The Latin sequestrare, to set
aside or surrender, a late use, is derived from sequester, a
depositary or trustee, one in whose hands a thing in dispute was
placed till the dispute was settled; this was a term of Roman
jurisprudence (cf. Digest L. 16,115). By derivation it must be
connected with sequi, to follow; possibly the development in
meaning may be follower, attendant, intermediary, hence trustee.
In English " sequestered " means merely secluded, withdrawn.
In law, the term " sequestration " has many applications;
thus it is applied to the act of a belligerent power which seizes
the debts due from its own subject to the enemy power; to a
writ directed to persons, " sequestrators," to enter on the property
of the defendant and seize the goods (see EXECUTION) ; to the
action of taking profits of a benefice to satisfy the creditors of
the incumbent. As the goods of the Church cannot be touched
by a lay hand, the writ is issued to the bishop, and he issues the
sequestration order to the churchwardens who collect the profits
and satisfy the demand. Similarly when a benefice is vacant
the churchwardens take out sequestration under the seal of the
Ordinary and manage the profits for the next incumbent. In
the Scots law of bankruptcy the term " sequestration " is used
of the taking of the bankrupt's estate by order of the court for
the benefit of the creditors (see BANKRUPTCY, Scottish Bank-
ruptcy Legislation).
SEQUIN (the French form of Ital. zccchino, zecchino d'oro),
the name of a Venetian gold coin, first minted about 1280, and
in use until the fall of the Venetian Republic. It was worth
about nine shillings. It bore on the obverse a figure of St Mark
blessing the banner of the republic, held by a kneeling doge, and
on the reverse a figure of Christ. Milan and Genoa also issued
gold sequins. The word in Italian was formed from zecca,
Span, zeca, a mint, an adaptation of Arabic sikka, a die for coins.
In the sense of " newly-coined," the Hindi or Persian sikka,
anglicised sicca, was specifically used of a rupee, containing
more silver than the East India Company's rupee, coined in
1793 by the Bengal government. The " sicca-rupee " ceased to
be circulated after 1836. The term " sequin " is now used for
small discs made of thin pieces of metal, tinfoil, celluloid or
other composite material, highly glazed and brightly coloured,
and applied as trimming for ladies' dresses.
SEQUOIA, a genus of conifers, allied to Taxodium and Crypto-
meria, forming one of several surviving links between the firs
and the cypresses. The two species are evergreen trees of large
size, indigenous to the west coast of North America. Both bear
their round or ovoid male catkins at the ends of the slender
terminal branchlets; the ovoid cones, either terminal or on
short lateral twigs, have thick woody scales dilated at the
extremity, with a broad disk depressed in the centre and usually
furnished with a short spine; at the base of the scales are from
three to seven ovules, which become reversed or partially so
by compression, ripening into small angular seed with a narrow
wing-like expansion.
The redwood of the Calif ornian woodsmen, S. sempeniirens,
on which the genus was originally founded by Stephan Endlicher,
abounds on the Pacific coast from the southern borders of Oregon
southward to about 12 m. south of Punta Gorda, Monterey
county, California, forming a narrow mountain forest belt,
rarely extending more than 20 or 30 m. from the coast or beyond
the influence of ocean fogs, or more than 3000 ft. above sea-level
(see C. S. Sargent, Silva of North America, vol. x.). It grows
to a gigantic size, from 200 to 300 ft. or more in height, with a
diameter of from 12 to 15, or rarely 20 to 28 ft. at the much-
Sequoia sempeniirens a, Branch with green cones and male cat-
kins ; b, Section 01 cone ; c. Scale of cone. All slightly reduced.
buttressed base. Professor Sargent refers to it as the tallest
American tree, which probably occasionally reaches 400 ft.
or more in height. In old age the huge columnar trunk rises
to a great height bare of boughs, while on the upper part the
branches are short and irregular. The bark is red, like that of
the Scots fir, deeply furrowed, with the ridges often much
curved and twisted. When young the tree is one of the most
graceful of the conifers: the stem rises straight and tapering,
with somewhat irregular whorls of drooping branches, the lower
ones sweeping the ground giving an elegant conical outline.
The twigs are densely clothed with flat spreading linear leaves
of a fine glossy green above and glaucous beneath; in the old
trees they become shorter and more rigid and partly lose their
distichous habit. The cones, from J to i in. long, are at first
of a bluish-green colour, but when mature change to a reddish
brown; the scales are very small at the base, dilating into a
broad thick head, with a short curved spine below the deep
transverse depression. From the great size of the trunk and the
even grain of the red cedar-like wood it is a valuable tree to the
farmer and carpenter: it splits readily and evenly, and planes
66o
SERAING SERAMPUR
and polishes well; cut radially, the medullary plates give the
wood a fine satiny lustre; it is strong and durable, but not so
elastic as many of the western pines and firs. Professor Sargent
describes it as the most valuable timber tree of the forests of
Pacific North America. In England the tree grows well in warm
situations, but suffers much in severe winters its graceful
form rendering it ornamental in the park or garden, where it
sometimes grows 30 or 40 ft. in height; its success as a timber
tree would be doubtful. In the eastern parts of the United
States it does not flourish. It was discovered by Archibald
Menzies in 1 795 and was first described as Taxodium sempervirens,
under which name it was known until distinguished by Stephan
Endlicher as a new genus in 1847.
The only other member of the genus is the giant tree of the
Sierra Nevada, 5. gigantea, the largest of known conifers; it
is confined to the western portion of the great Californian range
for a length of about 260 m., at an altitude of from 5000 to 8400
ft. above the sea, and forms extensive forests, or, in the northern
part of the area, isolated groves, such as the Calaveras Grove,
the Mariposa Grove, and others. The leaves of this species
are awl-shaped, short and rigid, with pointed apex; closely
adpressed, they completely cover the branchlets. The male
catkins are small, solitary, and are borne at the ends of the twigs;
the cones are from 15 to 3 in. long, ovoid, with scales thicker
at the base than those of the redwood, and bearing below the
depression a slender prickle. The young tree is more formal
and rigid in growth than S. sempervirens, but when old the outline
of the head becomes cylindrical, with short branches sparsely
clad with foliage sprays. The bark, of nearly the same tint as
that of the redwood, is extremely thick and is channelled towards
the base with vertical furrows; at the root the ridges often
stand out in buttress-like projections. The average height is
about 275 ft. with a diameter near the ground of 20 ft.; but
specimens from 300 to 320 ft. tall, with trunks 25-35 ft. thick,
are not rare.
The famous group known as the Mammoth Grove of Calaveras
in California, containing above ninety large trees, stands in 38
N., about 4370 ft. above the sea, between the San Antonio and
Stanislaus rivers. It was discovered by a hunter named Dowd
in pursuit of a bear in 1852, but had been visited before by John
Bidwill, who crossed the Sierra in 1841. Some trees in the
Mariposa Grove rival these in size: one measures 101 ft. round
the root, and a cut stump is 31 ft. in diameter. Gigantic as these
trees are and imposing from their vast columnar trunks, they
have little beauty, owing to the scanty foliage of the short
rounded boughs; some of the trees stand very close together;
they are said to be about four hundred in number. The age of
the trees has been greatly overestimated. A few years ago a
full-sized tree was felled in Fresno county, California, and
contiguous transverse sections have been set up, one in the
Museum of Natural History at New York, the other (upper one)
in the British Museum of Natural History at South Kensington;
the annual rings of the latter section have been carefully counted
and found to indicate an age of 1335 years.
The growth of the " mammoth tree is fast when young, but old
trees increase with extreme slowness. The timber is not of great
value, but the heartwood is dense and of deeper colour than that
of 5. sempervirens, varying from brownish red to very deep brown;
oiled and varnished, it has been used in cabinet work. 5. gigantea
was brought to England by Lobb in 1853, and received from Dr
Lindley the name of Welhngtonia, by which it is still popularly
known, though its affinity to the redwood is too marked to admit of
generic distinction. In America it is sometimes called Washingtonia.
In the Atlantic States it does not succeed ; and, though nearly hardy
in Great Britain, it is planted only as an ornament of the lawn or
paddock.
In early geological times the sequoias occupied a far more im-
portant place in the vegetation of the earth. They occur in the
Lower Chalk formations, and in Tertiary times were widely diffused ;
the genus is represented in the Eocene flora of Great Britain, and in
the succeeding Miocene period was widely distributed in Europe and
western Asia. It is presumed that in the Glacial epoch the genus
was exterminated except in the areas in western North America
where it still persists.
SERAING, a town of Belgium in the province of Liege, adjoin-
ing the city of that name. Pop. (1004) 39,843. It lies on the
right bank of the Meuse above Liege, with which it is connected
by rail and tramway. Seraing owes all its prosperity and
importance to the firm founded by John Cockerill, an Englishman,
in 1817, with the co-operation of King William I. of the Nether-
lands, who provided half the capital. The Cockerill family has
long disappeared, and the enterprise is now known as " the
John Cockerill Company." It is one of the largest factories of
engines and machinery apart from war material on the
continent. Its headquarters occupy the old summer palace of
the prince-bishops of Liege. In 1890 it established a branch at
Hoboken on the Scheldt for the purpose of undertaking ship-
building. The company employs 14,000 hands.
SERAJEVO (pronounced SERAJEVO, " the city of palaces ";
Turkish, Bosna Serai; Ger. Sarajevo; Ital. Seraglio), the
capital of Bosnia, situated on the Miljacka, a small right-hand
tributary of the Bosna and on the railway from Bosna-Brod,
167 m. N., to Ragusa. Pop. (1895) 37,713, chiefly Serbo-
Croatians, with small colonies of gipsies and Jews. The city,
frequently called the " Damascus of the North," spreads over
a narrow valley, closed on the east by a semicircle of rugged
hills. Though still half oriental, and wholly beautiful, with its
Turkish bazaar, its hundred mosques, wooden houses and
cypress groves, it was largely rebuilt, after 1878, in western
fashion. The river was also canalized, a telephone service
introduced, and extensive drainage works carried out. Serajevo
is the seat of the provincial government, of a Roman Catholic
bishop, an Orthodox metropolitan, the highest Moslem ecclesi-
astical authority or Reis-el-ulema, and the supreme court. It
is the centre of Bosnian education, containing the celebrated
orphanage founded in 1869 by Miss Irby and Miss Mackenzie
(afterwards Lady Sebright) ; the Scheriat-Schule, which derives
its name from the Turkish code or scheri, and is maintained
by the state for Moslem law-students; a gymnasium, a technical
institute and a teachers' training-college. The Begova Djamia
(DZamia), or mosque of Husref Bey, is only surpassed, among
European mosques, by those of Adrianople and Constantinople.
It was founded, in 1465, by Husref or Usref, pasha of Bosnia.
The castle and barracks, occupied by an Austrian garrison,
stand on a cliff commanding a fine view of the city. Other
noteworthy buildings are the konak or governor's residence,
the Roman Catholic and Orthodox cathedrals, the hospital,
the townhall and the museum, with fine antiquarian and natural
history collections. In the Sinan Tekke or Dervish monastery
the ceremonies of the howling and dancing Dervishes may be
witnessed. Turkish baths and cafes are numerous. The bazaar,
or larSija, is a labyrinth of dark lanes, lined with booths, where
embroideries, rugs, embossed fire-arms, filagree-work in gold and
silver, and other native wares are displayed. There are also
large potteries, silk-mills, a brewery and a tobacco factory. At
the mineral baths of Ilidze near the city, where many Roman
remains have been found, a hydropathic establishment was
opened in 1899. The whole neighbourhood is rich in prehistoric
remains.
Founded, in 1262, by the Hungarian General Cotroman,
under the name of Bosnavar or Vrhbosna, Serajevo was enlarged
by Husref Bey two centuries later, and takes its name from the
palace (Turkish, serai), which he founded. During the wars
between Turkey and Austria, its ownership was often contested;
and it fell before King Matthias I. of Hungary in 1480, and
before Prince Eugene of Savoy in 1697. Destructive fires laid
it waste in 1480, 1644, 1656, 1687 and 1789. It was chosen as
the seat of Turkish government in 1850, instead of Travnik. .
In 1878 it was seized by the Austrians, under Baron Philippovid.
SERAMPUR, a town of British India, in the Hugli district of
Bengal, on the right bank of the river Hugli, opposite Barrack-
pore, on the East Indian railway, 12 m. from Howrah. Pop.
(1901) 44,451. A Danish factory was established here about
the middle of the I7th century, and called by them Frederiks-
nagar. With the rest of the Danish possessions in India, it was
acquired by purchase by the English in 1845. Serampur was the
home of the Baptist mission founded by Carey. The mission
press has been transferred to Calcutta, but a training college is
SERAO SERAPION
661
still maintained by the mission. There is a jute mill, and paper
is manufactured.
SERAO, MATILDA (1856- ), Italian novelist, was born at
Patras in Greece. Her father was an Italian, a political emigrant,
and her mother a Greek. She began by becoming a schoolmistress
at Naples, and afterwards she described those years of laborious
poverty in the preface to a book of short stories called Leggende
Napolitane(i&8i). But attention was first attracted to her name
by her Novelle, published in a paper of Rocco de Zerbi's, and
later by her first novel, Fantasia (1883), which definitely estab-
lished her as a writer full of feeling and analytical subtlety.
She spent the years between 1880 and 1886 in Rome, where she
published her next five volumes of short stories and novels, all
dealing with ordinary Italian, and especially Roman, life, and
distinguished by great accuracy of observation and depth of
insight: Cuore Inferno (1881), Fior di Passione (1883), La
Conquista di Roma (1885), La Virtu di Checchina (1884), and
Piccole Anime (1883). With her husband, Epoardo Scarfoglio,
she founded // Corriere di Roma, the first Italian attempt to
model a daily journal on the lines of the Parisian press. The
paper was short-lived, and when it was given up Matilda Serao
established herself in Naples, where she edited II Corriere de
Napoli, and in 1891 founded // Mattino, which became the most
important and most widely read daily paper of southern Italy.
But the stress of a journalistic career in no way limited her
literary activity; between 1890 and 1902 she produced Paese di
Cuccagna, Venire di Napoli, Addio Amore, AW Erta Sentinella,
Castigo, La Ballerina, Suor Giovanna della Croce, Paese di Gesu,
novels in which the character of the people is rendered with
minute sensitive power and sympathetic breadth of spirit.
Most of these have been translated into English.
Matilda Serao's place as a contemporary Italian novelist is one
apart: she is a naturalist, but her naturalism should be understood
in a much wider sense than that which is generally given to it.
She is a naturalist because her books reflect life with the utmost
simplicity of means, sometimes with an utter neglect of means,
and at the same time she is an idealist through her high sense of
the beauty and nobility which humanity can attain, and to which
her writings continually aspire. All her work is truly and pro-
foundly Italian; it is the literature of a great mass of individuals,
rather than of one peculiarly accentuated individual; the joy and
pain of a whole class rather than the perplexities of a unique case
or type pulsates through her pages. Matilda Serao's defects are
always defects of style; her want of sufficient choice of detail often
clogs the movement of her narrative and mars the artistic effect of
her always animated pages. Like Fogazzaro's, her speech is too
often the popular speech of her particular province, in description as
well as in dialogue.
SERAPHIM, the imaginary supernatural guardians of the
threshold of Yahweh's sanctuary, only mentioned in Isa. vi.
(Isaiah's vision). Their form is not described, but they have
not only six wings (verse 2), but hands (verse 6) and feet (verse 2).
They are of colossal height, for they overtop Him who is seated on
the high throne; and with a voice that shakes the thresholds
they proclaim the Trisagion, like the four " living creatures "
(cf. CHERUBIM) in Rev. iv. 6-8. Probably in the lost Hebrew
text of Enoch xx. 7 " seraphim " stood where the Ethiopia and
the Greek give " the serpents " or " the dragons "; Paradise,
serpents and cherubim are here made subject to Gabriel. In
late Jewish writings, more recognized than " Enoch," they are
classed among the celestials with the cherubim and the 'ophannim
(" wheels," cf. Ezek. i.). Now as to their origin and significance.
They may originally have had a serpent form, for it is difficult
not to regard " seraphim " as originally (as in Num. xxi. 8) =
" serpents "; cf. also the flying serpents of Israelitish folklore in
Isa. xiv. 29. If so, Isaiah has transformed and ennobled these
supernatural guardians of sacred things and persons. The
" Nehushtan " broken in pieces under Hezekiah (2 Kings xviii.
4) may have given an impulse to the prophet's imagination.
Was it not a greater thing to ennoble them than to destroy their
artistic representation ? There is no precise Babylonian or
Egyptian equivalent, though attempts have been made to
produce points of contact with Babylonian or Egyptian beliefs.
See further Enc. Bib. " Seraphim," and cf. Duhm's Jesaia, ed. 2
(1902), on Isa. vi. (T. K. C.)
SERAPION, or SARAPION (flor. c. 350), bishop of Thmuis in the
Nile Delta and a prominent supporter of Athanasius in the
struggle against Arianism (sometimes called, for his learning,
Scholasticus), is best known in connexion with a prayer-book or
sacramentary intended for the use of bishops. This document,
contained in a collection of Egyptian documents in an nth-
century MS. at the Laura on Mount Athos, was published by
A. Dmitrijewskij in 1894, but attracted little attention until
independently discovered and published by G. Wobbermin in
1899. It is a celebrant's book, containing thirty prayers belong-
ing to the mass (19-30, 1-6), baptism (7-11, 15, 16), ordination
(12-14), benediction of oil, bread and water (17), and burial (18),
omitting the fixed structural formulae of the rites, the parts of
the other ministers, and almost all rubrication, except what is
implied in the titles of the prayers. The name of Serapion is
prefixed to the anaphora of the mass (i) and to the group 15-18:
but whether this indicates authorship is doubtful; for whereas
the whole collection is bound together by certain marks of
vocabulary, style and thought, 15-18 have characteristics of
their own not shared by the anaphora, while no part of the collec-
tion shows special affinities with the current works of Serapion. 1
But his name is at least a symbol of probable date and proven-
ance: the theology, which is orthodox so far as it goes, but
" conservative," and perhaps glancing at Arianism, shows no
sign that the Macedonian question has arisen; the doxologies,
of a type abandoned by the orthodox, and by c. 370 treated by
Didymus of Alexandria as heretical; the apparent presupposition
that the population is mainly pagan (i, 20); the exclusive appro-
priation of the mass to Sunday (19; cp. Ath. ap. c. Ar. 11),
whereas the liturgical observance of Saturday prevailed in Egypt
by c. 380; the terms in which monasticism is referred to
together point to c. 350: the occurrence of official interpreters
(25) points to a bilingual Church, i.e. Syria or Egypt; and
certain theological phrases (ayevvrjTos, iwtSrjfjia., |i6vij KafloXiw)
KK\?j(Tta) characteristic of the old Egyptian creed, and the
liturgical characteristics, indicate Egypt; while the petition for
rains (23), without reference to the Nile-rising, points to the Delta
as distinguished from Upper Egypt. The book is important,
therefore, as the earliest liturgical collection on so large a scale,
and as belonging to Egypt, where evidence for 4th -century ritual
is scanty as compared with Syria.
The rites form a link between those of the Egyptian Church
Order (a 3rd- or early 4th-century development of the Hip-
polytean Canons, which are perhaps Egyptian of c. 260) and
later Egyptian rites marking the stage of development reached
in Egypt by c. 350, while exhibiting characteristics of their own.
I. The Mass has the Egyptian notes a prayer before the
lections, elsewhere unknown in the East; an exceptionally
weighty body of intercessions after the catechumens' dismissal,
followed by a penitential act, probably identical with the
e^ojuoX6y7;<r of Can. Hippol. 2, which disappeared in later
rites; a setting of the Sanctus found in several Egyptian ana-
phoras; the close connexion of the commemorations of the
offerers and of the dead; and the form of the conclusion of the
anaphora. The structure of the communion with a prayer
before and prayers of thanksgiving and blessing after shows
that Egypt had already developed the common type, otherwise
first evidenced in Syria, c. 375 (Ap. Const, viii. 13). Among the
special characteristics of Serapion are the simplicity of the
Sanctus, and of the Institution, which lacks the dramatic addi-
tions already found in Ap. Const.; the interpolation of a passage
containing a quotation from Didache 9 between the institutions of
the bread and of the chalice; the form of the &.vaiivri<ns; and
the invocation of the Word, not of the Holy Ghost, to effect
consecration. That the Lord's Prayer before communion is
not referred to may be only because it is a fixed formula belonging
to the structure of the rite. II. The Order of Baptism has a
form for the consecration of the water, and a preliminary prayer
for the candidates, perhaps alluding to their exorcism; a prayer
1 These are : a vigorous and acute refutation of the Manichaeans,
and some letters. A book on the titles of the Psalms has not
survived.
662
SERAPIS
for steadfastness following the renunciation and the confession
of faith; the form of anointing with oil; appropriate prayers
preceding and following the act of baptism; and the piayer of
confirmation with imposition of the hand, chrism and crossing.
All this corresponds to and fills up the outline of the Church
Order and allusions in 4th-century writers, and is in line with
later Egyptian rites. III. jForms of Ordination are provided
only for deacons, presbyters and bishops, the orders of divine
institution (12). They are concise, but of the normal type. That
for deacons (12) commemorates St Stephen, invokes the Holy
Ghost, and prays for the gifts qualifying for the diaconate.
That for presbyters (13) recalls the Mosaic LXX, invokes the
Holy Ghost, and asks for the gifts qualifying for administration,
teaching, and the ministry of reconciliation. That for bishops
(14) appeals to the mission of our Lord, the election of the
apostles, and the apostolic succession, and asks for the " Divine
Spirit " conferred on prophets and patriarchs, that the subject
may " feed the flock " " unblamably and without offence
continue in " his office. The minor orders, interpreters, readers
and subdeacons (25) are evidently, as elsewhere in the middle of
the 4th century, appointed without sacramental ordination.
IV. The use of exorcised or blessed oil, water and bread is fully
illustrated by the lives of the fathers of the desert (cp. the Gnostic
use, Clem. Al. Excerpla 82). Serapion has a form of benediction
of oil and water (5) offered in the mass (like Can. Hippol. and
Ck. Ord. for oil), probably for the use of individual offerers. A
longer form for all three matters (17) perhaps has in view the
general needs of the Church in the visitation of the sick. The
occurrence in both prayers of " the Name " and the commemora-
tion of the Passion, Resurrection, &c., corresponds with early
allusions, in Origen and elsewhere, to the usual form of exorcism.
V. For burial of the dead Serapion gives a prayer for the departed
and the survivors (18). But the funeral procession is alluded to
(iwco/ufo/itvou), and in the mass (i) the particular commemora-
tion of departed persons is provided for. Hence we have the
elements of the 4th-century funeral, as we know it in Egypt
and elsewhere: a preliminary office (of readings and psalms)
to which the prayer belongs, the procession (with psalmody) to
the cemetery, the burial and the mass pro domitione.
AUTHORITIES. Dmitrijewskij in Trudy (Journal of the Eccl.
Acad. of Kiev, 1894), No. 2; separately (Kiev, 1894); reviewed by
A. Favlov, Xpovucd BufaFTii'A, i. 207-213; cp. Byzant. Zeitschr. iv. I
(1895), p. 193; G. Wpbbermin in Harnack-Gebhardt, Texte u.
Untersuch., new series, ii. 3 b (1899); P. Drews, " tlber Wobbermins
Altchristliche liturgische Stflcke aus d. Kirche Agyptens " in
Zeitschr. f. Kirchen-Gcschichte, xx. 4 (Oct. 1899, Jan. 1900) ; F. E.
Brightman, " The Sacramentary of Serapion of Thmuis " in Journal
of Theological Studies, i. and ii. (Oct. 1899, Jan. 1900); J. Words-
worth, Bishop Sarapion's Prayer-Book (London, 1899); P. Batiffol
in Bulletin de lit. eccles. p. 69 sqq. (Toulouse, 1899). (F. E. BR.)
SERAPIS, the famous Graeco-Egyptian god. The statue of
Serapis in the Serapeum of Alexandria was of purely Greek type
and workmanship a Hades or Pluto enthroned with a basket
or corn measure on his head, a sceptre in his hand, Cerberus at
his feet, and (apparently) a serpent. According to Plutarch,
Ptolemy Soter stole it from Sinope, having been bidden by the
unknown god in a dream to bring him to Alexandria. On its
arrival the statue was pronounced to be Serapis by two experts
in religious matters: the one the Eumolpid Timotheus, the other
the Egyptian Manetho. This story may not be true (some con-
tend that Sinope as the provenance of the statue originated in
the hill of Sinopeion, i.e. place of Apis (?), a name given to the
site of the Serapeum at Memphis) , but there is little doubt that
Ptolemy Soter fixed the iconic type to serve for the god of the
new capital of Egypt, where it was soon associated with Isis
and Harpocrates in a triad. His policy was evidently to find a
deity that should win the reverence alike of Greeks and Egyptians.
The Greeks of that day would have had little respect for 'a
grotesque Egyptian figure, while the Egyptians were more
willing to accept divinity in any shape. A Greek statue was
therefore chosen as the idol, and it was proclaimed as the anthro-
pomorphic equivalent of a much revered and highly popular
Egyptian beast-divinity, the dead Apis, assimilated to Osiris.
The Greek figure probably had little effect on the native ideas,
but it is likely that it served as a useful link between the two
religions. The god of Alexandria soon won an important place
in the Greek world. The anthropomorphic Isis and Horus were
easily rendered in Greek style, and Anubis was prepared for by
Cerberus. The worship of Serapis along with Isis, Horus and
Anubis spread far and wide, reached Rome, and ultimately
became one of the leading cults of the west. The destruction in
A.D. 385 of the Serapeum of Alexandria, and of the famous idol
within it, after the decree of Theodosius, marked the death-
agony of paganism throughout the empire.
It is assumed above that the name Serapis (so written in later
Greek and in Latin, in earlier Greek Sarapis) is derived from the
Egyptian Userhapi a's it were Osiris-Apis the name of the
bull Apis, dead and, like all the blessed dead, assimilated to Osiris,
king of the underworld. There is no doubt that Serapis was
before long identified with Userhapi; the identification appears
clearly in a bilingual inscription of the time of Ptolemy Philo-
pator (221-205 B.C.), and frequently later. It has, however, been
contended by an eminent authority (Wilcken, Archiv fur Papy-
rusforschung, iii. 249) that the parallel occurrence of the names
Sarapis and Osorapis (Userhapi) points to an independent
origin for the former. But doublets, e.g. Petisis-Petesis, are
common in Graecisms of Egyptian names. The more accurate
form is then generally the later, found in documents written by
Greeks in familiar intercourse with Egyptians, the less accurate
is traditional from an older date in the mouths of pure Greeks and
Hellenists, and is used in literary writings. Thus Sarapis would be
the literary and official form of the name; it might be traditional,
dating perhaps from the reign of Amasis or from the Persian
period. We know that in Herodotus's day, and long before, the
discovery of the new Apis was the occasion of universal rejoicing,
and his death of universal mourning. The ancient Serapeum
(Puserhapi) and the name Userhap would be almost as familiar to
early Greek wanderers in Egypt as the Apieum and Apis itself.
But why was a Plutonic Serapis selected rather than another
god to furnish the Egyptian element to the chief divinity of
Alexandria? According to one account in Tacitus, Sarapis was
the god of the village of Rhacotis before it suddenly expanded
into a great capital; but it is not very probable that temples
were erected to the dead Apis except at his Memphite tomb.
Alexander had courted Ammon. But Ammon had little hold on
the affections of the Egyptian people. He was the god of
Ethiopia and the Thebais which were antagonistic to the pro-
gressive north. On the other hand, Osiris with Isis and Horus
was everywhere honoured and popular, and while the artificer
Ptah, the god of the great native capital of Egypt, made no
appeal to the imagination, the Apis bull, an incarnation of Ptah,
threw Ptah himself altogether into the shade in the popular
estimation. The combination of Osiris and the Apis bull which
was found in the dead Apis was thus a most politic choice in
naming the new divinity, whose figure represented a god of the
underworld wearing an emblem of fruitfulness.
The earliest mention of Sarapis is in the authentic death scene
of Alexander, from the royal diaries (Arrian, Anabasis, vii. 26).
Here Sarapis has a temple at Babylon and is of such importance
that he alone is named as being consulted on behalf of the dying
king. It would considerably alter our conception of the dead
Apis if we were to find that a travelling shrine of his divinity
accompanied Alexander on his expedition or was set up for him
in Babylon. On the other hand, the principal god of Babylon
was Zeus Belus (Bel Marduk), and it is difficult to see why he
should have been called Sarapis on this occasion. Evidence has,
however, been found to prove that Ea, entitled Sarapsi, " king
of the deep (sea)," who was also great in learning and magic,
had a temple in the city (Lehmann in Beitrdge zur alien Geschichle,
iv. 396). It seems unwarranted to make this Sarapsi = Sarapis
travel to Sinope and thence to Alexandria as the type of the
Egyptian god; but whether or no the Egyptian appellation
Sarapis was applied to express the Babylonian Sarapsi, the part
it played in the last days of Alexander may have determined the
choice by which the Egyptian Osiris-Apis supplied the name
and some leading characteristics to the god of Alexandria.
SERENA SERERS
663
See Isis; A. Bouche'-Leclercq, Histoire des Lagides, i. (1903), ch.
iv. ; J. G. Milne, History of Egypt under Roman Rule(i&<)8), p,. 140;
G. Lafaye, Histoire du culle des divinites d'Alexandrie hors de I'Egypte
(Paris, 1884). (F. LL. G.)
SERENA, or LA SERENA, a city of Chile, capital of the province
of Coquimbo, on the S. bank of the Coquimbo river about 5 m.
from the sea. Pop. (1895) 15,712; (1902, estimate) 19,536.
As the see of a bishop and the most important town politically
of the semi-arid region, it contains a number of important public
edifices, including a cathedral (1844-1860; 216 ft. long, 66 ft.
wide) built of a light porous stone, an episcopal residence,
several convents, a large hospital, an orphans' asylum, a beggars'
asylum and a lazaretto. It is the seat of a court of appeal for
Atacama and Coquimbo, and has an excellent lyceum and other
schools, including a school of mines. It has a good water supply,
well-paved streets, gas illumination, tramway service and
several small industries, including brewing and the making of
fruit conserves. The annual rainfall is only 1-6 in. and its mean
annual temperature is 59-2. Its railway connexions include
a line to Coquimbo (9 m.), its port, one to the Tamaya copper
mines, and a narrow-gauge line up the valley of the Elqui to
Guanta, through a region celebrated for its fruit. It is also in
direct railway communication with the national capital.
Serena was founded by Juan Bohon in 1544, on the opposite
side of the river, and was named after Pedro Valdivia's birth-
place in Estremadura, Spain. It was destroyed by the Indians
soon after, and was rebuilt on its present site in 1549 by Francisco
de Aguirre.
SERENADE (from Ital. serenata, Lat. serenus, bright; the
Italian term being applied, partly by confusion with serus, late,
and partly through the use of Serena cf. Gr. afMjvri as an
epithet for the moon, to a form of courting music played at night
in the open air; whence also the synonym Notturno), in music;
a term classically applied to a light kind of symphony, more
rarely a piece of chamber music, in a light sonata style with
several extra movements, and in a few cases (as in the two
serenades of Beethoven) not containing any fully developed
examples of first-movement form. The divertimento is a similar
composition, more often for chamber music, and frequently on a
scale altogether too small for the sonata style to show itself,
though some examples by Mozart (e.g. those for strings and two
horns) are very large. The cassation is a smaller composition,
beginning (like Beethoven's serenade op. 8) with a march. The
classics of the serenade forms are among the works of Mozart
and Haydn. Mozart's larger and later serenades, from the
" Haffner " serenade onwards, are among his most delightful
and voluminous lighter instrumental works. His two serenades
for eight wind instruments are more serious, and that in C
minor (which he afterwards arranged as a string quintet) is a
majestic work in four normal movements, which Mozart probably
called a serenade only because he did not find the term octet
then hi common use.
The typical scheme of a large serenade or divertimento differs
from that of a symphony only in having six movements instead
of four, the additions being another slow movement and minuet
or scherzo. Beethoven's septet and Schubert's octet are
on this plan, and are just as much serenades as Mozart's
" Haffner " serenade, which is (not counting introductions)
in eight movements with a kind of violin concerto in the middle.
The six-movement scheme (though without the serenade style)
was adopted by Beethoven in one of the profoundest and most
serious works in all music, the string quartet in B flat, Op. 130.
Brahms's first essays in symphonic form took the shape of
two orchestral serenades, of which the first was originally
sketched for a large group . of solo instruments. If it had
finally taken that form Brahms would have called it a
divertimento.
Other applications of the term in music are merely literary.
Even its use, from the i;th century onwards, for a kind of
operetta was clearly no more than a natural allusion to the
notion of serenades as addressed at night by minstrels to ladies
and by clients to patrons. (D. F. T.)
SERENUS, SAMMONICUS, Roman savant, author of a didactic
medical poem, De medicina praecepta (probably incomplete).
The work (1115 hexameters) contains a number of popular
remedies, borrowed from Pliny and Dioscorides, and various
magic formulae, amongst others the famous Abracadabra (?..),
as a cure for fever and ague. It concludes with a description
of the famous antidote of Mithradates VI. of Pontus. It was
much used in the middle ages, but is of little value except for the
ancient history of popular medicine. The syntax and metre are
remarkably correct. It is uncertain whether the author was the
famous physician and polymath, who was put to death in
A.D. 212 at a banquet to which he had been invited by Caracalla,
or his son, the tutor of the younger Gordian. The father, who
was one of the most learned men of his age, wrote upon a variety
of subjects, and possessed a library of 60,000 volumes, bequeathed
to his son and handed on by the latter to Gordian.
The editio princeps (ed. Sulpitius Verulanus, before 1484) is very
rare; later ed. by J. G. Ackermann (Leipzig, 1786) and E. Bahrens,
Poetae Latini minores, iii. ; see also A. Baur, Quaestiones Sam-
moniceae (Giessen, 1886); M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen
Literatur, iii. (1896); Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.,
1900), 374, 4, and 383.
SERENUS "of Antissa," Greek geometer, probably not of
Antissa but of Antinoeiaor Antinoupolis, a city in Egypt founded
by Hadrian, lived, as may be safely inferred from the character
and contents of his writings, long after the golden age of Greek
geometry, most probably in the 4th century, between Pappus
and Theon of Alexandria. Two treatises of his have survived,
viz. On the Section of the Cylinder and On the Section of the Cone,
the Greek text of which was first edited by Edmund Halley
along with his Apollonius (Oxford, 1710), and has now appeared
in a definitive critical edition by J. L. Heiberg (Sereni Antis-
sensis opuscula, Leipzig, 1896). A Lathi translation by Com-
mandinus appeared at Bologna in 1566, and a German transla-
tion by E. Nizze in 1860-1861 (Stralsund). Besides these works
Serenus wrote commentaries on Apollonius, and hi certain MSS.
of Theon of Smyrna there appears a proposition "of Serenus
the philosopher, from the Lemmas " to the effect that, if a
number of rectilineal angles be subtended, at a point on a
diameter of a circle which is not the centre, by equal arcs of that
circle, the angle nearer to the centre is always less than the
angle more remote (Heiberg, preface, p. xviii.).
The book On the Section of the Cylinder had for its primary object
the correction of an error on the part of many geometers of the time
who supposed that the transverse sections of a cylinder were different
from the elliptic sections of a cone. When this has been done,
Serenus, in a series of theorems ending with Prop. 19 (ed. Heiberg),
shows in Prop. 20 that " it is possible to exhibit a cone and a cylinder
cutting one another in one and the same ellipse." He then solves
Eroblems such as " given _a cone (cylinder) and an ellipse on it, to
nd the cylinder (cone) which is cut in the same ellipse as the cone
(cylinder)" (Props. 21, 22); "given a cone (cylinder) to find a
cylinder (cone), and to cut both by one and the same plane so that
the sections thus formed shall be similar ellipses " (Props. 23, 24).
In Props. 27, 28 he deals with subcontrary and other similar sections
of a scalene cylinder or cone. He then gives the theorems: " All the
straight lines drawn from the same point to touch a cylindrical (or
conical) surface, on both sides, have their points of contact on the
sides of a single parallelogram (or triangle) " (Props. 29, 32). Prop.
31 states indirectly the property of a harmonic pencil.
The treatise On the Section of the Cone, though Serenus claims origin-
ality for it, is unimportant. It deals with the areas of triangular
sections of right or scalene cones by planes through the vertex,
finding e.g. the maximum triangular section of a right cone and the
maximum triangle through the axis of a scalene cone, and solving,
in some easy cases, the problem of finding triangular sections of
given area. (T. L. H.)
SERERS, a Negroid people, living in Senegambia. They are
of the same stock as the Wolof, and in some parts form com-
munities with them. Elsewhere they have mixed with the
Mandingo, to which race belong most of their ruling families.
The country of the pure Serers lies between the Gambia and
Salum rivers to the south of Cape Verde. In this domain of
nearly 5000 sq. m. the tribe has two main divisions, the None
Serers and the Sine Serers. The Serers are an extraordinarily
tall race, even excelling in height their kinsfolk, the Wolof.
Men of 6 ft. 6 in., with muscular development in proportion,
are by no means rare. They are less black than the Wolof and
664
SERES SERFDOM
have features more purely negroid with coarser lips and heavier
jaws. Many Serers are nominally Mahommedans, but nature-
worship is still prevalent. Their two chief gods are Takhar,
god of justice, and Tiurakh, god of wealth, who are worshipped
at the foot of trees. Snakes, too, have their cult, and formerly
living animals were sacrificed to them. A belief in transmigra-
tion, as shown by their funeral customs, is general among the
Serers. They are an honest and industrious people, but are
very heavy drinkers.
S&RES, SERROS or SIROS, chief town of a sanjak in the vilayet
of Salonica, European Turkey, on Lake Takhino, a navigable
expansion of the river Karasu or Struma (ancient Strymon),
43 m. by rail N.E. of Salonica. Pop. (1905) about 30,000, of
whom about half are Bulgarians (one-third of them being
Mussulmans), nearly one-fourth Greeks, about one-seventh
Turks and the remainder Jews. S6res is built in a district so
fertile as to bear among the Turks the name of Altin Ovassi,
or Golden Plain, and so thickly studded with villages as to
appear, when seen from the outliers of Rhodope on the north,
like a great city with extensive gardens. It is the seat of a
Greek archbishop and patriarch. It consists of the old town,
Varosh, situated at the foot and on the slope of the hill crowned
by the old castle, and of the new town built in the European
fashion on the plain, and forming the commercial centre. The
principal buildings are the Greek archiepiscopal palace, the
Greek cathedral, restored since the great fire of 1879, by which
it was robbed of its magnificent mosaics and woodwork, the
Greek gymnasium and hospital (the former built of marble), the
richly endowed Eski Jami mosque, and the ruins of the once
no less flourishing Ahmed Pasha or Hagia Sophia mosque, whose
revenues were formerly derived from the Crimea. On a hill
above the town are the ruins of a fortress described in a Greek
inscription as a " tower built by Helen in the mountainous
region. " S6res is the headquarters of the Turkish wool trade,
and has also manufactures of cloth and carpets. There is a
large trade in rice and cereals, and the other exports include
tobacco and hides.
Se>es is the ancient Seris, Sirae or Sirrhae, mentioned by
Herodotus in connexion with Xerxes's retreat, and by Livy
as the place where Aemilius Paulus received a deputation from
Perseus. In the I4th century, when Stephen Dushan of Servia
assumed the title emperor of Servia, he chose Sirrhae as his
capital; and it remained in the hands of the Servians till its
capture by Sultan Murad II. (1421-1451).
SERFDOM (from Fr. serf, Lat. serous, a servant or slave).
The notion of serfdom is distinct from those of freedom and of
slavery. The serf is not his own master: to perform services
for other persons is the essence of his status, but he is not given
over to his lord to be owned as a thing or an amimal there are
legal limits to the lord's power. Serfdom is very often con-
ceived as a perpetual adherence to the soil of an estate owned
by a lord, but this pracdial character is not a necessary feature
of the condition. Hereditary serfdom may sometimes assume
the shape of a personal relation between servant and master.
Such being the general features of serfdom, it is sure to appear
in very different ages and countries. It will be formed naturally,
for instance, in cases when one barbarous community conquers
another, but it is not able to destroy entirely the latter or to treat
its members as mere chattels. This mitigated form of appropria-
tion of human beings by their conquerors may be brought about
as well by the paucity or comparative weakness of the victors
as by the difficulty for them to draw income from pure slaves.
In a state of backward agriculture and natural economy it will
sometimes be more profitable for the conquerors as well as for
the conquered to leave the dependent population in their own
households and on their own plots, at the same time taxing
them heavily in the way of tribute and services. Such an
arrangement clearly obtained in several of the agricultural states
on ancient Greece. The Penestae of Thessaly appear as a
remnant of a distinct tribe settled on the confines of Macedonia
and at the same time as a class of tributary peasants serving
Thessalian aristocrats. The Mnoitae, Klarotae and Apha-
miotae of Crete were more or less in the same position. Their
chief occupation was the cultivation of the shares (/cXSpoi) of
the Dorian aristocracy, but they lived in households of their
own and were considered as subjects rather of the Cretan com-
monwealths than of private men. The relation between both
classes is well illustrated by a fragment of the Cretan poet
Hybrias, who thus glories in his shield and sword: " I till the
land with them, I press the wine from the grapes. On account
of them I am called the lord of the Mnoa." Even in the case
of the Helots of Sparta, although their condition was very hard
and they were made to perform services to any Spartiate who
might require them to do so, features of a similar tributary
condition are apparent. The chief work of the Helots was to
provide a certain quantity of corn, wine and oil for the lords of
the shares on which they were settled (roughly 82 medimni
of barley a year per share) ; personal services to other Spartiates
were exceptional. Pollux in his account of the Helots places
them distinctly in an intermediate position between free men
and slaves. The fact that in these instances governments had a
good deal to say in the regulation of the status of such serfs
is well worth noting: it explains to a great extent the legal
limitations of the power of the lords. Even downright slaves
belonging to the state or to some great temple corporation were
treated better and carefully distinguished from private slaves
by the Greeks.
We shall not be astonished to find, therefore, in the Hellenistic
states of Asia a population of peasants who seem to have been
in a condition of hereditary subjection and adherent to the
glebe on the great estates of the Seleucid kings (see Rostowtzew
in Lehmann's BeitrUge zur alien Geschichte, ii.). It is not un-
likely that the customs of these Xaol f3a<rt.\iKol went back to
the epoch of the Persian monarchy. In any case these peasants
(yeovyol) were certainly not slaves, while, on the other hand,
their condition was closely bound up with the cultivation of the
estates where they lived. The regulation by the state of the
duties and customary status of peasants on government domains
turns out to be one of the roots of serfdom in the Roman world,
which in this respect as in many others follows on the lines
laid down by Hellenistic culture. It is important for our purpose
to notice that the condition of coloni was developed as a result
of historic necessity by the working of economic and social
agencies in the first centuries of the Roman empire and was
made the subject of regular legislation in the 4th and 5th
centuries. In the enactments of Justinian, summing up the
whole course of development (C.J. xi., 48, 23), two classes of
coloni are distinguished the adscripticii, representing a more
complete state of serfdom, and the free coloni, with property of
their own. But the whole class, apart from minor variations,
was characterized by the idea that the peasants in question were
serfs of the soil (servi terrae) on which they were settled, though
protected by the laws in their personal and even in their praedial
status. Thus the ascription to the soil, although originally a
consequence of ascription to the tributes (adscriptio censibus),
became the mark of the legal status of serfdom. The emperors
actually tried in their legislation to prevent the landowners
from evicting their coloni and from raising their rents. In this
way fixity of tenure and service was aimed at and to a certain
degree enforced by the state.
With the break-up of the Roman empire the legal protection
in regard to serfs could not be kept up in the same way as before.
The weak governments which took the place of imperial authority
were not able to maintain the strict discipline and the stress of
judicial power which would have been necessary to guarantee
the tenure and status of the serfs. And yet serfdom became
the prevailing condition for the lower orders during the middle
ages. Custom and economic requirements produced checks
on the sway of the masters which proved effectual even when
legal protection was insufficient. The direction of events
towards the formation of serfdom is already clearly noticeable
in Celtic communities. In Wales and Ireland the greater part
of the rural working classes was reduced not to a state of slavery,
but to serfdom. The male slave (W. c<eth) does not play an
SERFDOM
665
important part in Celtic economic arrangements: there is not
much room for his activity as a completely dependent tool of
the master. The female slave (cumal) was evidently much more
prominent in the household. Prices are reckoned out in numbers
of such slaves and there must have been a constant call for
them both as concubines and as household servants. As for
male workmen they are chiefly taogs in Wales, that is half-free
bondmen with a certain though base standing in law. Even
these, however, could not be said to form the social basis for
the existence of an upper free class. The latter was numerous,
not wealthy as a rule, and had to undertake directly a great
part of the common work; as may be seen from the extent of
the free and servile tenures on the estates carved out for English
conquerors in Wales and Ireland. Anyhow, the tasog class of
half-free peasants stands by the side of the smaller tribesmen as
subjected to heavier burdens in the way of taxation and services
in kind. In Wales they are distributed into gavells and gwclys,
like the free tribesmen themselves and thus connected with the
land, but there is nothing to show that this connexion was
deemed a servitude of the glebe. The tie with the lord is after
all a personal one.
The Germanic tribes moved on similar lines. Slavery was
not a natural institution with them, although it did occur. In
the eyes of a Roman observer, however, even downright slavery
was turned into serfdom by the force of circumstances. As
Tacitus tells us, the ancient Germans made use of their slaves
in a different way from the Romans. These slaves had their
separate households, while the masters exacted tribute from
them in the shape of corn, cattle or clothes, and the serfs had to
obey to the extent of rendering such tribute (Tacitus, Germania,
21). This means, of course, that it was in the interest of the
master to levy tribute and not to organize slave labour. After
the conquest of the provinces by the Germanic invaders the
Roman stock of coloni naturally combined with German tributary
peasants to form medieval serfdom. A half-free group is marked
off in the early laws under the designation of liti, lazzi, aldiones.
But in process of time this group was merged with freedmen,
settled slaves (servi casali) and small freedmen into the numerous
class of serfs (servi, rustici, villani) which appears under different
names in all western European countries. The customary
regulations of the duties of an important group of this class in
regard to their lords are clearly expressed in the Bavarian law
(yth century): serfs settled on the estates of the church have
to work, as a rule, three days in the week for their masters and
are subject to divers rents and payments in kind. The regula-
tions in question, although entered in a legal text, are not a
legislative enactment but the result of a slow process of adjust-
ment of claims between the ecclesiastical landowners and masters
on one side and their rural dependents on the other. There can
be no doubt that they were largely representative of the condi-
tions prevailing on Bavarian estates belonging not only to the
church but also to the duke and to lay lords. The old English
Rectitudines singularum personarum (nth century) present other
variations of the same customary arrangements. The rustic
class appears in them to be differentiated into several sub-
divisionsthe geneats performing riding duties and occasional
services, the geb&rs burdened with week work and the cotsets
holding cottages and performing light work in the shape of one
day in the week and services to match (see VILLENAGE). Of
these various groups that of the geburs corresponds more closely
to the continental serfs (coloni, Horige, unfreie Hintersassen) .
The dualism characteristic of medieval serfdom, its formation
out of debased freedom and rising servitude, may be traced all
through the history of the middle ages. French jurists of the
i3th century, e.g., lay stress on a fundamental difference in law
between the complete serf whose very body belongs to his lord
(cf. the German Leibeigenschafl) and the villein or roturier, who
is only bound to perform certain duties and ought not to be
further oppressed by the landowners on whose soil he is settled
(Beaumanoir, Coutume de Beauvaisis) . But the same texts which
draw the line between the two classes make it clear that there
were no other guarantees to the maintenance of the rights of the
superior rustics than the moral sense and the self-interest of
their masters. Should the lords infringe the well-established
rights of their subjects, the latter had no court to appeal to and
only God could inflict punishment on the oppressors. It must
be added, however, that even in the darkest times of feudal
sway, economic forces provided some protection for the peasants
who had lost the means of appealing to legal remedies. A
certain balance had to be struck in most cases between the
greed and selfishness of the class of landowners and the necessary
requirements and human aspirations of the subjects. Feudal
masters could not afford to act with the ruthless cruelty of
slaveholders relying on government and civilization to back
their claims to a complete sway over their human chattels.
Lords who did not wish to see their estates deserted had to
submit to the rule of custom in respect of exactions. And the
screen of rural custom proved sufficient to allow of the growth
of some property in the hands of the toiling class, a result which
in itself rendered possible further emancipation.
A very instructive example of the formation of serfdom is
presented by the history of Russia. Personal slavery in the
sense in which it existed in the West was practised in ancient
Russia (kholopi) and arose chiefly from conquest, but also from
voluntary subjection in cases of great hardship and from the
redemption of fines and debts (cf. the O. Eng. tttite-theow) . But
the number of personal serfs was not large and they were princip-
ally to be met in the households of great people. The great mass
of the peasantry was originally free. Even when in the course
of time landownership was appropriated by the crown, the
ecclesiastical corporations and the nobles, the tillers of the land
retained their personal freedom and were considered to be farmers
holding their plots under contracts. They were free to leave
their farms provided they were able to effect a settlement in
regard to all outstanding rent arrears and debts. Members of
the household who were not directly responsible for the farms
could look out for their livelihood as they pleased. The custom
of the country gradually took the shape of a simultaneous
resettlement of all conditions of rural occupation about St
George's day (November 24), that is after the gathering of the
harvest and the practical winding up of rural work. Such was
the legal state of affairs up to the end of the i6th century. A
great change supervened, however, through the slow working of
economic and political causes. The peasants settled under the
sway of nobles and churches could very seldom produce a clean
bill in regard to their money relations with the landlords. They
generally had to account for arrears and got into debt from the
very start by taking over stock with the farm. The longer they
remained on the same plot, the more entangled became the ties
of their economic dependence. Thus, as in the case of many
Roman coloni, thoroughly free settlers gradually lapsed into a
state of perpetual subjection from which they could not emanci-
pate themselves by legal means. On the other hand, the growth
of the Muscovite state with its fiscal and governmental require-
ments involved a watchful repartition of burdens among the
population and led ultimately to a system of collective liability
in which the farms were considered chiefly as the sources of
taxable income. The government was directly interested in
maintaining their efficiency and in preventing migrations and
desertions which led to a weakening of the taxpaying communities.
A third aspect of the question must also not be desregarded,
namely, the keen competition between landowners trying to
attract settlers to their estates at the expense of their needy
or less powerful neighbours. The first legislative measures of
the Moscow rulers directed towards the establishment of a servile
class similar to the Roman coloni fall into the first years of the
I7th century (A.D. 1601, 1606) and consist in enactments against
landowners depriving their neighbours of the tillers of their
estates. But matters were clearly ripe for a wider application
of the view that the peasant ought to stick to the soil, and the
restoration of the Muscovite empire under the Romanovs
brought with it the consolidation of alj rural arrangements
around this principle. Peter the Great regularized and com-
pleted this evolution by effecting a comprehensive cadastre and
666
SERGEL SERGIPE
census of the rural population. The ultimate result was, however,
not only the fixity of peasant tenures, but the subjection of the
entire peasant population as a separate class (Krepostrie) to the
personal sway of the landowners. The state insisted to a certain
extent on the public character of this subjection and drew
distinctions between personal slavery and serfdom. In the
midst of the peasants themselves there lived a consciousness
of their special claims as to tenant right, claims which sometimes
assumed the shape of the quaint saying, " The land is ours,
though we are yours." But, in fact, serfdom naturally took the
form of an ugly ownership of live chattels on the part of a
privileged class, and all sorts of excesses, of cruelty, ruthless
exploitation and wanton caprice, followed as a matter of course.
Emancipation was brought about in the igth century by economic
causes as well as by humanitarian considerations. The fabric
of a state built up on the basis of serfdom proved inadequate
to meet the tasks of modern times. Private enterprise and
the free application of capital and labour were hindered in every
way by the bondage of the peasant class. Even such a necessary
measure as that of moving cultivators to the rich soil of the south
was thwarted by the adherence of the northern peasantry to the
glebe. On the humanitarian and liberal ideas making for
emancipation we need not dwell, as they are self-evident. After
several half-hearted attempts directed in the course of Nicholas
I.'s reign to face the question while safeguarding at the same
time the rights and privileges of the old aristocracy, the moral
collapse of the ancien regime during the Crimean war brought
about the Emancipation Act of the igth of February 1861, by
which some 1 5 millions of serfs were freed from bondage. The
most characteristic feature of this act was that the peasants,
as distinct from household servants, received not only personal
freedom but allotments in land in certain proportions to their
former holdings. The state indemnified the former landowners,
and the peasants had to redeem the loan by yearly payments
extending over a number of years.
If we turn back from this course of development to the history
of serfdom and emancipation in the West striking contrasts appear.
As we have already noticed, medieval serfdom in the West was
the result of a process of customary feudal growth hardly inter-
fered with by central governments. The loosening of bondage
is also, to a great extent, prepared by the working of local
economic agencies. Villeins and serfs in France rise gradually
in the social scale, redeem many of the onerous services of
feudalism and practically acquire tenant-right on most of the
plots occupied by them. Tocqueville has pointed out that
already before the revolution of 1789 the greater part of the
territory of France was in the hands of small peasant owners,
and modern researches have confirmed Tocqueville's estimate.
Thus feudal overlordship in France had resolved itself into a
superficial dominion undermined in all directions by economic
realities. The fact that there still existed all kinds of survivals
of harsh forms of dependence, e.g. the bondage of the serfs in
the Jura Mountains, only rendered the contrast between legal
conditions and social realities more pointed. The night of the
4th of August 1789 put an end to this contrast at one stroke and
the further history of rural population came to depend entirely
on the play of free competition and free contract.
The evolution of serfdom in Germany was effected by the
working of somewhat more complicated causes. The regulating
influence of government made itself felt to a greater extent,
especially in the east. The colonization of the eastern provinces
and the struggle against the Slavs necessitated a stronger con-
centration of aristocratic power, and the reception of Roman
law during the isth and i6th centuries hardened the forms of
subjection originated by customary conditions. It may be said
in a general way that Germany occupied in this respect, as in
many others, an intermediate position between the west of Europe
and Russia. Emancipation followed also a middle course. It
was brought about chiefly by governmental measures, although
the ground was to a great extent prepared by social evolution.
The reforms of Stein and Hardenberg in Prussia, of the French
and of their clients in South Germany, opened the way for a
gradual redemption of the peasantry. Personal serfdom (Leibei-
genschaft) was abolished first, hereditary subjection (Erbunter-
thanigkeit) followed next. Emancipation in this case was not con-
nected with a recognition of the full tenant-right of the peasants;
they had to part with a good deal of their land. To the last the
landowners were not disturbed in their economic predominance,
and succeeded very well in working their estates by the help of
agricultural labourers and farmers. In the west, the small
peasant proprietorship had a better chance, but it arose in the
course of economic competition rather than through any general
recognition of tenant-right. On the whole serfdom appears as a
characteristic coroEary of feudalism. It grew up as a consequence
of customary subjection and natural husbandry; it melted away
with the coming in of an industrial and commercial age.
AUTHORITIES. Wallon, Histoire de Vesclavage dans I'antiquite;
Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyklopddie des klassischen Altertums, s.v.
" Coloni "; Fustel de Coulanges, Recherches sur quelques problemes
d'histoire; Institutions politiques de la France (L'alleu et le domains
rural); F. Seebohm, English Village Community (1883); P. Vino-
gradoff. The Growth of the Manor (1905) ; G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfas-
sungsgeschichte (1844, ff.); P. Vio'.let, Histoire du droit franc.ais
(3rd ed., 1905) ; Engelmann, Geschichte der Leibeigenschaft in Russ-
land; Kluchevsky, Lectures on the History of Russia (in Russian), ii.
( 1 906) ; G. Hansen, Die A ufhebung der Lefbeigenschaft in Schleswig und
Holstein (1861) ; G. F. Knapp, Die Bauernbefreiung in Preussen (1887) ;
Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, ed. by Conrad and Lexis,
s.w. " Bauernbefreiung," " Unfreiheit," " Grundherrschaft." (P.Vi.)
SERGEL, JOHAN TOBIAS (1740-1814), Swedish sculptor,
was born on the 8th of September 1740 in Stockholm. After
studying for some time in Paris he went to Rome, where he
remained for twelve years' and sculptured a number of groups
in marble, including, besides subjects from classical mythology,
a colossal representation of " History," in which are depicted
the achievements of Gustavus Adolphus before the Chancellor
Oxenstierna. It was in Rome also that he modelled the statue
of Gustavus III., subsequently cast in bronze and purchased by
the city of Stockholm in 1796. Sergei returned to Stockholm in
1779 and continued to produce his works there. Among them are
a tomb for Gustavus Vasa, a monument to Descartes, and a
large relief in the church of St Clarens in Stockholm, representing
the Resurrection. He died in his native city on the 26th of
February 1814.
SERGINSK, UPPER and LOWER, two towns of East Russia,
in the government of Perm, 53 and 44 m. W.S.W. of Ekaterin-
burg respectively. They are noted for their iron-works. Upper
Serginsk, which had a population of 8000 in 1897, yields annually
over 8000 tons of pig-iron and 12,000 tons of steel. Lower
Serginsk, with 14,000 inhabitants, yields about 7250 tons of pig-
iron and 14,500 tons of steel. The latter town is well built and
has a monument to Alexander II. Mineral waters (sulphurous)
are found close by.
SERGIPE (originally SERGIPE D'EL-REY), a small Atlantic
state of Brazil, bounded N. by Alag6as, E. by the Atlantic, and
S. and W. by Bahia. Area, 15,093 sq. m. Pop. (1900) 356,264,
three-fourths half-castes and negroes. The Sao Francisco forms
its northern boundary, and the drainage of the northern part
of the state is northward and eastward to that river. The
southern half of the state, however, slopes eastward and is
drained directly into the Atlantic through a number of small
rivers, the largest of which are the Irapiranga (whose source is
in the state of Bahia and which is called Vasa Barris at its mouth) ,
the Real, and the Cotinguiba. These streams are navigable for
short distances, but are obstructed by sand-bars at their mouths,
that of Cotinguiba being especially dangerous. The surface
of the state resembles in part that of Bahia, with a zone of
forested lands near the coast, and back of this a higher zone of
rough open country, called agrestes. There is a sandy belt along
the coast, and the western frontier is slightly mountainous.
The intermediate lands are highly fertile, especially in the
forested region, where the rainfall is abundant. Further inland
the year is divided into wet and dry seasons with occasional
prolonged droughts. These districts are pastoral, and the lower
fertile lands are cultivated for sugar, cotton, maize, tobacco,
rice, beans, and mandioca sugar being the principal product.
SERGIUS, ST SERIEMA
667
Rubber and some other natural products are exported. Ther<
is only one railway in the state, which runs from Aracaju north
ward to Capella, with a branch running westward to Simao Dias
The only manufacturing industries of importance are cotton mills
sugar factories and distilleries, one of the largest sugar usines
in Brazil being located at Riachuelo near Larangeiras. Then
are no good ports on the coast because of the bars at the mouths
of the rivers.
The capital of the state is Aracaju (pop. 1890, 16,336; 1906
estimate, 25,000), on the lower course, or estuary, of the Cotin-
guiba river> near the coast. The bar at the entrance to this river
is exceptionally dangerous, and the port is frequented only by
coasting vessels of light draught. The town stands on a sandy
plain, and there are sand dunes within the city limits. The
public buildings are a large plain church with unfinished twin
towers, the government palace, the legislative halls, a normal
school and public hospital. The other principal towns are
Estancia (pop. 1890, 14,555) on the Rio Real in the southern
part of the state, with manufactures of cotton textiles, cigars
and cigarettes, and soap, and an active trade; Laranjeiras
(11,350), in a highly productive sugar district N. of the capital;
Capella (11,034); Simao Dias (10,984); Lagarto (10,473);
Sao Christovao, formerly Sergipe d'el-Rey (8793), the old capital,
near the mouth of the Irapiranga, and Maroim (7851).
SERGIUS, ST, generally associated with St Bacchus, one of
the most celebrated martyrs of Christian antiquity. His festival
is on the 7th of October, and the centre of his cult was Resafa,
or Rosafa, in Syria, in the province of Augusta Euphratesia.
This town, which since the middle of the 6th century was also
called Sergiopolis, acquired importance as a place of pilgrimage,
and became a bishop's see (Le Quien, Oriens Christ, ii. 951).
The cult of the saint spread rapidly. In 353 we find a church of
St Sergius at Eitha, in Batanaea (Waddington, Inscriptions de
Syrie, n. 2124) the most ancient example of a dedication of this
kind. In the 6th century St Sergius was honoured in the West
(Gregory of Tours, De gloria martyr um, 96). According to their
Ada (which, however, have little authority), SS. Sergius and
Bacchus were soldiers. In art they are most generally represented
in military costume.
See Acta sanctorum (October), iii. 833-883; Analecta Bollandiana,
xiv- 373-395- (H. DE.)
SERGIUS, the name of four popes.
SERGIUS I., pope from 687 to 701, came of an Antiochene
famfly which had settled at Palermo. He was elected after a
fierce struggle between two other candidates, Paschal and
Theodore. In the second year of his pontificate he baptized
King Ceadwalla of Wessex at Rome. For rejecting certain canons
of the Trullan (Quinisext) council of 692, Justinian II. com-
manded his arrest and transportation to Constantinople, but the
militia of Ravenna and the Pentapolis forced the imperial
protospatharius to abandon the attempt to carry out his orders.
Sergius was followed by John VI. as pope.
SERGIDS II., pope from 844 to 847, a Roman of noble birth,
elected by the clergy and people to succeed Gregory IV., was
forthwith consecrated without waiting for the sanction of the
emperor Lothair, who accordingly sent his son Louis with an
army to punish the breach of faith. A pacific arrangement was
ultimately made, and Louis was crowned king of Lombardy by
Sergius. He was a man of weak health, suffering much from
gout, and abandoned the direction of affairs to unworthy persons,
whose administration provoked many complaints. In this
pontificate Rome was ravaged, and the churches of St Peter and
St Paul robbed, by Saracens (August 846) . Sergius was succeeded
by Leo IV.
SERGIUS III., elected pope by one of the factions in Rome
in 898, simultaneously with John IX., was expelled from the
city by his adversaries. Circumstances becoming more favour-
able, he reappeared in 904, seized the two claimants, Leo V.
and Christopher, who were disputing the succession of Benedict
IV., and had them strangled. His adherents rallied round the
vesliarius Theophylact, a powerful Roman functionary, and his
wife Theodora. Sergius is reputed to have been the lover of
Theodora's daughter Marozia, by whom he is said to have had a
son, who became pope as John XI. This is the beginning of the
so-called " pornocracy." Unlike John IX. and his successors,
Sergius was very hostile to the memory of Pope Formosus, and
refused to recognize any of the ordinations celebrated by him,
thus causing grave disorders. He also affected to consider as
anti-popes, not only John IX., but also his successors down to
and including Christopher. He restored the Lateran basilica,
which had fallen down in 897. He died on the i4th of April 911,
and was succeeded by Anastasius III.
SERGIUS IV., pope from 1009 to 1012, originally bore the name
of Bucca porca (Os porci). He was a mere tool in the hands of
the feudal nobility of the city; he was succeeded by Benedict
VIII.
SERGIYEVO, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow,
44 m. by rail N.N.E. of Moscow. It has grown up round the
monastery or lavra of Troitsko-Sergiyevskaya. It is situated
in a beautiful country, the buildings extending partly over the
hill occupied by the monastery and partly over the valley below.
Including the suburbs it had, in 1884, 31,400 inhabitants, and
31,413 in 1900. Sergiyevo has long been renowned for its manu-
facture of holy pictures (painted and carved), spoons, and other
articles carved in wood, especially toys, which are sold to pilgrims
who resort to the place to the number of 100,000 annually.
The Troitsk or Trinity monastery is the most sacred spot in
middle Russia, the Great Russians regarding it with more
veneration than even the cathedrals and relics of the Kremlin
at Moscow. It occupies a picturesque site on the top of a hill,
protected on two sides by deep ravines and steep slopes. The
walls, 25 to 50 ft. in height, are fortified by nine towers, one of
which is a prison for both civil and ecclesiastical offenders.
Thirteen churches, including the Troitskiy (Trinity) and Uspen-
skiy cathedrals, a bell-tower, a theological academy, various
buildings for monks and pilgrims, and a hospital stand within
the precincts, which are two-thirds of a mile in circuit. A small
wooden church, erected by the monk Sergius, and afterwards
burned (1391) by the Tatars, stood on the site now occupied by
the cathedral of the Trinity, which was built in 1422, and contains
the relics of Sergius, as well as ecclesiastic treasures of priceless
value and a holy picture which has frequently been brought into
requisition in Russian campaigns. The Uspensky cathedral
was erected in 1585; close beside it are the graves of Tsar Boris
Godunov (died in 1605) and his family. In the southern part of
the monastery is the church of Sergius, beneath which are spacious
rooms where 200,000 dinners are distributed gratis every year to
;he pilgrims. The bell-tower, 320 ft. high, has a bell weighing
64 tons. Several monasteries of less importance exist in the
neighbourhood. In 1340 two brothers erected a church on the
spot. The elder took monastic orders under the name of Sergius,
and became famous among the peasants around. His monastery
acquired great fame and became the wealthiest in middle Russia,
[van the Terrible in 1561 made it the centre of the ecclesiastical
province of Moscow. During the Polish invasion at the beginning
of the 1 7th century it organized the national resistance. In
1608-1609 it withstood a sixteen months' siege by the Poles; at
a later date the monks took a lively part in the organization of
he army which crushed the outbreak of the peasants. In 1685
Peter the Great took refuge here from the revolted strdtzi, or
Muscovite military guards. The theological seminary, founded
n 1744 and transformed in 1814 into an academy, reckoned
3 laton and Philarete among its pupils.
SERIEMA, or CARIAMA, a South-American bird, sufficiently
ivell described and figured in G. de L. Marcgrav's work (Hist,
er. nat. Brasiliae, p. 203), posthumously published by De Laet
n 1648, to be recognized by succeeding ornithologists, among
whom M. J. Brisson in 1760 acknowledged it as forming a
distinct genus Cariama, while Linnaeus regarded it as a second
pecies of Palamedea "(see SCREAMER), under the name of P.
ristata, Englished by J. Latham in 1785 (Synopsis, v. 20) the
' Crested Screamer," an appellation since transferred to a
wholly different bird. Nothing more seems to have been known
of it in Europe till 1803, when Azara published at Madrid his
668
SERIES
observations on the birds of Paraguay (Apwntamientos, No. 340),
wherein he gave an account of it under the name of " Saria,"
which it bore among the Guaranis, that of " Cariama " being
applied to it by the Portuguese settlers, and both expressive of its
ordinary cry. 1 It was not, however, until 1809 that this very
remarkable form came to be autoptically described scientifically.
This was done by the elder Geoffrey St-Hilaire (Ann. du mustum,
xiii. pp. 362-370, pi, 26), who had seen a specimen in the Lisbon
museum; and, though knowing it had already been received
into scientific nomenclature, he called it anew Microdactylus
marcgraiiii. In 1811 J. K. W. Illiger, without having seen an
example, renamed the genus Dicholophus a term which has
since been frequently applied to it placing it in the curious
congeries of forms having little affinity which he called A lectorides.
In the course of his travels in Brazil (1815-1817), Prince Max of
Wied met with this bird, and in 1823 there appeared from his
pen N. Act. Acad. L.-C. nat. curiosorum, xi. pt. 2, pp. 341-350,
tab. xlv.) a very good contribution to its history, embellished
by a faithful life-sized figure of its head. The same year Tem-
minck figured it in the Planches coloriees (No. 237) . It is not easy
to say when any example of the bird first came under the eyes
of British ornithologists; but in the Zoological Proceedings for
Seriema.
1836 (pp. 29-32) W. Martin described the visceral and osteological
anatomy of one which had been received alive the preceding year.
The Seriema, owing to its long legs and neck, stands some two
feet or more in height, and in menageries bears itself with a stately
deportment. Its bright red beak, the bare bluish skin surrounding
its large grey eyes, and the tufts of elongated feathers springing
vertically from its lores, give it a pleasing and animated expression ;
but its plumage generally is of an inconspicuous ochreous grey above
and dull white beneath, the feathers of the upper parts, which on
the neck and throat are long and loose, being barred by fine zigzag
markings of dark brown, while those of the lower parts are more
or less striped. The wing-quills are brownish black, banded with
mottled white, and those of the tail, except the middle pair, which are
wholly greyish brown, are banded with mottled white at the base and
the tip, but dark brown for the rest of their length. The legs are
red. The Seriema inhabits the campos or elevated open parts of
Brazil, from the neighbourhood of Pernambuco to the Rio de la
Plata, _ extending inland as far as Matto Grosso (long. 60), and
occurring also, though sparsely, in Paraguay. It lives in the high
grass, running away in a stooping posture to avoid discovery on
being approached, and taking flight only at the utmost need. Yet
it builds its nest in thick bushes or trees at about a man's height from
the ground, therein laying two eggs, which Professor Burmeister
likens to those of the Land-Rail in colour. 1 The young are hatched
'Yet Forbes states (Ibis, 1881, p. 358) that Seriema comes from
Siri, " a diminutive of Indian extraction," and Etna, the Portuguese
name for the Rhea (see EMEU), the whole thus meaning " Little
Rhea."
1 This distinguished author twice cites the figure given by Thiene-
mann (Fortpflanzungsgesch. gesammt. Vogel, pi. Ixxii. fig. 14) as
fully covered with grey down, relieved by brown, and remain for
some time in the nest. The food of the adult is almost exclusively
animal, insects, especially large ants, snails, lizards and snakes,
but it also eats certain large red berries.
Until 1860 the Seriema was believed to be without any near
relative in the living world of birds; 3 but in the Zoological Pro-
ceedings for that year (pp. 334~336) G. Hartlaub described an allied
species discovered by H. C. C. Burmeister in the territory of the
Argentine Republic. 4 This bird, which has since been regarded as
entitled to generic division under the name of Chunga burmeisteri
(P.Z.S., 1870, p. 466, pi. xxxvi.), and seems to be known in its
native country as the " Chunnia," differs from the Seriema by fre-
quenting forest or at least bushy districts. It is also darker in colour,
has less of the frontal crest, shorter legs, a longer tail, and the mark-
ings beneath take the form of bars rather than stripes, while the bill,
eyes and legs are all black. In other respects the difference between
the two birds seems to be immaterial.
There are few birds which have more exercised the taxonomer
than this, and the reason seems to be plain. The Seriema must be
regarded as the not greatly modified heir of some very old type, such
as one may fairly imagine to have lived before many of the existing
groups of birds had become differentiated, and it is probable that
the extinct birds known as Stereornithes, and in particular the fossil
Phororhachos from the Miocene of Patagonia, were closely allied to its
ancestors. It is now placed in the family Cariamidae of Gruiform
bird? (see BIRD). (A. N.)
SERIES (a Latin word from serere, to join), a succession or
sequence. In mathematics, the term is applied to a succession of
arithmetical or algebraic quantities (see below); in geology it is
synonymous with formation, and denotes a stage in the classifica-
tion of strata, being superior to group (and consequently to bed,
and zone or horizon) and inferior to system; in chemistry, the
term is used particularly in the form homologous series, given to
hydrocarbons of similar constitution and their derivatives which
differ in empirical composition by a multiple of CH 2 , and in the
form isologous series, applied to hydrocarbons and their deriva-
tives which differ in empirical composition by a multiple of H 2 ;
it is also used in the form isomorphous series to denote elements
related isomorphously. The word is also employed in zoological
and botanical classification.
In mathematics a set of quantities, real or complex, arranged
in order so that each quantity is definitely and uniquely deter-
mined by its position, is said to form a series. Usually a series
proceeds in one direction and the successive terms are denoted
by MI, MJ, . . . , . . . ; we may, however, have a series pro-
ceeding in both directions, a back-and-forwards series, in which
case the terms are denoted by
. . . u_m, . . . M_ 2 , _i, MO, i, 2, ...,... ;
or its general term may depend on two integers positive or nega-
tive, and its general term may be denoted by u m , ; such a series
is called a double series, and so on. The number of terms may be
limited or unlimited, and we have two theories, (i) of finite series
and (2) of infinite series. The first concerns itself mainly with
the summation of a finite number of terms of the series; the
notions of convergence and divergence present themselves in the
theory of infinite series.
Finite Series.
i. When we are given a series, it is supposed that we are given the
law by which the general term is formed. The first few terms of a
series afford no clue to the general term; the series of which the
first four terms are 1,2,4, 8, may be the series of which the general
term is 2"; it may equally well be the series of which the general
term is i(n 3 +5n-(-6) ; in fact we can construct an infinite number
of series of which the leading terms shall be any assigned quantities.
The only case in which the series may be completely determined from
its leading terms is that of a " recurring series." A recurring series
is a series in which the consecutive terms, after the earlier ones, are
connected by a linear relation ; thus if we have a relation of the form
a p u r + a p -,Ur + i +flp- 2 r+ j-|- . . . +a,u r + f _ ) +a u r+f =o,
the series is said to be a recurring series with a scale of relation
though taken from a genuine specimen ; but little that can be called
Ralline in character is observable therein. The same is to be said of
an egg laid in captivity at Paris; but a specimen in Mr Walter's
possession undeniably shows it (cf. Proc. Zool. Society, 1881, p. 2).
1 A supposed fossil Cariama from the caves of Brazil, mentioned by
Bonaparte (C.R. xliii. p. 779) and others, has since been shown by
Reinhardt (Ibis, 1882, pp. 321-332) to rest upon the misinterpretation
of certain bones, which the latter considers to have been those of a
Rhea.
4 Near Tucuman and Catamarca (Burmeister, Reise durch die La
Plata Staaten, ii. p. 508).
SERIES
669
a,, + a t x + a*x* + . . . + <V- It is clear that we can regard the
series o4-tti*+tt2* 2 +. . .as the expansion in powers of * of an
expression of the form
(ba+bix+ . . . +6 p _i*^ 1 )/(oo+0i*+ . . . +apX"),
and by splitting this expression into partial fractions we can
obtain the general term of the series. If we know that a series
is a recurring series and know the number of terms in its scale of
relation, we can determine this scale if we are given a sufficient
number of terms of the series and obtain its general term. It
follows that the general term of a recurring series is of the form
Z<t>(n)a", where 4>(n) is a rational integral algebraic function of n,
and o is independent of n. The series whose general term is of the
form Ka" +<(), where <t>(n) is a rational integral algebraic function
of degree r, is a recurring series whose scale of relation is (l ax)
(l *) rfl , but the general term of this series may be obtained by
another method. Suppose we have a series M O , i, Ms, . . . From
this we can form a series v a , vi, v 2 ,... where !> n =Mn+i w>; from
fo, PI, >,... we similarly form another series and so on; we
write n =AMn, and we suppose E to be an operation such that
En=ttfH-i (the notation is that of the calculus of finite differences) ;
the operations E and I +A are equivalent and hence the operations
E" and (i +A)" are equivalent, so that we obtain w n = Wo4-Ao +
' t 2 A 2 + . . . This is true whatever the form of n. When
Mn is of the form Ka"+<(n), where 4>(n) is of degree r, A 1 " 1 " 1 ^, A r+i o,
. . . form a geometrical progression, of which the common difference
is a i, or vanish if the term Ka" is absent. In either case we readily
obtain the expression for w n .
2. The general problem of finite series is to find the sum of
terms of a series of which the law of formation is given. By finding
the sum to n terms is meant finding some simple function of n, or
a sum of a finite number of simple functions, the number being
independent of n, which shall be equal to this sum. Such an ex-
pression cannot always be found even in the case of the simplest
series. The sum of n terms of the arithmetic progression a, a+b,
0+26, ... is na-\-\n(n i)b; the sum of n terms of the geometric
progression a, ab, a& 2 , ...is a(i 6")/(l 6); yet we can find no
simple expression to represent the sum of n terms of the harmonic
progression
3. The only type of series that can be summed to n terms with
complete generality is a recurring series. If we let Sn = o+Mi*+
. . . +n-iX"~ l , where KO, . . . is a recurring series with a given scale of
relation, for simplicity take it to be i+px+qx*, we shall have
Sn(i +px+qx*) = tt +(i+M>)*+(M'-i+2Mn_2)* n +g_i*" +1 .
If * had a value that made l+px+qx 2 vanish, this method would
fail, but we could find the sum in this case by finding the general
term of the series. For particular cases of recurring series we may
proceed somewhat differently. If the nth term is u n x" we have
from the equivalence of the operations E and I +A,
,
(i-x)'
in general, and for the case of x = unity we have
.n.n l. , n.n i.n 2
i ,
T"
.,
A 2 tti + . . .,
which will give the sum of the series very readily when is a
polynomial in n or a polynomial + a term of the form Ka".
4. Other types of series, whe.i they can be summed to n terms at
all, are summed by some special artifice. Summing the series to
3 or 4 terms may suggest the form of the sum to n terms which can
then be established by induction. Or it may be possible to express
ttnin the form Wa+i w n , in which case the sum to n terms is w+\ w\.
Thus, if Un = a(a+b)(a+2b) . . . (a+n-ib)/c(c+b)(c+2b) . . .
(c+n ib), the relation (c+nb)u^.i = (a+nb)Un can be thrown into
the form (c+nb)u^+i (c+n ib)u n = (a c+b)ti*, whence the sum
can be found. Again, if n = tan nx tan ( + i)y, the summation
can be effected by writing Un in the form cot x (tan n + ix tan nx) i .
Or a series may be recognized as a coefficient in a product. Thus,
if f(x) = u +u 1 x+uiX 2 +. . ., o+i+. . . +w n is the coefficient of
x" in f(x)/(i x) ; in this way the sum of the first n coefficients in
the expansion of (i x)-* may be found. The sum of one series may
be deduced from that of another by differentiation or integration.
For further information the reader may consult G. Chrystal's Algebra
(vol. ii.).
5. The sum of an infinite series may be deduced from the sum
to n terms, when this is known, by increasing n indefinitely and
finding the limit, if any, to which it tends, but a series may often be
summed to infinity when it cannot be summed to n terms; the
sum of the infinite series ^+55+75+. . .is -^-, the sum to n terms
cannot be found.
For methods and transformations by means of which the sum to
n terms of a series may be found approximately when it cannot be
found exactly, the reader may consult G. Boole's Treatise on the
Calculus of Finite Differences.
Infinite Series.
6. Let MI, s, 8 , . . . , be a series of numbers real or complex,
and let S n denote !+%+. . . +. We thus form a sequence of
numbers Si.Sj, . . . S n . This sequence may tend to a definite finite limit
S as n increases indefinitely. In this case the series WI+MJ+ . . . +
is said to be convergent, and to converge to a sum S. If by taking n
sufficiently large |S n | can be made to exceed any assignable
quantity, however large, the series is said to be divergent. If the
sequence Si, Sj, . . . tends to finite but different limits according
to the form of n the series is said to oscillate, and is also classed
under the head of divergent series. The sum of n terms of the
geometric series i +*+**+. . .is (l x")/(i x). If * is less than
unity S n clearly tends to the limit I/(i x), and the series is con-
vergent and its sum is i/(i x). If x is greater than unity S n clearly
can be made greater than any assignable quantity by taking n large
enough, and the series is divergent. The series 1 1+1 1 + ...,
where S n is unity or zero, according as n is odd or even, is an example
of an oscillating series. The condition of convergency may also be
presented under the following form. Let P R ? denote S^. p S n :
let e be any arbitrarily assigned positive quantity as small as we
please; if we can find a number m such that for m=or>, LR n |<
for all values i, 2,... of p, then the series converges. The least
value of the number m corresponding to a given value of , if it can
be found, may be regarded as a measure of rapidity of the con-
vergency of the series ; it may happen that when involves a variable
x, m increases indefinitely as x approaches some value; in this case
the convergence of the series is said to be infinitely slow for this
value of *.
7. An infinite series may contain both positive and negative
terms. The terms may be positive and negative alternately or they
may occur in groups which without altering the order of the terms
of the series may each be collected jnto a single term; thus all
series may be regarded as belonging to one of two types, i+ W2+w s +
. . .in which the terms are all positive, or u\ Wj+Uj . . .in which
the terms are alternately positive and negative.
8. It is clear that if a series is convergent must tend to the
limit zero as n is increased indefinitely. This condition though
necessary is by no means sufficient. If all the terms of a convergent
series are positive a series obtained by writing its terms in any other
order is convergent and converges to the same sum. For if S n denotes
the sum of n terms of the first series and 2 n denotes the sum of
n terms of the new series, then, when n is any large number, we can
choose numbers p and q such that S,>2 n >S p ; so that 2 tends
to the common limit of S p and S,, which is the sum of the original
series. If ui, u 2 , u>, . . . are all positive, and if after some fixed term,
say the p" 1 , continually decreases and tends to the limit zero,
the series u\ u 2 +us < + ... is convergent. For ISp+z,, SJ
lies between \u p j.i u p+ ?\ and |M P +I Wp+ 2 j so that, when n is
increased indefinitely, |S r+ n| remains finite; also | Sj+jn+i Sp+snl
tends to zero, so that the series converges. If u, tends to a limit a,
distinct from zero, then the series i j+i>3 . . ., where == o,
converges and the series HI u,+u,. . . oscillates. As examples
we may take the series i $-\-\ 1+ ... and 2 f+f 1 + ...;
the first of these converges, the second oscillates.
9. The series Ui+u 3 +u t + . . ., %+<++. . . may each of them
diverge, though the series MI MJ+WS .. .converges. A series
such that the series formed by taking all its terms positively is
convergent is said to be absolutely convergent; when this is not the
case the series is said to be semi-convergent or conditionally con-
vergent. A series of complex numbers in which u n = p n +iq n , where
/> n and g n are real (i being V i), is said to be convergent when the
series pi+pi+p3+ ., $1+52+33+... are separately convergent,
and if they converge to P and Q respectively the sum of the series
is P+iQ. Such a series is said to be absolutely convergent when
the series of moduli of , i.e., 2( n 2 +<jv 2 )i, is convergent; this is
sufficient but not necessary for the separate convergence of the
p and q series.
There is an important distinction between absolutely convergent
and conditionally convergent series. In an absolutely convergent
series the sum is the same whatever the order of the terms; this is
not the case with a conditionally convergent series. The two series
i-i+i-l+..., and i+i-l + fc+*-i+..., in which the
terms are the same but in different orders, are convergent but not
absolutely convergent. If we denote the sum of the first by S and
the sum of the second by 2 it can be shown that 2 = IS. G. F. B.
Riemann and P. G. L. Dirichlet have shown that the terms of a semi-
convergent series may be so arranged as to make the series converge
to any assigned value or even to diverge.
10. Tests for convergency of series of positive terms are obtained
by comparing the series with some series whose convergency or
divergency is readily established. If the series of positive terms
i+2+3+. . ., t>i+t> 2 +t>3+. . . are such that u n jv n is always
finite, then they are convergent or divergent together; if
tH-i/ttn<n+i/z>n and Zv* is convergent, then Sn is convergent; if
Wn+i/ttn>n+i/Pn and St>n is divergent, then 2 n is divergent. By
comparison with the ordinary geometric progression we obtain the
670
SERIES
following tests. If Mu. approaches a limit / as n is indefinitely
increased, 2u n will converge if I is less than unity and will diverge if
I is greater than unity (Cauchy's test); if u^i/u, approaches a
limit / as n is indefinitely increased, Zu, will converge if /is less than
unity and diverge if / is greater than unity (D Alembert s test).
Nothing is settled when the limit / is unity, except in the case when
I remains greater than unity as it approaches unity. The series then
diverges. It may be remarked that if u*+i/u n approaches a limit
and *V approaches a limit, the two limits are the same. The
choice of the more useful test to apply to a particular series depends
on its form. . .
In the case in which M^I/M approaches unity remaining con-
stantly fess than unity, J.L. Raabeand J. M. C. Duhamel have given
the following further criterion. Write /+i = l+a,,, where o is
positive and approaches zero as n is indefinitely increased. If na n
approaches a limit /, the series converges for / > i and diverges for
/< i. For / = i nothing is settled except for the case where I remains
constantly less than unity as it approaches it ; in this case the series
If /() is positive and decreases as n increases, the series 2f() is
convergent or divergent with the series Za"/(a") where a is any
number > 2 (Cauchy s condensation test). By means of this theorem
we can show that the series whose general terms are
nlnl 2 n(l 3 n)'"
where 1 denotes log n, 1'n denotes log-log n, \'n denotes log log log n,
and so on, are convergent if o> i and divergent if o =or< i.
By comparison with these series, a sequence of criteria, known as
the logarithm criteria, has been established by De Morgan and J. L.
Bertrand. A. De Morgan's form is as follows: writing u n =il<t>(n),
where K* denotes log log log. . .*. If the limit, when x is infinite, of
the first of the functions pa, pi, pi, .... whose limit is not unity, is
greater than unity the series is convergent, if less than unity it is
divergent.
In Bertrand's form we take the series of functions
1 /In, l-r-/l ! , Irr-rz/ 13 ".
nu n ni/nln
If the limit, when n is infinite, of the first of these functions, whose
limit is not unity, is greater than unity the series is convergent, if
less than unity it is divergent. Other forms of these criteria may be
found in Chrystal's Algebra, vol. ii.
Though sufficient to test such series as occur in ordinary mathe-
matics, it is possible to construct series for which they entirely fail.
It follows that in a convergent series not only must we have Lt = o
but also Lt nu, = o, Lt nlnu* = o, &c. Abel has, however, shown that
no function 0(n) can exist such that the series ZM is convergent or
divergent as Lt <t>(n)u n is or is not zero.
II. Two or more absolutely convergent series may be added
together, thus (i+j+. . .) + (ri+j+. . .) = (tti+i) + (ttj+t>i) +
. . . , that is, the resulting series is absolutely convergent and has
for its sum the sum of the sums of the two series. Similarly two or
more absolutely convergent scries may be multiplied together thus
and the resulting series is absolutely convergent and its sum is the
product of the sums of the two series. This was shown by Cauchy,
who also showed that the series SK>, where U',=u>v,+tttv^.i +
. . . +iWi, U not necessarily convergent when both series are semi-
convergent. A striking instance is furnished by the series i -rr +
- +
/ - i * i
which is convergent, while its square
-*+
jr+TJ . . . may be shown to be divergent. \F. K. L. Mertens
has shown that a sufficient condition is that one of the two series
should be absolutely convergent, and Abel has shown that if 2ai n
converges at all, it converges to the product of Z and Zt> n .
But more properly the multiplication of two series gives rise to a
double series of which the general term is ,.
12. Before considering a double series we may consider the case of
a series extending backwards and forwards to infinity
Such a series may be absolutely convergent and the sum is then
independent of the order of the terms and is equal to the sums of the
two series KO+KI+MS+. . . and -n+w-t+. . ., but, if not absolutely
convergent, the expression has no definite meaning until it is
explained in what manner the terms are intended to be grouped
together; for instance, the expression may be used to denote the
foregoing sum of two series, or to denote the series tto+(tti+-i) +
(ui+u-t) + and the sum may have different values, or there
may be no sum, accordingly. Thus, if the series be ...} } +
o + } + J+..., with the former meaning the two series O+J+J+
. . . and } J . . . are each divergent, and there is no sum; but
with the latter meaning the series is 0+0+0+ . . . which has a sum
o. So, if the series be taken to denote the limit of (o+i + . . . +n) +
. . . +-m), where n and m are each of them ultimately
infinite, there may be a sum depending on the ratio n : m, which
sum acquires a determinate value only when this ratio is given. In
the case of the series given above, if this ratio is k, the sum of the
series is log k.
13. In a singly infinite series we have a general term u n , where n is
an integer positive in the case of an ordinary series, and positive or
negative in the case of a back-and-forwards series. Similarly for a
doubly infinite series we have a general term ,, where m, n are
integers which may be each of them positive, and the form of the
series is then
<<o,o, "o,: . "",:,
t 1,0, !,!, !,!,.
or they may be each of them positive or negative. _The latter is the
more general supposition, and includes the former, since ,, may =o,
for m or n each or either of them negative. To attach a definite
meaning to the notion of a sum, we may regard m, n as the rectangu-
lar coordinates of a point in a plane; if m and n are each positive we
attend only to the positive quadrant of the plane, but otherwise to
the whole plane. We may imagine a boundary depending on a para-
meter T, which for T infinite is at every point thereof at an infinite
distance from the boundary ; for instance, the boundary may be the
circle a? +y 2 =T, or the four sides of a rectangle, x= oT, y= =*=0T.
Suppose the form is given and the value of T, and let the sum S,n
be understood to denote the sum of the terms !<,, within the
boundary, then, if as T increases without limit, S, continually
approaches a determinate limit (dependent, it may be, on the form
of the boundary) for such form of boundary the series is said to be
convergent, and the sum of the doubly infinite series is the limit
of Sm, n . The condition of convergency maybe otherwise stated ;
it must be possible to take T so large that the sum R m , for all terms
,, which correspond to points outside the boundary shall be as
small as we please.
14. It is easy to see that, if each of the terms Um, n is positive and
the series is convergent for any particular form of boundary, it will
be convergent for any other form of boundary, and the sum will be
the same in each case. Suppose that in the first case the boundary
is the curye/iOe, y) =T. Draw any other boundary /(*, r)=T.
Wholly within this we can draw a curve fi(x, y)=Ti of the first
family, and wholly outside it we can draw a second curve of the first
family, f\(x, y) =Tj. The sum of all the points within f,(x, y) =T'
lies between the sum of all the points within f\(x, y) =Ti and the sum
of all the points within f t (x, y)=T 2 . It therefore tends to the
common limit to which these two last sums tend. The sum is
therefore independent of the form of the boundary. Such a series
is said to be absolutely convergent, and similarly a doubly infinite
series of positive and negative terms is absolutely convergent when
the series formed by taking all its terms positively is convergent.
15. It is readily seen that when the series is not absolutely con-
vergent the sum will depend on the form of the boundary. Consider
the case in which m and n are always positive, and the boundary is
the rectangle formed by x = m,y = n, and the axes. Let the sum
within this rectangle be S, m . This may have a limit when we first
make n infinite and then m ; it may have a limit when we first make
m infinite and then n, but the limits are not necessarily the same;
or there may be no limit in either of these cases but a limit depending
on the ratio of m to n.that is to say, on the shape of the rectangle. _
When the product of two series is arranged as a doubly infinite
series, summing for the rectangular boundary x = aT, y =/JT we obtain
the product of the sums of the series. When we arrange the double
series in the form UiVi + (uM+u,v,) + . . . we are summing over the
triangle bounded by the axes and the straight line *+y = T, and
the results are not necessarily the same if the terms are not all posi-
tive. For full particulars concerning multiple series the reader may
consult E. Goursat, Gours d 'analyse, vol. i. ; G. Chrystal, Algebra,
vol. ii.; or T. J. I'A. Bromwich, The Theory of Infinite Series.
16. In the series so far considered the terms are actual numbers,
or, at least, if the terms are functions of a variable, we have con-
sidered the convergency only when that variable has an assigned
value. In the case, however, of a series ui(z)+uz(z) + . . ., where
i(z), ttj(z),. . . are single-valued continuous functions of the general
complex variable z, if the series converges for any value of z, in general
it converges for all values of z, whose representative points lie within
a certain area called the " domain of convergence "and within this
area defines a function which we may call S(z). It might be supposed
that S(z) was necessarily a continuous function of z, but this is not
the case. G. G. Stokes (1847) and P. L. Seidel (1848) independently
discovered that in the neighbourhood of a point of discontinuity
the convergence is infinitely slow and thence arises the notion of
uniform and non-uniform convergence.
17. If for any value of z the series MI(Z)+MJ(Z) + . . .converges it
is possible to find an integer n such that |S(z) S n (z)|<, |S(z)
S,H.I(Z) | < where c is any arbitrarily assigned positive quantity,
however small. For a given t the least value of n will vary through-
out any region from point to point of that region. It may, however,
be possible to find an integer v which is a superior limit to all _the
values of n in that region, and we thus have, throughout this region,
| S(z) -Si-(z) | < ,J S (z) -Si. + i(z) |< t. . .where z is any point in the
region and v is a finite integer depending only on t and not on *.
SERINGAPATAM
671
The series is then said to converge uniformly throughout this
region.
If, as z approaches the value z\, n increases as |z-zi| diminishes
and becomes indefinitely great as |z-Zj.| becomes indefinitely small
the series is said to be non-uniformly convergent at the point z\.
A function represented by a series is continuous throughout any
region in which the series is uniformly convergent; there cannot be
discontinuity with uniform convergence; on the other hand there
may be continuity and non-uniform convergence. If i(z) + 2 (z) +...
is uniformly convergent we shall havefS(z)dz=fui(z)dz+fu i (z')dz+...
along any path in the region of uniform convergence; and we shall
also have j~S(z) = J-MI(Z) + j- 2 (z) + ... if the series jjWi(z) + j^ 2 ( z )
+ ... is uniformly convergent.
Uniform convergence is essentially different from absolute con-
vergence; neither implies the other (see FUNCTION).
18. A series of the form a +aiZ+a 2 z 2 + . . ., in which a , d, 02, ...
are independent of z, is called a power series.
In the case of a power series there is a quantity R such that the
series converges if | z \ < R, and diverges if | z | > R. A circle de-
scribed with the origin as centre and radius R is called the circle
of convergence. A power series may or may not converge on the
circle of convergence. The circle of convergence may be of
infinite radius as in the case of the series for sin z, viz. z -[+
-i ... In this case the series converges over the whole of the
z plane. Or its radius may be zero as in the case of the series
1+1! z+2 ! z* + . . ., which converges nowhere except at the origin.
The radius R may be found usually, but not always, from the con-
sideration that a series converges absolutely if |Mn+i/n|<i, an d
diverges if |n+i/n| > i.
A power series converges absolutely and uniformly at every point
within its circle of convergence; it may be differentiated or in-
tegrated term by term ; the function represented by a power series
is continuous within its circle of convergence and, if the series is
convergent on the circle of convergence, the continuity extends on
to the circle of convergence. Two power series cannot be equal
throughout any region in which both are convergent without being
identical.
19. Series of the type Oo+ai cos z+az cos 2z+ . . .
+61 sin z+&2 sin 2Z+ . . .,
where the coefficients ay, 01, 02, ... bi, b,, . . . are independent of z,
are called Fourier's series. They are of the greatest interest and
importance both from the point of view of analysis and also because
of their applications to physical problems. For the consideration of
these series and the expansion of arbitrary functions in series of this
type see FUNCTION and FOURIER'S SERIES. For the general problem
of the development of functions in infinite series of various types
see FUNCTION.
20. The modern theory of convergence dates from the publication
in 1821 of Cauchy's Analyse algebrique. The great mathematicians
of the 1 8th century used infinite series freely with very little regard
to their convergence or divergence and with, occasionally, very
extraordinary results. Series which are ultimately divergent may
be used to calculate values of functions in special cases and to repre-
sent what are called " asymptotic expansions " of functions (see
FUNCTION).
Infinite Products.
21. The product of an infinite number of factors formed in suc-
cession according to any given law is called an infinite product.
The infinite product m=(i+Mi)(i+z) . . . (i+n) is said to be con-
vergent when Ltn-ojUn tends to a definite finite limit other than zero.
If Lt n. is zero or infinite or tending to different finite values accord-
ing to the form of n the product is said to be divergent.
The condition for convergency may also be stated in the following
form, (i) The value of n n remains finite and different from zero
however great n may become, and (2) Lt n and Lt n^. r must be equal,
when n is increased indefinitely, and r is any positive integer. Since
in particular Lt n n = Lt m+i, we must have Lt u^i = o. Hence after
some fixed term ui, u%, . . or their moduli in the case of complex
quantities, must diminish continually down to zero. Since we may
remove any finite number of terms in which \u n \ > I without
affecting the convergence of the whole product, we may regard as the
general type of a convergent product (i +i)(i + 2 ) . . . (i +u n ) . . .
where \Ui\, |MS|, . . . \u n \, ... are all less than unity and decrease
continually to zero.
A convergent infinite product is said to' be absolutely convergent
where the order of its factors is immaterial. Where this is not the
case it is said to be semi-convergent.
22. The necessary and sufficient condition that the product
(i +i)(i +1*2) ... should converge absolutely is that the series
|i| + |2|+ . . . should be convergent. If MI, 2 , . . . are all of the
same sign, then, if the series UI+UK+ ... is divergent, the product is
infinite if i,M2, . . are all positive and zero if they are all negative.
If i 4-ttj-r- ... is a semi-convergent series the product converges,
but not absolutely, or diverges to the value zero, according as the
series u?+u+ ... is convergent or divergent. These results may
be deduced by considering, instead of n n , log Iln which is the series
log (i+i)+log (i+2)+ . . . (see G. Chrystal's Algebra, vol. ii., or
E. T. Whittaker's Modern Analysis, chap, ii.); they may also be
proved by means of elementary theorems on inequalities (see E. W.
Hobson's Plane Trigonometry, chap. xvii.).
23. If i, MS, ... are functions of a variable 2, a convergent infinite
product (i +ui) (i +Ui) . . . defines a function of z. For such products
there is a theory of uniform convergence analogous to that of infinite
series. Is is not in general possible to represent a function as an
infinite product; the question has been dealt with by Weierstrass
(see his Abhandluneen aus der Functionlehre or A. R. Forsyth's
Theory of Functions). One of the simplest cases of a function ex-
pressed as an infinite product is that of sin z/z, which is the value of
the absolutely convergent infinite product.
24. K. T. W. Weierstrass has shown that a semi-convergent or
divergent infinite product may be made absolutely convergent by the
association with each factor of a suitable exponential factor called
sometimes a " convergency factor." The product (i+~) (i-| )
1 __
( i + ) ... is divergent; the product (i-| J e " /i-)- 1 e 2 * . . .
is absolutely convergent. The product for sin z/z is semi-convergent
when written in the form
but absolutely convergent when written in the form
( Z
'-;
From this last form it can be shown that if
,- H) (.-) ...(-) (.Hi) (,4) ... (,+).
then the limit of <(z) as m and n are both made infinite in any
given ratio is
(m\ 5 sin z
I - I IT - .
\nl z
Another example of an absolutely convergent infinite product,
whose convergency depends on the presence of an exponential
factor, is the product zll (i jjj e " " where Q denotes 2mun +
2n&>2, ai and un being any two quantities having a complex ratio,
and the product is taken over all positive and negative integer and
zero values of m and n, except simultaneous zeros. This product is
the expression in factors of Weierstrass's elliptic function <r(z).
AUTHORITIES. G. Chrystal, Algebra, vol. ii. (1900); E. Goursat,
Cours analyse (translated by E. R. Hedrick), vol. i. (1902); J.
Harkness and F. Mprley, A Treatise on the Theory of Functions
(1893) and Introduction to the Theory of Analytic Functions (1899);
E. W. Hobson, Plane Trigonometry (1891), and Theory of Functions of
a Real Variable: H. S. Carslaw, Fourier's Series; E. T. Whittaker,
Modern Analysis (1902); J. Tannery, Introduction a la theorie des
functions d'une variable; C. Jordan, Cours d' analyse de I'Ecole
Polytechnique (2nd ed., 1896); E. Cesaro, Corso di analisi algebraica
(1894); O- Stolz, Allgemeine Arithmetik (1886); O. Biermann,
Elemente der hdheren Mathematik (1895) ; W. F. Osgood, Introduction
to Infinite Series ; T. J. I'A. Bromwich, Theory of Infinite Series (1908).
Also the article by A. Pringsheim, " Irrationalzahlen und Kon-
vergenz unendlichen Prozesse " in the Encyclopadie^ der mathc-
matischen Wissenschojten i, a. 3 (Leipzig). For the history of the
subject see R.Reiff, Geschichte der unendlichen Reihen; G. H. Hardy,
A Course of Pure Mathematics. (A. E. J.)
SERINGAPATAM, or SRIRANGAPATANA, a town of India,
formerly capital of the state of Mysore, situated on an island of
the same name in the Cauvery river. Pop. (1901) 8584. The
town is chiefly noted for its fortress, which figured prominently in
Indian history at the close of the i8th century. This formid-
able stronghold of Tippoo Sultan twice sustained a siege from
the British, and was finally stormed in 1799. After its capture
the island was ceded to the British, but restored to Mysore in
1881. The island of Seringapatam is about 3 m. in length from
east to west and i in breadth, and yields valuable crops of rice
and sugar-cane. The fort occupies the western side, immediately
overhanging the river. Seringapatam is said to have been
founded in 1454 by a descendant of one of the local officers
appointed by Ramanuja, the Vishnuite apostle, who named
it the city of Sri Ranga or Vishnu. At the eastern or lower
end of the island is the Lai Bagh or " red garden," containing
the mausoleum built by Tippoo Sultan for his father Hyder Ali,
in which Tippoo himself also lies.
672
SERJEANT SERJEANTY
SERJEANT, or SERGEANT (from Lat. serviens, seroire, to
serve, through O. Fr. sergant, serjant, mod. Fr. sergent), the title
(i) of a non-commissioned officer in the army and of a sub-
ordinate officer of police; (2) of certain officials of the royal
household (see Serjeants-at-arms, below). (3) The name was
also given formerly to the highest rank of barristers in England
and Ireland (see SERJEANT-AT-LAW). In the middle ages serviens
had a variety of applications all connoting the sense of service,
from the serviens de pane et mensa, the domestic servant of a
monastery, to the servientes de armis, the serjeants-at-arms
(Fr. sergeans d'armes) of monarchs, the servientes (sergeans)
who were the apparitors of the French king, and vassals who
held by a special service (serjeanty, q.v.). The Serjeants (Jratres
sermentes) formed also an important division of the great military
orders (see SAINT JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF THE ORDER
OF, and TEMPLARS). Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. " Serviens ")
gives many other instances.
1. Military Title. In its early military uses the word implied
a subordinate, and it is not clear how it came to be used for
a minor commander. The " Serjeants " of ordinary medieval
armies were the heavy-armed (generally mercenary) cavalry
or men-at-arms. In the isth century it became usual to sub-
divide troops of all sorts into groups of dissimilar combatants,
graded amongst themselves according to military or social
importance. Thus a " lance," or group, might consist of a
heavy-armed lancer (man-at-arms), a mounted and a foot archer
and an armed valet, and the " Serjeant " would be its most
important member. But the general evolution of armies led
to their being classed by arms and grouped in more homogeneous
regiments. Under such an organization the title of the group-
leader lost its cavalry significance and became specifically the
designation of an infantry rank. From the cavalry it disappeared
altogether, the titles " corporal of horse," " marechal des logis,"
&c., taking its place. In i6th and lyth century armies the title
Serjeant is found amongst the highest ranks of an army. With
a partial return to the old meaning it signifies, in all its forms,
an expert professional soldier, the Serjeant of a company, the
serjeant-major of a regiment and the serjeant-major-general of
the army (these last the originals of the modern ranks, major and
major-general) being charged with all duties pertaining to the
arraying, camping and drill of their units.
In modern armies the word Serjeant is used of a non-com-
missioned officer ranking between corporal and serjeant-major.
A " lance-serjeant " is a corporal holding the appointment and
performing the duties, but not having the rank of Serjeant.
The serjeant-major in the British service is a " warrant-officer,"
although in the cavalry and artillery the ranks of " troop,"
" squadron " or " battery serjeant-major " are non-commissioned
and correspond to the " colour-serjeant " of infantry. This
last officer is the senior non-commissioned officer of a company,
and has, besides his duties in the colour-party, the pay and
accounting work of his unit. The former " corporal of horse "
and " corporal-major " still survive in the British Household
Cavalry. In Germany, Austria and Russia the regimental
serjeant-majors of infantry and cavalry are styled Feldwebel
and Wachtmeister respectively, while in France the titles are
adjuOa.nl and marechal des logis or marshal des logis chef.
2. Serjeants-at-Arms. In the British royal household there
are eight serjeants-at-arms, whose duties are ceremonial; they
have to be in attendance only at drawing-rooms, levees, state
balls and state concerts. There are also two other serjeants-at-
arms to whom special duties are assigned, the one attending the
Speaker of the House of Commons and the other the lord
chancellor in the House of Lords, carrying their maces and
executing their orders. .The Speaker's serjeant-at-arms is the
disciplinary officer of the House of Commons, whose duty it is
to expel members at the order of the Speaker and to arrest and
keep in custody those persons condemned to this punishment
by the authority of the House. The serjeants-at-arms have no
special uniform. At court they wear any naval, military or
civil uniform to which they may be entitled, or the court dress
of those holding legal appointments, but not entitled to wear
robes, i.e. a suit of black cloth, with knee-breeches, lace bands
and ruffles, a black silk cocked hat with rosette and steel loop
and a sword. A silver collar of office is worn on special occasions.
This costume, with the chain, is that worn by the serjeants-at-
arms in the House of Lords and the House of Commons always.
SERJEANT-AT-LAW, the name (see above) given to what
was formerly an order of the highest rank of barristers at the
English or Irish bar. The word is a corruption of serviens ad
legem, as distinguished from apprenticius ad legem, or utter
barrister, who probably originally obtained his knowledge of
law by serving a kind of apprenticeship to a Serjeant. When
the order of Serjeants was instituted is unknown, but it certainly
dates from a very remote period. The authority of Serjeant
counters or counters (i.e. pleaders, those who frame counts in
pleading) is treated in the Mirror of Justices, and they are named
in 3 Edw. I. c. 29. They may possibly have been the representa-
tives of the conteurs mentioned in the great customary of
Normandy. The position of the Serjeant had become assured
when Chaucer wrote. One of the characters in the Canterbury
Tales is
" A serjeant of the law, wary and wise,
That often had y-been at the parvis." 1
Serjeants (except king's Serjeants) were created by writ of
summons under the great seal, and wore a special and distinctive
dress, the chief feature of which was the coif, a white lawn or
silk skull-cap, afterwards represented by a round piece of black
silk at the top of the wig. They enjoyed a social precedence
after knights bachelors and before companions of the Bath
and other orders. In this they differed from king's counsel,
who had simply professional as distinguished from social rank.
Socially the serjeant had precedence, professionally the king's
counsel, unless indeed, as was often the case, a patent of pre-
cedence was granted to the former. The Serjeants at the Irish
bar had precedence next after the law officers of the crown.
Till past the middle of the igth century a limited number of the
Serjeants were called " king's (queen's) Serjeants." They were
appointed by patent and summoned to parliament. Until
1814 the two senior king's Serjeants had precedence of even the
attorney-general and solicitor-general. It was the custom for
Serjeants on their appointment to give gold rings with mottoes
to their colleagues. Down to 1845 the order enjoyed a very
valuable monopoly of practice. The Serjeants had the right
of exclusive audience as leading counsel in the Court of Common
Pleas. In 1834 a royal mandate of William IV. attempted to
abolish this privilege, but in 1840 the judicial committee of the
privy council declared the mandate informal and invalid. The
monopoly was finally abolished in 1845 by Act of Parliament.
For at least 600 years the judges of the superior courts of common
law were always Serjeants, but by the Judicature Act 1873
no person appointed a judge of the High Court of Justice or the
Court of Appeal was required to take or have taken the degree
of serjeant-at-law. The Serjeants had their own inn of court
known as Serjeants' Inn, which was formerly in two divisions,
one in Fleet Street and one in Chancery Lane. In 1758 the
members of the former joined the latter. In 1877 the society
was dissolved, the inn sold to one of the members and the
proceeds divided among the existing Serjeants. The order is
now extinct.
See Serviens ad Legem, by Mr Serjeant Manning; and The Order of
the Coif, by Mr Serjeant Pulling.
SERJEANTY. Tenure by serjeanty was a form of land-
holding under the feudal system, intermediate between tenure
by knight-service (q.v.) and tenure in socage. It originated
in the assignation of an estate in land on condition of the per-
formance of a certain duty, which can hardly be described more
exactly than as not being that of knight-service. Its essence,
according to Pollock and Maitland, might be described as
" servantship," the discharge of duties in the household of king
or noble; but it ranged from service in the king's host, dis-
tinguished only by equipment from that of the knight, to petty
1 The parvis was the porch of old St Paul's, where each serjeant
had his particular pillar at which he held interviews with his clients.
SERMON
673
renders scarcely distinguishable from those of the rent-paying
tenant or socager. Serjeanties, as Miss Bateson has expressed it,
" were neither always military nor always agricultural, but
might approach very closely the service of knights or the service
of farmers. . . . The serjeanty of holding the king's head when
he made a rough passage across the Channel, of pulling a rope
when his vessel landed, of counting his chessmen on Christmas
day, of bringing fuel to his castle, of doing his carpentry, of
finding his potherbs, of forging his irons for his ploughs, of tending
his garden, of nursing the hounds gored and injured in the hunt,
of serving as veterinary to his sick falcons, such and many others
might be the ceremonial or menial services due from a given
serjeanty." The many varieties of serjeanty were afterwards
increased by lawyers classing for convenience under this head
such duties as those of escort service to the abbess of Barking,
or of military service on the Welsh border by the men of
Archenfield.
Serjeants (servientes) are already entered as a distinct class in
Domesday Book (1086), though not in all cases differentiated
from the barons, who held by knight-service. Sometimes, as
in the case of three Hampshire serjeanties those of acting as
king's marshal, of finding an archer for his service, and of keeping
the gaol in Winchester Castle the tenure can be definitely
traced as far back as Domesday. It is probable, however, that
many supposed tenures by serjeanty were not really such,
although so described in returns, in inquests after death, and
other records. The simplest legal test of the tenure was that
Serjeants, though liable to! the feudal exactions of wardship, &c.,
were not liable to scutage; they made in place of this exaction
special composition with the crown.
The germ of the later distinction between " grand " and
"petty" serjeanty is found in the Great Charter (1215), the
king there renouncing the right of prerogative wardship in the
case of those who held of him by the render of small articles.
The legal doctrine that serjeanties were (a) inalienable, (6)
impartible, led to the " arrentation," under Henry III., of
serjeanties the lands of which had been partly alienated, and
which were converted into socage tenures, or, in some cases,
tenures by knight-service. Gradually the gulf widened, and
" petty " serjeanties, consisting of renders, 1 together with
serjeanties held of mesne lords, sank into socage, while "grand"
serjeanties, the holders of which performed their service in
person, became alone liable to the burden of wardship and
marriage. In Littleton's Tenures this distinction appears as
well defined, but the development was one of legal theory.
When the military tenure of knight-service was abolished
at the Restoration (by 12 Charles II., cap. 24), that of grand
serjeanty was retained, doubtless on account of its honorary
character, it being then limited in practice to the performance of
certain duties at coronations, the discharge of which as a right
has always been coveted, and the earliest record of which is that
of Queen Eleanor's coronation in 1236. The most conspicuous
are those of champion, appurtenant to the Dymokes' manor of
Scrivelsby, and of supporting the king's right arm, appurtenant to
that of Worksop. The latter duty was performed at the corona-
tion of King Edward VII. (1902).
The meaning of Serjeant as a household officer is still preserved
in the king's serjeants-at-arms, Serjeant-surgeons and Serjeant-
trumpeter. The horse and foot Serjeants (servientes) of the king's
host in the i2th century, who ranked after the knights and were
more lightly armed, were unconnected with tenure.
The best summary of tenure by serjeanty is in Pollock and Mait-
land's History of English Law, McKechnie's Magna Carta (1905)
should also be consulted ; and for Domesday the Victoria History
of Hampshire, vol. i. The best list of serjeanties is in the Red Book
oj the Exchequer (" Rolls " series), but the Testa de Nevill (Record
Commission) contains the most valuable records concerning them.
Blount's Tenures is useful, but its modern editions very uncritical.
Wollaston's Coronation Claims is the best authority on its subject.
(J. H. R.)
SERMON (Lat. sermo, a discourse), an oration delivered from
a pulpit with fullness and rhetorical effect. Pascal, than whom
1 Usually a bow, sword, dagger or other small thing belonging
to war.
XXIV. 22.
no greater authority can be desired, defines a sermon as a re-
ligious address, in which the word of God is stated and explained,
and in which an audience is excited to the practice of virtue.
This may be so extended as to include a discourse in favour of pure
morality, though, even in that case, the morals are founded on
Christian doctrine, and even the sermon which the fox preaches
in La Fontaine's Fables is a parody of a Christian discourse.
The Latin sermons of St Augustine, of which 384 are extant,
have been taken as their models by all sensible subsequent divines,
for it was he who rejected the formal arrangement of the divisions
of his theme, and insisted that simplicity and familiarity of style
were not incompatible with dignity and religion. His object
was not to dazzle by a conformity with the artificial rules of
oratory, but to move the soul of the listener by a direct appeal
to his conscience. His adage was Qui sophistice loquitur odibilis
est, and his influence has been exercised ever since in warning
the Christian orator against artificiality and in urging upon him
the necessity of awakening the heart. Nevertheless, on many
occasions, fashion has led the preachers of a particular epoch
to develop rules for the composition of sermons, the value of
which is more than doubtful. Cardinal Siffrein, who is known
as the Abbe Maury (1746-1817), resumed all the known artifices
of sermon-style in a volume which has a permanent historical
value, the well-known Essai sur I'eloquence de la chaire (1810);
he was himself rather a fiery politician than a persuasive divine.
Maury describes all the divisions of which a good sermon should
consist an exordium, a proposition, a section, a confirmation in
two or more points, a peroration; and he holds that a sermon on
morals should have but two points, while one on the Passion
must have three. These are effects of pedantry, and seem rather
to be founded on a cold-blooded analysis of celebrated sermons
than on any instinctive sense of the duty of the preacher. We
may wish to see in a good sermon, what Bossuet recommended,
not the result of slow and tedious study, but the flush of a celestial
fervour. Voltaire makes an interesting observation on the
technical difference between an English and a French sermon in
the 1 8th century; the former, he says, is a solid and somewhat
dry dissertation which the preacher reads to the congregation
without a gesture and without any inflection of his voice; the
latter is a long declamation, scrupulously divided into three
points, and recited by heart with enthusiasm.
Among the earliest examples of pulpit oratory which have
been preserved in English literature, the discourses of Wycliffe
and his disciples may be passed by, to arrive at the English
sermons of John Fisher (1469?-! 53 5), which have a distinct
literary value. But Hugh Latimer (i48s?-i55s) is the first great
English preacher, and the wit and power of his sermons (1549)
give them prominence in our literature. One of the expository
discourses of John Knox (1505-1572), we are told, was of more
power to awaken his hearers than a blast from " five hundred
trumpets." When we come to Elizabethan times, we possess
a few examples of the sermons of the " judicious " Hooker (1554-
1600); Henry Smith (1550-1591) was styled " the prime preacher
of the nation "; and Lancelot Andrewes (1555-1626), whose
sermons were posthumously printed at the command of James I.
in 1628, dazzled his contemporaries by the brilliancy of his
euphemism; Andrewes was called " the star of preachers."
At a slightly later date John Donne (1573-1621) and Joseph
Hall (1574-1656) divided the suffrages of the pious. In the
middle of the i7th century the sermon became one of the most
highly-cultivated forms of intellectual entertainment in Great
Britain, and when the theatres were closed at the Common-
wealth it grew to be the only public form of eloquence. It is
impossible to name all the eminent preachers of this time, but
a few must be mentioned. John Hales (1584-1656); Edmund
Calamy (1600-1666); the Cambridge Platonist, Benjamin
Whichcote (1609-1685); Richard Baxter (1615-1691); the
puritan John Owen (1616-1683); the philosophical Ralph
Cudworth (1617-1688); Archbishop Leighton (1611-1684)
each of these holds an eminent position in the records of pulpit
eloquence, but all were outshone by the gorgeous oratory and
art of Jeremy Taylor (1613-1667), who is the most illustrious
674
SEROUX D'AGINCOURT SERPA PINTO
writer of sermons whom the British race has produced. His
matchless collection of discourses delivered at Golden Grove,
The Eniautos, was published in 1653-1655. The fault of the
17th-century sermon was a tendency, less prominent in Jeremy
Taylor than in any other writer, to dazzle the audience by a display
of false learning and by a violence in imagery; the great merit
of its literary form was the fullness of its vocabulary and the
richness and melody of style which adorned it at its best. Some
of the most remarkable divines of this great period, however,
are scarcely to be mentioned as successful writers of sermons.
At the Restoration, pulpit oratory in England became drier,
less picturesque and more sententious. The great names at this
period were those of Isaac Barrow (1630-1677); Robert South
(1634-1716), celebrated for his wit in the pulpit ; John Tillotson
( 1 630-1 694) , the copyright of whose sermons fetched the enormous
sum of 2500 guineas after his death, and of whom it was said
that he was " not only the best preacher of the age, but seemed to
have brought preaching to perfection "; and Edward Stilling-
fleet (1635-1699), styled, for his appearance in the pulpit, " the
beauty of holiness." These preachers of the Restoration were
controversialists, keen, moderate and unenthusiastic. These
qualities were accentuated in the i8th century, when for a while
religious oratory ceased to have any literary value. The sermons
of Benjamin Hoadly (1676-1761) have a place in history, and
those of Joseph Butler (1692-1752), the Rolls Sermons of 1726,
have great philosophical importance. Thomas Boston's (1676-
1732) memory has been revived by the praise of Stevenson,
but his zeal was far exceeded by that of John Wesley (1703-
1791), who preached 40,000 sermons, and by that of George
Whitefield (1714-1770).
Of all countries, however, France is the one which has shown
most brightly in the cultivation of the sermon. In the I4th
century Gerson (1363-1429) seems to have been the earliest
divine who composed and preached in French, but his example
was not followed by any man of equal genius. It was the
popular movement of the Reformation, which made the sermon a
piece of literature, on the lips of Jean Calvin (1509-1564), Pierre
Viret (1511-1571) and Theodore de Beze (1519-1605). With
these stern Protestant discourses may be contrasted the beautiful,
but somewhat euphuistical sermons of St Francois de Sales (1605-
1622), full of mystical imagery. Father Claude de Lingendes
(1591-1660) has been looked upon as the father of the classic
French sermon, although his own condones were invariably
written in Latin, but his methods were adopted in French, by the
school of Bourdaloue and Bossuet. In the great body of noble
religious eloquence delivered from French pulpits during the
I7th century, the first place is certainly held by the sermons of
J. B. Bossuet (1627-1704), who remains perhaps the greatest
preacher whom the world has ever seen. His six Oraisons
Funebres, the latest of which was delivered in 1687, form the
most majestic existing type of this species of literature. Around
that of Bossuet were collected other noble names: Louis Bour-
daloue (1632-1704), whom his contemporaries preferred to
Bossuet himself; Esprit F16chier (1632-1710), the politest
preacher who ever occupied a Parisian pulpit; and Jules
Mascaron (1634-1703), in whom all forms of eloquence were
united. A generation later appeared Baptiste Massillon (1663-
1742), who was to Bossuet as Racine to Corneille; and Jacques
Saurin (1677-1730), whose evangelical sermons were delivered
at the Hague. These are the great classic preachers whose
discourses continue to be read, and to form an inherent pare of the
body of French literature. There was some revival of the art of
the sermon at Versailles a century later, where the Abb6 Maury,
whose critical work has been mentioned above, preached with
vivid eloquence between 1770 and 1785;. the Pere Elisee (1726-
1783), whom Diderot and Mme Roland greatly admired, held
a similar place, at the same time, in Paris. Since the end of the
i8th century, although a great number of volumes of sermons
have been and continue to be published, and although the pulpit
holds its own in Protestant and Catholic countries alike, for
purposes of exhortation and encouragement, it cannot be said
that the sermon has in any way extended its influence as a form
of pure literature. It has, in general, been greatly shortened,
and the ordinary sermon of to-day is no longer an elaborate piece
of carefully balanced and ornamental literary architecture, but
a very simple and brief homily, not occupying the listener for
more than some ten minutes in the course of an elaborate service.
In Germany, the great preachers of the middle ages were
Franciscans, such as Brother Bertold of Regensburg (1220-1272),
or Dominicans, such as Johann Tauler (1290-1361), who preached
in Latin. The great period of vernacular preaching lasted from
the beginning of the i6th to the end of the 1 7th century. Martin
Luther was the most ancient type of early Reformation preacher,
and he was succeeded by the mystic Johann Arndt (1555-1621);
the Catholic church produced in Vienna the eccentric and almost
burlesque oratory of Abraham a Santa Clara (1642-1709). The
last of the great German preachers of this school was P. J.
Spener, the founder of the Pietists (1635-1705).
Among the best authorities on the history of the sermon are
Abbe Maury: Essai sur I' eloquence de la chaire (2 vols., Paris, 1810) ;
Rothe, Geschichte der Predict (Bremen, 1881). (E. G.)
SEROUX D'AGINCOURT, JEAN BAPTISTE LOUIS GEORGE
(1730-1814), French archaeologist and historian, was born at
Beauvais on the 5th of April 1 730. He belonged to a good family,
and in his youth served as an officer in a regiment of cavalry.
Finding it necessary to quit the army in order to take charge of his
younger brothers who had been left orphans, he was appointed
a farmer-general by Louis XV. In 1777 he visited England,
Germany and Holland; and in the following year he travelled
through Italy, with the view of exploring thoroughly the remains
of ancient art. He afterwards settled at Rome, and devoted
himself to preparing the results of his researches for publication.
He died on the 24th of September 1814, leaving the work, which
was being issued in parts, unfinished; but it was carried on by
M. Gence, and published complete under the title L'Histoire
de I'art par les monuments, depuis so, decadence au qualrieme
siecle jusqu'd son renouvellement au seizieme (6 vols. fol. with
325 plates, Paris, 1823). An English translation by Owen Jones
was published in 1847. In the year of his death Seroux d'Agin-
court published in Paris a Recueil de fragments de sculpture
antique, en terre cuile (i vol. 4to).
SEROW, or SARAU, the Himalayan name of a goat-like antelope
of the size of a donkey, nearly allied to the goral (q.v.) of the
same region, but considerably larger, and with small face-glands.
The Himalayan animal is a local race of the Sumatran Nemo-
rhaedus sumatrensis; and the name serow is now extended to
embrace all the species belonging to the same genus, the range
of which extends from the Himalaya to Burma, the Malay
Peninsula and Sumatra in one direction, and to Tibet, China,
Japan and Formosa in another. Serows inhabit scrub-clad
mountains, at no great elevation. (R. L.*)
SERPA PINTO, ALEXANDRE ALBERTO DE LA ROCHA
(1846-1900), Portuguese explorer in Africa, was born at the
castle of Polchras, on the Douro, on the loth of April 1846.
Entering the army in 1864, he served in Mozambique, and in 1869
took part in an expedition against tribes in revolt on the lower
Zambezi. In 1877 he and Captains Capello and Ivens of the
Portuguese navy were sent on an expedition to south central
Africa. The explorers left Benguella in November 1877 for the
interior, but Serpa Pinto soon parted from his colleagues, who
went north, while Serpa Pinto continued east. He crossed the
Kwando in June 1878, and in August reached Lialui, the Barotse
capital on the Zambezi, where he received help from the Rev. F.
Coillard which enabled him to continue his journey down the
river to the Victoria Falls, whence he turned south, arriving at
Pretoria on the i2th of February 1879. He was the fourth
explorer to traverse Africa from west to east, and was the first
to lay down with approximate accuracy the route between Bihe
and Lialui. Among other rewards the Royal Geographical
Society of London awarded him (1881) the Founder's medal.
The account of his travels appeared in English under the title
How I crossed Africa (2 vols., London, 1881). In 1884 he at-
tempted, with less success, the exploration of the regions
between Mozambique and Lake Nyasa. Appointed governor of
SERPENT SERPENTINE
Mozambique in 1889, he organized an expedition with the object
of securing for Portugal the Shire highlands and neighbouring
regions, but the vigorous action of the British agents (John
Buchanan and H. H. Johnston) frustrated this design (see
AFRICA, 5). Shortly afterwards Serpa Pinto returned to Lisbon
and was promoted to the rank of colonel. He died on the 28th
of December igco.
SERPENT (Lat. serpens, creeping, from serpere; cf. " reptile "
from repere, Gr. tpirtLv), a synonym for reptile or snake (see
REPTILE, and SNAKES), now generally used only of dangerous
varieties, or metaphorically. See also SERPENT -WORSHIP
below.
In music the serpent (Fr. serpent, Ger. Serpent, Schlangenrohr,
Ital. serpentone) is an obsolete bass wind instrument derived from
the old wooden cornets (Zinken), and the progenitor of the
bass-horn, Russian bassoon and ophicleide. The serpent is
composed of two pieces of wood, hollowed out and cut to the
desired shape. They are so joined together by gluing as to form
a conical tube of wide calibre with a diameter varying from a
little over half an inch at the crook to nearly 4 in. at the wider end.
The tube is covered with leather to ensure solidity. The upper
extremity ends with a bent brass tube or crook, to which the cup-
shaped mouthpiece is attached; the lower end does not expand
to form a bell, a peculiarity the serpent shared with the cornets.
The tube is pierced laterally .with six holes, the first three of
which are covered with the fingers of the right hand and the
others with those of the left. When all the holes are thus
closed the instrument will produce the following sounds, of
which the first is the fundamental and the rest the harmonic
series founded thereon:
Each of the holes on being successively opened gives the same
series of harmonics on a new fundamental, thus producing a
chromatic compass of three octaves by means of six holes only.
The holes are curiously disposed along the
tube for convenience in reaching them
with the fingers; in consequence they are
of very small diameter, and this affects the
intonation and timbre of the instrument
adversely. With the application of keys
to the serpent, which made it possible
to place the holes approximately in the
correct theoretical position, whereby the
diameter of the holes was also made pro-
portional to that of the tube, this defect
was remedied and the timbre improved.
The serpent was, according to Abbe
Leboeuf, 1 the outcome of experiments made
on the cornon, the bass cornet or Zinke, by
Edm6 Guillaume, canon of Auxerre, in 1590.
The invention at once proved a success, and
the new bass became a valuable addition to
church concerted music, more especially in
France, in spite of the serpent's harsh, un-
pleasant tone. Mersenne ( 1 636) describes and
figures the serpent of his day in detail, but it was evidently unknown
to Praetorius (1618). During the l8th century the construction of
the instrument underwent many improvements, the tendency being
to make the unwieldy windings more compact. At the beginning
of the 1 9th century the open holes had been discarded, and as many
as fourteen or seventeen keys disposed conveniently along the tube.
Gerber, in his Lexikon (1790), states that in 1780 a musician of
Lille, named Regibo, making further experiments on the serpent,
produced a bass horn, giving it the shape of the bassoon for greater
portability; and Frichot, a French refugee in London, introduced
a variant of brass which rapidly won favour under the name of " bass
horn " or " basson russe " in English military bands. On being
introduced on the continent of Europe, this instrument was received
into general use and gave a fresh impetus to experiments with
basses for military bands, which resulted first in the ophicleide
(q.v.) and ultimately in the valuable invention of the piston or
valve.
Further information as to the technique and construction of the
serpent may be gained from Joseph Frohlich's excellent treatise
1 See Mcmoire concernant I'histoire ecdesiastique el civile d' Auxerre
(Paris. 1848), ii. 189.
on all the instruments of the orchestra in his day (Bonn, 1811),
where clear and accurate practical drawings of the instruments are
given. (K. S.)
SERPENTARIUS, or OPHIUCHUS, in astronomy, a constella-
tion of the northern hemisphere, anciently named Aesculapius,
and mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd
century B.C.). According to the Greek fables it variously
represents: Carnabon (or Charnabon), king of the Getae, killing
one of the dragons of Triptolemus, or Heracles killing the serpent
at the river Sangarius (or Sagaris), or the physician Asclepius
(Aesculapius), to denote his skill in curing snake bites. Ptolemy
catalogued 29 stars, Tycho Brahe 15, and Hevelius 40. " New "
stars were observed in 1604 and 1848.
SERPENTINE, in geometry, a cubic curve described by Sir
Isaac Newton, and given by the cartesian equation y(o 2 -|-a: 2 ) =
abx. The origin is a point of inflection,
the axis of x is an asymptote, and the
curve lies between the parallel lines
SERPENTINE, a mineral which, in a
massive and impure form, occurs on a
large scale as a rock, and being commonly
of variegated colour, is often cut and polished, like marble, for use
as a decorative stone. It is generally held that the name was
suggested by the fancied resemblance of the dark mottled green
stone to the skin of a serpent, but it may possibly refer to some
reputed virtue of the stone as a cure for snake-bite. Serpentine
was probably, at least in part, the Xi0os O</>ITT/S of Dioscorides
and the ophites of Pliny; and this name appears in a latinized
form as the serpentaria of G. Agricola, writing in the i6th
century, and as the lapis serpentinus and marmor serpentinum of
other early writers. Italian sculptors have sometimes termed it
ranochia in allusion to its resemblance to the skin of a frog.
Although popularly called a " marble," serpentine is essentially
different from any kind of limestone, in that it is a magnesium
silicate, associated however, with more or less ferrous silicate.
Analyses show that the mineral contains H4Mg3Si2Os, and if the
water be regarded as constitutional the formula may be written
Mg2(SiO 4 ) 2 H 3 (MgOH). Serpentine occurs massive, fibrous,
lamellar or granular, but never crystallized. Fine pseudomorphs
having the form of olivine, but the composition of serpentine, are
known from Snarum in Buskerud, Norway, the crystals revealing
their character by containing an occasional kernel of the original
mineral. The alteration of rocks rich in olivine has given rise
to much of the serpentine occurring as rock-masses (see PERI-
DOTITE). Studied microscopically, the change is seen to proceed
from the surface and from the irregular cracks of the olivine,
producing fibres of serpentine. The iron of the olivine passes
more or less completely into the ferric state, giving rise to grains
of magnetite, which form a black dust, and may ultimately yield
scales of haematite or limonite. Considerable increase of volume
generally accompanies serpentinization, and thus are produced
fissures which afford passage for the agents of alteration, resulting
in the formation of an irregular mesh-like structure, formed of
strings of serpentine enclosing kernels of olivine in the meshes,
and this olivine may itself ultimately become serpentinized.
Serpentine may also be formed by the alteration of other non-
aluminous ferro-magnesian silicates such as enstatite, augite or
hornblende, and in such cases it may show microscopically a
characteristic structure related to the cleavage of the original
mineral, notably lozenge-shaped in the case of hornblende.
Many interesting pseudomorphs of serpentine were described by
Professor J. D. Dana from the Tilly Foster iron-mine, near
Brewster, New York, U.S.A., including some remarkable speci-
mens with cubic cleavage.
The purest kind of serpentine, known as " noble serpentine,"
is generally of pale greenish or yellow colour, slightly translucent,
and breaking with a rather bright conchoidal fracture. It
occurs chiefly in granular limestone, and is often accompanied
by forsterite, olivine or chondrodite. The hardness of serpentine
is between 3 and 4, while the specific gravity varies from 2-5
to 2-65. A green serpentine of the exceptional hardness of 6,
676
SERPENT- WORSHIP
formerly regarded as jade, is known as bowenite, having been
named by J. D. Dana after G. T. Bowen. The original bowenite
came from Smithfield, Rhode Island, U.S.A., and a similar
mineral was described by General C. A. McMahon as occurring
in Afghanistan, where it is carved for ornamental purposes
in the belief that it is jade (q.v.). Many common carvings
regarded as jade are really serpentine, and therefore soft. Serpen-
tine of columnar or coarsely fibrous form is termed picrolite, a
name proposed by J. F. L. Hausmann from the Greek irucpos
(bitter) in allusion to the presence of magnesia. The finely
fibrous serpentine is called chrysotile from the lustrous yellowish
colour which it usually presents (xpueros, gold; riXos, fibre) and
this variety is extensively worked, especially in Canada, for use
as asbestos (q.v.). In order to avoid confusion between the
words chrysotile and chrysolite, it has been proposed by Dr
J. W. Evans that the fibrous serpentine should be distinguished
as karystiolite a modification of the ancient name, taken from
its occurrence near Karystos in Euboea. Foliated serpentine
is usually termed marmolite a name given by G. T. Nuttall,
from ftapfiaipw (to glisten) in reference to its lustre. A thin
lamellar or flaky serpentine supposed to occur in the Antigorio
valley north of Domodossola in Piedmont is called antigorite,
having been named in 1840 by M. E. Schweizer, after whom a
somewhat similar mineral is termed schweizerite. Antigorite
has been studied by Professor T. G. Bonney and Miss C. Raisin
(Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Ixi., 1905, p. 690; Ixiv., 1908, p. 152).
An apple-green translucent serpentine passes under the name of
williamsite, having been so called by C. U. Shepard in honour
of its discoverer L. White Williams, of West Chester, Pennsyl-
vania, where this variety occurs.
" Common serpentine " is the impure massive kind which
occurs in rock-masses and is extensively worked as " serpentine-
marble." It is sometimes veined with steatite, or magnesite,
and may contain scattered crystals of diallage, bronzite or bastite
(an altered rhombic pyroxene), which by schillerization may
present a metallic lustre. In England the chief localities of
serpentine are in Cornwall, especially in the Lizard district,
where it is quarried and carved into mantelpieces, columns,
vases and other ornaments. Much of it presents a rich red or
brown colour, often mottled and sometimes veined. Professor
Bonney has shown that it has been largely derived from olivine.
Green serpentine occurs near Holyhead in Anglesey. A beautiful
serpentine, generally mottled red and green, with veins of
steatite, is found at Portsoy in Banffshire, Scotland, and was
used for pillars in the great hall at Versailles. Serpentine con-
taining chromite is found in the Shetland Islands.
The rock called " ophicalcite " consists of an intimate associa-
tion of serpentine with limestone, often forming an ornamental
stone which is beautifully clouded and zoned with various shades
of green. It generally results from the metamorphism of an
impure dolomitic limestone, the impurities having crystallized as
new minerals which become altered to serpentine. Pseudo-
morphs of serpentine occur after forsterite. The best known
serpentinous marble of the British Isles occurs in Connemara in
Galway, Ireland, and passes in trade under the name of " Irish
green." Ophicalcites are developed also in various parts of
Scotland, and the green pebbles found in lona belong to this
type of rock. The famous eozoonal marble of Canada is also
of similar character.
In Saxony common serpentine is largely worked at Zoblitz
near Marienberg and Waldheim. The rock of Zoblitz, mentioned
by G. Agricola in the i6th century, is usually of dull green pr
brown colour, and frequently contains dark red Bohemian
garnet or pyrope (q.v.). It was used in the mausoleum of Prince
Albert at Frogmore, Windsor, and in Abraham Lincoln's monu-
ment at Springfield, Illinois, U.S.A. Italy is rich in serpentine,
the best-known being the verde di Praia, which has been quarried
for centuries at Monteferrato near Prato in Tuscany, and has
been largely used in ecclesiastical architecture in Florence,
Prato and Pistoja. Much serpentine is found near Genoa and
Levanto. The verde di Pegli comes from Pegli not far from
Genoa, while the verde di Genova is a brecciated serpentinous
limestone from Pietra Lavezzara. Serpentine occurs also at
many localities in the Apennines, in Elba and in Corsica. The
term ophiolite has been vaguely used to include not only serpen-
tines but many other rocks associated with the Italian serpen-
tines. Verde antico is a brecciated serpentine with fragments of
limestone, originally brought by the Romans from Atrax in
Thessaly, and called lapis atracius. It is sometimes known as
vert antique, or, following the old French, verd antique. The
term serpentine is often improperly applied to the ancient green
porphyry of Laconia in the Peloponnesus (porfido serpentino
verde). True serpentine occurs at numerous localities in the
Alps and in France, an elegant variety being quarried, at Epinal
in the Vosges, whilst a fine ophicalcite is worked at St Veran
and Maurins, dep. Hautes-Alpes. The Ronda Mountains in
Spain also yield serpentine.
In North America serpentine is so widely distributed that
only a few localities can be specified. It is found in St Lawrence
county, Essex county and Warren county, New York, and also
on Staten Island; at Montville and Hoboken in New Jersey;
at Newport, Rhode Island; at Newbury and Newburyport,
Massachusetts; Texas, Lancaster county, and West Chester,
Chester county, Pennsylvania; at many localities in Vermont,
and in California, Connecticut, Georgia, Maine, Maryland,
Michigan, New Mexico, North Carolina and Washington.
For American serpentine see Stones for Building and Decoration,
by George P. Merrill (New York, 1903) ; and for serpentine asbestos
see the same author's Non-metallic Minerals (New York, 1904).
(F. W. R.*)
SERPENT-WORSHIP. From all parts of the world there is
a very considerable body of evidence for the prominence of the
serpent in religion, mythology and folk-lore. Snake- , pn.^.
worship still prevails largely in India, and a writer eaceia
in 1896 remarks that the previous census showed in varying
the North- West Provinces over 25,000 Naga (serpent) *>""*
worshippers, 123,000 votaries of the snake-god Guga, and, in
the Punjab, some 35,000 special votaries of the snake godlings. 1
The evidence from modern India can be supplemented by the
medieval and ancient Indian sources, and, in particular, by the
representations of the adoration of snake-deities on the Buddhist
topes of Sanchi and Amravati. 2 There we find, not indeed
living serpents, but deities with serpent-symbolism, indicating
a composition of various strata of religious belief, analogous to
the evidence for serpent-symbolism from Babylonia, Crete,
Greece or Peru; for the higher religions have almost invariably
retained in their ritual and belief, sometimes with only slight
modification, cruder conceptions which can still be studied in
less elevated form among the lower races of India, Africa or
America. The result is instructive when we turn to the numerous
serpent myths and legends from the Old World and the New,
to the stray notices in old writers, or to the fragmentary scraps
of popular superstition everywhere. Modern scientific research
has vividly illustrated the stereotyped nature of the human
mind; there is a general similarity in the effect of similar
phenomena upon people at a similar stage of mental growth;
there is an almost inherent or unconscious belief which has been
transmitted through the countless ages of man's history. At
the same time, apart from the gradual evolution of religious and
other conceptions there are the more incidental and artificial
influences which have shaped them. Hence, our evidence for
serpent-cults everywhere represents varying stages in the
historical development of a few related fundamental ideas
which are psychologically explicable; and it is impossible to
deal with the subject geographically or historically. It is most
useful, perhaps, to survey some of the general features of belief
as an introduction to the more complex inquiries which involve
a consideration of other subjects over a larger field.
1 See W. Crooke, The Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern
India (London, 1896), ii. 122.
2 See the elaborately illustrated work of James Fergusson, Tree
and Serpent Worship, or Illustrations of Mythology and Art in India
(2nd ed., London, 1873); also M. Winternitz, ' der Sarpabali, ein
altindischer Schlangen-cult," in Mitteil. d. anthrop. Gesell. of Vienna,
xviii. (1888), pp. 25-52, 250-264. Both give abundant information
on the various features of serpent-cults.
SERPENT-WORSHIP
677
Haunting buildings and famous ruins, gliding around pools, walls
and trees, mysteriously disappearing below ground, the serpent and
all its kind invariably arrested attention through its uncanny
distinctiveness from bird or beast. Its gliding motion suggested
the winding river. Biting its tail it symbolized the earth surrounded
by the world-river. Its patient watchfulness, the fascination it
exerted over its victims, the easy domestication of some species,
and the deadliness of others have always impressed primitire minds.
Its swift and deadly dart was. likened to the lightning; equally
marvellous seemed its fatal power. It is little wonder that men
who could tame and handle the reptiles gained esteem and influence.
Sometimes the long life of the serpent and its habit of changing the
skin suggested ideas of immortality and resurrection, and it is
noteworthy that one Indian snake-festival occurs after or at the
sloughing, when the sacred being is thus supposed to become purified. 1
A very common belief associates serpents or dragons and other
monsters with the guardianship of treasure or wealth; comp., e.g.,
2. Ser- the golden apples of the Hesperides, and the Egyptian
peats' gods Kneph and Osiris, and the Indian Krishna and
wealth and Indra. Serpents adorned with necklaces of jewels
""' or with crowns were familiar in old superstition, and
the serpent with a ruby in its mouth was a favourite love-
token. Many stories tell of the grateful reptile which brought
valuable gifts to a benefactor. According to a common Indian
belief a wealthy man who dies without an heir returns to guard
his wealth in the form of a serpent, and Italian superstition
supposed that to find a serpent's skin brought good luck (Leland). 2
No singular preference for jewels on the part of serpents will
explain the belief, and creatures like the jackdaw which have
this weakness do not enjoy this prominence in folk-lore. A
rationalistic explanation might be found in the connexion
between the chthonic serpent and subterranean sources of wealth. 3
Moreover, the serpent is often associated with metallurgy, and
to serpent deities have been ascribed the working of metals,
gem-cutting and indeed culture in general. The Aztec Quetzal-
coatl taught metallurgy and agriculture, gave abundance of
maize, also wisdom and freedom from disease. The Babylonian
Ea, who sometimes has serpent attributes, introduced like
the American serpent Votan knowledge and culture. The
half-serpent Cadmus brought knowledge of mines, agriculture,
and the " Cadmean " letters, while Cecrops inculcated laws
and ways of life and was the first to establish monogamy.
Although the reptile is not particularly intelligent, it has become
famed for shrewdness and wisdom, whether in the Garden of
Eden (Gen. iii. i; 2 Cor. xi. 3) or generally (cf. Matt. x. 16).
The Ophites (q.v.) actually identified the serpent with Sophia
(" Wisdom ") ; the old sage Garga, one of the fathers of Indian
astronomy, owed his learning to the serpent-god Sesha Naga;
and the Phoenician yepuv 'Qfy'vuv wrote the seven tablets of fate
which were guarded by Harmonia. 4 Not only is the serpent
connected with oracles, the beneficent agathodoemon of Phoenicia
also symbolized immortality. In Babylonian myth a serpent,
apparently in a well or pool, deprived Gilgamesh of the plant
which rejuvenated old age, and if it was the rightful guardian
of the wonderful gift, one is reminded of the Hebrew story, now
reshaped in Gen. iii., where the supernatural serpent is clearly
acquainted with the properties of the tree of life. 6
1 Fergusson, p. 259. Perhaps the sloughing more than any other
feature stimulated primitive speculation ; cf . Winternitz, p. 28.
2 See Crooke, ii. I and 33 sqq. ; C. G. Leland, Etruscan Roman
Remains, p. 283; Winternitz 37 seq.; A. W. Buckland, Anthropo-
logical Studies (1891), pp. 104-139 (on serpents in connexion with
metallurgy and precious stones).
3 Excavators know how the popular mind associates their labours
with search for hidden treasure, and no doubt the wealth of dead
civilizations often stimulated the imagination of subsequent genera-
tions. A gruesome Indian story (Crooke, ii. 136) shows how old
treasure-chambers could actually harbour enormous and deadly
snakes.
4 Nonnus (Dion. xli. 340 sqq.), cited by W. W. G. Baudissin,
Stud. z. Relig.-Gesch. (Leipzig, 1876), i. 274 seq. (pp. 255-292, Semitic
serpent-cult). See, for Garga, C. F. Oldham, The Sun and the
Serpent (London, 1905), p. 54; and, for the serpent's wisdom,
F. L. Schwartz, Ursprung der Mythologie (1860), pp. 55 seq.; J.
Maehly, Die Schlange im Mythus u. Cultus d. class. Volker (1867),
pp. 9 seq., II, 23 seq.
'See H. Gressmann, Archiv f. Religionswissenschaft, x. 357 sqq.
A Babylonian cylinder represents two figures (divine?) on either
side of a fruit-tree, and behind one of them a serpent coils upwards.
Serpents were supposed to know of a root which brought
back their dead to life, and an old Greek story told how certain
mortals took the hint. 6 In one form or another the
healing powers of the serpent are very familiar in 3 ' ~
legend and custom. Siegfried bathed in the blood of
the dragon he slew and thus became invulnerable;
the blind emperor Theodosius recovered his sight when a grateful
serpent laid a precious stone upon his eyes; Cadmus and his
wife were turned into serpents to cure human ills. " In 1899 a
court in Larnaca, Cyprus, awarded 80 (Turkish) as damages
for the loss of a snake's horn which had been lent to cure a certain
disease " (Murison, p. 117, n. 9). Not to multiply examples, it
must suffice to refer to the old popular idea that medical skill
could be gained by eating some part of a serpent: the idea that
its valuable qualities would thus be assimilated belongs to one
of the fundamental dogmas of primitive mankind (cf. Porphyry,
De abst. ii. 48). Now, serpents were tended in the sanctuaries
of the Greek Aesculapius (Asklepios), the famous god of healing.
Among his symbols was a serpent coiled round a staff, and
physicians were for long wont to place this at the head of their
prescriptions. He is also represented leaning on a staff while
a huge serpent rears itself up behind him, or (on a coin from
Gythium) a serpent seems to come to him from a well. At
Athens, Asklepios Amynos had a sanctuary with altar and well,
and among the votive offerings have been discovered models
of snakes. 7 The god-hero came from Epidaurus to the shrine
at Sicyon in the form of a serpent, and the serpent sent from
Epidaurus to stay a plague at Rome remained there, and a
temple was erected to Aesculapius. The sanctuary of the
deified healer at Cos marked the site where another serpent
brought from Epidaurus dived into the earth (Pausanias, ii.
10, 3, iii. 23, 4). Hygieia, goddess of health, passed for his
daughter, and is commonly identified with the woman in Greek
art who feeds a serpent out of a saucer. Moreover, the temple
of the earth-goddess Bona Dea on the slopes of the Aventine
was a kind of herbarium, and snakes were kept there as a symbol
of the medical art'. Even in Upper Egypt a few decades ago,
there was a tomb of the Mahommedan sheikh Herldi, who
it is alleged was transformed into a serpent; in cases of
sickness a spotless virgin entered the cave and the serpent-
occupant might permit itself to be taken in procession to the
patient. The place was the scene of animal sacrifices and a
yearly visit of women, and apparently preserved the traces of
an old serpent-cult. 8
Several practices conform to the idea that " a hair of the
dog that bit you " is a sure remedy, and that the serpent was
best fitted to overcome other serpents. 9 At Emesa
in Syria, watered by the Orontes, an image, the lower
part of which was a scorpion, cured the sting of
scorpions and freed the city from snakes. 10 Constanti-
nople was similarly protected by the serpent-trophy
of Delphi which Constantine removed thither; an emperor
was said to have performed an enchantment over the monument
well known in Greek history. 11 In modern India a walking-stick
from a species of cane in the neighbourhood of a certain serpent-
shrine protects against snake-bite. 12 At Fernando Po, when there
The interpretation is uncertain, but the motive has parallels (see
Goblet d'Alviella, Migration of Symbols, London, 1894, pp. 129,
133, 167 seq.). R. G. Murison, " The Serpent in the O.T. " (Amer.
Journ. of Sem. Lang. xxi. 128), cites an American-Indian belief in
a tree of healing, or rather of knowledge, inhabited by a serpent.
* J. G. Frazer, Adonis, Attis and Osiris (2nd ed., London, 1907),
p. 153; also his notes on Pausanias, vol. iii. p. 65 seq.
'Similar votive offerings are known in India (Oldham, 87), and,
though their true significance is uncertain, in ancient Arabia,
Palestine and Elam (see H. Vincent, Canaan d'apres I'exploration
recente, Paris, 1907, pp. 174 sqq.).
8 A. H. Sayce, " Serpent Worship in Ancient and Modern Egypt,"
Contemporary Review (Oct. 1893), p. 523; cf. also Fergusson, 34.
9 See, for analogies, Frazer, Golden Bough (2nd ed.), ii. 426 seq.
10 Even clothes washed in the waters of Emesa similarly protected
the wearers. See Guy Le Strange, Palestine under the Moslems,
353 sqq., and for other miscellaneous evidence, 396, 405, 495.
11 Ruy Gonzalez de Clarijo, Hakluyt Society (1859), p. 35.
n Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, ix.
p. 1 80.
4. As
remedy
against
snake-
bite.
SERPENT-WORSHIP
was an epidemic among children, they were brought to touch
a serpent's skin which hung on a pole. The same ideas underlie
the story of the Brazen Serpent which cured the Israelites of
the bites of the serpents in the Wilderness (Num. xxi. 6-9; i Cor.
x. 9). The object, however, was no temporary device; centuries
later, 250 years after the founding of the temple of Jerusalem,
the Brazen Serpent was regarded as unorthodox by the reforming
king Hezekiah, and the historian who relates its overthrow
ascribes its origin to the founder of Israelite national religion
(2 Kings xviii. 4). The story in fact may have arisen to explain
the object of cult; in any case it illustrates a general belief.
According to primitive thought, rivers, lakes, springs and wells
are commonly inhabited by spirits which readily assume human
or animal form. Here the serpent and its kind are
s. la we/to frequently encountered. 1 In India the serpent-godlings
"lakes are verv f ten associated with water, and, even at the
digging of a well,worship is paid to the" world serpent,"
and the Salagrama (spiral ammonite), sacred to Vishnu, is
solemnly wedded to the Tulasi or basil plant, representative of
the garden which the pool will fertilize. 2 It is often supposed
that the Naga (serpent) chiefs rule countries in or under the
water, and in Kashmir a submarine serpent-king became a
convert and built churches. Especially common are the popular
stories connecting serpents with submarine palaces and treasures
(Crooke i. 45, cf. 2 above) ; and one submarine realm in the
Ganges was reputed to possess " the water of strength." In
Palestine and Syria, where demoniacal beings are frequently
associated with water, local opinion is sometimes uncertain
whether the water is under the care of a. jinn or of a patron-saint.
Several springs are named after the serpent, and the sacred
fountain of Ephca at Palmyra, whose guardian in the early
Christian era was appointed by the god Yarhibol, is still tenanted
by a female serpent-demon which can impede its flow. 3 Jeru-
salem had the stone Z6heleth (possibly " serpent ") by the
well En-Rogel (i Kings i. 9) and also its Dragon Well (Neh. ii.
13); in modern times the curative Virgin's Spring or St Mary's
Well has its dragon which, when awake, swallows the inter-
mittent flow of the water. 4 Serpents of the water are often
healers (cf. 3). A serpent in a lagoon near Gimbo-Amburi in
Africa could cure madness; another, which haunted an Algerian
well, embodied the soul of a Mahommedan saint and could cure
sore eyes. This feature is especially intelligible when the waters
have medicinal qualities. Among the southern Arabs the hot
well of Msa'ide was virtually a sanctuary, and the serpent-demon
was honoured by annual festivals in the sacred month Rajab.
As recently as i882,when the grand Llama of Tashilumpo was not
relieved by the hot springs of Barchutsan, religious services were
held to propitiate the serpent-deities (Oldham, 203). Finally,
although in the sanctuary of Aesculapius healing came directly
or indirectly as the patients dreamed, it appears from the
burlesque of Aristophanes (Plutus, 653 sqq.) that they first
bathed in the sacred spring.
The serpent of the water is also the serpent of the great sea upon
which the earth rested.' Sometimes the reptile lives in submarine
infernal regions (with his wife, Crooke i. 43), and as the demon
of the underworld it is sometimes the earth-shaker.' The Greek
demon or snake Poseidon, god of sea and springs, was an earth-
quake god. To the great half-serpent monster Typhon were ascribed
numerous springs; he was also the cause of earthquakes, and when
he buried himself in the earth he formed the bed of the Syrian
1 See Frazer's notes on Pausanias (1898), vol. v. pp. 44 seq.
2 Crooke i. 42 seq., 49; see also Oldham, 51, 1 14; Winternitz, 259.
The ammonite, here an instrument in a nature " marriage," has else-
where given rise to legends of the destruction of serpents, viz. by
St Hilda at Whitby in Yorkshire, and perhaps also by St Patrick
in Ireland (see E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture, 1903, i. 372).
3 W. R. Smith, Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed., pp. 168 seq., with
references. Cf. G. F. Abbot, Macedonian Folk-lore, 261 : " the
drakos held back the water "; see further n below.
4 C. R. Conder, Tent-work in Palestine (1878), i. 313 seq., who
notes the " moving " of the water in John v. 3, 4 (see R.V. marg.).
* Cf. Amos ix. 3 and the Babylonian Tiamat, a serpent of the sea ;
see Baudissin in Hauck's Realency. f. Theol. v. p. 5 (1898); T. K.
Cheyne, Ency. Bib., art. " Serpent."
'See Fergusson, 57; J. G. Frazer, Adonis, 165; and R. Lasch,
Arch. f. Reltg. v. 236 sqq., 369 sqq.
Orontes. This river, which was otherwise called Drakon, Typhon
or Ophites, is known at the present day as the " river of the rebel "
(Nahr El-'Afi; Baudissin ii. 163). The waterspout, some- , _
times taken for a long-tailed dragon, is a huge sea-serpent, ~?'
according to the Wanika of East Africa (Tylor i. 292 seq.). t "?"".
In ancient Persia the rainbow was the celestial serpent, f^a^^I
and among some African tribes it is the subterranean f oas
wealth-conferring serpent, stretching its head to the
clouds, and spilling the rain in its greedy thirst. 7 An early Indian
name of the Milky Way is " the path of the serpent " (Crooke
i. 25), and a great dragon or serpent is often the cause of eclipses,
so that in India, on the occasion of an eclipse, its attention can be
attracted by bathing in a sacred stream, or by a ritual which in-
cludes the worship of the image of the snake-god (i. 22 seq.). 8 Again
the serpent is often associated with the lightning (Winternitz, 33).'
Hence, as the reptile's range seems to be boundless, one is prepared
for the serpentine deity of the Samoan and Tonga natives which
connects heaven and earth (Tylor ii. 309 seq.), and for the part the
serpent plays in the traditions of a universal deluge. 10
The fok-lore of the Old and New World contains many
examples of supernatural conception, an idea which is to be
supplemented by the actual living belief (e.g. in
Palestine) that supernatural beings can be fathers." ^ rpett
In Annam where water spirits may take the form of parentage.
serpents or of human beings, two deified heroes were
said to have been serpents born of a childless woman, who drank
from a bowl of water into which a star had fallen. 12 Leland (132)
cites the medieval belief that the household snake (see 9), if not
propitiated, can prevent conception, and in Bombay barrenness
is sometimes attributed to a serpent which has been killed by
the man or his wife in a former state of their existence. Hence
the demon is laid to rest by burning the serpent-image with due
funereal rites. 13 In the sanctuary of Aesculapius at Epidaurus
women were visited in their dreams by a serpent the reputed
father of the child that was born, and elsewhere Sicyon who had
such a progenitor was regarded as the son of the divine healer. 14
Similar also was the origin of Augustus in a temple of Apollo, the
god who had his tame serpents in the grove on Epirus. Further,
as the serpent-" father " of Alexander the Great came with a
healing-root to cure his general Pompey (Cicero, De div. ii. 66),
so in an Indian story the son of a king of serpents and of a virgin
(or, in a variant form, a widow) was succoured in warfare by his
sire (Fergusson, 266). In India the serpent origin of kings and
rulers is famous. The same idea meets us in China, Greece
(e.g. Aegeus, and Drakon or Cecrops the first king of Athens),
the Arabian dynasty of Edessa, the dynasty of Abyssinia, &c.;
it is proper, therefore, to notice the serpent-symbol of royalty on
the signets of the Rajahs of Chota Nagpur, the fire-spitting
serpent which adorned the head of Egyptian Pharaohs, and the
dragons which entwine King Arthur as he stands at the tomb of
'Crooke ii. 144; Tylor i. 294; A. B. Ellis, The Ewe-Speaking
Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa (1890), pp. 47 seq.
8 See also R. Lasch, op. cit. iii. 97 sqq.
9 D. G. Brinton, Myths of the New World (1896), 135; A. S.
Palmer, Nineteenth Century (Oct. 1909), pp. 694 sqq.
10 For the latter, see J. T. Medina, Les Aborigines de Chile (1882),
28 sqq.; D. G. Brinton, op. cit., 176 sqq.; Frazer, Pausanias, \.
44 seq.; J. F. Maclennan, Studies in Anc. Hist., 2nd series, 203 seq.
The Babylonian story of Ea (see 2) and the deluge finds an Indian
parallel in the fish (or, otherwise a manifestation of Vishnu the
many-headed serpent) which warned Manu. Among the Austrian
gipsies the serpent is supposed to be able to swallow up prolonged
rams, and it may be conjectured that the stories associating the
commencement or conclusion of great floods with chasms (e.g.
Lucian, De dea Syria, 12 seq.) are connected with the beliefs
associating wells or springs with serpents and other occupants.
"See E. S. Hartland, Primitive Paternity (1909); Frazer, Adonis
(Index, s.v. Conception), and Totemism and Exogamy (1910; Index,
s.w. " Conception," " Snake ").
" E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (1894-1896), i. 121. In
many places streams or springs are credited with the power of re-
moving barrenness which, in primitive thought, is often ascribed to
supernatural malevolence. See Hartland, op. cit., i. 71 sqq., 133,
167 sqq.
"Journal of the Bombay Royal As. Soc. ix. 188; for sacrifices
and snake-deities to obtain offspring, see Crooke i. 226; Winternitz,
258. In the Arabian Nights Solomon prescribes the flesh of two
serpents for the childless wives of the king of Egypt and his vizier.
"Frazer, Adonis, 72 (with other 'examples). The Inca hero
Yupanqui had as father a divine being with serpent and lion attri-
butes who revealed himself in a well (Hartland ii. 14 seq.).
SERPENT -WORSHIP
679
the emperor Maximilian at Innsbruck. 1 Sometimes the serpent
stands at the head of the human race as the mother of all. 2
This, following an old and still well supported interpretation of
the name Eve (hawwah), was apparently also the belief of one
branch of the Hebrews. 3
There are many instances of tribes or clans named after the
serpent. These are not necessarily examples of nicknames, since
a relationship between the two often shows itself in
*ioas'wHh custom or belief. This feature sometimes applies,
claas also, to cases where the clan does not bear the serpent
name. In accordance with universal ideas of the
reality of the " name," there are tribes who will refrain from
mentioning the serpent. 4 Also there are clans like the American
Apaches and Navahos who will neither kill nor eat rattlesnakes
for purely " superstitious " reasons. Where the reptile is
venerated or feared it is usually inviolable, and among the Brass-
men of the Niger the dangerous and destructive cobra was especi-
ally protected by an article in the diplomatic treaty of 1856 for
the Bight of Biafra (Maclennan, 524). The North American
Indians fear lest their venerated rattlesnake should incite its
kinsfolk to avenge any injury done to it, and when the Seminole
Indians begged an English traveller to rid them of one of these
troublesome intruders, they scratched him as a matter of form
in order to appease the spirit of the dead snake. 5 The snake-tribes
of the Punjab clothe and bury a dead serpent, and elsewhere in
India when one is killed in the village a copper coin is placed in
its mouth and the body ceremonially burned to avert evil. 6
These snake-tribes claim to be free from snake-bite, as also the
ancient Psylli of Africa and the Ophiogenes (" serpent born ")
of Cyprus who were supposed to be able to cure others. This
power (cf. above 3 seq.) was claimed likewise by the Marsians
of ancient Italy, and is still possessed by the snake-clan of
Senegambia. 7 In Kashmir the serpent-tribes became famous
for medical skill in general, and they attributed this to the
health-giving serpent (Fergusson, 260). Moreover, the Psylli
would test the legitimacy of their new-born by exposing them to
serpents which would not harm those of pure birth, and a similar
ordeal among the Ophiogenes of Asia Minor showed whether a
man was really of their kin. 8 This peculiar " kinship " between
serpent-clans and serpents may be further illustrated from
Senegambia, where a python is supposed to visit every child of
the python-clan within eight days of birth, apparently as a sign
of recognition. Also at Fernando Po there was an annual cere-
mony where children born within the year were made to touch
the skin of a serpent suspended from a tree in the public square. 9
We have next to notice the very general belief that the house-
hold snake was an agreeable guest, if not a guardian spirit. In
Sweden, even in the i6th century, such snakes were virtually
household gods and to hurt them was a deadly sin. Among the
old Prussians they were invited to share an annual sacrificial
1 Fergusson, 65; Crooke ii. 124; Oldham, 37, 85 sqq., 2OO sqq.;
Maclennan, p. 526 seq.
2 Murison, p. 130 n. 43; Maclennan, 527.
3 Possibly the Kenite and allied families ; cf . the conjecture
associating Moses and the Levites with a serpent-clan (E. Meyer and
B. Luther, Die Israeliten, 116, 426 sqq.). It is curious that Ther-
muthis, the traditional name of the princess who adopted Moses
(Josephus, Ant. ii. 9. 5), is also the name of a serpent-deity (Aelian, De
anim. x. 31 ; see Wiedemann on Herod, ii. 74 seq.).
4 Examples in Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 456 sqq. ; N. W. Thomas,
Encyc. of Rel. and Ethics, i. 526, col. i .
6 Frazer, citing W. Bartram, Travels through N. and S. Carolina
(London, 1792), 258 sqq.
'See Fergusson, 259; Winternitz, 257; Crooke ii. 151 seq.
7 The 'Omar ibn 'Isa of the Hadhramaut had the same gift
(so Makrizi) ; cf. also Lane's account of the " Saadeeyeh " sect who
charm away serpents from houses (Modern Egyptians).
8 Strabo xiii. I. 14. Serpents which would only attack those who
were not natives were to be found on the banks of-the Euphrates and
also at Tiryns (Mir. Ausc. 149 seq. ; Pliny viii. 59. 84). In Sicily also,
where Pliny (xxxvii. 10. 54) records some mystery about harmless
scorpions, old John Maundeville in his travels (chap, v.) found a
belief in snakes which were harmful only to illegitimate children.
8 Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 370 seq.; Totemism and Exog. i. 20.
See also Crooke ii. 124, 142, 151 seq. (descent from a serpent involves
immunity from its bite, and a serpent is supposed to identify the
rightful heirs of a kingdom).
meal, and their refusal was a bad sign. 10 Mahomet, it is said,
declared that the house-dwelling snakes were a kind of jinn,
and the heathen Arabs invariably regarded them as
alike malevolent or benevolent demoniacal beings. 11 J; ...
. _ tloas with
Among the Romans every place had its genius families.
equally in the form of a serpent cf. the doubt of
Aeneas (Verg. Aen. v. 84 sqq.) and household snakes were
lodged and fed in vast numbers. They were the guardian-
spirits of men and families, and stories are told of the way in
which human life depended upon the safety of the reptile. 12
As a chthonic animal the serpent has often been regarded as an
embodiment of the soul of the dead. Grimm's story of king
Gunthram tells how, while he slept, his soul in serpent-form
visited a mountain full of gold (Paulus Diac. iii. 34) , and Porphyry
relates that a snake crawled from beneath the bed of Plotinus
at the moment of the philosopher's death (cf. the Indian story,
Oldham, 79). In Bali near Java, where the Naga-cult flourishes,
a serpent is carried at the funeral ceremonies of the Kshatriya
caste and burned with the corpse. Among many African tribes
the house-haunting serpents are the dead, who are therefore
treated with respect and often fed with milk. 13 But it does not
appear that every venerated serpent was an incarnation or that
every incarnation was reverenced or even tolerated. Among
the Nayars of Malabar, the family-serpent is capable of almost
unlimited powers for good or evil; it is part of the household
property, but does not seem to be connected with ancestral
cults. 14
In Greece, however, " the dead man became a chthonic
daemon, potent for good or evil; his natural symbol as such,
often figured on tombs, was the snake." 16 " The men /ftp As
of old time," as Plutarch observed, "associated the heroes and
snake most of all beasts with heroes," and in Photius local
the term " speckled hero " thus finds an explanation. *"*""**.
At the battle of Salamis the serpent which appeared among the
ships was taken to be the hero Cychreus. 1 ' These heroes might
become objects of cult and local divinities of healing; people
would pass their tombs in awe, or resort thither for divination
or for taking oaths. 17 In Egypt not only are there serpents of the
houses, but each quarter in Cairo had a serpent-guardian (Lane).
This is said also of the villages and districts of Armenia, and
Buddhist legends affirm it for India. 18 The Satl (Suttee) wife
immolated to accompany her deceased husband often became
the guardian of the village, and on the Satl shrine a snake may
be represented in the act of rising out of the masonry. 19 Athene
(" the Athenian one ") was primarily the guardian spirit of
Athens, and at the Erechtheum her sacred serpent (apparently
known to the 3rd century A.D.), was fed monthly with honey-
cakes; when, during the Persian War, it left the food untouched
it was taken as a sign that the protectors had forsaken the city. 20
At Lebadeia in the shrine of Trophonios (to whom serpents were
sacred) offerings of honey cakes were made to an oracular serpent.
At Delphi a virgin superintended a similar oracle; and in the
sacred grove of Apollo at Epirus a nude virgin-attendant brought
10 See also B. Deane, Serpent Worship, 245 seq., Fergusson, 23;
J. Grimm, Teutonic Mythology (1888), iv. 1490 sqq. ; Tylor ii. 240.
11 T. Noldeke (on serpent-beliefs in Arabia), Zeit.f. Volkerpsychol.
i. 412 sqq. (1860).
12 So, in the stories of Tiberius and D. Laelius; Frazer, Adonis,
74 n. 2 (with references) ; cf. Fergusson, 19.
13 Frazer, Adonis, 73 seq.; for India, see Winternitz, 258.
14 F. Fawcett, Madras Bulletin, iii. 279 (1901).
15 Companion to Greek Studies, ed. L. Whibley (1905), p. 502 and
fig. 97. The libations of milk which the Greeks poured upon graves
were possibly for these embodiments of the dead.
16 Pausanias, i. 36, I ; see Rohde, Psyche, 2nd ed., i. 196.
17 See especially, on the Greek hero as a snake, Miss Jane E.
Harrison, Journ. of Hell. Studies, xix. (1889), 204 sqq.; Proleg. to
Study of Greek Religion (1903), 326 sqq.
18 Abeghian, Armen. Volksglaube, 74 sqq. ; Crooke ii. 127.
19 Crooke i. 187 seq. To these local examples may be added
the lord (or lady) of life, a serpent-deity of the Assyrian city Der
(Winckler and Zimmern, Keilinschrift. u. d. alte Test. 505 ; for other
evidence, see Index, s.v. " Schlange ").
20 Herod, viii. 41. The serpent was probably regarded as the em-
bodiment of the king Erechtheus; see Frazer, Adonis, 75; A.
Frickenhaus, Athen. Mitt, xxxiii. (1908), 171-176.
68o
SERPENT- WORSHIP
//. Human
sacrifice.
offerings, and it was a sign of a plentiful year if they were accepted.
So also at Lanuvium, south of Rome, in a grove near the temple
of the Argive Hera, sacred maidens descended blindfolded once
a year with a barley-cake, and if the serpent took it, it indicated
that they were pure and that the husbandmen would be fortunate.
On a Greek vase-painting the snake is the vehicle of the wrath
of Athene, even as Chryse, another local " maiden," had a
snake-guardian of a shrine which she sent against Philoctetes. 1
Similarly Orestes in serpent-form would slay Clytaemnestra
(Aeschylus, Choephori): the serpent is thus the avenging spirit
of the deceased, the embodiment of Vengeance (cf. Acts xxviii. 4). 2
To these characteristics of serpents and serpent-godlings we
must add the control of the weather. This was ascribed to the
naga demi-gods and rajahs of India and to the " king
of snakes " among North American Indians. 3 It is
significant that in India the widely-distributed Naga-
pan&mi-festival occurs in the rainy season. We have seen how
closely the serpent is associated with water generally ( 5 seq.),
and since we meet with the belief that sources will dry up when
the serpent-occupant is killed (Bechuanas, Zulus), or that they
will resent impurities thrown into their springs by causing storms
(tribes of the Hindu-Kush) , it is not surprising to find elaborate
precautions for the propitiation of such powerful beings. Now,
there are popular stories of springs and waters which could only
be used in return for regular human sacrifices. 4 In a story from
the isle of Lesbos the dragon must receive a human victim twice
a day. Curiously enough, an old authority tells us that the
people of Lesbos were directed to throw a virgin into the sea to
Poseidon, and the hero who vainly tried to save her reappeared
years later with a wonderful cup of gold (Hartland, iii. 43 seq.,
79, see Athenaeus xi. 15). In the Chinese annals of Khotan in
Cashgar, when a certain stream dried up, a female dragon declared
that her husband had died; one of the royal grandees sacrificed
himself to meet the want, the water flowed once more, and the
" husband " of the being became the guardian of the kingdom's
prosperity. 6 A careful study of all the related traditions suggests
that they preserve an unmistakable recollection of human
sacrifice to serpents and other spirits of the water, and that the
familiar story of the hero who vanquishes the demon and rescues
the victim (usually a female, and especially a virgin) testifies to
the suppression of the rite.
An extremely rich dynasty in the Upper Niger was supposed to owe
its wealth to a serpent in a well which received yearly a maiden
attired as a bride; the cessation of the practice brought drought and
sickness (Hartland iii. 57 seq.). In Mexico the half-serpent Ahuizotl
dragged into its pool hapless passers-by; however, their souls were
supposed to go to the terrestrial paradise-^-see on this idea, Rohde,
ii. 374, n. 2 and the relatives became rich through the unhappy
accident (Hartland, 86 seq.). But in India human sacrifice was actu-
ally made in the expectation of gaining hidden treasure, and doubtless
we have a survival of this when snake-charmers, for a drop of blood
from the finger of a first-born, will track the snakes which are guardians
of treasure (Crooke ii. 135, 170 seq.). Indian traditions tell how
reformers have persuaded the people in the past to stop their human
sacrifices to serpent-spirits (Fergusson, 64, Oldham, 101), and a
survival may be recognized in parts of the N.W. Provinces when, at
the Guru! serpent-festival, women make vicarious offerings by
throwing to Nag Deota, the river demon, dolls which the village lads
beat with long switches (Crooke ii. 139). It is unnecessary to refer
more fully to the evidence for former human sacrifice or to the
popular stories and grim superstitions which indicate its persistence ;
the grisly custom of our ancestors has been attested by comparatively
recent observation in Mexico. Peru, Fiji and W. Africa.*
1 Sophoc, Phil. 1327; Harrison, Prol. 301 seq., 306 seq.
1 Compare the snake attributes of the Erinyes; see Harrison, 217
sqq., 233 sqq.
'Fergusson, 48 seq.. 82, 257 seq.; Crooke, ii. 129; Oldham,
49-51, 121, 123, 129, 200; cf. Winternitz, 44 seq., 259 seq.
'Hartland iii. 2, 4, 10 seq., 14, 28, 30, 74, 87-94; Frazer, Pnus.
v. 45; Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (1905), 183
seq., 192.
' Hartland iii. 73 seq.; cf. also J. G. R. Forlong, Faiths of Man
(1906), iii. 268.
See Deane, Serpent Worship, 245 seq. (Livonia); and for more
modern evidence, Maclennan, 216, 219; Oldham, 40, 50, 100 seq.;
and A. B. Ellis ( 12 below). Folk-lore adds to the survivals some
of the customs for producing rain, e.g. bathing and drenching willing
or unwilling victims, dipping holy images in water, and otherwise
disturbing springs and fountains (Frazer, Golden Bough, i. 95 sqq.,
A conspicuous feature in serpent-cults is the prominence of
females. In India, in Behar, during August there is a colourless
festival in which women, " wives of the snake," go 12, The
round begging on behalf of the Brahmans and the famous
villages (Crooke ii. 138). Among the Nayars of Dahomey
Malabar at the ceremonies of the Pambantullel, the ""^
household serpent-deities show their benevolence by inspiring
with oracles certain women who must be of perfect purity. 7 In
Travancore a serpent-god is the property of a family, the priests
of a temple; the eldest female carries the image at the festal
processions and must lead a celibate life (Oldham, 153 seq.).
Far more noteworthy is the cult of the Python Danh-gbi of
Whydah, which after taking root in Dahomey, became the most
remarkable example of a thoroughly organic serpent-cult. 8 The
python-deity is god of wisdom and earthly bliss and the bene-
factor of man (cf. 2): he opened the eyes of the first human
pair who were born blind. He is specially invoked on behalf of
the king (the nominal head of the priesthood) and the crops, and
a very close connexion was supposed to exist between the god's
agency and all agricultural life. Initiated priests, after remaining
silent in his temple for seven days, receive a new name and thus
become ordained. They possess a knowledge of poisons and
antidotes and thereby acquire considerable income (cf. 3, 8).
Children who touch or are touched by one of the many temple-
snakes are sequestered for a year and learn the songs and dances
of the cult. Women who are touched become " possessed "
by the god. In addition to his ministrant priestesses, the god has
numerous " wives," who form a complete organization. Neither
of these classes may marry, and the latter are specially sought
at the season when the crops begin to sprout. 9 These "wives"
take part in licentious rites with the priests and male
worshippers, and the python is the reputed father of the offspring
(cf. 7). Every snake of its kind receives the profound venera-
tion of the native of Whydah, who salutes it as master, father,
mother and benefactor. Such snakes must be treated with every
respect, and if they are even accidentally killed, the offending
native might be burned alive (cf. 8). In 1890 a semblance of the
penalty was still maintained: the offender being allowed to
escape from a burning hut through a crowd of snake-worshippers
armed with clubs; if discreet in his bribes, and lucky, he might
reach running water and could purify himself there. On the day
of pubh'c procession the last took place in 1857 or 1858 naked
priests and " wives" escorted the company with songs and dances;
death was the penalty of those caught peering from their houses,
and, apart from this, the natives feared loathsome diseases should
they gaze upon the sacred scene. It is said that Europeans
who violated the prohibition have been poisoned. Occasional
human sacrifice in honour of the god is attested (cf. ii).
While Dahomey furnishes this elaborate example of the
modern worship of a god in the embodiment of a serpent, else-
where we find either less organic types, or the persist- /j. various
ence and survival of cults whose original form can only deveiop-
be reconstructed by inference. In the gloomy rites meats ol
of the Diasia, the Olympian Zeus, as Zeus Meilichios cuHs '
god of wealth, has been imposed upon a chthonic snake-deity
who is propitiated by holocausts of pigs and by a ritual of purga-
tion (Harrison, Prol. 12-28). In the Thesmophoria, a sowing
festival of immemorial antiquity performed by women, cakes and
pigs were thrown to serpents kept in caves and sacred to the corn-
goddess Demeter, who, like the Bona Dea, was representative
108, III seq., 209 sqq.). Here also are the superstitions which
associate rivers or pools with the safety of human life (e.g Frazer iii.
318 seq.; Hartland ii. 20, 22 sqq.; G. L. Gomme, Ethnology in
Folklore [1892], 71 sqq., 77 seq.).
7 F. Fawcett, Madras Goy. Museum, Bull. iii. 277. (For the stress
laid upon the personal purity of the females, cf. p. 282). For other
evidence for the prominence of females, see Fergusson, 82, 257 seq.
' A. B. Ellis (above, 6, n. 7), 47 sqq., 140 sqq., cf. Frazer, Adonis,
57 sqq. The cult taken by slaves to America is the Vodu (Vaudoo or
Vaudoux) worship of Haiti (Ellis, 29 seq.).
On their marriage to the god these devotees are marked with his
image (said to be imprinted by the god himself) ; cf. the story that
Atia, the mother of Augustus, when touched by the serpent in the
temple of Apollo, was marked with a stain like a painted serpent.
SERPENT- WORSHIP
681
tests with
serpents.
of the fertility of nature. Myth explained it as a celebration of
the capture of Koreby Plouton. 1 The Maenads (" mad ones")
or Bacchae, the women attendants of Dionysus, with their
snake-accompaniments, are only one of the various snake-features
associated with the cult of a deity who was also a god of healing.
The symbol of the Bacchic orgies was a consecrated serpent,
and the snakes kept in the sacred cistae of the cult of Dionysus
find a parallel among the sect of the Ophites where, at the
sacramental rites, bread was offered to the living serpent and
afterwards distributed among the worshippers. 2 Other develop-
ments may be illustrated from the cult of Aesculapius, who
seems to have been merely a deified ancestor, like the Egyptian
Imhotep (below) or the interesting Indian healer Sokha Baba
(Crooke i. 147, ii. 122). Introduced into Athens about 421 B.C.,
Aesculapius inherited the older local cult of the serpent " pro-
tector " Amynos (Harrison, 346 seq.) . In Laodicea he apparently
replaced an older deity with serpent attributes. 3 In Egypt,
he superseded the sage Imhotep at Memphis, and at the temple
sacred to Aesculapius and Hygieia at Ptolemais the money-box
has been found with the upper part in the form of a great snake. 4
Finally among the Phoenicians he was identified with Eshmun,
an earlier god of healing, who in turn was already closely asso-
ciated with Dionysus and with Caelestis-Astarte. 6
For the retention of older cults under a new name, Mahom-
medanism supplies several examples, as when a forest-serpent
of India receives a Mahommedan name (Oldham 128).
14. Con- g u j. sometimes there is a contest between the new
cult and the old. Thus Apollo has to fight the oracle
serpent of Gaia, and it has been observed that where
Apollo prevailed in Greek religion the serpent became a monster
to be slain. 6 At Thebes the Thebans were Serpentigenae
Apollo took the place of Cadmus, who, after killing the dragon
which guarded a well and freeing the district, had ended by
being turned into a serpent. This looks like the assumption of
indigenous traits by a foreigner cf. Aesculapius ( 13) much
in the same way as Hercules has contests with serpents and
dragons, becomes the patron of medicinal springs, and by
marrying the serpent Echidna was the ancestor of the snake-
worshipping Scythians. 7 But an ethnological tradition appears
when Phorbas killed the serpent Ophiusa, freed Rhodes of snakes
and obtained supremacy, or when Cychreus slew the dragon of
Salamis and took the kingdom. 8 A story told by Herodotus
(i. 78) admirably shows how the serpent as a child of earth was
1 Harrison, 109 seq., 120 sqq., and art. THESMOPHORIA. The rites
included the " pursuit," possibly derived from the intentional
opportunity of escape allowed the victim. Plouton, also associated
with Proserpine, the great mother-goddess, was patron of the chasms
with mephitic vapours in the valley of the Maeander (see Frazer,
Adonis, 170 sqq.).
* A Greek vase shows snake-bodied nymphs at the grape-harvest
(Harrison 259 seq.), and in Egypt the harvest goddess Rannut had
snake-form (F. Petrie, Relig. of 'Ancient Egypt, 1906, p. 26). The
serpent-god revered by Taxilus (king of Taxila), which was seen by
Alexander the Great on his way to India, was identified by Greek
writers with Dionysus or Bacchus. For the serpent in the cult of
Sabazius, see Harrison, Prol. 418, 535. A kind of sacramental
communion with a snake is found among a Punjab snake-tribe
(Frazer, Golden Bough, ii. 441 seq.; Punjab Notes and Queries, ii. 91).
8 For this and other Phrygian evidence, see W. M. Ramsay, Cities
and Bishoprics of Phrygia, i. 52, 94, 104.
*Ag. Zeit. xl. 140 seq. Aehan (De anint. xvi. 36) mentions a huge
serpent at the temple dedicated to Aesculapius. Serapis (Osiris-
Apis) who came to acquire the attributes of Aesculapius and of Pluto,
god of the dead, sometimes had serpent-form, and even in the reign
of Constantine popular belief connected the rise of the Nile with his
agency (Frazer, Adonis, 398).
6 See on this branch of the subject, W. W. G. Baudissin, Zeit. d.
morgenl. Gesell. lix. (1905), 459-522, and Orient. Stud. Theodor
Noldeke (ed. Bezold, 1906), ii. 729 sqq.
6 Harrison, Journ. Hell. Stud. xix. 223, cf. Proleg. 392; and E.
Rohde, Psyche, i. 133 seq.
7 Herod, iv. 9 ; for Hercules and healing waters, see Frazer,
Adonis, 174 seq.; cf. above, 5. Here arises the question of the
tendency to attribute to outside aid the introduction of culture
(cf. 2), and even of law (F. Pollock, ed. of Maine's Ancient Law,
1907, p. 19).
* Cf. the similar view of serpent-conflicts in Persian tradition
(Fergusson, 44 seq.), and the story of the colonization of Cambodia,
where the new-comer marries the dragon-king's daughter (ib. 53).
a type of indigenous peoples, and there was a tendency to
represent the earlier conquered races as monsters and demons,
though not necessarily unskilled (e.g. the Cretan Kouretes),
or to depict the conquest of barbarians as the overthrow of
serpents or serpent-like beings. 9 This obviously complicates
the investigation of serpent-cults. Moreover, the serpent or
dragon may have an opponent like the eagle (see Goblet d' Alviella,
17), or a cosmical antagonist the lightning, thunder or rain-god.
Indra, the rain-god, slew with a thunderbolt Ahi or Vitra, who
kept back the waters (Oldham, 32 sqq.); the thunder-god of the
Iroquois killed the subterranean serpent which fed on human
flesh (Hartland iii. 151). 10 Or the victor is the sun: the Egyptian
sun-god Re had his fire-spitting serpent to oppose his enemies,
of which one was the cloud and storm serpent Apophis, while
in Greek myth the sanctuary of Helios (the sun) sheltered the
young Orpheus from the snake.
It is impossible to trace a safe path through the complicated
aetiological myths, the fragments of reshaped legend and
tradition, or the adjustment of rival theologies. It
remains to observe the overthrow or supersession of the 'chris-
serpent in Christian lands. At Axum in Abyssinia, tiantty.
where worship was divided between the serpent and
the Mosaic Law, it is said that the great dragon was burst
asunder by the prayers of Christian saints (c. A.D. 340; Fergusson,
35). At the Phrygian Hierapolis the serpent Echidna was
expelled by the Apostles Philip and John. 11 France had its
traditions of the destruction of serpents by the early missionaries
(Deane, 283 seq.), and the memory possibly survived at Luchon
in the Pyrenees, where the clergy and people celebrated the eve
of St John by burning live serpents. 12 Christian saints have also
stepped into the shoes of earlier serpent-slayers, while, in the
stories of " St George and the Dragon " type, the victory of the
pious over the enemy of mankind has often been treated as a
literal conflict with dragons, thus introducing a new and confusing
element into the subject. This purely secondary aspect of the
serpent as the devil cannot be noticed here. 13 At Rouen the
celebration of St Remain seems to preserve a recollection of
human sacrifice to a serpent-demon which was primarily sup-
pressed by a pagan hero, and at Metz, where St Clement is
celebrated as the conqueror of a dragon, its image (formerly
kept in the cathedral) was taken round the streets at the annual
festival and received offerings of food. 14 Most remarkable of all,
at Cocullo in the Abruzzi mountains on the border of the old
territory of the Marsi snake-men (see 8), the serpent-deity has
a lineal descendant in the shape of St Domenico of Foligno
(A.D. 950-1031). The shrine is famous for its cures, and when
the saint has his serpent-festival on the first Thursday in May,
Serpari or serpent-men carry coils of live reptiles in procession
before his image, which in turn is hung with serpents of all
sizes. The rites, we may suppose, have become modified and
more orthodox, but none the less they are a valuable testimony
to the persistence of the cult among people who still claim power
over serpents and immunity from their bite, and who live hard
by the home of the ancient tribe which ascribed its origin to
the son of Circe. 15 One may recall the old cult of Sabazios where
8 Cf. the serpent-pillars found in the old Roman provinces of
Europe (Frazer, Pausanias, ii. 49, v. 478 seq.). For the Kouretes,
the fish and serpent-like peoples struck down by Zeus or Apollo, see
Harrison, Annual of Brit. School at Athens, xv. 308 sqq.
10 In popular Macedonian lore the lightning or thunder is the enemy
of the serpent-dragon (G. F. Abbott, Macedonian Folklore, 261 ;
cf. also Schwartz, 150 sqq., W. R. Smith, 175, n. I ; Winternitz, 45).
11 W. M. Ramsay, op. cit. i. 86 seq.; cf. Gutschmid, Rhein. Mus.
(1864), pp. 398 sqq.
12 Fergusson, p. 29, n. 2 (see, however, Frazer, Golden Bough, iii.
323 seq.). For analogous traditions, see Fergusson, 32.
13 See ANTICHRIST; DEVIL; DRAGON.
14 See further Frazer, Kingship, 184-192; Schwartz, 73 seq.;
Hocker, Deutscher Volksglaube (Gottingen, 1853), p. 231. Similarly,
food is offered to the snake of dough in the Punjab festival already
mentioned (note 2 above).
16 The festival is described (as seen in 1906) by Marian C. Harrison,
Folklore, xviii. (1907), 187 sqq. A combination of a cult of the
house-snake with that of the (Christian) saint of the master of the
house is said to prevail in modern Greece (J. C. Lawson, Modern
Greek Religion, 1910, p. 260).
682
SERPUKHOV SERRANO Y DOMINGUEZ
men waved great red snakes over their heads as they marched in
procession. One may even recall the cult of Dahomey. More-
over, we find at Madagascar the procession of the god of fertility
and healing, the patron of serpents who are the ministers of
his vengeance (Frazer, Paus. v. 66 seq.). In a Bengal festival
the men march entwined with serpents, while the chief man
has a rock-boa or python round his neck and is carried or rides
on a buffalo (Fergusson, 259). Again, among the Moquis of
America, where the snake-clan claim descent from a woman
who gave birth to snakes, the reptiles are freely handled at the
" snake dances " which are performed partly to secure the
fertility of the soil. 1
These last examples are important because they illustrate the
immense difficulty 9f determining the true significance of any
isolated piece of evidence. It cannot be assumed that
16. Com- plated features which find a parallel in more .completely
ty known cults presuppose such cults; yet it may be in-
moUve*. f errec | tnat they point to earlier, more perfect structures,
to rites which perhaps linger only as a memory, and to conceptions
and beliefs which have been elevated or modified by other religions.
Hence also the impossibility of treating the present subject schematic-
ally. Apart from the more obvious characteristics of the serpent
likely to impress all observant minds ( i), its essentially chthonic
character shows itself markedly when it is associated with the
treasures and healing herbs of the earth, the produce of the soil,
the source of springs and thence of all water and the dust unto
which all men return. 1 Although much evidence connects the
serpent with the dead, especially as a guardian-spirit over the living,
any discussion of this aspect of the subject is bound up with the
varying beliefs regarding ancestors and death. Among the Arunta
of Central Australia, the ghosts of the dead haunt certain localities,
and, entering the bodies of passing women, are constantly rein-
carnated ; the Black-snake clan of the Warramunga tribe embodies
the spirits which the original ancestor had deposited by a certain
creek.' On the other hand, the " rattlesnake " men of the Moqui are
merely transformations and expect to return at death to their
original reptile form (Maclennan, 357). It is another stage when
only the more conspicuous mortals assume serpent guise, and the
deification of heroes involves yet another course of ideas. Here it
is evident that some of the attributes of prominent serpent-gods will
be purely secondary. Moreover, it is a human weakness to mani-
pulate one's ancestry, and the common claim to be descended from
the local godling is not to be confused with the Arunta type of
reincarnation. 4
Again, in the part taken by women in serpent-lore other problems
of primitive society and religion intermingle. For example, when
one considers how often milk is used in the tending and propitiation
of venerated snakes, it is noteworthy that in Roman cult the truly
rustic deities are offered milk (Fowler), and it is no less singular
that many of the old goddesses of Greece have serpent attributes
(Harrison).' Now anthropological research has vividly shown that
woman, naturally fitted (as it seemed) to understand the mysteries
of increase, was assigned a prominent part in rites for the furtherance
of growth and fertility. And the same thread of ideas seems to recur
in the " wives " of the python Danh-gbi ( 12), the Shakti cere-
monies in India for the increase of the divine energy of nature
(Fergusson, 258 seq.), and, to a certain extent, in the providing of
'I. G. Bourke, Snake-Dance of the Moquis (1884), p. 1 80 seq.;
see Frazer, Totem, and Exog. iii. 229 sqq.
2 Here one will note the prevalence of the ideas of " mother
earth," and also the association in higher religions of chthonic
powers with the serpent, so, e.g. the winds (viz. Boreas in Greece,
cf. Harrison, Prol. 68, 181), subterranean gods (for Assyria, cf.
Zeit.f. Assyr. [1894] p. 1 16, and for the Finns, Fergusson, p. 250 seq.).
For the serpent (sometimes with anthropomorphic hints) in the
Tabellae devotionis, see R. Wunsch, Sethianische Verfluchungstafeln
(Leipzig, 1898), 100 sqq., and for a Carthaginian triad of the under
world (cf. the threefold Hecate) including b-w-t (cf. hawuah, Eve,
" serpent "), see G. A. Cooke, N. Semit. Inscr. (1903), p. 135.
'Spencer and Gillen, N. Tribes of Central Australia, 162, 330
seq. (Frazer, Adonis, p. 80); A. Lang, Origins of Religion (1890),
p. 124.
* There appears to be a fundamental inclination towards ideas of
rebirth and reincarnation (see F. B. Jevons, Inlrod. to Study of
Comp. Religion, 1908, pp. 50 sqq., 59 sqq.); it would seem to be
wrapped up in the feeling of the essential ' one-ness " of the group
(including its deity), and involves the belief that such corporate
bodies never die (cf. even the Roman conception of the family,
Maine, op. cit. 197 sqq.).
'W. W. Fowier, Roman Festivals, 103-105; Harrison, Journ.
Hell. Stud. xix. 221. For the use of milk, cf. Frazer, Adonis, 74
(with the suggestion that it is because milk is the food of babes),
Crooke ii. 130, and F. Fawcett, Madras Gov. Bull. (1900), iii. I, 58
(a South-Indian festival on the fifth of Sravana, when the serpent
deity is bathed in milk).
deities or demons of serpent-type with consorts.* There is every-
where a danger of misunderstanding isolated evidence, of wrongly
classifying different motives, and of overlooking necessary links in
the chain of argument. There is an obvious development from the
serpent qua reptile to the deity or the devil, and that the original
:heriomorphic form is not at once forgotten can be seen in Zeus
VIeilichios, Aesculapius Amynos, in the Cretan snake-goddesses,
or in the Buddhist topes illustrated by Fergusson. But naturally
:here are other developments to be noticed when originally distinct
attributes are combined, when, for example, Greek goddesses take
the forms of birds as well as of snakes (Harrison, 322), or when the
Aztec snake-deity Huitzilcpochtli, like the Votan of the Mayas, has
"eathers (Maclennan, 384).'
Thus it will be perceived that the subject of this article involves
at every turn problems of the history of thought (cf. the similar
difficulties in the discussion of TREE-WORSHIP). There is ample
material for purely comparative purposes and for an estimate both
of the general fundamental ideas and of the artificially-developed
secondary speculations; but for any scientific research it is
necessary to observe the social, religious and historical conditions
of the provenance and period of the evidence, and for this the
material is often insufficient. The references in this article furnish
: uller information and are usually made to works suitable for pur-
suing the subject more thoroughly. One may also consult the
English and foreign journals devoted to folklore, comparative
religion or anthropology (especially the volumes of Folklore, Index,
s.v. " Snakes "), and the articles in this Encyclopaedia on the various
departments of primitive religion. In general, works which endea-
vour to reduce the evidence for this fascinating subject to clear-
cut systems are more useful for the data they provide than
for their conclusions, and it is not unnecessary to warn readers
against the unscientific studies of " ophiolatry " and especially
against " that portentous nonsense called the ' arkite symbolism '
(see E. B. Tylor's remarks, Primitive Culture, 4th ed., ii. 239).
(S. A. C-.)
SERPUKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow,
62 m. by rail S. of the city of Moscow. The population in 1884
was 22,420, and 24,456 in 1897. Built on high cliffs on both banks
of the river Nara, 3 m. above its confluence with the Oka,
Serpukhov is an important manufacturing and commercial town.
Its manufactories produce cotton and woollen stuffs, paper,
leather, chemicals and candles. Petty trades are much developed
in the neighbourhood textile fabrics, furniture, and earthenware
and porcelain. The manufactured goods of Serpukhov are sent
mostly by rail to the fairs of Nizhniy-Novgorod and the
Ukraine, while large amounts of grain, hemp and timber, brought
from the east down the Oka, are discharged at Serpukhov and
sent on to Moscow and St Petersburg. The cathedral (1380)
was rebuilt in the i8th century; the old fortress has almost
entirely disappeared.
Serpukhov is one of the oldest towns of the principality of
Moscow; in 1328 it was a nearly independent principality under
the protectorate of Moscow. Its fortress protected Moscow on
the south and was often attacked by the Tatars; the Mongol
prince Toktamish plundered it in 1382, and the Lithuanians in
1410. In 1556 the town was strongly fortified, so that fifteen
years later it was able to resist the Mongols. Its commercial
importance dates from the i8th century.
SERRANO Y DOMINGUEZ, FRANCISCO, DUKE DE LA TORRE
AND COUNT OF SAN ANTONIO (1810-1885), Spanish marshal and
statesman, was born in the island of Leon at Cadiz on the i7th
of December 1810. His father was a general officer and a Liberal.
Serrano began his studies at Vergara in the Basque provinces,
became a cadet in 1822, cornet in 1833 in the lancers of Sagunto,
passed into the carabineers in 1829, and when the Carlist agitation
began in 1833 he exchanged into the cuirassiers. He formed part
of the escort which accompanied Don Carlos, the first pretender
and brother of Ferdinand VII., to the frontier of Portugal. As
Here the transition from mother-right to paternity should
probably be taken into consideration. For the view that the serpent
as a genius or daemon may be replaced by the human (and female)
victim, who thus becomes in time the guardian (cf. 10), see J. C.
Lawson, op. cit. pp. 271 sqq.
'One may note the Indian local saint Guga, who punishes by
snake-bite and can cure his worshippers (similarly the Egyptian
Mert-seger, the serpent-patroness of the Theban necropolis and the
serpent, the saviour-god of the Phrygian Hierapolis); he is repre-
sented on horseback descending to the infernal regions; over him
two snakes meet, one being coiled round the long staff which he
holds in his hands (Crooke i. 212 seq.). But how many different
factors may not have influenced the representation!
SERRES SERTORIUS
683
aide-de-camp of Espoz y Mina, then under the orders of Generals
Cordoba and Espartero, in the armies of Queen Isabella, Serrano
took such an active part in the Carlist War from 1834 to 1839
that he rose from the rank of captain to that of brigadier-general.
His services obtained for him the Cross of San Fernando and
many medals. In 1839 he was elected a member of Cortes for
the first time by Malaga, and in 1840 he was made a general of
division and commander of the district of Valencia, which he
relinquished to take his seat in congress. From that day Serrano
became one of the chief military politicians of Spain. In 1841
he helped Espartero to overthrow the regency of Queen Christina;
in 1843 at Barcelona he made a pronunciamiento against Espar-
tero; he became minister of war in the Lopez cabinet, which
convoked the Cortes that declared Queen Isabella of age at
fifteen, served in the same capacity in an Olozaga cabinet,
sulked as long as the Moderados were in office, was made a
senator in 1845, captain-general of Granada in 1848, and from
1846 to 1853 lived quite apart from politics on his Andalusian
estates or travelling abroad. He assisted Marshal O'Donnell in
the military movements of 1854 and 1856, and was his staunch
follower for twelve years. O'Donnell made him marshal in 1856
and captain-general of Cuba from 1859 to 1862; and Serrano
not only governed that island with success, and did good service
in the war in Santo Domingo, but he was the first viceroy who
advocated political and financial reforms in the colony. On his
return to Spain he was made duke de la Torre, grandee of the
first class, and minister of foreign affairs by O'Donnell. Serrano
gallantly exposed his life to help O'Donnell quell the formid-
able insurrection of the 22nd of June 1866 at Madrid, and was
rewarded with the Golden Fleece. At the death of O'Donnell,
he became the chief of the Union Liberal, and as president of the
senate he assisted Rios Rosas to draw up a petition to Queen
Isabella against her Moderado ministers, for which both were
exiled. Nothing daunted, Serrano began to conspire with the
duke of Montpensier, Prim and Sagasta; and on the 7th of July
1868 Gonzalez Bravo had Serrano and other generals arrested
and taken to the Canary Isles. There Serrano remained until
Admiral Topete sent a steamer to bring him to Cadiz on the i8th
of September of the same year. On landing he signed the mani-
festo of the revolution with Prim, Topete, Sagasta, Martos and
others, and accepted the command of the revolutionary army,
with which he routed the troops of Queen Isabella under the
orders of the marquis of Novaliches at the bridge of Alcolea.
The queen fled to France, and Serrano, having entered Madrid,
formed a Provisional Government, convoked the Cortes Con-
stituyentes in February 1869, and was appointed successively
president of the executive and regent. He acted very impartially
as a ruler, respecting the liberty of action of the Cortes and
cabinets, and bowing to their selection of Amadeus of Savoy,
though he would have preferred Montpensier. As soon as
Amadeus reached Madrid, after the death of Prim, Serrano
consented to form a coalition cabinet, but it kept together only
a few months. Serrano resigned, and took the command of the
Italian king's army against the Carlists in North Spain. He
tried to form one more cabinet under King Amadeus, but again
resigned when that monarch declined to give his ministers
dictatorial powers and sent for Ruiz Zorilla, whose mistakes led
to the abdication of Amadeus on the nth of February 1873.
Serrano would have nothing to do with the federal republic,
and even conspired with other generals and politicians to over-
throw it on the 23rd of April 1873; but having failed, he had to
go to France until General Pavia, on the eve of his coup d'etat
of the 3rd of January 1874, sent for him to take the head of affairs.
Serrano assumed once more the title of president of the execu-
tive; tried first a coalition cabinet, in which Martos and Sagasta
soon quarrelled, then formed a cabinet presided over by Sagasta,
which, however, proved unable to cope with the military and
political agitation that brought about the restoration of the
Bourbons by another pronunciamiento at the end of December
1874. During the eleven months he remained in office Serrano
devoted his attention chiefly to the reorganization of finance,
the renewal of relations with American and European powers, and
the suppression of revolt. After the Restoration, Serrano spent
some time in France, returned to Madrid in 1876, attended palace
receptions, took his seat as a marshal in the senate, coquetted a
little with Sagasta in 1881, and finally gave his open support
to the formation of a dynastic Left with a democratic programme
defended by his own nephew, General Lopez Dominguez. He
died in Madrid on the 26th of November 1885, twenty-four hours
after Alphonso XII. (A. E. H.)
SERRES, OLIVIA (1772-1834), an English impostor, who
claimed the title of Princess Olive of Cumberland, was born at
Warwick on the 3rd of April 1772. She was the daughter of
Robert Wilmot, a house-painter in that town, who subsequently
moved to London. In 1791 she married her drawing-master,
John Thomas Serres (1759-1825), marine painter to George III.,
but in 1804 separated from him. She then devoted herself to
painting and literature, producing a novel, some poems and a
memoir of her uncle, the Rev. Dr Wilmot, in which she
endeavoured to prove that he was the author of the Letters of
Junius. In 1817, in a petition to George III., she put forward
a claim to be the natural daughter of Henry Frederick, duke of
Cumberland, the king's brother, and in 1820, after the death of
George III., claimed to be the duke's legitimate daughter.
In a memorial to George IV. she assumed the title of Princess
Olive of Cumberland, placed the royal arms on her carriage and
dressed her servants in the royal liveries. Her story represented
that her mother was the issue of a secret marriage between
Dr Wilmot and the princess Poniatowski, sister of Stanislaus,
king of Poland, and that she had married the duke of Cumberland
in 1767 at the London house of a nobleman. She herself, ten
days after her birth, was, she alleged, taken from her mother,
and substituted for the still-born child of Robert Wilmot.
Mrs Serres's claim was supported by documents, and she bore
sufficient resemblance to her alleged father to be able to impose
on the numerous class of persons to whom any item of so-called
secret history is attractive. In 1823 Sir Robert Peel, then Home
Secretary, speaking in parliament, declared her claims unfounded,
and her husband, who had never given her pretensions any
support, expressly denied his belief in them in his will. Mrs
Serres died on the 2ist of November 1834, leaving two daughters.
The eldest, who married Antony Ryves, a portrait painter,
upheld her mother's claims and styled herself Princess Lavinia
of Cumberland. In 1866 she took her case into court, producing
all the documents on which her mother had relied, but the jury,
without waiting to hear the conclusion of the reply for the crown,
unanimously declared the signatures to be forgeries. Mrs Serres's
pretensions were probably the result of an absurd vanity.
Between 1807 and 1815 she had managed to make the acquaint-
ance of some members of the Royal family, and from this time
onwards seems to have been obsessed with the idea of raising
herelf , at all costs, to their social level. The tale once invented,
she brooded so continuously over it that she probably ended by
believing it herself.
See W. J. Thorns, Hannah Light foot, and Dr Wilmot' s Polish Princess
(London, 1867); Princess of Cumberland's Statement to the. English
Nation; Annual Register (1866), Case of Ryves v. the Attorney-
General.
SERTORIUS, QUINTUS, Roman statesman and general, was
a native of Nursia in Sabine territory. After acquiring some
reputation in Rome as a jurist and orator, he entered upon a
military career. He served under Marius in 102 B.C. at the
great battle of Aquae Sextiae (mod. Aix) in which the Teutones
were decisively defeated. In 97 he was serving in Spain. In 91
he was quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul, and on his return to Rome he
would have been elected to the tribuneship but for the decided
opposition of Sulla. He now declared for Marius and the
democratic party, though of Marius himself as a man he had the
worst opinion. He must have been a consenting party to the
hideous massacres of Marius and Cinna in 87, though he seems
to have done what he could to mitigate their horrors. On
Sulla's return from the East in 83, Sertorius went to Spain, where
he represented the Marian or democratic party, but without
receiving any definite commission or appointment. Having been
68 4
SERURIER SERVETUS
obliged to withdraw to Africa in consequence of the advance of
the forces of Sulla over the Pyrenees, he carried on a campaign
in Mauretania, in which he defeated one of Sulla's generals and
captured Tingis (Tangier). This success recommended him to
the people of Spain, more particularly to the Lusitanian tribes
in the west, whom Roman generals and governors of Sulla's
party had plundered and oppressed. Brave and kindly, and
gifted with a rough telling eloquence, Sertorius was just the man
to impress them favourably, and the native militia, which he
organized, spoke of him as the " new Hannibal." Many Roman
refugees and deserters joined him, and with these and his Spanish
volunteers he completely defeated one of Sulla's generals and
drove Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius, who had been specially sent
against him from Rome, out of Lusitania, or Further Spain as
the Romans called it. Sertorius owed much of his success to his
statesmanlike ability. His object was to build up a stable
government in the country with the consent and co-operation
of the people, whom he wished to civilize after the Roman
model. He established a senate of 300 members, drawn from
Roman emigrants, with probably a sprinkling of the best
Spaniards, and surrounded himself with a Spanish bodyguard.
For the children of the chief native families he provided a school
at Osca (Huesca), where they received a Roman education and
even adopted the dress of Roman youths. Strict and severe
as he was with his soldiers, he was particularly considerate to
the people generally, and made their burdens as light as possible.
It seems clear that he had a peculiar gift for evoking the en-
thusiasm of rude tribes, and we can well understand how the
famous white fawn, a present from one of the natives, which
was his constant companion and was supposed to communicate
to him the advice of the goddess Diana, promoted his popularity.
For six years he may be said to have really ruled Spain. In 77
he was joined by M. Perperna (or Perpenna) Vento from Rome,
with a following of Roman nobles, and in the same year the great
Pompey (q.v.) was sent to conquer him. Sertorius proved
himself more than a match for his adversaries, utterly defeating
their united forces on one occasion near Saguntum. Pompey
wrote to Rome for reinforcements, without which, he said, he
and Metellus would be driven out of Spain. Sertorius was in
league with the pirates in the Mediterranean, was negotiating
with the formidable Mithradates, and was in communication
with the insurgent slaves in Italy. But owing to jealousies
among the Roman officers who served under him and the
Spaniards of higher rank he could not maintain his position,
and his influence over the native tribes slipped away from him,
though he won victories to the last. In 72 he was assassinated
at a banquet, Perperna, it seems, being the chief instigator of
the deed.
See Plutarch's lives of Sertorius and Pompey; Appian, Bell. civ.
and Hispanica; the fragments of Sallust; Dio Cassius xxxvi.
25, 27, 28, xliv. 47; Veil. Pat. ii. 25, 29, 30, 90.
SERURIER, JEAUME MATHIEU PHILIBERT, COMTE (1742-
1819), French soldier, was born at Laon of middle-class parent-
age. After being lieutenant of the Laon militia, he entered the
royal army, and served in the campaigns in Hanover (1759),
Portugal (1762) and Corsica (1771). At the beginning of the
Revolution he had attained the rank of major, and in its course
he became colonel, brigadier-general and finally general of
division. He fought under Kellermann and B. L. J. Scherer
in the army of the Alps in 1795, and under Bonaparte in Italy
at Vico, Mondovi, Castiglione and Mantua. Besides his military
qualities, he showed great administrative talent in governing
Venice (1797) and Lucca (1798). He helped Bonaparte in the
coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, and had a brilliant career under the
empire, when he was made senator, count, marshal, and governor
of the palace of the Invalides. In 1814, however, he voted for
the downfall of Napoleon, and under the Restoration was made
a peer of France. He was dismissed from all his posts for having
joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and died in retire-
ment. A statue has been raised to his memory at Laon.
See L. Tuetey, Un Central de I'armee d'ltalie, Serurier (Paris,
1899).
SERVAL (Felis senaT), an African wildcat, ranging from
Algeria to the Cape. It is of medium size, with long limbs,
short tail, and tawny fur spotted with black; the head and body
may measure 40 in. and the tail 16 in. Messrs Nicolls and
Eglington, joint authors of The Sportsman in South Africa, state
that the serval is fairly common in South Central Africa, frequent-
ing the thick bush near rivers, and preying on the smaller ante-
lopes, guinea-fowls and francolins. The mantles made from its
skin are reserved for chiefs and dignitaries of native tribes.
Serval kittens can be tamed with little trouble, but are difficult
to rear.
SERVAN, JOSEPH MICHEL ANTOINE (1737-1807), French
publicist, was born at Romans (Dauphine) on the 3rd of Novem-
ber 1737. After studying law he was appointed awcat-general
at the parlement of Grenoble at the age of twenty-seven. In
his Discours sur la justice criminelle (1766) he made an eloquent
protest against legal abuses and the severity of the criminal code.
In 1767 he gained great repute by his defence of a Protestant
woman who, as a result of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
had been abandoned by her Catholic husband. In 1772, how-
ever, on the parlement refusing to accede to his request that a
present made by a grand seigneur to a singer should be annulled
on the ground of immorality, he resigned, and went into retire-
ment. He excused himself on the score of ill-health from sitting
in the States General of 1789, to which he had been elected
deputy, and refused to take his seat in the Corps Legislatif under
the Empire. Among his writings may be mentioned Reflexions
sur les Confessions de J.-J. Rousseau (1783) and Essai sur la
formation des assemblies nationales, provinciales, et municipales
(1789). His (Euvres choisies and (Euvres inedites have been
published by De Portets. His brother JOSEPH SERVAN DE
GERBEY (1741-1808) was war minister in the Girondist ministry
of 1792.
See " Lettres inddites de Servan," in Souvenirs etmtmoires (vol. iv.,
Paris, 1900).
SERVAN (or SERVANDO known as SERVANDONI), JEAN
NICOLAS (1695-1766), French decorator, architect and scene-
painter, was born on the 2nd of May 1695. He was the son of a
carriage-builder at Lyons. From 1724 to 1742 he was director
of decorations at the Paris Opera, at that time situated in a wing
of the Palais-Royal. His activity was considerable, whether as
a painter or as an inventor of scenic contrivances for fetes at the
marriage of royal personages. He also designed the decorations
for altars, and the facade for the church of Saint Sulpice in Paris.
He died in Paris on the rgth of January 1766. His writings
include Description abregee de I'eglise Saint Pierre de Rome
(Paris, 1738), and La Relation de la representation de la foret
enchantie sur le theatre des Tuileries, le 31 mars 1754.
SERVETUS, MICHAEL [MIGUEL SERVETO] (1511-1553),
physician and polemic, was born in 1511 1 at Tudela in Navarre,
his father being Hernando Villanueva, a notary of good family
in Aragon. His surname is given by himself as " Serveto "
in his early works, " per Michaelem Serueto, alias Reues."
Later he Latinized it " Servetus "; when writing French (1553)
he signs " Michel Seruetus." 2 It is probable that he was of the
same family as the Spanish ecclesiastic Marco Antonio Serveto
de Reves (d. 1598), born at Villanueva de Sigena in the diocese of
Huesca (Latassa, Bibl.nueva, 1798, i. 609). At this place is the
traditional mansion of the family, and in the parish church the
family altar with the family arms (Christian Life, 29th Sept.
Servetus at Geneva makes Villanueva his birthplace,
assigning it to the adjoining diocese of Lerida. His later adopted
surname, Villanovanus or de Villeneufve, was no mere pseudonym
since he followed his father's example. Of his education we only
know that his father sent him to study law at Toulouse, where
he first became acquainted with the Bible (1528). From.i525
he had found a patron in Juan de Quintana (d. 1 534), a Franciscan
1 This date rests on his own testimony (both at Vienna and
Geneva) and that of Calvin. An isolated passage of the Geneva
testimony may be cited in favour of 1509.
2 The form Servct first appears in a letter of Oecolampadius to
the senate of Basel (1531) and is never used by himself. Mosheim's
" Servedc " is an imaginary form.
SERVETUS
685
promoted in 1530 to be confessor to Charles V. In the train of
Quintana he witnessed at Bologna the double coronation of
Charles in February 1530, visited Augsburg, and perhaps saw
Luther at Coburg. The spectacle of the adoration of the pope
at Bologna impressed him strongly in an anti-papal direction.
He left Quintana, visited Lyons and Geneva, repaired to Oecolam-
padius at Basel, and pushed on to Bucer and Capito at Strass-
burg. Considerable attention was attracted by his first publica-
tion, De Trinitalis erroribus (1531, printed by John Setzer at
Hagenau). It is crude, but original and earnest, and shows a
wide range of reading very remarkable in so young a man.
Melanchthon writes " Servetum multum lego." Quintana, who
describes him as di grandissimo ingegno, and gran sophisla,
thought the matter was Serveto's, but the execution too good
to be his (H. Lammer, Monumenta Vaticana, 1861, 109). The
essay was followed in 1532 by a revised presentation of his views
in dialogue form. We next find him at Lyons (1535) editing
scientific works for the Trechsel firm, adopting the " Villano-
vanus " surname, which he constantly used till the year of his
death. At Lyons he found a new patron in Dr Symphorien
Champier (Campegius) (1472-1539), whose profession he resolved
to follow. Resorting (1536) to Paris, he studied medicine under
Johann Giinther, Jacques Dubois and Jean Fernel. It was in
1536, when Calvin was on a hurried and final visit to France, that
in Paris he first met Servetus, and as he himself says, proposed
to set him right on theological points. 1 Servetus succeeded
Vesalius as assistant to Gtinther, who extols his general culture,
and notes his skill in dissection, and ranks him vix ulli secundus
in knowledge of Galen. He graduated in arts, and claims to have
graduated in medicine (of this there is no record at Paris),
published six lectures on " syrups " (the most popular of his
works), lectured on geometry and " astrology " (from a medical
point of view) and defended by counsel a suit brought against him
(March 1538) by the medical faculty on the ground of his astro-
logical lectures. In June 1538 he writes from Louvain (enrolled
there as a university student on the i4th of December 1537 as
Michael Villanova) to his father (then resident at San Gil),
explains his removal from Paris, early in September, in conse-
quence of the death (8th August) of his master (el senor mi
maestro), says he is studying theology and Hebrew, and proposes
to return to Paris when peace is proclaimed. After this he
practised medicine for a short time at Avignon, and for a longer
period at Charlieu (where he contemplated marriage, but was
deterred by a physical impediment). In September 1540 he
entered himself for further study in the medical school at Mont-
pellier, possibly gaining there a medical degree.
Among attendants on his Paris lectures was Pierre Paulmier,
since 1528 archbishop of Vienne. Paulmier now invited Servetus
to Vienne as his confidential physician. He thus acted for
twelve years (i 541-1 553), making money by his practice, and also
by renewed editorial work for the Lyons publishers work in
which he constantly displayed his passion for original discovery
in all departments. Outwardly he was a conforming Catholic;
privately he pursued his theological speculations. It is probable
that in 1541 he had been rebaptized (he maintained the duty of
adult baptism at the age of thirty). Late in 1545, or very early
in 1 546, he opened a fatal correspondence with Calvin, forwarding
the manuscript of a much-enlarged revision of his theological
tracts and expressing a wish to visit Geneva. Calvin replied
(i3th February 1546) in a letter now lost; in which, he says,
he expressed himself " plus durement que ma coustume ne
porte." On the same day he wrote to Guillaume Farel, " si
venerit, modo valeat mea autoritas, vivum exire nunquam
patiar," and to Pierre Viret in the same terms. Evidently
Servetus had warning that if he went to Geneva it was at his
peril. Writing to Abel Pouppin (in or about 1547) he complains
that Calvin would not return his manuscript, and adds, " mini
ob earn rem moriendum esse certo scio." The volume of theo-
logical tracts, again recast, was declined by two Basel publishers,
Jean Frellon (at Calvin's instance) and Marrinus, but an edition
1 Beza incorrectly makes Servetus the challenger, and the date
1534-
of icoo copies was secretly printed at Vienna by Balthasar
Arnollet. Ready by the 3rd of January 1553, the bulk of the
impression was privately consigned to Lyons and Frankfort for
the Easter market. On 26th February, a letter, enclosing a sheet
of the printed book, and revealing the secret of its authorship,
was written from Geneva by Guillaume H. C. de Trye, formerly
echevin of Lyons, to his cousin Antoine Arneys in that city.
The letter bears no sign of dictation by Calvin (who must, how-
ever, have furnished the enclosed sheet), and de Trye's part may .
be explained by an old grudge of his against the Lyons book-
sellers. For a subsequent letter Calvin furnished (reluctantly,
according to de Trye) samples of Servetus's handwriting, expressly
to secure his conviction. The inquisitor-general at Lyons,
Matthieu Ory (the " Doribus " of Rabelais) took up the case on
1 2th March; Servetus was interrogated on i6th March, arrested
on 4th April, and examined on the two following days. His
defence was that, in correspondence with Calvin, he had assumed
the character of Servetus for purposes of discussion. At 4 A.M.
on 7th April he escaped from his prison, evidently by connivance.
He took the road for Spain, but turned back in fear of arrest.
How he spent the next four months is not known. His own
account is that he never left France; Calvin believed he was
wandering in the North of Italy; the absurd suggestion that he
lay hid as a conspirator in Geneva was first started by J. Spon
(Hist, de Geneve, 1680). On Saturday the I2th of August he
rode into Louyset, a village on the French side of Geneva. Next
morning, having sold his horse, he walked into Geneva, put up at
" the Rose," and asked for a boat to take him towards Zurich on
his way to Naples. Finding he could not get the boat till next day
(Monday) he attended afternoon service (he would probably have
got into trouble if he had not done so), was recognized at church
par quelquesfreres, and immediately arrested. The process against
him (Nicholas de la Fontaine being in the first instance the
nominal prosecutor) lasted from i4th August to 26th October,
when sentence " estre brusle tout vyfz " was passed, and carried
out next day at Champel (Oct. 27th, 1553). Calvin would have
had him beheaded. Meanwhile the civil tribunal at Vienne had
ordered (i7th June) that he be fined and burned alive; the
sentence of the ecclesiastical tribunal at Vienne was delayed
till 23rd December. Jacques Charmier, a priest in Servetus's
confidence, was condemned to three years' imprisonment in
Vienne. The only likeness of Servetus is a small copperplate
by C. Sichem, 1607 (often reproduced); the original is not
known and the authenticity is uncertain. In 1876 a statue of
Servetus was erected by Don Pedro Gonsalez de Velasco in
front of his Institute Antropologico at Madrid; in 1903 an
expiatory block was erected at Champel; in 1907 a statue was
erected in Paris (Place de la Mairie du XIV 6 Arrondissement) ;
another is at Aramnese; another was prepared (1910) for erection
at Vienne.
The religious views of Servetus, marked by strong individuality,
are not easily described in terms of current systems. His denial of
the tripersonality of the Godhead and the eternity of the Son, along
with his anabaptism, made his system abhorrent to Catholics and
Protestants alike, in spite of his intense Biblicism, his passionate
devotion to the person of Christ, and his Christocentric scheme of
the universe. His earliest theological writings, in which he approxi-
mates to the views of F. Socinus, are better known than his riper
work. He has been classed with Arians, but he endorses in his own
way the homoousian formula, and denounces Arius as " Christi
gloriae incapacissimus." He has had many critics, some apologists
(e.g. Postel and Lincurius) , few followers. The fifteen condemnatory
clauses, prefacing the sentence at Geneva, set forth in detail that he
was guilty of heresies, blasphemously expressed, against the founda-
tion of the Christian religion. An instance of his injurious language
was found in his use of the term " trinitaires " to denote " ceux qui
croyent en la Trinite 1 ." No law, current in Geneva, has ever been
adduced as enacting the capital sentence. Claude Rigot, the pro-
cureur-g6n6ral, put it to Servetus that his legal education must have
warned him of the provisions of the code of Justinian to this effect ;
but in 1535 all the old laws on the subject of religion had been set
aside at Geneva ; the only civil penalty recognized by the edicts of
1543 being banishment. The Swiss churches, while agreeing to
condemn Servetus, say nothing of capital punishment in their
letters of advice. The extinct law seems to have been revived for
the occasion. A valuable controversy followed on the question
of executing heretics, in which Beza (for), Mino Celsi (against),
686
SERVIA
and several caustic anonymous writers (especially Castellio) took
part.
The following is a list of his writings :
1. De Trinitatis erroribus libri septem (Hagenau, 1531).
2. Dialogorum de Trinitate libri duo (Hagenau, 1532); two
reprints of I and 2, to pass for originals; No. I in Dutch version
(1620), by Regnier Telle.
.3. Claudii Ptolomaei Alexandrini geographicae enarrationis libri
octo; ex Bilibaldi Pirckheymeri translatione, sed ad Graeca et prisca
exemplaria a Michaele Villanava.no jam primum recogniti. Adjecta
insuper ab eodem scholia, &c. Lyons, Melchior and Caspar Trechsel
(1535; 2nd ed., Lyons, Hugo a Porta (1541), i.e. 1542 fol. ; printed
by Caspar Trechsel at Vienne) ; on this work Tollin founds his high
estimate of Servetus as a comparative geographer; the passage in-
criminated on his trial as attacking the verity of Moses is from
Lorenz Friese; the accounts of the language and character of modern
nations show original observation.
4. In Leonardum Fuchsium apologia. Autore Michaele Villano-
vano (1536, reproduced by photography, 1909).
5. Syruporum universa ratio, &c. (Paris, 1537); four subsequent
editions; latest, Venice, 1548 (six lectures on digestion; syrups
treated in fifth lecture).
6. Michaelis Villanovani in quendam medicum apologetica dis-
ceptatio pro astrologia (Paris, 1538; reprinted, Berlin, 1880); the
medicus is Jean Tagault, who interrupted Servetus's lectures on
astronomy, including meteorology.
7. Biblui Sacra ex Santis Pagnini tralatione . . . recognita et
scholiis ittustrata, &c. (Lyons, Hugo 4 Porta, 1542, fol.), remarkable
for its theory of prophecy, explained in the preface and illustrated in
the notes.
8. D'Artigny says Servetus^ les argumens to a Spanish version of
the Summa of Aquinas; this, and divers traites de grammaire from
Latin into Spanish have not been identified.
9. Christianismi restitutio (1553; perfect copies in Vienna and
Paris) ; a copy in Edinburgh University Library is complete except
that the missing first sixteen pages are replaced by a transcript from
the original draft, containing matter not in the print (this supple-
mentary manuscript was reproduced by
photography, 1909) ; a transcript of other
portions of the draft is in the Bibl. Nat.,
Paris; partly reprinted (London, 1723),
(copies in London and Paris); reprinted
(page for page) from the Vienna copy
(Nuremberg, Rau. 1790); German version,
by B. Spiess (Wiesbaden, 1892-1895); the
last section Apologia to Melanchthon, is
given in the original Latin. The book is
not strictly anonymous; the initials
M.S.V. are given at the end; the name
Seruetus on p. 199. The often-cited
description of the pulmonary circulation
(which occurs in the 1546 draft) begins
p. 169; it has escaped even Sigmond that
Servetus had an idea of the composition
of water and of air; the hint for his re-
searches was the dual form of the Hebrew
words for blood, water, &c. Two treatises,
Desiderius (ante 1542) and De tribus impos-
toribus (1598) jhave been wrongly ascribed
to Servetus. Most of his few remaining
letters are printed by Mosheim; his letter
from Louvain was despatched in duplicate
(to evade capture), but both were seized;
one is in the Record Office (U. 140), the
other in the British Museum (Cotton MSS.,
Galba B. x.).
AUTHORITIES. The literature relating to
Servetus is very large; a bibliography is in
A. v. d. Lindc, Michael Servet (1891); the
following are among the important pieces.
Calvin's Dtfensio orthodoxae fidei (1554) (in
French, Declaration pour maintentr, &c.,
'554)' ' 3 t ne source of prevalent misconcep-
tions as to Servetus's opinions, and atti-
tude on his trial. De la Roche's Historical
Account in Mem. of Lit. (1711-1712) (in
French, Biblioth. Ang. Amsterdam, 1717)
was followed by An Impartial History,
&c., 1724 (said to be by Sir Benjamin or
Nathaniel Hodges). Allwoerden's Historia,
&c. (1728) (materials furnished by Mos-
heim) is superseded by Mosheim's Anderweitiger Versuch (1748,
with appendix, Neue Nachrichten, &c., 1750), reproducing the
records of the Vienne examination (since lost) first printed by
D'Artigny, Nouveaux Memoires d'hist., &c., vol. ii. (1749).
Chaufep;6's valuable article, Nouv. Diet, historique, iv. (1756), fol.
(in English, by Rev. James Yair, 1771) makes no use of Mosheim's
later researches. Trechsel's Die Prot. Antitrinitaires vor F. Socin,
bk. i. (1839), uses all available material up to date. The investiga-
tions of H. Tollin, M.D. (forty separate articles in various journals,
1874 to 1885) have thrown much light, mixed with some conjecture.
The records of the Geneva trial, first published by De la Roche,
reproduced in Rilliet's Relation &c., (1844), and elsewhere, are best
given in vol. viii. (1870) of the Corpus reformatorum edition of
Calvin's works; Roget's Hist, du peuple de Geneve, vol. iv. (1877),
has a good account of both trials. The passage on the pulmonary
circulation, first noticed by W. Wotton, Reflections upon Anc. and
Mod. Learning (1694), has given rise to a literature of its own; see,
especially, Tollin's Die Entdeckung des Blutkreislaufs, &c. (1876);
Huxley, in Fortnightly Rev. (February 1878); Tollin's Kritisclie
Bemerkungen iiber Harvey und seine Vor ganger (1882). Other
physiological speculations of Servetus are noted by G. Sigmond,
Unnoticed Theories of Servetus (1826). The best study of Servetus as
a theologian is Tollin's Lehrsystem M. Servets (3 vols., 1876-1878);
Ptinyer's De M. Senieti doctrina (1876), is useful. From a Unitarian
point of view, Servetus is treated by R. Wright, Apology (1807);
W. H. Drummond, D.D. (1848); R. Wallace, Anlitrin. Biog. (1850);
J. S. Porter, Servetus and Calvin (1854). E. Saisset, Rev. des dettx
Mondes (1848), treats Servetus as a pantheist; he is followed by
Menendez Pelayo, Los Heterodoxos espanoles (1880, vol. ii.), and by
R. Willis, M.D., Servetus and Calvin (1877, an unsatisfactory book;
cf. A. Gordon, Theol. Rev., April and July 1878). Of Servetus's
personal character the best vindication is Tollin's Characterbtid M.
Servets (1876, in French, with additions by Dardier, Portrait Carac-
tere, 1879). His story has been dramatized by Max Ring, Die
Genfer (1850), by Jose Echegaray, La Muerte en los Labios (1880),
by Albert Hatnann, Servet (1881), and by Prof. Shields, The Reformer
of Geneva (1897). Recent pamphlets by Spanish and French writers
are numerous; some of the illustrations in Dr W. Osier's Michael
Servetus (1909), are useful. (A. Go.*)
SERVIA * [Srbiya], an inland kingdom of south-eastern
Europe, situated in the north of the Balkan Peninsula.
The frontier, as defined by the Berlin Treaty of 1878,
is, roughly speaking, indicated by rivers in the north, and by
mountains in the south. In the north, between Verciorova and
R Longitude East i of Greenwich Q
Belgrade, the Danube divides Servia from Hungary for 157 m.;
and between Belgrade and the border village of Racha the
Save divides it from Croatia-Slavonia for 80 rri. In the north-
west the Drina flows for 102 m. between Bosnia and Servia;
1 The English-speaking races alone write this word with a
instead of a b, Servia for Serbia; a practice resented by the Serbs,
as suggesting the derivation of their name from the Latin Servus.
" a slave." .
SERVIA
687
in the north-east the Danube, for 50 m., and the Timok for
23 m., constitute respectively the Rumanian and Bulgarian
boundaries. Various mountain ranges mark the frontiers of
Bosnia, on the west, Turkey on the south-west and south, and
Bulgaria on the south and south-east. According to the survey
carried out by the Servian general staff in 1884 the area of the
country is 18,782 sq. m.
Mountains. The mountain groups which rise confusedly over
almost the whole surface of the land, fall into two main blocks, one
on either side of the river Morava. On the east of this river, three
vast ranges, the Transylvanian Alps, the Balkans and Rhodope,
encroach upon Servian soil; while on the west there is a chaos of
mountain masses, outliers of the Bosnian and Albanian highlands.
Rivers. The chief navigable river of Servia is the Danube, which
enters the country at Belgrade and pierces the Transylvanian Alps
by way of the Kazan (i.e. " Cauldron ") Pass, near the famous Iron
Gates (see RUMANIA). The Timok, which formed the Bulgarian
frontier as long ago as the gth century, springs in the western
Balkans, or Stara Planina, and issues into the Danube, near Negotin,
after a course of 70 m. Sooner or later, indeed, all the Servian
rivers reach the Danube. The Save, which is also navigable, meets
it at Belgrade, after being joined, at Racha, by the Drina, a Bosnian
river, which rises on the Montenegrin border, 155 m. S. by W. Near
Obrenovats the Kolubara also enters the Save, after traversing
45 m. from its source in the Sokolska Gora. Apart from frontier
rivers, the most important stream is the Morava, which, rising on
the western slopes of the Kara Dagh, a little beyond the Servian
frontier, enters the country with a north-easterly course near the
extreme S.E., and then turns N.N.W. and flows almost in a straight
line through the heart of the kingdom to the Danube. Its total
length is about 150 m. In the upper part of its course it is known
as the Bulgarian Morava, and only after receiving the Servian
Morava on the left is it known as the Morava simply or as the Great
Morava. The Servian Morava is joined on the south by the Ibar,
which conies from the Albanian Alps; the combined length of these
rivers being about 130 m. The only other important tributary of
the Great Morava is the Nishava, which it receives on the right, at
Nish. This stream flows 68 m. W. by N. from its source among the
foothills of the Stara Planina. The valleys of all these rivers,
especially those of the Bulgarian and the Great Morava, and of the
Nishava, contain considerable areas of level or low-lying country
well suited for the growth of corn, and the low grounds along the
Save and the Danube from the Drina to the Morava are also well
adapted for agriculture, except the tract of fenland called the
Machva, in the extreme north-west.
Geology. The geological structure of Servia is varied. In the
south and west the sedimentary rocks most largely developed are
of ancient, pre-Carboniferous date, interrupted by considerable
patches of granite, serpentine and other crystalline rocks. Beyond
this belt there appear in the north-west Mesozoic limestones, such
as occupy so extensive an area in the north-west of the Balkan
Peninsula generally, and the valleys opening in that quarter to the
Drina have the same desolate aspect as belongs to these rocks in
the rest of that region. In the extreme north-east the crystalline
schists of the Carpathians extend to the south side of the Danube,
and stretch parallel to the Morava in a band along its right bank.
Elsewhere east of the Morava the prevailing rocks belong to the
Cretaceous series, which enters Servia from Bulgaria. The Shumadia
is mainly occupied by rocks of Tertiary age, with intervening patches
of older strata; and the Rudnik Mountains are traversed by metal-
liferous veins of syenite.
Minerals. Gold, silver, iron and lead were worked by the
Romans, whose operations can still be traced in the Kostolats mine,
near Pozharevats, and elsewhere. Even more ancient is the Avala
mercury mine, near Belgrade. The heaps of debris which cover
so many acres near Belgrade, on the Kopaonik foothills and in the
Toplitsa valley bear witness to the importance of this industry in
the past. During the later middle ages the Servian mines brought
in a large revenue to the merchant princes of Ragusa. They pros-
pered greatly during the I4th century, but Turkish rule put a stop
to this industry after 1459; and the revival only began in 1835,
under the patronage of Prince Milosh. The richest coal and lignite
seams occur among the north-eastern mountains, generally near the
Danube or Timok, and along the Morava. They are worked by the
state, by Belgian companies and by private enterprise, the output
in 1907 being valued at 121,000. Lead is principally raised in the
Podrinye, especially at Krupan; and at Kuchayna, in the Pozhare-
vats department, where zinc and small quantities of gold and silver
are obtained. Antimony is mined at Zayechar. Copper and iron
are worked by Belgians at Maydanpek, the chief mining centre
east of the Morava. Nickel, mercury, manganese, graphite,
marble, sulphur and oil shales are found in various regions, but
the mineral resources of the country, as a whole, remain almost
undeveloped.
The numerous mineral springs are even more neglected than the
mines. Waters rich in iodine and sulphur occur in the Machva.
About 1878 an unsuccessful attempt was made to convert
Arandyelovats into a popular health-resort. The baths near Nish
and Vranya are comparatively prosperous, while the beautiful
surroundings attract visitors even from abroad.
Climate. The climate of Servia is on the whole mild, though
subject to the extremes characteristic of inland Eastern countries.
In summer the temperature may rise as high as 106 F., while in
winter it often sinks to 13 or even 20 below zero. The high-lying
valleys in the south are colder than the rest of the country, not only
on account of their greater elevation but also because of their being
exposed to cold winds from the north and north-east.
Fauna. The wild life of the Servian highlands is unusually varied.
A few bears and wild boars and lynxes find shelter in the remoter
forests, with many badgers, wolves, foxes, wildcats, martens and
weasels. Otters are common along the rivers; chamois may very
rarely be seen on the least accessible peaks; roe-deer, red-deer,
squirrels and rabbits people the lower woodlands; and hares abound
in the open. The beaver is extinct. Among land birds may be
enumerated several varieties of eagle, vulture, falcon, owl, crow,
jay, magpie, stork, quail, thrush, dove, &c. Pheasants are easily
acclimatized; grouse and woodcock are indigenous on the uplands
of the north ; partridges, in all districts. Game laws were instituted
in 1898. Innumerable aquatic birds haunt the banks of the Save,
Danube and Drina, and the lower reaches of the Timok and Morava ;
among them being pelicans, cranes, grey and white herons, and many
other kinds of waders, besides wild geese, ducks, rail and snipe.
Edible frogs, tree-frogs, lizards, snakes, tortoises and scorpions are
found in all parts. The
Save.
, , , ,
found in all parts. The principal fisheries are in the Danube and
Forests. About one tenth of the land is covered by forests, which
give place, at an altitude of 5000 ft., to lichens and mosses. Little
care was bestowed on forestry in the igth century, apart from
government supervision of the national and communal domains,
a task usually delegated to the local mayor. Much of the finest
timber was felled in the wars of 1876-1878 and of 1885, and the
rights of grazing and wood-cutting also caused widespread de-
struction. The total forest area (official estimate, 1909) is about
3,800,000 acres, of which 1,625,000 belong to the communes and
i,375iOOO to the state. Oaks and beeches predominate in the north;
pines, often of gigantic size, among the fantastic white or grey rocks
of the wild south-western ridges.
Agriculture. Servian methods of farming remain in many
respects primitive. Real progress was, however, achieved in
the period 1890-1910, chiefly owing to improvements in agri-
cultural education. Indian corn is the principal crop, for corn-
cake forms the staple diet of the peasantry, while the grain is
also used for feeding pigs, the heads for feeding cattle and the
stubble for manure. The normal yield exceeds 5,000,000
bushels yearly, wheat coming next with a little less than
4,000,000. Flax, hemp and tobacco are also grown; hemp
especially near Leskovats. The cultivation of sugar-beet,
introduced in 1900, became an important industry, but the
attempt to introduce cotton failed. The native tobacco planta-
tions meet all the local demand, except for a small quantity of
Turkish tobacco imported for the manufacture of special blends.
The best Servian wines are those of Negotin and Semendria.
Before the appearance of Phylloxera in 1882 wine was exported
to France and Switzerland, but in 1882-1895 thousands of
acres of vines were destroyed. Phylloxera was checked by the
importation of American vines and the establishment of schools
of viticulture. The creation of state vine-nurseries, stocked with
American plants, was authorized by a law of 1908. Orchards
are very extensive, and all the fruits of central Europe will
thrive in Servia. The chief care is bestowed on plums, from
which is distilled a mild spirit known as raki or rakiya. The
favourite kind of raki is shlivovilsa (the sliwowitz of Austria),
extracted solely from plums. There is a considerable trade in
dried plums and plum marmalade. Bees are very generally
kept, the honey being consumed in the country, the wax ex-
ported. Mulberries are grown on many farms for silkworms;'
sericulture is encouraged and taught by the state, and over
100,000 ft of cocoons are annually exported. Relatively to its
population, Servia possesses a greater number of sheep (3,160,000
in 1905) and pigs (908,000 in 1905) than any country in Europe.
Large herds of swine fatten, in summer and autumn, on the beech-
mast and acorns of the forests, returning in winter to the low-
lands. The Servian pig is pure white or black, but other breeds,
notably the Berkshire and Yorkshire, are kept. Despite Ameri-
can competition and Austro-Hungarian tariffs the export of
swine remains the principal branch of Servian commerce.
Cheeses are made from the milk of both sheep and goats; but
688
SERVIA
cattle are mostly bred for export or draught purposes. The
cumbrous wooden carts which afford the sole means of transport
in many districts are generally drawn by oxen, although buffaloes
may be seen in the south. The native horses, though strong,
are, like the cattle, of small size.
Land Tenure. More than four-fifths of the Servians are peasant
farmers; and the great majority of these cultivate the land be-
longing to their own families. Holdings are generally small, not
exceeding an average'of 20 acres for each household. They cannot
be sold or mortgaged entire ; the law forbids the alienation for debt
of a peasant's cottage, his garden or courtyard, his plough, his last
six yutara l of land and the cattle necessary for working his farm.
Besides the small farms there is the zadruga, a form of community
which appears to date from prehistoric times, and mainly survives
along the Bosnian frontier, though tending to disappear everywhere
and to be replaced by rural co-operation. Under the zadruga system,
each homestead or cluster of cottages is occupied by a group of
families connected by blood and dwelling together on strictly
communistic principles. The association is ruled by a house-father
(domanyin or staryeshina) and a house-mother (domanyitsa), who
assign to the members their respective tasks. The staryeshina may
be the patriarch of the community, but is often chosen by the rest
of the members on account of his prudence and ability; nor is his
wife necessarily the domanyitsa. In addition to the farm work,
the members often practise various trades, the proceeds of which
are paid into the common treasury. The community sometimes
includes a priest, whose fees for baptism, &c., augment the common
fund. The buildings belonging to the homesteads are enclosed
within an immense palisade, inside which a large expanse of fields
is mostly planted with plum, damson, and other fruit-trees, sur-
rounding the houses of the occupiers. In the midst of these is the
house of the staryeshina, which contains the common kitchen,
eating hall, and family hall of the entire homestead. Here all the
members assemble in the evening for conversation and amusement,
the women spinning, while the children play. The houses are
mostly very small wooden structures, serving for little else but
sleeping places. But that of the staryeshina is often of brick, and
is invariably of better construction than the rest. The houses are
often raised on piles, above the level of the floods which occur so
frequently near the Save and Drina. Zadrugas were very prosperous,
as they had always a sufficient number of hands at command, and
their members combined to obtain implements and cattle. But
with the establishment of order and security, the zadrugas began
rapidly to disappear, a further cause of their dissolution being the
fact that members could legally acquire private property (osobina).
A new stimulus was given to agriculture by the encouragement
which King Alexander personally extended to the establishment of
rural co-operative associations on the Raiffeisen principles. .The
object of these associations is principally to facilitate the acquisition
of improved implements and better breeds of cattle. No fewer than
100 of such credit societies were founded between 1894 and 1899.
The total number of agricultural co-operative societies exceeded 500
in 1910; each has its tribunal (Conseil des Prud'hommes), which
arbitrates in disputes; and all together, with the state-aided Co-
operative Caisse, which lends money to the smaller societies, form a
single great organization known as the General Union.
Small holdings were in themselves a hindrance to Servian agri-
cultural progress, inasmuch as small farmers cannot afford the cost
of scientific farming; hence the great success of co-operation. As
a rule, also, the lots of ground belonging to one household or family
do not lie together, but are dispersed in different, very often distant,
parts of the village land. To meet this difficulty, a farmer with
more crops than he can reap unaided will summon his neighbours to
his assistance, supplying them with food, but no money, and binding
himself to repay the service in kind. This form of voluntary co-
operation is called moba. Another serious drawback to the economic
position is that Servia has no seaboard, and that it is far from the
nearest export harbours (e.g. Galatz, Salonica, Fiume). In such a
situation the country is at the mercy of hostile tariffs.
Manufactures and Commerce. The scarcity of labour prevents
the growth of any great manufacturing industries. There is no
native artisan class; for except in very rare cases, the people
value their independence too highly to work in factories, or even
to enter domestic service. A large proportion of the artisans
throughout Servia are Austro-Hungarians or gipsies. The
chief manufacturing industries are those for which the country
supplies raw material, notably meat-packing, flour-milling,
brewing, tanning, and the weaving or spinning of hemp, flax
and wool. There are also iron-foundries, potteries, and sugar,
tobacco and celluloid factories. A law of 1898 authorizes the
government to grant concessions on very favourable terms to
foreign capitalists willing to promote mining and manufactures
in Servia; but in 1910 the number of large industrial establish-
1 One yutro is the area which two oxen can plough in a day,
ments in the kingdom did not exceed 60, nor the number of
hands employed 5000. There are a few domestic industries,
such as the manufacture of sandals (opanke), and of the hand-
woven carpets and rugs made at Pirot, which are popular
throughout the Balkan Peninsula.
Commerce. The following table shows the value of Servian im-
aorts and exports for five years :
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
2,437,000
2,224,000
1,773,000
2,823,000
3,025,000
2,486,000
2,879,000
2,864,000
3,259,000
3,019,000
Cotton and woollen fabrics, leather, salt, sugar, iron and machinery
are the principal imports, and come chiefly from Austria-Hungary,
Germany and Great Britain. Large quantities of prunes, grain, meat,
raw hides, eggs and copper are exported, chiefly to Austria-Hungary,
Germany and Turkey.
Finance. Up to 1878 the principal revenues were derived from
the customs, excise and a sort of poll-tax. The government required
the town and village communities to pay into the state treasury
l, 43. per head of the able-bodied citizens living in the community,
and the municipal board made repartition of the total amount due
to the government from its citizens according to their estimated
wealth or earnings. That system yielded without the slightest
difficulty about 750,000 annually. But the Berlin Treaty (1878)
stipulated that Servia should construct part of the international
railway to Constantinople and to Salonica, and should pay the
Turkish landowners an indemnity for the estates which had been
taken from them and divided among their Servian tenants. This
and the necessity of indemnifying the people from whom, during the
wars with Turkey (1876-1878), requisitions had been taken and
money borrowed, forced the government to enter the European
financial markets. Up to that time (1881) Servia had practically no
public foreign debt, although it owed Russia about 240,000 lent
privately for war preparations, and to its own people about 320,000
taken by a forced loan for war purposes. The first public loans were
made in 1881 by French banks at 71! for 5% bonds, and the ex-
penditure had to be immediately increased to 1,240,000. The
introduction of new taxes and the reorganization of the financial
administration of the country could not keep pace with the increase
of public expenditure, chiefly because the skupshtina was for some
time reluctant to replace the old system of direct taxation by a more
modern system. When in 1884 the new law of taxation was adopted,
the situation became so serious that in 1895 a new scheme was
adopted by which the government gave to the bondholders additional
securities, the bondholders at the same time accepting the new 4%
unified bonds in exchange for their old 5 % bonds. The following
table gives an analysis of the national debt on the 1st of January
1909:
Russian debt of 1876 (5%) . . . 150,000
Lottery loan of 1 88 1 (2%) . . 989,000
Loan of the Uprava Fondova (5%) . 291,000
Primary loan of 1888 . . . . 367,000
Unified loan of 1895 (4%) . . . 13,516,000
Railway loan of 1899 (5%) . . 192,000
Monopoly loan of 1902 (5%) . . 2,300,000
Loan of 1906 (4$ %) . . . 3-7^7 ,000
Total .... 21,572,000
The chief sources of revenue are customs duties, the state mon-
opolies of salt, sugar, tobacco, matches and petroleum; national
property, e.g. forests, railways, postal service; direct taxes, of which
the most important are the poll-tax and the land taxes (graduated
according to the quality of the land). The heaviest charges are for
the service of the national debt and for the army ; each of these items
exceeded 1,000,000 in 1909. The estimated revenue and ex-
penditure for five years are shown below :
Year.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
3,522,000
3,595,000
3,618,000
3,832,000
4,145,000
3,505,000
3,566,000
3,615,000
3,830,000
4,132,000
Banks and Money. The National Bank of Servia, founded in
Belgrade in 1883, has a nominal capital of 800,000 (260,000 paid).
The Mortgage Bank (Uprava Fondova), founded in 1862, is a state
institution which lends money for agricultural operations, &c. The
Export Bank, founded in 1901, is a private bank under state super-
vision, with branches in Budapest, Vienna, Berlin, &c. Its chief
object is the furtherance of Servian foreign commerce.
SERVIA
689
In 1875 Servia adopted the decimal system for money, weights
and measures, which came into actual use in 1883. The monetary
unit is the dinar (franc) of 100 paras (centimes). In circulation there
are gold pieces of 10 and 20 dinars; silver of 50 paras, and I, 2 and
5 dinars; nickel of 5, 10 and 20 paras; and bronze of 2 paras.
Twenty-five dinars equal i sterling.
Chief Towns. The chief towns ofServia are Belgrade, the capital,
with 69,097 inhabitants in 1900; Nish (24,451); Kraguyevats
(14,160); Pozharevats (12,957); Leskovats (13,000); Shabats
(12,072); Vranya (11,921); Pirot (10,421); Krushevats (10,000);
Uzhitse (7000); Valyevo (6800); Semendria (6912); Chupriya
(6000) ; and Kralyevo (3600).
Communications. Until the middle of the igth century, travellers
through the Balkan Peninsula had a choice between two main routes,
which started as a single highway from Belgrade, and up the Morava
valley to Nish. Here two roads diverge; one branching off south-
eastwards to Pirot, Sofia and Constantinople; the other proceeding
southwards to Vranya, Uskiib and Salonica. The railway which
connects western and central Europe with Constantinople and
Salonica takes the same course. That section of it which traverses
Servia was begun in 1881 and finished in 1888. Branch lines give
access to Kraguyevats, Zayechar, Semendria and other important
towns, and there are several smaller railways in the valleys of the
Save, the Danube, the Servian Morava and their tributaries. Apart
from country lanes and footpaths, there are three classes of highways,
controlled, respectively, by the nation, department and commune.
Construction and repairs are, in theory, carried out by compulsory
labour; but this right is seldom enforced. Even in the Shumadia,
where materials are plentiful, the roads rapidly give way under heavy
traffic, or after bad weather; in the Machva, Podrinye and remoter
districts, they are often impassable. The Constantinople and
Salonica roads remain the best in Servia. Besides the frontier streams
on the north and west, the only river of any importance for navigation
is the Morava, which is navigable by steamers of light draught as high
as Chupriya, about 60 m. from its mouth.
The postal system dates from 1820, when an organized system of
couriers was established, for state correspondence only. From 1843
in 1868 the Servian government undertook the carriage of letters in
Servia itself, while the Austro-Hungarian consulate in Belgrade
forwarded correspondence to and from central and western Europe.
In 1868 the whole business of posting was taken over by the state;
post offices are also maintained by many communes, and a few are
itinerant. Servia joined the International Telegraphic Union in
1866, the Postal Union in 1874. The first telegraph line was con-
structed as early as 1855; telegrams between Constantinople, Sofia,
Budapest and Vienna pass over lines constructed by the Servian
government (under conventions with Austria-Hungary and Turkey)
in 1899 and 1906. The telephone service, inaugurated in 1900, is a
state monopoly (both for construction and operation).
Population. With a continuous excess of births over deaths,
and of male over female children, the population of Servia rose
from 2,161,961 in 1890 to 2,493,770 in 1900, and to about
2,750,000 in 1910. More than four-fifths of this number belong
to the Serbo-Croatian branch of the Slavonic race; while the
remainder is composed of about 160,000 Rumans, 47,000 gipsies,
8000 Austro-Hungarians and Germans, and 5000 Jews. Many
Servian emigrants returned, after 1878, to the territories which
the Treaty of Berlin restored to their country. These territories
had been occupied, under Turkish rule, by Albanians, west of
the Morava, and by Bulgarians, along the Nishava; but, after
1878, the Albanians withdrew, and the Bulgarians were absorbed.
The Rumans reside principally in the north-east, near the
borders of their native land, and are peasant farmers, like the
Serbs. The gipsies occasionally settle down, forming separate
camps or villages, but in most cases they prefer a wandering
life. They are often admirable artisans and musicians, almost
every town possessing a gipsy band. The Germans and Austro-
Hungarians control a large share of the commerce of the country;
the Jews, as elsewhere in the Balkans, are retail traders. Anti-
Semitism is not prevalent in Servia, owing to the smallness of
the Jewish communities. The stature and features of the Serbs
vary in different regions; but the northern peasantry are
generally fairer and shorter than the mountaineers of the south.
Those of the Shumadia are blue-eyed or grey-eyed. In many
parts the prevailing types have been modified by intermarriage
with Bulgars, Albanians and Vlachs; so that, along the Timok,
for instance, it is impossible to make physiognomy a test of
nationality. Even language does not afford a sure criterion, so
nearly akin are many spoken dialects of Servian and Bulgarian.
National Characteristics. Servia is a land without aristocracy
or middle class. Instead, it possesses an army of placemen and
officials; but these being mainly recruited from the peasantry,
do not disturb the prevailing social equality. In 1900 there was
neither pauper nor workhouse in the country. The people,
less thrifty and industrious than the Bulgars, less martial than
the Montenegrins, less versatile and intellectual than the Rumans,
value comfort far more highly than progress. A moderate
amount of work enables them to live well enough, and to pass
their evenings at the village wine-shop; although, being a sober
race, they meet there rather to discuss politics than to drink.
Of politics they never tire; and still greater is their devotion to
music, poetry and dancing. Perhaps their most characteristic
dance is the kolo, sometimes performed by as many as 100 men
and women, in a single serpentine line. Their national instru-
ment, the gusle (gusla), is a single-stringed fiddle, often roughly
fashioned of wood and ox-hide, the bow being strung with horse-
hair. All classes delight in hearing or intoning the endless
romances which celebrate the feats of their national heroes;
for every true Serb lives as much in the past as in the present,
and medieval wars still constantly furnish themes of new legends
and ballads. It is largely this enthusiasm for the past which keeps
alive the desire for a reunion of the whole race, in another
Servian Empire, like that overthrown by the Turks in 1389.
The fasts of the Orthodox Church are strictly kept; while the
festivals, which are hardly less numerous, are celebrated even by
the Servian Moslems. As in Bulgaria and Rumania, the slava,
or patron saint's day, is set aside for rejoicing. A Servian
crowd at a festival presents a medley of brilliant and picturesque
costumes, scarlet being the favourite colour. Men wear a long
smock of homespun linen, beneath red or blue waistcoats with
trousers of white frieze. The women's dress consists of a similar
smock, a " zouave " jacket of embroidered velvet and two
brightly coloured aprons tied over a white skirt, one in front
and one behind. The head-dress is a small red cap, tambourine-
shaped, and strings of coins are coiled in the hair, or worn as
necklaces and bracelets. In this manner a farmer's wife will
often decorate herself with her entire dowry. During the cold
months, both sexes wrap themselves in thick woollen coats or
sheepskins, with the fleece inwards; both are also shod with
corded sandals, called opanke. The Rumanian women retain
their native costume, and are further distinguished by the wooden
cradles, slung over the shoulders, in which they carry their
infants ; the Servian mothers prefer a canvas bag. Women weave
most of the garments and linen for their families, besides sharing
in every kind of manual labour. Turkish ideas prevail about
their social position; but so highly valued are their services,
that parents are often unwilling to see their daughters marry;
and wives are in many cases older than their husbands. The
relationship called pobralimstw is only less common than in
Montenegro (<?..); equally binding is kumstvo, or sponsorship,
e.g. the relation subsisting between the " best man " and the
bridegroom at a wedding, or between godparents and god-
children. Persons connected by kumsivo, pobratimstvo, or
cousinship, however distant, may not marry. At a funeral, the
coffin is left open until the last moment a custom found every-
where in the Balkans, and said to have been introduced by the
Turks, who found that coffins were a convenient hiding-place
for arms. The same practice is, however, common in Spain and
Portugal. Few countries are richer than Servia in myth and
folklore. The peasants believe in charms and omens, in vam-
pires, were-wolves, ghosts, the evil eye and vile or white-robed
spirits of the earth, air, stream and mountain, with hoofs like
a goat and henna-dyed nails and hair. Even at the beginning
of the 2oth century, education had done little to dispel such
superstitions.
Constitution and Government. In 1903, after the murder of
King Alexander Obrenovich, and the accession of Peter Kara-
georgevich, the constitution of 1889 was revived. By this
instrument the government of Servia is an independent constitu-
tional monarchy, hereditary in the male line, and in the order
of primogeniture. The executive power is vested in the king,
advised by a cabinet of eight members, who are collectively
and individually responsible to the nation, and represent the
690
SERVIA
ministers of foreign affairs, war, the interior, finance, public
works, commerce, religion and education, and justice. The king
and the national assembly, or Narodna Skupshtina, of 130*
members, together form the legislature. A general election
must be held every fourth year. Each member receives 1 5 dinars
for every day of actual attendance, and travels free on the rail-
ways. There is also a state council which deals with various
legal and financial matters. Of its 16 members, half are chosen
by the king, and half by the Skupshtina. Apart from soldiers
of the active army, all male citizens of full age may vote, if they
pay 15 dinars in direct taxes; while, apart from priests, com-
munal mayors and state servants, all citizens of 30 years, paying
60 dinars, are eligible to the Skupshtina. The Velika Skupshlina
or Grand Skupshtina is only convoked to discuss the most serious
national questions, such as changes in the succession, the con-
stitution or the territories of the kingdom. Its vote is regarded
as a referendum, and its members are twice as numerous as those
of the Narodna Skupshtina. For purposes of local government
Servia is divided into 17 departments (okrug, pi. okruzhi), each
under a prefect (nachalnik), who is assisted by a staff of civil
servants, dealing with finance, public works, sanitation, religion,
education, police, commerce and agriculture. He also commands
the departmental constabulary or pandurs. Every department
is divided into districts (srez), administered by the sub-prefect
(sreski nachalnik)', and the districts are sub-divided into com-
munes or municipalities, each having its salaried mayor (kmet
or knez), who presides over a council elected on a basis of popula-
tion. Within the smaller spheres of their jurisdiction, the
sub-prefect and mayor have the same duties to fulfil as their
superior, the prefect. The mayor is, further, responsible for the
maintenance of the communal granary, forests and other property.
He presents to the councillors (odbornik, pi. odbornilsi) a yearly
statement of accounts and estimates, which they may reject or
amend. All taxes levied by the state are paid by the communal
council, which assesses the property owned by each family
under its authority, collects the amount due and has the right
to retain one-fourth, or more, for local requirements. The central
government cannot veto the election of a communal mayor or
councillor.
Justice. The highest judicial authority in Servia is the Court of
Cassation, created in 1855 and reorganized in 1865. The court of
appeal (1840) has two sections, one competent for Belgrade and the
seven northern departments, the other for the rest of the kingdom.
There are also departmental tribunals of first instance in every de-
partment, and a commercial court of first instance in Belgrade.
Communal courts exist in every commune or municipality, and
certain judicial powers are delegated to the police, under laws dated
1850-1904. Trial by jury, which existed among the Serbs at least
as early as the I3th century and fell into desuetude under Turkish
rule, was revived in 1871.
Defence. The medieval citadels of Belgrade, Nish, Pirot and
Semendria have no military value, but some strategic points on the
Bulgarian frontier were entrenched between 1889 and 1899, while
the modern forts of Nish, Pirot and Zayechar were strengthened and
re-armed at the beginning of the aoth century. The defensive force
of the country, as reorganized in 1901, consists of the national army
(narodna toyska) and the landsturm. In the national army, which is
organized in 5 divisions, with headquarters at Nish, Belgrade,
Valyevo, Kraguyevats and Zayechar, every able-bodied citizen
must serve (for two years in the artillery and cavalry or eighteen
months in other branches) between his 2 1st and his 45th year. He
must also belong to the landsturm at the ages of 17-21 and 45-50.
Exemption from service is granted in a few exceptional cases.
The national army consists of three bans or classes; the first is the
field army, the units of the second exist in peace as cadres only, the
third is unorganized. On a peace footing the strength of the army is
35,000 men; in war it might reach 225,000, including landsturm.
The infantry were armed in 1910 with the Mauser rifle (model 99);
the field artillery with quick-firing guns on the Schneider-Canet
system.
Religion. The Servian Church is an autocephalous branch of the
Orthodox Eastern communion. It is subject, as a whole, to the
ministry of education; for internal administration its governing
body is a synod of five prelates, presided over by the archbishop of
Belgrade, who is also the metropolitan of Servia. Belgrade is
the only archiepiscopal see; the four dioceses are Nish, Shabats,
Chachak and the Timok (episcopal see at Zayechar). The synod is
the highest ecclesiastical tribunal; there are also two ecclesiastical
1 One member is chosen to represent every 4500 electors.
courts of appeal and diocesan courts of first instance in every bishop-
ric; the canon law is an important part of the law of the land. In
1910 there were 54 monasteries, but only no monks, all belonging to
the order of St Basil. Studenitsa, near Kralyevo, and Manasia and
Ravanitsa, near Chupriya, are the most interesting monasteries.
Much political influence is wielded by the priests, who played a
prominent part in the struggles for national independence. They
marry and work, and sometimes even bear arms like their parishioners,
from whom a large part of their income is derived, in the shape of
offerings and fees. The remainder comes principally from church
lands; only the highest dignitaries being paid by the state. No
able-bodied man may become a priest or monk unless he has served
in the army. Liberty of conscience is unrestricted. Liberty of
worship is accorded to Roman Catholics, Jews, Mahommedans and
certain Protestant communities. The Mahommedans (about 3000
Turks and 1 1 ,000 gipsies) are the largest religious body apart from
the national Church.
Education. In 1910, 17% of the population could read and write.
Primary education in the state schools is free and compulsory; the
reading of Church Slavonic, nature-study and agriculture (for boys),
domestic science (for girls), certain handicrafts, singing and gym-
nastics are among the subjects taught. There are higher schools
(mostly Real-Gymnasien) in many of the larger towns, besides (1910)
one theological seminary, 4 training schools for teachers, 4 technical
schools, a military academy, and 5 secondary schools for girls. The
communes and municipalities pay the entire cost of primary educa-
tion, except the salaries of teachers, which, with the cost of higher
education, are paid by the state. In February 1905 the Great School
(Velika Shkola) in Belgrade was reorganized as the University of
Servia, with faculties of theology, philosophy, law, medicine and
engineering. Other important institutions of a semi-educational
character are the Royal Servian Academy (1836), which controls the
national museum and national library in Belgrade, and publishes
periodicals, &c.; the ethnographical museum (1891), the natural
history museum (1904), the national theatre (1890), the State
Archives (1866, reorganized 1901), and the state printing office (1831),
all in Belgrade.
See Servia by the Servians, ed. A. Stead (London, 1909); J.
Mallat, La Serbie contemppraine (Paris, 1902); E. Lazard and J.
Hogge, La Serbie de nos jours (Paris, 1901). For topography:
the Servian and Austrian General Staff Maps; P. Coquelle, La
Royaume de Serbie (Paris, 1894) ; and A. de Gubernatis, La Serbie et
les Serbes (Florence, 1897). For geology and minerals: J. Cvijic
(Tsviyich), Grundlinien der Geographie und Geologie, &c. (Belgrade,
1908); J. M. Zhuyovich (Zujovic), Geologiya Srbiye (with map,
Belgrade, 1893); D. J. Antula, Revue generate des gisements metalli-
feres en Serbie (with map, Paris, 1900); Th. Mirkovich (Mirkovii),
Les Eaux minerales en Serbie (Paris, 1892). For commerce : Annual
British Consular Reports; Statistical Reports of the Servian Ministry
of Commerce. For agriculture: L. R. Yovanovich (Jovanovit),
L' Agriculture en Serbie (Paris, 1900). For religion: Bishop N.
Ruzhichich (Ruzitic), Istoriya Srpske Tsrkye (Belgrade, 1893-1895);
and, by the same author, Das kirchlich-religiose Leben bei den Serben
(Gottingen, 1896).
(X.)
HISTORY
The Serbs (Srbi, as they call themselves) are a Slavonic nation,
ethnically and by language the same as the Croats (Hrvati,
Horuati, Croati). The Croats, however, are Roman Catholics
and use the Latin alphabet, while the Serbs belong to the Ortho-
dox Church and use the Cyrillic alphabet, augmented by special
signs for the special sounds of the Serb language. (See SLAVS.)
The earliest mention of the Serbs is to be found in Ptolemy
(2tpot) and in Pliny (Sirbi). Nothing is known of their earlier
history except that they lived as an agricultural people in
Galicia, near the sources of the rivers Wissla and Dniester. In
the beginning of the 6th century they descended to the shores
of the Black Sea. Thence they began to move on in a westerly
direction along the left shore of the Danube, crossed that river
and occupied the north-western corner of the Balkan Peninsula.
According to the emperor Constantino Porphyrogenitus, the
emperor Heraclius (6 10-640) invited the Serbs to come over to
settle down in the devastated north-western provinces of the
Byzantine empire and to defend them against the incursions of
the Avars. According to newer investigations, Heraclius only
made peace with them, confirming them in the possession of the
provinces which they already had occupied, and obtaining from
them at the same time the recognition of his suzerainty. Their
known history as a Balkan nation begins towards the middle of
the 7th century.
The Zhupaniyas. In their new settlements the Serbs did not
form at once a united political organization. The clans (plemena,
sing, pleme), more or less related to each other, occupied a certain
SERVIA
691
territory, which as a geographical and political unit was called
Zhupa or Zhupaniya (county), the political and military chief
of which was called Zhupan. The country was divided into
many such Zhupaniyas, which were originally independent of each
other. The history of the Serbs during the first five centuries
after their arrival in their present country was a struggle between
the attempts at union and centralization of the Zhupaniyas
into one state under one government, and the resistance to such
union and centralization, a struggle between the centripetal and
the centrifugal political forces. The more powerful Zhupan was
tempted to subjugate and absorb the neighbouring less powerful
Zhupaniyas. If successful, he would take the title of Veliki
Zhupan (Grand Zhupan). But such unions were followed again
and again by decentralization and disruption. It is not to be
wondered at that this struggle gave occasion for wars between
the Zhupaniyas, for civil wars within the Zhupaniyas, for popular
risings, court revolutions, dethronements, political assassinations
and such like. The earlier history of the Serbs on the Balkan
territory is especially turbulent and bloody. One of the minor
causes of that turbulence is to be found in the struggle between
the ancient Slavonic order of inheritance, according to which a
Zhupan ought to be succeeded by the oldest member of the
family and not necessarily by his own son, and the natural desire
of every ruler that his own son should inherit the throne.
This internal political process was complicated by the struggle
between the Greek Church and Greek emperors on the one side,
and the Roman Catholic Church and the Roman Catholic Powers
(Venice and Hungary) on the other side, for the possession of*
exclusive ecclesiastical and political influence in the provinces
occupied by the Serbs. The danger increased when the Bul-
garians came, towards the end of the 7th century, and formed a
powerful kingdom on the eastern and south-eastern frontiers
of the Serbs. Practically from the 8th to the izth century the
bulk of the Serbs was under either Bulgarian or Greek suzerainty,
while the Serbo-Croat provinces of Dalmatia acknowledged
either Venetian or Hungarian supremacy.
The Visheslav Dynasty. The first Serb princes who worked
with more or less success at the union of several Zhupaniyas
into one state, belonged to what might be called " the Visheslav
dynasty." Zhupan Visheslav lived in the beginning of the gth
century, and seems to have been the descendant of that leader
of the Serbs who signed the settlement treaty with the emperor
Heraclius towards the middle of the 7th century. His ancestral
Zhupaniya comprised Tara, Piva, Lim (the neck of land between
the Montenegro and Servia of our days). Visheslav's son
Radoslav, his grandson Prissegoy, and his great-grandson
Vlastimir, continued his wo'rk. Vlastimir successfully defended
the western provinces of Servia against the Bulgarian attacks,
although the eastern provinces (Branichevo, Morava, Timok,
Vardar, Podrimlye) were occupied by the Bulgars. The Bulgarian
danger, and probably the energetic and successful operations of
the Greek emperor Basil the Macedonian (867-886), determined
the Servian Zhupans to acknowledge again the suzerainty of the
Greek emperors. One of the important consequences of this new
vassalship to the Byzantine empire was that the entire Servian
people embraced Christianity, between 871 and 875. In all
important transactions the Servians were led by the Grand
Zhupan Mutimir Visheslavich (d. 891). During the reign of his
heirs almost all the Servian provinces were conquered by the
Bulgarian Tsar Simeon (924). In 931 Chaslav, one of the princes
of the Visheslav dynasty, liberated the largest part of the Servian
territory from Bulgarian domination, but to maintain that liberty
he had to acknowledge the Byzantine emperors as his suzerains.
The Princes of Zetta and the First Serb Kingdom. Towards the
end of the gth century the political centre of the Serbs was
transferred to Zetta (Zeta or Zenta: see MONTENEGRO) and the
Primorye (Sea-Coast). The prince (sometimes called king) of
Zetta, Yovan Vladimir, tried to stop the triumphal march of the
Bulgarian Tsar Samuel through the Serb provinces, but in 989
was defeated, made prisoner and sent to Samuel's capital, Prespa.
The historical fact that Vladimir married Kossara, the daughter
of Samuel, and was sent back to Zetta as reigning prince under
the Bulgarian suzerainty, forms the subject of the first Serb novel,
Vladimir and Kossara, as early as the I3th century. Vladimir,
who seems to have been a noble-minded and generous man, was
murdered by Samuel's heir, Tsar Vladislav (1015). By the
Christians of both churches in Albania he is to this day venerated
as a saint. But after the death of Samuel the Bulgarian power
rapidly lost the Serb provinces, which, to get rid of the Bulgarians,
again acknowledged the Greek overlordship. About 1042,
however, Prince Voislav of Travuniya (Trebinje), cousin of the
assassinated Vladimir of Zetta, started a successful insurrection
against the Greeks, and united under his own rule Travuniya,
Zahumlye and Zetta. His son Michael Voislavich annexed the
important Zhupaniya of Rashka (Rascia or Rassia), and in 1077
proclaimed himself a king (rex), receiving the crown from Pope
Gregory VII. His son Bodin continued the work of his father,
and enlarged the first Serb kingdom by annexing territories which
up to that time were under direct Greek rule. A body of
Crusaders under Count Raymond of Toulouse passed through
Bodin's kingdom about 1 101. After Bodin's death the civil wars
between his sons and relatives materially weakened the first
Serb kingdom. Bosnia reclaimed her own independence; so did
Rashka, whose Grand Zhupans came forward as leaders of the
Serb national policy, which aimed at freedom from Greek
suzerainty and the union of all the Serb Zhupaniyas into one
kingdom under one king. The task was difficult enough, as
the Byzantine empire, then under the reign of the energetic
Manuel Comnenus, regained much of its lost power and influence.
About the middle of the i2th century all the Serb Zhupaniyas
were acknowledging the suzerainty of the Byzantine emperors.
The Nemanyich Dynasty and the Serb Empire. A change for
the better began when Stephen Nemanya became the Grand
Zhupan of Rashka (1169). He succeeded in uniting all the Serb
countries under his rule, and although he never took the title of
king, he was the real founder of the Serb kingdom and of the royal
dynasty of Nemanyich, which reigned over the Serb people for
nearly 200 years. The youngest son of Stephen Nemanya,
Prince Rastko, secretly left his father's royal court, went to a
convent in Mount Athos, made himself a monk, and afterwards,
under the name of Sava, became the first archbishop of Servia.
As such he established eight bishoprics and encouraged schools
and learning. He is regarded as the great patron and protector
of education among the Serbs, as a saint, and as one of the greatest
statesmen in the national history. After Stephen Nemanya and
Sava the most distinguished members of the Nemanyich dynasty
were Urosh I. (1242-1276), his son Milutin (1282-1321) and
Stephen Dushan 1 (1331-1355). Urosh married Helen, a French
princess of the house de Courtenay, and through her he kept
friendly relations with the French court of Charles of Anjou in
Naples. He endeavoured to negotiate an alliance between
Serbs and French for the overthrow and partition of the Byzan-
tine empire. His son Milutin continued that policy for some time,
and increased his territory by taking several fortified places from
the Greeks; but later he joined the Greeks under the emperor
Andronicus against the Turks. Milutin's grandson, Stephen
Dushan, was a great soldier and statesman. Seeing the danger
which menaced the disorganized Byzantine empire from the
Turks, he thought the best plan to prevent the Turkish invasion of
the Balkan Peninsula would be to replace that empire by a Serbo-
Greek empire. He took from the Greeks Albania and Macedonia
excepting Salonica, Kastoria and lannina. Towards the end of
1345 he proclaimed himself "emperor of the Serbs and the Greeks,"
and was as such solemnly crowned at Uskiib on Easter Day
1346. At the same time he raised the archbishop of Ipek, the
primate of Servia, to the dignity of patriarch. Three years later
he convoked the Sabor (parliament) at Uskiib to begin a codifica-
tion of the laws and legal usages. The result was the pubh'cation,
in 1349, of the Zakonik Tsara Dushana (Tsar Dushan's Book
of Laws), a code of great historical interest which proves that
Servia was not much behind the foremost European states in
1 Dushan is a term of endearment, derived from dusha, " the soul,"
and not, as formerly believed by Western philologists, from dushiti,
" to strangle."
692
SERVIA
civilization. In 1355 Dushan began a new campaign against
the Greeks, the object of which was to unite Greeks, Serbs and
Bulgars into one empire, and by their united forces prevent the
Turkish power taking root on European ground. To attain
that object he was making preparations for a siege of Constanti-
nople, but in the midst of these preparations, or, as some historians
assert, on the march towards Constantinople, he died suddenly
at the village of Deabolis on the zoth of December 1355- His
only son Urosh, a young man of nineteen, seemed physically
and mentally incapable of holding together an empire composed
of such different races and upheaving with such divergent
interests. Some of the powerful viceroys of Dushan's provinces
speedily made themselves independent. The most prominent
amongst them was Vukashin, who proclaimed himself king of
Macedonia. He wished to continue Dushan's policy and to
expel the Turks from Europe, but in the battle of Taenarus,
on the 26th of September 1371, his army was destroyed by the
Turks, and he was slain. This was the first great blow which
shook the fragile structure of the Serb empire to its foundation.
Two months later (December 1371) Tsar Urosh died, and with
his death ended the rule of the Nemanyich dynasty.
The Turkish Invasion: Kossovo. After a few years of in-
decision and anarchy the Sabor met at Ipek in 1374 and elected
Knez (count) Lazar Hrebelyanovich, a kinsman of Urosh, as
ruler of the Serbs. Lazar accepted the position and its responsi-
bilities, but never would assume the title of tsar, although the
people commonly called him " Tsar Lazar. " He tried to stop
the further disruption of the Serb empire and worked to organize
a Christian league against the Turks. When this was reported
to the Turks, they at once decided to prevent the formation
of such a league by attacking its prospective members one by one.
This was the real cause of the Turkish attacks on Bulgaria and
Servia in 1389, which resulted in the complete subjugation of
Bulgaria and in the defeat of the Serb army in the battle of
Kossovo (isth of June 1389). No historic event has made such a
deep impression on .the mind of the Serbs as the battle of Kossovo
probably because the flower of the Serb aristocracy fell in that
battle, and because both the tsar of the Serbs, Lazar, and the
sultan of the Turks, Murad I., lost their lives. The sultan was
killed by the Serb knight or voyvode Milosh Obilich (otherwise
Kobilovich). There exists a cycle of national songs sung to
this day by the Serb bards (guslari) concerning the battle of
Kossovo, the treachery of Vuk Brankovich and the glorious
heroism of Milosh Obilich.
The Despotate. After the battle of Kossovo Servia existed
for some seventy years (1389-1459) as a country tributary
to the sultans but governing itself under its own rules, who
assumed the Greek title of " despot." The first despot after
Kossovo was Tsar Lazar's eldest son " Stephen the Tall," who
was an intimate friend of Sigismund IV., king of Hungary and
emperor of the Germans. Being childless, Stephen on his death-
bed in 1427 appointed his nephew, George Brankovich, to be his
successor. As despot, \George worked to establish an alliance
between Servia, Bosnia and Hungary. But before such an alliance
could practically be arranged, Murad II. attacked Servia in
1437 and forced George to seek refuge in Hungary, where he
continued to work for a Serbo-Hungarian alliance against the
Turks. Having at his disposal a large fortune he succeeded in
organizing a^Serbo-Hungarian expedition against the Turks in
1444. This expedition, under the joint command of the Despot
George and of Hunyadi Janos, defeated the Turks in a great battle
at Kunovitsa. The sultan was forced to conclude peace, re-
storing to George all the countries previously taken from him.
For the remainder of his life George was rather estranged from
his former allies the Hungarians. At the age of ninety he was
wounded in a duel by a Hungarian nobleman, Michael Szilagyi,
and died of his wound on the 24th of December 1457. His
youngest son Lazar succeeded him, but only for a few months.
Lazar's widow Helena Palaeologina gave Servia to the pope,
hoping thereby to secure the assistance of Roman Catholic
Europe against the Turks. But no one in Europe moved a finger
to help Servia, and Sultan Mahommed II. occupied the country
in 1459, making it a pashalik under the direct government of the
Porte.
For fully 345 years Servia remained a Turkish pashalik,
enduring all the miseries which that lawless regime implied
(see TURKEY, History). But the more or less successful invasions
of the Turkish empire in Europe by the Austrian armies in the
course of the i8th century invasions in which thousands of
Serbs always participated as volunteers prepared the way for
a new state of things.
The Struggle for Servian Independence. The disorganization
and anarchy in the Turkish empire at the beginning of the
1 9th century gave the Serbs their opportunity, and the people
rose en masse against its oppressors (January 1804). A national
assembly met in February 1804 in the village of Orashats, and
elected George Petrovich more generally known under the
name of " Tsrni Gyorgye " or " Karageorge " (q.v.) both mean-
ing " Black George " as commander-in-chief of all the nation's
armed forces and the leader of the nation ( Vozhd naroda). Under
his command the Serbs quickly succeeded in breaking the power
of the Dahias, as the four chieftains of the Janissaries of Belgrade
were called, who, having rebelled against the sultan, took posses-
sion of Servia, became its political and military masters, and
exploited the country as their own private property. The
Serbs cleared their country altogether of the Turks, and began
to organize it as a modern European state. In 1807 the sultan
offered to grant the Serbs self-government, and to acknowledge
Karageorge as the chief of the nation with the title of prince.
On the advice of the Russians, who were just going to war with
Turkey, the Serbs refused that offer, preferring to fight against the
Turks as Russian allies. The principal scene of the Russo-
Turkish war being -transferred to the Lower Danube, only a few
unimportant actions took place on Servian territory. From
1804 till the autumn of 1813 the Serbs governed themselves as
an independent nation. But when in 1812 Russia, attacked
by Napoleon, had in great haste to conclude at Bucharest a
treaty of peace with Turkey, and omitted to make sufficient
provision for the security of her allies the Serbs, the Turkish army
invaded and reconquered Servia, occupying all its fortresses.
Karageorge, with most of the leading men, left the country
(September 1813) and found a refuge first in Austria and then in
Russia. Of those who remained in Servia the natural leader,
by his own position, talents and influence, was Milosh Obrenovich,
voyvode of Rudnik. He surrendered to the Turks and was
appointed by them the ruler of central Servia. Not quite two
years later Milosh began the second insurrection of the Serbs
against the Turks (on Palm Sunday 1815, near the little wooden
church of Takovo). He was successful not only in the field but
in his diplomacy, and by 1817 Servia had regained autonomy
under the suzerainty of the sultan. That autonomy was placed
on an international basis by the treaty of Adrianople, concluded
between Turkey and Russia in 1829. In compliance with that
treaty the sultan by the Hatti-Sherif of 1830 formally granted
full autonomy to the Serbs, retaining at the same time Turkish
garrisons in the Servian fortresses.
Servia an Autonomous Stale: iSjo-iSfQ. Milosh, declared
hereditary prince of Servia, worked hard for the internal organiza-
tion and for the economic and educational progress of his country.
But his attempts to make Servia independent of Russian pro-
tection brought him into conflict with Russia, and his autocratic
methods of government united against him all who wished for
a constitution. The result was that Prince Milosh was forced
to abdicate and leave the country in 1839. Three days before his
abdication he was induced to sign a constitution (that of 1838)
imposed on Servia by the Porte, at the instance of Russia, with the
object of undermining his position. This constitution delegated
part of the prince's authority to a council of 70 members appointed
for life. Prince Milosh's elder son, Prince Milan (Obrenovich
II.), died in a few months, and the younger son Michael (Obreno-
vich III.) ascended the throne. But the politicians who forced
Milosh to abdicate did not feel safe with Milosh's second son as
the reigning prince of Servia. They started a military revolt,
drove Michael also into exile (1842), and elected Alexander
SERVIA
693
Karageorgevich, the younger son of Karageorge, as prince of
Servia. His reign (1842-1858) was quiet and prosperous, and the
country made remarkable progress in culture and wealth.
But he feared to summon the national assembly, was personally
weak and vacillating, and in foreign politics was Turcophil
and Austrophil rather than Russophil. Not only Russia but
Servia also was dissatisfied with such a policy, and when Alex-
ander Karageorgevich, forced by public opinion, at last dared
convoke a national assembly, that assembly's first resolution was
that Prince Alexander should be dethroned and replaced by the
old Prince Milosh Obrenovich I. This change of the reigning
dynasty was effected without the slightest disorder or loss of life.
Milosh returned to power at the beginning of 1859, but died in
1860. His son Michael then ascended the throne for the second
time. He was a man of refinement who had learned much during
his long exile (1842-1859). His political programme was that the
law should be respected as the supreme will in the country, that
Servia's political autonomy should be jealously guarded, and
every encroachment on the part of the suzerain power should be
resented and rebuffed. He introduced many important reforms
in administration, and replaced the old constitution, granted to
Servia by the Porte in 1830, by a new constitution which he him-
seli gave to the country. When in 1862 the Turkish garrison
in the citadel of Belgrade bombarded the town, he demanded the
evacuation of all the Servian fortresses and forts by the Turks.
Only a few of the less important forts were delivered to the
Serbs at that time; but in 1863 Prince Michael sent his wife,
the beautiful and accomplished Princess Julia (nee Countess
Hunyadi), to plead the cause of Servia in London, and she
succeeded in interesting prominent English politicians (Cobden,
Bright, Gladstone) in the fate of the Balkan countries. Prince
Michael organized the national army, armed it and drilled it,
and entered into understandings with Greece, Montenegro,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria and Albania, for an eventful
general rising against the Turks. In the beginning of 1867 he
addressed to the Porte a formal demand that the Turkish
garrisons should be withdrawn from Belgrade and other Serb
fortresses. To prevent a general conflagration in the Balkan
Peninsula, the powers advised the sultan to comply with the
demand, and when the British government strongly supported
that advice the sultan yielded and delivered all the fortresses
on Servian territory to the keeping of the prince of Servia (March
1867). Prince Michael's great popularity in consequence of his
diplomatic successes alarmed the friends of the exiled Kara-
georgevich dynasty, more especially when rumours began to
circulate that the prince contemplated divorcing his childless
wife Julia and remarrying. A conspiracy was formed, and Prince
Michael was assassinated on the roth of June 1868. The con-
spirators failed to overthrow the government, and the army
proclaimed Milan, the son of Prince Michael's first cousin Milosh
Obrenovich (son of Yephrem, brother to Milosh the founder of
the dynasty), as prince of Servia. The choice was unanimously
approved by the Velika Skupshtina, which had been immediately
convoked. As Milan Obrenovich IV. was a boy of only thirteen,
a regency, presided over by Jovan Ristich or Ristitch (q.v. ),
was appointed to manage the government until the boy prince
attained his full age, which took place in 1872. In 1869 the regency
had substituted a new constitution for that of 1838. Prince
Milan followed the policy of his dynasty, and, encouraged by the
Russian Panslavists, declared war on Turkey (June 1876).
His army, commanded by the Russian General Chernyayev, was
defeated by Abdul-Kerim Pasha, whose advance was stopped by
the intervention of Tsar Alexander II. But the situation created
by Prince Milan's action in the Balkans forced the hand of the
tsar, and Russia declared war on Turkey (1877).
The Treaty of Berlin. Prince Milan was educated in the
political school favourable to Russia, and unhesitatingly followed
the Russian lead up to the conclusion of the preliminary treaty
of peace between Russia and Turkey at San Stefano. By that
treaty Russia, desiring to create a great Bulgaria, took within
its limits districts inhabited by Servians, and considered by the
Servian politicians and patriots as the natural and legitimate
inheritance of their nation. This act of Russia created great
dissatisfaction in Servia, and became the starting-point for a new
departure in Servian politics. At the Berlin Congress the Servian
plenipotentiary, Jovan Ristich, in vain appealed to the Russian
representatives to assist Servia to obtain better terms. The
Russians themselves advised him to appeal to Austria and to try
to obtain her support. The utter neglect of the Servian interests
by Russia at San Stefano, and her evident inability at the
Berlin Congress to do anything for Servia, determined Prince
Milan to change the traditional policy of his country, and instead
of continuing to seek support from Russia, he tried to come to an
understanding with Austria-Hungary concerning the conditions
under which that power would give its support to Servian
interests. This new departure was considered by the Russians
especially by those of the Panslavist party almost as an
apostasy, and it was decided to oppose Prince Milan and his
supporters, the Servian Progressives. The treaty of Berlin
(i3th of July 1878) disappointed Servian patriots, although the
complete independence of the country was established by it
(art. 34). This was proclaimed at Belgrade by Prince (after-
wards King) Milan on the 22nd of August.
The Progressive Regime. The political history of Servia from
1879 to the abdication of King Milan on 3rd March 1889 was an
uninterrupted struggle between King Milan and the Progressives
on one side, and Russia with her adherents, the Servian Radicals,
on the other. King Milan and his government were badly
handicapped by several unfortunate circumstances. To fulfil the
engagements accepted in Berlin and the conditions under which
independence had been granted to Servia, railways had to be
constructed within a certain time, and the government had also
to pay to the Turkish landlords in the newly acquired districts
an equitable indemnity for their estates, which were divided
among the peasants. These objects could not be attained with-
out borrowing a considerable amount of money in the European
markets. To pay regularly the interest on the loans the govern-
ment of King Milan had to undertake the unpopular task of
reforming the entire financial system of the country and of
increasing the taxation. The expenditure increased more
rapidly than the revenue. Deficits appeared, which had to be
covered temporarily by new loans, and which forced the govern-
ment to establish monopolies on salt, tobacco, matches, mineral
oils, &c. Every such step increased the unpopularity of the
government and strengthened the opposition. An attempt on
the life of King Milan was made in 1882, and an insurrection in
the south-eastern districts was started in 1883. But the majority
of the people, and especially the regular army, remained loyal,
and the revolt was quickly suppressed.
War with Bulgaria. The union of Bulgaria and Eastern
Rumelia inspired King Milan and his government with the notion
that either that union must be prevented, or that Servia should
obtain some territorial compensation, so that the balance of
power in the Balkan Peninsula might be maintained. This view,
which did not find support anywhere outside Servia, led to
war between Servia and Bulgaria (see Servo-Bulgarian War) ;
the Servians were defeated at Slivnitza and had to abandon
Pirot, whilst the farther advance of the Bulgarian army on Nish
was stopped by the intervention of Austria-Hungary. An
honourable peace was concluded between the two contending
powers in March 1886. Then came the unhappy events con-
nected with Milan's divorce from Queen Natalie. That domestic
misfortune was cleverly exploited by King Milan's enemies in
the country and abroad, and did him more harm than all his
political mistakes. He tried to retrieve his position in the
country, and succeeded in a great measure, by granting a very
liberal constitution (January 1889, or Dec. 1888 O.S.) at a time
when all agitation for a new constitution had been given up.
Then, to the great astonishment of the Servians and of his
Russian enemies, King Milan voluntarily abdicated, placing the
government of the country in the hands of a regency during the
minority of his only son Alexander, whom he proclaimed king of
Servia on the 6th of March 1889.
King Alexander: The Regency. The leading man of the
694
SERVIA
regency was Jovan Ristich, who had already been regent during
the minority of King Milan (1868-1871). Although he had been
since 1868 the leader of the Liberal party, he showed himself, as
regent, extremely Conservative. The new constitution was the
embodiment of Radical principles, and the numerically strongest
party in the country was Radical. The national assembly was
composed, therefore, almost exclusively of Radicals, and the
government was Radical likewise. From the very beginning
the Conservative regency and the Radical government distrusted
each other. The government was not strong enough to resist
the clamour of their numerous partisans for participation in
the spoils of party warfare. Political passions, which had been
stirred up by the long struggle against King Milan's Progressive
regime, could not be allayed so quickly; and as the anarchical
element of the Radical party obtained the ascendancy over the
more cultured and more moderate members, all sorts of political
excesses were committed. The old system of borrowing money
to cover the yearly deficits were continued, and the expenditure
went on increasing from year to year. The administration lost
all authority, the police were paralysed and brigandage became
rife. The Radical government thought to strengthen their
position by letting the national assembly vote a law prohibiting
the return of the king's father to Servia, and forcibly expelling
the king's mother, Queen Natalie. But such laws and such acts
only embittered political passions and greatly encouraged the
adherents of Prince Peter Karageorgevich, who, having married
the eldest daughter of Prince Nicholas of Montenegro and living
at Cettigne, was supposed to enjoy the support of Russia. The
political situation became still more confused when on the death
of the third regent, General Kosta Protich, the government tried
to force the regency to accept in his stead M Pashich, the leader
of the Radical party. The regents thereupon dismissed the
Radical cabinet and called the Liberals to the government
(August 1892). The Liberal cabinet dissolved the Radical
national assembly, and at the general elections used very great
pressure to secure a Liberal majority. In this they did not
succeed, and the situation became hopelessly entangled by the
fact that the national assembly was Radical, the government
Liberal, and the regency practically in all its tendencies Con-
servative. The legislative machinery as well as the administra-
tion of the country was thus completely paralysed. Then the
young king Alexander suddenly proclaimed himself of age
(although at that time only in his seventeenth year), dismissed
the regents and the Liberal cabinet, and formed his first cabinet
from among the moderate Radicals (i3th April 1893).
The King's Administration. The moderate Radicals quickly
showed themselves unable to do any serious work. They were
fettered by the dissatisfaction of the Left wing of their own
party. To satisfy the extreme Radicals they had to impeach
the members of the last cabinet. This increased the bitterness
of the Liberals, who, though not so numerous as the Radicals,
included in their ranks more men of wealth and culture. Political
passions were again in full blaze. The anti-dynastic party
raised its head again, and in many Radical publications the
expulsion of the reigning dynasty and its replacement by the
Karageorgevich were advocated. At the same time reports were
reaching King Alexander that Russia was discussing with the
leaders of the extreme Radicals the conditions under which a
Russian grand-duke was to be proclaimed king of Servia.
The ex-King Milan's Return, In such circumstances King
Alexander thought best to invite his father the ex-King Milan
(who was living in Paris) to his side, and to use his great know-
ledge of men and his political experience. In the beginning of
January 1894 King Milan arrived in Belgrade. The Radical
cabinet resigned and was replaced by a cabinet composed of
politicians standing outside the political parties. In June the
Radical constitution of 1889 was suspended, and in its place the
constitution of 1869 was re-established.
The nation was evidently tired of the violent agitations of
recent years. This feeling gave rise to Conservative, even
somewhat reactionary, legislation. The duration of the legisla-
ture was extended from three to five years; the liberty of the
press was curtailed by the enactment that proprietors of political
papers must pay to the government a deposit of 5000 dinars
(200), and that the editors must have completed their studies
at a university; the laws on lese-majeste were made more severe.
After the advent to power of Dr Vladan Georgevich (October
1897) persistent and successful efforts were made to improve
the country's financial and economic condition. The violent
party strife which from 1880 to 1895 had absorbed the best
energies of the country and paralysed every serious and pro-
ductive work, ceased almost completely, and the nation as a
whole turned to improve its agriculture and commerce. The
sustained improvement in the political and commercial situation
was not influenced materially by the temporary excitement in
consequence of the attempt on the life of King Milan (6th July
1899), and of the state trial of several prominent Radicals accused
of having conspired for the overthrow of the dynasty. One
remarkable feature in the foreign policy of Servia in the last years
of the igth century was that after King Milan was appointed
commander-in-chief of the Servian regular army (1898), Russia
and Montenegro practically, although not formally, broke off
their diplomatic relations with Servia, while at the same time
the relations of that country with Austria-Hungary became
more friendly than under the Radical regime.
King Alexander's Marriage. All this was suddenly changed
when in July 1900 King Alexander married Mme Draga Mashin.
once lady-in-waiting to his mother Queen Natalie. He threw
himself into the arms of Russia, forbade his father Milan to
reside in Servia, and followed Russian guidance in all questions
of foreign policy. To strengthen his position in the country he
promulgated a new constitution in April 1901, establishing for
the first time in the history of Servia a parliament with two
houses (skupshtina and senate). But the unpopularity of the
king's marriage was not lessened. Constitutional liberties and
especially the free press were mercilessly used to attack both the
king and the queen, who neither wished nor were able to conceal
their dissatisfaction. A 1 general feeling that King Alexander
contemplated changing the situation by one of his bold and
clever coups d'etat increased the political unrest. Matters went
from bad to worse when persistent rumours were set in motion
that Queen Draga had succeeded in persuading King Alexander
to proclaim one of her two brothers heir-apparent to the throne.
In 1902 a widespread military conspiracy was rumoured to exist,
while Austria and Russia repeatedly gave proofs that they were
indifferent to the fate of Alexander, and so encouraged the
malcontents. King Alexander felt that he could eventually
fortify his position either by a great foreign policy or by his
divorce from the childless Queen Draga. He seems to have been
working for joint action with Bulgaria for the liberation of
Macedonia from Turkish rule. Some of his intimate friends
asserted that he contemplated divorcing the queen, and that he
was only waiting for her departure for an Austrian watering-place,
which departure was fixed for the 151)1 of June 1903. In the first
hours of the nth of June the conspirators surrounded the
palace with troops, forced an entrance and assassinated both
King Alexander and Queen Draga in a most cruel and savage
manner. (C. Mi.)
King Peter Karageorgevich. The regicides proclaimed Prince
Peter Karageorgevich king of Servia; and a provisional cabinet
was formed, with Colonel Mashin, brother-in-law of the murdered
Queen Draga and organizer of the conspiracy, as minister of
public works. The skupshtina and senate assembled, restored
the constitution of 1889 instead of the reactionary constitution
promulgated by King Alexander on the igth of April 1901, and
ratified the election of Prince Peter, who entered Belgrade as king
on the 24th of June 1903. Born in 1844, he was the son of
Alexander Karageorgevich and grandson of Karageorge; in
1883 he had married Bsjncess Zorka, daughter of Prince (after-
wards king) Nicholas of Montenegro. His authority was at
first merely nominal; the highest administrative offices were
occupied by the regicides, who received the unanimous thanks
of the skupshtina for the assassination of King Alexander and
Queen Draga. Russia, Austria-Hungary and Montenegro were
the only Powers which congratulated King Peter on his accession,
and in December 1903 all the Powers temporarily withdrew their
representatives from Belgrade, as a protest against the attitude
of the Servian government towards the regicides. But at the
coronation of King Peter, in September 1904, all the European
powers except Great Britain were officially represented, some
concessions, more apparent than real, having been made in the
matter of the regicides, who were very unpopular among the
peasants and in the army. Further protests were made by many
of the powers when the illusory nature of these concessions
became known, and it was not until May 1906 that diplomatic
relations with Servia were resumed by Great Britain. In the
same year a convention was concluded by Servia and Bulgaria
as a preliminary to a customs union between the two states.
This convention, which tended to neutralize the dependence of
Servia upon Austria-Hungary by facilitating the export of
Servian goods through the Bulgarian ports on the Black Sea,
brought about a war of tariffs between Servia and the Dual
Monarchy.
The Bosnian Crisis. In 1908 the annexation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary and the revolution in Turkey
brought about an acute crisis. Many Serbs still hoped for the
realization of the so-called " Great Servian Idea," i.e. the union
in a single empire of Servia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro
and Old Servia (Stara Srbiya) or the sanjak of Novibazar with
north-western Macedonia all countries in which the population
consists largely, and in some cases almost exclusively, of Orthodox
Serbs. The whole nation clamoured for war with Austria-
Hungary, and was supported in this attitude by Montenegro,
despite a temporary rupture of diplomatic relations between
Belgrade and Cettigne, due to the alleged complicity of the
Servian crown prince in a plot for the assassination of Prince
Nicholas. As, however, the armaments and finances of Servia
were unequal to a conflict with Austria-Hungary, while Great
Britain, Russia, France and Italy counselled peace, the skupsh-
tina, meeting in secret session on the nth of October 1908,
determined to avoid open hostilities, and sent M Milanovich,
the minister for foreign affairs, to press the claims of Servia
upon the powers. The tariff war with Austria-Hungary was at
the same time renewed. Servia demanded compensation in
various forms for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina;
what the government hoped to obtain was the cession to Servia
of a strip of territory between Herzegovina and Novibazar,
which would check the advance of Austria-Hungary towards
Salonica, make Servia and Montenegro conterminous, pave the
way for a union between them, and give Servian commerce an
outlet to the Adriatic. Neither the Dual Monarchy nor the Young
Turks would consider the cession of any territory, and in
January 1909 the outcry for war was renewed in Servia. But
the threatening attitude of Austria-Hungary, with the moderat-
ing influence of M Pashich, who became the real, though not the
nominal, head of a new ministry in February 1909, induced
Servia to accept the advice of the Russian government by
abandoning all claim to territorial " compensation," and leaving
the Balkan question for solution by the Powers. The Servian
government defined its attitude in a circular note to the Powers
(gth of March), and finally accepted the terms of a conciliatory
declaration suggested by the British government (3ist of March).
By this declaration Servia abandoned all its demands as against
Austria-Hungary, while the Austro-Hungarian foreign minister
made simultaneously a public declaration that the Dual Monarchy
harboured no unfriendly designs against Servia.
On the 27th of March 1909 the crown prince George (b. 1887),
who had been the most outspoken leader of the anti-Austrian
party in 1908, was induced to resign his right of succession to
the throne. It was alleged that his violence had caused the death
of one of his own male servants, and that he was partially
insane. On the 27th of March 1909 his brother Alexander
(b. Dec. 17, 1888) took the oath as heir-apparent.
The books by Stead, Mallat and Hogge, mentioned above, contain
important historical matter. See also the bibliography to the article
BALKAN PENINSULA, with L. von Ranke, Geschichte Serbiens bis
SERVIA 695
1842 (Leipzig, 1844; Eng. trans, by A. Kerr, The History of Serna
(London, 1847) ; id., Serbien und die Tiirkei im ig. Jahrhundert
(Leipzig, 1879); A. Hilferding, Geschichte (altere) der Serben und
Bulgaren (2 vols. from the Russian, Bantzen, 1856-1864); S.
Novakovic, Srbi i Turtsi xiv. i xv. veka, &c. (Belgrade, 1893); B. S.
Cunibert, Essai historique sur les revolutions et I'independance de la
Serbie: 1804-1850 (2 vols., Paris, 1850-1855); E. L. Mijatovich,
History of Modern Servia (London, 1872); Rachic, Le Royaume de
Serbie, etude d'histoire diplomatique (Paris, 1901); V. Georgevic,
Das Ende der Obrenovti (Leipzig, 1905); C. Mijatovich, A Royal
Tragedy (London, 1906). (X.)
LANGUAGE
The Servian language belongs to the family of Slavonic
languages (see SLAVS). According to the Servian philologist
Danichich (Dioba Slav, yezika, Belgrade, 1874), the Servians
were the first Slavonic branch which separated from the original
Slavonic stem, while the Russians and the Bulgarians only
separated from it at a considerably later date. The Russian and
Bulgarian languages undoubtedly stand nearer to Old Slavonic
than the Servian. According to another theory (T. Schmidt,
Vocalismus ii. 179) two separate branches developed from the
Old Slavonic stem, one identical with the western Slavs, and the
other with the south-eastern group; and from the Slavonic of
the south-east the first languages to separate were the Russian
and the South Slavonic. From the latter developed Bulgarian,
on one side, and Servian-Slovene on the other, while from the
last-named branch Servian or Serbo-Croatian and Slovene
developed on two separate twigs. There can be no doubt that
in the south-eastern group of the Slavonic languages Serbo-
Croatian and Slovene form a special closely-connected group,
in which the Servian and the Croat languages are almost identical.
Both the Servians and the Croats arrived in the first half of
the 7th century (or more precisely about A.D. 635) in the north-
western corner of the Balkan Peninsula. There they met the
partly Romanized Illyrians, and in course of time absorbed them.
There can be little doubt that this absorption softened and
enriched the Serbo-Croatian dialects, a process to which climatic
conditions and intercourse with Italy also contributed, until
Serbo-Croatian became one of the richest and most melodious
of Slavonic languages.
Servian is spoken in the following countries, forming geo-
graphically (although not politically) a connected whole:
southern Hungary, the kingdom of Servia, Old Servia (the
Turkish vilayet of Kossovo), western Macedonia, the sanjak of
Novi-Bazar, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Croatia-Slavonia, Qalmatia
and Montenegro. It ranks with Bulgarian as one of the two
principal Slav languages of the Balkan Peninsula; the Mace-
donian dialects are intermediate between these two. Between
eight and nine millions of people speak Serbo-Croatian in the
countries just enumerated.
Considering the extent of territory in which the language is spoken,
it is not surprising that it should have several dialects. Practically,
however, there are only three principal dialects, which are differ-
entiated by the manner in which the Old Slavonic double vocal ye
(the so-called yach) is pronounced. The Old Slavonic words lyepo,
by.lo, are pronounced by the Servians of Herzegovina, Bosnia, Monte-
negro, Dalmatia, Croatia and south-western Servia as leeyepo,
beeyelo; by the Servians of Syrmia the same vowel is pronounced
sometimes as e (lepo, belo), sometimes as ee (videeti, leteeli); by the
Servians of the Morava valley and its accessory Ressava valley,
always only as e (lepo, belo, videli, leteti). V'uk Stefanovich Karajich
called the first dialect the " South-Western or Herzegovinian dia-
lect," the second the " Syrmian," the third the " Ressava " dialect.
Professor Belich of Belgrade University has tried to give in the
Servian Dialectological Compendium (Belgrade, 1905) a new division
of the Servian dialects into five groups, viz. Prizren-Timok, Kossovo-
Ressava, Shumadiya-Srem (Syrmia), Zetta-Bosnia, Adriatic coast.
Of all the Servian dialects the most correct, richest and softest is the
Herzegovinian or Zetta-Bosnian dialect. Karajich and his followers
tried to make it the literary language of the Servians. All the national
songs which he transcribed from the recitations of the bards were
written and published by him in that dialect, into which the Bible
has also been translated. But, as in the second half of the I9th
century the kingdom of Servia, speaking the Ressava or Shumadiya-
Syrmian dialect, became the centre of Servian literary activity, the
last-mentioned dialect tended to become the literary language.
Servian and Croatian are only two dialects of the same Slavonic
language. Servian is sometimes called shtokavski because the Servian
word for " what " is shto, whereas the Croats say cha for shto, and
696
SERVIA
therefore their language is called chakavski. The more important
differences between the two languages were pointed out by Danichich
(Glasnik, ix., 1857). They are as follows: (a) while the Servians
pronounce the Old Slavonic yach as ye or e or ee, the Croats pronounce
it always as ee (Servian beeyelo or belo, Croatian beelo); (b) the
Servians have the sound gye (softened d or g), the Croats are without
it, but have instead ya or ye (Servian gospogya, Croatian gospoya) ;
(c) the Servians let the vowel i transform the preceding consonant
into a soft consonant, whereas the Croats pronounce the consonant
unaffected by the softening influence of i (Servian bratya, Croatian
bratia) ; (d) the Servians change the letter / at the end of a word into
o whereas the Croats always pronounce it as /. These differences are
so insignificant that it was very natural that the Croats after having
tried to convert the chakavski dialect into a separate literary language
were compelled to abandon that attempt and to adopt the shtokavski.
To facilitate this reform, to overcome the ecclesiastical prejudices of
the Roman Catholic Croats against the Eastern Orthodox Servians,
and vice versa, certain Croatian patriots, led by Ljudevit Gaj, pro-
posed that all the Slavonic peoples in the north-western part of the
Balkan Peninsula should call themselves Ittyri and their language
lUyrian (see CROATIA-SLAVONIA: Language and Literature and
History). The appellation " Serbo-Croatian "for the literary language
of both nations now finds more favour. The great dictionary com-
piled and published by the South Slavonic Academy of Agram is
called The Lexicon of the Servian or Croatian Language. Although
the Croats write and print in Latin characters, while the Servians
write and print in Cyrillic, and although many a Servian cannot read
Croatian books, and vice versa, the literary language of both nations
is one and the same. (C. Mi.)
LITERATURE
1. Formation of a Servian- Slavonic Language. Servian
literature begins with the biblical and liturgical books, written
in " Old Slavonic," or " Church Slavonic," into which " the
Slavonic apostles " Cyril and Methodius (see SLAVS) had trans-
lated the Bible and other church books about the middle of the
gth century. Cyril and Methodius used the Greek alphabet
somewhat modified and adapted to the necessities of the Slavonic
language. That alphabet is called " Cyrillic " (in Servian
Kyrilitsa), and is simplified and modernized practically the
alphabet used by the Servians, Bulgarians and Russians of our
times. The Cyrillic aphabet replaced an older Servian, or
probably Old Slavonic, alphabet called "Glagolitic" (see SLAVS:
Alphabets). A few Servian books are still printed in Glagolitic,
and some in Latin letters; but by far the greatest number are
written and printed in Cyrillic.
The Old Slavonic church books had naturally to be copied
from time to time, and the Servian, Bulgarian and Russian
copyists were unable to resist the influences of their respective
living languages. Thus comparatively soon there appeared
church books no longer written in pure Old Slavonic (of which
the so-called " Asseman's Gospel " in the Vatican is the best
type), but in Old Slavonic modified by Servian, Bulgarian,
Russian influences, or in the languages which could be called
Servian-Slavonic, Bulgarian-Slavonic, Russian-Slavonic. The
best extant specimen of the Servian-Slavonic is " Miroslav's
Gospel," written in the second half of the I2th century for the
Servian prince Miroslav; a facsimile edition was published in
1897 in Belgrade. Servian-Slavonic was the literary language
of the Servians from the i2th century to the end of the isth,
i.e. during the first period of their literary history.
2. Servian-Slavonic Literature. The only noteworthy literary
productions of this first period of Servian literature were zhivoti
(biographies) and letopisi (chronicles). The best writers of the
time were Archbishop Sava (St Sava), his brother King Stephen
(Stefan) Prvovenchani (i.e. the " first-crowned ") , the monks
Domentiyan and Theodosius, Archbishop Danilo, Gregorius
Tsamblak, Stephen Lazarevich, prince of Servia, and Constantine
the Philosopher. The most important literary work of St Sava
(d. 1237) was The Life of St Simeon, in which he described the
life of his father, Stephen Nemanya, the first sovereign of the
united Servian provinces, who towards the end of his life became
a monk and took the name of Simeon. Domentiyan wrote a life
of St Sava in the involved and bombastic Byzantine style of
the middle of the i3th century. The best literary creations of
the period are undoubtedly The Lives of the Servian Kings and
Archbishops by Archbishop Danilo (d. 1338), and Constantine the
Philosopher's Life of Despot Stephen Lazarevich, written in 1432.
The chronicles (letopisi) are without any literary value, although
as historical material they are useful. They number about thirty.
The oldest of them was written between 1371 and 1390. The best
are Letopis of Ypek, which ends with the year 1391; Letopis of
Koporin, written by Deacon Damyan in 1453; Letopis of Carlovitz,
1503; and the chronicle of the monastery of Tronosha, 1526.
To this period of Servian literature belongs the first attempt by an
unknown author to write a romance. The story of the love and
sufferings of the Servian prince Vladimir, who lived in the nth
century, and his wife, the Bulgarian princess Kossara, written
probably in the I3th century, was very popular among the Servians
of the I4th and 15th centuries. Other comparatively widely-read
books of the period were the Life of Alexander the Great, The Story of
the Siege of Troy, Stefanite and Ikhnylat (an Indian story) and The
Journey of a Soul from this World to that Other, all of which were
translations from the Greek.
A characteristic example of the literary and also, as it appears, of
the official language of the Servians in the middle ages is the Codex
of Tsar Dushan (Zakonik Tsara Dushana), which was promulgated
at the Servian parliament (Sabor) in Skoplye (Uskub) in 1349 and
1354. Very interesting material for the study of the Servian literary
language during the I2th, I3th and I4th centuries is to be found in
several collections of old charters and letters of that period (F.
Miklosich's Monumenta Serbica, Putsich's Srpski Spomenitsi u
Dubrovachkoy Arkhivi, and the publications of the Royal Servian
Academy in Belgrade and the South Slavonic Academy of Science
in Agram). The oldest document written in the vernacular Servian
is considered to be a charter by which Kulin, the ban of Bosnia,
grants certain commercial privileges to the Ragusan merchants in
1189.
The oldest printed book in Servian-Slavonic issued in 1483 from
the printing-press of Andreas de Theresanis de Asula in Venice. A
few years later the Servian nobleman Bozhidar Vukovich bought a
printing-press in Venice and established it at Obod in Montenegro,
from which issued in 1493 the first church book (the Octoich) printed
on Servian territory. There is a copy of this book in the British
Museum. Vicentius, the son of Bozhidar Vukovich, carried on the
enterprise of his father, and their printing-press continued to work
up to 1566, issuing several church books in the Servian-Slavonic
language. During the first half of the 1 6th century the Servians had
printing-presses in Belgrade, Skadar (Scutari) on the river Boyana,
Gorazhde, Mileshevo and elsewhere. But in the second half of that
century all printing absolutely ceased in the Servian countries under
the direct rule of the Turks, and was not resumed until the middle
of the l8th century. Books for the use of the churches had to be
imported from Russia, printed in the Russian-Slavonic language.
3. Dalmatian Literature While among the Servians belonging
to the Eastern Church all literary work had practically stopped
from the middle of the i6th century to the middle of the i8th,
the Roman Catholic Servians of Dalmatia, and more especially
those of the semi-independent republic of Ragusa, became more
active. Being for centuries politically, ecclesiastically and
commercially connected with Venice, Rome and Italy in general,
they came under the influence of Italian civilization, and during
the isth, i6th and I7th centuries were the most cultured branch
of the Servian nation. The awakening of literary ambition
among these Servians of the Adriatic coast was originally due to
the influence of immigrant Greek scholars who came to Ragusa
after the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
Between 1450 and 1530 there had already been founded in Spalato
a small literary society, in which the Servian poets Marulich, Papalich,
Martinich and others read their poetical compositions, mostly lyrical
and religious songs. About the same time (1457-1501) there ap-
peared in Ragusa the poet Menchetich, who wrote nearly four
hundred love-songs and elegies, taking Ovid as his model, and George
Drzhich (1460-1510), author of many erotic poems and of a drama.
Two of the finest works of this early period of the Servian literature
of Ragusa are the poem Dervishiyada, written by the Ragusan noble-
man Stepan Guchetich (1495 1525), rich in humour and satire, and
the poem Yegyupka (" The Gipsy Woman "), written by Andreas
Chubranovich (1500-1550), a goldsmith by profession and a very
original and clever lyrical poet. Another remarkable Ragusan poet
was Hectorovich (1486-1572), who wrote the poem Ribanye (" The
Fishing and Talking with Fishermen "), and anticipated a new
movement in Servian literature by publishing three national songs
as he heard them from the popular bards (guslars). But the true
glory of Ragusan literature was established by its three poets, Ivan
Gundulich (1558-1638), Gyon Palmotich (1606-1657) and Ignacius
Gyorgyich (1675-1737). Of these the greatest was Gundulich (q.v.).
Palmotich is remarkable as a dramatic poet. The subjects of most
of his dramas were taken from Latin and Italian poets (Atalanla
after Ovid, Lavinia after Virgil, Armida after Tasso) ; but at least
in two dramas, Pavlimir and Tsaptislava, he displayed some origin-
ality, taking his themes from Servian national history. All the works
of Palmotich have been published by the South Slavonic Academy
(Start Pisci, vols. xii., xiii., xiv. xix.). Gyorgyich's best work is
SERVIA
697
considered to be his translation of the Psalms into Servian verse
(Saltiyer Slovinski). He also wrote The Sighs of the Repenting
Magdalen and the unfinished tragedy Judith.
After Gyorgyich the Servian literature of Ragusa and Dalmatia
during the l8th century has no great name to show, except that of
the mathematician, Ruggiero Boshkovich (see BOSCOVICH). His
two brothers and his sister Anitsa Boshkovich were known in their
time as poets. But on the whole Servian literature on the Adriatic
coast showed little originality in the l8th century; its writers were
content to produce good translations of Latin, Italian and French
works.
Mention must be made, however, of an author whose work con-
nects the literature of the Adriatic Servians of theiSth century with
the regenerative efforts of the Danubian Servians in the second decade
of the igth century. The literature of' the Adriatic Servians was,
with very few exceptions, Servian only in language, but Italian in
form and spirit. About the middle of the i8th century a learned
Dalmatian monk, Andrea Kachich Mioshich by name, emancipated
himself from the yoke of pseudo-classicism and slavery to Western
models. As a papal delegate he had to visit all the Roman Catholic
communities in Dalmatia, Herzegovina and Bosnia, and had numer-
ous opportunities of hearing the bards recite songs on old national
heroes. In 1756 he published a book entitled Razgovor Ugodni
Naroda Slovinskoga (" The Popular Talk of the Slavonic People "),
in which in 261 songs he described in the manner and in the spirit
of the national bards the more important historic or legendary
events and heroes of the " Slavonic people." Under this denomina-
tion he comprised Servians, Croats, Slovenes and Bulgarians, antici-
pating the modern appellations of the Yugo-Sloveni (Southern
Slavs). His book immediately became the most popular that ever
appeared among the Servians, and was again and again reprinted,
under the less ponderous title Pesmaritsa, " The Book of Songs."
Some sixty years after its appearance it inspired Vuk Stefanovich
Karajich with the vision of his true mission. But Kachich Mioshich
found no immediate followers among the Servian literati of the
second half of the i8th century.
4. The Revival of Servian Literature: Obradovich and Karajich.
As long as the countries inhabited by the Orthodox Servians
were under the deadening immediate rule of the Turks, they
produced no serious literature. But when the Austrian wars of
the i yth century began to roll back the Turkish power, and
Hungary recovered its freedom, the Servians living in that
country rapidly acquired some culture, and their literature
began to revive. During the i8th century, however, they did
not write in the living language of the Servian people. After
the disappearance of the Servian printing-presses in the i6th
century, all liturgical books were brought from Russia and
printed in the Russian-Slavonic language; while the teachers
in the Servian schools were Russians. Russian-Slavonic thus
became the literary language of the Orthodox Servians.
The more important works of the time were the History of Monte-
negro, by the Montenegrin bishop Basil Petrovitch (Moscow, 1754);
the Short Introduction into the History of the Origin of the Slaveno-
Servian Nation, by Paul Yulinats (Venice, 1765); and above all the
History of the Slavonic Nations, more especially of the Bulgarians,
Croats and Servians, by Archimandrite Yovan Raich (Vienna, 1794).
During extensive travels in Russia and the Balkan countries Raich
had collected a rich historical material and was able to write, for the
first time in the annals of Servian literature, a work which has every
claim to be considered as a real history. The Servians call him
" the father of Servian history."
But Russian-Slavonic was not readily understood by the Servian
reading public. It was not much better when through the influence
of the living language it began to approach nearer to Servian than to
Russian, and was called " Slavonic-Servian " (Slaveno-Serbski).
The Servians had some authors in the i8th century, but it could
hardly have been said that they had readers. All this suddenly
changed when Dositey (Dositheus) Obradovich (1739-1811) appeared
on the scene. In boyhood he had entered the monastery of Hoppovo
in south Hungary and had become a monk. But as very soon he
found that the monastery could not satisfy his aspirations, he left it
and started to travel, acquiring a knowledge of classical and modern
languages and literatures. An ardent Servian patriot, he proclaimed
the principle that books ought to be written for the people and
therefore in the language which the people understood and spoke.
His first book, The Life and the Adventures of Demeter Obradovich a
monk named Dositey (Leipzig, 1783), was written in the language
spoken in Servian towns. It immediately made a great impression,
which was enhanced by the continuation of his autobiography
(Home Letters) and especially by his Fables of Aesop and of other
Writers (Leipzig, 1789). These books created a reading public
among the Servians and mark the beginning of a really modern
period of Servian literature. Obradovich, or rather " Dositey " as
Servians call him, was so highly appreciated as an author, savant
and patriot that in 1807 Karageorge invited him to Servia and ap-
pointed him a senator and minister of public education, in which
capacity he established in Belgrade the first Servian college (Velika
Shkola). Dositey was an admirer of England and English literature.
While staying in London in 1 783 he was much encouraged by the
patronage and friendship of Dr William Fordyce, while his pupil,
Paul Solarich, another distinguished author, was befriended by the
Hon. Frederick North, afterwards 5th earl of Guildford, state secretary
for public instruction in the Ionian Islands.
Only a few of his contemporaries followed the example which
Dositey set in writing in the vernacular (although even he introduced
from time to time purely Slavonic words and forms). It was believed
that the vernacular could not be raised to the dignity of a literary
language, and that literature and science needed words and ex-
pressions which were entirely lacking in the common language.
But Vuk Stefanovich Karajich, a self-taught writer, proved the
fallacy of that assumption. By his publication of the national songs
and poems, which he carefully collected, he opened the eyes of
Servian authors to the wealth and beauty of their own language, as
spoken by the mass of the people and used by the national bards.
Besides collecting national songs and poems, folk-lore, proverbs, &c.,
he wrote a grammar of the Servian language (Vienna, 1814) and the
first Servian lexicon, with explanations in German and Latin
(Vienna, 1818). His thorough knowledge of the Servian language
led him to reform the Cyrillic alphabet, in which several letters were
redundant and certain sounds of the spoken language were unrepre-
sented. His efforts to make Servian writers adopt his reformed
alphabet, and accept the language of the common people as a
literary language, met with fierce opposition, especially on the part
of the clergy and friends of the artificial Slaveno-Servian literary
language. It was only after 1860 that his principles won a complete
victory in all directions. (See KARAJICH.)
5. Modern Servian Literature. The activity of Karajich
brought new life to the Servian literature of the'ipth century.
The poets abandoned classical models and ceased to write
in hexameters; they preferred to derive their inspiration from
popular poetry, of which Karajich collected for them hundreds
of examples. Writers in different departments of literature
vied with each other to write in pure and correct Servian. And,
although it could not be justly said that the Servians of the igth
century produced a really great work from the literary point of
view, they certainly made progress and produced some remark-
able poetry.
Their three greatest poets are Sima Milutinovich Sarayliya
(1791-1847), Peter Petrovich Nyegosh (1813-1851), prince-bishop
of Montenegro, and " Zmay " Yovan Yovanovich (1833-1904).
Sarayliya's most important work is Serbiyanka (Leipzig, 1826), in
which he describes the rising of the Servians against the Turks in
1804 and 1815. His imagination is lively, his descriptions graphic,
but the impetuosity of his genius cannot find adequate words to
express itself, and then he creates new words of which the meaning is
not always clear. For this reason he never was really popular among
the Servians. Nyegosh composed his first important poem, Lucha
Microcosma or " The Light of the Microcosm " (Belgrade, 1847),
under the influence of Paradise Lost. In the Lucha he describes how
the spirit of man wished to solve the problem of human destiny.
He was led by a protecting angel to the beginning of time when
Satan, supported by an angel called Adam, was in full rebellion
against God. But the co-rebel Adam repented and God then created
the Earth and sent Adam to expiate his sin by living amidst diffi-
culties and sufferings on that planet. In Gorski Viyenats, " The
Mountain Wreath " (Vienna, 1847), Nyegosh describes the liberation
of Montenegro from the Turks towards the end of the I7th century
in the form of a drama. There is, however, hardly anything dramatic
in the poem, but the characters deliver magnificent descriptions of
Montenegro and Montenegrins, and the play is full of noble senti-
ments and great thoughts. The Servians consider Gorski Viyenats
the finest poetical work in their literature. It has been translated into
all the principal European languages except English. Dr Yovan
Yovanovich, called by his admiring countrymen Zmay (the Dragon)
on account of the high flight of his poetry and his ardent patriotism,
began his poetical career by producing melodious translations of
some of the best poems of other nations (the Hungarian Arany's
Toldi Jdnos, Petofi's Jdnos Vitez, Lermontov's Demon, Tennyson's
" Enoch Arden," Bodenstedt's Mizra-Shaffy, Goethe's Iphigenie,
&c.). His own lyrical and satirical poems are without a rival in
Servian literature. In his later years he gave much of his time and
talent to the interests of children, editing papers for boys and dedi-
cating hundreds of his finest songs to children. There are several
editions of his collected poems; one of the best is that of the Servian
Literary Association (Belgrade, 1896).
Among the other prominent Servian poets of the igth century
may be mentioned Dr Milosh Svetich (1799-1869), Branko Radiche-
vich (1824-1853), Gyura Yakshich (1832-1878), Yovan Subotich
(1817-1886), Dr Laza Kostich (b. 1841), Aberdar (1842-1893),
Voislav Ilich (1862-1894), Prince Nicholas of Montenegro (b. 1841).
The Servians have as yet no great novelist, but they have several
very successful writers of short stories. Among these the first place
SERVICE TREE SERVITUDE
belongs to Dr Laza Lazarevich. After him the most popular authors
of short stories are: Stefan Sremats, whose mild satire and sparkling
humour earned for him the name of the " Servian Dickens " ; Yanko
Veselinovich, author of some delightful sketches from the life of
Servian peasants; Sima Matavuly, whose stories give a true picture
of the Servians of Dalmatia and of Montenegro. Delightful stories of
old times and of the Adriatic coast were written by Stefan Mitrov
Lyubisha (1824-1878).
In dramatic literature the Servians are comparatively rich.
The poet Dr Laza Kostich made excellent translations from
Shakespeare (King Lear, Romeo and Juliet, King Richard III.), and
gave the Servian stage two of its best tragedies: Maxim Tsrno-
yevich and Petar Segedinats; also the comedy Gordana. Matiya
Ban's Meyrimah is considered the best tragedy in the Serbo-Croatian
language. The patriotic drama Balkanska Tsaritsa, by Prince
Nicholas of Montenegro, has been often played and enthusiastically
received by the public, but the critics deny to it much dramatic
value. Milosh Tsvetich has given fine and lasting contributions to the
Servian stage in his drama Stefan Nemanya and tragedy Todor of
Stalach. Among the writers of comedy the first place must be
assigned to Kosta Trifkovich (d. 1875); Milovan Glishich (d. 1908)
was also very popular; and Branislav Nushich was the most suc-
cessful of Servian dramatists early in the 2Oth century.
In modern scientific literature the principal Servian names are
those of the electrician Nicholas Tesla, the botanist Dr Josif Panchich,
and the geologists Dr Yovan Zhuyevich and Dr Yovan Tsviyich
(Cvijic). In philology a very high place is occupied by Gyuro
Damchich, once professor of philology at the high school in Belgrade
and secretary to the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, where he
was for years the principal editor of the great lexicon of the Servian
or Croatian language. He had a very distinguished pupil in Stoyan
Novakovich, who wrote numerous studies on philological subjects,
and whose Servian grammar is still the standard book in all Servian
schools. In historical literature we find besides Yovan Raich,
mentioned earlier, Panta Sretykovich, with his History of the Servian
Nation; Stoyan Boshkovich (d. 1908), with his Servia under Tsar
Dushan; Stoyan Novakovich, with his numerous essays on subjects
from the medieval history of Servia, his History of Servian Literature,
his Resurrection of the Servian National State and Rising against the
Dahis (the two last-named books appeared in Belgrade in 1904) ;
Lyubomir Kovachevich and Lyuba Yovanovich, who together wrote
a standard work on the history of the Servian nation; Chedo
Mijatovich, with his monographs on Gyuragy Brankovich and the
conquest of Constantinople by the Turks.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best works on the Servian language and
literature are those already mentioned as written by Servian authors :
Karajich, Danichich, Stoyan Novakovich, &c. See also on the
language DrF. Miklosich's Vergleichende Lautlehre der slav. Sprachen;
Section II.: Serbisch und Chorvatisch (Vienna, 1879), and his Wort-
bildungslehre der slav. Sprachen (Vienna, 1876); W. Vondrak
Vergletchende slavische Grammatik (Gottingen, 1906 and 1908) ;
J. Florinsky, Lektsi po slavyankomu yazykoznaniye (Kiev, 1895).
Good text-books are P. Budmani, Grammatica della lingua serbo-
croata (Vienna, 1867); Parchich, Grammaire de la langue serbo-
croate (Paris, 1877); Fr. Vymezal, Serbische Grammatik (Briinn,
1882). For the literature see A. N. Pypin and V. D. Spassovich,
History of Slavonic Literatures (in Russ., St Petersburg, 1879, in
French, Paris, 1881), and Dr Mathias Murko, Die Kultur osteuro-
pdischer Literaturen und die slavischen Sprachen (Berlin and Leipzig,
1908). (C. Mi.)
SERVICE TREE, Pyrus domestica, a native of the Mediter-
ranean region, not infrequently planted in southern Europe for
its fruit. It has been regarded as a native of England on the
evidence of a single specimen, which has probably been planted,
now existing in the forest of Wyre. Though not much cultivated
its fruit is esteemed by some persons, and therefore two or three
trees may very well be provided with a place in the orchard, or
in a sheltered corner of the lawn. The tree is seldom productive
till it has arrived at a goodly size and age. The fruit has a
peculiar acid flavour, and, like the medlar, is fit for use only when
thoroughly mellowed by being kept till it has become bletted.
There is a pear-shaped variety, pyriformis, and also an apple-
shaped variety, maliformis, both of which may be propagated
by layers, and still better by grafting on seedling plants of their
own kind. The fruit is sometimes brought to market in winter.
The service is nearly allied to the mountain ash, Pyrus Aucu-
paria, which it resembles in having regularly primate leaves.
P. torminalis is the wild service, a small tree occurring locally
in woods and hedges from Lancashire southwards; the fruit
is sold in country markets. These, with other species, including
P. Aria, white beam, so-called from the leaves which are white
and flocculent beneath, form the subgenus Sorbus, which was
regarded by Linnaeus as a distinct genus.
SERVIEN, ABEL, MARQUIS DE SABLE and DE BOISDAUPHIN,
COMTE DE LA RocHE-SERViEN (i 593-1659) , French diplomat,
was born at Grenoble, the son of Antoine Servien, procurator-
general of the estates of Dauphine. He succeeded his father
in that office in 1616, and in the following year attended the
assembly of notables at Rouen. In 1618 he was named councillor
of state and in 1624 was called to Paris, where he found favour
with Richelieu. He displayed administrative ability and great
loyalty to the central government as intendant in Guienne in
1627, and in 1628 negotiated the boundary delimitation with
Spain. Appointed president of the parlement of Bordeaux in
1630, he soon resigned to accept an embassy to Italy, where he
was one of the signatories of the treaty of Cherasco and of the
treaties with the duke of Savoy (1631-1632). In 1634 he was
admitted to the French Academy. Two years later he retired
from public life as the result of court intrigue. Servien lived at
Angers or on his estates at Sable until the death of Louis XIII.,
when Mazarin entrusted him with the conduct, conjointly with
the comte d'Avaux, of French diplomatic affairs in Germany.
After five years' negotiations, and a bitter quarrel with the
comte d'Avaux, which ended in the latter's recall, Servien signed
the two treaties of the 24th of October 1648 which were part of
the general peace of Westphalia. He received the title of
minister of state on his return to France in April 1649, remained
loyal to Mazarin during the Fronde, and was made superintendent
of finances in 1653. He was an adviser to Mazarin in the negotia-
tions which terminated in the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659).
He amassed a considerable fortune, and was unpopular, even in
court circles. He died at the chateau of Meudon on the I7th of
February 1639.
Servien left an important and voluminous correspondence. See
R. Kerviler, A. Servien, elude stir savie politiqiie el litteraire, (Mamers,
1879).
SERVITES, or "SERVANTS OF MARY," an order under the
Rule of St Augustine, founded in 1233. In this year seven
merchants of Florence, recently canonized as " the seven holy
Founders," gave up their wealth and position, and with the
bishop's sanction established themselves as a religious community
on Monte Senario near Florence. They lived an austere life of
penance and prayer, and being joined by others, they were in
1 240 formed into an order following the Augustinian rule supple-
mented by constitutions borrowed from the Dominicans. Soon
they were able to establish houses in various parts of Italy, where
within twenty-five years four provinces were formed; they also
at an early date founded many houses in France, Germany and
Spain, but they never came to England before the Reformation.
The most illustrious member of the order and its chief propagator
and organizer was St Filippo Benizi, the fifth general, who died
in 1285. The order received papal approbation in 1255; in 1424
it was recognized as a Mendicant order, and in 1567 it was ranked
with the four great orders of Mendicant friars. The Servites
undertook missions in Tartary, India and Japan. As in the other
orders there were various mitigations and relaxations of the rule,
producing a variety of reforms, the chief being that of the eremiti-
cal Servites. There are at the present day 64 Servites houses,
mostly in Italy; there are two or three in England and in America.
There are Servile nuns and also tertiaries, founded by St
Juliana Falconieri, 1305, who are widespread and devote them-
selves chiefly to primary education. They have several convents
in England. The habit of the Servites is black.
The chief work on the Servites is the Monumenta by Morini and
Spulier, 1897, &c. See Hclyot, Histoire des ordres religieux (1715).
iii. cc. 39-41 ; Max Heimbucher Orden u. Kongregationen (1907), ii.
73; Wetzer u. Welte, Kirchenlexicon (2nd ed.)j Herzog-Hauck
Realencyklopadie (3rd ed.). The most interesting part of Servile his-
tory is told by P. Soulier, Vie de S. Philippe Benizt(iS86). (E. C. B.)
SERVITUDE (Lat. servitus, from servire, to serve), a right over
the property of^nother. In Roman law, servitudes were classi-
fied into (i) personal, i.e. those given to a particular person,
and (2) praedial, i.e. those enjoyed over something else (praedimn
serviens) by being owner or tenant of a piece of land or a house
(praedium dominans). Personal servitudes were subdivided
into (a) usus, the right of using property; (b) usitfructus the
SERVIUS HONORATUS SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR 699
right of using and enjoying the fruits of property; and (c) and (d)
operas semonim sine animalium. Praedial servitudes were either
(a) rustic, such as, jus eundi, the right of walking or riding along
the footpath of another; aquae ductus, the right of passage for
water; pasceiuii, the right of pasture, &c ; or (b) urban. Urban
servitudes were of various kinds, as oneris ferendi, the right of
using the wall of another to support a man's own wall; pro-
jiciendi, the right of building a structure, such as a balcony or
verandah, so as to project over another's land; stillicidii, fumi
immittendi and several others. Servitudes were created by a
disposition inter vinos, or by contract; by testamentary dis-
position; by the conveyance of land or by prescription They
might be extinguished by destruction of either the res serviens
or the res dominans; by release of the right, or by the vesting of
the ownership of the res serviens and res dominans in the same
person.
In English law there may be certain limited rights over the land
of another, corresponding somewhat to servitudes, and termed ease-
ments (g..). In Scots law the term is still in use (see EASEMENT).
SERVIUS HONORATUS, MAURUS (or MARIUS), Roman
grammarian and commentator on Virgil, flourished at the end of
the 4th century A.D. He is one of the interlocutors in the
Saturnalia of Macrobius, and allusions in that work and a letter
from Symmachus to Servius show that he was a pagan. He was
one of the most favourable examples of the Roman " grammatici "
and the most learned man of his time. He is chiefly known for
his commentary on Virgil, which has come down to us in two
distinct forms. The first is a comparatively short commentary,
definitely attributed to Servius in the superscription in the MSS.
and by other evidence. A second class of MSS. (all going back
to the loth or nth century) presents a much expanded com-
mentary, in which the first is embedded; but these MSS. differ
very much in the amount and character of the additions they
make to the original, and none of them bears the name of Servius.
The added matter is undoubtedly ancient, dating from a time
but little removed from that of Servius, and is founded to a
large extent on historical and antiquarian literature which is
now lost. The writer is anonymous and probably a Christian.
A third class of MSS., written for the most part in Italy and of
late date, repeats the text of the first class, with numerous
interpolated scholia of quite recent origin and little or no value.
The real Servian commentary practically gives the only complete
extant edition of a classic author written before the destruction
of the empire. It is constructed very much on the principle of a
modern edition, and is partly founded on the extensive Virgilian
literature of preceding times, much of which is known only from
the fragments and facts preserved in the commentary. The
notices of Virgil's text, though seldom or never authoritative in
face of the existing MSS., which go back to, or even beyond, the
times of Servius, yet supply valuable information concerning the
ancient recensions and textual criticism of Virgil. In the gram-
matical interpretation of his author's language, Servius does not
rise above the stiff and overwrought subtleties of his time; while
his etymologies, as is natural, violate every law of sound and
sense. As a literary critic the shortcomings of Servius, judged by
a modern standard, are great, but he shines in comparison with his
contemporaries. In particular, he deserves credit for setting his
face against the prevalent allegorical methods of exposition.
But the abiding value of his work lies in his preservation of facts
in Roman history, religion, antiquities and language, which but
for him might have perished. Not a little of the laborious
erudition of Varro and other ancient scholars has survived in
his pages. Besides the Virgilian commentary, other works of
Servius are extant: a collection of notes on the grammar (Ars)
of Aelius Donatus; a treatise on metrical endings (De finalibus);
and a tract on the different metres (De centum melris).
Editions of the Virgilian commentary by G. Fabricius (1551);
P. Daniel, who first published the enlarged commentary (1600);
and G. Thilo and H. Hagen (1878-1902). The Essai sur Servius by
E. Thomas (1880) is an elaborate and valuable examination of all
matters connected with Servius; many points are treated also by
O. Ribbeck in his Prolegomena to Virgil ; see also a review of Thilo's
edition by H. Nettleship in Journal of Philology, x. (1882). The
smaller works of Servius are printed in H. Keil's Grammatici Latini, iv.
SERVIUS TULLIUS, sixth legendary king of Rome (578-
534 B.C.). According to one account he was the son of the
household genius (Lar) and a slave named Ocrisia, of the house-
hold of Tarquinius Priscus. He married a daughter of Tar-
quinius and succeeded to the throne by the contrivance of his
mother-in-law, Tanaquil, who was skilled in divination and
foresaw his greatness. Another legend, alluded to in a speech
by the emperor Claudius (fragments of which were discovered
on a bronze tablet dug up at Lyons in 1524), represented him as
an Etruscan soldier of fortune named Mastarna, who attached
himself to Caeles Vibenna (Caelius Vivenna), the founder of
an Etruscan city on the Caelian Hill (see also Tacitus, Annals,
iv. 65). An important event of his reign was the conclusion of
an alliance with the Latins, whereby Rome and the cities of
Latium became members of one great league, whose common
sanctuary was the temple of Diana on the Aventine. His reign
of forty-four years was brought to a close by a conspiracy
headed by his son-in-law, Tarquinius Superbus.
The legend of Servius presents certain similarities to that of
the founder of Rome. His miraculous birth, commemorated by
Servius himself in the festival established by him in honour of
the Lares, recalls that of Romulus. Again, as Romulus was the
author of the patrician groundwork of the constitution, so
Servius was regarded as the originator of a new classification
of the people, which laid the foundation of the gradual political
enfranchisement of the plebeians (for the constitutional altera-
tions with which his name is associated, see ROME: Ancient
History; for the Servian Wall see ROME: Archaeology). His
supposed Latin descent is contradicted by the Etruscan tradition
alluded to above (on which see V. Gardthausen, Mastarna oder
Servius Tullius, 1882), and his insertion among the kings of
Rome is due to the need of providing an initiator of subsequent
republican institutions. The treaty with the Latins is mentioned
by Dionysius of Halicarnassus alone, who had not seen it himself;
indeed, it is doubtful whether it was then in existence, and in
any case, considering the changes which the language had
undergone, it would have been unintelligible. It is also sus-
picious that no list of the members of the league is given, contrary
to the usual custom.
For a critical examination of the story see Schwegler, Rdmische
Geschichte, bks. xvi., xvii. ; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, Credibility of
early Roman History, ch. xi.; W. Ihne, History of Rome, i. ; E. Pais,
Storia di Roma, i. (1898) ; and Ancient Legends of Roman History
(Eng. trans., 1906), where he comes to the conclusion that " instead
of being the sixth rex of Rome, he was originally the rex servus, the
priest of the cult of Diana Aricina transferred to the Aventine, the
priest of the protecting goddess of fugitive slaves "; C. Pascal, Fatti
e legende di Roma antica (Florence, 1903) ; also O. Gilbert, Geschichte
und Topographie der Stadt Rom im Altertum (1883-1885), and J. B.
Carter, The Religion of Numa (1906), on the reorganization of
Servius.
SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR (1885). The Berlin Congress of
1878, by its revision of the treaty of San Stefano, created two
states in the Balkan Peninsula the principality of Bulgaria
owning a nominal suzerainty to Turkey, and the autonomous
province of eastern Rumelia, presided over by a Turkish
governor-general, and apparently intended to remain in close
relations with the porte. This settlement came to an end when
the movement in favour of a united Bulgaria culminated
(September 1885) in a revolution in the Rumelian capital.
Prince Alexander of Bulgaria, recognizing that the movement
was irresistible and that, unless directed by authority, it might
degenerate into anarchy and civil war, placed himself at its
head, and, proceeding to Philippopolis, formally accepted the
government of the united Bulgarian states. As it was assumed
that the sultan would reassert his claim by force of arms, the
Bulgaro-Rumelian forces were concentrated as rapidly as
possible near the Turkish frontier. Prince Alexander, however,
had taken the step of acknowledging the sultan's suzerainty;
and Turkey was not inclined to begin a war which would probably
cause a revolt in Macedonia and might end by rendering Russian
influence paramount in Bulgaria. But, while a conference of
ambassadors was vainly discussing the situation at Constanti-
nople, the Gordian knot was cut by the announcement that
yoo
SERVO-BULGARIAN WAR
Servia, seeking compensation for the aggrandizement of Bul-
garia, had constituted herself the champion of the treaty of
Berlin.
King Milan had issued orders for the Servian army mobiliza-
tion on the very day of Prince Alexander's proclamation at
Philippopolis, and large forces were concentrated (October
ist-izth) on the Bulgarian frontier. On the igth the prince
ordered troops to the quarter thus threatened, but it seems
certain that, whilst in eastern Rumelia every preparation had
been made for war, Prince Alexander had so little expectation
of, and wish for, a war with Servia, that few measures were
taken to supply the needs of a field army on that side, though
fortifications were begun at several places, notably at Sofia and
Slivnitza, towards the end of October.
Unlike the Servian army, which contained few permanent
units and consisted mainly of militiamen, the standing army of
Bulgaria, trained and commanded by Russian officers since
1877-1878, was organized on the German system of filling up
relatively strong cadres to war strength and forming additional
units. When fully mobilized the field army numbered about
55,000 men. The Rumelian forces (militia) consisted in all of
about 35,000 men. Besides these forces was the " Bandit
brigade " of Captain Panitza, an irregular force some 3000
strong, composed of Macedonians, Turks, Jews and other
miscellaneous volunteers. This force did good service as a
flying right wing of the main army. In the Bulgarian army the
whole of the staff and superior officers, as well as about half the
regimental captains, were Russians. When the mobilization of
the Bulgarian and Rumelian forces was decreed by the prince,
the whole of the Russian officers were at once withdrawn, and
the heavy task of creating a staff and selecting young officers
for all the superior commands had to be undertaken in front of
the enemy. Moreover, when on the i4th of November Milan
finally declared war, the Bulgarian forces were mostly far away
beyond the Balkans on the Turkish frontier. The Servian main
army (under King Milan), and the army of the Timok promptly
crossed the frontier and soon came in contact with small forces
of the enemy. On the Timok little or nothing of importance
took place throughout the war, as the forces opposing the army
of the Timok near Vidin effectually neutralized that force. In
front of Dragoman and Trn the Bulgarians fell back, engaging
in stubborn rearguard combats at every favourable place. The
Servian " Army of the Nishava " advanced but slowly and
with hesitation, while the most strenuous exertions were made
by Prince Alexander and his newly-formed staff to collect their
far-distant troops in the Slivnitza position. Every commander
was given the simple order to march on Slivnitza. The civilian
population was warned to be ready with supplies to meet the
troops by the roadside, and under these peculiar conditions, and
extraordinary difficulties of country and weather, the Bulgarians
marched on the decisive point at the highest possible speed of
man and horse. Some remarkable marches are recorded: the
8th infantry, 4500 strong, covered 59 m. in thirty-two hours,
leaving only sixty-two men behind; the 3rd and part of another
Rumelian battalion reached Sofia so exhausted that they were
sent to the front on horseback, two men to each horse; the
troops that were sent up by rail were packed in open trucks,
sixty men to a truck. The furious energy displayed had its
reward on the field of battle. Before the last shot of the battle
of Slivnitza was fired, nearly half of the entire forces of Bulgaria
and Rumelia were in the lines, and 14,000 men more faced
the army of the Timok at Widdin. With the main army a
striking display of what could be accomplished by patriotism
and vigour were fifty-six pieces of artillery, most of which had
been dragged over the Balkan passes in mid-winter.
The position of Slivnitza, barring the high road between Nish
and Sofia, had been extensively fortified, but when the Servians
opened their attack on the I7th of November, there were but few
troops available to occupy the works. On the right of the
Bulgarian line was the Meka Krud height, occupied by some
battalions under Captain Benderev; here fighting went on
through the short winter day, which ended with a gallant, and
for the time successful, counter-attack by six Bulgarian bat-
talions led by Benderev. The prince, not yet ready for the
offensive, withdrew these troops to their original position. In
the centre, near the high road, a hot and, at one moment of the
day, almost successful attack of the Servians ended with their
complete repulse. The latter had had 17,000 men against the
Bulgarians' 11,000; yet they had, owing mainly to faults in the
superior leading, been unsuccessful. Next day their chances
of victory would be even less, for the defenders were hourly
reinforced from Sofia, and on the i8th were actually somewhat
superior in numbers. On this day the Servians made a very
heavy attack on the Bulgarian left wing, which was eventually
repulsed, though not without great difficulty, by the newly
arrived troops from Sofia. Later a half-hearted attack was
made on the centre, and from his position on Meka Krud Ben-
derev again attacked the Servian " Danube " division. On this
day a Servian division pushed the Bulgarians out of Breznik,
but made no farther advance either on Sofia or on the left flank
of the Bulgarians at Slivnitza, in spite of orders to do so. On
the i pth alarm and consternation at Sofia, caused by the presence
of hostile forces at Breznik, were so great that Alexander left
the command in the hands of his chief of staff, Major Guchev,
and hurried back to the capital in order to organize the defence.
The Servian leader was, however, as inactive on the igth as on
the iSth, and when he at last moved forward towards Slivnitza
it was only with a portion of his force; this was driven back,
by a detachment from the left wing of the Bulgarian position,
to Rakita. Meanwhile, the active Benderev had reopened his
attack on the Danube division. Twice he was repulsed, but
finally at about 3 P.M. his battalions carried the heights held by
the Servians. A little before this the Bulgarian centre likewise
moved forward, and, though a final attack of the Servians on
the gap caused by the absence of the Bulgarian troops detached
towards Breznik came near to success, the prince returned to the
battlefield to find his troops everywhere victorious and driving
the enemy before them. Two days later, reorganized and
reinforced, the Bulgarians took the offensive and carried the
Dragoman pass.
On the 25th Prince Alexander received at Tzaribrod pro-
posals for an armistice from King Milan; these were not ac-
cepted, and the Bulgarian army, crossing the frontier, advanced
in several columns upon Pirot, where the army of the Nishava
took up a defensive position in the town and on the surrounding
heights. A two-days' engagement followed (26th and 27th of
November). On the 26th the Bulgarians were successful, but
a heavy counter attack on the following day almost snatched
the victory out of their hands, and it was only after a severe
contest lasting eleven hours that the Servians finally gave way.
The Bulgarians were not permitted to reap the fruits of their
success. As they were preparing to pursue the defeated and
now greatly demoralized enemy on the 28th, the Austrian
minister at Belgrade arrived at headquarters and hostilities
ceased. The intervention of Austria saved the Servian army,
which was greatly demoralized, and was now threatened by the
united Bulgarian force of nearly 55,000 men. On the same day
the army of the Timok was repulsed with heavy loss in an attack
on Vidin.
Servia escaped almost unpunished from her war of aggression.
The young Bulgarian army, with its improvised staff and newly-
appointed field officers, displayed admirable marching power
and fighting qualities, and the Rumelian militiamen proved
themselves to be good soldiers. The Servians had, however,
fought with great bravery also, and the victory must be ascribed
in the main to the personal influence, the strenuous exertions
and the sound military judgment of Prince Alexander; and
the brief Uyl decisive campaign set the seal to Bulgarian unity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Dragon! Edler von Rabenhorst, Strategische
Betrachtungen liber den serbisch-bulgarischen Krieg (Vienna, 1886);
Hungerbunler, Die schweizerische Milildrmission nach dem S.-B.
Kriegsschauplatze (Frauenfeld, 1886); von Bilimek-Waissolm, Der
serbisch-bulgarische Krieg (Vienna, 1886); A. E. von Huhn, Der
Kampf dtr Bulgaren um ihre Nationnleinheit (Leipzig, 1886; Eng.
trans. The Struggle of the Bulgarians for their National independence,
SESAME SESSA AURUNCA
701
London, 1886); Moller, Der serbisch-bulgarische Krieg, 1885
(Hanover, 1888) ; Regenspursky, Die Kdmpfe bei Slivnitza (Vienna,
1895); Der serbisch-bulgarische Krieg bts zum Wa/enstillstande
(Berlin, 1886); Der serbisch-bulgarische Krieg, eine militarische
Studie (Berlin, 1887); Kunz, Taktische Beispiele aus den Kriegen der
neuesten Zeit: I. Der serbisch-bulgarische Krieg (Berlin, 1901);
Buiac, Precis de quelques campagnes contemporaines: I. Dans les
Balkans (Limoges and Paris).
SESAME, the most important plant of the genus Sesamum
(nat. ord. Pedalineae), is that which is used throughout India
and other tropical countries for the sake of the oil expressed
from its seeds. 5. indicum is a herb 2 to 4 ft. high, with the
lower leaves on long stalks, broad, coarsely toothed or lobed.
The upper leaves are lanceolate, and bear in their axils curved,
tubular, two-lipped flowers, each about J in. long, and pinkish
or yellowish in colour. The four stamens are of unequal length,
with a trace of
fa. fifth stamen,
and the two-
celled ovary
ripens into a
two-valved pod
with numerous
seeds. The
' plant has been
cultivated in the
tropics from
time immemo-
I rial, and is sup-
iposed on philo-
[logical grounds
'to have been
disseminated
from the islands
of the Indian
Archipelago,
but at present
it is not known
with certainty
in a wild state.
The plant varies
in the colour of
the flower, and
especially in
that of the seeds,
From Bentlcy and Trimen, Medicinal Plants, by permission of , u : - 1- , _
J.& A. Churchill.
Sesame (Sesamum indicum). J nat. size. from 1 1 g h
1, Corolla cut open with stamens. J nat. size. X e ** _ w r
2, Flower after removal of corolla. J nat. size, whitish to
3, Ovary cut lengthwise. black. Sesame
4, Fruit. | nat. size. -.;i nt-Vie,-;^
5 Seed cut lengthwise. 3 and 5 enlarged. "' otn e
known as gin-
gelly or til (not to be confounded with that derived from
Guizotia oleifera, known under the same vernacular name),
is very largely used for the same purposes as olive oil, and,
although less widely known by name, is commercially a much
more important oil. The oil is included in the Indian and Colonial
Addendum (1900) to the British Pharmacopeia. The seeds and
leaves also are used by the natives as demulcents and for other
medicinal purposes. The soot obtained in burning the oil is
said to constitute one of the ingredients in India or Chinese ink.
The plant might be cultivated with advantage in almost all the
tropical and semi-tropical colonies of Britain, but will not
succeed in any part of Europe.
A detailed account of its history and the cultivation of the plant in
India is given by Sir G. Watt, Dictionary of Economic Products of
India (1893).
SESOSTRIS, the name of a legendary king of Egypt. Accord-
ing to Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus (who calls him Sesoosis) and
Strabo, he conquered the whole world, even Scythia and Ethiopia,
divided Egypt into administrative districts or nomes, was a
great law-giver, and introduced a system of caste and the worship
of Serapis. He has been considered a compound of Seti I. and
Rameses II., belonging to the XlXth Dynasty. In Manetho,
however, he occupied the place of the second Senwosri (formerly
read Usertesen) of the XHth Dynasty, and his name is now
usually viewed as a corruption of Senwosri. So far as is known
no Egyptian king penetrated a day's journey beyond the
Euphrates or into Asia Minor, or touched the continent of
Europe. The kings of the XVIIIth and XlXth dynasties were
the greatest conquerors that Egypt ever produced, and their
records are clear on this point. Senwosri III. raided south
Palestine and Ethiopia, and at Semna beyond the second cataract
set up a stela of conquest that in its expressions recalls the
stelae of Sesostris in Herodotus: Sesostris may, therefore, be
the highly magnified portrait of this Pharaoh. Khian, the
powerful but obscure Hyksos king of Egypt, whose prenomen
might be pronounced Sweserenre, is perhaps a possible proto-
type, for objects inscribed with his name have been found from
Bagdad to Cnossus. Sesostris is evidently a mythical figure
calculated to satisfy the pride of the Egyptians in their ancient
achievements, after they had come into contact with the great
conquerors of Assyria and Persia. When we recollect that the
Ethiopian Tearchus (Tirhaka) of the 7th century B.C., who was
hopelessly worsted by the Assyrians and scarcely ventured
outside the Nile valley, was credited by Megasthenes (4th
century) and Strabo with having extended his conquests as
far as India and the pillars of Hercules, it is not surprising if
the dim figures of antiquity were magnified to a less degree. In
the case of Tearchus, the miscellaneous levies which he employed
himself and thoss which composed the Egyptian and Assyrian
armies opposed to him, and the lands that Egypt and Ethiopia
traded with, must all have been counted, partly through mis-
understanding, partly through wilful perversion, to his empire.
Herodotus ii. 102-111; Diod. Sic. i. 53-59; Strabo xv. p. 687; see
also article EGYPT; and Kurt Sethe, " Sesostris," 1900, in his Unters.
z. Gesch. u. Altertumskunde Agyptens, tome ii. (F. LL. G.)
SESSA AURUNCA, a town and episcopal see of Campania,
Italy, in the province of Caserta, on the S.W. slope of the extinct
volcano of Rocca Monfina, 27 m. by rail W.N.W. of Caserta
and 205 m. E. of Formia by the branch railway to Sparanise,
666 ft. above sea-level. Pop. 5945 (town), 22,077 (commune).
It is situated on the site of the ancient Suessa Aurunca, on a
small affluent of the Liri. The hill on which Sessa lies is a mass
of volcanic tufa. The town contains many ancient remains,
notably the ruins of an ancient bridge in brickwork of twenty-one
arches, of substructures in opus reticulatum under the church of
S. Benedetto, of a building in opus quadratum, supposed to have
been a public portico, under the monastery of S. Giovanni,
and of an amphitheatre. The Romanesque cathedral is a
basilica with a vaulted portico and a nave and two aisles begun
in 1103, a mosaic pavement in the Cosmatesque style, a good
ambo resting on columns and decorated with mosaics showing
traces of Moorish influence, a Paschal candelabrum, and an organ
gallerj of similar style. The portal has curious sculptures with
scenes from the life of SS. Peter and Paul. In the principal
streets are memorial stones with inscriptions in honour of
Charles V., surmounted by an old crucifix with a mosaic cross.
The hills of Sessa are celebrated for their wine.
The ancient chief town of the Aurunci, Aurunca or Ausona,
is believed to have lain over 2000 ft. above the level of the sea,
on the narrow south-western edge of the extinct crater of Rocca
Monfina. Here some remains of Cyclopean masonry exist; but
the area enclosed, about 100 yds. by 50, is too small for anything
but] a detached fort. It dates, doubtless, from a time prior to
Roman supremacy. In 33 7 B.C. the town was abandoned, under the
pressure of the Sidicini, in favour of the site of the modern Sessa.
The new town kept the old name until 313, when a Latin colony
under the name Suessa Aurunca was founded here. It was among
the towns that had the right of coinage, and it manufactured
carts, baskets, &c. Cicero speaks of it as a place of some import-
ance. The triumviri settled some of their veterans here, whence
it appears as Colonia Julia Felix Classica Suessa. From inscrip-
tions it appears that Matidia the'younger, sister-in-law of Hadrian,
had property in the district. It was not on a highroad, but on a
branch between the Via Appia at Minturnae and the Via Latina
702
SESSION SETH
at Teanum; the pavement of the road between the latter place
and Suessa is in places well preserved, especially near Teano, and
so is that of a road ascending from Suessa northward towards the
crater mentioned.
See A. Avena, Monumenti dell' Italia Mertdwnale (Naples, 1902),
i. 181 sqq. ( T - As -)
SESSION (through Fr. from Lat. sessio, sedere, to sit), the act
of sitting or the state of being seated, more generally the sitting
together or assemblyof a body, judicial, legislative, &c., for the
transaction of its business, and also the time during which the body
sits until its adjournment or dispersion. A session of parliament
is reckoned from its assembling till prorogation; usually there
is one session in each year. In particular the term is applied to
the sittings of various judicial courts, especially criminal, such
as the sessions of the Central Criminal Court in London. The
sittings of the justices of the peace or magistrates in the United
Kingdom are " sessions of the peace " for the transaction of the
judicial business committed to them by statute or by their
commission. These are either " petty sessions," courts of
summary jurisdiction held by two or more justices of the peace
or by a stipendiary or metropolitan police magistrate under
statute for the trial of such cases as are not of sufficient import-
ance to be tried before quarter-sessions, or for a preliminary
inquiry into indictable offences (see JUSTICE OF THE PEACE and
SUMMARY JURISDICTION). The " special sessions " of the
justices are held for licensing purposes, styled " Brewster
sessions," or for carrying out the provisions of the Highway
Acts, &c. The only sessions which are " general sessions "
of the peace are now " quarter-sessions " (q.v.). The supreme
court of Scotland is termed the " Court of Session " (see SCOT-
LAND), and the name is given in the Presbyterian church to the
lowest ecclesiastical court, composed of the elders of the church
presided over by the minister. In the Established Church of
Scotland this is usually styled the " Kirk-session."
SESTETT, the name given to the second division of a sonnet,
which must consist of an octave, of eight lines, succeeded by
a sestett, of six lines. In the usual course the rhymes are
arranged abc \ abc, but this is not necessary. Early Italian
sonnets, and in particular those of Dante, often close with the
rhyme-arrangement abc \ cba; but in languages where the
sonority of syllables is not so great as it is in Italian, it is danger-
ous to leave a period of five lines between one rhyme and another.
In the quatorzain, there is properly speaking no sestett, but a
quatrain followed by a couplet, as in the case of Shakespeare's
so-called " Sonnets." Another form of sestett has only two
rhymes, ab \ ab \ ab; as is the case in Gray's famous sonnet
" On the Death of Richard West." The sestett should mark
the turn of emotion in the sonnet; as a rule it may be said that
the octave having been more or less objective, in the sestett
reflection should make its appearance, with a tendency to the
subjective manner. For example, in Matthew Arnold's in-
genious " The Better Part," the rough inquirer, who has had his
own way in the octave, is replied to as soon as the sestett com-
mences:
" So answerest thou ? But why not rather say:
' Hath Man no second life ? Pitch this one high.
More strictly, then, the inward judge obey I
Was Chnst a man like us? Ah I let us try
If we, then, too, can be such men as he ! ' '
Wordsworth and Milton are both remarkable for the dignity with
which they conduct the downward wave of the sestett in their
sonnet. The French sonneteers of the i6th century, with
Ronsard at their head, preferred the softer sound of the arrange-
ment aab | ccb \. The German poets have usually wavered
between the English and the Italian forms.
SESTINA, one of the most elaborate forms of verse employed
by the medieval poets of Provence and Italy, and retained in
occasional use by the modern poets of Western Europe. The
scheme on which the sestina is built was the invention of the
great troubadour, Arnaut Daniel (d. 1199), who wrote many
sestinas in the lingua di si. Dante, a little later, wrote sestinas
in Italian, and of these the most famous is that beginning " A
poco giorno ed al gran cerchio d' ombra." In the De vulgar,
Eloquio, Dante admits that he copied the structure of his sestinas
Torn Arnaut Daniel; " et nos eum secuti sumus," he says, after
jraising the work of the Provencal poet. The sestina, in its pure
nedieval form, is independent of rhyme; it consists of six
stanzas of six lines each of blank verse. This recurrence of the
number six gives its name to the poem. The final words of the
irst stanza appear in inverted order in all the others, the order
as laid down by the Provencals being as follows: abcdef,
faebdc, cfdabe, ecbfad, deacfb, bdfeca. To these six stanzas
"ollowed a tornada, or envoi, of three lines, in which all the six
iey-words were repeated in the following order: b-e, d-c, f-a.
It has been supposed that there was some symbolic mystery
involved in the rigid elaboration of this form, from which no
slightest divergence was permitted, but if so this cryptic meaning
has been lost. Petrarch cultivated a slightly modified sestina,
but after the middle ages the form fell into disuse, until it was
revived and adapted to the French language by the poets of the
Pleiade, in particular by Pontus de Thyard. In the ipth century,
the sestina or sextine was assiduously cultivated by the Comte
de Gramont, who, between 1830 and 1848, wrote a large number
of examples, included in his Chant du passe (1854). He followed
the example of Petrarch rather than of the Provencal trouba-
dours, by introducing two rhymes instead of the rigorous blank
verse. A sestina by Gramont, beginning:
" L'etang qui s'eclaircit au milieu des feuillages,
La mare avec ses joncs rubanant au soleil,
Ses flotilles de flours, ses insectes volages
Me charment. Longuement au creux de leurs rivages
J'erre, et les yeux remplis d'un mirage vermeil,
J'ecoute 1'eau qui rfive en son tiede sommeil,"
has been recommended to all who wish to " triumph over the
innumerable and terrible difficulties " of the sestina, as a perfect
model of the form in its " precise and classic purity." The earliest
sestina in English was published in 1877 by Mr Gosse; this was
composed according to the archaic form of Arnaut Daniel.
Since that time it has been frequently employed by English and
American writers, particularly by Swinburne, who has composed
some beautiful sestinas on the rhymed French pattern; of these,
that beginning " I saw my soul at rest upon a day " is perhaps
the finest example of this poem existing in English. Mr Swin-
burne is, moreover, like Petrarch, the author of an astonishing
tour deforce, " The Complaint of Lisa," which is a double sestina
of twelve verses of twelve lines each. The sestina was cultivated
in Germany in the i?th century, particularly by Opitz and by
Weckherlin. In the ipth century an attempt was made, not
without success, to compose German sestinas in dialogue, while
the double sestina itself is not unknown in German literature.
SESTRI LEVANTE (anc. Segesta Tiguliorum), a seaport of
Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, from which it is 28^ m.
distant by rail, 33 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 3034 (town);
12,038 (commune). It is both a summer and a winter resort, with
fine views. Part of the town is situated on a promontory (230 ft.)
between two bays. The ancient town was the port of exportation
of the slate of the district, for we hear of a place called Tigulia
or Tegulata on the coast-road; but we know practically nothing
of the political condition of the district in Roman times.
SESTRI PONENTE, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province
of Genoa, 4 m. W. of that town on the coast. Pop. (1001)
17,225. It has important shipbuilding yards and iron-works,
with factories for macaroni, matches and tobacco, tanneries
and saw-mills, and, in the vicinity, alasbaster quarries. A mile
and a half west is Pegli, also a favourite seaside resort, with
beautiful walks and fine villas, among which the Villa Pallavicina,
with rare trees and fantastic buildings, fountains and grottoes, is
noticeable.
SETH (rtf according to Dillmann, "setting" or "slip";
Septuagint, Philo and New Testament, 2^0, but i Chron. i. i
2175 in A ; Josephus, 2i)0o5, Vulg. Seth), in Gen. iv. 25, 26 (J)
and v. 3-8 (P), the son of Adam. At the age of 105 he begat
Enos; he lived in all 912 years. Seth was born after the murder
of Abel, and in iv. 25 a popular etymology is given of his name
Adam's wife called his name Seth, " For God," saith she, " hath
SETIA SETON
703
appointed, shdth, me another seed instead of Abel." It is further
said that after Enos was born, men began to worship Yahweh.
Apparently Gen. iv. 25, 26 had no original connexion with J.'s
story of the creation, which speaks of Yahweh freely from the
outset. As Enos is a Hebrew word for man, it is probably derived
from a tradition in which Enos was the first man. An examin-
ation of the Sethite genealogy, vv. 12-27, Kenan, Mahalalel,
Jared, Enoch, Methuselah, Lantech, shows that it is a slightly
different version of the Cainite genealogy, iv. 17-18, Cain (Heb.
Kayiri), Enoch, Irad, Mehujael, Methusael, Lantech. Seth is
named in the opening genealogy of Chronicles, i Chron. i. i,
and in Luke's genealogy of Christ, Luke iii. 38. The Hebrew
text of Ecclesiasticus xlix. 16 has " And Shem and Seth and
Enosh were visited," probably with divine favour; the Greek
version runs, " Shem and Seth were glorified among men."
In Num. xxiv. 17, the Authorized Version has " the children
of Sheth " in a list of nations; the Hebrew is the same as Seth
in Genesis. The passage may perhaps indicate that Seth was
originally the name of a tribe. The " Seth " of Numbers is
sometimes identified with the Bedouin, who appear as Sutu in
Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions. But the Revised Version
takes the word sheth as a common noun, " tumult," and others
interpret it as "pride"; cf. Gray's Numbers, p. 371.
If the ten patriarchs of Gen. v. (see NOAH) correspond to the
ten primitive kings of Babylon, Seth, as second, will correspond
with the Adapa of the Babylonian inscriptions, the Alaparos or
Adaparos of Berosus. The two have been compared in that
Adapa was demiurge and Logos; and Seth figures , as the Messiah
in later Jewish tradition. 1 We may also note the resemblance
between the names Sheth, Set, the Egyptian god of war, and the
Hittite deity Suteh. The latter has been supposed to be a
Hyksos or Semitic deity and to have some connexion with
Sheth; but Cheyne and Miiller reject this view. 2 Seth is also
identified with Moab or the land of Moab. 3
A mass of Christian and Jewish tradition has gathered round
the name of Seth. Philo, De posteriori Caini, 3, explains the
name as meaning ircmcrftos," watering " or " irrigation," connecting
it with the Hebrew root Sh Th H. Josephus, Ant. I. ii. 3, tells
us that Seth was a virtuous man, and that his descendants lived
in perfect harmony and happiness. They discovered astronomy,
and inscribed their discoveries on two pillars, one of which, says
Josephus, survived in his time. In the Book of Jubilees (ist
century A.D.) the name of Seth's wife is given as Azura. In the
Ascension of Isaiah (ist century A.D.) Seth is seen in heaven.
In the Book of Adam and Eve (A.D 500-900) Seth is described
as perfectly beautiful, like Adam, only more beautiful. Seth
was the last child born to Adam; he grew in stature and strength,
and began to fast and pray strenuously. A Gnostic sect took
the name Sethians. (W. H. BE.)
SETIA (mod. Sezze, 52 m. by rail S.E. of Rome), an ancient
town of Latium (adjectum), Italy, on the south-west edge of the
Volscian mountains, overlooking the Pomptine Marshes, 1047 ft.
above sea-level, and over goo ft. above the plain. It was an
ancient Volscian town, a member of the Latin league of 499 B.C.,
which became a Latin colony in 382 B.C., and, owing to the strength
of its position as a frontier fortress, is frequently mentioned in
the military history of Rome up to the time of Sulla, by whom
it was captured in 82 B.C. Under the empire it was well known
for its wine, which Augustus preferred even to Falernian. Con-
siderable remains of the city walls exist, built of large blocks of
limestone in the polygonal style. This style may also be seen
in several terrace walls belonging to a later date, as is indicated
by the careful jointing and bossing of the blocks of which they
are composed. Such intentional archaism is by no means
uncommon in the neighbourhood of Rome. The modern town,
occupying the ancient site, is an episcopal see, with a much-
restored 13th-century Gothic cathedral. Pop. (1901) 6944 (town),
10,827 (commune). At the foot of the hill on which the town
stands are considerable remains of Roman villas. (T. As.)
1 A. Jeremias, Das A. T. im Lichte des alien Orients, p. 118.
1 Encycl. Biblica, " Seth," " Egypt."
3 E. Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamtne, p. 219.
SET-OFF, in law, a statutory defence to the whole or to a
portion of a plaintiff's claim. It had no existence under the
English common law, being created by 2 Geo. II. c. 22 for the
relief of insolvent debtors. Such a defence could be pleaded only
in respect of mutual debts of a definite character, and did not
apply to cases in which damages were claimed, nor to equitable
claims or demands. By the rules of the Supreme Court (O. XIX.
r. 3) a defendant in an action may set off or set up any right or
claim by way of counterclaim against the claims of a plaintiff,
and such set-off or counterclaim has the same effect as a state-
ment of claim in a cross-action. (See PLEADING.)
In architecture, the. term set-off is given to the horizontal line
shown where a wall is reduced in thickness, and consequently
the part of the thicker portion appears projecting before the
thinner. In plinths this is generally simply chamfered. In
other parts of work the set-off is generally concealed by a pro-
jecting string. Where, as in parapets, the upper part projects
before the lower, the break is generally hid by a corbel table.
The portions of buttress caps which recede one behind another
are also called sets-off.
SETON (Family'). The Scottish family of Seton, Seyton or
Seatoun, claims descent from a Dougall Seton who lived in the
reign of Alexander I. Sir Richard Maitland of Lethington
counted seven generations between this personage and Sir
Christopher Seton (d. 1306), the first of the house who emerges
in history with any distinctness, but these links are not all
supported by documentary evidence. The name was derived
from the Anglo-Norman family of Say, the Anglo-Norman
immigrant being supposed to have given the name of Sey-toun
to the lands granted to him in East Lothian. The family
honours include the earldoms of Wintoun (cr. 1600) and Dun-
fermline; of Eglinton through marriage with the Montgomeries ;
and through alliance with a Gordon heiress a Seton became the
ancestor of the earls and marquesses of Huntly and dukes of
Gordon. The Setons were connected by marriage with the
royal family of Scotland, and also with the Dunbars, Lindsays,
Hays and Maitlands.
SIR CHRISTOPHER SETON, son and heir of John de Seton, a
Cumberland gentleman, and his wife Erminia Lascelles, was
born probably in 1278, since his age is given in March 1299 as
twenty-one, in an inquisition into the lands of his deceased
father. He did homage for these in October of that year, and
was in the service of Edward I. at Lochmaben in 1304. In 1305
he came into possession of lands which had been granted by Sir
John Seton to Robert Bruce and his wife Christian, who was
perhaps a Seton. He had married about 1301 Christian Bruce,
sister of King Robert, who was possibly his second cousin.
He was present at his brother-in-law's coronation at Scone in
1306, and saved his life at the battle of Methven later in the
same year. According to Dugdale he shut himself up in Loch-
doon Castle in Ayrshire, and on the surrender of that castle
was hanged as a traitor at Dumfries by order of Edward I. He
left no heirs. His widow was in March 1307 in receipt of three
pence a day from Edward I. for her support at the monastery
of Sixhill in Lincolnshire. She was afterwards placed in the
custody of Sir Thomas de Gray. His Cumberland estates,
with the exception of his mother's dower, were given to Robert
de Clifford. Another Seton, John de Seton, described as having
no lands or chattels, was hanged for helping in the defence of
Tibbers Castle, and for aiding in the murder of John Comyn,
with other prisoners of war, at Newcastle in August 1306.
SIR ALEXANDER SETON (d. c. 1360) was probably the brother
of Sir Christopher. He received considerable grants of land from
King Robert Bruce, and was one of the signatories of the letter
addressed by the Scottish nobles to the pope to assert the in-
dependence of Scotland. He was twice sent on embassies to
England, and in 1333 he defended the town of Berwick against
the English. He agreed with the English to surrender the town
on a certain date unless he received relief before that time,
giving his eldest surviving son Thomas as a hostage. On the
refusal of the Scots to surrender at the expiry of the term Thomas
Seton was hanged in sight of the garrison. This incident is
704
SETTEE
related by Fordun and Boece, but with inconsistencies that
have rendered it suspect. An elder son, Alexander, had perished
in 1332 in opposing the landing of Edward Baliol; according
to some authorities the third son, William, was hanged with
his brother, but he is generally said to have been drowned during
the siege; his daughter Margaret married Alan de Wintoun.
The tragic death of young Thomas Seton was the subject of a
ballad of " Seton's Sons," printed in Sheldon's Minstrelsy of the
Scottish Border; of a tragedy, The Siege of Berwick (1794,
printed 1882) by Edward Jerningham, and of another by James
Miller (1824).
SIR WILLIAM SETON of Seton (fl. 1371-1393) is said to have
been ennobled with the title of Lord Seton, and his heirs laid
claim that the barony of Seton was the oldest in Scotland. By
his wife Catherine Sinclair he had eight children. John suc-
ceeded him; Alexander married Elizabeth, daughter and heiress
of Sir Adam de Gordon, by whom he became the ancestor of the
Gordons of Huntly.
SIR JOHN of Seton (d. c. 1441) was taken prisoner at Homildon
Hill in 1402. He was hostage in England for the earl of Douglas
in 1405, and again in 1423 for James I. He married Lady Janet
Dunbar, daughter of the icth earl of March. His son Sir William
was killed at Verneuil, fighting on the French side, leaving as
heir GEORGE (d. 1478), ist Lord Seton, who was created a lord
of parliament in 1448 as Lord Seton. By his first marriage with
Margaret, daughter of John Stewart, earl of Buchan, he had a
son John, who died during his father's lifetime. He was suc-
ceeded by his grandson GEORGE, 2nd Lord Seton (d. 1508), who
was a scholar of St Andrews and Paris, and in common report
a necromancer. He was captured by the Flemings, and on his
release fitted out and maintained a ship for the purpose of
harassing Flemish travellers. His son GEORGE, 3rd Lord Seton,
was killed at Flodden in 1513. He redeemed estates which his
father had sacrificed to support his enterprises against the
Flemings. By his marriage with Janet, daughter of Patrick
Dunbar, ist earl of Bothwell, he left a son GEORGE, 4th Lord
Seton (d. 1549), who allowed Cardinal Beaton to escape from
custody in 1543, and received considerable grants of land in the
sequel. The castle and church of Seton were burnt by Hertford
in revenge for the part he had taken against the English in 1544.
GEORGE, sth Lord Seton (1530?-! 585), was a firm friend of
Mary, queen of Scots. He was present at her marriage with
the dauphin in 1557, and three years later he was again in France
because of his adherence to the old religion. When Mary re-
turned to Scotland he became privy councillor and master of
the household, but four years later he again found it advisable
to retire to France. Mary and Darnley spent their honeymoon
at Seton Palace, and Mary found a retreat there after the murder
of Rizzio and again after the murder of Darnley. She spent
the night before Carberry Hill under Seton's roof, and he was
waiting for her on her escape from Lochleven in May 1568. He
took her to his castle at Niddrie, Linlithgowshire, and thence
to Hamilton. A week later he was taken prisoner at Langside.
He was set free after the assassination of the regent Moray, and
made his way to Flanders, where he was said to have made his
living as a wagoner. He was, in fact, entrusted by Mary's
supporters with a mission to the duke of Alva, and sought in
vain to secure for service in Scotland two regiments of Scots
then in Spanish pay. He returned home in 1571, being ap-
parently reconciled with the government, but he retained his
Catholicism and his friendship for Mary, who wrote to Elizabeth
in 1581 desiring a passport for Lord Seton that he might alleviate
her solitude. In 1581 he was one of Morton's judges, and in
1583 he was sent as ambassador to France, where he sought
interference on Queen Mary's behalf. He died soon after his
return on the Sth of January 1 585. The sth Lord Seton figures
in Sir Walter Scott's Abbot. He was succeeded by his second
and eldest surviving son, Robert, who became 6th Lord Seton
and ist earl of Wintoun. His third son, Sir John Seton of Barns,
was a gentleman of the bedchamber to Philip II. of Spain. He
was recalled to Scotland by James VI., and served as lord of
session from 1587 to 1594.
MARY SETON, one of the " Four Maries " attendant on the
queen, is supposed to have been the 5th Lord Seton's half-sister,
being the daughter of the 4th lord by his second wife, a French-
woman named Mary Pieris, maid of honour to Mary of Guise.
She had been educated with Queen Mary in France, being about
a year older than her mistress, with whom she returned to
Scotland in 1561. She helped Mary to escape from Lochleven
by assuming her clothes. Later on she joined her at Carlisle,
and remained with her in her various prisons until 1583, when
prison life had undermined her health and spirits. She retired
to the abbey of St Pierre at Reims, and she was still living there,
an old lady of seventy-four, in poverty in 1614.
ROBERT SETON (d. 1603) succeeded his father as 6th lord in
1585, and was created earl of Wintoun in 1600. He married,
about 1582, Margaret, eldest daughter of Hugh Montgomerie,
3rd earl of Eglinton. His sons Robert and George were succes-
sively earls of Wintoun; the third, Alexander, became, in right
of .his mother, 6th earl of Eglinton; the fourth, Thomas, was
the ancestor of the Setons of Oliveston.
GEORGE, 4th earl of Wintoun (1640-1704), succeeded his
grandfather, George Seton, 3rd earl, in 1650. He saw some
service in the French army, and fought against the Covenanters
at Pentland and at Bothwell Bridge. By his second marriage,
with Christian Hepburn, he had a son George, who quarrelled
with his father and is said to have been working as a journeyman
blacksmith abroad when he succeeded to the title in 1704.
In 1715 the sth earl joined Kenmure with 300 men at Moffat,
but it was against his advice that the Jacobite army invaded
England. He was lying in the Tower under sentence of death
when he succeeded in making his escape, and proceeding to the
continent, he became well known in Rome, where he was grand
master of the Roman lodge of freemasons. He died there in 1 749.
With him the earldom became extinct, but it was revived in 1840
in favour of the earls of Eglinton.
Some of the cadet branches of the family remain to be noticed.
The Setons of Parbroath in Fife, represented by American de-
scendants, are descended from Sir George Seton (fl. 1589-1595).
The Setons of Touch, near Stirling, descended from Alexander Seton,
1st earl of Huntly. They were hereditary armour-bearers and
squires of the body to the king, dignities which passed, in the female
line, to the Seton-Stewarts in 1786. From the Setons of Touch were
descended the Setons of Culbeg or Abercorn. The Setons of Preston
(Linlithgow) and Ekolsund (Sweden) have been connected with the
Swedish army since the I Sth century when George Seton, a merchant,
settled in Stockholm. The Setons of Melarum descended from
William Seton, brother of the 1st earl of Huntly. The Pitmedden
branch was an offshoot from Meldrum ; the baronetcy was created
(1686) for the Judge Sir Alexander Seton, Lord Pitmedden (c. 1639-
1719). The Setons of Mpunie again were a branch of the Pit-
medden family ; one of their house, Lieut. -Colonel Alexander Seton,
74th Highlanders, was in charge of the troops on the ill-fated
" Birkenhead " in 1852. The Setons of Cariston, descended from
John, second son of the 6th Lord Seton, obtained the barony of
Cariston in 1553. Other branches are Seton-Gordon of Embo, with a
barpnetcy created in 1631, and Seton of Garleton, with a baronetcy
created in 1664. The viscounty of Kingston was created for Alex-
ander Seton (d. 1691), third son of the 3rd earl of Wintoun, and
became extinct on the attainder of James, 3rd viscount, in 1715.
See HUNTLY, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.
AUTHORITIES. Sir Richard Maitland, History of the House of
Seton, continued by A. Seton, 1st Viscount Kingston (mod. ed.,
Glasgow 1829, and Edinburgh 1830); G. Seton, The History of the
House of Seton (2 vols., 1 896) ; Sir R. Douglas, Scots Peerage, new ed.
by Sir J . B. Paul ; Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland in the
" Rolls " series; and G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage.
SETTEE, a long upholstered seat, usually high-backed and
with arms at each end. Its ancestors were the settle and the
chair it has alternately resembled the one and the other.
It is broadly distinguished from the many varieties of sofa by
being intended for sitting rather than reclining its seat is of the
same height as that of a chair; its arms and much of its detail
are chair-like. It dates from about the middle of the 1 7th century,
but examples of that early period are exceedingly rare. There
is a famous one at Knole, made about midway between the
restoration of Charles II. and the revolution of 1688. By that lima
the settee had acquired the splendid upholstery and convoluted
woodwork which adorned the end of the Stuart period. Early
in the i8th century the conjoined double or triple chair form
SETTEMBRINI SETTLEMENT
705
became fashionable. The form was artless, and the absence of
upholstery, save on the seat, produced a somewhat angular
effect. This type of settee was in essence two chairs with
one set of arms. Chippendale made many such pieces, some
of them of great beauty. As the taste for carved furniture
waned these sturdy settees were replaced by lighter ones, often
graceful enough in outline Hepplewhite and Sheraton were
distinguished practitioners but partaking more and more of
the " stuffed-over " character. The desire for comfort and
ease gradually drove out the original idea that the settee was
intended only for sitting bolt upright. Its modern varieties are
many, but in all of them the frame, once so lavishly ornamented,
is almost concealed by upholstery.
SETTEMBRINI, LUIGI (1813-1877), Italian man of letters
and politician, was born in Naples. At the age of twenty-two
he was appointed professor of eloquence at Catanzaro, and
married Raffaela Luigia Faucitano (1835). While still a young
man he had been affected by the wave of liberalism then spreading
all over Italy, and soon after his marriage he began to conspire
mildly against the Bourbon government. Betrayed by a priest,
he was arrested in 1839 and imprisoned at Naples; although
liberated three years later he lost his professorship and had to
maintain himself by private lessons. Nevertheless he continued
to conspire, and in 1847 he published anonymously a " Protest
of the People of the Two Sicilies," a scathing indictment of the
Bourbon government. On the advice of friends he went to
Malta on a British warship, but although, when King Ferdinand
II. granted a constitution (i6th of February 1848), he returned
to Naples and was given an appointment at the ministry of educa-
tion, he soon resigned on account of the prevailing chaos, and
retired to a farm at Posilipo. When reaction set in, once more
Settembrini was arrested as a suspect (June 1 849) and imprisoned.
After a monstrously unfair trial, he and two other " politicals "
were condemned to death, and nineteen others to varying terms
of imprisonment (February 1851). The death sentences were,
however, commuted to imprisonment for life, and Settembrini
was sent to the dungeons of San Stefano. There he remained
for eight years. His friends, including Antonio Panizzi, then in
England, made various unsuccessful attempts to liberate him,
and at last he was deported with sixty-five other political
prisoners. The exiles received an enthusiastic welcome in
London, but Settembrini after a short stay in England joined
his family at Florence in 1860. On the formation of the Italian
kingdom he was appointed professor of Italian literature at the
university of Naples, and devoted the rest of his life to literary
pursuits. In 1875 he was nominated senator. He died in 1877.
His chief work is his Lezioni di letleratura italiana, of which the
dominant note is the conviction that Italian literature " is as
the very soul of the nation, seeking, in opposition to medieval
mysticism, reality, freedom, independence of reason, truth and
beauty " (P. Villari).
See L. Settembrini, Ricordanze, 2 yols., edited by F. de Sanctis
(Naples, 1879-1880); Epistolario di Luigi Settembrini, edited by
F. Florentine; P. Villari, Saggi critici (Florence, 1884); Countess
Martinengo Cesaresco, Italian Characters (London, 1901).
SETTLE, ELKANAH (1648-1724), English poet and play-
wright, was born at Dunstable on the ist of January 1648. He
entered Trinity College, Oxford, in 1666, but left the university
without taking a degree. His first tragedy, Cambyses, King of
Persia, was produced at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1667. The
success of this play led the earl of Rochester to encourage the
new writer as a rival to Dryden. Through his influence Settle's
Empress of Morocco (1671) was twice acted at Whitehall, and
proved a signal success on the stage. It is said by Dennis to
have been " the first play that was ever sold in England for
two shillings, and the first play that was ever printed with
cuts." These illustrations represent scenes in the theatre, and
make the book very valuable. The play was printed with a
preface to the earl of Norwich, in which Settle described with
scorn the effusive dedications of other dramatic poets. Dryden
was obviously aimed at, and he co-operated with Crowne and
Shad well in an abusive pamphlet entitled ' ' Notes and Observations
xxiv. 23
on the Empress of Morocco " (1674), to which Settle replied
in " Some Notes and Observations on the Empress of Morocco
revised " (1674). In the second part of Absalom and Achitophel,
in a passage certainly by Dryden's hand, he figures as " Doeg."
Neglected by the court party he took an active share in the
anti-popish agitation. When this subsided he turned round
to expose Titus Gates, and with the Revolution he veered
towards the Whig party. But he had lost the confidence of
both sides, and " recanting Settle " accordingly abandoned
politics for the appointment (1691) of city poet. In his old age
he kept a booth at Bartholomew Fair, where he is said to have
played the part of the dragon in a green leather suit devised by
himself. He became a poor brother of the Charterhouse, where
he died on the izth of February 1724.
Settle's numerous works include, beside numerous political
pamphlets and occasional poems, Ibrahim, the Illustrious Bassa
(1676), a tragedy taken from Madeleine de ScudeVy's romance;
The Female Prelate ; being the History of the Life and Death of Pope
Joan (1680), a tragedy; The Ambitious Slave: or A Generous
Revenge (1694); The World in the Moon (1697), an opera, of which
the first scene was formed by a moon fourteen feet across; and
The Virgin Prophetess, or The Fate of Troy (1701), an opera.
SETTLE, a market town in the Skipton parliamentary division
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 415 m. N.W. from
Leeds by the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 2302. It lies in
the upper part of the Ribble valley, amid the wild scenery of
the limestone hills of the Pennine system. The district includes
several caves, such as Victoria Cave, close to the town, where
bones of animals, and stone, bone and other implements and
ornaments have been discovered. Other points of interest are
Malham Cove and tarn, the ravine of Gordale Scar, the cliffs
of Attermyre, Giggleswick Scar and Castleberg (the last imme-
diately above Settle itself), the Clapham and Weathercote caves,
the chasm of Helln Pot and the waterfall of Stainforth Foss.
In the town are cotton factories and a tannery. To the west
of the town is the grammar school of Giggleswick, one of the
principal public schools in the north of England, founded in 1512.
SETTLE, a wooden bench, usually with arms and a high back,
long enough to accommodate three or four sitters. It is most
commonly movable, but occasionally fixed as in the " boxes "
of those old coffee-houses of which a few examples still remain
in London, and perhaps elsewhere. It shares with the chest and
the chair the distinction of great antiquity. Its high back
was a protection from the draughts of medieval buildings a
protection which was sometimes increased by the addition of
winged ends or a wooden canopy. It was most frequently
placed near the fire in the common sitting-room. Constructed
of oak, or other hard wood, it was extremely heavy, solid and
durable. Few English examples of earlier date than the middle
of the 1 6th century have come down to us; survivals from
the Jacobean period are more numerous. Settles of the more
expensive type were often elaborately carved or incised; others
were divided into plain panels. A well-preserved specimen,
with its richly polished oak, darkened by time and beeswax, is
a handsome piece of furniture often still to be found in its
original environment the farm-house kitchen or the manorial
hall. Its vogue did not long outlast the first half of the i8th
century, to which period most of the existing specimens belong.
SETTLEMENT, in law, a mutual arrangement between living
persons for regulating the enjoyment of property, and the
instrument by which such enjoyment is regulated. Settle-
ments may be either for valuable consideration or not: the
latter are usually called voluntary, and are in law to some
extent in the same position as revocable gifts; the former are
really contracts, and in general their validity depends upon the
law of contract. They may accordingly contain any provisions
not contrary to law or public policy. 1
The elements of the modern settlement are to be found in
Roman law. The vulgaris, pupillaris or exemplaris substitutio
(consisting in the appointment of successive heirs in case of the
1 In this English law allows greater freedom than French. By
791 of the Code Napoleon, in a contract of marriage the succession to
a living person cannot be renounced.
5
706
SETTLEMENT, ACT OF
death, incapacity or refusal of the heir first nominated) may
have suggested the modern mode of giving enjoyment of property
in succession. Such a substitutio could, however, only have been
made by will, while the settlement of English law is, in the general
acceptation of the term, exclusively an instrument inter vivos.
The dos or donatio propter nuptias corresponds to a considerable
extent with the marriage settlement, the instrument itself being
represented by the dotale instrumentum or pacta dotalia. In the
earliest period of Roman law no provision for the wife was
required, for she passed under mantis of her husband, and
became in law his daughter, entitled as such to a share of his
property at his death. In course of time the plebeian form of
marriage by usus, according to which the wife did not become
subject to menus, gradually superseded the older form, and it
became necessary to make a provision for the wife by contract.
Such provision from the wife's side was made by the dos, the
property contributed by the wife or some one on her behalf
towards the expenses of the new household. Dos might be given
before or after marriage, or might be increased after marriage.
It was a duty enforced by legislation to provide dos where the
father possessed a sufficient fortune. Dos was of three kinds:
profectilia, contributed by the father or other ascendant on the
male side; adventilia, by the wife herself or any person other
than those who contributed dos profectitia; receptitia, by any
person who contributed dos adventitia, subject to the stipulation
that the property was to be returned to the person advancing
it on dissolution of the marriage. The position of the husband
gradually changed for the worse. From being owner, subject
to an obligation to return the dos if the wife predeceased him,
he became a trustee of the corpus of the property for the wife's
family, retaining only the enjoyment of the income as long as
the marriage continued. The contribution by the husband was
called donatio propter nuptias. 1 The most striking point of
difference between the Roman and the English law is that under
the former the children took no interest hi the contributions
made by the parents. Other modes of settling property in
Roman law were the life interest or usus, the fideicommissum,
and the prohibition of alienation of s^legatum.
The oldest form of settlement in England was perhaps the
gift in frankmarriage to the donees in frankmarriage, and the
heirs between them two begotten (Littleton, 17). This was
simply a form of gift in special tail, which became up to the
reign of Queen Elizabeth the most usual kind of settlement.
The time at which the modern form of settlement of real estate
came into use seems to be doubtful. There does not appear
to be any trace of a limitation of an estate to an unborn child
prior to 1556. In an instrument of that year such a limitation
was effected by means of a feoffment to uses. The plan of grant-
ing the freehold to trustees to preserve contingent remainders *
is said to have been invented by Lord Keeper Sir O. Bridgeman
in the i;th century, the object being to preserve the estate
from forfeiture for treason during the Commonwealth. 3 The
settlement of chattels is no doubt of considerably later origin,
and the principles were adopted by courts of equity from the
corresponding law as to real estate.
Settlement in English law is, so far as regards real property,
used for two inconsistent purposes to " make an eldest son,"
as it is called, and to avoid the results of the right of succession
to real property of the eldest son by making provision for the
younger children. The first result is generally obtained by a
strict settlement, the latter by a marriage settlement, which is
for valuable consideration if ante-nuptial, voluntary if post-
nuptial. But these two kinds of settlement are not mutually
exclusive: a marriage settlement may often take the form of
a strict settlement and be in substance a resettlement of the
family estate. (See CONVEYANCING.)
In Scotland a disposition and settlement is a mode of providing
for the devolution of property after death, and so corresponds
1 See Hunter, Roman Law, p. 150; Maine, Early History of
Institutions, Lect. xi.
1 The appointment of such trustees was rendered unnecessary
by acts of 1845 and 1877.
1 See Joshua Williams, Pipers of the Juridical Society, i. 45.
rather to the English will than to the English settlement. The
English marriage settlement is represented in Scotland by the
contract of marriage, which may be ante- or post-nuptial.
In the United States settlements other than marriage settle-
ments are practically unknown. Marriage settlements are not in
common use, owing to the fact that most states long ago adopted
the principles of the English Married Women's Property Acts.
The word " settlement " is also used to denote such residence of
a person in a parish, or other circumstances pertaining thereto, as
would entitle him to obtain poor relief (see POOR LAW). On the
English Stock Exchange it is a term for the series of operations by
which bargains are concluded, or carried over (see ACCOUNT and
STOCK EXCHANGE). The word is also applied generally to the ter-
mination of a disputed matter by the adoption of terms.
SETTLEMENT, ACT OF, the name given to the act of parlia-
ment passed in June 1701, which, since that date, has regulated
the succession to the throne of Great Britain and Ireland.
Towards the end of 1 700 the need for the act was obvious, if the
country was to be saved from civil war. William III. was ill
and childless; his sister-in-law, the prospective queen, Anne,
had just lost her only surviving child, William, duke of Glou-
cester; and abroad the supporters of the exiled king, James II.,
were numerous and active. In these circumstances the Act
of Settlement was passed, enacting that, in default of issue to
either William or Anne, the crown of England, France 4 and
Ireland was to pass to " the most excellent princess Sophia,
electress and duchess dowager of Hanover," a grand-daughter
of James I., and "the heirs of her body being Protestants."
The act is thus responsible for the accession of the house of
Hanover to the British throne. In addition to settling the crown
the act contained some important constitutional provisions, of
which the following are still in force, (i) That whosoever shall
hereafter come to the possession of this crown shall join in com-
munion with the Church of England as by law established.
(2) That in case the crown and imperial dignity of this realm
shall hereafter come to any person not being a native of this
kingdom of England, this nation be not obliged to engage in
any war for the defence of any dominions or territories which
do not belong to the Crown of England, without the consent of
parliament. (3) That after the said limitation shall take effect
as aforesaid, judges' commissions be made quamdiu se bene
gesserint and their salaries ascertained and established; but
upon the address of both houses of parliament it may be lawful
to remove them. This clause established the independence of
the judicial bench. (4) That no pardon under the great seal
of England be pleadable to an impeachment by the Commons
in parliament. The act as originally passed contained four, other
clauses. One of these provided that all matters relating to the
government shall be transacted in the Privy Council, and that
all resolutions " shall be signed by such of the Privy Council
as shall advise and consent to the same "; and another declared
that all office-holders and pensioners under the Crown shall
be incapable of sitting in the House of Commons. The first of
these clauses was repealed, and the second seriously modified
ia 1706. Another clause was framed to prevent the sovereign
from leaving England, Scotland or Ireland without the consent
of parliament; this was repealed just after the accession of
George I. Finally a clause said that " no person born out of the
kingdoms of England, Scotland or Ireland, or the dominions
thereunto belonging (although he be naturalized or made a
denizen) except such as are born of English parents, shall be
capable to be of the Privy Council, or a member of either House
of Parliament, or enjoy any office or place of trust, either civil
or military, or to have any grant of lands, tenements or heredita-
ments from the Crown to himself, or to any other or others in
trust for him." By the Naturalization Act of 1870 this clause
is virtually repealed with regard to all persons who obtain a
certificate of naturalization. This and some of the other clauses
amount practically to censures on the policy of William III.
The importance of the Act of Settlement appears from the
fact that, in all the regency acts, it is mentioned as one of the
4 The title of king of France was retained by the British sovereigns
until 1801. Scotland accepted the Act of Settlement by Art. II. of
the Act of Union.
SETUBAL SEVEN DAYS' BATTLE
707
acts to the repeal of which the regent may not assent. To
maintain or affirm the right of any person to the crown, contrary
to the provisions of the act, is high treason by an act of 1707.
See T. P. Taswell-Langmead's English Const. Hist. (1905);
H. Hallam, Constitutional History, vol. iii. (1855) ; and L. von Ranke,
Englische Geschichte (1859-1868).
SETUBAL (formerly called in English St Ubes and in French
St Yves), a seaport of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon (formerly
included in the province of Estremadura) , 18 m. S.E. of Lisbon
by the Barreiro-Pinhal Novo-Setubal railway. Pop. (1900)
22,074. Setubal is built on the north shore of a deep estuary,
formed by the rivers Sado, Marateca and Sao Martinho, which
discharge their waters into the Bay of Setubal 3 m. below the
city. Setubal is overtopped on the west by the treeless red
heights of the Serra da Arrabida. There are five forts for the
defence of the harbour; the castle of St Philip, built by Philip
III. of Spain (1578-1621), commands the city. Setubal is the
third seaport and fourth largest city of Portugal. It exports
large quantities of fine salt, oranges and muscatel grapes; it
has many sardine-curing and boat-building establishments, and
manufactures of fish-manure and lace. Its port is officially
included in that of Lisbon. Under John II. (1481-1495) Setubal
was a favourite royal residence, and one of the churches dates
from this period; but most of the ancient buildings were de-
stroyed by the great earthquake of 1755. There are some fine
public buildings, statues and fountains of later date, including
a statue of the poet M. M. de B. du Bocage (1766-1806), who
was a native of Setubal. In the sandhills of a low-lying promon-
tory in the bay opposite Setubal are the so-called ruins of " Trcia,"
uncovered in part by heavy rains in 1814 and excavated in 1850
by an antiquarian society. These ruins of " Troia," among
which have been brought to view a beautiful Roman house and
some 1600 Roman coins, are those of Cetobriga, which flourished
A.D. 300-400. In the neighbourhood, on a mountain 1600 ft.
high, is the monastery of Arrabida.
SEUME, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1763-1810), German author,
was born at Poserna, near Weissenfels, on the zgth of January
1763. He was educated, first at Borna, then at the Nikolai
school and university of Leipzig. The study of Shaftesbury and
Bolingbroke weakened his interest in theology, and, breaking off
his studies, he set out for Paris. On the way he was seized by
Hessian recruiting officers and sold to England, whereupon he
was drafted to Canada. After his return in 1783 he deserted
at Bremen, but was captured and brought to Emden; a second
attempt at flight also failed. In 1787, however, a citizen of
Emden became surety for him to the amount of 80 talers, and he
was allowed to visit his home. He did not return, but paid off
his debt in Emden with the remuneration he received for trans-
lating an English novel. He taught languages for a time in
Leipzig, and became tutor to a Graf Igelstrom, whom, in 1792,
he accompanied to Warsaw. Here he became secretary to
General von Igelstrom, and, as a Russian officer, experienced
the terrors of the Polish insurrection. In 1796 he was again in
Leipzig and, resigning his Russian commission, entered the
employment of the publisher Goschen. In December 1801 he
set out on his famous nine months' walk to Sicily, described in his
Spaziergang nacft Syrakus (1803). Some years later he visited
Russia, Finland and Sweden, a journey which is described in
Mein Sommer im Jahr 1805 ( 1 807) . His health now began to fail,
and he died on the i3th of June 1810, at Teplitz. His reputation
rests on the two books just mentioned, to which may be added
his autobiography, Mein Leben (1813, continued by C. A. H.
Clodius). These works reflect Seume's sterling character and
sturdy patriotism; his style is clear and straightforward; his
descriptions realistic and vivid. As a dramatist (Miltiades, 1808) ,
and as a lyric poet (Gedichte, i8oi),he had but little success.
Seume's Gesammelte Schriften were first edited by J. P. Zimmer-
mann (1823-1826) ; his Samtliche Werke (1826-1827) passed through
seven editions. The most recent edition is J. G. Seume's Prosaische
undpoetische Werke (lovols., 1879). SeeO. Planer and C. Reissmann,
/. G. Seume. Geschichte seines Lebens und seiner Schriften (1898).
SEVASTOPOL, or SEBASTOPOL, an important naval station
of Russia on the Black Sea, on the S.W. coast of the Crimea,
in 44 37' N. and 33 31' E., 956 m. from Moscow, with which it
is connected by rail via Kharkov. Pop. (1882) 26,150; (1897)
50,710. The estuary, which is one of the best roadsteads in
Europe and could accommodate the combined fleets of Europe, is
a deep and thoroughly sheltered indentation among chalky cliffs,
running east and west for nearly 4m., with a width of three-
quarters of a mile, narrowing to 930 yds. at the entrance. It
has a depth of 6 to 10 fathoms, with a good bottom, and large
ships can anchor at a cable's length from the shore. The main
inlet has also four smaller indentations Quarantine Bay at its
entrance, Yuzhnaya (Southern) Bay, which penetrates more
than i m. to the south, with a depth of 4 to 9 fathoms, Dockyard
Bay and Artillery Bay. A small river, the Chornaya, enters the
head of the inlet. The main part of the town, with an elevation of
30 to 190 ft., stands on the southern shore of the chief inlet,
between Yuzhnaya and Artillery Bays. A few buildings on the
other shore of the chief bay constitute the " northern side."
Before the Crimean War of 1853-56 Sevastopol was a well-
built city, beautified by gardens, and had 43,000 inhabitants;
but at the end of the siege it had not more than fourteen buildings
which had not been badly injured. After the war many privileges
were granted by the government in order to attract population
and trade; but both increased slowly, and at the end of seven
years the population numbered only 5750.
The present town is well built and is becoming a favourite
watering-place on account of its sea-bathing and numerous
sanatoria. It has a zoological marine station (1897), a museum
commemorative of the siege (1895) , a cathedral of Classical design
and another finished in 1888, monuments of Admirals Nakhimov
(1898) and Kornilov (1895) and of General Todleben, and two
navigation schools. In 1890 Sevastopol was made a third-class
fortress, and the commercial port has been transferred to
Theodosia.
The peninsula between the Bay of Sevastopol and the Black
Sea was known in the 7th century as the Heracleotic Chersonese.
In the sth century B.C. a Greek colony was founded here and
remained independent for three centuries, when it became part
of the kingdom of the Bosporus, and subsequently tributary
to Rome. Under the Byzantine empire Chersonesus was an
administrative centre for its possessions in Taurida. Vladimir,
prince of Kiev, conquered Chersonesus (Korsufi) before being
baptized there, and restored it to the Greeks on marrying (988)
the princess Anna. Subsequently the Slavs were cut off from
relations with Taurida by the Mongols, and only made occasional
raids, such as that of the Lithuanian prince Olgierd. In the
1 6th century a new influx of colonists, the Tatars, occupied
Chersonesus and founded a settlement named Akhtyar. This
village, after the Russian conquest in 1783, was selected for the
chief naval station of the empire in the Black Sea and received its
present name (" the August City "). In 1826 strong fortifications
were begun. In 1854 the allied English, French and Turkish
forces laid siege to the southern portion of the town, and on
the 1 7th of October began a heavy bombardment. Sevastopol
sustained a memorable eleven months' siege, and on the Sth of
September 1855 was evacuated by the Russians. The fortifica-
tions were blown up by the allies, and by the Paris treaty the
Russians were bound not to restore them (see CRIMEAN WAR).
In November 1870, during the Franco-German War, the Russian
government decided again to make Sevastopol a naval arsenal.
SEVEN CHAMPIONS OF CHRISTENDOM, the name given in
medieval tales to the seven national saints of England, Scotland,
Ireland, Wales, France, Spain and Italy i.e. Saints George,
Andrew,' Patrick, David, Denis, James and Anthony. The
classical version of their achievements is that of Richard Johnson
(1573-^. 1659), Famous Historic of the Seaven Champions of
Christendom (3 parts, 1596, 1608, 1610: many editions). The
oldest known copy is dated 1597; there is also a poetical version
by Sir George Buc (published 1623).
SEVEN DAYS' BATTLE, a name given to a series of combats
in the neighbourhood of Richmond, Virginia, during the
American Civil War, June 26-July 2, 1862. The Federal Army
of the Potomac, advancing from the sea and the river Pamunkey
708
SEVEN DAYS' BATTLE
over the Chickahominy on Richmond, had come to a standstill
after the battle of Seven Pines (or Fair Oaks), and General
Robert Lee, who succeeded Joseph Johnston in command of the
Confederates, initiated the series of counter attacks upon it
which constitute the " Seven Days."
McClellan had at his disposal 32 brigades and 67 batteries
organized in five corps each of two or three divisions. His
cavalry consisted of 10 regiments and 22 companies. Lee's army
consisted of 40 brigades and 59 batteries organized in eleven
divisions and an independent brigade: four divisions were
grouped under Jackson and
three under Magruder. The
reserve artillery consisted of
23 batteries and Stuart's
cavalry corps of 3000 sabres.
McClellan lingered north of
Richmond, despite President
Lincoln's constant demand
that he should " strike a
blow " with the force he had
organized and taken to the
Yorktown peninsula in April,
until General Lee had con-
centrated 73,000 infantry in
his front; then the Federal
commander, fearing to await
the issue of a decisive battle,
ended his campaign of in-
vasion in the endeavour to
"save his army"; and he
so far succeeded that on July
3 he had established himself
on the north bank of the
James in a position to which
reinforcements and supplies
could be brought from the
north by water without fear
of molestation by the enemy.
But he lost 1 5,000 men in
the course of his seven days'
retreat, and 20% of the re-
mainder became ineffective
from disease contracted in
the swamps of the Chicka-
hominy, while enormous
quantities of valuable stores
at White House on the
Pamunkey had been burnt to
avoid seizure by the enemy.
McClellandescribedthisflight
to the James as a change of
base, but his resolve to
abandon the attitude of an
invader was formed when
General Lee in the middle of
June had caused Stuart's
cavalry to reconnoitre the
flanks andrearof McClellan's
army, and had summoned
Jackson's corps from the
Shenandoah Valley (<?..). The news soon reached McClellan,
who thereupon prepared to evacuate White House on June 25
and moved his trains southward to the James covered by his army.
Jackson had preceded his troops in order personally to confer
with Lee, and had then appointed the morning of June 26 for his
appearance north of the Chickahominy to lead the march and
attack McClellan's right wing under General ,FitzJohn Porter.
Jackson was to be supported by the divisions of A. P. Hill,
Longstreet and D. H. Hill. Lee 's other divisions under Magruder,
Huger and Holmes were to defend the lines which covered Rich-
mond from the east, and so prevent McClellan effecting a counter-
stroke. Huger had demonstrated on the Williamsburg Road on
June 25 in order to draw McClellan's attention to his left wing,
and though on June 26 Jackson had failed to appear, General
A. P. Hill at 3 p.m. crossed the Chickahominy and attacked the
enemy's right wing at Beaver Dam Creek assisted by D. H. Hill,
while Longstreet crossed at Mechanicsville. General Lee and
President Davis were present and witnessed the loss of 2000 men
in a frontal attack which continued till 9 p.m. Meanwhile General
Jackson, with Stuart's cavalry corps, " marched by the fight
without giving attention, and went into camp at Hundley's
Corner half a mile in rear of the enemy's position."
SEVEN DAYS 7 BATTLE
The Federal detachment retreated during the night to a
stronger position in rear at Gaines's Mill near Cold Harbor,
and on June 27 the Confederates again attacked Porter's corps.
Lee's six divisions formed an echelon. D. H. Hill moving
towards the enemy's right was followed by Jackson's corps
(three divisions), while A. P. Hill engaged the enemy in front and
Longstreet in reserve moved along the left bank of the Chicka-
hominy. The resistance of the Federals was stubborn; at
5 p.m. General Lee required Longstreet to attack the enemy's
left, and at this moment he procured the assistance of some
part of Jackson's corps which had become separated from the
remainder. About sunset the Federals under Porter (three
SEVENOAKS SEVEN SLEEPERS OF EPHESUS
709
divisions) yielded to the pressure of the attack at all points,
and withdrew in the night across the Chickahominy, leaving
5000 prisoners in the hands of General Lee. The Confederates
lost 7000 men on June 27.
Lee's right wing had in the meantime demonstrated against
the main body of the Federals about Fair Oaks, on the south
bank of the river. On June 28 complete inactivity supervened
among the Confederates north of the Chickahominy save that
Stuart's cavalry and Swell's division were advanced as far as the
railway to reconnoitre, but on this day McClellan was making
good his retreat southwards to the James with little interference,
for Magruder was instructed to " hold his lines at all hazards,"
and accordingly acted on the defensive except that Jones's
division opposed a Federal division under W. F. Smith near
Fair Oaks. On June 29 General Lee became aware of the situa-
tion and then issued orders for his six divisions to cross the
Chickahominy in pursuit. Jackson's corps and D. H. Hill's
division were to follow the enemy, while Longstreet and A. P.
Hill were to move their divisions via New Bridge to the Darby-
town or James River Road to cut off McClellan from the James.
Stuart was to operate at his discretion north of the Chickahominy,
and it seems that he was attracted by the enemy's abandoned
depot at White House more than by McClellan 's retreating army.
On this day Magruder with two divisions attacked superior forces
about Fair Oaks and was repulsed, and again attacked at Savage
Station with like results. General Lee, however, rebuked
Magruder for slackness in pursuit. Holmes's division was moving
in front of Longstreet on the James River Road, but two Federal
divisions were holding the route at Willis Church and at Jordan's
Ford. On June 30 Jackson got into action with Whiting's
division at White Oak Swamp, while Longstreet encountered
the Federals at Frazier's Farm (or Glendale). Longstreet was
supported by A. P. Hill and together they lost 3200 men; it was
hoped that Jackson's corps would come up during the engage-
ment and attack the enemy's rear, and Huger's division assail
his right, but Federal artillery stopped Huger, and of Jackson's
three divisions only one came into action. Magruder and Holmes
were engaged to their own advantage at Turkey Bridge. Long-
street and Hill were thus opposed to five Federal divisions, while
General McClellan was pushing his wagons forward to Malvern
Hill, on which strong position the Army of the Potomac was
concentrated at nightfall. On July i Jackson's corps and D. H.
Hill's division had been drawn again into the main operation
and followed the Federal line of retreat to Malvern Hill with
Huger and Magruder on their right. The divisions of Longstreet
and A. P. Hill were in support.
General Lee had thus on the seventh day concentrated his
army of ten divisions in the enemy's front; but Jackson's
dispositions were unfortunate and General Lee's plan of attack
was thus upset; and while seeking a route to turn the enemy's
right the Confederate commander was apprised that a battle
had been improvised by the divisions in advance. In the result
these troops were repulsed with a loss of 6000 men, a circumstance
hardly to be wondered at, since McClellan had entrenched eight
divisions on the strongest position in the country, and was aided
by his siege artillery and also by a flanking fire from his gun-
boats on the river near Haxall's Landing. General Lee's offensive
operations now ended, though Stuart's cavalry rejoined the main
army at night and followed the enemy on July 2 to Evelington
Heights, while Lee rested his army. Stuart discovered a position
which commanded the Federal camp, and maintained his
cavalry and horse artillery in this position until the afternoon of
July 3, when, his ammunition being expended, he was compelled
to retire before a Federal force of infantry and a battery. Long-
street and Jackson had been despatched to his support, but the
former did not arrive before nightfall and the latter failed to
appear until the next day (July 4). Stuart afterwards moved
farther down the James, and shelled McClellan's supply vessels
in the river until recalled by General Lee, who on July 8 withdrew
his army towards Richmond.
The operations resulted in re-establishing the confidence
of the Confederates in their army which Johnston's retreat from
Yorktown had shaken, in adding prestige to President Davis
and his government, and in rectifying the popular view of General
Lee as a commander which had been based upon his failure to
recover West Virginia in the autumn of 1861. In the north a
feeling of despondency overtook Congress at the " lame and
impotent conclusion " of a campaign of invasion which was
expected to terminate the war by the defeat of the Confederate
army, the capture of Richmond and the immediate overthrow
of the Confederacy. (G. W. R.)
SEVENOAKS, a market town in the Sevenoaks parliamentary
division of Kent, England, 22 m. S.E. by S. of London by the
South-Eastern and Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 8106. It is beautifully situated on high ground among
the wooded undulations of the North Downs, above the valley
of the river Darent. The town consists principally of two streets
which converge at the south end, near which is the church of
St Nicholas, of the i3th, i4th and I5th centuries. It contains
monuments of the Amherst family and a tablet to William
Lambarde (d. 1601), which was removed from the old parish
church of Greenwich when that was demolished. Lambarde
was author of the Perambulation of Kent, and founded the College
of the Poor of Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich. The grammar
school founded in 1418 by Sir William Sevenoke was recon-
stituted as a first-grade modern school in 1877. There is also
a school founded by Lady Margaret Boswell, wife of Sir William
Boswell, ambassador to Charles I. at The Hague, and alms-
houses founded by Sir William Sevenoke in connexion with his
school. Close to Sevenoaks is Knole Park, one of the finest old
residences in England, which in the time of King John was
possessed by the earl of Pembroke, and after passing to various
owners was bought by Archbishop Bourchier (d. 1486), who
rebuilt the house. He left the property to the see of Canter-
bury, and about the time of the dissolution it was given up
by Cranmer to Henry VIII. By Elizabeth it was conferred
first on the earl of Leicester and then on Thomas Sackville,
afterwards earl of Dorset. By this earl it was in great part
rebuilt and fitted up in regard to decoration much as it now
exists. The gateway in the outer court and the Perpendicular
chapel are from Archbishop Bourchier's time. The great hall,
with elaborately carved music-gallery, is mainly the work of the
first earl.
SEVEN SLEEPERS OF EPHESUS, THE, according to the
most common form of an old legend of Syrian origin, first re-
ferred to in Western literature by Gregory of Tours (De glor.
mart. c. 95), seven Christian youths of Ephesus, who, in the
Decian persecution (A.D. 250), hid themselves in a cave. Their
hiding-place was discovered and its entrance blocked. The
martyrs fell asleep in a mutual embrace. Nearly 200 years
later a herdsman of Ephesus rediscovered the cave on Mount
Coelian, and, letting in the light, awoke the inmates, who sent
one of their number (Jamblicus) to buy food. The lad was
astonished to find the cross displayed over the city gates, and,
on entering, to hear the name of Christ openly pronounced. By
tendering coin of the time of Decius at a baker's shop he roused
suspicion, and was taken before the authorities as a dishonest
finder of hidden treasure. He confirmed his story by leading
his accusers to the cavern where his six companions were found,
youthful and beaming with a holy radiance. The emperor
Theodosius II., hearing what had happened, hastened to the
spot in time to hear from their lips that God had wrought this
wonder to confirm his faith in the resurrection of the dead. This
message delivered, they again fell asleep.
Gregory says he had the legend from the interpretation of " a
certain Syrian " ; in point of fact the story is common in Syriac
sources. It forms the subject of a homily of Jacob of Sarug (ob.
A.D. 521), which is given in the Ada sanctorum. Another Syriac ver-
sion is printed in Land's Anecdota, iii. 87 seq. ; see also Barhebraeus,
Chron. ecdes. i. 142 seq., and compare Assemani, Bib. Or. i. 335 seq.
Some forms of the legend give eight sleepers e.g. an ancient MS.
of the 6th century now in the British Museum (Cat. Syr. MSS. p.
1090). There are considerable variations as to their names. The
legend rapidly attained a wide diffusion throughout Christendom ; its
currency in the East is testified by its acceptance by Mahomet (sur.
xviii.), who calls them AsTtab al-Kahf, " the men of the cave."
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR
According to Birunl (Chronology, tr. by Sachau, p. 285) certain un-
decayed corpses of monks were shown in a cave as the sleepers of
Ephesus in the 9th century. The seven sleepers are a favourite
subject in early medieval art. The story is well told in Gibbon's
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. xxxiii.
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR, the name given to the war of 1866
between Prussia on the one side, and Austria, Bavaria, Hanover,
Saxony and allied German states on the other. Concurrently
with this war another was fought in Venetia between the Italians
and the Austrian army of the South, for which see ITALIAN
WARS (1848-1870).
In 1850 Prussia, realizing from the breakdown of her mobiliza-
tion for the war then impending with Austria that success was
impossible, submitted to the Austrian demands, but her states-
men saw from the first that the " surrender of Olmiitz," as it was
termed, rendered eventual war with Austria " a military necessity."
Preparation was begun in earnest after the accession of King
William I., who selected Bismarck as his chancellor, Moltke
as his chief of staff and Roon as his minister of war, and gave
them a free hand to create the political situation and prepare
the military machinery necessary to exploit it. Within six
years the mobilization arrangements were recast, the war
against Denmark in 1864 proving an opportune test of the
new system. The number of field battalions was nearly doubled,
two-thirds of the artillery received breech-loading rifled guns,
the infantry had for some years had the breech-loading " needle-
gun," and steps were initiated to train an adequate number of
staff officers to a uniform appreciation of strategical problems,
based on Moltke's personal interpretation of Clausewitz's Vom
Kriege. There was, however, a fundamental disagreement in
the tactical ideas of the senior and those of the junior officers.
The former, bred in the tradition of the Napoleonic battle, looked
for the decision only from the employment of " masses "; the
latter, trained with the breech-loader and without war experi-
ence, expected to decide battles by infantry fire only. Both
overlooked the changes brought by the introduction of the long-
range rifle (muzzle- and breech-loading alike), which had rendered
impossible the "case shot preparation" which had formed
the basis of Napoleon's tactical system. The men were trained
for three years in the infantry and four years in the cavalry
and artillery, but the war was not popular and many went
unwillingly.
In contemporary military opinion, the Austrians were greatly
superior in all arms to their adversary. Their rifle, 1 though a
muzzle-loader, was in every other respect superior to the Prussian
needle-gun, and their M.L. rifled guns with shrapnel shell were
considered more than sufficient to make good the slight advantage
then conceded to the breech-loader. The cavalry was far better
trained in individual and real horsemanship and manoeuvre,
and was expected to sweep the field in the splendid cavalry terrain
of Moravia. All three arms trained their men for seven years,
and almost all officers and non-commissioned officers had con-
siderable war experience. But the Prussians having studied
their allies in the war of 1864 knew the weakness of the Austrian
staff and the untrustworthiness of the contingents of some of
the Austrian nationalities, and felt fairly confident that against
equal numbers they could hold their own.
The occasion for war was engineered entirely by Bismarck;
and it is doubtful how far Moltke was in Bismarck's confidence,
though as a far-seeing general he took advantage of every opening
which the latter's diplomacy secured for him. The original
scheme for the strategic deployment worked out by Moltke as
part of the routine of his office contemplated a defence of the
kingdom against not only the whole standing army of Austria,
but against 35,000 Saxons, 95,000 unorganized Bavarians and
other South Germans, and 60,000 Hanoverians, Hessians, &c.,
and to meet these he had two corps (VII. and VIII.) on the
Rhine, the Guard and remaining six in Brandenburg and Prussia
proper. Bismarck diverted three Austrian corps by an alliance
with Italy, and by consenting to the neutralization of the
The Lorenz rifle carried a -57 bullet and was sighted to 1000
yds. ; the needle-gun with a much lighter bullet was sighted to 400
only.
Federal fortresses set at liberty von Beyer's division for field
service in the west. Moltke thereupon brought the VIII.
corps and half the VII. to the east and thus made himself numeri-
cally equal to his enemy, but elsewhere left barely 45,000 men to
oppose 150,000. The magnitude of the risk was sufficiently
shown at Langensalza. The direction of the Prussian railways,
not laid out primarily for strategic purposes, conditioned the
first deployment of the whole army, with the result that at first
the Prussians were distributed in three main groups or armies
on a front of about 250 m. As there had been no money
available to purchase supplies beforehand, each of these groups
had to be scattered over a wide area for subsistence, and thus
news as to the enemy's points of concentration necessarily
preceded any determination of the plan of campaign.
Of the lines of concentration open to the Austrians, the direction
of the roads and railways favoured that of Olmtitz so markedly
that Moltke felt reasonably certain that it would be chosen,
and the receipt of the complete ordre de bataille of the Austrian
army of the north secured by the Prussian secret service on
the nth of June set all doubts at rest.
According to this, the Austrian troops already in Bohemia,
ist corps, Count Clam-Gallas, 30,000 strong, were to receive the
Saxons if the latter were forced to evacuate their own country,
and to act as an advanced guard or containing wing to the main
body under Feldzeugmeister von Benedek (2nd, 3rd, 4th, 8th,
loth corps) which was to concentrate at Olmutz, whence the
Prussian staff on insufficient evidence concluded the Austrians
intended to attack Silesia, with Breslau as their objective. On
this date (June nth) the Prussians stood in the following order:
The army of the Elbe, General Herwarth von Bittenfeld, three
divisions only, about Torgau; the I. army, Prince Frederick
Charles (II., III.., IV. corps), about Gorlitz; the II. army under
the crown prince (I., V., VI.) near Breslau; the Guard and
a reserve corps of Landwehr at Berlin. As the army of the
Elbe was numerically inferior to Clam-Gallas and the Saxons,
the reserve corps was at once despatched to reinforce it, and the
Guard was sent to the crown prince. Further, in deference to
political (probably dynastic) pressure, the crown prince was
ordered eastwards to defend the line of the Neisse, thus increasing
the already excessive length of the Prussian front. Had the
Austrians attacked on both flanks forthwith, the Prussian central
(I.) army could have reached neither wing in time to avert defeat,
and the political consequences of the Austrian victory might
have been held to justify the risks involved, for even if unsuccess-
ful the Austrians and Saxons could always retreat into Bavaria
and there form a backbone of solid troops for the 95,000 South
Germans.
Advance of the Elbe and I. Armies. This was one of the gravest
crises in Moltke's career. To overcome it he at length obtained
authority (June isth) to order the army of the Elbe into
Saxony, and on the i8th the Prussians entered Dresden, the
Saxons retiring along the Elbe into Bohemia; and on the same
day the news that the Austrian main body was marching from
Olmutz towards Prague arrived at headquarters. Moltke took
three days to solve the new problem, then, on the 2 2nd, he ordered
the I. and II. armies to cross the Austrian frontier and unite
near Gitschin, a point conveniently situated about the converg-
ence of the roads crossing the Bohemian mountains. As during
this operation the II. army would be the most exposed, the I.,
to which the army of the Elbe had now been attached, was to
push on its advance to the utmost. Apparently with this purpose
in view, Prince Frederick Charles was instructed to break up
his army corps into their constituent divisions, and move each
division as a separate column on its own road, the reserve of
cavalry and artillery following in rear of the centre. The con-
sequences were the reverse of those anticipated. On the after-
noon of the 26th the advance guards of the I. army and army of
the Elbe came in contact with the Austrians at Hiihnerwasser
and Podol and drove the latter back after a sharp engagement,
but, having no cavalry, could neither observe their subsequent
proceedings nor estimate their strength. The prince, seeing the
opportunity for a battle, immediately issued orders for an
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR
711
enveloping attack on Munchengratz by his whole army, but,
owing to distances and the number of units now requiring
direction, it was late in the following day before all were in
readiness for action. The Austrians then slipped away, and
the whole of the next day was spent in getting the divisions
back to their proper lines of advance. Clam-Gallas then retired
deliberately to Gitschin and took up a new position. The
Prussians followed on the agth, but, owing to the lie of the roads,
they had to march in two long columns, separated by almost
a day's march, and when the advanced guard of the left column,
late in the afternoon, gained touch with the enemy, the latter
were in a position to crush them by weight of numbers, had they
not suddenly been ordered to continue the retreat on Miletin.
Battles of the II. Army : Trautenau and Nachod. Meanwhile
the situation of the II. army had become critical. On its right
wing the I. corps (General v. Bonin) had received orders on
the ayth to seize the passages over the Aupa at Trautenau.
This was accomplished without much difficulty, but the main
body was still in the defiles in rear, when about 3 p.m. the leading
troops were attacked by an overwhelming Austrian force and
at Soor and Koniginhof (Guard corps) on the z8th and 29th,
and at Schweinscha.de! (Steinmetz) on the apth, the Prussians
in every encounter proving themselves, unit for unit, a match
for their adversaries. It is customary to ascribe their successes
to the power of the breech-loader, but there were actions in
which it played no part, cavalry versus cavalry encounters, and
isolated duels between batteries which gave the Prussian gunners
a confidence they had not felt when first crossing the frontier.
Junction of the Prussian Armies. By the morning of the
30th it was clear that the junction between the two armies
could be completed, whenever desired, by a forward march of a
few miles. But Moltke, wishing to preserve full freedom for
manoeuvre for each army, determined to preserve the interval
between them, and began his dispositions to manoeuvre the
Austrians out of the position he had selected as the best for them
to take up, on the left or farther bank of the Elbe.
This is so characteristic of von Moltke's methods and of the
tactical preconceptions of the time that it deserves more detailed
notice. _ Neither army had covered its front by a cavalry screen, both
preferring to retain the mounted troops for battlefield purposes.
Hence, though they were only a few miles apart, each was ignorant
BOHEMIAN CAMPAIGN
1866
driven back in confusion; the confusion spread and became a
panic, and the I. corps was out of action for the next forty-
eight hours. Almost at the same hour, a few miles to the south-
eastward, the advanced guard of the V. corps (Steinmetz) began
to emerge from the long defile leading from Glatz to Nachod,
and the Prussians had hardly gained room to form for action
beyond its exit before they too were attacked. Steinmetz was
a different man from Bonin, and easily held his own against the
disconnected efforts of his adversary, ultimately driving the
latter before him with a loss of upwards of 5000 men. Still
the situation remained critical next day, for the I. corps having
retreated, the Guard corps (next on its left) was endangered,
and Steinmetz on his line of advance towards Skalitz (action of
Skalitz, June 28th) could only count on the gradual support of
the VI. corps. Benedek's resolution was, however, already on
the wane. From the first his supply arrangements had been
defective, and the requisitions made by his leading troops left
nothing for the rest to eat. While trying to feed his army he
omitted to fight it, and, with the chance of overwhelming the
Prussians by one great effort of marching, he delayed the
necessary orders till too late, and the Prussian II. army made good
its concentration on the upper Elbe with insignificant fighting
Enxry Wklktr cu
of the other's position. Moltke, knowing well the danger for a great
army of being forced into a battle with an unfordable river behind it,
and with his naturally strong bent towards the defensive in tactics,
concluded that Benedek would elect to hold the left bank of the Elbe,
between the fortified towns of Josephstadt and Koniggratz, with his
right thrown back and covered by the lower courses of the Aupa
and the Mettau. Frontal attack on such a position being out of
the question, he decided, after weighing well the weaknesses of the
Austrian flanks, to direct his principal efforts against the left (i.e.
southern), although that entailed the uncovering of the communica-
tion of the II. army and a flank march of almost the whole of the
I. and II. armies across the front of the Austrians in position. As an
eminent French critic (General Bonnal) says, this was but to repeat
Frederick the Great's manoeuvre at Kolin (q.v.), and, the Austrians
being where they actually were and not where Moltke decided they
ought to be, the result might have been equally disastrous. Never-
theless the necessary movements were initiated by orders at noon on
the and of July, and one phrase in these saved the situation. Accord-
ing to these orders, the Elbe army was directed to Chlumetz on the
way to Pardubitz, the I. army diagonally to the south-east across the
front of the Austrian position. Two corps of the II. army were to
make a demonstration against Josephstadt on the 3rd of July, and
the other two were to move in a general direction south-west to keep
touch with the I. Prince Frederick Charles was warned to guard the
left flank of his marching troops and authorized to attack any forces
of the enemy he might encounter in that direction, if not too strong
for him. On receipt of these orders (about 3-30 p.m. July 2nd) the
712
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR
prince immediately despatched officers' patrols towards the Elbe,
and about 6 p.m. these, having crossed the Bistritz, discovered the
enemy in considerable force, at least three corps, behind the line of
low hills which here border that stream. The remainder of the
Austrian main body, the whole of which was in fact still on the right
bank of the Elbe, was hidden from view behind high ground farther
to the eastward.
The 2nd of July. The three Austrian corps were exactly
the target Prince Frederick Charles desired. He promised him-
self with the I. and the Elbe armies an easy victory if he attacked
them. Orders in this sense were issued about 7 p.m. They
instructed every corps under his command to be in readiness
for action towards the Bistritz at 3 a.m. on the 3rd, and in a
concluding paragraph announced that the crown prince had
been requested to co-operate from the north. A copy of the
orders and an explanatory letter were in fact despatched to the
II. army, another copy also went direct to the king. Both
appear to have been delayed in transmission, for the former
only reached the crown prince's quarters at 2 a.m. He was then
asleep and had given orders that he was not to be awakened.
His chief of the staff, Blumenthal, was absent at the royal
headquarters, and since the bearer of the order had not been
warned of the importance of the despatch he carried, no one
roused the prince. At 3 a.m. Blumenthal returned and read the
letter, and without troubling to disturb his chief he dealt with
the matter himself in what is certainly one of the most remarkable
documents ever issued in a grave crisis by a responsible staff
officer. Briefly he informed Prince Frederick Charles that the
orders for the II. army based on the instructions received from
the royal headquarters, having been already issued, the co-
operation of the I. corps alone might be looked for.
Meanwhile the duplicates had reached Moltke, and he,
knowing well the temperament of the " Red Prince " and the
impossibility of arresting the intended movement, obtained
the royal sanction to a letter addressed to the crown prince, in
which the latter was ordered to co-operate with his whole
command. This vital despatch was sent off in duplicate
at midnight and reached von Blumenthal at 4 a.m. In face
of this no evasion was possible. Army orders were issued at
5 a.m., but still the urgency of the situation was so little
understood that had they been verbally adhered to the force
of the II. army could hardly have been brought to _bear before
5 p.m., by which time the defeat of the I. army might well
have been an accomplished fact. Fortunately, however, the
initiative of the Prussian subordinates was sufficient to meet
the strain.
Battle of Koniggriilz (Sadowa). Thick mist and driving rain
delayed the I. and Elbe armies, but by 5 a.m. the troops had
reached their allotted positions. The ;th division now moved
forward, taking as point of direction the wood of Maslowed
(or Swiep Wald), and supported on the right by the 8th division
which was to seize the bridge of Sadowa. The leading troops
of the former easily rushed the Austrian outposts covering the
wood, but the reserves of the Austrian outposts counter-
attacked. The firing drew other troops towards the critical
point, and very shortly the wood of Maslowed became the scene
of one of the most obstinate conflicts in military history. In
about two hours the 12 Prussian battalions and 3 batteries found
themselves assailed by upwards of 40 Austrian battalions and
100 guns, and against such swarms of enemies each man felt
that retreat from the wood across the open meant annihilation.
The Prussians determined to hold on at all costs. The 8th divi-
sion, belonging to the same corps, could not see their comrades
sacrificed before their eyes, and pushed on through Sadowa
to relieve the pressure on the right of the 7th division. Mean-
while fresh Austrian batteries appeared against the front of the
8th division, and fresh Prussians in turn had to be engaged to
save the 8th. Fortunately the Prussians here derived an un-
expected advantage from the shape of the ground, and indeed
from the weather. The heavy rain, which had delayed the
commencement of the action, had swollen the Bistritz so as
to check their advance and thus postpone the decision, whilst
the mist and driving rain hid the approaching troops from the
Austrian gunners, whose shells burst almost harmlessly on the
sodden ground. Then when once across the stream it was
discovered that unlike the normal slopes in the district the
hillside in front of them showed a slight convexity under cover
of which they were able to re-form in regular order. The ad-
vantage of the breech-loader now began to assert itself, for the
Austrian skirmishers who covered the front of the guns could
only load when standing up, while the Prussians lay down
or fired from cover. The defenders were therefore steadily
driven up the hill, and then cleared the front to give the guns
room to act. But the Austrian gunners were intent on the
Prussian batteries farther back, which as the light improved
had come into action. The Prussian infantry crept nearer
and nearer, till at under 300 yds. range and from cover they
were able to open fire on the Austrian gunners under conditions
which rendered the case fire of the latter practically useless;
but here was the opportunity a great cavalry leader on the
Austrian side might have seized to restore the battle, for the
ground, the shortness of the distance, and the smoke and excite-
ment of the cannonade were all in favour of the charge. Such
a charge as prelude to the advance of a great infantry bayonet
attack must have swept the exhausted Prussians down the hill
like sheep, but the opportunity passed, and the gunners find-
ing their position untenable, limbered up, not without severe
losses, and retired to a second position in rear. This with-
drawal took place about 2 p.m., and the crisis on the Prussian
side may be said to have lasted from about 1 1 a.m. By this time
every infantry soldier and gun within call had been thrown
into the fight, and the Austrians might well have thrown odds
of three to one upon the Prussian centre and have broken it
asunder.
Arrival of the II. Army. But suddenly the whole aspect
of affairs was changed. The 2nd and 4th Austrian corps found
themselves all at once threatened in flank and rear by heavy
masses of Prussian infantry, the leading brigades of the crown
prince's army, and they began to withdraw towards the centre
of their position in ordered brigade masses, apparently so intent
on keeping their men in hand that they seem never to have
noticed the approach of the Prussian reserve artillery of the
Guard which (under Prince Kraft zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen)
was straining forward over heavy soil and through standing corn
towards their point of direction, a clump of trees close to the
tower of the church of Chlum. Not even deigning to notice the
retreating columns, apparently too without escort, the batteries
pressed forward till they reached the summit of the ridge trending
eastward from Chlum towards the Elbe, whence the whole
interior of the Austrian position was disclosed to them, and then
they opened fire upon the Austrian reserves which lay below
them in solid masses of army corps. Occurring about 2.30, and
almost simultaneously with the withdrawal of the Austrian
guns on their left already alluded to, this may be said to have
decided the battle, for although the Saxons still stood firm
against the attacks of the Elbe army, and the reserves, both
cavalry and infantry, attempted a series of counterstrokes,
the advantage of position and moral was all on the side of the
Prussians. The slopes of the position towards the Austrians
now took on the usual concave section, and from the crest of
the ridge every movement could be seen for miles. The Austrian
cavalry, on weak and emaciated horses, could not gallop at
speed up the heavy slopes (-j^and the artillery of both Prussian
wings practically broke every attempt of the infantry to form
for attack.
Close of the Battle. Still the Austrians made good their
retreat. Their artillery driven back off the ridges formed a
long line from Stosser to Plotist facing the enemy, and under
cover of its fire the infantry at length succeeded in withdrawing,
for the Prussian reserve cavalry arrived late on the ground, and
the local disconnected efforts of the divisional cavalry were
checked by the still intact Austrian squadrons. Whereas at
2.30 absolute destruction seemed the only possible fate of the
defeated army, by 6 p.m., thanks to the devoted heroism of the
artillery and the initiative of a few junior commanders of cavalry,
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR
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KONIGGRATZ
Scale, i : 86, ooo
Scale of Yards
Contours at Intervals of 30 feet
it had escaped from the enclosing horns of the Prussian attack.
In spite of heavy losses the Austrians were perhaps better in
hand and more capable of resuming the battle next morning
than the victors, for they were experienced in war, and accustomed
to defeat, and retired in good order in three organized columns
within easy supporting distance of each other. On the other
hand, the Prussians were new to the battlefield, and the reaction
after the elation of victory was intense; moreover, if what
happened at Hiihnerwasser affords a guide, the staff would have
required some days to disentangle the units which had fought
and to assign them fresh objectives.
Final Operations. The convergence of the Prussian armies on the
battlefield ended in the greatest confusion. The Elbe army had
crossed the front of the I. army, and the II. army was mixed up with
both. The reserve cavalry reached the front too late in the day to
pursue. Thus the Austrians gained 24 hours, and the direction of
their retreat was not established with any degree of certainty for
several days. Moreover the little fortresses of Josephstadt and
Koniggratz both refused to capitulate, and the whole Prussian armies
were thus compelled to move down the Elbe to Pardubitz before they
could receive any definite new direction. Meanwhile Benedek had
in fact assigned only one corps with the reserve cavalry to oppose a
Prussian advance towards Vienna, and the remaining seven retired
to Olmiltz, where they were on the flank of a Prussian advance on
Vienna, and had all the resources of Hungary behind them to enable
them to recuperate. They were also still in railway communication
with the capital. On purely military grounds the Prussians should
have marched at once towards the Austrian field army, i.e. to Olmiitz.
But for political reasons Vienna was the more important objective,
and therefore the I. and Elbe armies were directed towards the
capital, whilst the II. army only moved in the direction of the
Austrian main body. Political motives had, however, in the mean-
time exercised a similar influence on the Austrian strategy. The
emperor had already consented to cede Venetia to Italy, had re-
called two corps from the south (see ITALIAN WARS, 1848-1870) to.
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR
the capital, and had appointed the archduke Albert to command the
whole army. The Army of the North, which had reached Olmiitz on
the loth of July, now received orders to move by road and rail
towards Vienna, and this operation brought them right across the
front of the II. Prussian army. The cavalry established contact on
the.isth in the neighbourhood of Tobitschau and Rochetinitz (action
of Tobitschau, July I5th), and the Austrians finding their intention
discovered, and their men too demoralized by fear of the breech-
loader to risk a fresh battle, withdrew their troops and endeavoured
to carry out their concentration by a wide circuit down the valley of
the Waag and through Pressburg. Meanwhile the Prussian main
army was pursuing its advance under very adverse circumstances.
Their railway communication ended abruptly at the Austrian
frontier; the roads were few and bad, the country sparsely cultivated
and inhospitable, and the troops suffered severely. One third of the
cavalry broke down on a march of 97 m. in five days, and the infantry,
after marching 112 m. in ten days, had to have a two days' halt
accorded them on the lyth. They were then in the district about
Briinn and Iglau, and on the i8th the royal headquarters reached
Nikolsburg. News had now been received of the arrival of Austrian
reinforcements by rail at the capital both from Hungary and Italy,
and of the preparation of a strong line of provisional defences
along the Florisdorf position directly in front of Vienna. Orders
were therefore issued during the l8th for the whole army to con-
centrate during the following days in the position held by the
Austrians around Wagram in 1809, and these orders were in pro-
cess of execution when on the 2ist an armistice was agreed upon
to commence at noon on the 22nd. The last fight was that of
Blumenau near Pressburg on the 22nd; this was broken off at
the stated time.
Langensalza. In western Germany the Prussian forces, depleted
to the utmost to furnish troops for the Bohemian campaign, were
opposed to the armies of Hanover and Bavaria and the 8th Federal
corps (the last consisting of Hessians, Wurttembergers, Badensers
and Nassauers with an Austrian division drawn from the neutralized
Federal fortresses), which were far superior in number. These minor
enemies were, however, unready and their troops were mostly of
indifferent quality. Hanover and Hesse-Cassel, which were nearest
to Prussia and therefore immediately dangerous, were dealt with
promptly and without waiting for the decision in the main theatre
of war. The I3th Prussian division (v. Goeben) was at Minden,
Manteuffel's troops from the Elbe duchies at Altona, v. Beyer's
division (Federal fortress garrisons) at Wetzlar. On the I5th and
i6th of June Beyer moved on Cassel, while the two other Prussian
generals converged on Hanover. Both places were in Prussian hands
before the 2Oth. The Hessians retired upon Hanau to join the 8th
Federal corps; only the Hanoverians remained in the north, and
they too, threatened by Beyer's advance, marched from their point
of concentration at Gottingen southward for the Main. With proper
support from Bavaria the Hanoverians could perhaps have escaped
intact ; but the Bavarians considered that their allies (about 20,000)
were strong enough by themselves to destroy whichever of the con-
verging Prussian columns tried to bar their way, and actually the
Hanoverian general v. Arentschild won a notable success over the
improvised Prussian and Coburg division of General v. Flies, which
advanced from Gotha and barred the southward march of the
Hanoverians at Langensalza. The battle of Langensalza (June 27th)
showed that the risks Moltke deliberately accepted when he trans-
ferred so many of the western troops to the Bohemian frontier were
by no means imaginary, for v. Flies, outnumbered by two to one,
sustained a sharp reverse before the other columns closed in. But
the strategical object of General Vogel y. Falckenstein, the Prussian
commander-in-chief in the west, was achieved next day. By the morn-
ing of the zgth Manteuffel and Goeben lay north, v. Flies's column
(backed by a fresh brigade) south of Langensalza, and Beyer
approached from Eisenach. Whatever had been the prospects of the
Hanoverian army five days previously, it was now surrounded by
twice its numbers, and on the 29th of June the capitulation of
Langensalza closed its long and honourable career.
The Main Campaign. The Prussian army, now called the " Army
of the Main," of three divisions (one being unusually strong), had next
to deal with the 7th (Bavarians) and 8th (other South Germans)
Federal corps in the valley of the Main. These were nominally over
100,000 strong and were commanded by Prince Charles of Bavaria.
The ordre de bataille of the 8th corps is interesting. It was com-
manded by Prince Alexander of Hesse; the 1st division (3 infantry
brigades, I cavalry brigade, 6 batteries) came from Wfirttemberg;
the 2nd division (2 infantry and I cavalry brigades. 5 batteries) from
Baden, the least anti-Prussian of all these states; the 3rd division
(2 infantry and I cavalry brigades, I rifle battalion, A batteries) from
Hesse- Darmstadt ; the 4th division consisted of an Austrian brigade
of 7 battalions (three of which were Italians), a Nassau brigade, and
two batteries and some hussars of Hesse-Cassel. The remainder of
the Hesse-Cassel troops, which had retired southward before Beyer's
advance on Cassel, went to the Rhine valley about Mainz. The
centre of the rayon of the 8th corps was Darmstadt, and the Bavarian
line extended from Coburg to Gemunden. It appears that Prince
Charles wished to march via Jena and Gera into Prussia, as Napoleon
had done sixty years before, but the scheme was negatived by the
Austrian government, which exercised the supreme command of the
allies. The Bavariahs did, however, advance, and made for the
Eisenach-Gotha region, where the Prussian-Hanoverian struggle was
in progress. Meanwhile the 8th Federal corps advanced also, but
actuated probably by political motives it took the general direction
of Cassel, and between the two German corps a wide gap opened, of
which Vogel v. Falckenstein was not slow to take advantage. On
the day of Koniggratz the Prussians moved into position to attack
the Bavarians, and on the 4th of July v. Goeben won the victory of
Wiesenthal (near Dermbach). The 7th corps thereupon drew back to
the Franconian Saale, the 8th to Frankfurt, and on the 7th of July
the Prussian army was massed about Fulda between them. Vogel
v. Falckenstein moved forward again on the 8th, and on the loth the
Bavarians were again defeated in a series of actions around Kissingen,
Waldaschach and Hammelburg. Meanwhile Prince Alexander's
motley corps began its advance from Frankfurt up the Main valley to
join the Bavarians, who had now retired on Schweinfurt. The army
of the Main, however, had little difficulty in defeating the 8th corps at
Laufach on the I3th and Aschaffenburg on the I4th of July. The
Prussians occupied Frankfurt (i6th). Vogel v. Falckenstein was
now called to Bohemia, and v. Manteuffel was placed in command of
the army of the Main for the final advance. The 7th and 8th corps
now at last effected their junction about Wurzburg, whither the army
of the Main marched from Frankfurt to meet them. The Federals
advanced in their turn, the Bavarians on the right, the 8th on the
left, and the opponents met in the valley of the Tauber. More partial
actions, at Hundheim (23rd), Tauber Bischofsheim (24th),Gerchsheim
(25th), Helmstadt (25th) and Rossbrunn (26th) ended in the retreat
of the Germans to Wurzburg and beyond ; the armistice (Aug. 2nd)
then put an end to operations. A Prussian reserve corps under the
grand duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, formed at Leipzig, had mean-
while overrun eastern Bavaria up to Nuremberg.
This campaign presents the sharpest contrast to that of Bohemia.
Small armies moving freely within a large theatre of war, the occupa-
tion of hostile territory as a primary object of operations, the absence
of a decision-compelling spirit on either side, the hostile political
" view " over-riding the hostile " feeling " all these conditions
remind the student of those of I7th and i8th century warfare. But
the improved organization, better communications and supplies,
superior moral, and once again the breech-loader versus a standing
target, which caused the Prussian successes, at least give us an
opportunity of comparing the old and the new systems under similar
conditions, and even thus the principle of the " armed nation "
achieved the decision in a period of time which, for the old armies,
was wholly insufficient.
The various treaties of Prague, Berlin and Vienna which followed
the armistice secured the annexation by Prussia of Hanover, the Elbe
duchies, the electorate of Hesse, Nassau and Frankfurt, the dis-
solution of the existing confederation and the creation of a new
North German Confederation under the hegemony of Prussia, and
the payment of war indemnities to Prussia (the Austrian share being
6,000,000). Venetia was ceded by Austria to Napoleon III. and by
him to King Victor Emmanuel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Prussian General Staff, Der Feldzug 1866 in
Deutschland (Berlin, 1867; English translation, The War in Germany,
1866, War Office, London, 1872, new edition, 1907; French trans-
lation, La Campagne de 1866, Paris, 1868) ; Austrian Official (K.K.
Generalstabsbureau fur Kriegsgesch.), Osterreichs Kdmpfe 1866
(Vienna, 1867; French translation, Les Luttes d'Autriche, Brussels,
1867); Friedjung, Der Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in Deulschld.
(Stuttgart, 1899); H. M. Hozier, The Seven Weeks' War (1867; new
edition, London, 1906); Antheil des k. sachsischen Armee-Corps am
Feldzuge 1866 (Dresden, 1869); v. Willisen, Die Feldzuge 1859 u.
1866 (Berlin, 1868); Lettow-Vorbeck, Geschichte des Krieges v. 1866
in Deutschland (Berlin, 1899); Moltkes Militar-Korrespondenz 1866
(Berlin, 1896); H. Bonnal, Sadowa (Paris, 1901; English translation,
London, 1907); G. J. R. Glunicke, The Campaign in Bohemia
(London, 1907); A. Strobl, Traulenau (Vienna, 1901); Ktthne,
Kritische u. unkritische Wanderungen uber d. Gefechtsfelder &c.
(Berlin, 1870-1875); Jahns, Schlacht bei Koniggratz (Leipzig, 1876);
v. Quistorp, Der grosse Kavalleriekampf bei Stfesetitz (Koniggratz)
(Berlin, 1897); Moltkes Feldzugsplan (Berlin, 1892); t)ber die
Verwendung der Kavallerie 1866 (Berlin, 1870); Dragomirov,
Schilderung des osterr.-preuss. Krieges 1866 (Berlin, 1868); V. Verdy
du Vernois, Im Hauptquartiere des II. Armee 1866 (Berlin, 1900);
Harbauer, Trautenau, Custozza, Lissa (Leipzig, 1907) ; Kovafik, FZM
von Benedek und der Krieg 1866 (see also article BENEDEK, LUDWIG,
RITTER VON); Anon. V. Koniggratz bis an die Donau (Vienna,
1906); Duval, Vers Sadowa (Nancy, 1907); Feldzugsjournal ties
Oberbefehlshabers des VIII. Bundes-A.-K. (Leipzig, 1867); Bavarian
General Staff, Antheil der k. bayer. Armee am Kriege 1866 (Munich,
1868); F. Hoenig, Die Entscheidungskampje des Mainfeldzuges
(Berlin, 1895); F. Regensberg, Langensalza (Stuttgart, 1906); V.
Goeben, Treffen bei Kissingen and Gefecht bei Dermbach (Leipzig,
1870); H. Kunz, Feldzug der Mainarmee 1866 (Berlin, 1890);
Schimmelpfennig, Die kurhessische Armee-Division (Melsungen,
1892); Antheil der badischen Feld-Div. 1866 (Lahr, 1867); Die
Operationen des VIII. Bundes-A.-K. (Leipzig, 1868); v. d. Wengen,
Gesch. d. Kriegsereienisse zwischen Preussen u. Hannover 1866 (Gotha,
I88O, and Gen. Vogel v. Fakkenstein u. d. hannov. Feldzug (Gotha,
1887). (F. N. M.;C. F. A.)
SEVEN WISE MASTERS SEVEN YEARS' WAR
715
SEVEN WISE MASTERS, THE, a cycle of stories of Oriental
origin. A Roman emperor causes his son to be educated away
from the court in the seven liberal arts by seven wise masters.
On his return to court his stepmother the empress seeks to
seduce him. To avert some danger presaged by the stars he
is bound over to a week's silence. During this time the empress
accuses him to her husband, and seeks to bring about his death
by seven stories which she relates to the emperor; but her
narrative is each time confuted by tales of the craft of women
related by the sages. Finally the prince's lips are unsealed,
the truth exposed, and the wicked empress is executed.
The cycle of stories, which appears in many European
languages, is of Eastern origin. An analogous collection occurs
in Sanskrit, but the Indian original is unknown. Travelling
from the east by way of Arabic, Persian, Syriac and Greek,
it was known as the book of Sindibad, and was translated from
Greek into Latin in the i2th century by Jean de Hauteseille
(Joannes de Alta Silva), a monk of the abbey of Haute-Seille
near Toul, with the title of Dolopathos (ed. H. Oesterley, Strass-
burg, 1873). This was translated into French about 1210 by a
trouvere named Herbers as Li Romans di Dolopathos; another
French version, Li Romans des sept sages, was based on a different
Latin original. The German, English, French and Spanish
chap-books of the cycle are generally based on a Latin original
differing from these. Three metrical romances probably based
on the French, and dating from the I4th century, exist in English.
The most important of these is The Sevyn Sages by John Rolland
of Dalkeith, edited for the Bannatyne Club (Edinburgh, 1837).
The Latin romance was frequently printed in the I5th century, and
Wynkyn de Worde printed an English version about 1515. See
G. Paris, Deux Redactions du roman des sept sages de Rome (Paris,
1876, Soc. des. anc. textes fr.) ; Biichner, Historia septem sapientium
. . . (Erlangen, 1889); K. Campbell, A Study of the Romance of the
Seven Sages with special reference to the middle English versions
(Baltimore, 1898) ; D. Comparetti, Researches respecting the Book of
Sindibdd (Folk-Lore Soc., 1882).
SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE, THE, a collective name for
certain sages who flourished c. 620-550 B.C. The generally
accepted list is Bias, Chilon, Cleobulus, Periander, Pittacus,
Solon, Thales (see separate articles), although ancient authorities
differ as to names and number. They obtained great influence
in their respective cities as legislators and advisers, and a re-
putation throughout the Greek world. Their rules of life were
embodied in poems and short sayings in common use.
See O. Bernhardt, Die sieben Weisen Griechenlands (1864); F.
Bohren, De septem sapientibus (1867); "Septem sapientium
carmina et apophthegmata," with short biographies in F. Mullach,
Fragmenta philosophorum Graecorum, i. (1860); H. Wulf in Dis-
sertationes philologicae Halenses, xiii. (1896).
SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, the name conferred
on a select group of ancient works of art which had obtained
pre-eminence among the sight-seers of the Alexandrian era.
The earliest extant list, doubtless compiled from the numerous
guide books then current in the Greek world, is that of the
epigrammatist Antipater of Sidon (2nd century B.C.). A second
and slightly divergent list from the hand of a Byzantine rhetori-
cian has been incorporated in the works of Philo of Byzantium.
The monuments are as follows: (i) the pyramids of Egypt,
(2) the gardens of Semiramis at Babylon, (3) the statue of Zeus
at Olympia (see PHEIDIAS), (4) the temple of Artemis at Ephesus,
(5) the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (see MAUSOLEUM), (6) the
Colossus at Rhodes, (7) the Pharos (lighthouse) of Alexandria,
or the Walls of Babylon.
See " Philo " De septem mundi miraculis (ed. Hercher, Paris, 1858).
SEVEN YEARS' WAR (1756-1763), the name given to the
European war which arose from the formation of a coalition
between Austria, France, Russia, Sweden and Saxony against
Prussia, with the object of destroying, or at least crippling, the
power of Frederick the Great. Prussia was joined by England,
and between England and France, as usual, a maritime and
colonial war broke out at the first pretext; this war laid the
foundations of the British empire, for ere the seven campaigns
had been fought in Europe, the French dominion in Canada and
the French influence in India, in spite of Dupleix, Lally and
Pirns.
Montcalm, had been entirely overthrown by the victories of Clive,
Amherst and Wolfe. Great as was the effect of these victories
on the history of the world, however, it is at least questionable
whether the steadfast resistance of Prussia, almost single-handed
as she was the resistance which laid the solid, if then unseen,
foundations of modern Germany is not as important a pheno-
menon, and from the technical military standpoint Rossbach and
Leuthen, Zorndorf and Kunersdorf possess an interest which it
would be possible perhaps to claim for Plassy and for Quebec,
but not for border conflicts in Canada and India. It is not
only battles, the distinct and tangible military events, that make
up the story of Frederick's defence. There are countless marches
and manoeuvres, devoid of interest as regards their details; but,
as indications of the equilibrium of forces in 18th-century war-
fare, indispensable to a study of military history as a whole.
Learning of the existence and intentions of the coalition,
Frederick determined to strike first, and to that end, during
the months preceding the outbreak of hostilities, he
concentrated his 150,000 men as follows: 11,000 men
in Pomerania to watch the Swedes, 26,000 on the Russian
frontier, 37,000 men under Field Marshal Schwerin in Silesia, and
a main body of 70,000 in three columns ready to advance into
Saxony at a moment's notice, the king being in chief command.
On the 2gth of August 1756 the Saxon frontier was crossed.
Dresden was occupied on the loth of September, the Saxon
army, about 14,000 strong, falling back before the invaders to
the entrenched camp of Pirna, an almost inaccessible plateau
parallel to the Elbe and close to the Bohemian frontier. The
secret of the Prussian intentions had been so well kept that the
Austrians were still widely disseminated in Bohemia and Moravia.
32,000 men under Field Marshal Browne were at Kolin, and 22,000
under Piccolomini at Olmiitz, when on the 3ist of August the
news of the invasion arrived, and such was their unreadiness
that Browne could not advance till the 6th of September, Picco-
lomini until the gth. Meanwhile the Prussians, leaving detach-
ments to watch the exits from Pirna, moved up the Elbe and
took post at Aussig to cover the investment of the Saxons.
Learning of Browne's approach on the 28th of September, the
king, assuming the command of the covering force, advanced
yet farther up the Elbe to meet him, and the two armies
met at Lobositz (opposite Leitmeritz) on the morning of the
ist of October. The battle began in a thick fog, rendering
dispositions very difficult, and victory fell to the Prussians,
principally owing to the tenacity displayed by their infantry in
a series of disconnected local engagements. The nature of the
ground rendered pursuit impossible, and the losses on both sides
were approximately equal viz. 3000 men but the result sealed
the fate of the Saxons, who after a few half-hearted attempts
to escape from their entrenchments, surrendered on the I4th of
October, and were taken over bodily into the Prussian service.
Prussian administrators were appointed to govern the captured
country and the troops took up winter quarters.
Campaign of 1757. The Coalition had undertaken to pro-
vide 500,000 men against Prussia, but at the beginning of
the year only 132,000 Austrians stood ready for action
in northern Bohemia. Against these the king was p*j e f
organizing some 250,000, 45,000 of whom were paid
for by British subsidies and disposed to cover Hanover from a
French attack. After leaving detachments to guard his other
frontiers, Frederick was able to take the field with nearly 150,000
men. but these also were scattered to guard a frontier some 200
m. in length the left wing in Silesia under Schwerin and the
duke of Brunswick-Bevern, the Centre and right under the
king. In April the operations began. Schwerin and Bevern
crossed the mountains into Bohemia and united at Jung
Bunzlau, the Austrians falling back before them and surrendering
their magazines. The king marched from Pirna and Prince
Maurice of Dessau from Zwickau on Prague, at which point the
various Austrian commands were ordered to concentrate.
On the morning of the 5th the whole army, except a column
under Field Marshal Daun, was united here under Prince
Charles of Lorraine, and the king, realizing the impossibility of
716
SEVEN YEARS' WAR
SILESIAN WARS
storming the heights before him, left a corps under Keith and a
few detachments to watch Prague and the fords across the river,
and marched during the night upstream and, crossing above
the Austrian right, formed his army (about 64,000) for attack
at right angles to the Austrian front. The ground had not
been reconnoitred, and in the morning mist many mistakes in
the deployment had been made, but as Daun was known to be
but 20 m. away and the Austrian army was changing its front
to meet the unexpected attack, the king threw caution to the
winds and sending Zieten with his cavalry by a wide detour
to cover his left, he ordered the whole to advance. One of
the most savage battles in history was the result. Almost
immediately the Prussian infantry became entangled in a series
of morasses, the battalion guns had to be left behind and the
troops had to correct their alignment under the round shot fired
by the Austrians, who had completed their change of front in
time and now stood ready to sweep the open glacis before them.
Before the storm of bullets and the grape and canister of the
heavy and battalion guns the Prussian first line faltered and
fell in thousands. Their attempts to prepare the way for the
bayonet assault broke down. Schwerin was killed. But the
second line carried the survivors on, and in the nick of time
Zieten 's cavalry drove the Austrian horsemen off the field and
broke in on the flank and rear of their infantry. This turned
the scale, and the Austrians retreated into Prague in hopeless
confusion, leaving some 10,000 men (14-8%) on the ground, and
4275 prisoners, out of about 66,000, in their enemy's hands. The
Prussians lost 11,740 men killed and wounded and 1560 prisoners,
and in all 20-8% of their strength. The actual fighting seems
only to have lasted about two hours, though firing did not cease
till late at night; 16,000 Austrians managed in the confusion
to evade capture and join Daun, who made no movement either
on this or succeeding days to come to the assistance of his
comrades, but began a leisurely retreat towards Vienna.
The Prussians immediately began the siege of the town, and
after a month's delay Daun, now at the head of some 60,000 men,
moved forward to the relief of the city. Learning of
his approach, the king, taking with him all the men
who could be spared from the investment and uniting all avail-
able detachments, moved to meet him with only 34,000 men,
and on the i8th of June he found Daun strongly entrenched.
He immediately endeavoured to march past him and attack
him on the right flank as at Prague, but the Austrian light
troops harassed his columns so severely during the movement
that without orders they wheeled up to drive them off and,
being thus thrown into disarray, they took three divergent
objectives. Their disunited attacks all fell upon superior
numbers, and after a most obstinate struggle they were badly
beaten with a loss in killed and wounded of 6710 (18-6%) and
5380 prisoners with 22 colours and 45 guns. The fighting lasted
5^ hours. The Austrian loss was only 8000 out of 53,500, or
1 5 2 %, of whom only 1 500 were taken prisoners.
This disaster entailed raising the siege of Prague, and the
Prussians fell back on Leitmeritz. The Austrians, reinforced
by the 48,000 troops in Prague, followed them 100,000
strong, and, falling on Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia, who
was retreating eccentrically (for commissariat reasons) on
Zittau, inflicted a severe check upon him. The king was com-
pelled to abandon Bohemia, falling back on Bautzen. Having
re-formed his men and calling in Keith's 27,000 men fromPirna,
SEVEN YEARS' WAR
717
he again advanced, but found the enemy so strongly posted at
Burkersdorf (south of Bischofswerda) that he relinquished his
purpose and retreated on Bernstadt.
west.
Meanwhile his enemies had been gathering around him.
France had despatched 100,000 men under d'Estrees against
Hanover, where Cumberland with 54,000 stood to
meet him, and another 24,000 men were marching
through Franconia to unite with the " Army of the
Holy Roman Empire " under the prince of Saxe-
Hildburghausen. Fortunately this latter army was not as
formidable as its title, and totalled only some 60,000 most un-
disciplined and heterogeneous combatants. In the north 100,000
Russians under Apraxin were
slowly advancing into East
Prussia, where Lehwald with
30,000 was preparing to
confront them, and 16,000
Swedes had landed in Pome-
rania. On the 26th of June
Cumberland had been beaten
at Hastenbeck by d'Estrees,
and the French overran Han-
over and Brunswick. The
king, leaving Severn with
only 13,600 men in Silesia
to watch the Austrians,
began to march across Ger-
many to succour Cumber-
land. Arrived at Leipzig
on the 3rd of September,
he heard of Lehwald's
defeat at Gross-Jagerndorf
on the 3oth of August
and immediately afterwards
of Cumberland's convention
of Kloster Seven, which
gave up Hanover to the
French. Fearing that the
French army now set free
in Hanover might unite with
the Army of the Empire
under Hildburghausen
and with 150,000 men march
direct on Berlin, Frederick,
taking with him 23,000
men, marched to join Prince
Ferdinand in the district
about Halberstadt, hoping to strike his blow before the enemy's
junction could be completed. Mobility, therefore, was the
first consideration, and arrangements for supply having been
made in advance along his road, his troops covered 170 m.
in 12 days (September 1-13). But Hildburghausen, not
having been joined by d'Estrees, refused to fight and fell
back into the wooded districts of Thuringia and Franconia.
Bad news now reached Frederick from Silesia; leaving
Ferdinand to observe Hildburghausen, he marched with all
haste to Eckersberg to support Bevern. Arrived here, he found
more bad news from Berlin, which had been entered by a body
of Austrian raiders under Hadik and plundered. Prince Maurice
and Seydlitz were sent by forced marches to its aid, and before
them Hadik retired at once (October i8th). Finding the
Austrians for the moment quiescent and hearing that Hildburg-
hausen was again advancing, the king now concentrated all avail-
able men on Leipzig and marched to support Prince Ferdinand.
Hildburghausen took up a position about Meucheln on the 2nd
of November, and on the sth moved off to repeat Frederick's
manoeuvre of Prague against its inventor. The battle of Rossbach
(q.v.) followed. In this Seydlitz and the Prussian .
. . . , , * Rossbach.
cavalry won imperishable renown. Aided only by the
fire of 18 guns and of 7 battalions of infantry, only two of which
fired more than five rounds, the Prussian squadrons swept
down upon the marching columns of the Allies and in about
40 minutes the whole 64,000 were in full flight. Never was a
victory more timely, for the Prussian army was almost worn
out and more bad news was even then on the way.
Bevern in Silesia, who had been beaten at Moys near Gorlitz
(September 7th) and in the battle of Breslau on the 22nd of
October, had been compelled to retire behind the Oder, leaving
the fortresses of Schweidnitz and Breslau to their fate, and
both had capitulated within a few days. Leaving a small
reinforcement for Ferdinand, the king now moved by forced
marches to Liegnitz. The distance, about 170 m. through
difficult country, was covered again in 12 days, but the numbers
were small, only 13,000, which shews how tremendous had been
the drain upon the men of the previous six weeks' exertions. On
the night of the 4th of December, having joined the beaten
forces of Bevern at Parschwitz, making in all 43,000 men of
very unequal fighting value, he decided to attack the 72,000
Austrians who lay across the Breslau road, their centre marked
by the village of Leuthen (q.v.). His position appeared so
7 i8
SEVEN YEARS' WAR
desperate that he sent for all his generals, laid the facts before
them, announced his decision to attack and offered to accept
any man's resignation without prejudice to his character should
he deem the risk too hazardous. Needless to say, not one
accepted the offer.
Covered by the low rolling hillocks of the district, the army
now moved off to its right across the Austrian front, the advance
led by Zieten and half the cavalry, the rear covered
by Driessen with the remaining half some 40 weak
squadrons. The infantry having gained a position sufficiently
on the Austrian flank, now wheeled into line and attacked in
echelon of battalions from the right. The battle soon became
desperate, and the Austrian cavalry on their right wing under
Luchesi, unaware of Driessen's presence as a flank guard, issued
out of their lines, wheeled to their left and swept down upon
the refused flank of the Prussian infantry; but they never
reached them, for Driessen, seizing his opportunity, set his
squadrons in motion and attacked. The Austrians, completely
surprised, were ridden down and driven back on to the
front of their own infantry, and the pressure of the fugitives
threw the rear of their left wing into confusion and in
a short time the ruin of their army was completed. When
the news of Driessen's charge was brought to the king his
astonishment was expressed in the single phrase, " What,
that old fool Driessen? " The fighting, however, had been
desperate, and though the Austrians out of their 72,000 lost
37% including 20,000 prisoners, with 116 guns and 51
colours, the Prussians lost 6200 (14%) making with the
other battles of the year a total of nearly 75,000 men, and
not including losses in minor skirmishes and on the march.
Campaign of 1758. The raid upon Berlin had accomplished
nothing, and the advance of the Russian main body had died
out for want of resolution to seize the opportunities offered
by Frederick the Great's absence. The Czarina, annoyed
by his slowness, recalled Apraxin and appointed Fermor in
his place. Utilizing the winter snows, he collected some 3 1 ,000
men and crossed the frontiers of East Prussia (January loth,
1758) and attempted to annex the province, driving out all
the Prussian officials who refused to swear fealty to Elizabeth.
This took time, and when the period of thaw supervened
the Russians were immobilized and could not advance until
approaching summer had dried the roads again. For the
moment, therefore, no danger threatened Frederick from this
quarter, and Rossbach had effectually tamed the French.
The Swedes, too, showed little energy, the " roadless " period
affecting them equally with the Russians.
Frederick therefore resolved to seize the opportunity to
renew his invasion of Austria. As a beginning he recap-
tured Schweidnitz in April with 5000 prisoners. The
o/mWz. Austrian field army under Daun lay about Koniggratz,
covering all the passes out of Silesia; but covered
by the newly formed " Free Corps " (his answer to the
semi-savage Croats, Pandours and Tolpatches of the Austrians) ,
Frederick marched right across their front on Olmiitz, whilst
a special corps (30,000) under Prince Henry threatened their
left from Saxony and the Elbe. He had with him about
40,000 men. But Olmiitz lay 90 m. from the Prussian frontier,
and the Austrian light troops swarmed in the intervening dis-
trict. Ultimately a great Prussian convoy was destroyed in
the action of Domstadl, and the siege of Olmiitz had to be raised
(July ist) ; but instead of marching back the way he had come
Frederick led his troops through Bohemia practically in the rear
of Daun's army, and on the I4th of July entered Daun's empty
entrenchments at Koniggratz. Fermor's Russians were now again
in the field and had reached Posen, burning and plundering
horribly. By skilful manoeuvring the king deceived the Austrians
till the roads to Silesia by Skalitz and Nachod were open and
then by a rapid march passed over into Silesia, reaching Griissau
(near Landshut) on the 8th of August. Leaving Keith with half
his force to hold this district, he then marched to Frankfurt-on-
the-Oder, taking with him only some 13,000 men, to strengthen
the wing already engaged against the Russians. Frankfurt
was reached on the 2oth of August. Fermor was then besieging
Custrin with 52,000 men, and hearing of the king's approach he
raised the siege and placed himself behind a formidable obstacle
facing north, near Zorndorf, from which direction the king was
approaching. Seeing that the same obstacle that prevented him
from attacking the Russians prevented them equally from attack-
ing him, the king marched right round Fermor's eastern flank
the Russians gradually forming a fresh front to meet him so that
when the Prussian attack began on the morning of the 25th
of August they stood in three irregular squares, divided from each
other by marshy hollows, and thus unable to render one another
support. The king made his first effort against the square on
the right Seydlitz with his squadrons covering the
movement. But the Russian troops fought with far '
more spirit than the Austrians had ever shown, and things were
going very badly with the Prussians when Seydlitz, who in the
meanwhile had succeeded in making paths across the Zabern-
grund on which the Russian right rested, flung himself upon
the great square, and rode over and destroyed the whole
mass in a prolonged m616e in which quarter was neither given
nor asked. Relieved by this well-timed charge, the king
now re-formed the infantry already engaged, and concen-
trated all his efforts on the south-west angle of the great
centre square. Again the Russians more than held their
own, issuing forth from their squares and capturing many field-
pieces. Some of the Prussian infantry was actually broken
and in full flight when Seydlitz, with his ranks re-formed and
his horses rested, returned and again threw himself upon the
square exactly as on the previous occasion and with the same
result the square, as a formation, was broken, but groups still
stood back to back and the most savage butchery ensued. The
combatants could not be separated and only darkness put a
stop to the slaughter. Of 36,000 Prussians 12,500 were killed
or wounded, 1000 prisoners or missing (37-5%), and of 42,000
Russians about 21,000 had fallen (50%).
In the night the survivors gradually rallied, and morning
found the Russians in a fresh position a couple of miles to
the northward, but Frederick's troops were too weary to
renew the attack. Gradually the Russians withdrew towards
Landsberg and Konigsberg, and the king, leaving Dohna to
follow them up, marched with the remainder of his forces on
the 2nd of September for Saxony, covering 22 m. a day. They
arrived only in the nick of time, for Daun had united with
portions of the Empire Army and was threatening to crush
SEVEN YEARS' WAR
719
Prince Henry under the weight of more than two-fold numbers.
The prince had been driven into an entrenched position above
Gahmig near Dresden and Daun was about to attack, but the
mere name of Frederick was enough, and learning of his arrival
Daun fell back to Stolpen on the 12th of September.
The Prussian army now lay around Grossenhain, Prince
Henry's force covering Dresden and the Elbe bridges. The
Empire Army was at Pirna, Daun at Stolpen, and
^ these positions they remained until the 26th of
September, the Prussians getting the rest they so
urgently needed. On that date, however, the state of truce was
broken and the king moved towards Bischofswerda, where
Daun's subordinate Loudon was posted. The latter retired,
opening the road to Bautzen. The king arrived at Bautzen on
the 7th of October and had to wait until the loth for provisions
from Dresden. He then moved forward to Hochkirch, where
he found Daun strongly entrenched across his path at Kittlit'z
with 90,000 men, the Prussians having only 37,000. The king
determined to attack the Austrian right. So confident had the
Prussians become in the belief that Daun would never take
the offensive himself that the most elementary precautions of
safety were forgotten and only Zieten kept his horses saddled.
During the night of the i3th the Austrians, leaving their watch-
fires burning and moving silently through the woods, which
covered much of the ground, formed up almost all round the
Prussian camp. At 5 a.m. the attack was delivered from all
quarters simultaneously and a most desperate struggle ensued.
Nothing but the superb discipline of the Prussians saved the
situation. Zieten with his squadrons managed to keep a way
of escape open, and after a most obstinate conflict the wreck
of the army succeeded in withdrawing, leaving 101 guns and
9450 men on the ground or in their enemies' hands (25-5%).
The Austrians, in spite of the advantage of a well-conceived
surprise, lost 7590 men and were too shaken for pursuit. They
fell back to their old camp, where they remained fora week, thus
giving Frederick time to bring up reinforcements from Dresden
(6000 men) and, starting on the 23rd, he marched right round the
Austrian right and raised the siege of Neisse, the prime object
with which he had set out. Daun, learning that the king had
gone past him into Silesia, now laid siege to Dresden. On the
iSth of November he heard that Frederick was marching to
its relief through Lusatia and incontinently gave way, retiring
on Pirna. The king was in Dresden again on the 2oth.
Campaign of 1759. The drain on Frederick's resources had
been prodigious. On the battlefields of the previous three years
he had lost at least 75,000 men, not counting the waste of life
in his marches and skirmishes; but he still managed to keep
1 50,000 men in the field, though for want of the old two years'
training in loading, firing and manoeuvring the average efficiency
had much diminished. In cavalry, too, he was relatively weaker,
as there was no time to train the remounts. His enemies felt
their losses far less and were beginning to understand his tactics;
fortunately they remained incapable of combined action.
After minor operations on the frontiers the Russians took the
field. Fermor had been superseded by Soltikov, and Dohna with
his 18,000 men proved quite inadequate to arrest
the Russians' progress. He was superseded by
Wedell, who, on the 23rd of July, with 26,000 men
boldly attacked the 70,000 Russians whilst on the march near
Ziillichau. He was defeated with a loss of 6000 and fell back
to Crossen bridge, 5 m. below Crossen, which Soltikov occupied
next day, thence he moved down the river towards Frankfurt,
keeping on the eastern bank. Daun had detached Loudon and
Hadik with 35,000 men to join him, and it became vital to
Frederick to prevent the combination. Leaving Prince Henry
at Schmottseifen to watch Daun, he marched with all available
forces and joined Wedell on the 6th of August at Miillrose near
Frankfurt, after vainly searching for the Hadik-Loudon force.
Here he was joined on the loth by Finck with 10,000 men,
bringing his whole force up to 50,000 against the Russian and
Austrian 90,000, who lay entrenched in the sandhills about
Kunersdorf. On the nth he crossed his whole force over the
Kuners-
dort.
Oder at Reitwein and on the i2th marched forward, intending
to envelop the Russians on both flanks; but his columns lost
their way in the woods and their attacks were delivered succes-
sively. In spite of their usual disciplined gallantry, the Prussians
were completely beaten, even Seydlitz and his squadrons failed
to achieve the impossible, and the night closed down on the
greatest calamity Frederick had ever experienced. Of 43,000
men 20,720 (48-2%) were left on the ground and 178 guns
and 28 colours fell into the hands of the enemy; and the allied
Austro-Russian force only lost 15,700. The battle had only
lasted six hours. In the depression following this terrible day
he wrote to Schmettau, commanding at Dresden, telling him
to expect no help, and on the 4th of September Dresden fell.
As usual Frederick was saved by the sluggishness of his enemies,
who attempted no pursuit, and being reinforced the day after
the battle by 23,000 men, and having ordered up Kleist
(who had been watching the Swedes), he was again at
the head Qf an army. Week after week went by, during which he
countered all attempts of Daun and Soltikov to combine, and
ultimately the Russians, having consumed all the food and
forage in the districts they occupied, were compelled to fall back
on their own frontiers. Then, uniting with Prince Henry, the
king turned to fall upon Daun; but his contempt for his adver-
sary proved his own undoing. Contrary to all his own teaching,
he sent a detachment of 12,000 men under Finck to work round
the Austrians' flank by Dippoldiswald to Maxen, but the latter,
learning of the movement and calling up a wing of the Empire
Army to their assistance, fell upon Finck with 42,000 men and
compelled him to surrender after two days' hard fighting. The
combination having failed, the two armies stood facing one
another till far into the winter. But for Prince Ferdinand's
glorious victory at Minden on the ist of August, the year would
have been one catalogue of disaster to the Prussian arms, and
these operations must now be mentioned.
In the early part of 1758 Prince Ferdinand with 30,000 men
had advanced from Liineburg and was joined by Prince Henry
with 8600 from Halberstadt. The approach of the latter
threatened the right wing of the French army under Clermont,
which was posted along the Aller, and the whole line gave way
and retreated without making any serious stand behind the
Rhine. Prince Ferdinand followed and defeated them on the
23rd of June at Crefeld. Clermont was relieved by Contades and
at the same time Soubise, who had at last reorganized his com-
mand, shattered by the disaster of Rossbach, moved forward
through Hesse and compelled Prince Ferdinand to withdraw
from his very advanced position. No engagement followed;
Soubise fell back upon Frankfurt and Prince Ferdinand held a
line through Munster, Paderborn and Cassel during the winter.
Fortunately events in Canada and the glory of his victories
had made Frederick's cause thoroughly popular in Great Britain,
and at last it became possible to detach a considerable force of
British troops to Prince Ferdinand's assistance, whose conduct
turned the scale- in the critical moment of the campaign. During
the winter the French had organized their forces in two columns-
based on Frankfurt and Wesel respectively. Broglie was now
in command of the former; Contades still led the latter.
In April Prince Ferdinand advanced to drive the French
out of Hesse and Frankfurt, and actually reached Bergen,
a village some 10 m. to the north, but here he nlaiea
was defeated by Broglie (i3th April) and forced to
retreat the way he had come, the French following along their
whole front and by sheer weight of numbers manceuvring him
successively out of each position he assumed. On the loth of
July Broglie surprised Minden, thus securing a bridge over the
Weser and free access into Hanover, and light troops overran the
south of the electorate. On the i6th Contades with the left
column joined Broglie and the French now had some 60,000 men
against the 45,000 Ferdinand could muster. The latter's position
was extremely difficult, for the French had only to continue in
possession of the bridges at Minden to ruin the whole country
by their exactions, and the position they held was too well
protected on the flanks and too strong in front for direct attack.
720
SEVEN YEARS' WAR
Nevertheless Prince Ferdinand drew up before it and met the
French plundering raids by a threat on their communication with
Cassel, and as a further inducement to tempt Contades to attack
him, he detached a column under Wangenheim, which entrenched
itself across the only outlet by which the right of the French army
could debouch from behind the marshes which lie in the angle
between the Weser and the Bastau, a small tributary joining the
former below Minden. ' The bait took, and during the early hours
of the ist of August the French army moved out to attack
Wangenheim. But Ferdinand's troops had been lying in instant
readiness for action, and as soon as the outposts gave the alarm
they were in motion in eight columns, i.e. practically deployed
for action to meet the French as they emerged from their positions.
Unfortunately the outpost reports were delayed by about two
hours, owing to the heavy gale and storm that was prevailing,
and the French had made far greater progress with their deploy-
ment than Ferdinand had reckoned on. An almost front-to-
front engagement ensued. Things were going badly with the
Prussians when, through a mistake in the delivery of an order,
the British brigade (izth, zoth, 23rd, zsth, 37th, sist), followed
by some Hanoverian battalions, began to advance straight upon
the masses of French cavalry who stood protected by the cross-
fire of several batteries. Once launched, neither fire nor shock
could check their progress; halting for a moment to pour
volleys into the charging squadrons hastily thrown against them,
they swiftly resumed their advance. French infantry too
were hurled against them, but were swept away by fire and
bayonet, and presently they had pierced right through the
French line of battle. Now came the moment when cavalry
should have been at hand to complete the victory, and this
cavalry, the Blues, the ist and 3rd Dragoons, Scots Greys and
loth Dragoons under Lord George (afterwards Viscount) Sack-
ville (q.v.) stood ready, waiting only the order to advance.
This Sackville refused to give, though called on three times by
the prince; no satisfactory explanation of his conduct has ever
been discovered, but he was tried by a general court-martial and
cashiered. Nevertheless, so brilliant had been the conduct of
all the troops engaged, especially of the infantry brigade that the
victory was won even in spite of this failure of the, cavalry, and
before evening the French were retreating as a demoralized mass
towards Cassel, leaving some 10,000 men, 17 colours and 45 guns
in the hands of the victors, who on their side out of 43,000 had
lost 2600 killed and wounded. Of the six British regiments that
went into action 4434 strong, 1330 (30%) had fallen, but their
feat is not to be measured only by the losses victoriously borne
these were not unusual in the period but by the astounding
discipline they maintained throughout the advance, resuming
their march after beating off cavalry charges with the cool
precision of a review in peace-time. Ferdinand followed up his
victory by a pursuit which was vigorous for three days and had
all but reached the Rhine when his movement was stayed by the
necessity of detaching 12,000 men to the king to make good the
losses of Kunersdorf.
Campaign of 1760. The year opened gloomily for Frederick.
His embarrassment both for men and money was extreme, and
his enemies had at last agreed on a combined plan against him.
They purposed to advance in three columns concentrically upon
him: Daun with 100,000 men in Saxony, Loudon with 50,000
from Silesia, Soltikov's Russians from East Prussia; and, against
whichever column the king turned, the others were to continue
towards Berlin. Only in Hanover were the conditions more
favourable, for Ferdinand had 70,000 (20,000 British) against
the 125,000 of the French.
Early in April the king stood with 40,000 men, west of the
Elbe near Meissen facing Daun, Prince Henry with 34,000 in
Silesia from Crossen to Landeshut, 15,000 under Forcade and
Jung-Stutterheim in Pomerania facing the Swedes and Russians.
Towards the end of May Loudon moved to besiege Glatz, and
Fouqu6, who commanded at Landeshut, marched with 13,000 to
cover Breslau. Loudon at once seized Landeshut, and Fouque,
returning in response to urgent orders from the king, was attacked
by Loudon with 31,000 men and almost destroyed. Meanwhile,
Prince Henry had moved to Landsberg against the Russians, but
failed to seize his opportunities and thus Silesia lay open to the
Austrians. Frederick decided to march with his main body
against Loudon and attack him if unsupported, but, if his
movement induced Daun to move to Loudon's support, then to
double back and besiege Dresden. For this purpose a siege train
was held in readiness at Magdeburg. He marched rapidly on
Bautzen, then hearing that Daun was approaching to support
Loudon he returned and besieged Dresden (July i2th). The
town was bombarded, there being no time for regular siege
approaches, but it held out, and by the a8th of July Daun's
army returning had almost surrounded Frederick. The siege had
to be raised, and during the night of the 2Qth of July the Prussians
slipped away to Meissen. On the same day Frederick learnt that
Glatz, the key to Southern Silesia, had fallen into the hands of the
Austrians, but as a set-off the news shortly afterwards arrived
of Prince Ferdinand's brilliant victory at Warburg, in which the
British cavalry led by the marquis of Granby amply wiped out
the disgrace incurred by Sackville. On the ist of August
Frederick began his march into Silesia, summoning Prince Henry
from Landsberg to join him, which he did by a splendid march of
some 90 m. in three days. The king's march was almost as
remarkable, for the roads were very bad and the Austrians had
freely obstructed them, nevertheless in five days he reached
Bautzen, having marched more than 100 m. from his starting-
point, and crossed five considerable rivers on his way. Thence
he continued more easily to Bunzlau. Daun was in front of him
and Lacy with clouds of light troops on his right, the Russians
under Czernicheff with Loudon not far away to his left fiont,
114,000 men in all to his 30,000, but he held to his decision to
reach Schweidnitz. With this purpose in view he moved south-
east on Jauer, marching 25 m. on the gth of August, but the
enemy was still in front of him and hovering on his flanks. On
the loth he tried the Liegnitz road with the same result, and
his position became desperate as his food was almost exhausted.
He had already covered 15 m. that day, but at n P.M. he called
on his men for a night march and formed up again on his old
position next morning, the nth of August. He appeared to be
completely surrounded, and things looked so desperate that
Mitchell, the British ambassador, burnt his papers and cipher
key. At sunset on the I2th, however, Frederick again broke
camp and by a night march evaded the enemy's scouts and
reached Liegnitz at noon on the i3th, the Austrians , .
appearing a couple of hours later. The troops rested
during the i.^th and I4th, but at nightfall, leaving their watch-
fires burning, marched off by the Glogau road, and the only way of
escape still open. The Austrians, however, had planned a night
attack, and Loudon's columns were moving to close this last
loophole of escape. Fortunately for the Prussians they arrived
just a few minutes too late, and in the combat that ensued
15,000 Prussians inflicted a loss of 10,000 men and 82 guns upon
their assailants, afterwards resuming their march undisturbed.
But the danger was not yet over. Czernicheff was known
to be in the immediate vicinity; so as to get him out of the way,
Frederick gave to a peasant a despatch addressed to Prince
Henry containing the words: " Austrians totally defeated
to-day, now for the Russians. Do what we agreed upon." The
peasant was to take care to be captured by the Russians and only
give up the paper to save his life. The plan worked as he had
anticipated, the paper duly reached Czernicheff 's hands and he
immediately evacuated the dangerous neighbourhood. Elated
with his success the king now abandoned his retreat on Glogau
and determined to press on at all hazards to Breslau, which in
spite of many anxious moments he reached on the i7th of August.
The Russians now abandoned the campaign in the open field
and besieged Colberg on the Baltic coast. Frederick m Silesia
manoeuvred for some weeks between Breslau, Schweidnitz
and Glatz, but was suddenly recalled by the news of the
capture of Berlin on the pth of October by Cossacks and
portions of the Empire Army and Austrians from Saxony. On
the nth of October the king was in full march, but the news
of his approach was enough and the enemy dispersed, the
SEVEN YEARS' WAR
721
Austrians and Empire Army making for Torgau. Daun, relieved
of Frederick's pressure, now also moved to Torgau, leaving Loudon
in Silesia, and had concentrated over 64,000 men at and
orgau. aroun( j Torgau before Frederick had collected an attack-
ing force of 45,000. The position held by the Austrians was an
entrenched camp fronting in all directions, but it was too cramped
for their numbers and difficult to leave for a counter-stroke.
Frederick determined to attack it both front and rear, and
leaving Zieten to act against the former, he marched off at 6-30
of the 3rd of November to attack it as soon as Zieten should have
thoroughly attracted the enemy's attention. But for once
Zieten failed; he allowed himself to be drawn off by the Austrian
light troops, and Frederick, in ignorance of the real state of
affairs, launched his grenadiers against a thoroughly intact
enemy, strongly entrenched, with, it is said, 400 guns in position
to sweep the approaches. The grenadiers were simply swept
away by grape and case only 600 out of 6000 remained, and
Prussian batteries hurrying up to their support were destroyed
before they had time to load. The attack was, however, renewed
1:1:0.000
by fresh brigades as they came to hand, and the Prussian artillery
did something to diminish the intensity of the Austrian case fire.
The action began at 2 p.m. At 4.30, as the sun was setting, the
king's last reserve of horse and foot at last succeeded in breaking
the Austrian line and in the darkness there ensued a confused
slaughter as at Zorndorf. The result was still in the balance
when at length Zieten reached the field and attacked at once.
For an hour or so the struggle still raged, but the Austrians were
by now completely spent and withdrew gradually into the
fortress and then across the river. Out of 44,000 the Prussians
had lost 13,120 men (30%), out of 65,000 the Austrians only
11,260 (17-3%), but of these over 7000 were prisoners. Both
sides, however, were completely paralysed by the struggle, and
the year ended without further effort on either side.
On the western theatre of war Prince Ferdinand after the
victory of Warburg had pressed the French back to the Rhine
and besieged Wesel, but was compelled to raise the siege after
suffering the defeat of Kloster-Kamp (i6th Oct.) and to withdraw
to Lippstadt and Warburg.
Campaign of 1761. Torgau proved to be Frederick's last
great battle. All parties were now so completely exhausted
that they no longer were able to face the risks of a decision on
the field. In the west Prince Ferdinand was first in the field,
and in February and March he drove the French southward
as far as Fulda, but an attempt to capture Marburg failed and
the gradual pressure of French numerical superiority, together
with the reduction of the British contingent on the death of
George II., compelled him to retreat gradually until by the
beginning of October both Brunswick and Wolfenbiittel fell
into their hands. In the east the king had barely 100,000 men
against 300,000 Austrians and Russians. Leaving Prince Henry
to observe Daun in Saxony he marched to join von der Goltz,
who with 23 ,000 stood about Schweidnitz. The Russians (50,000)
under Buturlin were approaching from Posen, and Loudon with
72,000 men starting from Glatz manoeuvred to join them.
After two months' skirmishing and marching the Allies effected
their junction between Liegnitz and Jauer, having completely
severed Frederick's communications with Prussia. But Frederick
depended for his food and immediate supplies on Southern
Silesia, and not caring to risk a battle with odds of three to one
against him he withdrew into the entrenched camp of Bunzelwitz,
where the Allies did not dare to attack him. Ultimately, as
usual, the Russian commissariat broke down, and in September
Buturlin withdrew the way he had come. Relieved of this
antagonist, Frederick manoeuvred to draw Loudon out of his
positions and compel him to fight in the open, but Loudon
refused the challenge and after an attempt to surprise Schweidnitz,
which failed, withdrew into winter quarters. Prince Henry in
Saxony held his own against Daun.
England now threatened to withdraw her subsidies, and as the
Prussian armies had dwindled to 60,000 men the end seemed very
near. But a turn of fortune was already at hand. On the 5th
of January 1762 the tsarina died, and her successor, Peter III.,
at once offered peace. On the i6th of March an armistice was
agreed to, and shortly afterwards the treaty of St Petersburg
was signed, by which Pomerania was given back to Prussia and
a contingent of 18,000 men placed at Frederick's disposal. The
withdrawal of the Russians led in turn to the withdrawal of
the Swedes, and thus only France and Austria remained the
former bled white by the strain of her colonial disasters, the
latter too weary to make further great exertions. Though
the war dragged on for some months, and Prince Henry, assisted
by Seydlitz, won the victory of Freiberg over the Empire Army
(2gth Oct. 1762), no great battle was attempted, and although
a revolution at St Petersburg deprived Frederick of Russian
assistance, in the autumn Ferdinand drove the French back
over the Rhine, and thereupon an armistice was agreed upon by
all. Final terms of peace were adjusted on status quo ante basis
at Hubertusburg on the isth of February 1763. Prussia had
maintained all her possessions and made good her claim to rank
for all time with the Great Powers. (F. N. M.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The three principal works on the " Third
Silesian " part of the war are the Prussian General Staff, Der sieben-
jdhrige Knee (Berlin, 1901 ) ; Austrian Official " Kriegsarchiv,"
Kriege der Kaiserin Marie Theresia (in progress), and Carlyle's
Frederick the Great. See also C. B. Brackenbury, Frederick the Great;
Bernhardi, Friedrich der Grosse als Feldherr'^Bertin, 1 88 1 ) ; biographies
of Prince Henry, Zieten, Seydlitz, Maurice of Dessau, &c. ; von
Arneth, Maria Theresia und der Siebenjahrige Krieg (Vienna, 1875) ;
the older histories of the war by Tempelhoff , Archenholz and Lloyd ;
Jomini, Traile des grandes operations militaires ; Masslowski, Die
russische Armee im Jjahr. Kriege (Berlin, 1893). The main authorities
for Ferdinand's Campaign are Westphafen, Feldziige des Herzogs
Ferdinand von Braunschweig, and J. W. Fortescue, Hist. British
Army, vol. ii.
NAVAL OPERATIONS
The naval operations of the Seven Years' War began nearly a
year before the declaration of hostilities. In June 1755 a British
squadron under Boscawen was sent into the Straits of Belle
Isle to intercept French ships carrying soldiers and stores to
Quebec, in retaliation for aggressions on British possessions in
North America. On the 8th of June Boscawen seized two French
line-of-battle ships fitted as transports, the " Alcide " and the
" Lys." A general seizure of French merchant ships followed,
and thousands of French sailors were in prison in England by
the early days of 1756. The government of Louis XV. did not
reply by a declaration of war, but prepared to retaliate by a
threat of invasion, which created something like a panic in
Great Britain. The government, then in the weak hands of
the duke of Newcastle, accumulated warships in the Channel,
722
SEVEN YEARS' WAR
and on the 3rd of February 1756 issued a proclamation which
instructed the inhabitants of the southern counties of England to
drive their cattle inland in case of a French landing, and thereby
much aggravated the prevailing fear. But the invasion scheme
was so far only a cover for an attack on Minorca, then held by
Great Britain.
A squadron of twelve sail of the line was prepared at Toulon
under La Galissoniere, a veteran admiral who had entered the
navy in the reign of Louis XIV. It escorted transports carrying
1 5,000 troops under the due de Richelieu. The danger to Minorca,
where the garrison had been allowed to fall below its due strength,
was well known to the British ministers. On the nth of March
they appointed Admiral John Byng to command a squadron
which was to carry reinforcements. He did not, however, leave
St Helens till the 6th of April. Byng had with him ten sail
of the line, and carried 3000 soldiers for the garrison. The
ships were indifferently manned, and the admiralty refused to
strengthen him by drafts from the ships it proposed to retain
in the Channel. In order to find room for the soldiers, the marines
of the squadron were left behind. There was therefore a danger
that, if an encounter with the French fleet took place after the
reinforcements were landed, the British squadron would be
short-handed. Byng reached Gibraltar on the 2nd of May. The
French invasion of Minorca had been carried out on the ipth of
April. The governor of Gibraltar, General Fowke, refused to
part with any of his soldiers to reinforce Minorca. On the 8th
of May Byng sailed, and on the igth he was in communication
by signal with General Blakeney, governor of the fortress.
Before the soldiers could be landed the French fleet came in
sight. Byng had been joined by three ships of the line at
Gibraltar, and had therefore thirteen ships to twelve. One of
the French vessels, the " Foudroyant" (84), was a finer warship
than any in the British line, but in effective power Byng was at
least equal to his opponent, and if his ships were poorly manned
La Galissoniere was in worse case. The British admiral rejected
one of his small line-of-battle ships in order to engage in the
then orthodox manner van to van, centre to centre, and
rear to rear, ship against ship. By the manoeuvres of the afternoon
of the igth and morning of the 2oth he gained the weather-gage,
and then bore down on the enemy at an angle, the van of the
English steering for the van of the French. The sixth ship
in his line, the " Intrepid" (74), having lost her foretopmast,
became unmanageable and threw the vessels behind her out of
order. Thus the six in front were exposed to the fire of all the
French, who ran past them and went off. Byng could have
prevented them by bearing down, but refused to alter the
formation of his fleet. Being now much disturbed by the crippled
state of the ships in his van, he made no effort either to land
the soldiers he had on board or to renew the action; and after
holding a council of war on the 24th of May, which confirmed
his own desire to retreat, he sailed for Gibraltar (see BYNG, JOHN,
for his trial and execution). The loss of Minorca, which was the
consequence of this retreat, gave the French a great advantage
in the Mediterranean. During the rest of the year no very
vigorous measures were taken on either side, though the British
government reinforced its squadrons both in the Mediterranean
and on the coast of America.
In 1757 the naval war began to be pushed with a vigour
hitherto unprecedented. The elder Pitt became the effective
head of the government, and was able to set about ruining the
French power at sea. Owing to the long neglect of the French
navy, it was so inferior in strength to the British that nothing
short, of the worst mismanagement on Pitt's part could have
deprived Great Britain of victory. Some of the minister's
measures were not indeed wise. He sent out, during the last
months of 1757 and the whole of 1758, a series of combined
expeditions against the French coast, which were costly and for
the most part unsuccessful. They terminated in September
1758 with a disaster to the troops engaged in St Cas Bay. Yet
these assaults on the French coast did much to revive the spirit
of the nation, by removing the fear of invasion. Meanwhile a
sound aggressive policy was followed in distant seas during 1758.
In the East Indies the squadron which had been engaged during
1757 in co-operating with Clive in the conquest of Bengal was
strengthened. Under the command of Sir George Pocock it was
employed against the French squadron of M. d'Ache, who brought
a body of troops from Europe under General Lally-Tollendal to
attack the possessions of the East India Company on the Coro-
mandel coast. The two actions fought at sea on the 2o.th of
April and the ist of August in the Bay of Bengal were not
victories for Sir George Pocock, but neither were they defeats.
The French admiral was so uncertain of his power to overcome
his opponent that he sailed for the islands of the Indian Ocean
so soon as Lally and the authorities at Pondicherry would allow
him to go. In America the strong squadron of Boscawen
rendered possible the capture of Louisburg, on the a6th of July,
and cleared the way for the conquest of Canada in the following
year. During 1759 the French government, trusting that the
multiplicity of the calls upon its fleet would compel Great Britain
to scatter its naval forces, laid plans for a great invasion (for the
details of this plan and its results, see QUIBERON, BATTLE OF).
But the British navy proved numerous enough not only to baffle
invasion at home but to effect large conquests of French posses-
sions abroad. In North America the co-operation of the navy
rendered possible the capture of Quebec by Wolfe. In the
West Indies, though an attack on Martinique was repulsed,
Guadaloupe was taken in January. In the East Indies the
squadron of M. d'Ache reappeared in the Bay of Bengal in
September. He fought another undecided action with Sir
George Pocock on the 8th, and gave some small help to the
French army. But the bad state of his squadron forced him
to retreat soon, and the resources of the French being now
exhausted in those seas, he did not reappear. The British navy
was left in complete command of the Bay of Bengal and the coast
of Malabar. On shore, Lally, cut off from reinforcements, was
crushed, and Pondicherry fell.
During 1760 and 1761 the French fleet made no attempt to
keep the sea. The British navy went on with the work of
conquering French possessions. During 1760 it co-operated
on the Lakes and on the St Lawrence in the final conquest of
Canada. Between April and June of 1761 it covered the capture
of the island of Belle-lie on the French coast, which both
strengthened its means for maintaining blockade and gave the
British government a valuable pledge to be used for extorting
concessions when the time for making peace came. The com-
plete ruin of French merchant shipping and the collapse of the
navy left the maritime population free to seek a livelihood in the
privateers. Commerce-destroying was carried on by them with
considerable success. The number of British merchant ships
taken has been put as high as one-tenth of the whole. But this
percentage was the price paid for the enormous advantage
gained by the ruin of the French as commercial rivals. The mer-
chant shipping of Great Britain increased largely in the course
of the war, and from it dates her commercial predominance.
By the close of 1761 the helplessness of France at sea had
been demonstrated, but the maritime war was revived for a few
months by the intervention of Spain. A close alliance, known as
" the family compact," was made between the royal houses of
that country and France in the course of 1761. The secret was
divulged, and Pitt would have made war on Spain at once.
He was overruled and retired. So soon, however, as the treasure
ships from America had reached Spain, at the close of 1761, the
Spanish government declared war. Its navy was incapable of
offering a serious resistance to the British, nor did it even attempt
to operate at sea. The British government was left unopposed
to carry out the plans which Pitt had prepared against Spain.
The only aggressive movement undertaken by the Spanish
government was an attack on Portugal, which was the close ally
of Great Britain and gave her most useful help by allowing
her the free use of Portuguese ports. As the king of Portugal
refused to join the French and Spanish alliance, his country was
invaded by a Spanish army. Great Britain supported her ally.
A regiment of cavalry and seven battalions of foot were landed.
They gained several small actions against the invaders, and had
SEVERIANA, VIA SEVERN
723
the most active share in the operations which forced them to
retire. But the most effective blows delivered against Spain
were directed at her colonies. The British troops, left free by
the recent success against the French in America, were employed
in an attack on Havana. A powerful fleet left England on the
5th of March, bringing troops which were joined by others in the
West Indies; Sir George Pocock, who had returned from the
East Indies, was in command. Under his direction the fleet
reached its destination without loss, and Havana was assailed.
The citadel known as the Moro Castle made a stout defence, and
some of the ships suffered severely in a bombardment. But
the worst losses of the besiegers were due to the climate of Cuba,
aided by bad sanitary arrangements. Of the 10,000 troops
landed, three-fourths are said to have suffered from fever or
dysentery, and the majority of the sick died. Yet the Moro was
taken on the 3Oth of September, and Havana, which could have
made a longer resistance, surrendered on the loth of October.
Martinique, the last important possession of France in the New
World except her half of San Domingo, had fallen in February.
In the East Indies, where the surrender of Pondicherry had left
other forces free, a combined expedition triumphed easily in
October over the natives of Manila, under the direction of the
archbishop, who acted as governor. The preliminaries of the
peace of Paris were signed on the 3rd of November 1762.
See Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs of Great Britain (London,
1804) ; Captain Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon History; Lacour
Gayet, La Marine militaire de la France sous le regne de Louis XV
(Paris, 1902). (D. H.)
SEVERIANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, running S.E.
from Ostia to Terracina, a distance of 73 m. along the coast, and
taking its name, no doubt, from the restoration of an already
existing road by Septimius Severus, who was a great benefactor
of Ostia. It ran along the shore at first, just behind the line of
villas which fronted upon the sea, and are now half a mile inland,
or even upon its edge (for an inscription records its being
damaged by the waves). Farther S.E. it seems to have kept
rather more distant from the shore, and it probably kept within
the lagoons below the Circean promontory. As is natural in a sandy
district where building materials are rare, remains of it are scanty.
See R. Lanciani in Monumenti del Lincei, xiii. (1903), 185; xvi.
(1906), 241; T. Ashby in Melanges de I'&ole fran^aise de Rome
(1905)- 157 sqq- (T. As.)
SEVERINUS, pope in 640, successor of Honorius. He occupied
the papal chair only three months after his consecration, having
had to wait a year and a half for its ratification by the emperor.
During this long vacancy the exarch of Ravenna, supported by
the military body of Rome (exercitus Romanus), occupied the
Lateran and seized the treasure of the Church.
SEVERN, JOSEPH (1793-1879), English portrait and subject
painter, was born at Hoxton on the 7th of December 1793, his
father, a musician, coming of an old Gloucestershire family.
During his earlier years he practised portraiture as a miniaturist;
and, having studied in the schools of the Royal Academy, in
1818 he gained the gold medal for his " Una and the Red Cross
Knight in the Cave of Despair." In 1819 he exhibited at the
Academy his " Hermia and Helena." He was an intimate friend
of Keats the poet, whom he accompanied to Italy in 1820 and
nursed till his death in 1821. His picture of " The Death of
Alcibiades " then obtained for him an Academy travelling
studentship, and he returned to Rome, where he lived till 1841,
marrying in 1828 the daughter of Lord Montgomerie, a ward of
Lady Westmoreland, one of his chief patrons, and mingling in
the congenial art circles of the city. In 1861, after living in
England for nineteen years, mainly for the education of his
children, he was appointed British consul at Rome, a post which
he held till 1872, and during a great part of the time he also acted
as Italian consul. His most remarkable work is the " Spectre
Ship" from the Ancient Mariner. He painted " Cordelia
watching by the Bed of Lear," the " Roman Beggar," " Ariel,"
" The Fountain," and " Rienzi," executed a large altar-piece for
the church of St Paul at Rome, and produced many portraits,
including one of Baron Bunsen and several of Keats. He died
at Rome on the 3rd of August 1879. He had six children, of
whom Walter, Arthur and Ann (wife of Sir Charles Newton)
were well-known artists.
See the Life and Letters, by William Sharp (1892).
SEVERN, a river of Wales and England. It rises on the N.E.
side of Plinlimmon, on the S.W. border of Montgomeryshire, and
flows with a nearly semicircular course of about 210 m. to the
Bristol Channel; the direct distance from its source to its mouth
is about 80 m. . Its Welsh name is Hafren, and its Roman name
was Sabrina. Through Montgomeryshire its course is at first in a
S.E. direction, and for the first 15 m. it flows over a rough
precipitous bed. At Llanidloes it bends towards the N.E.,
passing Newtown and Welshpool; this part of the valley bearing
the name of the Vale of Powis. It receives the Vyrnwy near
Melverley, and forms a mile of the Welsh border, and then turning
in an E.S.E. direction enters Shropshire, and waters the broad
rich plain of Shrewsbury, after which it bends southward past
Ironbridge and Bridgnorth to Bewdley in Worcestershire. In
Shropshire it receives a number of tributaries, the chief of which
is the Tern. Continuing its southerly course through Worcester-
shire it passes Stourport, where it receives the Stour(left), and
Worcester, shortly after which it receives the Teme (right).
It enters Gloucestershire close to Tewkesbury, where it receives
the Upper Avon (left), after which, bending in a S.W. direction,
it passes the city of Gloucester, below which it becomes estuarine
and tidal. A high bore or tidal wave, for which the Severn
is notorious, may reverse the flow as high up as Tewkesbury
Lock (135 m. above Gloucester), and has sometimes caused great
destruction. The estuary merges into the Bristol Channel at
the point where it receives on the left the Lower or Bristol Avon,
and on the right the Wye.
The source lies at an elevation of about 2000 ft.; the fall from
Llanidloes is about 550 ft., from Newtown 365 ft. and from
Shrewsbury, 90 m. above Gloucester, 180 ft. The scenery of the
upper valley is wild and picturesque, and that of the lower river
is at some points very beautiful. The course between the height
of the Wrekin and Wenlock Edge (despite the manufacturing
towns on the banks at this point), the valley above Bewdley,
where the Forest of Wyre borders the left bank, and the fine
position of Worcester, with its cathedral rising above the river,
may be noticed. The distance from Gloucester to Avonmouth
is 44 m., but the upper part of the estuary is tortuous, and,
owing to the bores and shifting shoals, difficult of navigation.
On this account the Gloucester and Berkeley Ship Canal, i6| m.
in length, was constructed, admitting vessels of 350 tons to
Gloucester from the docks at Sharpness on the estuary. The
navigation extends up to Arley, above Bewdley, 47 m. from
Gloucester, but is principally used up to Stourport (43 m.), from
which the Staffordshire and Worcestershire canal gives access
to the Wolverhampton industrial district and the Trent and
Mersey navigation. The Berkeley canal and the Worcester and
Birmingham canal are maintained by the Sharpness New Docks
and Gloucester and Birmingham navigation company. There
is connexion with the Thames by the Stroudwater canal from
Framilode on the estuary, joining the Thames and Severn canal
near Stroud. The Wye is in part navigable; the Bristol Avon
gives access to the great port of Bristol, and the Upper Avon is in
part navigable. The Severn is a good salmon river, and is famous
for its lampreys, while many of the tributaries afford fine trout-
fishing, such as the Teme and the Vyrnwy. The drainage area
of the Severn is 6850 sq. m., including the Wye and the Bristol
Avon, or 4350 sq. m. without these rivers.
Severn Tunnel. The first bridge above the mouth of the Severn
is that near Sharpness, which carries the Great Western and Midland
joint railway between Berkeley Road and Lydbrook Junction. But
the Severn tunnel, carrying the Great Western railway under the
estuary 14 m. below the bridge, forms the direct route between the
south of England and South Wales. Before the tunnol was made
there was a steam ferry at a point known as " New Passage," where a
ferry had existed from early times. The steam ferry was opened in
connexion with the Bristol and South Wales Union railway in 1863,
and was subsequently taken over by the Great Western company.
Parliamentary powers to construct the tunnel were obtained by this
company in 1872, and work began in the following year. The
originator of the scheme and chief engineer was Mr Charles Richard-
son, and Sir John Hawkshaw was consulting engineer. The principal
724
SEVERUS, LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS
difficulty encountered in the construction was the tendency to flood-
ing, owing both to the river breaking into the works, and, more
especially, to the underground springs encountered, one of which
when tapped completely flooded the works at a rate of 6000 gallons
per minute, and delayed the work for more than a year. In 1879,
after this disaster, the contract for the whole work was let to Mr T. A.
Walker. The total length of the tunnel is 4 m. 624 yds., of which
2j m. are beneath the river. On the east side the cutting leading to
the tunnej has a gradient of I in 100, which is continued in the tunnel
itself until the deepest part is reached beneath the river-channel
known as " the Shoots," which has a depth of about 60 ft. at low
tide and 100 at high tide (ordinary spring). Beneath this the rails
run level for 12 chains, after which the ascent of the tunnel and cutting
on the west side is on a gradient of I in 90. At Sudbrook on the west
side there is a pumping and ventilating station. The tunnel was
completed in 1886; the time for passenger trains between Bristol
and Cardiff was immediately reduced by nearly one half, and the
value of the new route was especially apparent in connexion with the
mineral traffic between the South Wales coal-field and London and
the ports of the south of England.
SEVERUS, 1 LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS (A.D. 146-211), Roman
emperor, was born in 146 at Leptis Magna on the coast of Africa.
Punic was still the language of this district, and Severus was the
first emperor who had learned Latin as a foreign tongue. The
origin of his family is obscure. Spartianus, his biographer in the
Historia Augusta, doubtless exaggerates his literary culture and
his love of learning; but the taste for jurisprudence which he
exhibited as emperor was probably instilled into him at an early
age. The removal of Severus from Leptis to Rome is attributed
by his biographer to the desire for higher education, but was also
no doubt due in some degree to ambition. From the emperor
Marcus Aurelius he early obtained, by intercession of a consular
ancle, the distinction of the broad purple stripe. At twenty- six,
that is, almost at the earliest age allowed by law, Severus attained
the quaestorship and a seat in the senate, and proceeded as
quaestor mttitaris to the senatorial province of Baetica, in the
Peninsula. While Severus was absent in Africa in consequence
of the death of his father, the province of Baetica, disordered by
Moorish invasions and internal commotion, was taken over by
the emperor, who gave the senate Sardinia in exchange. On
this Severus became military quaestor of Sardinia. His next
office, in 174 or 175, was that of legate to the proconsul of Africa,
and soon after he was tribune of the plebs. This magistracy,
though far different from what it had been in the days of the
republic, was still one of dignity, and brought promotion to a
higher grade in the senate. In 178 or 179 Severus became
praetor by competition for the suffrages of the senators. Then,
probably in the same year, he went to Hispania Citerior as
legatus juridicus; after that he commanded a legion in Syria.
After the death of Marcus Aurelius he was unemployed for several
years, and, according to his biographer, studied at Athens. He
became consul about 189. In this time also falls the marriage
with his second wife, afterwards famous as Julia Domna, whose
acquaintance he had no doubt made when an officer in Syria.
Severus was governor in succession of Gallia Lugdunensis,
Sicily and Pannonia Superior; but the dates at which he held
these appointments cannot be determined. He was in command
of three legions at Carnuntum, the capital of the province last
named, when news reached him that Commodus had been
murdered by his favourite concubine and his most trusted
servants.
Up to this moment Severus had not raised himself above the
usual official level. He had seen no warfare beyond the petty
border frays of frontier provinces. But the storm that now tried
all official spirits found his alone powerful enough to brave it.
Three imperial dynasties had been ended by assassination. The
Flavian line had enjoyed much shorter duration and less prestige
than the other two, and the circumstances of its fall had been
peculiar in that it was probably planned in the interest of the
senate, and the senate reaped the immediate fruits. But the
crises which arose on the deaths of Nero and of Commodus were
alike. In both cases it was left to the army to determine by a
struggle which of the divisional commanders should succeed to
the command-in-chief, that is, to the imperial throne. In
1 For Marcus Aurelius Alexander Severus, Roman emperor from
222 to 235, see ALEXANDER SEVERUS.
each case the contest began with an impulsion given to the com-
manders by the legionaries themselves. The soldiers of the great
commands competed for the honour and advantages to be won
by placing their general on the throne. The officer who refused
to lead would have suffered the punishment of treason.
There is a widespread impression that the Praetorian guards at
all times held the Roman empire in their hands, but its errone-
ousness is demonstrated by the events of the year 193. For the
first time in the course of imperial history the Praetorians pre-
sumed to nominate as emperor a man who had no legions at his
back. This was Pertinax, who has been well styled the Galba
of his time upright and honourable to severity, and zealous
for good government, but blindly optimistic about the possibilities
of reform in a feeble and corrupt age. After a three months'
rule he was destroyed by the power that lifted him up. According
to the well-known story, true rather in its outline than in its
details, the Praetorians sold the throne to Didius Julianus.
But at the end of two months both the Praetorians and their
nominee were swept away by the real disposers of Roman rule,
the provincial legions. Four groups of legions at the time were
strong enough to aspire to determine the destiny of the empire
those quartered in Britain, in Germany, in Pannonia and in
Syria. Three of the groups took the decisive step, and Severus in
Pannonia, Pescennius Niger in Syria, Clodius Albinus in Britain,
received from their troops the title of Augustus. Severus outdid
his rivals in promptness and decision. He secured the aid of
the legions in Germany and of those in Illyria. These, with the
forces in Pannonia, made a combination sufficiently formidable
to overawe Albinus for the moment. He probably deemed that
his best chance lay in the exhaustion of his competitors by an
internecine struggle. At all events he received with submission
an offer made by Severus, who confirmed Albinus in his power
and bestowed upon him the title of Caesar, making him the
nominal heir-apparent to the throne.
Before the action of Severus was known in Rome, the senate
and people had shown signs of turning to Pescennius Niger, that
he might deliver them from the poor puppet Didius Julianus
and avenge on the Praetorians the murder of Pertinax. Having
secured the co-operation or neutrality of all the forces in the
western part of the empire, Severus hastened to Rome. To win
the sympathy of the capital he posed as the avenger and successor
of Pertinax, whose name he even added to his own, and used
to the end of his reign. The feeble defences of Julianus were
broken down and the Praetorians disarmed and disbanded with-
out a blow. A new body of household troops was enrolled and
organized on different principles from the old. In face of the
senate, as Dio tells us, Severus acted for the moment like " one
of the good emperors in the olden days." After a magnificent
entry into the city he joined the senate in execrating the memory
of Commodus, and in punishing the murderers of Pertinax,
whom he honoured with splendid funeral rites. He also en-
couraged the senate to pass a decree directing that any emperor
or subordinate of an emperor who should put a senator to death
should be treated as a public enemy. But he refrained from
asking the senate to sanction his accession.
The rest of Severus' reign is in the main occupied with wars.
The power wielded by Pescennius Niger, who called himself
emperor, and was supposed to control one half of the Roman
world, proved to be more imposing than substantial. The
magnificent promises of Oriental princes were falsified as usual.
Niger himself, as described by Dio, was the very type of medio-
crity, conspicuous for no faculties, good or bad. This character
had no doubt commended him to Commodus as suited for the
important command in Syria, which might have proved a source
of danger in abler hands. The contest between Severus and
Niger was practically decided after two or three engagements,
fought by Severus' officers. The last battle, which took place
at Issus, ended in the defeat and death of Niger (194). After this
the emperor spent two years in successful attacks upon the
peoples bordering on Syria, particularly in Adiabeue and
Osrhoene. Byzantium, the first of Niger's possessions to be
attacked, was the last to fall, after a glorious defence.
SEVERUS, LUCIUS SEPTIMIUS
725
Late in 196 Severus turned westward, to reckon with Albinus.
He was better born and better educated than Severus, but in
capacity far inferior. As Severus was nearing Italy he received
the news that Albinus had been declared emperor by his soldiers.
The first counter-stroke of Severus was to affiliate himself and
his elder son to the Antonines by a spurious and posthumous
adoption. The prestige of the old name, even when gained in
this illegitimate way, was evidently worth much. Bassianus,
the elder son of Severus, thereafter known as Aurelius Antoninus,
was named Caesar in place of Albinus, and was thus marked out
as successor to his father. Without interrupting the march of his
forces, Severus contrived to make an excursion to Rome. Here
he availed himself with much subtlety of the sympathy many
senators were known to have felt for Niger. Though he was so
far faithful to the decree passed by his own advice that he put no
senator to death, yet he banished and impoverished many whose
presence or influence seemed dangerous or inconvenient to his
prospects. Of the sufferers probably few had seen or communi-
cated with Niger.
The collision between the forces of Severus and Albinus was
the most violent that had taken place between Roman troops
since the contest at Philippi. The decisive engagement was fought
in February of the year 197 on the plain between the Rhone and
the Saone, to the north of Lyons, and resulted in a complete
victory for Severus.
Thus, released from all need for disguise, he " poured forth on
the civil population all the wrath which he had been storing up
for a long time " (Dio). He frightened the senate by calling
himself the son of Marcus and brother of Commodus, whom he
had before insulted. He read a speech in which he declared that
the severity and cruelty of Sulla, Marius and Augustus had
proved to be safer policy than the clemency of Pompey and Julius
Caesar, which had wrought their ruin. He ended with an apology
for Commodus and bitter reproaches against the senate for their
sympathy with his assassins. Over sixty senators were arrested
on a charge of having adhered to Albinus, and half were put to
death. In most instances the charge was a pretence to enable
the emperor to crush the forward and dangerous spirits in the
senate. The murderers of Commodus were punished; Com-
modus himself was deified; and on the monuments from this
time onward Severus figures as the brother of that reproduction
of all the vice and cruelty of Nero with the refinement left out.
The next years (197-202) were devoted by Severus to one of
the dominant ideas of the empire from its earliest days war
against the Parthians. The results to which Trajan and Verus
had aspired were now fully attained, and Mesopotamia was
definitely established as a Roman province. Part of the time
was spent in the exploration of Egypt, in respect of which
Dio takes opportunity to say that Severus was not the man
to leave anything human or divine uninvestigated. The emperor
returned to a well-earned triumph, commemorated to this day
by the arch in Rome which bears his name. During the six
years which followed (202-208) Severus resided at Rome and
gave his attention to the organization of the empire. Severus
had confided much of the administration of the empire to
Plautianus, the commander of the reorganized Praetorians,
who is described by the ancient historians as a second Sejanus.
In 203 Plautianus fell, owing, it is said, to an intrigue set on foot
by Caracalla, who had shortly before married the daughter of
his victim.
Severus spent the last three years of his life (208-211) in
Britain, amid constant and not very successful warfare, which
he is said to have provoked partly to strengthen the discipline
and powers of the legions, partly to wean his sons from their
evil courses by hard military service. He died at York on the
4th of February 211. There are traditions that his death was
in some way hastened by Caracalla. This prince had been,
since about 197, nominally joint emperor with his father, so
that no ceremony was needed for his recognition as monarch.
The natural gifts of Severus were of no unusual order. He had a
clear head, promptitude, resolution, tenacity and great organizing
power, but no touch of genius. That he was cruel cannot be ques-
tioned, but his cruelty was of the calculating kind, and always
directed to some end. He threw the head of Niger over the ramparts
of Byzantium, but merely as the best means of procuring a surrender
of the stubbornly defended fortress. The head of Albinus he ex-
hibited at Rome, but only as a warning to the capital to tamper no
more with pretenders. The children of Niger were held as hostages
and kindly treated so long as they might possibly afford a useful
basis for negotiation with their father; when he was defeated they
were killed, lest from among them should arise a claimant for the
imperial power. Stern and barbarous punishment was always meted
out by Severus to the conquered foe, but terror was deemed the best
guarantee for peace. He felt no scruples of conscience or honour if he
thought his interest at stake, but he was not wont to take an excited
or exaggerated view of what his interest required. He used or de-
stroyed men and institutions alike with cool judgment and a single
eye to the secure establishment of his dynasty. The few traces of
aimless savagery which we find in the ancient narratives are probably
the result of fear working on the imagination of the time.
As a soldier Severus was brave, but he can hardly be called a
general, in spite of his successful campaigns. He was rather the
organizer of victory than the author of it. The operations against
Niger were carried out entirely by his officers. Dip even declares
that the final battle with Albinus was the first at which Severus had
ever been present. When a war was going on he was constantly
travelling over the scene of it, planning it and instilling into the army
his own pertinacious spirit, but the fighting was usually left to others.
His treatment of the army is the most characteristic feature of his
reign. He broke with the decent conventions of the Augustan
constitution, ignored the senate, and based his rule upon force.
The only title he ever laid to the throne was the pronunciamiento of
the legions, whose adherence to his cause he commemorated even on
the coinage of the realm. The legions voted him the adopted son of
Marcus Aurelius; the legions associated with him Caracalla in the
government of the empire. Severus strove earnestly to wed the
army as a whole to the support of his dynasty. He increased
enormously the material gains and the honorary distinctions of the
service, so that he was charged with corrupting the troops. Yet it
cannot be denied that, all things considered, he left the army of the
empire more efficient than he found it. He increased the strength
of it by three legions, and turned the Praetorians, heretofore a flabby
body without military experience or instinct, into a chosen corps of
veterans. Their ranks were filled by promotion from all the legions
on service, whereas previously there had been special enlistment
from Italy and one or two of the neighbouring provinces. It was
hoped that these picked men would form a force on which an emperor
could rely in an emergency. But to meet the possibility of a legionary
revolt in the provinces, one of the fundamental principles of the
Augustan empire was abrogated: Italy became a province, and a
legion was quartered at Alba Fucens under the direct command of the
emperor. Further to obviate the risk of revolution, the great com-
mands in the provinces were broken up, so that, excepting on the
turbulent eastern frontier, it was not possible for a commander to
dispose of troops numerous enough to render him dangerous to the
government.
But, while the policy of Severus was primarily a family policy,
he was by no means careless of the security and welfare of the empire.
Only in one instance, the destruction of Byzantium, did he weaken
its defences for his own ends an error for which his successors paid
dearly, when the Goths came to dominate the Euxine. The trouble-
some Danubian regions received the special attention of the emperor,
but all over the realm the status and privileges of communities and
districts were recast in the way that seemed likely to conduce to
their prosperity. The administration acquired more and more of a
military character, in Italy as well as in the provinces. Retired
military officers now filled many of the posts formerly reserved for
civilians of equestrian rank. The praefect of the Praetorians re-
ceived large civil and judicial powers, so that the investment of
Papinian with the office was less unnatural than it seems at first
sight. The alliance between Severus and the jurisconsults had im-
portant consequences. While he gave them new importance in the
body politic, and co-operated with them in the work of legal reform,
they did him material service by working an absolutist view of the
government into the texture of Roman law. Of the legal changes of
the reign, important as they were, we can only mention a few details.
The emperor himself was a devoted and upright judge, but he struck
a great blow at the purity of the law by transferring the exercise of
imperial jurisdiction from the forum to the palace. He sharpened in
many respects the law of treason, put an end to the time-honoured
quaestiones perpetuae, altered largely that important section of the
law which defined the rights of the nscus, and developed further the
social policy which Augustus had embodied in the lex Julia de
adultenis and the lex Papia Poppaea.
Severus boldly adopted as an official designation the autocratic
title of dominus, which the better of his predecessors had renounced.
During his reign the senate was powerless; he took all initiative into
his hands. He broke down the distinction between the servants of
the senate and the servants of the emperor. All nominations to office
or function passed under his scrutiny. The estimation of the old
consular and other republican titles was diminished. The growth
of capacity in the senate was checked by cutting off the tallest
of the poppy-heads early in the reign. The senate became a mere
726
SEVERUS, SULPICIUS
registration office for the imperial determinations, and its members
as has been well said, a choir for drawling conventional hymns o
praise in honour of the monarch. Even the nominal restoration o
the senate's power at the time of Alexander Severus, and the acces
sion of so-called " senatorial emperors " later on, did not efface the
work of Septimius Severus, which was resumed and carried to it
fulfilment by Diocletian.
No period in the history of Latin literature is so barren as the reign
of Severus. Many later periods the age of Stilicho, for example-
shine brilliantly by comparison. The only great Latin writers are the
Christians Tertullian and Cyprian. The Greek literature of the perioc
is richer, but not owing to any patronage of the emperor, except
perhaps in the case of Dio Cassius, who, though no admirer of Severus
attributes to encouragement received from him the execution of the
great historical work which has come down to our time. The
numerous restorations of ancient buildings and the many new con-
structions carried out by Severus show that he was not insensible
to the artistic glories of the past ; and he is known to have paid much
attention to works of art in foreign countries where his duties
took him. But he was in no sense a patron or connoisseur of art
As to religion, if we may trust Dio, one of the most superstitious oi
historians, Severus was one of the most superstitious of monarchs
But apart from that it is difficult to say what was his influence on
the religious currents of the time. He probably did a good deal to
strengthen and extend the official cult of the imperial family, which
had been greatly developed during the prosperous times of the
Antonines. But what he thought of Christianity, Judaism or the
Oriental mysticism to which his wife Julia Domna gave such an
impulse in the succeeding reign, it is impossible to say. We may
best conclude that his religious sympathies were wide, since tradition
has not painted him as the partisan of any one form of worship.
AUTHORITIES. Severus himself wrote an autobiography which
was regarded as candid and trustworthy on the whole. The events
of the reign were recorded by several contemporaries. The first
place among these must be given to Dio Cassius, who stands to the
empire in much the same relation as Livy to the republic. He
became a senator in the year when Marcus Aurelius died (180) and
retained that dignity for more than fifty years. He was well ac-
quainted with Severus, and was near enough the centre of affairs to
know the real nature of events, without being great enough to have
personal motives for warping the record. Though this portion of
Dio s history no longer exists in its original form, we have copious
extracts from it, made by Xiphilinus, an ecclesiastic of the nth
century. The faults which have impaired the credit of Die's great
work in its earlier portions his lack of the critical faculty, his
inexact knowledge of the earlier Roman institutions, his passion for
signs from heaven-^could do little injury to the narrative of an eye-
witness; and he gives the impression of unusual freedom from
passion, prejudice and insincerity. His Greek, too, stands in
agreeable contrast to the debased Latin of the Scriptores historiae
Augustae. The Greek writer Herodian was also a contemporary of
Severus, but the mere fact that we know nothing of his life is in itself
S?. ou B]l to show that his opportunities were not so great as those of
Dio. The reputation of Herodian, who was used as the main authority
for the times of Severus by Tillemont and Gibbon, has not been proof
against the criticism of later scholars. His faults are those of
rhetoric and exaggeration. His narrative is probably in many places
not independent of Dio. The Augustan historians, unsatisfactory
compilers, form a principal source Tor the history of the reign. The
numerous inscriptions belonging to the age of Septimius Severus
enable us to control at many points and largely to supplement the
literary records of his reign, particularly as regards the details of his
administration. The juridical works of Justinian's epoch embody
much that throws light on the government of Severus.
The principal modern works relating to this emperor, after Tille-
mont and Gibbon, are J. J. Schulte, De imper atari L. Septimio
Severe (Munster, 1867); Hofner, Untersuchungen zur Geschichte
des Kaisers L. Septimius Severus (Giessen, 1875); Untersuchungen
zur romtschen Kaisergeschichte, ed. by M. Budinger; H. Schilfer,
Oeschtchteder romtschen Kaiserzeit (Gotha, 1880-1883) ; De Ceuleneer,
Essai sur la vie et le regnc de Septime Sevkre (Brussels, 1880);
Reville, La Religion A Rome sous les Severes (Paris, 1886); Fuchs,
Geschtchte des Kaisers L. Septimius Severus (1884). On Julia Domna,
see M. G. Williams, in American Journal of Archaeology, vi. (1002')
PP. 259-306. s '(j. s ; .)
SEVERUS, SULPICIUS (c. 3 6 3 -c. 425), Christian writer, was
a native of Aquitania. He was imbued with the culture of his
time and of his country, which was then the only true home
of Latin letters and learning. Almost all that we know of
Severus' life comes from a few allusions in his own writings,
and some passages in the letters of his friend Paulinus,
bishop of Nola. In his early days he was famous as a pleader,
and his knowledge of Roman law is reflected in parts of his
writings. He married a wealthy lady belonging to a consular
family, who died young, leaving him no children. At this time
Severus came under the powerful influence of St Martin, bishop
of Tours, by whom he was led to devote his wealth to the Christian
poor, and his own powers to a life of good works and meditation
To use the words of his friend Paulinus, he broke with his father
followed Christ, and set the teachings of the " fishermen " far
above all his " Tullian learning." He rose to.no higher rank
in the church than that of presbyter. He is said to have been
led away in his old age by Pelagianism, but to have repented
and inflicted long-enduring penance on himself. His time was
passed chiefly in the neighbourhood of Toulouse, and such literary
efforts as he permitted to himself were made in the interests
of Christianity. In many respects no two men could be more
unlike than Severus, the scholar and orator, well versed in the
ways of the world, and Martin, the rough Pannonian bishop,
ignorant, suspicious of culture, champion of the monastic life[
seer and worker of miracles. Yet the spirit of the rugged saint
subdued that of the polished scholar, and the works of Severus
are only important because they reflect the ideas, influence
and aspirations of Martin, the foremost ecclesiastic of Gaul.
The chief work of Severus is the Chronica (c. 403), a summary of
sacred history from the beginning of the world to his own times
with the omission of the events recorded in the Gospels and the Acts'
lest the form of his brief work should detract from the honour
due to those events." The book was a text-book, and was used as
such in the schools of Europe for about a century and a half after
the editw princeps was published by Flacius Illyricus in 15156
beverus nowhere clearly points to the class of readers for whom his
book is designed. He disclaims the intention of making his work a
substitute for the actual narrative contained in the Bible. " Worldly
historians " had been used by him, he says, to make clear the dates
and the connexion of events and for supplementing the sacred sources
and with the intent at once to instruct the unlearned and to " con-
vince the learned. Probably the " unlearned " are the mass of
hnstians and the learned are the cultivated Christians and pagans
alike, to whom the rude language of the sacred texts, whether in
Greek or Latin, would be distasteful. The literary structure of the
narrative shows that Severus had in his mind principally readers on
the same level of culture with himself. He was anxious to show that
sacred history might be presented in a form which lovers of Sallust
and Tacitus could appreciate and enjoy. The style is lucid and almost
classical. Though phrases and even sentences from many classical
authors are inwoven here and there, the narrative flows easily, with
no trace of the jolts and jerks which offend us in almost every line of
an imitator of the classics like Sidonius. It is free from useless digres-
sions. In order that his work might fairly stand beside that of the
old Latin writers, Severus ignored the allegorical methods of inter-
preting sacred history to which the heretics and the orthodox of his
age were wedded.
As an authority for times antecedent to his own, Severus is of
ittle moment. At only a few points does he enable us to correct
or supplement other records. Bernays has shown that he based his
narrative of the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus on the account
fiven by Tacitus in his "Histories," a portion of which has been
ost. We are enabled thus to contrast Tacitus with Josephus, who
warped his narrative to do honour to Titus. In his allusions to the
r "L lle , r . ulers with whom the Jews came into contact from the time
of the Maccabees onwards, Severus discloses some points which are
not without importance. But the real interest of his work lies, first,
n the incidental glimpses it affords all through of the history of his
own time; next and more particularly, in the information he has pre-
served concerning the struggle over the Priscillianist heresy, which
disorganized and degraded the churches of Spain and Gaul, and
jarticularly affected Aquitaine. The sympathies here betrayed by
Severus are wholly those of St Martin. The bishop had withstood
vlaximus, who ruled for some years a large part of the western
x>rtion of the empire, though he never conquered Italy. He had
eproached him with attacking and overthrowing his predecessors
>n the throne, and for his dealings with the church. Severus loses
JO opportunity for laying stress on the crimes and follies of rulers,
and on their cruelty, though he once declares that, cruel as rulers
ould be, priests could be crueller still. This last statement has
eference to the bishops who had left Maximus no peace till he had
tamed his hands with the blood of Priscillian and his followers,
rtartin, too, had denounced the worldliness and greed of the Gaulish
oishops and clergy. Accordingly we find that Severus, in narrating
he division of Canaan among the tribes, calls the special attention of
cclesiastics to the fact that no portion of the land was assigned to
he tribe of Levi, lest they should be hindered in their service of
Uod. Our clergy seem," he says, " not merely forgetful of the
;sson but ignorant of it, such a passion for possessions has in our
ays fastened like a pestilence on their souls." We here catch a
hmpse of the circumstances which were winning over good men to
monasticism in the West, though the evidence of an enthusiastic
otary of the solitary life, such as Severus was, is probably not free
rom exaggeration. Severus also fully sympathized with the action
f St Martin touching Priscillianism. This mysterious Western
SEVERY SEVIGNE, MADAME DE
727
offshoot of Gnosticism had no single feature about it which could
soften the hostility of a character such as Martin's, but he resisted
the introduction of secular punishment for evil doctrine, and with-
drew from communion with those bishops in Gaul, a large majority,
who invoked the aid of Maximus against their erring brethren. In
this connexion it is interesting to note the account given by Severus
of the synod held at Rimini in 359, where the question arose whether
the bishops attending the assembly might lawfully receive money
from the imperial treasury to recoup their travelling and other ex-
penses. Severus evidently approves the action of the British and
Gaulish bishops, who deemed it unbecoming that they should lie
under pecuniary obligation to the emperor. His ideal of the church
required that it should stand clear and above the state.
After the Chronica the chief work of Severus is his Life of Martin,
a contribution to popular Christian literature which did much to
establish the great reputation which that wonder-working saint
maintained throughout the middle ages. The book is not properly a
biography, but a catalogue of miracles, told in all the simplicity of
absolute belief. The power to work miraculous signs is assumed to
be in direct proportion to holiness, and is by Severus valued merely
as an evidence of holiness, which he is persuaded can only be attained
through a life of isolation from the world. In the first of his Dialogues
(fair models of Cicero), Severus puts into the mouth of an interlocutor
(Posthumianus) a pleasing description of the life of coenobites and
solitaries in the deserts bordering on Egypt. The main evidence of
the virtue attained by them lies in the voluntary subjection to them
of the savage beasts among which they lived. But Severus was no
indiscriminating adherent of monasticism. The same dialogue shows
him to be alive to its dangers and defects. The second dialogue is a
large appendix to the Life of Martin, and really supplies more in-
formation of his life as bishop and of his views than the work which
bears the title Vita S. Martini. The two dialogues occasionally
make interesting references to personages of the epoch. In Dial.
I , cc. 6, 7, we have a vivid picture of the controversies which raged
at Alexandria over the works of Origen. The judgment of Severus
himself is no doubt that which he puts in the mouth of his inter-
locutor Posthumianus: " I am astonished that one and the same man
could have so far differed from himself that in the approved portion
of his works he has no equal since the apostles, while in that portion
for which he is justly blamed it is proved that no man has committed
more unseemly errors." Three Epistles on the death of Martin (ad
Eusebium, ad Aurelium diaconum, ad Bassulam) complete the list
of Severus' genuine works. Other letters (to his sister), on the love
of God and the renunciation of the world, have not survived.
AUTHORITIES. The text of the Chronica rests on a single nth
century MS., one of the Palatine collection now in the Vatican; of
the other works MSS. are abundant, the best being one of the 6th
century at Verona. Some spurious letters bear the name of Severus;
also in a MS. at Madrid is a work falsely professing to be an epitome
of the Chronica of Severus, and going down to 511. The chief
editions of the complete works of Severus are those by De Prato
(Verona, 174.1) and by Halm (forming vol. i. of the Corpus scrip-
torum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum, Vienna, 1866). There is a most
admirable monograph on the Chronica by J. Bernays (Berlin, 1861).
See also Goelzer, Grammatical in Snip. Severum observations (1884)
(thesis).
SEVERY (probably connected with the English word " sever "),
in architecture, any main compartment or division of a building.
The word has been supposed to be a corruption of Ciborium,
as Gervase of Canterbury uses the word in this sense; but he
probably alludes to the vaulted form of the upper part of the web
of each severy.
SEVIER, JOHN (1745-1815), American frontiersman, first
governor of Tennessee, was born in Rockingham county, Virginia,
on the 23rd of September 1745, of Huguenot ancestry, the family
name being Xavier. He settled on the Watauga on the western
slope of the Alleghanies in 1772, and served as a captain in
Lord Dunmore's War in 1774. Early in 1776 the Watauga
settlements were annexed to North Carolina, and Sevier, who
from the beginning had been a member of the Watauga govern-
ment, now represented the district in the provincial congress,
which met at Halifax in November-December 1776 and adopted
the first state constitution, and in 1777 he was a member of the
state House of Commons. He took part in the campaign of
1780 against the British, especially distinguishing himself in the
battle of King's Mountain, where he led the right wing. In
December 1780 he defeated the Cherokees at Boyd's Creek
(in the present Sevier county, Tennessee), laying waste their
country during the following spring. Later in the same year
(1781), under General Francis Marion, he fought the British
in the Carolinas and Georgia. In 1784, when North Carolina
first ceded its western lands to the Federal government, he
took part in the revolt of the western settlements; he was
president of the first convention which met in Jonesboro on the
23rd of August, and opposed the erection of a new state, but
when the state of Frankland (afterwards Franklin, in honour
of Benjamin Franklin) was organized in March 1785, he became
its first and only governor (1785-1788), and as such led his
riflemen against the Indians; in May 1788, after the end of his
term, men in his command massacred several Indians from a
friendly village, and thus provoked a war in which Sevier again
showed his ability as an Indian fighter. He was arrested by the
North Carolina authorities, partly as a leader of the independent
government and partly for the Indian massacre, but escaped.
About this time he attempted to make an alliance with Spain
on behalf of the state of Franklin. In 1789 he was a member
of the North Carolina Senate, and in 1790-1791 of the National
House of Representatives. After the final cession of its western
territory by North Carolina to the United States in 1790 he was
appointed brigadier-general of militia for the eastern district
of the " Territory South of the Ohio "; and conducted the
Etowah campaign against the Creeks and Cherokees in 1793.
When Tennessee was admitted into the Union as a state, Sevier
became its first governor (1796-1801) and was governor again
in 1803-1809. He was again a member of the National House
of Representatives in 1811-1815, an( l then was commissioner
to determine the boundary of Creek lands in Georgia. He died
near Fort Decatur, Georgia, on the 24th of September 1815.
See J. R. Gilmore, The Rear-Guard of the Revolution (New York,
1886), and John Sevier as a Commonwealth Builder (New York,
1887); errors in Gilmore's books are pointed out in Theodore
Roosevelt's The Winning of the West (New York, 1894-1896).
SEVIGNt, MARIE DE RABUTIN-CHANTAL, MARQUISE DE
(1626-1696), French letter-writer, was born at Paris on the 5th
of February 1626. The family of Rabutin (if not so illustrious
as Bussy, Madame de Sevigne's notorious cousin, affected to
consider it) was one of great age and distinction in Burgundy.
It was traceable in documents to the I2th century, and the
castle which gave it name still existed, though in ruins, in
Madame de Sevigne's time. The family had been gens d'ipee
for the most part, though Francois de Rabutin, the author of
valuable memoirs on the sixth decade of the i6th century,
belonged to it. Marie's father, Celse Benigne de Rabutin,
Baron de Chantal, was the son of the celebrated " Sainte "
Chantal, friend and disciple of St Francis of Sales; her mother
was Marie de Coulange[s]. Celse de Rabutin, a great duellist,
was killed during the English descent on the Isle of Rhe in July
1627. His wife did not survive him many years, and Marie
was left an orphan at the age of seven years and a few months.
She then passed into the care of her grandparents on the mother's
side; but they were both aged, and the survivor of them,
Philippe de Coulanges (or Coulange), died in 1636, Marie being
then ten years old. Her uncle Christophe de Coulanges, abbe
de Livry, was chosen as her guardian. He was somewhat
young for the guardianship of a girl, being only twenty-nine,
but readers of his niece's letters know how well " Le Bien Bon "
for such is his name in Madame de Sevigne's little language
acquitted himself of the trust. He lived till within ten years of
his ward's death, and long after his nominal functions were
ended he was in all matters of business the good angel of
the family, while for half a century his abbacy of Livry was
the favourite residence both of his niece and her daughter.
Coulanges was much more of a man of business than of a man
of letters, but either choice or the fashion of the time induced
him to make of his niece a learned lady. Jean Chapelain and
Gilles Menage are specially mentioned as her tutors, and Menage
at least fell in love with her. Tallemant des Reaux gives more
than one instance of the cool and good-humoured raillery with
which she received his passion, and the earliest letters of hers
that we possess are addressed to Menage. Another literary
friend of her youth was the poet Denis Sanguin de Saint-Pavin.
Among her own sex she was intimate with all the coterie of the
Hotel Rambouillet, and her special ally was Mademoiselle de
la Vergne, afterwards Madame de la Fayette. In person she
was extremely attractive, though the minute critics of the time
728
SEVIGNE, MADAME DE
(which was the palmy day of portraits in words) objected to
her divers deviations from strictly regular beauty, such as
eyes of different colours and sizes, a "square-ended" nose
and a somewhat heavy jaw. Her beautiful hair and complexion,
however, were admitted even by these censors, as well as the
extraordinary spirit and liveliness of her expression. Her
long minority, under so careful a guardian as Coulanges, had
also raised her fortune to the amount of 100,000 crowns a
large sum for the time, and one which with her birth and beauty
might have allowed her to expect a brilliant marriage. There
had been some talk of her cousin Bussy, but fortunately for her
this came to nothing. She married Henri, marquis de Sevigne,
a Breton gentleman of good family, allied to the oldest houses
of that province, but of no great estate. The marriage took
place on August 4, 1644, and the pair went almost immediately
to S6vigne's manor-house of Les Rochers, near Vitre, a place
which Madame de Sevigne was in future years to immortalize.
It was an unfortified chateau of no great size, but picturesque,
with the peaked turrets common in French architecture, and
surrounded by a park and grounds. The abundance of trees
gave it the repute of being damp and somewhat gloomy. Fond,
however, as Madame de Sevigne was of society, it may be sus-
pected that the happiest days of her brief married life were
spent there. For there at any rate her husband had less oppor-
tunity than in Paris of neglecting her, and of wasting her money
and his own. Very little good is said of Henri de Sevigne by
any of his contemporaries. He was one of the innumerable
lovers of Ninon de 1'Enclos, and made himself even more con-
spicuous with a certain Madame de Gondran, known in the
nickname slang of the time as " La Belle Lolo." He was wildly
extravagant. That his wife loved him and that he did not love
her was generally admitted. At last his vices came home to
him. He quarrelled with the Chevalier d'Albret about Madame
de Gondran, fought with him and was mortally wounded on the
4th of February 1651; he died two days afterwards. There
is no reasonable doubt that his wife regretted him a great deal
more than he deserved. Though only six and twenty, and more
beautiful than ever, she never married again despite frequent
offers, and no aspersion was ever thrown, save in one instance,
on her fame. For the rest of her life she gave herself up to her
children. These were two in number, and they divided their
mother's affections by no means equally. The eldest was a
daughter, Francoise Marguerite, who was born on the loth of
October 1646, whether at Les Rochers or in Paris is not certain.
The second, a son, Charles, was born at Les Rochers in the
spring of 1648. To him Madame de Sevigne was an indulgent,
a generous (though not altogether just) and in a way an affection-
ate mother. Her daughter, the future Madame de Grignan,
she worshipped with an almost insane affection, which only
its charming literary results and the delightful qualities which
accompanied it in the worshipper, though not in the worshipped,
save from being ludicrous if not revolting.
After her husband's death Madame de Sevign6 passed the
greater part of the year 1651 in retirement at Les Rochers, but
she returned to Paris in November of that year. For nearly
ten years little of importance occurred in her life, which was
passed at Paris in a house she occupied in the Place Royale
(not as yet in the famous Hotel Carna valet), at Les Rochers,
at Livry or at her own estate of Bourbilly in the Maconnais.
She had, however, in 1658, a quarrel with her cousin Bussy.
Notwithstanding Bussy's various delinquencies the cousins
had always been friends; and the most amusing and character-
istic part of Madame de S6vign6's correspondence, before the
date of her daughter's marriage, is addressed to him. She had
a strong belief in family ties; she recognized in Bussy a kindred
spirit, and she excused his faults as Rabutinades and Rabutinages.
But a misunderstanding about money brought about a quarrel,
which in its turn had a long sequel, and results not unimportant
in literature. Bussy and his cousin had jointly come in for a
considerable legacy, and he asked her for a loan. If this was not
positively refused, there was a difficulty made about it, and
Bussy was offended. A year later, at the escapade of Roissy
(see BUSSY), according to his own account, he improvised
(according to probability he had long before written it) the
famous portrait of Madame de Sevigne which appears in his
notorious Histoire amoureuse, and is a triumph of malice.
Circulated at first in manuscript and afterwards in print, this
caused Madame de Sevigne the deepest pain and indignation,
and the quarrel between the cousins was not fully made up for
years, though after Bussy's disgrace and imprisonment in 1666
the correspondence was renewed. What might have been, and
to some extent was, a much more serious matter occurred in
1661 at the downfall of the Superintendent Fouquet. It was
announced on indubitable authority that communications
from her had been found in the coffer where Fouquet kept his
love letters. She protested that the notes in question were ol
friendship merely, and Bussy (one of the not very numerous
good actions of his life) obtained from Le Tellier, who as minister
had examined the letters, a corroboration of the protest. But
these letters were never published, and there have always been
those who held that Madame de Sevigne regarded Fouquet
with at least a very warm kind of friendship. It is certain that
her letters to Pomponne describing his trial are among her
masterpieces of unaffected, vivid and sympathetic narration.
During these earlier years Madame de Sevigne had a great
affection for the establishment of Port Royal, which was not
without its effect on her literary work. That work, however,
dates in its bulk and really important part almost entirely from
the last thirty years of her life. Her letters before the marriage
of her daughter, though by themselves they would suffice to
give her a very high rank among letter-writers, would not do
more than fill one moderate-sized volume. Those after that
marriage fill nearly ten large volumes in the latest and best
edition. We do not hear very much of Mademoiselle de
Sevign6's early youth. For a short time, at a rather uncertain
date, she was placed at school with the nuns of Sainte-Marie
at Nantes. But for the most part her mother brought her up
herself, assisted by the Abbe de la Mousse, a faithful friend, and
for a time one of her most constant companions. La Mousse
was a great Cartesian, and he made Mademoiselle de Sevigne
also a devotee of the bold soldier of Touraine. But she was
bent on more mundane triumphs than philosophy had to offer.
Her beauty is all the more incontestable that she was by no
means generally liked. Bussy, a critical and not too benevolent
judge, called her " la plus jolie fille de France, " and it seems to
be agreed that she resembled her mother, with the advantage
of more regular features. She was introduced at court early,
and as she danced well she figured frequently in the ballets which
were the chief amusement of the court of Louis XIV. in its early
days. If, however, she was more regularly beautiful than her
mother she had little or nothing of her attraction, and like many
other beauties who have entered society with similar expectations
she did not immediately find a husband. Various projected
alliances fell through for one reason or another, and it was not
till the end of 1668 that her destiny was settled. On January
29 in the next year she married Francois d'Adhdmar, comte
de Grignan, a Provencal, of one of the noblest families of France,
and a man of amiable and honourable character, but neither
young, nor handsome, nor in reality rich. He had been twice
married and his great estates were heavily encumbered. Neither
did the large dowry (300,000 livres) which Madame de Sevign6,
somewhat unfairly to her son, bestowed upon her daughter,
suffice to clear encumbrances, which were constantly increased
in the sequel by the extravagance of Madame de Grignan as
well as of her husband.
Charles de S6vign6 was by this time twenty years old. He
never appears to have resented his mother's preference of his
sister; but, though thoroughly amiable, he was not (at any rate
in his youth) a model character. Nothing is known of his educa-
tion, but just before his sister's marriage he volunteered for a
rather harebrained expedition to Crete against the Turks, and
served with credit. Then his mother bought him the commission
of guidon (a kind of sub-cornet) in the Gendarmes Dauphin, in
which regiment he served for some years. But though he always
SEVIGNE, MADAME DE
729
fought well he was not an enthusiastic soldier, and was constantly
and not often fortunately in love. He followed his father into the
nets of Ninon de 1'Enclos, and was Racine's rival with Mademoi-
selle Champmesle. The way in which his mother was made con-
fidante of these discreditable and not very successful loves is
characteristic both of the time and of the country. In 1669
M. de Grignan, who had previously been lieutenant-governor
of Languedoc, was transferred to Provence. The governor-in-
chief was the young duke of Vend6me. But at this time he was
a boy, and he never really took up the government, so that
Grignan for more than forty years was in effect viceroy of this
important province. His wife rejoiced greatly in the part of
vice-queen; but their peculiar situation threw on them the
expenses without the emoluments of the office, so that the
Grignan money affairs hold a larger place in Madame de Sevigne's
letters than might perhaps be wished.
In 1671 Madame de Sevigne, with her son, paid a visit to Les
Rochers, which is memorable in her history and in literature.
The states of Brittany were convoked that year at Vitr6. This
town being in the immediate neighbourhood of Les Rochers,
Madame de Sevigne's usually quiet life at her country-house was
diversified by the necessity of entertaining the governor, the due
de Chaulnes, of appearing at his receptions and so forth. All
these matters are recorded in her letters, together with much
good-natured raillery on the country ladies of the neighbourhood
and their ways. She remained at Les Rochers during the whole
summer and autumn of 1671, and did not return to Paris till late
in November. The country news is then succeeded by news
of the court. At the end of the next year, 1672, one great wish
of her heart was gratified by paying a visit to her daughter
in her vice-royalty of Provence. Madame de Grignan does not
seem to have been very anxious for this visit perhaps because,
as the letters show in many cases, the exacting affection of her
mother was somewhat too strong for her own colder nature,
perhaps because she feared such a witness of the ruinous extra-
vagance which characterized the Grignan household. But her
mother remained with her for nearly a year, and did not return to
Paris till the end of 1673. During this time we have (as is usually
the case during these Provencal visits and the visits of Madame
de Grignan to Paris) some letters addressed to Madame de
Sevigne, but comparatively few from her. A visit of the second
class was the chief event of 1674. 1675 brought with it the death
of Turenne (of which Madame de Sevigne has given a noteworthy
account, characteristic of her more ambitious but not perhaps
her more successful manner), and also serious disturbances in
Brittany. Notwithstanding these it was necessary for Madame
de Sevigne to make her periodical visit to Les Rochers. She
reached the house in safety, and the friendship of Chaulnes
protected her both from violence and from the exactions which
the miserable province underwent as a punishment for its
resistance to excessive and unconstitutional taxation. No small
part of her letters is occupied by these affairs.
The year 1676 saw several things important in Madame
de Sevigne's life. For the first time she was seriously ill it
would appear with rheumatic fever and she did not thoroughly
recover till she had visited Vichy. Her letters from this place are
among her best, and picture life at a 17th-century watering-place
with unsurpassed vividness. In this year, too, took place the trial
and execution of Madame de BrinvUliers. This event figures in
the letters, and the references to it are among those which have
given occasion to unfavourable comments on Madame de Sevigne's
character. In the next year, 1677, she moved into the Hotel
Carnavalet, a house which still remains and is inseparably con-
nected with her memory, and she had the pleasure of welcoming
the whole Grignan family to it. They remained there a long
time; indeed nearly two years seem to have been spent by
Madame de Grignan partly in Paris and partly at Livry. The
return to Provence took place in October 1678, and next year
Madame de Sevigne had the grief of losing La Rochefoucauld,
the most eminent and one of the most intimate of her close
personal friends and constant associates. In 1680 she again
visited Brittany, but the close of that year saw her back in Paris
to receive another and even longer visit from her daughter, who
remained in Paris for four years. Before the end of the last year
of this stay (in February 1684) Charles de Sevigne, after all his
wandering loves, and after more than one talked-of alliance,
was married to a young Breton lady, Jeanne Marguerite de
Mauron, who had a considerable fortune. In the arrangements
for this marriage Madame de Sevigne practically divided all her
fortune between her children (Madame de Grignan of course
receiving an unduly large share), and reserved only part of the life
interest. The greed of Madame de Grignan nearly broke her
brother's marriage, but it was finally concluded, and proved
happy in a somewhat singular fashion. Both Sevigne and his
wife became deeply religious, and at first Madame de Sevigne
found their household (for she gave up Les Rochers to them)
not at all lively. But by degrees she grew fond of her daughter-in-
law. During this year she spent a considerable time in Brittany,
first on business, afterwards on a visit to her son, and partly it
would appear for motives of economy. But Madame de Grignan
continued with only short absences to inhabit Paris, and the
mother and daughter were practically in each other's company
until 1688. The proportion of letters therefore that we have for
the decade 1677-1687 is much smaller than that which represents
the decade preceding it; indeed the earlier period contains the
great bulk of the whole correspondence. In 1687 the Abbe de
Coulanges, Madame de Sevigne's uncle and good angel, died,
and in the following year the whole family were greatly excited
by the first campaign of the young marquis de Grignan, Madame
de Grignan's only son, who was sent splendidly equipped to the
siege of Philippsbourg. In the same year Madame de Sevigne
was present at the Saint-Cyr performance of Esther, and some
of her most amusing descriptions of court ceremonies and ex-
periences date from this time. 1689 and 1690 were almost entirely
spent by her at Les Rochers with her son; and on leaving
him she went across France to Provence. There was some ex-
citement during her Breton stay, owing to the rumour of an
English descent, on which occasion the Breton militia was called
out, and Charles de Sevigne appeared for the last time as a
soldier; but it came to nothing. 1691 was passed at Grignan
and other places in the south, but at the end of it Madame de
Sevigne returned to Paris, bringing the Grignans with her;
and her daughter stayed with her till 1694. The year 1693 saw
the loss of two of her oldest friends Bussy Rabutin, her faithless
and troublesome but in his own way affectionate cousin, and
Madame de la Fayette, her life-long companion, and on the whole
perhaps her best and wisest friend. Another friend almost as
intimate, Madame de Lavardin, followed in 1694. Madame de
Sevigne spent but a few months of this latter year alone, and
followed her daughter to Provence. She never revisited Brittany
after 1691. Two important marriages with their preparations
occupied most of her thoughts during 1694-1695. The young
marquis de Grignan married the daughter of Saint-Amant,
an immensely rich financier; but his mother's pride, ill-nature
and bad taste (she is said to have remarked in full court that it
was necessary now and then to " manure the best lands, " referring
to Saint-Amant's wealth and low birth, and the Grignan's
nobility) made the marriage not very happy. His sister Pauline,
who, in the impossibility of dowering her richly, had a narrow
escape of the cloister, made a marriage of affection with the
marquis de Simiane, and eventually became the sole representa-
tive and continuator of the families of Grignan and Sevign6.
Madame de SeVigne survived these alliances but a very short
time. During an illness of her daughter she herself was attacked
by smallpox in April 1696, and she died on the I7th of that month
at Grignan, and was buried there. Her idolized daughter was
not present during her illness. But in her will Madame de
S6vigne still showed her preference for this not too grateful
child, and Charles de Sevign6 accepted his mother's wishes in
a letter showing the good-nature which he had never lacked.
But the two families were, except as has been said for Madame
de Simiane and her posterity, to be rapidly broken up. Charles
de Sevigne and his wife had no children, and he himself, after
occupying some public posts (he was king's lieutenant in Brittany
730
in 1697), went with his wife into religious retirement at Paris
in 1703, and after a time sequestered himself still more in the
seminary of Sainte-Magloire, where he died on March 26, 1713.
His widow survived him twenty years. Madame de Grignan
had died on August 16, 1705, at a country-house near Marseilles,
of the very disease which she had tried to escape by not visiting
her dying mother. Her son, who had fought at Blenheim, had
died of the same malady at Thionville the year before. Marie
Blanche, her eldest daughter, was in a convent, and, as all the
comte de Grignan's brothers had either entered the church
or died unmarried, the family, already bankrupt in fortune,
was extinguished in the male line by Grignan's own death in 1 7 14,
at a great age. Madame de Simiane, whose connexion with the
history of the letters is important, died in 1737.
The chief subjects of public interest and the principal family
events of importance which are noticed in the letters of Madame
de Sevignd have been indicated already. But, as will readily be
understood, neither the whole nor even the chief interest of her
correspondence is confined to such things. In the latest edition
the letters extend to sixteen or seventeen hundred, of which, how-
ever, a considerable number (perhaps a third) are replies of other
persons or letters addressed to her, or letters of her family and friends
having more or less connexion with the subjects of her correspond-
ence. As a rule her own letters, especially those to her daughter,
are of great length. Writing as she did in a time when newspapers
were not, or at least were scanty and jejune, gossip of all sorts ap-
pears among her subjects, and some of her most famous letters are
pure reportage (to use a modern French slang term), while others deal
with strictly private matters. Thus one of her best-known pieces has
for subject the famous suicide of the great cook Vatel owing to a
misunderstanding as to the provision of fish for an entertainment
given to the king by Condd at Chantilly. Another (one of the most
characteristic of all) deals with the projected marriage of Lauzun
and Mademoiselle de Montpensier; another with the refusal of one
of her own footmen to turn hay-maker when it was important to get
the crop in at Les Rochers; another with the fire which burnt out
her neighbour's house in Paris. At one moment she tells how a
forward lady of honour was disconcerted in offering certain services
at Mademoiselle's levee; at another how ill a courtier's clothes
became him. She enters, as has been said, at great length into the
pecuniary difficulties of her daughter; she tells the most extra-
ordinary stories of the fashion in which Charles de Se'vigne' sowed his
wild oats; she takes an almost ferocious interest and side in her
daughter's quarrels with rival beauties or great officials in Provence.
Almost all writers of literary letters since Madame de Sevignd's
days, or rather since the publication of her correspondence, have
imitated her more or less directly, more or less consciously, and it
is therefore only by applying that historic estimate upon which all
true criticism rests that her full value can be discerned. The charm
of her work is, however, so irresistible that, read even without any
historical knowledge and in the comparatively adulterated editions
in which it is generally met with, that charm can hardly be missed.
Madame de Sevignd was a member of the strong and original group
of writers Retz, La Rochefoucauld, Corneille, Pascal, Saint-Evre-
mond, Descartes and the rest who escaped the influence of the later
1 7th century, while they profited by the reforms of the earlier.
According to the strictest standard of the Academy her phraseology
is sometimes incorrect, and it occasionally shows traces of the quaint
and affected style of the Precieuses; but these things only add to
its savour and piquancy. In lively narration few writers have ex-
celled her, and in the natural expression of domestic and maternal
affection none. She had an all-observant eye for trifles and the
keenest possible appreciation of the ludicrous, together with a hearty
relish for all sorts of amusements, pageants and diversions, and a
deep though not voluble or over-sensitive sense of the beauties of
nature. But with all this she had an understanding as solid as her
temper was gay. Unlike her daughter, she was not a professed blue-
stocking or philosophies. But she had a strong affection for theology,
in which she inclined (like the great majority of the religious and
intelligent laity of her time in France) to the lansenist side. Her
favourite author in this class was Nicole. She has been reproached
with her fondness for the romances of Mile de Scuddry and the rest
of her school. But probably many persons who make that reproach
have themselves never read the works they despise, and are ignorant
how much merit there is in them. In purely literary criticism
Madame de SeVigne 1 was no mean expert. Her preference for
Corneille over Racine has much more in it than the fact that the elder
poet had been her favourite before the younger began to write;
and her remarks on La Fontaine and some other authors are both
judicious and independent. Nor is she wanting in original reflections
of no ordinary merit. But to enjoy her work in its most enjoyable
point the combination of fluent and easy style with quaint archaisms
and tricks of phrase it must be read as she wrote it, and not in the
trimmed and corrected version of Perrin and Madame de Simiane.
Great part of her purely literary merit lies in the extraordinary
vividness of her presentation of character. But her own has not
SEVIGNE, MADAME DE
united quite such a unanimity of suffrage as her ability in writing.
In her own time there were not wanting enemies who maintained that
her letters were written for effect, and that her affection for her
daughter was ostentatious and unreal. But no competent judge can
admit this view On the other hand, her excessive affection for
Madame de Grignan, her blindness to anything but her daughter's
interest; her culpable tolerance of her son's youthful follies on the
one hand and the uneven balance which she held in money matters
between him and his sister on the other; the apparent levity with
which she speaks of the sufferings of Madame de Brinvilliers, of galley
slaves, of the peasantry, &c ; and the freedom of language which she
uses herself and tolerates from others, have all been cast up against
her. Here the historic estimate sufficiently disposes of some of the
objections, a little common sense of others and a very little charity
of the rest. If too much love felt by a mother towards a daughter be
a fault, then Madame de Se'vigne' was one of the most offending souls
that ever lived; but it will hardly be held damning. The singular
confidences which Madame de SeVignd received from her son and
transmitted to her daughter would even at the present day be less
surprising in France than in England. They are only an instance,
adjusted to the manners of the time, of the system of sacrificing
everything to the maintenance of confidence between mother and
son. Here too, as well as in reference to the immediately kindred
charge of crudity of language, and to that want of sympathy with
suffering, especially with the sufferings of the people, it is especially
necessary to remember of what generation Madame de S6vign6 was
and what were her circumstances. That generation was the genera-
tion which Madame de Rambpuillet endeavoured with only partial
success to polish and humanize, to which belong the almost in-
credible yet trustworthy Historiettes of Tallemant, and in which
Bussy Rabutin's Histoire amoureuse did not make him lose all caste
as a gentleman and man of honour. It is absurd to expect at such a
time, and in private letters, the delicacy proper to quite different
times and circumstances. It is not true that Madame de Sevignd
shows no sympathy with the oppression of the Bretons, though her
incurable habit of humorous expression of Rabutinage, as she says
makes her occasionally use light phrases about the matter. But it is
in fact as unreasonable to expect modern political sentiments from
her as it is to expect her to observe the canons of a 20th-century
propriety. On the whole she may be as fairly and confidently ac-
quitted of any moral fault, as she may be acquitted of all literary
faults whatsoever. Her letters are wholly, what her son-in-law said
well of her after her death, compagnons delicieux; and, far from
faultless as Madame de Grignan was, none of her faults is more felt
by the reader than her long visits to her mother, during which the
letters ceased.
_ The bibliographic history of Madame de SeVignd's letters is of con-
siderable interest in itself, and is moreover typical of much other con-
temporary literary history. From Madame de Se'vigne herself we
know that her own letters were copied and handed about, sometimes
under specified titles, as early as 1673. None of them, however, was
published until her correspondence with Bussy Rabutin appeared
in his Memoirs and Correspondence, partly in the year of her death,
partly next year. The remainder were not printed in any form for
thirty years. Then between 1725 and 1728 appeared seven unauthor-
ized editions, containing more or fewer additions from the copies
which had been circulated privately. The bibliography of these
must be sought in special works (see especially the Grands Ecrivatns
edition, vol. xi.). They have interest, however, chiefly because they
stirred up Madame de Simiane, the writer's only living representative,
to give an authorized version. This appeared^ under the care of the
Chevalier de Perrin in 6 vols. (Paris, 1734-1737). It contained only
the letters to Madame de Grignan, and these were subjected to
editing rather careful than conscientious, the results of which were
never thoroughly removed until recently. In the first place, Madame
de Simiane, who possessed her mother's replies, is said to have
burnt the whole 01 these from religious motives; this phrase is ex-
plained by Madame de Grignan's Cartesianism, which is supposed
to have led her to expressions alarming to orthodoxy. In the second,
scruples partly having to do with the susceptibilities of living persons,
partly concerning Jansenist and other prejudices, made her insist on
numerous omissions. Thirdly, and most unfortunately, the change
of taste seems to have required still more numerous alterations of
style and language, such as the substitution of " Ma Fille " for
Madame de Sevign6's usual and charming " Ma Bonne," and many
others. Perrin followed this edition up in 1751 with a volume of
supplementary letters not addressed to Madame de Grignan, and in
1754 published his last edition of the whole, which was long the
standard (8 vols., Paris). During the last half of the l8th century
numerous editions of the whole or parts appeared with important
additions, such as that of 1756, giving for the first time the letters to
Pomponne on the Fouquet trial; that of 1773, giving letters to
Moulceau; that of 1775, giving for the first time the Bussy letters
separate from his memoirs, &c. An important collected edition of all
these fragments, by the Abbd de Vauxcclles, appeared in 1801 (Paris,
An IX.) in 10 vols.; five years later Gouvelle (Paris, 1806, 8 vols.)
introduced the improvement of chronological order; this was re-
printed in 12 vols. (Paris, 1819) with some more unpublished letters
which had separately appeared meanwhile. In the same year
appeared the first edition of M. de Monmerqud. From that date
SEVILLE
continual additions of unpublished letters were made, in great part by
the same editor, and at last the whole was remodelled on manuscript
copies (the originals unfortunately are available for but few) in the
edition called Des Grands crivains, which M. de Monmerque began,
but which owing to his death had to be finished by MM. Regnier,
Paul Mesnard and Sommer (Paris, 1862-1868). This, which super-
sedes all others (even a handsome edition published during its
appearance by M. Silvestre de Sacy), consists of twelve volumes of
text, notes, &c., two volumes of lexicon and an album of plates.
It contains all the published letters to and from Madame de Sevigne,
with the replies where they exist, with all those letters to and from
Madame de Simiane (many of which had been added to the main
body) that contain any interest. To it must be added two volumes
(printed uniformly) olLettres inedites, published by M. Ch. Capmas in
1876 and containing numerous variants and additions from a MS.
copy discovered in an old curiosity shop at Dijon. Of less elaborate
and costly editions that in the collection Didot (6 vols., Paris, v.d.)
is the best, though, in common with all others except the Grands
crivains edition, it contains an adulterated text.
Works on Madame de Sevign6 are innumerable. Besides essays
by nearly all the great French critics from Sainte-Beuve (Portraits
defemmes) to M. Brunetiere (Etudes critiques), the work of F. Combes,
Madame de Sevigne, historien (1885), and G. Boissier's volume in the
Grands Itcrivains Fran$ais ( 1 88 1 ) , should be consulted. The biography
by Paul Mesnard is nearly exhaustive, but the most elaborate
biographical book is that of Walckenaer (3rd ed., Paris, 1856, 5 vols.),
to which should be added the remarkable Histoire de Mme de Sevigne
of Aubenas (Paris and St Petersburg, 1842). In English an excellent
little book by Miss Thackeray (Lady Ritchie) (1881) may be recom-
mended, and also Janet Aldis's Mme de Sevigne: The Queen of
Letter-writers (1907). Most of the editions have portraits. (G. SA.)
SEVILLE, an inland province of southern Spain, 'one of the
eight provinces into which Andalusia was divided in 1833;
bounded on the N. by Badajoz, N.E. by Cordova, S. by
Malaga and Cadiz and W. by Huelva. Pop. (1900) 555,256;
area 5428 sq. m. The province is bisected by the navigable river
Guadalquivir (q.v.), which here receives the Genii and Guadaira
on the left, and the Guadalimar on the right. West of the
Guadalquivir the surface is broken by low mountain ranges
forming part of the Sierra Morena; the eastern districts are
comparatively flat and very fertile, except along the frontiers
of Cadiz and Malaga, where rise the Sierras of Gibalbin and
Algodonales; and there are extensive marshes near the Guadal-
quivir estuary. Coal, copper, iron ore, silicate of alumina,
marble and chalk are the chief mineral products; the province
is famous for its oranges, and also exports wheat, barley, oats,
maize, olives, oil, wine and chick-peas. Iron-founding and the
manufacture of gunpowder and ordnance are carried on by the
state, and a great expansion of the other manufactures leather,
pottery, soap, flour, cork products, &c. took place after 1875
owing to the construction of railways between all the larger towns.
Cattle-breeding is an important industry in the plains and
marshes. Seville (q.v.) is the capital and chief river-port. Other
towns described in separate articles are Ecija (pop. 1900, 24,372),
Osuna (17,826), Carmona (17,215), Utrera (15,138), Moron de
la Frontera (14,190), Marchena (12,468), Lebrija (10,997).
SEVILLE (Span. Sevilla, Lat. Ispalis or Hispalis, Moorish
Ishbiliya), the capital of the Spanish province of Seville, and the
chief city of Andalusia, on the left bank of the river Guadalquivir,
54 m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and 355 m. by rail S.S.W. of
Madrid. Pop. (1900) 148,315. Seville is an archiepiscopal see,
a port with many thriving industries, and in size the fourth city
in the kingdom, ranking after Madrid, Barcelona and Valencia.
Its history, and its treasures of art and architecture render it
one of the most interesting places in Europe. It is built in a
level alluvial plain, as productive as a garden. Few parts of the
city are more than 30 ft. above sea-level, and owing to the
frequency of floods an elaborate system of defences against the
Guadalquivir and its affluents the Guadaira, Tamarguillo and
Tagarete, was undertaken in 1904. This entailed the construc-
tion (spread over many years) of dykes, walls and surface drains,
the raising of certain streets and railway embankments and the
diversion of the lower Tagarete along a new channel leading into
the Tamarguillo. The climate is pleasant at all seasons except
in summer, when a shade temperature of 116 Fahr. has been
recorded. Water is provided by a British company, and a
smaller quantity is obtained from Carmona, but the supply
is inadequate.
On the right or western bank of the river is the suburb of the
Triana, inhabited to a great extent by gipsies. Seville retains
its Moorish appearance in the older quarters, although their
narrow and tortuous alleys are lighted by electricity, and
traversed, wherever they afford room, by electric tramways.
In the more modern districts there are broad avenues and
boulevards, the chief of which is the beautiful Paseo de los
Delicias, along the river and below the city.
The animated and picturesque street-life of Seville has often
been painted and described, or even, as in Mozart's Figaro and
Don Giovanni, Rossini's Barbiere di Siviglia and Bizet's Carmen,
set to music. The townsfolk, and the peasants who have come
to town for bull-fights, fairs or carnival, have preserved many
of the curious old customs which tend to die out in the other
large cities of Spain; they continue to wear the vivid costumes
which suit the sunny climate of Andalusia; and their own gaiety,
wit and grace of manner are proverbial. Nowhere in Spain
are the great Church festivals celebiated with so much splendour;
Easter at Seville is especially famous, and at this season the city
is usually crowded with foreigners. The stately reserve and
formality of Madrid society are almost as unknown here as the
feverish industrialism and political passion of Barcelona or
Valencia; loyalty, good humour and light-hearted hedonism
have always been characteristic of Seville.
Principal Buildings. The cathedral, dedicated to Santa Maria de
la Sede, is the largest church in the world, after St Peter's at Rome
and the Mezquita at Cordova, being 414 ft. long, 271 ft. wide and
100 ft. high to the roof of the nave. The west front is approached by
a high flight of steps, and the platform on which the cathedral stands
is surrounded by a hundred shafts of columns from the mosque which
formerly occupied the site. The work of building began in 1402 and
was finished in 1519, so that the one style of Spanish Gothic is fairly
preserved throughout the interior, however much the exterior is
spoiled by later additions. Unfortunately the west front remained
unfinished until 1827, when the central doorway was completed in a
very inferior manner; but this has been renewed in a purer style.
The fine relief above it representing the Assumption was added in
1885. At the east end are two Gothic doorways with good sculpture
in the tympana ; and on the north side the Puerta del Perdon, as it
is called, has some exquisite detail over the horse-shoe arch, and a
pair of fine bronze doors. The gateway in the southern facade,
designed by Casanova, dates from 1887. The interior forms a
parallelogram containing a nave and four aisles with surrounding
chapels, a centre dome, 121 ft. high, and at the east end a royal
sepulchral chapel, which was an addition of the l6th century. The
thirty-two immense clustered columns, the marble floor (1787-1795)
and the seventy-four windows filled with painted glass, mostly by
Flemish artists of the l6th century, produce an unsurpassed effect of
magnificence. The reredos is an enormous Gothic work containing
forty-four panels of gilt and coloured wood carvings begun by the
Fleming Dancart in 1479 and completed by Spanish artists in 1526;
the silver statue of the Virgin is by Francisco Alfaro (1596). The
archbishop's throne and the choir-stalls (1475-1548) are fine pieces of
carving, and amongst the notable metal-work are the railings (1519),
by Sancho Nunoz, and the lectern by Bartolome Morel of the same
period. The bronze candelabrum for tenebrae, 25 ft. in height, is a
splendid work by B. More (1562). In the Sacristia Alta is a silver
repousse reliquary presented by Alphonso the Wise in the 1 3th
century; and in the Sacristia Mayor, which is a good plateresque
addition made in 1535 from designs by Diego de Riafio (d. 1532),
there is a magnificent collection of church plate and vestments, in-
cluding the famous silver monstrance (1580-1587), 12 ft. high, by
Juan de Arfe (Arphe). At the west end of the nave is the grave of
Ferdinand, the son of Columbus, and at the east end in the royal
chapel (1514-1566) lies the body of St Ferdinand of Castile (1200-
1252), which is exposed three times in the year. This chapel also
contains the tombs of Alphonso the Wise (1252-1284) and Pedro I.
(1350-1369) and a curious life-size image of the Virgin, which was
presented to St Ferdinand by St Louis of France in the l^th century.
It is in carved wood with movable arms, seated on a silver throne
and with hair of spun gold. The chief pictures in the cathedral are the
" Guardian Angel," the " St Anthony," 1 and other works of Murillo;
the " Holy Family " of Alfonso Miguel de Tobar (1678-1738); the
" Nativity " and La Generacion " of Luis de Vargas; Valdes Leal's
"Marriage of the Virgin," and Guadelupe's "Descent from the Cross."
In the Sacristia Alta are three fine paintings by Alexo Fernandez, and
in the Sala Capitular are a " Conception " by Murillo and a " St Ferdi-
nand " by Francisco Pacheco. The organs (1777 and 1827) are among
the largest in the world. A curious and unique ritual is observed by
the choir boys on the festivals of Corpus Christi and the Immaculate
Conception a solemn dance with castanets being performed by
1 This was stolen in 1874, sold in New York for 50, and returned
by its purchaser, Mr Schaus.
732
SEVILLE
ten of them before the altar; the custom is an old one but its origin
is obscure. The Sagrario (1618-1662) on the north of the cathedral
is a Baroque addition by Miguel de Zumarraga and Fernandez de
Iglesias, which serves as the parish church.
At the north-east corner of the cathedral stands the Giralda, a bell
tower of Moorish origin, 295 ft. in height. The lower part of the
tower, or about 185 ft, was built in the latter half of the I2th century
by Yusuf I.; the upper part and the belfry, which is surmounted by
a vane formed of a bronze figure 14 ft. high representing Faith, were
added (l 568) by Fernando Ruiz in the Renaissance style. The ascent
is made by a series of inclined planes. The exterior is encrusted with
delicate Moorish detail, and the tower is altogether the finest speci-
men of its kind in Europe. At the base lies the Court of Oranges, of
which only two sides now remain; the original Moorish fountain,
however, is still preserved. But the chief relic of the Arab dominion
in Seville is the Alcazar, a palace comparable in interest and beauty
only with the Alhambra of Granada. It was begun in 1181 during
the best periods of the Almohades, and was surrounded by walls and
towers, of which the Torre del Oro, a decagonal tower on the river side,
is now the principal survival. The Torre del Oro (1220) has an 18th-
century superstructure. Pedro I. made considerable alterations
and additions in the Alcazar during the I4th century, and worse
havoc was afterwards wrought by Charles V., Philip III. and Philip V.
Restorations have been effected as far as possible, and the palace is
now an extremely beautiful example of Moorish work. The facade,
the hall of ambassadors and the Patio de las Munecas are the most
striking portions, after which may be ranked the Patio de las Don-
cellas and the chapel of Isabella. Among other Moorish remains in
Seville may be mentioned the minaret of San Marcos, 75 ft. high.
The Casa de Pilatos is Moorish and Renaissance of the 1 6th century,
and in addition to its elegant courtyard surrounded by a marble
colonnade, contains some fine decorative work. Somewhat similar
in style are the 15th-century Casa de los Pinelos (Casa de Abades)
and the 15th-century palace of the dukes of Alva (Palacio de las
Duefias or de las Pinedas). The following are the most notable
churches in Seville: Santa Maria la Blanca, an old Jewish syna-
gogue; San Pedro, 14th-century Gothic; Santa Marina, with the
oldest Christian sculptures in Seville; San Marcos, badly restored,
but with a remarkable mudejar portal; San Clemente el Real with
beautiful blue and white tile-work (azulejos) of 1588; the Gothic
Parroquia of Santa Ana, in the Triana suburb; and Omnium
Sanctorum, built by Pedro I., with a Moorish tower and Roman
foundations. The church of La Caridad belongs to an almshouse
founded in 1661 by the Sevillian Don Juan, Miguel de Manara. It
possesses six masterpieces by Murillo, and two by Valdes Leal. The
chapel of the convent of Santa Paula dates from 1475, and has a
portal magnificently decorated with azulejos. Other churches,
though generally deficient in architectural interest, are enriched by
paintings or sculptures of Pacheco, Montanes, Alonso Cano, Valdes
Leal, Roelas, Campana, Morales, Vargas and Zurbaran. The
museum was formerly the church and convent of La Merced. It now
contains priceless examples of the Seville school of painting, which
flourished during the 1 6th and 1 7th centuries. Among the masters
represented are Velazquez and Murillo (both natives of Seville),
Zurbaran, Roelas, Herrera the Elder, Pacheco, Juan de Castillo,
Alonso Cano, Cespedes, Bocanegra, Valdes Leal, Goya and Martin de
Vos. The school founded in 1256 by Alfonso X. became a university
in 1502; its present buildings were originally a Jesuit college built
in 1567 from designs either oy Herrera or by the Jesuit Bartolom6
de Bustamcnte, but devoted to their present use in 1767 on the ex-
pulsion of the Jesuits. The university has faculties ofjlaw, philosophy,
natural science and medicine. The Casa del Ayuntamiento, in the
Renaissance style, was begun in 1527 and has a fine staircase and hall
and handsome carved doors. The Lonja, or exchange, was designed
by Herrera in his severe classical style, and completed in 1598; the
brown and red marble staircase which leads to the Archive de Indias
is the best part of the design. The archives contain 30,000 volumes
relating to the voyages of Spanish discoverers, many of which are
still unexamined. The archbishop's palace dates from 1697; the
most notable features are the Churrigueresque doorway and staircase
The palace of San Telmo was formerly the seat ol a naval college
founded by Ferdinand Columbus. An immense doorway is its
principal architectural feature, but its picture gallery is interesting
and important. Other noteworthy buildings are the Mudejar palaces
of the duke of Osuna and the count of Penaflor; the house occupied
by Murillo at the time of his death (1682) ; the civil hospital built in
1.559 and enlarged in 1842; the foundling hospital (1558); the bull-
ring, with room for 14,000 spectators; and fragments of the city
walls, which formerly had a circumference of more than 10 m.,
with 12 gateways and 1 66 towers.
Commerce and Industries. The port of Seville, in 37 10' N. and
6 10' W. has always been one of the chief outlets of the wealth of
Spain. It is the terminus of three railways to Madrid, and of other
lines to Cadiz, Almorchon, Ciudad Real, Huelva, Badajoz and Lisbon.
Three of these lines have branches down to the water-side of the
quays. The quay on the left bank, 4500 ft. long, is provided with
powerful cranes, and sheds for merchandise. Navigation up the
Guadalquivir from its mouth to Seville (where the river is still tidal)
is less dangerous for steamers than for sailing vessels, but is never-
theless uncertain. The construction of a ship-canal 4 m. long from
the Punta de los Remedies to the Punta del Verde two points
between which the windings of the river render navigation especially
difficult was first proposed in 1859, and was undertaken in 1907.
Dredging operations were begun at the same time, so that on com-
pletion of the canal vessels drawing 25 ft. (instead of l6ft.) could come
up to Seville. The principal exports are Manzanilla, Amontillado
and other wines, oranges and lemons, iron, copper and lead ores,
mercury, olives, oil, cork and wool ; the imports include coal, wood,
iron, manufactured goods, hemp, flax and colonial produce. There
are manufactures of machinery, tobacco, chocolate, soap, porcelain,
beer, liqueurs, brandies, corks and silk. The royal artillery works
and iron foundries are very important. The porcelain and earthen-
ware factory in the Carthusian convent (Cartuja, 1 founded 1401)
employs more than 2000 hands. Pottery has been the characteristic
industry of the Triana from time immemorial; the patron saints of
Seville, Justa and Rufina, are said by tradition to have been potters
here. Equally important is the great tobacco and cigar factory,
where 6000 women are employed.
History. Seville appears originally to have been an Iberian
town. Under the Romans the city was made the capital of
Baetica in the second century B.C., and became a favourite resort
for wealthy Romans. It was captured in 45 B.C. by Julius Caesar,
who gave it the name of Colonia Julia Romula, and made it one
of the conventus juridici. The emperors Hadrian, Trajan and
Theodosius were born in the neighbourhood at Italica (now
Santiponce) ,where are the remains of a considerable amphitheatre.
The chief existing monument of the Romans in Seville itself is the
remains of an aqueduct, on four hundred and ten arches, by which
water from Alcala de Guadaira was supplied to the town. At
the beginning of the 5th century the Silingian Vandals made
Seville the seat of their empire, until it passed in 531 under
the Visigoths, who chose Toledo for their capital. After the
defeat of Don Roderick at Guadalete in 712 the Moors took
possession of the city after a siege of some months. Under
the Moors Seville continued to flourish. Idrisi speaks in particular
of its great export trade in the oil of Aljarafe. The district
was in great part occupied by Syrian Arabs from Emcsa, part
of the troops that entered Spain with Balj in 741 at the time
of the revolt of the Berbers. It was a scion of one of these
Emesan families, Abu '1-Kasim Mahommed, cadi of Seville,
who on the fall of the Spanish caliphate headed the revolt of his
townsmen against their Berber masters (1023) and became
the founder of the Abbadid dynasty, of which Seville was capital,
and which lasted under his son Mo'tadid (1042-1069) and grand-
son Mo'tamid (1060-1091) till the city was taken by the
Almoravides. The later years of the Almoravide rule were
very oppressive to the Moslems of Spain; in 1133 the people
of Seville were prepared to welcome the victorious arms of
Alphonso VII., and eleven years later Andalusia broke out in
general rebellion. Almohade troops now passed over into
Spain and took Seville in 1147. Under the Almohades Seville
was the seat of government and enjoyed great prosperity; the
great mosque (now destroyed) was commenced by Yusuf I. and
completed by his son Almanzor. In the decline of the dynasty
between 1228 and 1248 Seville underwent various revolutions,
and ultimately acknowledged the Hafsite prince, but Ferdinand
III. restored it to Christendom in 1248. Ferdinand brought
temporary ruin on the city, for it is said that 400,000 of the
inhabitants went into voluntary exile. But the position of Seville
was too favourable for trade for it to fall into permanent decay,
and by the i5th century it was again in a position to derive
full benefit from the discovery of America. After the reign of
Philip II. its prosperity gradually waned with that of the rest
of the Peninsula; yet even in 1700 its silk factories gave employ-
ment to thousands of workpeople; their numbers, however,
by the end of the i8th century had fallen to four hundred. In
1800 an outbreak of yellow fever carried off 30,000 of the in-
habitants, and in 1810 the city suffered severely from the French
under Soult, who plundered to the extent of six millions sterling.
Politically Seville has always had the reputation of peculiar
loyalty to the throne from the time when, on the death of
Ferdinand III., it was the only city which remained faithful
to his son Alphonso the Wise. It was consequently much
'The interesting 15th-century tombs formerly in the Cartuja are
now in the church of the university.
SEVRES SEWARD, W. H.
733
favoured by the monarchs, and frequently a seat of the court.
For its loyalty during the revolt of the Comuneros it received
from Charles V. the motto Ab Hercule el Caesar e nobilitas; a
se ipsa fidelitas. In 1729 the treaty between England, France
and Spain was signed in the city; in 1808 the central junta
was formed here and removed in 1810 to Cadiz; in 1823 the
cortes brought the king with them from Madrid; and in 1848
Seville combined with Malaga and Granada against Espartero,
who bombarded the city but fled on the return of Queen Maria
Christina to Madrid.
SeeP.deMadrazo,5ew7/ap'C(fdi2(Madrid, 1884-1886); R.Contreras,
Estudio de los monumentos arabes de Sevilla y Cordova (Madrid, 1885) ;
J. Gestoso y Perez, Sevilla monumental y artistica (3 vols., Seville,
1889-1892); A. F. Calvert, Seville (London, 1907); J. Guichot y
Parpdi, Historia del Ayuntamiento de la ciudad de Sevilla (3 vols.,
Seville, 1896-1898) ; J. Cascales y Munoz, Sevilla intellectual (Madrid,
1896); W. M. Gallichan, The Story of Seville (London, 1903).
SEVRES, a town of northern France, in the department of
Seine-et-Oise, on the left bank of the Seine, midway between
Paris and Versailles, about 3 m. from the fortifications of the
former. Pop. (1906) 7949. The town owes its celebrity to the
porcelain manufactory established there in 1756 and taken over
by the State three years later. In the museum connected with
the works are preserved specimens of the different kinds of ware
manufactured in all ages and countries and the whole series of
models employed at Sevres from the beginning of the manu-
facture, for an account of which see CERAMICS. A technical
school of ceramics is attached to the factory.
SEWALL, SAMUEL (1652-1730), American jurist, was born
at Horton, near Bishopstoke, Hants, England, on the 28th of
March 1652. He was taken to New England in 1661; graduated
at Harvard in 1671; studied divinity; and was resident fellow
of Harvard in 1673-1674 , and keeper of the college library in 1674.
In 1683 he was deputy to the General Court for Westfield;
from 1 68 1 to 1684 he managed the only licensed printing press
in Boston; and as a member of the Board of Assistants in 1684-
1686 and in 1689-1690 he was ex efficio a judge of the Superior
Court. He was a member of the Council in 1691-1725, and in
1692 he was made one of the special commissioners of oyer and
terminer to try persons accused of witchcraft in Suffolk, Essex
and Middlesex counties. This court condemned nineteen.
Sewall in January 1697 stood in meeting while a bill was read in
which he took " the blame and shame " of the " guilt contracted
upon the opening of the late commission of oyer and terminer at
Salem," and asked pardon. He was a judge of the Superior
Court from 1692 to 1728, and in 1718-1728 was its chief justice;
in 1715-1728 he was judge of probate for Suffolk county. He
died in Boston on the ist of January 1730. Sewall has been
called the " last of the Puritans " and his character is attractively
portrayed in Whittier's Prophecy of Samuel Sewall. He was a
strict Calvinist and opposed the growing liberal control of Harvard
College; he contributed to the cause of Indian missions, built
an Indian meeting-house (probably in Sandwich), was one of
the commissioners of the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in New England and Parts Adjacent, and for more than
twenty years its secretary and treasurer.
He wrote: The Selling of Joseph, a Memorial (1700), the first anti-
slavery tract printed in America; with Edward Rawson, anony-
mously, The Revolution in New England Justified (1691 ; reprinted in
Force's Tracts and in The Andros Tracts'); Phaenomena quaedam
apocalyptica ad aspectum novi orbis configurata (1697) and Talitha
Cumi, or an Invitation to Women to look after their Inheritance in the
Heavenly Mansions, both full of strange Biblical interpretation;
and a journal begun in 1673, which, with his other papers, was bought
by the Massachusetts Historical Society in 1869, and was published
in vols. xiv.-xlviii. of its Collections.
See the sketch in J. L. Sibley, Biographical Sketches of Graduates
of Harvard University, ii. (1881), 345-371 ; an article by C. H. C.
Howard in vol. xxxvii. (Salem, 1901) of the Essex Institute Historical
Collections; N. H. Chamberlain, Samuel Sewall and the World He
Lived In (Boston, 1897); and G. E. Ellis, An Address on the Life
and Character of Chief Justice Samuel Sewall (Boston, 1885).
His son, JOSEPH SEWALL (1686-1769), became pastor of the
Old South Church in 1713, and was a powerful preacher who
sided with Whitefield. A descendant, SAMUEL EDWARD SEWALL
(1799-1888), a lawyer, was prominent in the anti-slavery move-
ment, first as a Garrisonian and afterwards as a member of the
Liberty and Free-Soil parties; he was counsel for a number of
fugitive slaves, and after the Civil War he worked for the improve-
ment of the legal status of women.
See Nina M. Tiffany, Samuel E. Sewall: A Memoir (Boston 1898).
SEWANEE, a village of Franklin county, Tennessee, about
15 m. E. of Winchester, the county-seat, and (by rail) 95 m.
S.S.E. of Nashville. Pop. about 1200. Sewanee is served by the
Tracy City branch of the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis
railway. It is on a spur of the Cumberland mountains about
2000 ft. above the sea and about 1000 ft. above the surrounding
country. It is a resort for sufferers from malaria and pulmonary
complaints. There are mineral springs, coal mines and sand-
stone quarries here, all on the " domain," about 10,000 acres,
of the University of the South, a Protestant Episcopal institution
of higher learning, founded in 1857, largely through the efforts
of Bishop Leonidas Polk, but not opened until 1868. The princi-
pal buildings of the University, on a tract of 1000 acres, are all
of Sewanee sandstone; they include Walsh Memorial (1890),
with offices and college class-rooms; the Library (formerly
Convocation Hall, 1886; remodelled 1901), with a tower copied
from Magdalen College, Oxford; Thompson Hall (1883; en-
larged 1901), with science lecture-rooms and laboratories; Hoff-
man Memorial (1898), a dormitory; All Saints' Chapel (1909),
a copy of King's College Chapel, Cambridge; a Gymnasium
(1901); Quintard Memorial (1901), the home of the Sewanee
Military Academy (until 1908 the Sewanee Grammar School),
the preparatory department of the University; and St. Luke's
Memorial (1878), the home of the Theological Department;
and St Luke's Memorial Chapel (1907). The University is
governed by a board of trustees consisting of the bishop, one
clergyman and two laymen from each of 19 Protestant Episcopal
dioceses in the Southern States.
SEWARD, ANNA (1747-1809), English writer, often called
the " Swan of Lichfield," was the elder daughter of Thomas
Seward (1708-1790), prebendary of Lichfield and of Salisbury,
and author. Born at Eyam in Derbyshire, she passed nearly all
her life in Lichfield, beginning at an early age to write poetry
partly at the instigation of Dr. Erasmus Darwin. Her verses
include elegies and sonnets, and she also wrote a poetical novel,
Louisa, of which five editions were published. Miss Seward's
writings, which include a large number of letters, are decidedly
commonplace, and Horace Walpole said she had " no imagina-
tion, no novelty."
Sir Walter Scott edited her Poetical Works in three volumes
(Edinburgh, 1810); to these he prefixed a memoir of the authoress,
adding extracts from her literary correspondence. He refused,
however, to edit the bulk of her letters, and these were published in
six volumes by A. Constable as Letters of Anna Seward 1784-1807
(Edinburgh, 1811). Miss Seward also wrote Memoirs of the Life of
Dr Darwin (1804). See E. V. Lucas, A Swan and her Friends (1907) ;
and S. Martin, Anna Seward and Classic Lichfield (1909).
SEWARD, WILLIAM HENRY (1801-1872), American states-
man, was born on the i6th of May 1801 in the village of Florida,
Orange county, New York. He graduated from Union College
in 1820, having taught school for a short time at Savannah,
Georgia, to help pay his expenses; was admitted to the bar at
Utica, N.Y., in 1822, and in the following year began the practice
of law at Auburn, N.Y., which was his home for the rest of his
life. He soon attained distinction in his profession, but drifted
into politics, for which he had a greater liking, and early became
associated with Thurlow Weed. He was at first an adherent of
Daniel D. Tompkins in state, and a National Republican in
national politics, after 1828 became allied with the Anti-Masonic
party, attending the national conventions of 1830 and 1831,
and as a member of the organization he served four years (1830-
1834) in the state Senate. By 1833 the Anti-Masonic movement
had run its course, and Seward allied himself with the other
opponents of the Jackson Democrats, becoming a Whig. In
1834 he received the Whig nomination for governor, but was
defeated by William L. Marcy. Four years later he was re-
nominated, was elected, was re-elected in 1840, and served from
January 1839 until January 1843. As governor, Seward favoured
734
SEWARD, W. H.
a continuance of works of internal improvement at public
expense, although this policy had already plunged the state into
financial embarrassment. His administration was disturbed
by the anti-rent agitation and by the M'Leod incident growing
out of the Canadian rebellion of 183 y. 1 During this period he
attracted much attention by his liberal and humane policy,
promoting prison reform, and proposing to admit Roman Catholic
and foreign teachers into the public schools of the state. His
refusal soon after his inauguration to honour the requisition
of the governor of Virginia for three persons charged with
assisting a slave to escape from Norfolk, provoked retaliatory
measures by the Virginia legislature, in which Mississippi and
South Carolina soon joined. Laws were also passed during his
term putting obstacles in the way of recovering fugitive slaves.
Seward soon became recognized as the leader of the anti-slavery
Whigs. He was one of the earliest political opponents of slavery,
as distinguished from the radical Abolitionists, or the followers of
William Lloyd Garrison, who eschewed politics and devoted
themselves to a moral agitation.
On retiring from office Seward returned to the practice of law.
His reputation was made in four great criminal cases those of
Abel F. Fitch and others, of Freeman, of Wyatt and of Van
Zandt the last-named bringing him especially the goodwill
of opponents of slavery. Toward the end of his career at the bar,
however, he changed from a general practitioner to a patent
lawyer, and as such had a lucrative practice.
When the Whigs secured a momentary control of the state
legislature in 1849 they sent Seward to the United States Senate.
The antagonism between free labour and slave labour became
the theme of many of his speeches. In his first set speech in the
Senate, on the nth of March 1850, in opposing the pending
compromise measures, he attracted the attention of the whole
country by his assertion that " there is a higher law than the
constitution " regulating " our authority over the domain "
(i.e. the Territories). When the Democrats, however, declared
such language incendiary he tried to explain it away, and by
so doing offended his friends without appeasing his opponents.
In ,a speech at Rochester, New York, in 1858 he made the
famous statement that there was " an irrepressible conflict
between opposing and enduring forces, and it means that the
United States must and will, sooner or later, become either
entirely a slave-holding nation or entirely a free-labour nation."
Although this idea had often been expressed by others, and
by Seward himself in his speech of 1848, yet he was severely
criticized, and four days later he sought to render this state-
ment innocuous also.
In the election of 1852 Seward supported General Winfield
Scott, but not his party platform, because it declared the Com-
promise of 1850 a finality. He naturally opposed the Kansas-
Nebraska Bill of 1854, which repealed the Missouri Compromise
and established the principle of popular sovereignty in the
Territories. Subsequently he actively supported in the Senate
the free-state cause in Kansas. In 1854-1855, when it became
evident that the Whig party in the North was moribund, Seward
helped to lead its scattered remnants into the Republican fold.
As the recognized leader of the new party, his nomination by the
Republicans for the presidency in 1856 and in 1860 was regarded
as certain; but in each instance he was put aside for another.
The heterogeneous elements of the new organization could not be
made to unite on a man who for so many years had devoted his
energies to purely Whig measures, and he was considered less
" available'" than Fremont in 1856 and than Lincoln in 1860.
After Lincoln was elected in 1860 he chose Seward for his secretary
1 In 1837 the vessel '' Caroline," which had been used by the
Canadian insurgents, was seized by the Canadian authorities in
American territory and was destroyed. In 1840 one Alexander
M'Leod, a British subject then in New York, asserted that he had
aided in the capture; he was promptly arrested and was held for
trial on_a charge of murder. The British minister demanded from
the national government M'Leod's release, but his case was in the
New York courts, over which the national government has no
jurisdiction. In the trial M'Leod proved an alibi, was acquitted
(October 1841), and a serious international complication was thus
averted.
of state. The new president was a man comparatively little
known outside the state of Illinois, and many of his supporters,
doubtful of his ability to deal with the difficult problems of 1861,
looked to Seward as the most experienced man of the administra-
tion and the one who should direct its policy. Seward himself,
apparently sharing these views, although not out of vanity,
at first possessed an unbounded confidence in his ability to
influence the president and his cabinet. He believed that the
Union could be saved without a war, and that a policy of delay
would prevent the secession of the border states, which in turn
would gradually coax their more southern neighbours back into
their proper relations with the Federal government. In informal
conferences with commissioners from the seceded states he assured
them that Fort Sumter should be speedily evacuated. Finding
himself overruled by the war party in the cabinet, on the ist of
April 1 86 1, Seward suggested a war of all America against most
of Europe, with himself as the director of the enterprise. The
conduct of Spain toward Santo Domingo and of France toward
Mexico, and the alleged attitude of England and Russia toward
the seceded states were to be the grounds for precipitating this
gigantic conflict; and agents were to be sent into Canada,
Mexico and Central America to arouse a spirit of hostility to
European intervention. Dangers from abroad would destroy the
centrifugal forces at home, and the Union would be saved. When
this proposal was quietly put aside by the president, and Seward
perceived in Lincoln a chief-executive in fact as well as in name,
he dropped into his proper place, and as secretary of state
rendered services of inestimable value to the nation. To prevent
foreign states from giving official recognition to the Confederacy
was the task of the hour, and in this he was successful. While he
did not succeed in preventing the French occupation of Mexico
or the escape of the Confederate cruiser " Alabama " from
England, his diplomacy prepared the way for a future adjust-
ment satisfactory to the United States of the difficulties with
these powers. While his treaty with Lord Lyons in 1862 for the
suppression of the slave trade conceded to England the right of
search to a limited extent in African and Cuban waters, he
secured a similar concession for American war vessels from the
British government, and by his course in the Trent Affair he
virtually committed Great Britain to the American attitude with
regard to this right.
On the 5th of April 1865 Seward was thrown from his carriage
and severely injured. Nine days later, while lying ill at his home
at Washington, he was attacked by one Lewis Powell, alias
Payne, a fellow-conspirator of John Wilkes Booth, at the same
time that Lincoln was assassinated. The secretary's son,
Frederick W. Seward, and three other persons who came to his
assistance, were also wounded by the assailant. Seward's wife,
an invalid, received such a shock that she died within two
months, and his only daughter, who witnessed the assault, never
recovered from the effects of the scene and died within the year.
Seward gradually regained his health, and remained in the cabinet
of President Johnson until the expiration of his term in 1869.
In the struggle between the Executive and Congress over the
method of reconstructing the Southern States, Seward sided
with Johnson and thus shared some of the obloquy bestowed
upon that unfortunate president. His greatest work in this
period was the purchase of Alaska from Russia, in 1867. He
also negotiated treaties for the purchase of the Danish West
Indies, the Bay of Samana, and for American control of the
isthmus of Panama; but these were not ratified by the
Senate. After returning to private life, Seward spent two
years and a half in travel and died at Auburn on the loth of
October 1872.
His son, FREDERICK WILLIAM SEWARD, was born in Auburn,
New York, on the 8th of July 1830, graduated at Union College
in 1849 and was admitted to the bar at Rochester, N.Y., in 1851.
From 1851 to 1861 he was one of the editors and owners of the
Albany Evening Journal, and during his father's term at the head
of the State Department he was assistant secretary of state.
He served in the New York Assembly in 1875, and from 1877
to 1881 was again assistant secretary of state. After 1881 he
SEWELL SEWERAGE
735
devoted his time to the practice of his profession and to lecturing
and writing.
The best biography of Seward is that by Frederic Bancroft, The
Life of William H. Seward (2 vols., New York, 1900) ; see also, The
Life and Works of William H. Seward (5 vols., new ed., Boston, 1883),
edited by George E. Baker; William H. Seward'. an Autobiography
from i8yi to 1834, with a Memoir of his Life and Selections from his
Letters (3 vols., New York, 1891), by his son, Frederick W. Seward;
William H. Seward's Travels around the World (New York, 1873), by
his adopted daughter, Olive R. Seward ; Lincoln and Seward (New
York, 1874), by Gideon Welles; and William Henry Seward (new
ed., Boston, 1899), by T. K. Lothrop, in the " American Statesmen
Series."
SEWELL, WILLIAM (1804-1874), English divine and author,
was born at Newport, Isle of Wight, on the 23rd of January 1804,
the son of a solicitor. He was educated at Winchester and
Merton College, Oxford, was elected a fellow of Exeter College
in 1827, and from 1831-1853 was a tutor there. From 1836-
1841 he was Whyte's Professor of Moral Philosophy. Sewell,
who took holy orders in 1830, was a friend of Pusey, Newman
and Keble in the earlier days of the Tractarian movement, but
subsequently considered that the Tractarians leaned too much
towards Rome, and dissociated himself from them. When,
however, in 1849, J. A. Froude published his Nemesis of Faith,
Sewell denounced the wickedness of the book to his class, and,
when one of his pupils confessed to the possession of a copy,
seized it, tore it to pieces, and threw it in the fire. In 1843 he,
with some friends, founded at Rathfarnham, near Dublin, St
Columba's College, designed to be a sort of Irish Eton, and in
1847 helped to found Radley College. SewelTs intention was
that each of these schools should be conducted on strict High
Church principles. He was originally himself one of the managers
of St Columba, and sub-warden of Radley, but his business
management was not successful in either case, and his personal
responsibility for the debts contracted by Radley caused the
sequestration of his Oxford fellowship. In 1862 his financial
difficulties compelled him to leave England for Germany, and
he did not return till 1870. He died on the I4th of November
1874-
His publications include translations of the Agamemnon (1846),
Georgics (1846 and 1854) and Odes and Epodes of Horace (1850); An
Introduction to the Dialogues of Plato (1841); Christian Politics
(1844); The Nation, the Church and the University of Oxford (1849);
Christian Vestiges of Creation (1861).
His elder brother, RICHARD CLARKE SEWELL (1803-1864),
practised successfully as a barrister in England, and then went
to Australia, where he obtained a large criminal practice. In
1857 he was appointed reader in law to the University of Mel-
bourne. He was the author of a large number of legal works.
A younger brother, HENRY SEWELL (1807-1879), who became
a solicitor, acted in London as secretary and deputy-chairman
of the Canterbury Association for the Colonization of New
Zealand, and eventually went out to the colony, and in 1854
was elected to the House of Representatives. In 1856 he became
first premier of New Zealand. Subsequently he held the office
of attorney-general (1861-1863) an d minister of justict (1864-
1865 and 1869-1872). In 1876 he returned to England, where
he died on the i4th of May 1879.
Another brother, JAMES EDWARDS SEWELL (1810-1903),
warden of New College, Oxford, was educated at Winchester
and New College. In 1830 he became a fellow of his College,
and practically passed the rest of his life there, being elected
to the headship in 1860. The first University Commission had
just released the colleges from the fetters of their original statutes,
and Sewell was called on to determine his attitude towards the
strong reforming party in New College. Though himself instinc-
tively conservative, he determined that it was his duty to give
effect to the desire of the majority, with the result that New
College led the way in the general reform movement, and from
being one of the smallest became the second largest college in
Oxford. Sewell was vice-chancellor of the university 1874-
1878. He died in his ninety-third year on the 2gth of January
1903, having been warden for 43 years, and was interred in the
College cloisters.
A sister, ELIZABETH MISSING SEWELL (1815-1906), was the
author of Amy Herbert and many other High Church novels,
and of several devotional books. An edition of her works was
published in eleven volumes (1886).
SEWER, a large drain for carrying away by water excreta and
other refuse, known therefore collectively as " sewage" (see
SEWERAGE below); also, in a wider and older sense, the term
for conduits such as are used for the draining of the fens, or of
the water-courses, sea-defences, &c., over which the local
authorities, known as commissioners of sewers, exercise jurisdic-
tion. In English law a " sewer," as distinguished from a " drain,"
is that which carries away the sewage of more houses or other
buildings than one. Many fanciful derivations of the word
have been given, but there seems no doubt that the word is
from O. Fr. seuwiere, Med. Lat. seweria, the sluice of a mill-pond,
from the Late Lat. ex-aquaria, a means of conducting water out
of anything; this is paralleled by Eng. " ewer," a water-jug,
which undoubtedly comes from aquaria, through O. Fr. ewe,
for water, mod. eau.
The old name " sewer," for a table attendant who placed and
removed the dishes from the table, acted as waiter, &c., must be
distinguished. In the household ordinances of Edward II. the word
seems to appear in the form asseour, and in those of Edward IV. as
assewer, an officer of the household who superintended the serving
of a banquet. Asseour represents O. Fr. asseoir, to seat, set, Lat.
assidere. The word was early connected with " sewe " or " sew,"
juice, broth, pottage, cognate with sucus, juice.
SEWERAGE, a general term for the process of systematically
collecting and removing the fouled water-supply of a community.
The matter to be dealt.with may conveniently be classified as
made up of three parts: (i) excreta, consisting of urine and
faeces; (2) slop- water, or the discharge from sinks, basins, baths,
&c., and the waste water of industrial processes; (3) surface
water due to rainfall. Before the use of underground conduits
became general, the second and third constituents were commonly
allowed to sink into the neighbouring ground, or to find their
way by surface channels to a watercourse or to the sea. The
first constituent was conserved in middens or pits, either together
with the dust, ashes, kitchen waste and solid waste generally or
separately, and was carried away from time to time to be applied
as manure to the land. In more modern times the pits in which
excrement was collected took the form of covered tanks called
cesspools, and with this modification the primitive system of
conservancy, with occasional removal by carts, is still to be found
in many towns. Even where the plan of removing excrement
by sewers has been adopted, the kitchen waste, ashes and solid
refuse is still treated by collecting it in pails or bins, whose
contents are removed by carts either daily or at longer intervals,
the refuse frequently being burned in destructors (<?..). It
therefore forms no part of the nearly liquid sewage which the
other constituents unite to form.
The first constituent is from an agricultural point of view
the most valuable, and from a hygienic point of view the most
dangerous, element of sewage. Even healthy excreta decompose,
if kept for a short time after they are produced, and give rise to
noxious gases; but a more serious danger proceeds from the fact
that in certain cases of sickness these products are charged
with specific germs of disease. Speedy removal or destruction
of excremental sewage is therefore imperative. It may be re-
moved in an unmixed state, either in pails or tanks or (with the
aid of pneumatic pressure) by pipes; or it may be defaecated
by mixture with dry earth or ashes; or, finally, it may be
conveyed away in sewers by gravitation, after the addition of
a relatively large volume of water. This last mode of disposal
is termed the water-carriage system of sewerage. It is the plan
now usually adopted in towns which have a sufficient water
supply, and it is probably the mode which best meets the needs
of any large community. The sewers which carry the diluted
excreta serve also to take slop-water, and may or may not be
used to remove the surface water due to rainfall. The water-
carriage system has the disadvantage that much of the agri-
cultural value of sewage is lost by its dilution, while the volume
of foul matter to be disposed of is greatly increased.
I. COLLECTION OF SEWAGE. House drains, that is to say,
736
SEWERAGE
those parts of the domestic system of drainage which extend
from the soil-pipes and waste-pipes to the sewer, are generally
made of glazed stoneware pipes having a diameter of 4 in., 6 in.,
or sometimes 9 or 12 in., according to the estimated amount of
waste to be removed. In
ordinary domestic dwellings
there is rarely any occasion
to use pipes of a greater
B diameter than 6 in., and
Vfllffllllliq ;;; llllKUdl/ this only for the main drain,
* III! nil i, ' the branches and single lines
of piping being 4 in. in dia-
meter It is a good rule to
FIG. i. Stoneware.
make the pipes and other fittings, such as channels and bends, as
small in diameter as possible, having due regard to efficient
capacity. Such a drain is more cleanly than one too large for its
purpose, in that it is more thoroughly flushed when in use, the
sewage running at a much faster speed through a full pipe than
through one only partially full. For this reason a pipe having
too great a capacity for the
work it has to do is liable to
become corroded by sedi-
ment deposited from slowly
. moving waste.
The pipes are made in 2 ft.
Vl|U(l{(Mlll(|| i,, . IKIIIIKllttf lengths and are formed with
x 1 ill I in 1 1 V a socket at one end into
which the straight end of
the next pipe fits loosely.
This is wedged in position
FIG. 2. Stanford's Joint.
wjth a little gasket and the remaining space then carefully filled
with neat Portland cement (fig. i). Pipes are made also with a
bituminous substance in the socket and around the spigot end, and
by merely pushing the one into the other the joint is made. The
bitumen is curved to allow self-adjustment to any slight settle-
ment, so that damage to the joint is avoided (fig. 2). A com-
posite joint may be used having the bitumen lining reinforced with
the ordinary Portland cement filling (fig. 3). This type is some-
what more expensive than the ordinary jointing, but it makes a
powerful and effective connexion. The method of connecting two
lead pipes by a " wiped solder joint " is shown in fig. 4. Fig. 5
shows the method of connect-
|-t?ftum<tn ing a lead pipe into the socket
of a stoneware one, a bras.s
sleeve piece or ferrule being
used to give the necessary
stiffness to the end of the lead
pipe. This arrangement is
frequently used, for example,
at the base of a soil-pipe at its
junction with the drain. In
the next figure (fig. 6) the
lead pipe has a brass socket
\
^ Stongwote, | irtong*vatg,
FIG. 3. Composite Joint.
attached to it to take the plain end of a stoneware pip. This
form of connexion is used between a water-closet and a lead trap.
The joint shown in figs. 5 and 6 is similarly made when an iron pipe
is substituted for a stoneware one, but instead of the Portland cement
filling, molten lead is used and carefully caulked to form a water-
tight joint.
In the water-carriage system of drainage each house has its
own network of drain-pipes laid under the ground, into which
are taken the waste-pipes which lead from the closets, urinals,
sinks, lavatory basins, and
rain-water and other gulleys
within and about the house.
The many branches are
gathered into one or more
manholes, and connexion is
finally made by means of a
single pipe with the
common public sewer. Gas from the sewer is prevented
from entering the house drains by a disconnecting trap fixed
in the manhole nearest the entrance to the sewer. The
fundamental maxims of house sanitation are first, that there
shall be complete disconnexion between the pipes within and
without the house, and second, that the drainage shall be so
constructed as to allow for the free admission of air in order
to secure the thorough ventilation of all parts of the system
FIG. 4. Lead-wiped Joint.
and avoid the possibility of the accumulation of gas in any of the
waste- or drain-pipes. The drains must be planned to conduct
the waste material from the premises as quickly as possible
without leakage or deposit by the way. The pipes should be
laid in straight lines from point to point to true gradients of
between 2 to 4 in. in 10 ft. Junctions with branch pipes and any
bends necessary should be gathered, as far as practicable, in
inspection chambers
fitted with open channels
instead of closed pipes.
This allows of easy in-
spection and testing, and
provides means of access
for the drain-rods in
cases of blockage. Some-
times it is desired, for FlG ' 5--Lead into Stoneware,
reasons of economy or otherwise, to avoid the use of a manhole
at a change of direction in the drain. A branch pipe which may
have a specially shaped junction for cleaning the pipes in
both directions is taken up with a slope to the ground or
floor level and there finished with an air-tight cover which
may be removed to allow the introduction of drain-rods
should the pipes become blocked. Junctions of one pipe with
another should be made
obliquely in the direction
of the floor. Stoneware
pipes should be laid upon
a bed of concrete not less
than 6 in. thick and
benched up at the sides
FIG. 6. Stoneware into Lead.
with concrete to prevent
any movement. When such
pipes pass under a building they should be entirely surrounded
by a concrete casing at least 6 in. in thickness. No drain
should lie under a building if it is possible to avoid it, for injury
is very liable to occur through some slight settlement of the build-
ing, and in a position such that the smells escaping from the
damaged pipe would rise up through the floor into the building
this would be an especially serious matter. The expense and
annoyance of having the
ground opened up for the
repair of defects in the pipes
beneath is another strong
argument against drains
being placed under a house.
Where this is really neces-
FIG. 7. Iron Spigot and Socket Joint.
sary, however, pipes of cast-
iron are recommended
instead of the ordinary stoneware pipes, as being stronger;
being made in lengths of 6 and 9 ft., they have a great advan-
tage over the 2 ft. long stoneware tubes, for the joints
of the latter are frequently a source of weakness. The joints,
fewer in' number, are made with molten lead (fig. 7), or flanged
pipes are used and the joints packed with rubber and bolted
(fig. 8).
The principle of disconnexion adopted between the indoor
and outdoor pipes should
be retained between the
latter and the sewer, and
the domestic system should
be cut off from the public
drain by means of a dis-
connecting trap. This appli-
Wiuummiilli
FIG. 8.-
-Iron-flanged
Joint.
and Bolted
ance is usually placed in a
small chamber or manhole,
easy of access for inspection, built close to the boundary of the
premises, and as near as possible to the sewer into which the
house drain discharges.
Fig. o shows a section and plan of such a manhole built in accord-
ance with the London drainage by-laws. There are five inlets from
branch drains discharging by specially-shaped glazed channels into
the main channel in the centre. It will be seen that in case_of
blockage it would be a simple matter to clear any of the pipes with
SEWERAGE
737
the drain-rods. The cap to the clearing arm has a chain attached
by which it can be removed in case of flooding. The channels are
benched up at the sides with cement, and the manhole is rendered
on the inside with a cement lining. A fresh air inlet is taken out
near the top of the chamber and is fitted with a mica flap inlet valve.
The cover is of cast-iron in a cast-iron frame shaped with grooves
to afford a double seal, the grooves being filled with a composition
of tallow and fine sand. Where there is a danger of a backflow
from the sewer due to its becoming flooded, a hinged flap should be
placed at the junction of drain and sewer to prevent sewage from
entering the house drain. A ball trap designed for this purpose may
be used in place of a flap, and is more satisfactory, for the latter is
liable to become corroded and work stiffly. In the ball-trap appliance
the flowing back of the sewage forces a copper ball to fit tightly
against the drain outlet, the ball dropping out of the way of the flow
directly the pressure is relaxed.
The water-carriage system of drainage is undoubtedly the
most nearly perfect yet devised. At the same time it is a very
g^. costly system to install with its network of sewers,
closet's. pumping stations, and arrangements for depositing
the sewage either in the sea or river, or upon the land
or " sewage farm." In country districts and small towns and
villages, however, excreta are often collected in small vessels
inhz-tozptiruj
r r-.-r-r -,
PLAN.
FIG. 9. Manhole.
and removed in tank carts and deposited upon the land. The
dry-earth system introduced by the Rev. Henry Moule (1801-
1880) , and patented in 1 860, takes advantage of the oxidizing effect
which a porous substance such as dry earth exerts by bringing
any sewage with which it is mixed into intimate contact with the
air contained in its pores. The system is of rather limited
application from the fact that it leaves other constituents of
sewage to be dealt with by other means. But so far as it goes
it is excellent, and where there is no general system of water-
carriage sewerage an earth-closet will in careful hands give
perfect satisfaction. Numerous forms of earth-closet are sold
in which a suitable quantity of earth is automatically thrown
into the pan at each time of use (fig. 10), but a box filled with
dry earth and a hand scoop will answer the purpose nearly as
well. A plan much used in towns on the continent of Europe
xxiv. 24
is to collect excrement in air-tight vaults which are emptied
at intervals into a tank cart by a suction pump. Another
pneumatic system adopted on the continent has the cesspools
at individual houses per-
manently connected with
a central reservoir by
pipes through which the
contents of the former
are sucked by exhausting
air from the reservoir at
the central station.
door*
FIG. 10. Ash or Earth-Closet.
Newly laid drains should
be carefully tested before
the trenches are _ .
filled in to detect Testing
anydefectsinthe """"*
pipes or joints. These
should be made good and
the test again applied until
the whole system is in
perfect order. Cement
joints should be allowed
to set for at least forty-
eight hours before the test
is made. There are several methods of testing. For the stone-
ware drains laid under the ground the water test is generally adopted.
After the lower end of the length of drain to be tested has been
securely stopped (fig. ll) the drain is filled with water from its upper
end until the desired pressure is obtained. To obtain the required
head of water extra lengths of pipe are sometimes taken up tempor-
arily at the upper end of the drain or, as an alternative, both ends
of the pipe may be plugged and water introduced under pressure by
a force pump through a small aperture provided in the plug. The
exact pressure may then be ascertained by a water pressure gauge.
An escape of water through some defective portion of the drain is
indicated by the subsidence of the level of the water in the upper
part of the drain or by a diminution of the pressure shown by the
gauge. Then the defect must be located and remedied and the drain
re-tested until all weak points are
eliminated. This process must be
repeated in each section of the
drainage system until the whole is
found to be sound and tight. It
is not necessary to test drains laid
with ordinary socket joints made
in cement with a greater pressure
than is obtained with a 5 ft. or 6 ft.
head of water. A foot head of
water gives at its base a pressure
of -433 Ib per square inch, so that a
head of 6 ft. would result in a pres-
sure of just over 2j ft per square
inch. Cast-iron drain-pipes with
caulked lead joints will withstand a
pressure of nearly 90 ft per square
drain pipe.
FIG. II. Drain Stopper.
inch of internal surface, but in actual practice it is sufficient if
they are tested with a pressure of 10 ft or say a head of 20 to 24 ft.
The atmospheric or air test is sometimes applied instead of the water
test. The drain is plugged, as in the latter, and air is then pumped
into the pipes until the desired pressure is registered by the gauge
attached to the apparatus. This pressure should be maintained
without appreciable diminution for a stipulated period before the
drains are passed as sound.
The smoke test is generally used for testing vertical shafts such as
soil-pipes and ventilators to which the water test cannot be con-
veniently applied owing to the excessive pressure produced at the
lower portion of the pipe by the head of water. It is applied by
stopping the ends of the pipes and introducing smoke by a drain
rocket or by a smoke-producing machine which forces volumes of
thick smoke through an aperture in the stopper. The pipes and
joints are then carefully inspected for any evidence of leakage.
The scent test is occasionally employed for testing soil and ventilat-
ing pipes, but the apparatus must be carefully handled to avoid the
material being spilt in the building and thus misleading the operator.
The test is made by introducing into the drain some substance
possessing a powerful odour such as oil of peppermint, calcium carbide
or other suitable material, and tracing any defect by means of the
escaping odour. This is not so effective a method as the smoke test,
as there is more difficulty in locating leakages. Gulleys, traps and
other similar fittings should be tested by pouring in water and ob-
serving whether siphonage or unsealing occurs. This of course
will not happen if the appliances are of good design and_ properly
ventilated. A section of a drain plug or stopper is shown in fig. 1 1 .
It has a band of india-rubber which expands when the screw is
turned and presses tightly against the inside of the drain-pipe. In
the centre of the plug is a capped aperture which allows for smoke
738
SEWERAGE
testing and also allows the water gradually to escape after a test by
water.
Existing drains which have become defective and require to be
made good must be exposed, taken up and relaid with new pipes,
unless advantage be taken of a method which, it is claimed, renders
it possible to make them permanently watertight so as to withstand
the water test under pressure, and at the same time to disinfect them
and the surrounding subsoil. This end is accomplished with the aid
of patent machines which on being passed through the drain-pipe
first remove all obstructions and accumulations of foul matter and
then thoroughly cleanse and disinfect it, saturating the outside con-
crete and contaminated soil adjacent to any leak with strong dis-
infectants. Subsequently, loaded with the best Portland cement,
another machine is passed through the drain, and, by powerful
evenly-distributed circular compression, forces the cement into every
hole, crack or crevice in the pipes and joints. This work leaves the
inner surface of the pipes perfectly clean and smooth. After the
usual time has been allowed for the cement to set the air test is
applied, and the drain is claimed to be equal to, if not better than, a
new drain, because the foundation is not dis-
turbed by the process, and the risk of settlement,
which is often the cause of leaky drains, is
remote.
Every sanitary fitting should be trapped by a
bend on the waste-pipe; this is generally made
separately and fixed up near to the sink,
Traps. c loset or basin, as the case may be.
The traps of small wastes such as those of sinks
and lavatories should be fitted with a brass screw
cap to facilitate clearing when a stoppage occurs.
Their object is to hold a quantity of water suffi-
cient to prevent the access of foul air through
the waste-pipe into the house. The depth of the
water " seal " should not be less than 2 in., or it
may become easily unsealed in hot weather
through the evaporation of the water. Unsealing
may be caused, too, by " siphonage," when a
number of fittings are attached to the same main
waste without the branches being properly ven-
tilated just below each trap. The discharge
from one fitting in this case would create a partial
vacuum in the other branches and probably suck
the sealing water from one or more of the traps.
To obviate such an occurrence an " anti-siphon-
age " pipe is fixed having its upper end open to
the air and provided with branches tapping such
waste-pipe just below the trap. Then, with this
contrivance, a discharge from any fitting, instead
of causing air to be sucked in through the trap
of another fitting, thereby breaking the seal and
p._ .. c_ji allowing foul drain air to enter the house, merely
Pirw with Anti draws the necessary air through theanti-siphpnage
r>; pipe, leaving the other traps with their seals intact
S1 phona g e Pipe. ft' I2) . f here are many forms of traps for use
in different positions although the principle and purposes of all are
identical. Two forms commonly used are known as the S and the
P trap. The bell trap and the D trap are obsolete.
To collect the rain and waste water from areas, yards, laundry
and other floors and similar positions an open trapped gulley is used.
It is usually of stoneware and fitted with an open iron
fiullcys. grating which admits the water (fig. 13). Many of these
gulleys are made too shallow and speedily get choked if the water
they receive is charged with mud or sand. To obviate this difficulty
..Tain welter
FIG. 13. Gulley.
FIG. 14. Docking's Slipper Head.
the gulleys are made with a deep container and are often fitted with a
perforated basket of galvanized iron which catches the solid matter
and has a handle which allows for its easy removal when necessary.
Gulleys with slipper or channel heads as shqwn in fig. 14 are required
to be fitted in some districts to receive the waste from sinks. The
warm waste water from scullery and pantry sinks contains much
grease, and should discharge into a trapped gulley specially con-
structed to prevent the passage of the grease into the drain (fig. 15).
It should be of ample size to contain sufficient cold water to solidify
the fat which enters it. This forms in cakes on the top of the water
and should be frequently broken up and removed.
Great attention has been directed to the design of sanitary fittings,
with the object of making them as nearly self-cleansing as possible.
In the fixing of closets the wood
casings which used to be fixed
around every water-closet are going
steadily out of use, their place
being taken by a hinged seat sup-
ported on metal brackets an
arrangement which allows every
part of the appliance to be readily
cleaned with a cloth. In hospitals
and similar institutions a form of
closet is made fitted with lugs which
are built into the wall ; in this way
support is obtained without any
assistance from the floor, which is
left quite clear for sweeping.
FIG. 15. Stoneware Grease
Trap.
Lavatory basins and sinks are also supported on cantilevers in the
same way, and the wood enclosures which were formerly often fixed
around these appliances are now generally omitted.
There are several distinct types of water-closets. Each type is
made in many different patterns, both good and bad from a sanitary
point of view, and, whatever the type decided upon,
care is necessary in selecting to obtain one efficient and
hygienic in shape and working. The principal kinds of
closets now in use are the washdown, siphonic, valve, washout and
hopper.
Washdown closets (fig. 16) are most commonly used. They are
inexpensive to buy and to fix, and being
made in one piece and simple in con-
struction without any mechanical work
ing parts are not liable to get out of
order. When strongly made or pro-
tected by brick or concrete work they
will stand very rough usage. The ob-
jection is sometimes raised with regard
to washdown closets that they are noisy
in action. This must be allowed with
FIG. 16. Washdown.
many patterns, but some of the latest
designs have been greatly improved in
this respect, and when fitted with a silent flushing cistern are not
open to this objection.
Siphonic closets (fig. 17) are a type of washdown in which the con-
tents of the pan are removed by siphonic action, an after flush
arrangement providing for the resealing of the trap. They are practic-
ally silent in action and with a flush of three gallons work very
satisfactorily. Where the restrictions of the water company require
the usual two gallon flush the ordinary washdown pan should be used.
Valve closets (fig. 18) are considered by many authorities on sanita-
tion to be preferable to all other types. For domestic buildings,
FIG. 17. Siphonic
Washdown.
FIG. 18. Valve.
hotels, and where not subjected to the hardest wear, they are un-
doubtedly of great value. They should have a three gallon flush,
and on this account they cannot be used in many districts owing tr
the water companies' regulations stipulating that a flush of not mon
than two gallons may be used.
The washout closet (fig. 19) is a type that never attained muc
popularity as it has been found by practical
experience to be unsanitary and objec-
tionable. The standing water is too shallow,
and the receiving basin checks the force of
the flush and the trap is therefore fre-
quently imperfectly cleared.
Hopper closets are of two kinds the long
hopper and the short hopper. These are
the forerunners of the washdown closet
which the short hopper pan resembles, but
instead of pan and trap being made in one
piece the fitting consists of a fireclay or
stoneware hopper, with straight sloping
FIG. 19. Washout.
sides and central outlet jointed to a trap of lead or other material.
The joint should be placed so as to be always kept under water by
SEWERAGE
739
the seal of the trap. The long hopper pan is a most objectionable
type of closet which should be rigorously avpided-as it easily becomes
foul and is most insanitary. In most districts its use is prohibited.
A water- waste preventer is a small tank fixed usually 4 or 5 ft.
above a closet or urinal and connected therewith by a flushing pipe
of ii in. or greater internal diameter. This tank usually contains a
siphon, and the flush is actuated by pulling a chain which admits
water to the siphon; the contents are then discharged with some
force down the flushing pipe into the pan of the closet, clearing out
its contents and replacing the fouled water with clean. The flushing
tank is automatically refilled with water by a valve fitted with a
copper ball which rising on the surface of the incoming water shuts
off the flow when the tank is full. Fig. 20 is a sectional drawing of
one of the latest patterns and clearly shows its construction. The
water-supply is shown near the top with the regulating ball valve
attached. An overflow is provided and a pipe is led from this to an
external outlet. The capacity of the ordinary domestic flushing
cistern is two gallons, which is the maximum quantity allowed by
most water companies. A three gallon flush is much better, however,
and where this larger quantity is allowed should be adopted. Larger
tanks for ranges of closets or urinals are often made to flush auto-
matically when full, and for these the rate of water supply may be
FIG. 20. Water- Waste Preventer for
flushing W.C.'s. V
fast or very slow as desired, for the siphons are so constructed that
even a drop-by-drop supply will start a full flush.
The by-laws of the London County Council contain very full
regulations respecting the construction and fitting up of water-
closets. These may be summarized as follows: A water-
closet or urinal must be furnished with an adequate
flushing cistern distinct from any cistern used for drinking
** water. The service pipe shall lead to the flushing cistern
and not to any other part of the closet. The pipe connecting the
cistern with the pan shall have a diameter of not less than I \ in. in
any part. The apparatus for the application of water to the ap-
paratus must provide for the effectual flushing and cleansing of trie
pan, and the prompt and effectual removal therefrom, and from the
trap connected therewith of all solid and liquid filth. The pan or
basin shall be of non-absorbent material, of such shape, capacity and
construction as to contain a sufficient quantity of water and to allow
all filth to fall free of the sides directly into the water. No " con-
tainer" or similar fitting shall be fixed under the pan. There shall
be fixed immediately beneath or in connexion with the pan an
efficient siphon trap constructed to maintain a sufficient water seal
between the pan and the drain or soil pipe. No D trap or other
similar trap is to be connected with the apparatus. If more than
one water-closet is connected with a soil-pipe the trap of each closet
shall be ventilated into the open air at a point as high as the top of
the soil-pipe, or into a soil-pipe above the highest closet. This
ventilating (or anti-shiphonage) pipe shall be not less than 2 in. in
diameter, and connected at a point not less than 3 and not more than
12 in. from the highest part of the trap (fig. 12).
Baths may be made of many different materials; copper, cast-
iron, zinc and porcelain are those most generally employed. Metal
_ . baths have the great advantage of becoming hot with the
water, while baths of porcelain, stoneware and marble,
which are bad conductors of heat, impart to the user a sense of chilli-
ness even though the water in the bath be hot. Copper baths are
best ; they may be finished on the inside by tinning, enamelling or
nickel plating. Iron baths, usually tapering in shape, are very
popular and are usually finished in enamel, but sometimes tinned.
Fig. 21 illustrates a good type of cast-iron bath with standing waste.
A good feature of this bath lies in the fact that all parts are accessible
and easily cleaned. Porcelain baths are cumbersome and take a long
time to heat, but they are often used for public baths. The practice
of enclosing the bath with a wood casing is fast dying out; it is
insanitary in that it harbours dust and vermin. Baths are now
usually elevated upon short legs, so that every part of them and of
the adjacent floor and wall is accessible for cleaning.
Fig. 22 is a section of a good type of scullery sink, and shows the
waste and trap with brass clearing cap. The fitting is supported
upon galvanized iron cantilever brackets which are built into the
wall.
Like closets, urinals have undergone much improvement in design
and manufacture. The best types are of glazed ware, and have
vertical curved backs and sides about 4 ft. high with a Urtaals.
flushing rim round the top and terminating in a base
discharging into an open glazed channel waste, which, in the case of
a range of urinals, collects the discharge from all and conveys it into
, Poor
FIG. 21. Bath, with Standing Waste.
a trapped gulley at one end of the range. This is the type usually
fixed in street conveniences and similar positions. Plate and iron
urinals are often fixed, but there is more difficulty in keeping them
clean on account of the sharp angle and the unsuitabihty of the
material. Urinals are seldom fixed in private houses or offices, an
ordinary washdown pedestal closet with hinged " tip-up" seat
serving every purpose. Such seats are often fitted with balance
weights to cause them to lift automatically when not in use as a
closet. Unless kept very clean and well flushed with water, urinals
are liable to become a nuisance.
In London among other towns the system of drainage is a " com-
bined " one, that is, the storm water and the domestic sewage and
waste is all collected in one sewer. For many reasons it is more
satisfactory to have the two drains quite separate. In many districts
this is done, but it entails the provision of a double system of drainage
for each house, one drain being provided for rain-water, the other for
sewage. Where combined
drainage is installed an ex-
cess of water poured into
the sewers during a storm
often results in back flow
and the flooding of base-
ments and cellars with
sewage. Such an occur-
rence might take place
where there is a separate
sewer for the storm water,
but in this case the flooding
would be with compara-
tively harmless rain-water
instead of sewage and filth.
Figs. 23 and 24 show two FIG. 22. Sink,
ground plans of the same
house, a semi-detached suburban residence, one with combined
drainage and the other with separate drains for storm water and
sewage. In both figures the rain-water drains are shown in a dotted
line, and other drains in a full line.
In fig. 23, A is a 4 in. cast-iron rain-water down-pipe. B is a 4 in.
ventilating-pipe taken up to a point above the building. C is a
trapped gulley such as is shown in fig. 13. D is a gulley with channel
head (fig. 14) into which are taken the discharges from the scullery
sink on the ground floor, and from the bath and lavatory on the first
floor. E is an untrapped manhole, with open channel bends and
sealed cast-iron cover, from which any branch of the drains can
easily be cleared by the use of drain-rods. F is a soil-pipe from a
water-closet on the first floor, and is carried up above the roof to
serve as a ventilator. G is a trapped gulley as fig. 13, taking the
discharge from the rain-water pipe over it and serving also to drain
the yard; H and J are similar gulleys. K is a manhole with trap
for intercepting the foul gases from the sewer and preventing them
from entering the house drains. The manhole is fitted with a sealed
cast-iron cover and has an inlet at L with mica flap valve to admit
fresh air to the drains; in construction it is similar to the one shown
in fig. 9, but has only two branches entering it instead of five. In
fig. 24, A is a rain-water pipe discharging to the gulley B, which is un-
trapped to allow of the ventilation of the branch C-B. C is a length
of piping brought up to the surface of the ground and finished with a
cap, which is removed when it is found necessary to clear away any
obstruction. A special shaped junction here allows the rods to be
pushed up either branch as required. D and E are trapped gulleys
as already described. F is an untrapped gulley serving to ventilate
the drain. G, H and J the same as for fig. 23. K is a pair of man-
holes built side by side, one for storm water and the other for sewage.
Both are fitted with intercepting traps, and the sewage chamber is
ventilated by an air inlet at L as in fig. 23. The cover of the storm
water manhole need not be sealed, and if necessary could be fitted
with a grating and be used to drain the forecourt.
740
SEWERAGE
The London by-laws regulating drainage are very full and are
strictly enforced. They include requirements regarding the size,
_ form, gradient and methods of construction and repair of
Drainage ( j r j t ; nS) together with regulations affecting the design and
fixing of traps, fittings and other apparatus connected
with sanitary arrangements. Some of the headings of the different
clauses of the by-laws are subjoined: water-closets; earth-closets;
drainage of subsoil; drainage of surface water; rain-water pipes;
materials, &c., for drains; size of drains; drain to be laid on bed of
concrete 6 in. thick; if under buildings to be encased with 6 in. of
concrete; drain to be benched up with concrete to half its diameter;
fall of drain ; joints of drain ; drain to be water-tight ; thickness and
weight of iron pipes; thickness of sockets and joints of stoneware
pipes; drains under buildings; composition of concrete; every
inlet to drain to be trapped ; drain beneath wall to be protected by
arch, flagstone, or iron lintel; drain connected with sewer to be
trapped and means of access to trap provided; no right-angled
junctions to be formed either vertical or horizontal; at least two
untrapped openings to be provided for ventilation, each fitted with a
grating or cowl with apertures for passage of air equal in area to that
FIG. 23. " Combined " System. fie. 24. " Separate " System.
of the pipe to which it is fitted ; ventilating shafts to be at least A in.
in diameter, and if possible all bends and angles to be avoided;
ventilating shafts to be of the same material, construction and weight
as soil-pipes; no unnecessary inlets to drains to be made within
buildings; waste-pipes from sinks and lavatories to be of lead, iron
or stoneware, trapped immediately beneath the fitting; bell traps,
dip traps and D traps are prohibited ; waste-pipes to discharge in the
open air into a properly trapped gulley ; soil-pipes wherever practic-
able to be situate outside the building and to be of drawn lead or
heavy cast-iron; if fixed internally the pipes to be of lead with
wiped joints; iron pipes to have socket joints not less than 2| in. in
depth and to be made with molten lead or flanged joints securely
bolted with some suitable insertion; the soil-pipe not to be con-
nected with any rain-water or waste-pipe, and no trap to be placed
between the soil-pipe and the drain ; the soil-pipe to be circular with
an internal diameter of not less than 3 J in., and to be taken up above
the building and its end left open as an outlet for foul air ; methods
of connecting a lead pipe with an iron one; connexion of stoneware
and lead, connexion of iron and stoneware; ventilation of trap of
water-closet with an anti-siphonage pipe of not less than 2 in.
diameter and ventilated into the open air or into the soil-pipe at a
point above the highest fitting on the soil-pipe; construction of slop
sinks and urinals.
The by-laws respecting health and building in New York City are
embodied in a large number of clauses. The more detailed health
regulations are found in the Sanitary Code 1903. These are by-laws
framed by the Board of Health under the authority of section 1172
of the New York Charter 1897. These must be taken in conjunction
with the statute bearing on plumbing in New York City which was
made by the Department of Buildings, 1896, and to which there have
been several small amendments. Section 141 of the Building Code
also deals with sanitation and in the Tenement House Act 1901,
1902, 1903, chap. 4, sees. 91 to 100 inclusive, deals with sanitary
matters. From a general point of view the requirements of the
American by-laws as to materials and methods of construction vary
in a very slight degree from those in force under the London
authorities. It is in the regulations affecting the execution of the
work that we find a great difference, and these in New York are of
a more stringent character than in any other capital. Thus no
sanitary, plumbing or lighting work may be undertaken without first
submitting for approval to the Department of Buildings complete
and suitable drawings and particulars of the materials to be used.
Such a notice is necessary even in the case of repairs and alterations
to existing work. As a further guarantee of the work being satis-
factory it is ordained that no such work shall be executed except
under the superintendence of a registered plumber. Every master
plumber in the city of New York or others working therein as such
must obtain a certificate of competency from the Examination
Board and be registered afresh every year during the month of
March, as without such certificate or licence no work can be under-
taken; any person violating such requirements shall upon con-
viction be fined for each offence $250 or undergo three months'
imprisonment or both, while in the case of any certificated plumber
or his employes wilfully breaking, with his knowledge, any of the
rules and regulations relating to drainage and plumbing, the certifi-
cate of the master is to be forfeited in addition to the aforementioned
fine.
II. CONVEYANCE OF SEWAGE. For small sewers, circular
pipes of glazed stoneware or of moulded cement are used, from
6 in. to 18 in. and even 20 in. in diameter. The pipes
are made in short lengths, and are usually jointed
by passing the end or spigot of one into the socket or
faucet of the next. Into the space between the spigot and
faucet a ring of gasket or tarred hemp should be forced, and the
rest of the space filled up with cement. Other methods of jointing
have already been described and illustrated. The pipes are
laid with the spigot ends pointing in the direction of the flow,
with a uniform gradient, and, where practicable, in straight
lines. In special positions, as under the bed of a stream, cast-
iron pipes are used for the conveyance of sewage. Where the
capacity of an i8-in. circular pipe would be insufficient, built
sewers are used in place of stoneware pipes. These are sometimes
circular or oval, but more commonly of an egg-shaped section,
the invert or lower side of the sewer being a curve of
shorter radius than the arch or upper side. The ,ewcn.
advantage of this form lies in the fact that great
variations in the volume of flow must be expected, and the egg-
section presents for the small or dry-weather flow a narrower
channel than would be presented by a circular sewer of the
same total capacity. Figs. 25 and 26 show two common forms
FIGS. 25 and 26. Forms of Sewer.
of egg-sections, with dimensions expressed in terms of the
diameter of the arch. Fig. 26 is the more modern form, and has
the advantage of a sharper invert. The ratio of width to height
is 2 to 3.
Built sewers are most commonly made of bricks, moulded
to suit the curved structure of which they are to form part.
Separate invert blocks of glazed earthenware, terra-cotta or
fire-clay are often used in combination with brickwork. The
bricks are laid over a templet made to the section of the sewer,
and are grouted with cement. The thickness of brickwork
for sewers over 3 ft. in diameter should not be less than 9 in., but
for smaller sewers laid in good ground at depths not exceeding
20 ft. from the surface a thickness of 4! in. will suffice if well
backed up with concrete. The thickness of brickwork for a
SEWERAGE
sewer of any size may be determined in feet by the formula dr/ioo,
where d = depth of excavation in feet and r = external radius
in feet.
An egg-shaped sewer, made with two thicknesses of brick,
an invert block, and a concrete setting, is illustrated in fig. 27.
Concrete is largely used in the
construction of sewers, either in
combination with brickwork or
alone. For this purpose the con-
crete consists of from 5 to 7 parts
of sand and gravel or broken
stone to i of Portland cement.
It may be used as a cradle for
or as a backing to a brick ring,
or as the sole material of construc-
tion by running it into position
round a mould which is removed
when the concrete is sufficiently
set, the inner surface of the sewer
being in this case coated with a
FIG. 27 .-Bnck Sewer. thin B layer o{ cement . A deV el O p-
ment in the construction of concrete sewers, whether laid in
sectional pipes or constructed and moulded in situ, is the use of
iron or steel bars and wires embedded in the material as a rein-
forcement. Such conduits can be constructed of any size and
designed to withstand high pressures. Fig. 28 is a section of a
concrete sewer having a diameter of more than 9 ft. constructed
with round rod reinforcement. With regard to the method for
calculating the proportions, generally speaking the thickness
of the concrete shell should in no place be less than one-twelfth
of the greatest in-
ternal diameter of
the tube, while the
steel reinforcement
should be designed
to resist the whole
of the tensile stress.
5^'lhick Where the safe
tensile stress in the
steel is 8 tons per
sq. in. P = the pres-
sure in pounds per
sq. in., and r =
the internal radius
in inches; the
weight of the re-
FIG. 28. Reinforced Concrete Sewer. Section, inforcement per
sq. ft = Pr/45o,
while its area at each side of the pipe per longitudinal foot,
when /=safe tensile stress in the reinforcement in pounds, is
Dl en-
. ".
sewers
.
In determining the dimensions of sewers, the amount of sewage
proper may be taken as equal to the water supply (generally about
9 gallons P 61 " nea ^ P 61 " diem), and to this must be added
(when the " combined " system is adopted) an allowance
* or tne sur f ace water due to rainfall. The latter, which is
generally by far the larger constituent, is to be estimated
from the maximum rate of rainfall for the district and from the area
and character of the surface. In the sewerage of Berlin, for example,
the maximum rainfall allowed for is f of an inch per hour, of which
one-third is supposed to enter the sewers. In any estimate of the
size of sewers based on rainfall account must of course be taken of the
relief provided by storm-overflows, and also of the capacity of the
sewers to become simply charged with water during the short time to
which very heavy showers are invariably limited. Rainfall at the
rate of 5 or 6 in. per hour has been known to occur for a few minutes,
but it is unnecessary to provide (even above storm-overflows) sewers
capable of discharging any such amount as this; the time taken by
sewers of more moderate size to fill would of itself prevent the dis-
charge from them trpm reaching a condition of steady flow; and,
apart from this, the risk of damage by such an exceptional fall would
not warrant so great an initial expenditure. Engineers differ widely
in their estimates of the allowance to be made for the discharge of
surface water, and no rule can be laid down which would be of general
application.
In order that sewers should be self-cleansing, the mean velocity
of flow should be not less than 2\ ft. per second. The gradient
necessary to secure this is calculated on principles which are
stated in the article HYDRAULICS (g..). The velocity of flow, V, is
. , Velocity oi
where i is the inclination, or ratio of vertical to horizontal discharge.
distance; m is the " hydraulic mean depth," or the ratio
of area of section of the stream to the wetted perimeter; and c is a
coefficient depending on the dimensions and the roughness of the
channel and the depth of the stream. A table of values of c will be
Found in 98 of the article referred to. This velocity multiplied by
the area of the stream gives the rate of discharge. Tables to facilitate
the determination of velocity and discharge in sewers of various
dimensions, forms and gradients will be found in Latham's and
other practical treatises.
Where the contour of the ground does not admit of _a sufficient
gradient from the gathering ground to the place of destination, the
sewage must be pumped to a nigher level at one or more later-
points in its course. To minimize this necessity, and also ceatioa
lor other reasons, it is frequently desirable not to gather sewers.
sewage from the whole area into a single main, but to
collect the sewage of higher portions of the town by a separate high-
level or interception sewer.
It is undoubtedly necessary to construct overflows for storm
water in connexion with combined systems of sewerage. No com-
bined sewer of such size as will make it comparatively gtonn-
self-cleansing under normal conditions can hope to carry water
off the volume of water resulting from heavy rain. It over a ows .
might be thought that the overflow reulting from a _
storm would consist of nearly pure rain-water, but this is not the
case, as the pressure of storm water has the effect of scouring out
from the sewers a great deal of foul matter that is deposited when
the flow is small. This being the case it is obviously bad policy to
take the overflow into a stream, which would thereby suffer con-
tamination. A better plan is to direct the discharge into a dry ditch
or channel where the liquid may soak into the soil and the solid
particles by contact with the air may quickly become oxidized. In
agricultural districts it might be possible by arrangement with
farmers to run the overflow over grass-land, as it has good manurial
properties.
Occasionally when a sewer has to cross a stream or other ob-
struction it is found impossible to bridge or carry the pipe across and
preserve its proper gradient. In such cases it must be i av erted
carried under the obstruction by means of an inverted siphons,
siphon. | The exact form that should be given to inverted
siphons is disputed, but it is generally agreed that they are ex-
pedients to be avoided wherever possible. The majority take roughly
the form of the stream section, that is, they have two sloping pieces
corresponding with the banks with a flat cross-piece under the bed
of the stream. The pipes are invariably of iron and should be laid
in duplicate, as they are liable to silt up in the flat length. For this
reason it is usual in constructing a siphon to place permanent chains
in the pipes, and these are periodically pulled backward and for-
ward to stir up the silt. Brushes may also be attached to the chains
and pulled through from end to end. At either end of the siphon
pipes there are manholes into which the pipes are built. Penstock
valves also should be provided at each end so that sewage can
be shut out of one or both of the siphons as desired for clearing
purposes.
Tumbling bays being prohibited, the usual method of leading a
high-level sewer into a low-level sewer is by means of a ramp. This
is constructed in connexion with a manhole into which
the end of the high-level sewer is taken and finished
usually with a flap valve. Some distance back along
this sewer a wide-throated junction is put in the invert of
the sewer, and from this junction a ramp-pipe is taken
down to the invert of the low-level sewer, so that the
sewage in the upper sewer instead of having a direct_ fall
runs down the slope of the ramp. The ramp-pipe is usually con-
structed of iron and is of smaller section than the high-level sewer
because of the greater fall and pressure.
In the low-lying parts of towns storage tanks are often constructed
to receive the sewage of such districts. They are periodically
emptied of their contents, which are pumped up into the main
sewers through which the sewage travels to the outfall. This storing
of sewage should be avoided whenever possible. It is much better
to provide for raising it as it is produced either by an
installation of one or more automatic lifts, such as Adams's sewage
lifts, or, where a large amount of material is to be dealt with,
necessitating continual pumping, by a Shone ejector worked by
compressed air.
Sewer gas is a term applied to the air, fouled by mixture with
gases which are formed by the decomposition of sewage, and by
the organic germs which it carries in suspension, that fills
the sewer in the variable space above the liquid stream.
It is universally recognized that sewer gas is a medium
for the conveyance of disease, and in all well-designed
systems of sewerage stringent precautions are taken to keep it out
of houses. It is equally certain that the dangerous character of
sewer gas is reduced, if not entirely removed, by free admixture with
the oxygen of fresh air. Sewers should be liberally ventilated, not
Con-
nexion
between
high- and
low-level
Ventila-
tion of
742
SEWERAGE
only for this reason, but to prevent the air within them from ever
having its pressure raised (by sudden influx of water) so considerably
as to force the " traps " which separate it from the atmosphere of
dwellings. The plan of ventilation now most approved is the very
simple one of making openings from the sewer to the surface of the
street at short distances generally shafts built of brick and cement
and covering these with metallic gratings. Under each grating it
is usual to hang a box or tray to catch any stones or dirt that may
fall through from the street, but the passage of air to and from the
sewer is left as free as possible. The openings to the street are
frequently made large enough to allow a man to go down to examine
or clean the sewers, and are then called " manholes." Smaller
openings, large enough to allow a lamp to be lowered for purposes of
inspection, are called " lampholes," and are often built up of vertical
lengths of drain-pipe, 6 jn. or 9 in. in diameter, and finished at the
surface with a cover similar to that used for a manhole but smaller.
A length of 150 ft. of pipe sewer is about the limit that can be sighted
through. Lampholes are mostly used in the_construction of pipe and
other small sewers.
To facilitate inspection and cleaning, sewers are, as far as possible,
laid in straight lines of uniform gradient, with a manhole or lamphole
at each change of direction or of slope and at each junction
ag of mains with one another or with branches. The sewers
may advantageously be stepped here and there at man-
holes. Sir R. Rawlinson pointed out that a difference of level
between the entrance and exit pipes tends to prevent continuous
flow of sewer gas towards the higher parts of the system, and makes
the ventilation of each section more independent and thorough.
When the gradient is slight, and the dry-weather flow very small,
occasional flushing must be resorted to. Flap valves or sliding
penstocks are introduced at manholes; by closing these for a short
time sewage (or clean wate_r introduced for the purpose) is dammed
up behind the valve either in higher parts of the sewer or in a special
flushing chamber, and is then allowed to advance with a rush.
Many self-acting arrangements for flushing have been devised which
act by allowing a continuous stream of comparatively small volume
to accumulate in a tank that discharges itself suddenly when full.
A valuable contrivance of this kind is Rogers Field's siphon flush
tank. When the liquid in the tank accumulates so that it reaches the
top of the annular siphon, and begins to flow over the lip, it carries
with it enough air to produce a partial vacuum in the tube. The
siphon then bursts into action, and a rapid discharge takes place,
which continues till the water-level sinks to the foot of the bell-
shaped cover. Adams's " Monster Flusher " is constructed on
similar principles and is of simple and strong design. Its flushing-
power is claimed to be greater than that of the ordinary siphon. By
the use of this appliance, which is automatic in action, shallow sewers
can be effectively flushed. Fig. 29 is a section of a flushing chamber
fitted with this
siphon. Such
flushing appar-
atus may be
operated by a
water-s upply
from an ordinary
tap which may be
regulated for a
large or small
flow. The cap-
acity of flush
tanks is a little
difficult to deter-
As a rule
FIG. 29. Flushing Chamber for Shallow Sewers.
mine. As a
250 to 400 gallons are allowed for 9-in. sewers, 400 to 600 gallons
for 12-in., and 600 to 800 gallons for 15-in. sewers, the amount
increasing by 200 gallons for each 3-in. additional diameter.
III. DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE.* The composition of domestic
sewage is now fairly well known and is generally reduced for the
purposes of comparison to a standard; that is to say, ordinary
sewage is that due to a water-supply of about 30 gallons per head
per diem. If the supply is less, and there is no leakage of subsoil
water into the drainage system, the sewage will be stronger;
conversely, if there is leakage, &c., the sewage will be more
dilute, but obviously, the quantity of impurities will, for any
given population, be the same in amount. The subjoined table
shows the kind of sewage referred to:
Average Domestic Sewage, in Grains per Gallon.
Total
Solids in
Solution.
Organic
Carbon.
Organic
Nitrogen.
Am-
monia.
Chlorine.
Suspended.
Mineral.
Organic.
Total
Combined
Nitrogen.
50-54
3-287
1-543
4-70
7-46
16-92
14-36
5-41
For all practical purposes we may say that average sewage
contains two tons of suspended matters in each million gallons,
one-half of which is mineral matter. When, however, we come
to a consideration of trade waste, the question becomes difficult
in the extreme, because of the great variety of trades, and the
ever varying quantities added to the sewage. Some of the prin-
cipal trade wastes are from dye-works, print-works, bleach-works,
chemical works, tanneries, breweries, paper-makers, woollen-
works, silk-works, iron-works and many others. In some cases
one only of these trade wastes finds its way to the sewers;
in others, several of them may be found. In some instances,
again, these trade wastes are of an alkaline nature, in others they
are acid; the mixtures may be either, and of greatly varying
character. Next comes the manner in which sewage is discharged
at the works. The flow is variable throughout the entire 24 hours,
but in the case of sewers discharging domestic sewage only, such
sewage being of the standard strength, it will be a close approxi-
mation to the facts to say that about two-thirds is discharged
between the hours of 7 A.M. and 7 P.M., one-half during the eight
hours of maximum flow, two-fifths during the six hours of maxi-
mum flow, and about 7!% per hour during the two hours of
maximum flow. These data will be sufficient for the design of
the works intended for dealing with the sewage. Separate
calculations must be made if there is trade refuse, or much
leakage of subsoil water. In very large systems, again, the
maxima are rather less because of the time occupied by the
sewage in travelling to the outfall from the more remote parts
of the district. In cases where one set of sewers is employed
for both sewage and rainfall the sewage flow may be increased
more than a hundredfold within a few minutes by heavy rain-
storms. Of course the sewage disposal works can only deal
with a small proportion of such flow, and the balance
is discharged into some convenient water-course or other
suitable place. Even when the separate system is employed,
as in the case of the smaller towns, the flow may be in-
creased ten to fifteen times by rain, because it is unusual to
carry two sets of drains to the backs of the houses. In design-
ing outfall works, therefore, all these circumstances must be
carefully considered. Again, when the sewage is pumped, as is
frequently the case, the size of the tanks must often be increased,
because in the smaller installations the whole of the day's
sewage is frequently pumped out in a few hours; this fact must
also be remembered when designing filters.
Nearly every town upon the coast turns its sewage into the
sea. That the sea has a purifying effect is obvious. The object
to be attained is its dispersion in a large volume of sea-water.
As it is lighter than salt water it tends to rise after leaving the
sewer; the outfall should, therefore, if practicable, terminate
in deep water, so that the two liquids may become well mixed.
The currents must be studied by means of floats, and in most
cases the sewage must be discharged upon the ebb tide only, and
then perhaps not throughout the entire period, the object being
to prevent it from being carried towards the shore. That the
purification is effected mainly by means of living organisms is
well established, and it has been urged by competent authorities
that this system is not wasteful, since the organic matter forms
the food of the lower organisms, which in turn are devoured by
fish. Thus the sea is richer, if the land is the poorer, by the
adoption of this cleanly method of disposal. The next step is the
partial purification of the sewage by means of a chemical process.
When a town lies some distance up an estuary, as for example
London, Glasgow, Rochester and many others, the dilution may
be insufficient to prevent a nuisance, or the suspended matters
may be deposited upon the foreshore to be uncovered at low
water. The first stage of purification is then employed, namely,
clarification in tanks. Practice varies with regard to tank
capacity, but as a general rule it should be at least equal to half
a day's dry weather flow. This will enable the works manager to
turn out a good effluent, even in wet weather, when the volume
is much increased. With regard to the practical effect of any
particular treatment, it is now recognized that the matters in
solution are scarcely touched by any chemical process that can
be employed, but the removal of the suspended matter is a great
SEWERAGE
743
gain, as has been proved in the case of London. Briefly, a good
chemical process will do about one-half of the work of purification ;
and in many cases it is not necessary to go further. With regard
to the kind of chemical to use, lime, either alone or in conjunction
with aluminium sulphate or with ferrous sulphate, is most
frequently employed. When the resulting sewage sludge has to
be filter-pressed, lime is almost essential for the primary treat-
ment of the sewage, in order to destroy the glutinous nature of the
sludge. In the case of large towns like London, Manchester and
Salford, the sludge is shipped In specially designed steamers,
of 600 tons to looo tons burden, and discharged into the sea
at a distance from the coast. The London outfall works have a
fleet of six steamers, which convey the sludge out to Barrow
Deep, a channel in the North Sea about 10 m. east of the Nore
lightship. Each vessel has four oblong tanks having a total
capacity of 1000 tons of sludge, which can be discharged in seven
minutes when the valves are fully opened. The sludge is dis-
charged about 10 ft. under the water and being agitated by the
action of the ship's screws is very completely diffused. The
sand and earthy matters soon subside and the organic matter
is rapidly consumed by the organic life in the sea-water. A care-
ful microscopical examination and chemical analysis failed to
detect more than the merest trace of the mineral portion of the
sludge, either in dredgings from the bottom of the channels
or on the surface of the sandbanks. The cost of the disposal
works out at about 4jd. per ton of sludge.
In the case of towns situated on rivers above the range of
tidal waters, the further purification is effected either on land,
or by means of artificial filters, or a combination of the two.
The question of land treatment is frequently considered from
the standpoint of so many persons to the acre; but the best
method is to ascertain how many gallons per day an acre of land
will purify. As the quality of land varies greatly, the proper
volume to be applied per acre can only be ascertained after a
good deal of experience. The range lies between about 3000
gallons per acre per day in the case of poor land, to about 30,000
gallons in the same period in the case of the best. Let us assume
an instance of the latter kind. The works have been designed
on a basis of 1000 persons per acre, producing 30,000 gallons
of sewage per day; the land being of a highly suitable character,
and the sewage having been clarified, success is assured. But,
conversely, through faulty construction of the sewers, the sewage
amounts, say, to 60 gallons per head; the land, unable to deal
with the liquid, quickly becomes water-logged and offensive,
and the works are a failure. Precisely the same remarks apply
to artificial filters, which are always designed upon the basis of
so many gallons per square yard of filtering material. Many
failures of both land and filters have been due to the fact that the
actual sewage flow was greatly in excess of the original estimates.
We may say that clay soils lie at one end of the scale, and very
porous sands or gravels at the other; obviously, therefore,
each case must be considered on its merits. It should be re-
membered that when such moderate quantities as 3000 gallons
per acre per day are applied to land, there is no necessity to
remove the suspended matter; broad irrigation being resorted
to, the land readily assimilates the solids, and thus one source
of expense may be eliminated.
The artificial filters are now generally called bacteria beds;
although filters have been in constant use in some cases, as
for instance at Wimbledon, for a great number of years. The
first filters constructed at these works were made in 1876, and
were about 7000 sq. yds. in extent. With the growth of popula-
tion additions have been made of at least five times that area.
One of the original beds was used for crude sewage, but the
mineral matter choked it completely, and experience pointed
to the necessity of clarifying the sewage before filtration.
Whether the treatment should be in open or in closed tanks,
or whether chemicals should be added, has been much debated;
but seeing that ordinary sewage contains one ton of suspended
mineral matter in each million gallons, it is clear that if this
is not removed before filtration, it will be retained in the niters
and ultimately choke them, as happened at Wimbledon. The
common cesspool has been resuscitated and improved under
the name of a septic tank. In this the disintegration of the
suspended matter is brought about by anaerobic organisms,
and the liquid in passing slowly through the tank absorbs most
of the gases due to the breaking down of the organic matter.
There is no oxidation at this stage. The liquid is next passed
through artificial filters, of which there are many types. What
is known as a " contact " filter was constructed, probably for
the first time on a large scale, at the London (Barking) works.
The object sought to be attained was that of making each
cubic yard of filtering material perform the same amount of
work, and the least expensive way was apparently to close the
outlet, and charge the filter with liquid, allowing it to remain
in contact for about two hours, and then drawing it off so that
the bed could be thoroughly aerated. No doubt a better way
would be to distribute the sewage in the form of a shower of
liquid, and work the beds continuously, but this involves a good
deal of expense for spreading appliances, and a fall is necessary
in the works, which is not always obtainable. Probably the most
complete installation of the kind last referred to is that at Salford.
Iron pipes are led over the surface of the filters, and spraying
nozzles are placed at short intervals, so that the sewage is applied
in the form of a heavy shower. But whatever form the filters
and appliances may assume, the final result is the same. If
the beds are properly aerated, the aerobic organism establishes
itself in prodigious numbers, and attacks the organic matter,
breaking it down into harmless, soluble and gaseous products.
It is, of course, assumed that the filters are adequate in area,
and are properly managed. With regard to the materials to
be employed in making sewage filters, it is now well established
that the size of the particles has a more important bearing than
their composition. At the same time, it may be remarked that
materials with very rough surfaces, as for instance coke breeze,
are more effective than those with smooth surfaces. Doubtless the
former classes afford, in the interstices, a lodging for the bacteria,
and no doubt a given quantity of material with rough surfaces
will harbour greater numbers than the same amount of smooth.
A reference must be made to the Manchester experiments.
The experts' report suggested the provision of 60 acres of filters
for dealing with the sewage of the city, which is said to average
30 million gallons per day in dry weather. But after inquiry
into the merits of the proposal the officials of the Local Govern-
ment Board recommended that the filters should be 92 acres
in extent, and that the effluent should be finished on land.
Storm water filters to take the excess after the sewage was diluted
six times were also recommended, such filters being designed
to pass 500 gallons per sq. yd. per diem. In this case clarified
sewage was to be dealt with on filters 3 ft. 4 in. in depth, composed
of clinkers broken to pass a sieve with meshes of i% in., but
retained on one with meshes of 5 in. It will be observed, therefore,
that the bacterial treatment of sewage has scarcely as yet
emerged from the experimental stage, but it will certainly be
adopted in many cases where it is impracticable to obtain good
land in sufficient quantity for the purification of the sewage.
With regard to the disposal of sewage-sludge in inland towns,
until it has been fairly established by a long trial that bacteria
will dispose of this material, the reduction of its bulk by means
of filter-presses will be found to be the most satisfactory method
of dealing with it. The practical effect is the conversion of 5
tons of offensive mud into i ton of hard cake, which may be
readily handled and carted. The cost is usually about as. 6d.
per ton of cake, and a million gallons of average sewage produce
about 8 tons.
The chief works of reference upon this subject are: Colonel
E. C. S. Moore, Sanitary Engineering; L. Parkes and H. Kenwood,
Hygiene and Public Health; A. J. Martin, The Sewage Problem;
A. P. Poley, Law Affecting Sewers and Drains; J. J. Cosgrove,
Principles and Practice of Plumbing, The Purification of Sewage;
Colonel E. C. S. Moore, New Tables for the Complete Solution of
Ganguillet and Kutter's Formula for the Flow of Liquid in Open
Channels, Pipes, Sewers and Conduits; W. J. Dibden, The Purifica-
tion of Sewage and Water; W. Spinks, House Drainage Manual;
S. Rideal, Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage. Municipal
Engineers' Specification. (J. BT.)
744
SEWING MACHINES
SEWING 1 MACHINES. The sewing machine, as is the case
with most mechanical inventions, is the result of the efforts of
many persons, although it would appear that the most merit-
orious of these worked in ignorance of the labours and successes
of others in the same field. Many of the early attempts to sew
by machinery went on the lines of imitating ordinary hand-
sewing, and all such inventions proved failures. The method of
hand-sewing is of necessity slow and intermittent, seeing that
only a definite length of thread is used, which passes its full
extent through the cloth at every stitch, thus causing the working
arm, human or otherwise, to travel a great length for every
stitch made, and demanding frequent renewals of thread.
The foundation of machine-sewing was laid by the invention
of a double-pointed needle, with the eye in the centre, patented
by Charles F. Weisenthal in 1755, with the object of avoiding
the necessity for inverting the needle in sewing or embroidering.
Many of the features of .-"the sewing machine are distinctly
specified in a patent secured in England by Thomas Saint in
1790, in which he, inter alia, described a machine for stitching,
quilting, or sewing. Saint's machine, which appears to have
been intended principally for leather work, was fitted with an
awl which, working vertically, pierced a hole for the thread.
A spindle and projection laid the thread over this hole, and a
descending forked" needle pressed a loop of thread through it.
The loop was caught on the under side by a reciprocating hook;
a feed moved the work forward the extent of one stitch; and
a second loop was formed by the same motions as the first. It,
however, descended within the first, which was thrown off by
the hook as it caught the second, and being thus secured and
tightened up an ordinary tambour or chain stitch was formed.
Had Saint hit on the idea of the eye-pointed needle his machine
would have been a complete anticipation of the modern chain-
stitch machine.
The inventor who first devised a real working machine was
a poor tailor, Barth61emy Thimmonier, of St Etienne, who
obtained letters patent in France in 1830. In Thimmonier's
apparatus the needle was crocheted, and descending through
the cloth it brought up with it a loop of thread which it carried
through the previously made loop, and thus it formed a chain
on the upper surface of the fabric. Though the machine was
rather clumsy, made principally of wood, as many as eighty were
being worked in Paris in 1841, making army clothing, when an
ignorant and furious crowd wrecked the establishment and
nearly murdered the unfortunate inventor. Thimmonier, how-
ever, was not discouraged, for in 1845 he twice patented
improvements on it, and in 1848 he obtained both in England
and the United Kingdom patents for further improvements.
The machine was then made entirely of metal, and vastly
improved on the first model. But the troubles of 1848 blasted
the prospects of the resolute inventor. His patent rights for
Great Britain were sold; a machine shown in the Great Exhibi-
tion of 1851 attracted no attention, and he died in 1857 un-
friended and unrewarded.
The most important ideas of an eye-pointed needle and a
double thread or lock-stitch are strictly of American origin,
and that combination was first conceived by Walter Hunt of
New York about 1832-1834. Hunt reaped nothing of the
enormous pecuniary reward which has been shared among the
introducers of the sewing machine, and it is therefore all the
more necessary that his great merit as an inventor should be
insisted on. He constructed a machine having a vibrating arm,
at the extremity of which he fixed a curved needle with an eye
near its point. By this needle a loop of thread was formed under
the cloth to be sewn, and through that loop a thread carried
in an osculating shuttle was passed, thus making the lock-
stitch of all ordinary two-thread machines. Hunt's invention
was purchased by a blacksmith named Arrowsmith, and a good
deal was done towards improving its mechanical details, but no
patent was sought, nor was any serious attempt made to draw
attention to the invention. After the success of machines
1 " Sew," for stitching with a needle, is a word common to Indo-
European languages ;cf. Lat. mere, Gr. murabuv, n.a.Tri>ta>, Sansk. siv.
FIG. i. Howe's original Machine.
based on his two devices was fully established, Hunt in 1853
applied for a patent; but his claim was disallowed OD the ground
of abandonment. The most important feature in Hunt's
invention the eye-pointed needle was first patented in the
United Kingdom by Newton and Archbold in 1841, in connexion
with glove-stitching.
Apparently unconscious of the invention of Walter Hunt,
Elias Howe, a native of Spencer, Mass., directed his attention to
machine-sewing about
the year 1843. In 1844
he completed a rough
model, and in 1846 he
patented his sewing
machine (fig. i). Howe
was thus the first to
patent a lock-stitch
machine, but his in-
vention had the two
essential features the
curved eye-pointed
needle and the under- ,
thread shuttle which I
were invented by
Walter Hunt twelve
years previously.
Howe's invention was
sold in England to
William F. Thomas of
Cheapside, London, a
corset manufacturer,
for 250. Thomas
secured in December
1846 the English patent in his own name, and engaged
Howe on weekly wages to adapt the machine for his manu-
facturing purposes. The career of the inventor in London
was unsuccessful; and, having pawned his American patent
rights in England, he returned in April 1849 in poverty to
America. There in the meantime the sewing machine was
beginning to excite public curiosity, and various persons were
making machines which Howe found to trench on his patent
rights. The most prominent of the manufacturers, if not of
inventors, ultimately appeared in Isaac Merritt Singer (1811-
1875), who in 1851 secured a patent for his machine (fig. 2).
Howe now became alert to vindicate his rights, and, after
regaining possession of his pawned patent, he instituted suits
against the infringers.
An enormous amount
of litigation ensued,
in which Singer figured
as a most obstinate
defendant, but ultim-
ately all makers
became tributary to
Elias Howe. It is
calculated that Howe
received in the form
of royalties on ma-
chines made up to
the period of the
expiry of his extended
patent (September 1867 he died in the next month) a sum of
not less than two millions of dollars.
The practicability of machine-sewing being demonstrated,
inventions of considerable originality and merit followed in
quick succession. One of the most ingenious of all the inventors
who worked also without knowledge of previous efforts was
Mr Allan B. Wilson. In 1849 he devised the rotary hook and
bobbin combination, forming the special feature of the Wheeler
& Wilson machine. Wilson obtained a patent for his machine,
which included the important and effective four-motion feed for
moving the work after every stitch, in November 1850. In
February 1851 William O. Grover, a tailor, of Boston, patented
FIG. 2. Singer's original Machine-
SEX
745
his double chain-stitch action, which formed the basis of the
Grover & Baker machine. In 1856 James A. E. Gibbs (1829-
1902), a Virginia farmer, devised the chain-stitch machine, im-
proved subsequently by J. Willcox and now known as the WiJlcox
& Gibbs. These together all American inventions form the
types of the various machines now in common use. Thousands
of patents have been issued in the United States and Europe,
covering improvements in the sewing machine; but, although
its efficiency and usefulness have been greatly increased by
numerous accessories and attachments, the main principles of
the various machines have not been affected thereby.
In machine sewing three varieties of stitch are made (l) the
simple chain or tambour stitch, (2) the double chain stitch and (3)
the lock stitch. In the first variety the machine works with a single
thread; the other forms use two, an upper and an under thread.
The structure of the chain stitch is shown in fig. 3. The needle
first descends through the cloth, then as it begins to ascend the
friction of the thread
against the fabric is suf-
ficient to form a small
loop into which the point
of a hook operating under
the cloth plate enters,
Li n 1 r i I ' I l I '* l" 1 ^ I
FIG. 3. Chain Stitch.
expanding and holding the
loop while the needle rises
to its full height. The
feed then moves the fabric forward one stitch length, the hook
with its loop is also projected so that when next the needle
descends its loop is formed within the previous loop. The hook then
releases loop No. I, seizes and expands loop No. 2, and in so doing
draws up the previous loop into a stitch, chain-like on the under side
but plain on the upper surface of the fabric. The seam so made is
firm and elastic, but easily undone, for if at any point a thread is
broken the whole of the sewing can be readily run out backwards by
pulling the thread, just as in crochet work. To a certain extent this
imperfection in the chain-stitch machine is overcome in the Wilcox
& Gibbs machine, in which each loop_, by means of a rotating hook,
is twisted half a revolution
after it has passed through its
predecessor. The somewhat
complicated course of the
threads in the double chain
stitch of the Grover & Baker
machine is shown in fig. 4.
p. , r . The under thread was supplied
. 4. Double Cham Stitch. from an ordinary bobbin and
was threaded through a circular needle of peculiar form. The machine
was wasteful of thread, and the sewing formed a knotted ridge on the
under side of the fabric.
The lock stitch is that made by all ordinary two-thread sewing
machines, and is a stitch peculiar to machine sewing. Its structure
is, as shown in fig. 5, very simple, and when by proper tension the
threads interlock within the work it shows the same on both sides
and is very secure. When, however /the tension on the upper thread
is weak, the under thread runs along the surface as at b, held more or
less tightly by the upper loops. It will be seen that to make the lock
stitch the under thread has to be passed quite through the loop of
the upper thread. That is done in two principal ways. By the first
plan a small metal shuttle,
holding within it a bobbin of
thread, is carried backward
and forward lunder the cloth
plate, and at each forward
movement passes through the
FIG. 5. Lock Stitch. upper thread loop formed by
each succeeding stroke of the
needle. Such is the principle devised by Hunt, introduced by
Howe, and improved by Singer and many others. The second prin-
cipal method of forming the lock stitch consists in seizing the loop
of the upper thread by a rotating hook, expanding the loop and
passing it around a stationary bobbin within which is wound the
under thread. The method is the invention of A. B. Wilson, and
is known generally as the Wheeler & Wilson principle. The rotary
hook seen at b, fig. 6, is so bevelled and notched that it opens
and expands the upper thread loop, causing it quite to enclose
the bobbin of under thread, after which it throws it off and the
so-formed lock stitch is pulled up and tightened either by an
independent take-up motion as in later machines, or by the
expansion of the next loop as in the older forms. The bobbin A,
lenticular in form, and its case B, fig. 6, fit easily into a circular de-
pression within the hook, against which they are held by the bobbin
holder a, fig. 6.
_ Intermediate between the shuttle and the rotary-hook machines
is the oscillating-shuttle machine introduced by the Singer Co. The
shuttle is hook-formed, not unlike the Wilson hook, and it carries
within it a capacious circular bobbin of thread h. fig. 7. This shuttle
is driven by an oscillating driver db within an annular raceway a a,
and, instead of revolving completely like the Wilson hook, it oscil-
lates only in an arc of 150, so far as serves to catch and clear the
upper thread. The oscillating-shuttle and rotary-hook machines
work with great smoothness and rapidity.
Sewing machines are now made in hundreds of varieties for special
kinds of work. Some, for example, are capable of performing the
FIG. 6. Rotary Hook, Bobbin, and Bobbin Case
(Wheeler & Wilson Machine).
most complicated operations in ornamental stitching, a horizontal
right and left motion, in addition to the ordinary vertical motions,
being for this purpose often imparted to the needle bar; others will
sew button-holes at the rate of 8 or 10 a minute; while others again
will sew on the buttons, making the required number of stitches,
stopping automatically with the needle at its highest point, and
cutting the threads off close to the underside of the work. In some
cases two or more needles are fitted, producing parallel rows of
stitches; with a machine having 12 needles a single operation may
make as many as 24,000 stitches a minute. Special forms of machine
are designed to meet the requirements of the glove-sewer, the
umbrella-maker, &c. In sewing carpets the great weight of the
material makes feeding difficult, and therefore machines have been
invented that move along the carpet, which itself remains stationary.
The earlier forms were hand-worked ; the two lengths of carpet were
stretched across the room, and the machine travelled along the
seam, followed by the operator, who turned it by means of a hand-
crank. One of these machines was capable of doing the work of eight
or ten hand-sewers. With later forms, operated by electricity or
FIG. 7. Singer Oscillating Shuttle.
other power and running along a track, the carpet is stretched and
sewed so rapidly that one power machine does the work of eight or
ten hand machines. The introduction of sewing machines has re-
volutionized the boot and shoe industry, and books are stitched by
machine, the Brehmer wire-sewing machine and Smyth thread-sewing
machine being prominent representatives of this class.
SEX (Lat. sexus; possibly connected with secare, to cut), the
character of being either male or female, which can be attributed
to the vast majority of animals, but less correctly to the higher
plants, where the so-called male and female organs, or flowers,
are part of the sexless generation (see REPRODUCTION: Plants).
The primary distinction of sex resides in the essential organs of
reproduction (?..). An organism that contains the germinal
tissue or mass of tissue known as the testis, and producing the
746
SEX
sexual cells known as spermatozoa, is a male; an organism
containing the tissue which produces ova is known as a female;
one producing both ova and spermatozoa is a true herma-
phrodite; and one producing neither, if it belong to the sexual
generation, is known as a neuter, although neuters are for the
most part incomplete females. The primary sexual tissues and
the gametes are described in the article REPRODUCTION ( A nimals).
Associated with the presence of the primary reproductive
organs there may be a large number of other characters, and
attempts have been made to classify these as secondary and
tertiary sexual characters. It is impossible to define a series of
logical categories in which any accessory character will find its
inevitable place, but a convenient practical distinction first made
by John Hunter may be drawn between characters directly
auxiliary to the processes of reproduction and those which,
although limited to one sex, are not immediately connected
with reproductive processes. We may then make the division
into (i) Primary Sexual Characters (A. Essential: power of
producing respectively ova and spermatozoa. B. Auxiliary:
possession of sexual ducts and reservoirs, intromittent and
copulatory organs, organs associated with oviposition, gestation,
parturition, and nutrition of the immature young in any stage) ;
and (2) Secondary Sexual Characters (differences between the
sexes in size, shape, appearance, ornamentation, armament,
colour and coloration, voice, and instincts and habits not directly
associated with the reproductive processes).
Those characters which are here grouped as primary are
described in the article REPRODUCTION. It is sufficient to repeat
that in many animals only the essential primary characters are
present. There is much diversity in the possession of secondary
sexual characters, and in many cases these apparently are absent.
Among mammals it is impossible to distinguish the sex without
examination of the reproductive organs or observation of the
sexual habits, in such cases as the domestic cat, the tiger and
many other feline animals, hyaenas, bears, rabbits, hares, mice
and a vast number of others. So also among birds there are many
cases where the sexes are alike, as for instance, some humming-
birds, parrots, owls, cranes, kingfishers, and many small birds
such as robins and hedge-warblers. In reptiles and batrachians,
in fish and a very large number of invertebrates there are no
visible secondary sexual characters.
C. Darwin, in the portion of the Descent of Man devoted to
" Selection in relation to Sex," brought together what remains the
most complete and valuable account of the existence and distri-
bution amongst animals of secondary sexual characters, and it would
be impracticable here to give more than the most summary descrip-
tion of the groups of facts involved. Among Crustacea the sexes
frequently differ, but in most cases the differences concern auxiliary
primary characters, such as the possession of intromittent and clasp-
ing organs. Differences in size are frequent ; in the higher Decapods
the males and in the lower Crustacea the females frequently being
larger, the disparity being extreme in some of the parasitic Copepods
and Isqpods where the males are minute and attached to the females,
whilst in the Cirripedes, as Darwin himself discovered, very minute
complementary males may live as parasites in the mantle cavity of
large hermaphrodite or female forms. Amongst Arachnids con-
spicuous differences in colour and size occur, the males generally
being smaller, more active and possessed of relatively longer ap-
pendages, and more highly decorated. Amongst Insects, the differ-
ences between the sexes may be very great, quite apart_from those
relating to intromittence, prehension of the female, oviposition, or the
higher development of sense organs by which the males can more
readily seek out the females. In many cases the males are winged,
the females wingless and grub-like. In a few instances, the males are
highly pugnacious and are furnished with special weapons for fighting
with their rivals. Amongst the Homoptera and Orthoptera there are
many instances where the males possess organs capable of producing
loud sounds, and these are rudimentary or absent in the females,
whilst in other cases, both sexes produce call-notes. Particularly
amongst the Coleoptera, the males may differ very greatly from the
females in the shape of the body and may be decorated with extra-
ordinary growths of the head and thorax. The most notable sexual
differences are in coloration, and whilst there are many instances
where both sexes are inconspicuous, and a few where both are
brilliant, there are still more where the males differ from the females
by the display of more conspicuous patterns and of brighter colours.
It may be said of Insects in general that it is the more common case
for secondary sexual characters to exist in such a degree that the
sexes may be distinguished at a glance.
Among Fishes, secondary sexual characters are common. Spines
are developed on the head and pectoral fins of the males of some
Rays, but it is probable that these may be auxiliary primary char-
acters, useful in the prehension of the female. In the male salmon,
a cartilaginous projection, developed during the breeding season,
appears on the upper surface of the point of the lower jaw, whilst in
old males the jaws become hook-like and the teeth are greatly in-
creased in size. In the thornback, the adult male has the teeth
sharp-pointed and backwardly-directed, while those of the female
are flat and pavement-like. In almost all fishes the males when adult
are smaller than the females, and may be much smaller. Beards of
stiff, hair-like structures, elongated processes of the fins, tubercles
and many other structures that may be classed as ornaments, because
their function is unknown, occur in males and are absent in females.
Differences in pattern and colour are extremely frequent, become
much more marked in the breeding season, and are of such a nature
that the males are more conspicuous. Among Batrachia, differences
between the sexes in size and general shape are not striking, but
there are many instances of the males exhibiting crests, or special
processes which may be classed as ornaments, and peculiar patterns
and bright colours, during the breeding season.
Secondary sexual differences appear in the vast majority of birds.
The shape seldom differs markedly, but differences in size are common,
sometimes, as in birds of prey, the females, and sometimes, as in the
allies of the domestic fowl, the males being larger. In a large number
of instances the males are very pugnacious and are better armed, the
bones and musculature being heavier, the beaks and claws stronger,
while spurs or knobs on the wings and spurs on the legs may be
present only in the males or be relatively small in the females.
Special ornaments such as crests and wattles, combs, carbuncles,
excrescences of the skin, and elongated or peculiarly shaped feathers
are extremely frequent, and are developed or intensified in the
breeding season, and in the vast majority of cases confined to the
males. The voice almost invariably varies with the sex, is associated
with the breeding period and is much more highly developed in the
male, whilst structural developments such as modifications of the
trachea, vocal sacs and resonators and differences in the larynx are
frequently present and on the whole distinctive of the males. Differ-
ences in colour and pattern are extremely well marked, and these are
well known to be associated with the breeding period, which in many
cases is preceded by a moult, after which the sexual plumage is
assumed, or the colour of the naked parts intensified. In a few ex-
ceptional cases such as some button-quails (Turnix), painted snipes
(Rhynchaea), phalaropes (Phalaropus), and cassowaries, the females
e"xceed the males in size and brilliancy, and it is interesting to notice
that in such cases the usual distinction of habit may be reversed, the
females being pugnacious, aggressive, and courtiers of the males,
whilst the latter are shy and may attend to the brood. Such ex-
ceptions are so rare that they may be called abnormal, for the rule
among birds is that where secondary sexual characters are displayed,
ornamentation, voice, brilliant pattern and colour, pugnacity and
amorousness are distinctive of the male. Secondary sexual differ-
ences of the same nature are abundant among mammals. The males
are usually larger and have greater strength with corresponding
bones and muscles, and courage and pugnacity. Special weapons
of offence or defence are common and are usually limited to the males
or more highly developed in them; familiar instances are the horns of
cattle, sheep and antelopes, the canine teeth, the mane of the lion.
The antlers of the stags are certainly used in combats between the
males, but in their more extreme development they may be classed
as sexual ornaments. The males of many mammals emit powerful
odours during the breeding season, whilst their voices, whether as a
battle cry or a call to the female, are frequently more powerful.
Crests, tufts and mantles, rudimentary in the female, conspicuous in
the male, are extremely common. Differences in pattern and colour
are rare except in monkeys, but when these exist they are usually
found in the male.
The sexes, then, are distinguished by primary and secondary
characters, these two categories being convenient rather than
logical. The real dividing line is between the essential primary
sexual character, the presence of a male or female gonad, and
the various auxiliary and secondary differences which appear in
every grade of elaboration. It is to be noted, moreover, that all
the other sexual characters depend on the activity of the essential
primary character. Immature males and females are closely
alike; the auxiliary and secondary sexual characters almost
invariably begin to appear only when the gonads become mature,
and fade away when these are injured or destroyed by accident,
disease, senescence or artificial interference, and finally, when the
activity of the gonads waxes and wanes periodically, there is a
corresponding periodicity in the display of the secondary char-
acters. A number of observations and experiments support the
conclusion that the gonads, in addition to their obvious function
of producing the sexual cells, discharge secretions into the blood
and tissues, and that these internal secretions or hormones,
SEX
747
are the physiological stimulus which awakens the development
of the auxiliary and secondary sexual characters.
Auxiliary primary and secondary sexual characters are so
many and various that general statements regarding them are
difficult and uncertain. In the broadest fashion, however, the
following generalizations appear to be true. Secondary sexual
characters begin to appear at puberty. Young or immature forms
resemble the sex in which such characters are least marked,
while the young and the undistinguished sex resemble ancestral
forms. The sex that is distinguished is usually the male, and
the characters are usually hypertrophies or specializations of
characters that appear in the females and the young. (It is
to be remembered that specialization may be the result of the
suppression of characters as well as their acquisition, and there
are a remarkable number of cases in which we may, at least
tentatively, picture the bright sexual colour of males as due to
the suppression of a pigment which masks them in the female.)
Hermaphroditism is the condition in which gonads producing
ova and gonads producing spermatozoa are contained in the same
individual. Its distribution in the animal kingdom is irregular,
and apparently independent of natural affinity, and the balance
of opinion is in favour of regarding it not as a primitive condition,
but as a secondary acquisition. C. Claus has pointed out that
it is frequent among sessile animals, as for instance Sponges,
Anemones, Corals, Polyzoa, bivalve Molluscs, and Turucates,
and sluggish animals such as many of the worms and snails,
whilst it is extremely common amongst almost every kind of
parasitic animal. The obvious suggestion is that if the condition
be primitive, it has been preserved, and if not primitive, acquired,
because in animals of such habit, the chances of sexual congress
would be greater than if the sexes were separate. Against such
an interpretation, however, it must be noticed that in most
hermaphrodites the sexual maturity of the male and female
gonads is not coincident, so that cross-fertilization commonly
occurs. Self-fertilization is said to occur in the fish Serranus,
and it certainly occurs in many parasitic Trematodes, in Tape-
worms and a few Nematodes. The real meaning of the occurrence
of the condition remains obscure. Both gonads are present in
many Sponges, in the Ctenophora, in many Anemones and
Corals, in degenerate Hydroids such as Hydra, in most Turbel-
larians and Trematodes, in all the Tapeworms, in a few Nematodes,
in many Chaetopods, in the Leeches, in a few Brachiopods and
in many Polyzoa. It is absent in most Echinoderma and
Arthropoda, but occurs in Cirripedes and some Isopods. It
occurs in some bivalves, such as the common oyster, cockle
and clam, and is present in the Euthyneurous Gastropods and
in Pteropods. Amongst vertebrates it is rare. A number of
observers have urged that the vertebrate embryo passes through
a hermaphrodite condition. J. T. Cunningham and F. Nansen
have stated that a testis is embedded in the ovary of the young
hagfish (Myxine) and that this ripens before the ovary, but later
observers have disputed their interpretation of the facts. In a
few fish and some Batrachia, hermaphroditism has been demon-
strated, but it is not certain, whether as a normal or aberrant
occurrence, whilst in many of the Batrachian cases, the animals
are known to be normally unisexual. The term hermaphroditism,
however, has been applied frequently to cases of a different kind,
in which there is no evidence of the essential sexual organs being
affected, the appearances relating wholly to the auxiliary
primary or the secondary sexual characters. It is most probable
that such conditions differ entirely from true hermaphroditism.
With regard to the auxiliary primary organs, and especially
the genital ducts and external organs of sex, in a majority of
cases as in vertebrates, the embryonic or youthful condition
is undifferentiated, and so to say, contains the initial material
which may be elaborated by specialization in one direction or
the other, by the proliferation of certain portions and the
suppression of others, into the structures characteristic of the
male or of the female. Sometimes, growth takes place without
normal differentiation, sometimes the specialization in one
direction lags, with the result that a dubious appearance arises.
Subsequent dissection or the approach of maturity, however,
make it plain that the dubiety was superficial and that the
gonad of only one sex was present. Among mammals, including
man, every normal male retains relics of the female side of the
undifferentiated condition of the accessory sexual organs, whilst
every normal female contains similar if less well-marked relics
of the male condition. Apparent hermaphroditism depending
on a dubious condition of the secondary sexual characters is
equally widespread in possible occurrence. Amongst insects
which have been much studied, such as the butterflies and moths,
many curious conditions have been described; sometimes the
pattern and colour of the upper and under sides, sometimes of
different parts of the same wing, sometimes of different wings,
present the characters of different sexes. Among birds and
mammals, the secondary sexual characters of one sex, such as
size, pattern or colour, weapons or habits, may appear in animals
with the gonads of the other sex, in every degree of develop-
ment, reaching to an apparently complete reversal. In many
cases these abnormal occurrences are associated with arrest of
the functional activity of the primary organs of sex, by disease,
accident, or decay, and the failure of the necessary stimulus
would certainly serve to explain cases where the apparent
reversal is no more than the suppression of a specialization in
one direction. The facts, however, go further; it appears as
if the suppression of femaleness allows the development of a
latent maleness.
Determination of Sex. Answers to the question why a particular
individual becomes a male or a female fall into two groups, in
one of which it is supposed that external conditions determine
the result, in the other that the sexual cells differ from the first.
G. Canestrini suggested that the sex was determined by the
number of spermatozoa which entered the ovum, but fuller
knowledge of the details of fertilization (see REPRODUCTION)
has made it plain that only a single spermatozoon, normally
conjugates with the ovum, whilst polyspermy, if it occur, results
only in abnormalities which do not proceed to full development.
Professor Thury in 1863 and C. Busing in 1883 urged that ova
fertilized soon after ovulation gave rise to females, whilst those
impregnated later produced males. Some evidence exists as
to the effect of delay in fertilization; V. Hensen (1881) suggested
that females were produced when both ova and spermatozoa
were in the most active condition, and H. M. Vernon (1898)
has shown that in hybridizing Echinoderms the fresher gamete
appears to exert a greater influence, but it cannot be said that
there is definite evidence as to the determination of sex on such
lines. J. D. Hofacker in 1823 and M. T. Sadler in 1830 collected
a large series of statistics from which they drew the conclusion
that when the male parent is older, more males are produced,
whilst 1 many observers have attempted to .draw conclusions
from the comparative vigour of the parents. Popular belief
and some observations with regard to the breeding of domestic
animals have led to the inference that the sex of the offspring
tends to be that of the least vigorous parent, and such a theory,
as it would appear to imply the existence of a natural law for
rectifying the proportions of the sexes, has gained more attention
than the facts supporting it would justify, and several unbiassed
observers have interpreted the events in the sense that the
vigorous parent produces his or her own sex. It is to be noted
that such theories of relative vigour do not necessarily imply
that external conditions determine the sex, for they would apply
equally were it the case that there was a power of selection
amongst gametes of predetermined sex. A large number of
investigators have been led to believe that conditions of nutrition
are of importance, and this view is specially plausible in the case
of vertebrates, if it be accepted that the embryos pass through
a hermaphrodite condition. E. Yung found that when tadpoles
were reared under normal conditions, the proportion of male
to female was about as 43 to 57, but that when a flesh diet was
provided the percentage of females was very greatly increased.
It has been noted that when Aphides are under the favourable
conditions of summer temperature and nutrition, they produce
only females, but that the advent of autumn brings with it an
equality in sex production. Mrs Treat showed that starved
SEX
caterpillars turned into males; E. Maupas, in the case of Rotifers,
and other observers in the cases of some Ciustacea, have similarly
pointed to a relation between abundant nutrition and the
excessive production of females. In nearly every case, however,
other observers have either obtained conflicting results, or placed
another interpretation on similar results, whilst in none of the
cases has the factor of selective mortality been sufficiently
excluded. Even were it proved that a correlation existed between
excessive diet and over-production of females, it might be that
the incidence of mortality was differential. Many attempts
have been made to derive information by examining the statistics
of human births in times of plenty and of hardship, but the
results are inconclusive. C. Darwin, reviewing the evidence,
was disposed to believe that the proportions of the sexes varied,
that the tendency to produce male and female offspring was
inherited, and that by a process of natural selection it was
adjusted to the needs of the species, but he was too cautious to
lean to any particular view as to the nature of the determining
factors. C. Busing (1883 and 1885) also believed in the existence
of such a power of adaptation or adjustment, and attributed
it to the action of a large number of external conditions. P.
Geddes and J. A. Thomson (1889) similarly came to the conclusion
that factors external to the sexual cells had a predominating
importance, and these authors linked the determination of sex
with their general theory of the nature of sex. They regarded
sex as an expression of an alternating rhythm of anabolism and
katabolism to be observed throughout the living world, and
supposed that femaleness was specially associated, was in fact
an outcrop of the anabolic or constructive processes of living
matter, whilst maleness represented the katabolic, destructive
or liberating processes. Their view ranges many diverse facts
in apparent harmony, but has to encounter many facts that
apparently contradict it. In a later work J. A. Thomson
himself (1007) assigns less weight to his own theory, and quotes
with approval T. H. Morgan's suggestion that the determination
of sex may be brought about in different fashions in different
cases.
Theories as to sex being predetermined in the sexual cells have
been numerous, but it is only recently that any exact evidence
appearing to point to such a conclusion has been adduced. When
parthenogenesis (see REPRODUCTION) was first being investigated,
it was found that eggs which gave rise to females were different from
those which produced males, out when it was demonstrated that at
least in many cases there was the further difference as to whether
the eggs were fertilized or not, it was assumed that the presence
or absence of fertilization determined the sex. Physicians have
repeatedly propounded the theory that one ovary produces eggs
capable of developing only into females, the other only those capable
of becoming males, and the suggestion has been made that in the case
of human beings ovulation takes place alternately from the ovaries.
From this it would follow that were the sex resulting from one
fertilization known, the sex of a subsequent fertilization could be
predicted, or by choosing the date of fertilization, selected. These
views, however, rest on no satisfactory evidence and remain un-
correlated with any observations as to the structure of the eggs
themselves. On the other hand, more exact workers, using modern
cytological methods, have accumulated striking facts as to the
existence of different kinds of sexual cells, the differences relating
chiefly to the nuclear changes which occur in ovogenesis and spermato-
genesis, and have been established with more certainty in the case
of the spermatozoa. E. B. Wilson (1909) has given a full summary
and discussion of various interpretations of these observations. In
over a hundred species of insects, Myriapods and Arachnids, two
kinds of spermatozoa are produced. The spermatozoa are formed
in pairs, and the mother cell which gives rise to each pair exhibits, in
the ordinary fashion of nuclear division, paired chromosomes, one
member of each pair passing into each spermatozoon. The mother
cell contains also an unpaired element, consisting in its simplest form
of a single large chromosome, but sometimes represented by a group
of peculiar chromosomes, which, for convenience, Wilson terms the
"X" element, or " heterochromosome." The "X" element passes
into one or other of the spermatozoa, from which it results that
spermatozoa of two kinds are formed in equal numbers, the difference
being the presence or absence of the " X element. Eggs fertilized
by spermatozoa containing the " X " element become females, those
fertilized by spermatozoa without it become males. There is
evidence that in some cases (e.g. bees) the spermatozoa devoid of the
"X" element degenerate, with the result that any fertilized eggs
must produce females.
E. B. Wilson's suggestion, advanced in the most cautious way, is
that the "X" element referred to in the last paragraph is the
determinant, or at least the index, of sex, and further that the differ-
ence between the male and female organism is that the male conies
from an egg which, developing either parthenogenetically or after
fertilization, contains only a single unit of the "X" element, while
the female starts from an ovum which, whether developing after
fertilization or parthenogenetically, contains the two "X" units.
The ovum of a sexual egg in the process of maturation discards half
its normal complement of the "X" element; if it be fertilized by a
spermatozoon containing an " X " unit it gives rise to a female; if it
be fertilized by one without this it becomes a male. A large number
of different forms of nuclear change have been described in the
maturation of normal and parthenogenetic eggs, and by the exercise
of a little ingenuity it is easy to select from these various processes
modes of nuclear division which if they actually occurred in the
appropriate instances would adapt Wilson's hypothesis to cases in
which parthenogenetic eggs give rise to males or to females. In
some individual instances the process which the hypothesis would
demand appears actually to occur.
Various workers on Mendelian lines (see MENDELISM) have
endeavoured to correlate the facts discussed by Wilson and their
experimental inquiries into the inheritance of primary and second-
ary sexual characters, with the additional difficulty, absent from
Wilson's hypothesis, that their theory requires them to suppose
the unfertilized cells to be unisexual. W. E. Castle suggested that
both males and females were Mendelian male-female hybrids with
respectively male and female dominance, and that in the usual way
disruption took place in the formation of the germ cells, with the
result that male and female spermatozoa and male and female ova
were produced. He assumed further that there was a selection or
repulsion in fertilization, so that ova and spermatozoa bearing the
same sex never conjugated. C. Correns assumed the male to be
sex-hybrid, the female to be homozygous or pure female, the male
character being dominant. Ova were, therefore, unisexual, always
female, while spermatozoa were either male or female, and when a
female egg was fertilized by a female spermatozoon the result natur-
ally was a female, but when it was fertilized by a male spermatozoon
the result was a sex-hybrid appearing as a male because of the
dominance of male characters. Correns's theory avoids the unlikely
supposition of selective fertilization, but breaks down in those cases
of parthenogenesis where the unfertilized egg produced by a female
gives rise to a male. W. Bateson reverses the theory of Correns and
supposes that the female is a hybrid with femaleness dominant, while
the male is pure male. The female in fact contains a factor which
makes her female whilst the male is a male because it is without this
factor. This view, however, leaves unexplained the existence of two
kinds of spermatozoa and involves a scries of elaborate hypotheses to
reconcile it with cases of parthenogenesis. L. Doncaster has elabo-
rated the extremely ingenious suggestion that the Mendelian pairs
are not male and female, but male and absence of sex and female
and absence of sex. The male is a pure male but produces two kinds
of spermatozoa, those with the determinant for sex and those without
it. The normal female is a sex-hybrid and produces male and female
eggs in equal numbers, and it is assumed that there is a selective
fertilization, female eggs being fertilized by male spermatozoa and
giving rise to females, whilst male eggs are fertilized by spermatozoa
without the sex factor and give rise to males. In cases of partheno-
genesis, it is supposed that there are two kinds of females, the result
of fertilization by different kinds of spermatozoa, and that those
going through different kinds of maturation processes give rise with-
out fertilization to males or to females. Doncaster has discovered
many interesting details of the maturation processes in insects which
agree with his suggestion. The Mendelian interpretations, however,
are more ingenious than conclusive, but at least they combine with
other work in supporting the probability that the determination of
sex depends on the sexual cells and not on conditions influencing the
developing embryo. Similarly they combine with other work in
pointing to the conclusion that the male organism differs from the
female py the absence of something present in the female. The
Mendelian interpretations suggest that male and female sex deter-
minants are different in kind; Wilson's interpretation suggests that
they differ only, so to say, in quantity. Both interpretations
harmonize with the observed fact that cases in which a female
assumes male characters are much more frequent and much more
definite than cases in which a male assumes femaleness.
Theory of Sexual Dimorphism. Males and females may be
alike, apart from their possession of male or female gonads,
or may differ to almost any degree. It is plain, therefore, that
although the presence and the maturity of the gonads may be,
and probably are, the immediate stimulus to the appearance of
the secondary differences, they cannot be the prime cause. Why,
although equally potent sexually, do some males and females
differ, others resemble one another? This is a question distinct
from that of the primary determination of sex and the mechanism
by which it is brought about. C. Darwin's theory of sexual
selection remains the only comprehensive suggestion. Like his
SEXBY SEXTANT
749
theory of the Origin of Species, it is not a theory of the origin
of variations. He starts from the observed fact that variations
occur and are transmitted; he supposes that by natural selection
individuals favoured by suitable variations are preserved, and
that in such a fashion the divergence which leads to the origin
of species has come about; he also supposes that' by sexual
selection, or preferential mating, the differences between male and
female have been brought about. " Courage, pugnacity, perse-
verance, strength and size of body, weapons of all kinds, musical
organs, both vocal and instrumental, bright colours, stripes
and marks, and ornamental appendages, have all been indirectly
gained by the one sex or the other, through the influence of love
and jealousy, through the appreciation of the beautiful in sound,
colour or form, and through the exertion of a choice; and these
powers of the mind manifestly depend on the development of
the cerebral system " (Descent of Man, ii. p. 402). The characters
to be accounted for are confined to one sex and are in close
relation with the breeding season and breeding habits. In those
cases where they differ from the females, the males are the most
active in courtship, and the best armed, and art rendered the
most attractive in various ways. They fight with their rivals
for the possession of the female, or display their attractions
before her, and either by conquest or by being preferred have an
advantage over less favoured males. Darwin was in some doubt
as to how far it could be shown that such favoured individuals
had a chance of leaving more progeny, except in cases where
males were polygamous or much more numerous than females,
but he suggested that on the whole the more vigorous female
would be the the first to breed and to choose the more attractive
males, or be captured by the stronger males. A. R. Wallace
was unable to accept the theory of sexual selection except in
the most limited way, and in particular laid great stress on the
want of evidence, to which Darwin himself has called attention,
that females prefer more highly ornamented males. He thought
that natural selection was sufficient to explain sexual differences
such as the possession of weapons, scents and call-notes. With
regard to colour and pattern, he regarded these as natural
outcrops of specialized structure, better displayed in more
vigorous animals, and therefore likely to increase under natural
selection. The inconspicuous patterns and dull colours of
, females he believed to depend on natural selection, and to be
associated with the greater need for females to be inconspicuous
whilst engaged in their duties to their young. More recent
writers have shown that in a large number of cases brilliant
colours and patterns are in themselves really protective (see
COLOURS OF ANIMALS), so that the facts left to be explained
by the theory of sexual selection are still further restricted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. Bateson, Mendel's Principles of Heredity
(1909) (with a good list of Mendelian literature); G. Canestrini,
Opuscula zoologica (1861-1864); W. E. Castle, "The Heredity of
Sex," Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. (Harvard, 1903), xl. No. 4; C. Correns,
Bestimmungu. Vererbung des Geschlechtes (1907); J. T.Cunningham,
Sexual Dimorphism (1900) ; C. Darwin, Descent of Man and Selection
in Relation to Sex (1871) ; L. Doncaster, " Gametogenesis of "the Gail-
Fly," Proc. Roy. Soc. B., vol. Ixxxii. p. 88 (1910); C. Diising, Die
Regulierung des Geschlechtsverhaltnisses bei der Vermehrung der Men-
schen, Tiere, und Pflanzen (1884) and Jena Zeitsch. (1885) ; P. Geddes
and J. A. Thomson, The Evolution of Sex (anded., 1901) (with valuable
lists of references) ; U. Hensen, " Physiologic der Zeugung," in Her-
mann's Handbuch der Physiologie, vi. p. 304; J. D. Hofacker, tfber
die Eigenschaflen, welche sich bei Menschen und Tier en auf die Nach-
kommen vererben (Tubingen, 1828); A. Russo, Modificazioni speri-
mentali dell' elemento epithelide dell' ovaria dei mammiferi, Reale
Accad. (Lincei, 1907), vi. p. 313; M. T. Sadler, The Law of Popula-
tion (1830) ; L. Stieda, Das Sexuale Verhdltniss bei Geborenen (Strass-
burg, 1875); J. A. Thomson, Heredity (1908); Professor Thury,
Uber das Gesetz der Erzeugung der Geschlechter (Leipzig, 1863);
H. M. Vernon, Variation in Animals and Plants (1903) ; A. R.
Wallace, Darwinism (1889); E. B. Wilson, Recent Researches on the
Determination and Heredity of Sex (1909), p. 53; E. Yung, " De
1'influence de la nature des aliments sur la sexualiteY' in Comptes
Rendus Ac. Sci. Paris, xciii. (1881). (P. C. M.)
SEXBY, EDWARD (d. 1658), English soldier, "leveller"
and conspirator, was a private soldier in Cromwell's regiment of
horse when first heard of about 1643. He opposed the proposal
to disband the army in 1647; and as one of the " agitators " he
resisted all attempts to come to an arrangement with Charles I.,
and advocated extreme democratic doctrines. He rose to the
rank of colonel, but was deprived of his commission in 1651.
When Cromwell assumed the title of lord protector, Sexby
became one of his most violent opponents, and in 1655 tried to
bring together the levellers and the royalists in a combination
to overturn the government. Compelled to fly from England,
he intrigued with the Spanish government with a view to restor-
ing Charles II., as the only feasible plan for destroying Cromwell;
and he was concerned in several plots to assassinate the pro-
tector. About 1657 he wrote the celebrated apology for tyran-
nicide entitled " Killing No Murder," under the pseudonym
William Allen, which was printed in Holland and distributed
in England. In July 1657 he was arrested in disguise in England,
whither he had come to attempt Cromwell's assassination, and
he died in the Tower of London on the i3th of January 1658.
SEXPARTITE VAULT, in architecture, a name given to the
single bay of a vault, which, in addition to the transverse and
diagonal ribs, has been divided by a second transverse rib,
forming six compartments. The principal examples are those
in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes and Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen
(which were probably the earliest examples of a construction
now looked upon as transitional), Notre Dame, Paris, and the
cathedrals of Bourges, Laon, Noyon, Senlis and Sens; from
the latter cathedral the sexpartite vault was brought by William
of Sens to Canterbury, and it is afterwards found at Lincoln
and in St Faith's Chapel, Westminster Abbey.
SEXTANT, an instrument for measuring angles on the celestial
sphere. The name (indicating that the instrument is furnished
with a graduated arc equal to a sixth part of a circle) is now only
used to designate an instrument employing reflection to measure
an angle; but originally it was introduced by Tycho Brahe,
who constructed several sextants with two sights, one on a fixed,
the other on a movable radius, which the observer pointed to the
two objects of which the angular distance was to be measured.
The imperfections of the astrolabe and cross-staff for taking
altitudes (see NAVIGATION) were so evident that the idea of
employing reflection to remove them occurred independently to
several minds. R. Hooke contrived two reflecting instruments.
The first, described in his Posthumous Works (p. 503), had only
one mirror, which reflected the light from one object into a
telescope which is pointed directly at the other. Hooke's second
plan employed two single reflections, whereby an eye placed at
the side of a quadrant could at the same time see the images
formed in two telescopes, the axes of which were radii of the
quadrant and which were pointed at the two objects to be
measured. This plan is described in Hooke's Animadversions
to the Machina Coelestis of Hevelius, published in 1674, while
the first one seems to have been communicated to the Royal
Society in 1666. Newton also studied this subject, but nothing
was known about his ideas till 1742, when a description in his
own handwriting of an instrument devised by him was found
among Halley's papers and printed in the Philosophical Trans-
actions (No. 465). It consists of a sector of brass, the arc of
which, though only equal to one-eighth part of a circle, is divided
into 90. A telescope is fixed along a radius of the sector, the
object-glass being close to the centre and having outside it a
plane mirror inclined 45 to the axis of the telescope, and inter-
cepting half the light which would otherwise fall on the object
glass. One object is seen through the telescope, while a movable
radius, carrying a second mirror close to the first, is turned round
the centre until the second object by double reflection is seen in the
telescope to coincide with the first. But before Newton's plan was
published the sextant in its present form had come into practical
use. On May 13, 1731, John Hadley described an "octant,"
employing double reflection, and a fortnight later he exhibited
the instrument. 1 On the 2oth of May Halley stated to the
Royal Society that Newton had invented an instrument founded
1 Hadley described two different constructions: in one the
telescope was fixed along a radius as in Newton's form, in the other
it was placed in the way afterwards universally adopted ; an octant
of the first construction was made in the summer of 1730, according
to a statement made to the Royal Society by Hadley's brother George
on Feb. 7, 1734.
75
SEXTANT
on the same principle, and had communicated an account of it to
the society in 1699, but on search being made in the minutes
it was only found that Newton had shown a new instrument
" for observing the moon and stars for the longitude at sea,
being the old instrument mended of some faults," but nothing
was found in the minutes concerning the principle of the construc-
tion. Halley had evidently only a dim recollection of Newton's
plan, and at a meeting of the Royal Society on December
16, 1731, he declared himself satisfied that Hadley's idea was
different from Newton's. The new instrument was tried in
August 1732 on board the " Chatham " yacht by order of the
Admiralty, and was found satisfactory, but otherwise it does
not seem to have superseded the older instruments for at least
twenty years. Hadley's instrument could only measure angles
up to 90; but in 1757 Captain Campbell of the navy, one of the
first to use it assiduously, proposed to enlarge it so as to measure
angles up to 1 20, in which form it is now generally employed.
Independently of Hadley and Newton the sextant was
invented by Thomas Godfrey (1704-1749), a poor glazier in
Philadelphia. In May 1732 James Logan wrote to Halley that
Godfrey had about eighteen months previously showed him a
common sea quadrant "to which he had fitted two pieces of
looking-glass in such a manner as brought two stars at almost
any distance to coincide." The letter gave a full description
of the instrument; the principle was the same as that of Hadley's
first octant, which had the telescope along a radius. At the
meeting of the Royal Society on January 31, 1734, two affidavits
sworn before the mayor of Philadelphia were read, proving that
Godfrey's quadrant was made about November 1730, that on
November 28 it was brought by G. Stewart, mate, on board
a sloop, the " Truman," John Cox, master, bound for Jamaica,
and that in August 1731 it was used by the same persons on a
voyage to Newfoundland. The statement that a brother of
Godfrey, a captain in the West India trade, sold the quadrant at
Jamaica to a Captain or Lieutenant Hadley of the British navy,
who brought it to London to his brother, an instrument maker
in the Strand, is devoid of foundation. 1
The figure shows the construction of the sextant. ABC is a light
framework of brass in the shape of a sector of 60, the limb AB having
a graduated arc of silver (some-
times of gold or platinum) inlaid.
It is held in the hand by a small
handle at the back, either ver-
tically to measure the altitude of
an object, or in the plane passing
through two objects the angular
distance of which is to be found.
It may also be mounted on a
stand. CD is a radius movable
round C, where a small plane
mirror of silvered plate-glass is
fixed perpendicular to the plane
of the sextant and in the line
CD. At D is a vernier read
through a microscope, also a
clamp and a tangent screw for
giving the arm CDaslow motion.
At E is another mirror " the
horizon glass," also perpendi-
cular to the plane of the sextant
and parallel to CB. F is a
small telescope fixed across CB,
parallel to the plane CAB and
pointed to the mirror E. As
Sextant. only the lower half of E is
silvered, the observer can see
the horizon in the telescope through the unsilvered half, while
the light from the sun or a stag S may be reflected from the " index
glass C to the silvered half of E and thence through F to the
observer's eye. If CD has been moved so as to make the image of a
star or of the limb of the sun coincide with that of the horizon, it is
seen that the angle SCH (the altitude of the star or solar limb) equals
twice the angle BCD. The limb AB is graduated so as to avoid
the necessity of doubling the measured angle, a space marked as a
1 See Professor Rigaud, Naut. Mag. vol. ii. No. 21. John Hadley
was a country gentleman of independent means, and the fact that he
was the first to bring the construction of reflecting telescopes to any
perfection has made many authors believe that he was a professional
instrument maker. His brother George, who assisted him, was a
barrister.
degree on the limb being in reality only 30'. The vernier preferably
of the extended type, i.e. a vernier whose divisions are twice the
distance apart of those on the arc, should point to o o' o* when
the two mirrors are parallel, or in other words, when the direct and
reflected images of a distant object coincide.
The sextant was formerly much used on land for determining
latitudes in which case an artificial horizon (see below) is required,
but it has now been largely superseded by the portable altazimuth or
theodolite, while at sea it continues to be indispensable.
The telescopes employed in sextants are of two kinds: the direct,
for the more ordinary observations; and the inverting, for astro-
nomical work, one of the eyepieces of which should be of high
magnifying power, not less than 15 diameters. Each eyepiece has
two pairs of wires, each pair perpendicular to the other, and dividing
the field of view into nine divisions, of which the central is square.
Contacts should be made as nearly as possible in the centre of this
square. It is convenient if the telescope is fitted with an interrupted
thread to screw into the collar of the up and down piece. Both
mirrors are supplied with coloured shades of different degrees of
shade, and may be used either singly or combined for sea observa-
tions ; they are subject to errors of refraction, due to non-parallelism
of the sides of the glass. Coloured eyepieces of neutral glass of
different intensities are fitted to slip on and off the conically ground
surface of the eyepieces of the telescope; they are used for index
error and for 'observations in the artificial horizon. Introducing
no refraction error, they also ensure the suns being of the same
brilliancy; a very important point. The up and down piece, when
adjusted to equalize the suns, will bring the axis of the telescope nearly
exactly in line with the edge of the silvered surface of the horizon
glass, which is the best position for observing, and from this it must
never be moved until the equal altitude or other observations are
complete.
For observations on shore the sextant should be mounted on a
stand. In an improved form of stand, the bearing which carries the
sextant is square, and the whole bearing revolving on a centre is
controlled by a clamp and tangent screw. The counterpoise should
exactly balance the sextant, and they may be fitted to allow for
adjustment. A small spirit-level fixed on one of the arms of the
sextant stand, and another level pivoting round the pillar on the
index bar of the sextant carrying the microscope, working in a plane
parallel to that of the instrument, and fixed by means of a set screw,
are of use in placing the sextant exactly in the required position when
observing faint stars. With the telescope pointing to the centre of
the artificial horizon, the direct and reflected images of the sun at
any convenient altitude are made to coincide. The levels are then
adjusted and permanently fixed by their set screws. To observe a
faint star, it is only necessary to set its double altitude on the
sextant, turn the instrument and the stand to bring the bubbles of
their respective levels in the centre of their runs, and move the stand
until the telescope points to the centre of the artificial horizon and in
the direction of the star, when the direct and reflected images will be
seen in the field. A small electric light fitted on the arm carrying the
microscope, and worked by a dry battery, enables the sextant to be
read at night.
The artificial horizon in common use consists of a glass trough con-
taining mercury and protected from the wind by a glass roof. The
glass in the roof should be of the best quality, and the faces of each
pane of the trough accurately parallel. A new form of horizon
consists of a shallow rectangular trough of metal gilt. After cleansing
the surface by wetting it with a few drops of dilute sulphuric aci<
a drop of mercury is rubbed on until the whole surface is bright,
when a very small quantity of amalgamated mercury added will
form an even horizontal surface. The dross is wiped off with a
broad camel-hair brush. In this shallow trough waves are killed
almost instantaneously.
The horizon is placed upon a stand, consisting of two iron plates,
the upper resting on the lower, supported by three long large-headed
screws, by means of which it can be levelled. If the stand is raised
off the ground a foot or so, on a firm foundation, thus bringing the
artificial horizon closer to the telescope, faint stars are more easily
observed, and the movement of the sextant necessary to keep the
star in the field, owing to its motion in the heavens, will be lessened.
A lantern placed on the ground behind, or a little on one side of, the
observer, and faintly snowing on the artificial horizon, will suffi-
ciently illuminate the wires of the telescope on a dark night.
Adjustments. The planes of both the index glass and the horizon
glass should be perpendicular to the plane of the instrument, and
they should also be parallel to one another when the vernier is set
to zero. The line of collimation of the telescope must be parallel to
the plane of the sextant. This adjustment, though less liable to
alter than either of the others, should be examined from time to
time as follows: With the sextant mounted on a stand, move the
index so as to separate the direct and reflected images of a star by
a distance nearly equal to the length of the parallel wires of the
telescope, and turn the eyepiece until, the direct image of the star
coinciding with one extremity of the wire, the reflected image
coincides with the other extremity; the wires will then be parallel to
the plane of the sextant. Select two bright stars and make a coin-
cidence of the reflected and direct images on the middle of one wire,
and then on the middle of the other. If the two readings agree, the
SEXTON SEYCHELLES
adjustment is correct; if not, the adjusting screws in the collar of the
up and down piece must be moved until the coincidence is exact.
" Centring error " is very important, but cannot be corrected. In
an indifferent instrument it may be sufficient to vitiate the result of
any observations on one side only of the zenith. It arises from the
eccentricity of the centres of the index arm and of the arc, and varies
with the angle measured, being generally greater as the angle in-
creases; but the index arm becoming bent, or any part of the frame
receiving a blow which alters its shape, the flexure of the instrument
from varying temperature, and defective graduation, will all produce
errors which it is generally impossible to disentangle, and they are
all included in the one correction for centring. This correction is
found by comparing the angle measured by the sextant (corrected
for index error) with fhe true angle. The most accurate method,
because it employs a large number of observations for the same or
nearly the same angle, is by observations of pairs of circum-meridian
stars in the artificial horizon at various altitudes. Double the
difference between the resulting latitude by each star and the mean
latitude will be the centring error for an angle equal to the double
altitude of that star, that is, the angle actually measured by the
sextant, index error being ascertained and applied before working
out. Measurement of the angles between stars, compared with their
calculated apparent distance, is another method. At Kew Observa-
tory (National Physical Laboratory) the centring error is determined
for certain angles by fixed collimators. Including, as it does, errors
from so many causes, the correction does not remain perfectly steady,
and it should be ascertained from time to time. In a good sextant
the error should not-exceed one minute over the whole of the arc.
SEXTON (an early corruption of " sacristan," properly the
keeper of sacred vessels and vestments, Med. Lat. sacristanus or
sacrista), a minor officer of an ecclesiastical parish. In the early
church the sexton was identical with the ostiarius, or door-keeper,
whose duty it was to open and shut the church at certain hours,
guard the church and all it contained, and prevent the heathen
and excommunicated from entering. The duties of the modern
sexton are practically those of the ancient sacristan. He has the
custody of the church keys, is responsible for keeping the church
cjean, for the bell-ringing and lighting, and looks after the vest-
ments and instrumenta of the church, but the duties may vary
by custom in different parishes. Where his duties are confined
to the care of the vestments and instrumenta the right of appoint-
ment of a sexton lies in the churchwardens; if his duties are
confined to the churchyard the right of appointment is in the
incumbent, and where his duties extend to both the right of
appointment is jointly in the churchwardens and the incumbent.
By custom, however, he may be appointed by the parishioners.
He usually has a freehold in his office, and in some parishes is
entitled to certain customary fees.
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS (2nd^and 3rd centuries A.D.), physician
and philosopher, lived at Alexandria and at Athens. In his
medical work he belonged to the " methodical " school (see
ASCLEPIADES), as a philosopher, he is the greatest of the later
Greek Sceptics. His claim to eminence rests on the facts that he
developed and formulated the doctrines of the older Sceptics,
and that he handed down a full and, on the whole, an impartial
account of the members of his school. His works are two, the
Pyrrhonian Hypotyposes and Against the Mathematici (ed.
Fabricius, Paris, 1621, and Bekker, Berlin, 1842).
See Brochard, Les Sceptiques grecs (1887); Pappenheim, Lebens-
verhdltnisse des Sextus Empiricus (Berlin, 1875); Jourdain, Sextus
Empiricus (Paris, 1858); Patrick, Sextus Empiricus and the Greek
Sceptics (1899, with trans, of Pyrrn. Hyp. i.); also SCEPTI-
CISM.
SEYCHELLES, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, consisting
of forty-five islands besides a number of rocks or islets
situated between 3 38' and 5 45' S., and 52 55' and
53 50' E. Together with the Amirantes, Cosmoledo, Aldabra
and other islands they form the British colony of Seychelles.
The outlying islands lie south-west of the Seychelles group and
between that archipelago and Madagascar. In all ninety islands
with a total area of over 156 sq. m. are under the Seychelles
government. There are in addition 40,000 to S ) 000 S Q- m - f
coral banks within the bounds of the colony.
The Seychelles lie, with two exceptions, towards the centre
of a large submarine bank and are all within the 50 fathoms line.
Mahe, the largest and most central island, is 934 m. N.N.W. of
Mauritius, 970 m. E. by N. of Zanzibar and 6po m. N.E. of the
northernmost point of Madagascar. The other chief islands form
two principal groups: (i.) Praslin, 26 m. N.N.E. of Mahe, and the-
adjacent smaller islands of La Digue, Felicite, East Silver, West
Silver, Curieuse and Aride; (ii.) Silhouette, 14 m. W. by N. of
Mahe, and North Island. The most easterly island is Frigate,
the most southerly Platte; on the northern edge of the reef
are Bird and Denis islands. The general aspect of the islands
is one of great beauty and fertility, and in the opinion of
General C. G. Gordon they formed the Garden of Eden.
Mahe is 17 m. long, and from 4 to 7 broad and of highly
irregular shape, with an area of about 55 sq. m. There are small
areas of lowlands, chiefly at the mouths of the river valleys,
but most of the island is mountainous, and in general the hills
rise abruptly from the sea. There are ten heights between
1000 and 2000 ft., and seven over 2000 ft. The highest point
is Morne Seychellois, 2993 ft.; next comes Trois Freres, 2390 ft.
Both these mountains are in the northern half of the island. The
main ridge runs north and south along the line of the greatest
diameter, and from the heights descend many torrents, the whole
island being well watered. The principal harbour, Port Victoria,
is on the north-east coast in 4 37' S., 55 27' E. It is approached
by a deep channel through the coral reef which fringes the entire
eastern side of the island. Of the small islands close to Mahe
the chief are St Anne and Cerf, off the east, and Conception and
Therese off the west coast.
Praslin Island is 8 m. long and from i to 3 m. broad, has an
area of about 27 sq. m. and its highest point is 1260 ft.; La
Digue covers 4 sq. m. and its greatest height is 1175 ft. : Silhouette
is roughly circular in shape, covers 8 sq. m. and culminates in
Mon Plaisir, 2473 ft. None of the other islands exceeds ij sq. m.
Geology. Except Bird and Denis islands, which are of coralline
limestone, the Seychelles are of granite, with in places fringing reefs
of coral based on granite foundations. The granite is of the same
formation or closely related to that of Madagascar and throughout
the islands is closely uniform in its composition, but exhibits dikes of
finer grain. The rocks are deeply furrowed and cut into ridges,
evidence of the long period over which they have been subjected
to atmospheric influences. There is no sign of marine action over
four-fifths of the islands, which nowhere exhibit any trace of volcanic
action, recent or remote. The islands are regarded as a remnant of
the continental land which in remote geological ages united South
Africa and India. J. Stanley Gardiner supposes that when first cut
off the Seychelles were the size of the present bank about 12,000
sq. m. This cutting off was caused largely by subsidence, though
partly by marine action. The subsequent dwindling of the 12,000
sq. m. to 156 divided into many small islands is attributed to marine
action which had its chief force in the Eocene and Miocene periods.
(Cf. " The Indian Ocean," Geo. Journ. vol. xxviii., 1906).
Climate. The climate is healthy and equable, and for a tropical
country the temperature is moderate. It varies on the coast from
about 68 to 88 F., falling at night in the higher regions to 60 or
55 F. The mean coast temperature slightly exceeds 79 F. The
south-east monsoon blows from May to October, which is the dry
season, and the west-north-west monsoon from December to March.
During April and November the winds are variable. The average
annual rainfall on the coast is 100-8 in. ; it increases to about 120 in.
at a height of 6op ft. and at heights exceeding 2000 ft. is about 150 in.
The Seychelles lie outside the track of the hurricanes which occasion-
ally devastate Reunion and Mauritius and are also immune from
earthquakes. The public health is good, and fevers and plague are
unknown.
Flora and Fauna. Both flora and fauna include species and genera
peculiar to the Seychelles. Of these the best known is the Lodoicea
sechettarum, a palm tree indigenous only in Praslin Island but
since introduced into Curieuse noted for its fruit, the so-called
Maldive double coco-nut or coco de mer. The nut was long known
only from sea-borne specimens cast up on the Maldive and other
coasts, was thought to grow on a submarine palm, and, being
esteemed a sovereign antidote to poisons (Lusiad, x. 136), commanded
exorbitant prices in the East. This palm will grow to a height of
iooft., and shows enormous fern-like leaves. Another tree found
only in the islands is the capucin (Northea sechellarum), whose massive
dead trunks are a striking feature in the landscape. This tree has
almost completely fallen a victim to the ravages of a green beetle,
probably introduced from Mauritius. The islands were formerly
densely wooded, but only patches of forest remain. The central
mountain zone of Mah6 was in 1909 acquired by the government for
reafforestation purposes. This zone also included one of the last
remaining portions of indigenous forest. The forests of the coast
belt resembled those of the coral islands of the neighbouring parts of
the Indian Ocean. Characteristic of this region are the mangrove
and Pandanus, and, a little inland, the banyan (Ficus), Pisonia and
Hernandia. The coco-nut, now a conspicuous feature of the coast
752
SEYCHELLES
flora, is probably not indigenous. The forests of the granitic land,
of which typical patches remain, had the characteristics of a tropical
moist region, palms, shrubs, climbing and tree ferns growing luxuri-
antly, the trees on the mountain sides, such as the Pandanus sechel-
larum sending down roots over the rocks and boulders from 70 to
loo ft. Of timber trees the bois gayac has disappeared, but bois de
fer (Stadtmannia sideroxylon) and bois de natte (Maba sechellamm)
still flourish on Silhouette Island. Besides the cutting down for
building purposes of the timber trees the jungle was largely cleared
for the plantation of vawilla; while a multitude of other tropical
plants have been introduced tending to the extermination of the
indigenous flora. The most important of the trees introduced since
1900 are various kinds of rubber, including Para (Hevea Brasiliensis) ,
which grows well. For other introduced plants see below, Industries.
The indigenous fauna, so far as its limited range affords comparison,
resembles that of Madagascar. It is deficient in mammals, of which
the only varieties are the rat and bat. The dugong, which formerly
frequented the waters of the islands, does so no longer. The reptiles
include certain lizards and snakes; the crocodile, once common, has
been exterminated. Land tortoises have also disappeared, 1 but one
freshwater species (Sternothaerus sinuatus) is still found; and the
adjacent seas contain many turtles. Three coecilians, three baU-a-
chians (including a mountain-frequenting frog) and three fresh-water
crustaceans are also indigenous, and about twenty-six species of
land shells. The islands are the home of a large number of birds,
including terns, gannets and white egrets, though most of the in-
digenous species are extinct. The neighbouring seas abound in fish.
Among the domestic animals introduced are the ass and pig.
Inhabitants. Like Mauritius, RSunion and Rodriguez the
Seychelles were uninhabited when first visited by Europeans;
though fragments of ruins found on Praslin and Frigate islands
may indicate the presence of man in earlier centuries. The
islands were colonized by Mauritian and Bourbon Creoles; the
white element, still prevailingly French, has been strengthened
by the settlement of several British families. The first planters
introduced slaves from Mauritius, and the negro element has been
increased by the introduction of freed slaves from East Africa.
There has been also an immigration of Chinese and, in larger
numbers, of Indians (mainly from the Malabar coast). An
official report issued in 1910 stated that the greater part of the
valuable town property had passed into the hands of Indians,
and that Indians and Chinese had the bulk of the retail trade.
Of the coloured population those born in the Seychelles of
negro, or negro-Indian blood are known as " enfanls des ties."
They speak a rude Creole patois, based on French but with a
large admixture of Indian, Bantu and English words. The
Seychellois are of fine physique, and are excellent and fearless
sailors.
At the census of 1881 the inhabitants numbered 14,081, in
1891 the figure was 16,603 and in 1901 the population numbered
19,237, of whom 9805 were males and 9432 females. The popula-
tion on December 3ist, 1009, was officially estimated at 22,409,
or 149-59 persons per sq. m. The pure white population is about
600. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Roman Catholics.
Agriculture and Industries. Apart from fisheries the wealth of the
islands depends upon agriculture, and the industries connected there-
with. These are fostered by the government, which in 1901 created
an agricultural board and established a botanic station at Victoria.
Spices (cloves, cinnamon, nutmegs) were the chief articles of trade in
the l8th century, and these with cotton, coffee, tobacco, sugar, maize
and rice were the main crops grown until about 1850. Bananas, yams,
&c., were also largely cultivated, and there was considerable trade in
coco-nut oil, timber, fish and fish oil and tortoise-shell, whaling being
carried on, chiefly by Americans and French, in the neighbouring
seas. Subsequently cocoa was cultivated extensively, and from
about 1890 vanilla largely superseded the other crops; in 1899 the
vanilla exported was valued at over 100,000 out of a total export of
140,000, and from 1896 to 1903 the crop represented more than half
the total value of the exports. Owing to increased competition, and
in some degree to careless harvesting, there was a great fall in prices
after 1900, and the Seychellois, though still producing vanilla in
large quantities, paid greater attention to the products of the coco-
nut palm copra, soap, coco-nut oil and coco-nuts to the develop-
ment of the mangrove bark industry, the collection of guano, the
cultivation of rubber trees, the preparation of banana flour, the
growing of sugar canes, and the distillation of rum and essential
oils. The tortoise-shell and calipee fisheries and the export of salt
fish are important industries. Minor exports are cocoa, coco-de-mer
and beche-de-mer. From the leaves of the coco-de-mer are made
baskets and hats.
The gigantic land tortoise (Testudo elephantina) is found only in
the Aldabra Islands.
The imports consist chiefly of cotton goods and hardware from
Great Britain; rice, flour and cotton from India, sugar and rum from
Mauritius, coffee from Aden, wines and spirits and clothing from
France. The value of the imports and exports (exclusive of specie)
for the six years 1901-1906 was: imports, 360,520; exports,
377.613. The increase of trade is indicated by the figures for 1907
(a record year) to 1909. In the three years the value of imports was
233,863, that of exports 355,306. Over 75% of the total trade is
with Great Britain or British possessions. The medium of exchange
is the Indian rupee ( = i6d.), with the subsidiary coinage of Mauritius.
Towns and Communications. The only town of any size is the
capital, Port Victoria (or Mah6), picturesquely situated at the head
of an excellent harbour. Many of the houses are built of massive
coral, Parties gaimardi, hewn into square building blocks which at a
distance glisten like white marble. The port is a coaling station of
the British navy and is connected by telegraphic cables with Zanzibar
and Mauritius. There is no inland telegraph system. All the islands
are well provided with metalled roads. Regular monthly com-
munication with Marseilles is maintained by the Messageries Mari-
times steamers. German and British lines serve the South African
and Indian ports. The government employ steam vessels for pas-
senger and mail services between the islands, and there are large
numbers of sailing craft belonging to the islanders.
Government, Revenue, &*c. Seychelles is a crown colony
administered by a governor, assisted by nominated executive
and legislative councils. Revenue is derived chiefly from
customs, licences, court fees and the post office, while among the
principal heads of expenditure figure telegraph and steamer
subsidies and the education, medical, legal and police depart-
ments. For the ten years 1890-1908 the average yearly revenue
was 28,726; the average yearly expenditure 27,304. A public
debt of 20,000, repayable in thirty annual instalments, was
contracted in 1899. The law in force is based on the Code
Napoleon, considerably modified, however, by local ordinances.
The simplification and codification of the laws was carried
out during 1899-1904 (see the Colonial Office annual reports,
especially that for 1903, 37). Education is under the control,
of a government board and, besides primary schools, there are
institutions for higher education and a Carnegie Library. Grants
are made to schools of all denominations. The Creole patois is
unsuited to be a medium of instruction, and English is used as
far as possible, though its acquisition by the peasantry is that of a
foreign language. The same difficulty, to an almost equal degree,
would apply to the use of French as a medium.
History. The Seychelles are marked on Portuguese charts
dated 1 502. The first recorded visit to the islands was made in
1609 by an English ship; then for 133 years there is no docu-
mentary evidence of any further visit. The second recorded
visit, in 1 742, was made by Captain Lazare Picault, who, returning
two years later, formally annexed the islands to France. Though
then uninhabited there is a strong tradition, probably well
founded, that the Seychelles had been from Arab times a rendez-
vous of the pirates and corsairs who infested the high seas between
South Africa and India. Picault, who acted as agent of the
celebrated Mah6 de la Bourdonnais, governor of the lie de
France (Mauritius), named the principal island Mah6 and the
group lies de la Bourdonnais, a style changed in 1756, when
the islands were renamed after Moreau de Sechelles, at that time
contr61eur des finances under Louis XV. The first permanent
settlement was made about 1768, when the town of Mah6 was
founded. Soon afterwards Pierre Poivre, intendant of lie de
France, seeing the freedom of the Seychelles archipelago from
hurricanes, caused spice plantations to be made there, with the
object of wresting from the Dutch the monopoly they then
enjoyed of the spice trade. The existence of these plantations
was kept secret, and it was with that object that they were
destroyed by fire by the French on the appearance in the harbour
in 1778 of a vessel flying the British flag. The ship, however,
proved to be a French slaver who had hoisted the Union
Jack fearing to find the British in possession. Mah6 proved very
useful to French ships during the wars of the Revolution, and
this led to its capture by the British in 1794, but no troops were
left to garrison the place, and the administration went on as
before. In 1806 the island capitulated to the captain of another
British ship, but again no garrison was left, and it was not until
after the capture of Mauritius in 1810 that the Seychelles were
SEYDLITZ SEYMOUR (FAMILY)
753
occupied by the British, to whom they were ceded by the treaty
of Paris in 1814. Throughout this period Mons. J. B. Queau
de Quincy (1748-1827) administered the islands. This remark-
able man, a Parisian by birth, became governor of the Seychelles
in 1789 under the monarchy, continued to serve under the First
Republic, and Napoleon I., acknowledging the British authority
when ships of that nationality entered the harbour, and when
the Seychelles were made a dependency of Mauritius was
appointed by the British agent-civil. In all he governed the
islands thirty-eight years, dying in 1827. His tomb is in Govern-
ment House garden. Under de Quincy's administration the
islands prospered; the cultivation of cotton and coffee was then
begun, much of the land being deforested for this purpose a
deforestation practically completed when vanilla was introduced.
In 1834 the aboli tion of slavery led to a decline in the prosperity
of the islands, but as many of the slaves captured by British
cruisers off the east coast of Africa were landed at Seychelles
economic conditions were gradually ameliorated. There was
also a slight immigration of coolies from India. From 1810
until 1872 the administration was dependent upon Mauritius;
from that date onward greater powers were given to the local
authorities, until in 1903 Seychelles was erected into a separate
colony with its own governor. The over-dependence placed on
one product caused waves of depression to alternate with waves
of prosperity, and the depression following the fall in the price
of vanilla was aggravated by periods of drought, " agricultural
sloth and careless extravagance." 1 But during 1905-1910
successful efforts were made to broaden the economic resources
of the colony. A natural field for the energies of the surplus
population was also found in colonization work in British East
Africa. The islands were chosen in 1897 as the place of deporta-
tion of Prempeh, ex-king of Ashanti, and in 1901 Mwanga,
ex-king of Uganda, and Kabarega, ex-king of Unyoro were also
deported thither. Mwanga died at the Seychelles in May 1903.
Dependencies. The outlying islands forming part of the colony of
Seychelles consist of several widely scattered groups and have a
total population of about 900. The Amirante archipelago is situated
on a submarine bank west and south-west of the Seychelles, the
nearest island being about 120 m. from Mah6. The archipelago
consists of a number of coral islets and atolls comprising the African
Islands (4), the St Joseph group (8), the Poivre Islands (9) and the
Alphonso group (3). Farther south and within 170 m. of Mada-
gascar is the Providence group (3) formed by the piling up of sand
on a surface reef of crescent shape. The Cosmoledo Islands, 12 in
number, lie some 210 m. west of Providence Island, while 70 m.
further west are the Aldabra Islands (q.v.). The chief island in the
Cosmoledo group is 9 m. long by 6 broad. Coetivy (transferred from
Mauritius to the Seychelles in 1908) lies about loom. S.S.E. of Platte.
The majority of the outlying islands are extremely fertile, coco-nut
trees and maize growing luxuriantly. Several of the islands contain
valuable deposits of guano and phosphate of lime, and their waters
are frequented by edible and shell turtle. Like the Amirantes all the
other islands named are of coral formation.
See Unpublished Documents on the History of the Seychelles Islands
Anterior to 1810, with a cartography and a bibliography compiled by
A. A. Fauvel (Mahe', 1909); Ancient Maps of Seychelles Archipelago,
a portfolio containing 28 maps (Mah6, 1909); J. Stanley Gardiner,
" The Seychelles Archipelago " (with bibliographical notes), in Ceo.
Jnl. vol. 29 (1907) and " The Indian Ocean," Geo. Jnl. vol. 28
(1906). See also the annual reports on the Seychelles issued by the
Colonial Office; those from 1901 onward contain valuable botanical
reports. For the dependencies see R. Dupont, Report on a Visit of
Investigation to St Pierre, A stove, Cosmoledo, Assumption and the
Aldabra Group of the Seychelles Islands (Seychelles, 1907).
SEYDLITZ, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, FREIHERR VON (1721-
!773). Prussian soldier, one of the greatest cavalry generals
of history, was born on the 3rd of February 1721 at Calcar in
Cleve duchy, where his father, a major of Prussian cavalry, was
stationed. After his father's death in 1728 he was brought up in
straitened circumstances by his mother, but at the age of thirteen
he went as a page to the court of the margrave of Schwedt,
who had been his father's colonel. Here he acquired a superb
mastery of horsemanship, and many stories are told of his feats,
the best known of which was his riding between the sails of a
wind-mill in full swing. In 1740 he was commissioned a cornet
in the margrave's regiment of Prussian cuirassiers. Serving as a
1 Colonial Reports . . . Seychelles (1907).
subaltern in the first Silesian War, he was taken prisoner in May
1742 after so gallant a defence that King Frederick offered to
exchange an Austrian captain for him. In 1743 the king made
him a captain in the 4th Hussars, and he brought his squadron to
a state of conspicuous efficiency. He served through the second
war, and after Hohenfriedberg was promoted major at the age of
twenty-four. At the close of the war he had an opportunity
of successfully handling 15 squadrons in front of the enemy, and
this, with other displays of his capacity of leading cavalry in the
searching tests of Frederick's " reviews," secured his promotion
in 1752 to the rank of lieutenant-colonel and in 1753 to the
command of the 8th cuirassiers. Under his hands this regiment
soon became a pattern to the rest of the army. In 1755 he was
made colonel. Next year the Seven Years' War, that was to
make his name immortal, broke out. In 1757, regardless of the
custom of keeping back the heavy cavalry in reserve, he took his
regiment to join the advanced guard, at Prague he nearly lost
his life in attempting to ride through a marshy pool, and at
Kolin, at the head of a cavalry brigade, he distinguished himself
in checking the Austrian pursuit by a brilliant charge. Two days
later the king made him major-general and gave him the order
pour le mirite, which promotion he felt to be no more than his
deserts, for to Zieten's congratulations he responded: " It was
high time, Excellency, if they wanted more work out of me. I
am already thirty-six." Four times in the dismal weeks that
followed the disaster of Kolin, Seydlitz asserted his energy and
spirit in cavalry encounters, and on the morning of Rossbach
Frederick, superseding two senior generals, placed Seydlitz in
command of the whole of his cavalry. The result of the battle
was the complete rout and disorganization of the enemy, and
in achieving that result only seven battalions of Frederick's
army had fired a shot. The rest was the work of Seydlitz and his
38 squadrons. The same night the king gave him the order of the
Black Eagle, and promoted him lieutenant-general. But he had
received a wound in the melee, and for some months he was
away from the army. He rejoined the king in 1758, and at the
battle of Zorndorf Seydlitz's cavalry again saved the day and
won the victory. At Hochkirch with 108 squadrons he covered
the Prussian retreat, and in the great disaster of Kunersdorf he
was severely wounded in a hopeless attempt to storm a hill
held by the Russians. During his convalescence he married
Countess Albertine Hacke. He rejoined the army in May 1760,
but his health was so impaired that Frederick sent him home
again. It was not until 1761 that he reappeared at the front.
He now commanded a wing of Prince Henry's army, composed
of troops of all arms, and many doubts were expressed as to his
fitness for this command, as his service had hitherto been with
the cavalry exclusively. But he answered his critics by his con-
duct at the battle of Freyburg (October 29, 1762), in which,
leading his infantry and his cavalry in turn, he decided the day.
After the peace of Hubertusburg he was made inspector-general
of the cavalry in Silesia, where eleven regiments were permanently
stationed and whither Frederick sent all his most promising
officers to be trained by him. In 1767 he was made a general of
cavalry. But his later years were clouded by domestic un-
happiness. His wife was unfaithful to him, and-his two daughters,
each several times married, were both divorced, the elder once
and the younger twice. His formerly close friendship with the
king was brought to an end by some misunderstanding, and it
was only in his last illness, and a few weeks before his death,
that they met again. Seydlitz died of paralysis at Ohlau on the
27th of August 1773.
See Varnhagen von Ense, Das Leben des Generals von Seydlitz
(Berlin, 1834); and Bismarck, Die kgl. preussische Reiterei tmter
Friedrich dem Grossen (Karlsruhe, 1837).
SEYMOUR, or ST MAUR, the name of an English family in
which several titles of nobility have from time to time been
created, and of which the duke of Somerset is the head. The
family was settled in Monmouthshire in the I3th century. The
original form of the name, which has been resumed by the dukes
of Somerset since 1863, seems to have been St Maur, of which
Camden says that Seymour was a later corruption. It appears
754
that about the year 1240 Gilbert Marshal, earl of Pembroke,
assisted William St Maur to wrest a place called Woundy, near
Caldecot in Monmouthshire, from the Welsh. Woundy and
Penhow, at the latter of which he made his residence, were the
property of Sir Richard St Maur at the end of the I3th century,
but they passed away from the family through the marriage of
Sir Richard's great-great-granddaughter, the only child of John St
Maur, who died in 1359. John St Maur's younger brother Roger
married Cecily, one of the daughters and co-heiresses of John
Beauchamp of Hache, Baron Beauchamp de Somerset (d. 1361),
who brought to her husband the greater part of her father's
extensive estates in Somersetshire, Devonshire, Buckingham-
shire and Suffolk. The eldest son of this marriage was Sir
William St Maur, or Seymour (for the later form of the name
appears to have come into use about this date), who was an
attendant on the Black Prince, and who died in his mother's
lifetime, leaving a son Roger, who inherited the estates and added
to them by his marriage with Maud, daughter of Sir William
Esturmi of Wolf Hall, Wiltshire. During the next three or four
generations the wealth and importance of the Seymours in the
western counties increased, until in the reigns of Henry VII. and
Henry VIII. Sir John Seymour of Wolf Hall became a personage
of note in public affairs. He took an active part in suppressing
the Cornish rebellion in 1497; and afterwards attended Henry
at the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and on the occasion of the
emperor Charles V.'s visit to England in 1522. The eldest of his
ten children was Edward Seymour, ist duke of Somerset (q.v.),
the famous Protector in the reign of Edward VI.; his third son
was Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley (q.v.); and
his eldest daughter Jane was third wife of King Henry VIII.,
and mother of Edward VI. The Protector was twice married;
and, probably owing to the adultery of his first wife whom he
repudiated about 1535, his titles and estates were entailed first
on the issue of his second marriage with Anne, daughter of Sir
Edward Stanhope. (See SOMERSET, EARLS AND DUKES OF.)
The Protector's eldest surviving son by his first marriage, Sir
Edward Seymour (d. 1593), knight, of Berry Pomeroy, Devon,
was father of Sir Edward Seymour (d. 1613) who was created a
baronet in 1611; and the baronetcy then descended for six
generations from father to son, all of whom were named Edward,
until in 1750, on the failure of heirs of the Protector by his second
marriage, Sir Edward Seymour, 6th baronet of Berry Pomeroy,
succeeded to the dukedom of Somerset. The 3rd baronet, in
whose time the family seat at Berry Pomeroy was plundered
and burnt by the Roundheads, had a younger brother Henry
(1612-1686), who was a close personal attendant of Prince Charles
during the Civil War, and bore the prince's last message to his
father, Charles.1., before the latter's execution. Henry Seymour
continued his service to Charles II. in exile, and at the Restoration
he received several valuable offices from the king. In 1669 he
bought the estate ofJLangley in Buckinghamshire, where he lived
till his death in 1686. In 1681 his son Henry, at the age of seven
years, was created a baronet.
Sir Edward Seymour, 4th baronet (1633-1708), speaker of the
House of Commons, was elected member of parliament for
Gloucester in 1661, and his influence at Court together with his
natural abilities procured for him a position of weight in the
House of Commons. He was appointed to the lucrative post of
treasurer of the navy; and in 1667 he moved the impeachment
of Lord Clarendon, which he carried to the House of Lords. In
1672 he was elected speaker, an office which "he filled with
distinction until 1679, when, having been unanimously re-elected
to the Chair, the king refused to confirm the choice of the
Commons. On the accession of James II., Seymour courageously
opposed the arbitrary measures of the Crown; and at the
revolution he adhered to the Prince of Orange. In 1691 he
became a lord of the treasury, but losing his place three years
later he took an active part in the tory opposition to William's
whig ministers; and in later years he was not less hostile to
those of Queen Anne, but owing to the ascendancy of Marlborough
he lost all influence for some time before his death, which took
place in 1708. Seymour was not less arrogant than his relative
SEYMOUR (FAMILY)
" the Proud Duke " of Somerset; but he was described by
Burnet as " the ablest man of his party, the first speaker of the
House of Commons that was not bred to the law; a graceful
man, bold and quick, and of high birth." Sir Edward Seymour
was twice married. By his first wife he had two sons, Edward,
5th baronet, whose son Edward became the 8th duke of Somerset,
and William, who became a lieu tenant-general; by his second
wife, a daughter of Alexander Popham of Littlecote, he had six
sons, the eldest of whom, Popham, on succeeding to the estates of
his mother's cousin, Edward, earl of Conway, assumed the name
of Conway in addition to that of Seymour. Popham was killed in
a duel with Colonel Kirk in 1669, and his estates devolved on
his next brother, Francis, who likewise assumed the name of
Conway, and having been created Baron Conway in 1 703 was the
father of Francis Seymour Conway (1710-1794), created marquess
of Hertford in 1793, and of field-marshal Henry Seymour
Conway (q.v.). (See HERTFORD, EARLS AND MARQUESSES OF.)
The eldest son of the Protector's second marriage, Edward
Seymour (1537-1621), was relieved by act of parliament in the
reign of Queen Mary from the attainder passed on his father in
1551, and was created Baron Beauchamp and earl of Hertford
in 1559. In 1560 he secretly married Lady Catherine Grey,
second daughter of Henry Grey, duke of Suffolk, and sister of
Lady Jane Grey, claimant of the crown as great-granddaughter
of Henry VII., on whose death Catherine stood next in succession
to the throne after Queen Elizabeth under the will of Henry
VIII. On this account both parties to the marriage incurred
the displeasure of Queen Elizabeth; they were imprisoned in
the Tower of London, and the fact of their marriage, together
with the legitimacy of their two sons, was denied. The eldest,
of these sons was Edward Seymour (1561-1612), styled Lord
Beauchamp notwithstanding the question as to his legitimacy,
who in 1608 obtained a patent declaring that after his father's
death he should become earl of Hertford. He, however, died
before his father, leaving three sons, one of whom, William,
became 2nd duke of Somerset; and another, Francis, was
created Baron Seymour of Trowbridge in 1641. The latter had
at first taken an active part in the opposition in the House of
Commons to the government of Charles I., having been elected
member for Wiltshire in 1620. He represented the same con-
stituency in both the Short and the Long Parliaments; and he
refused to pay ship money in 1639. When, however, the popular
party proceeded to more extreme measures, Francis Seymour
refused his support, and was rewarded by being raised to the
peerage; he voted in the House of Lords against the attainder
of Strafford, and in 1642 he joined Charles at York and fought
on the royalist side throughout the Great Rebellion. He died
in 1664. His grandson Francis, 3rd baron, succeeded to the
dukedom of Somerset in 1675; and on the death of his nephew
Algernon, 7th duke of Somerset, in 1750, the male line of the
Protector by his second marriage became extinct, and the
dukedom reverted to the elder line, the 6th baronet of Berry
Pomeroy becoming 8th duke of Somerset.
Henry Seymour (1720-1805), a son of the 8th duke of Somerset's
brother Francis, was elected to the House of Commons in 1763; in
1778 he went to France, and fixing his residence at Prunay, near
Versailles, he became the lover of Madame du Barry, many of whose
letters to him are preserved in Paris. He was twice married, and in
addition to children by both wives he left an illegitimate daughter,
Henriette Ffelicite, who married Sir James Doughty-Tichborne, by
whom she was the mother of Sir Roger Tichborne, impersonated in
1871 by the famous impostor Arthur Orton.
Lord Hugh Seymour (1759-1801), a younger son of Francis
Seymour-Conway, marquess of Hertford, was a distinguished naval
officer who saw much active service especially under Lord Howe, in
whose famous action on the 1st of June 1794 he took a conspicuous
part. His son Sir George Francis Seymour (17871870), admiral of
the fleet, began his naval career by serving under Nelson; in 1818
lie became Sergeant-at-arms in the House of Lords, a post which he
retained till 1841, when he was promoted to the rank of rear-admiral
ind appointed a lord cf the admiralty ; his eldest son, Francis George
Hugh Seymour (1812-1884), succeeded his cousin Richard Seymour-
Conway as sth marquess of Hertford in 1870. Lord Hugh Seymour's
younger son, Sir Horace Beauchamp Seymour, was the father of
Frederick Beauchamp Paget Seymour, Baron Alcester (q.v.).
A younger branch of the great house of Seymour is said to have
SEYMOUR, H. SEYMOUR OF SUDELEY
755
settled in Ireland in the reign of Elizabeth, from which Sir Michae
Seymour (1768-1834) claimed descent. Sir Michael, like so many ol
his name, was an officer in the navy, in which he rendered much
distinguished service in the last decade of the i8th century. He lost
an arm in Howe's action on the 1st of June 1794; and between 1796
and 1810 as commander of the " Spitfire," and afterwards of the
" Amethyst," he captured a great number of prizes from the French
in the Channel. Seymour became a rear-admiral in 1832, and died
two years later while in chief command on the South American
station. His son, Sir Michael Seymour (1802-1887), entered the
navy in 1813, and attained the rank of rear-admiral in 1854, in which
year he served under Sir Charles Napier in the Baltic during the war
with Russia. In 1856 he was in command of the China station, and
conducted the operations arising out of the affair of the lorcha
" Arrow "; he destroyed the Chinese fleet in June 1857, took Canton
in December, and in 1858 he captured the forts on the Pei-ho, com-
pelling the Chinese government to consent to the treaty of Tientsing.
In 1864 he was promoted to the rank of admiral.
AUTHORITIES. The Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine, vol. xv. ;
William Camden, Britannia, English translation, edited by Richard
Gough (4 vols., London, 1806); Arthur Collins, Peerage of England
(8 vols., London, 1 779) ; G. E. C., Complete Peerage, sub. " Somerset,"
"Seymour of Trowbridge," and "Hertford" (London, 1896);
Burke's Peerage, sub. " Somerset," Dictionary of National Biography,
sub. " Seymour," vol. li. (London, 1897).
SEYMOUR, HORATIO (1810-1886), American statesman,
was born at Pompey, Onondaga county, New York, on the 3ist
of May 1810. His ancestor, Richard Seymour, a Protestant
Episcopal 'clergyman, was an early settler at Hartford, Connecti-
cut, and his father, Henry Seymour, who removed from Connecti-
cut to New York, was prominent in the Democratic party in
the state, being a member of the " Albany Regency " and
serving as state senator in 1816-1819 an d in 1822, and as canal
commissioner in 1810-1831. The son was brought up in Utica,
studied in 1824-1825 at Geneva Academy (afterwards Hobart
College), and then at a military school in Middletown, Conn.,
and was admitted to the bar in 1832. He was military secretary
to Governor W. L. Marcy in 1833-1839, was a member of
the New York Assembly in 1842, in 1844 and in 1845, being
speaker in 1845; mayor of Utica in 1843, and in 1852 was
elected governor of the state over Washington Hunt (1811-1867),
the Whig candidate, who had defeated him in 1850. He vetoed
in 1854 a bill prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors (which
was declared unconstitutional almost immediately after its re-
enactment in 1855), and in consequence he was defeated in 1854
for re-election as governor by Myron Holley Clark (1806-1892),
the Whig and temperance candidate. Seymour was a con-
servative on national issues and supported the administrations
of Pierce and Buchanan; he advocated compromise to avoid
secession in 1860-1861; but when war broke out he supported
the maintenance of the Union. In 1863-1865 he was again
governor of New York state. His opposition to President
Lincoln's policy was mainly in respect to emancipation, military
arrests and conscription. The president tried to win him over
early in 1863, but Seymour disapproved of the arrest of C. S.
Vallandigham in May, and, although he responded immediately to
the call for militia in June, he thought the Conscription Act un-
necessary and unconstitutional and urged the president to
postpone the draft until its legality could be tested. During
the draft riots in July he proclaimed the city and county of
New York in a state of insurrection, but in a speech to the
rioters adopted a tone of conciliation a political error which
injured his career. He was defeated as Democratic candidate
for governor in 1864. In 1868 he was nominated presidential
candidate by the National Democratic Convention, Francis
P. Blair, Jr., being nominated for the vice-presidency; but
Seymour and Blair carried only eight states (including New York,
New Jersey and Oregon), and received only 80 electoral votes
to 214 for Grant and Colfax. Seymour did not re-enter political
life, refusing to be considered for the United States senatorship
from New York in 1876. He died on the i2th of February
1886 in Utica, at the home of his sister, who was the wife of
Roscoe Conkling.
The Public Record of Horatio Seymour (New York, 1868) includes
his speeches and official papers between 1856 and 1868.
SEYMOUR, THOMAS DAY (1848-1907), American educa-
tionist, was born in Hudson, Ohio, on the ist of April 1848.
He graduated in 1870 at Western Reserve College, where his
father, Nathan Perkins Seymour, was long professor of Greek
and Latin. Here, after studying in Berlin and Leipzig, the son
was professor of Greek in 1872-1880; and he became professor of
Greek at Yale University in 1880, holding his position until his
death in New Haven on the 3ist of December 1907. He was
from 1887 to 1901 chairman of the managing committee of the
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and was president
of the Archaeological Institute of America from 1903. Except
for his Selected Odes of Pindar (1882), his published work was
practically confined to the study of the Homeric poems: An
Introduction to the Language and Verse of Homer (1885);
Homer's Iliad, i.-iv. (1887-1890); Homeric Vocabulary
(1889); Introduction and Vocabulary to School Odyssey
(1897); and Life in the Homeric Age (1907). He edited, with
Lewis R. Packard and John W. White, the " College Series of
Greek Authors."
SEYMOUR, a city of Jackson county, Indiana, U.S.A., about
59 m. S. by E. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890) 5337; (1900) 6445,
(321 foreign-born) ; (1910) 6305. It is served by the Baltimore &
Ohio, South- Western (which has repair shops here), the Pittsburg,
Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Southern Indiana
railways, and by the Indianapolis, Columbus & Southern and
the Indianapolis & Louisville interurban electric lines. The city
has a considerable trade in produce, and has various manufactures,
including woollen-goods, furniture, carriages and automobiles.
Seymour was settled in 1854, incorporated as a town in 1864,
and chartered as a city in 1867.
SEYMOUR OF SUDELEY, THOMAS SEYMOUR, BARON
(c. 1508-1549), lord high admiral of England, was fourth son of
Sir John Seymour of Wolf Hall, Wiltshire, and younger brother
of the Protector Edward Seymour, ist duke of Somerset. His
sister Jane Seymour became the third wife of Henry VIII. in
1536, and another sister, Elizabeth, married Thomas Cromwell's
son. Seymour's connexions thus ensured his promotion, and he
quickly won the favour of the king, who gave him many grants of
land and employed him in the royal household and on diplomatic
missions abroad. From 1540 to 1542 he was at Vienna, and in
1 543 in the Netherlands, where he served with distinction in the
war against France, holding for a short time the supreme com-
mand of the English army. In 1544 he was rewarded with the
post of master of the ordnance for life, becoming admiral of the
fleet a few months later, in which capacity he was charged with
guarding the Channel against French invasion. Henry VIII.
left Seymour a legacy by his will, and is said to have directed
that he should be raised to the peerage. In February 1547 he
was accordingly created Baron Seymour of Sudeley and appointed
lord high admiral. From this time forward he was mainly
occupied in intrigue against his brother the Protector, of whose
power he was jealous; and he aimed at procuring for himself the
position of guardian of the young king, Edward VI. Several
matrimonial projects entered into Seymour's schemes for
gratifying his ambitions. No sooner was Henry VIII. dead than
the lord high admiral tried to secure the princess (afterwards
queen) Elizabeth in marriage; and when this project was
rustrated he secretly married the late king's widow, Catherine
Parr, whose hand he had vainly sought as early as 1^543. He also
:ook steps to ingratiate himself with Edward, and proposed a
marriage between the king and the Lady Jane Grey. He entered
into relations with pirates on the western coasts, whom it was his
duty as lord high admiral to suppress, with a view to securing
their support; and when the Protector invaded Scotland in the
summer of 1547 Seymour fomented opposition to his authority
m his absence. On the death of his wife in September of the
next year he made renewed attempts to marry the princess
Elizabeth. Somerset strove ineffectually to save his brother from
ruin, and in January 1 549 Seymour was arrested and sent to the
Tower; he was convicted of treason, and executed on the 2oth
of March 1 549.
See Sir John Maclean, Life of Sir Thomas Seymour (London,
1869) ; Chronicle of Henry VIII., translated from the Spanish, with
notes by M. A. S. Hume (London, 1889); Literary Remains of
Edward VI., with notes and memoir by J. G. Nichols (2 vols., London,
756
SEYNE SUR MER SFORZA, CATERINA
1857); Mary A. E. Green, Letters of Royal and Illustrious Ladies of
Great Britain to the Close of the Reign of Mary (3 vols., London, 1846).
See also SOMERSET, EDWARD SEYMOUR, ist DUKE OF, and the
authorities there cited.
SEYNE SUR MER, or LA SEYNE, an industrial suburb of
Toulon, S.W. of that port, and connected with it by rail and
steamer. Pop. (1901) 21,002. It owes its importance to the
shipbuilding trade, th'e Soctitt des Forges et Chantiers de la
Mediterranee. having here one of the finest shipbuilding yards in
Europe (it is a branch of the greater establishment at Marseilles),
which gives employment to about 3000 workmen.
SFAX (Arabic Asfakis or Safakus, the cucumbers), a city of
Tunisia, second in importance only to the capital, 78 m. due S.
of Susa, on the Gulf of Gabes (Syrtis Minor) opposite the Kerkenna
Islands, in 34 43' N., 10 46' E. Sfax occupies the site of the
ancient Taphrura, of which few vestiges remain. The town
consists of a European quarter, with streets regularly laid out
and fine houses, and the Arab town, with its kasbah or citadel,
and tower-flanked walls pierced by three gates. Many of the
private houses, mosques and zawias are good specimens of native
art of the I7th and i8th centuries. North-east of the native
town is a camp for the European garrison. Sfax was formerly
the starting-point of a caravan route to Central Africa, but its
inland trade now extends only to the phosphate region beyond
Gafsa, reached by a railway which, after skirting the coast south-
wards from Sfax to Mahares, runs inland past Gafsa. With
Susa there is regular communication by steamer and motor car.
Olive oil is manufactured, and the fisheries are important,
notably those of sponges and of octopuses (exported to Greece).
The prosperity of the town is largely due to the export trade in
phosphates, esparto grass, oil, almonds, pistachio nuts, sponges,
wool, &c. There is in the Gulf of Gabes a rise and fall of 5 ft.
at spring tides, which is rare in the Mediterranean. Formerly
the only anchorage at Sfax was 2 m. from shore; but a harbour,
completed in 1900 and entered by a channel ij m. long and 21 J ft.
deep, now renders vessels independent of the tide. There
are separate basins for fishing boats and a dock for torpedo-boat
flotilla. Round the town for 5 or 6 m. to the north and west
stretch orchards, gardens and country houses. Dates, almonds,
grapes, figs, peaches, apricots, olives, and in rainy years melons
and cucumbers grow there without irrigation. Two enormous
cisterns, maintained by public charitable trusts, supply the town
with water in dry seasons.
Sfax is on the site of a Roman settlement. Many of its Arab
inhabitants claim descent from Mahomet. The Sicilians under
Roger the Norman took it in the izth century, and in the i6th
the Spaniards occupied it for a brief period. The bombard-
ment of the town in 1881 was one of the principal events of the
French conquest of Tunisia; it was pillaged by the soldiers on
the i6th of July, and the inhabitants had afterwards to pay a
war indemnity of 250,000. The population, about 15,000 at the
time of the French occupation, had increased to 50,000 in 1906.
SFORZA, the name of a famous Italian family. They were
descended from a peasant condottiere, Giacomo or Muzio (some-
times abbreviated into Giacomuzzo) Attendolo, who was born at
Cotignola in the Romagna on the loth of June 1369, gained
command of a band of adventurers by whom he had been kid-
napped, took the name of Sforza in the field, became constable
of Naples under Joanna II., fought bravely against the Spaniards,
served Pope Martin V., by whom he was created a Roman count,
and was drowned on the 4th of January 1424 in the Pescara
near Aquila while engaged in a military expedition. His natural
son FRANCESCO (1401-1466) succeeded in command of the
condottieri, and showed military genius and political acumen.
He served the Visconti against the Venetians and then the
Venetians against the Visconti; he attacked the pope, deprived
him of the Romagna, and later defended him; he married in
( 1441 Bianca, the only daughter of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke
of Milan, and received Pontremoli and Cremona as dowry and
the promise of succession to the duchy of Milan. The short-lived
Ambrosian republic, which was established by the Milanese on
the death of Visconti (1447), was overthrown by Francesco,
who made his triumphal entry as duke of Milan on the 2jth of
March 1450. He suppressed a revolt at Piacenza, formed close
alliances with Cosmo de' Medici and with Louis XI. of France,
and exercised authority over Lombardy, several districts south
of the Po and even Genoa. He rebuilt the fortress of Porta
Giovio and constructed the Great Hospital and the canal of the
Martesana, which connects Milan with the Adda; and his court,
filled with Italian scholars and Greek exiles, speedily became
one of the most splendid in Italy. His daughter Ippolita was
renowned for her Latin discourses.
Francesco left several sons, among whom were Galeazzo
Maria, Lodovico, surnamed the Moor, and Ascagnio, who became
a cardinal.
GALEAZZO MARIA, who succeeded to the duchy, was born in
1444, and was a lover of art, eloquent in speech, but dissolute
and cruel. He was assassinated at the porch of the cathedral
on the 26th of December 1476 by three young Milanese noblemen
desirous of imitating Brutus and Cassius. His daughter Caterina
is separately noticed. GIAN GALEAZZO (1469-1494), son of
Galeazzo, succeeded to the duchy under the regency of his
mother, Bona of Savoy, who was supplanted in her power
(1481) by the boy's uncle, Lodovico the Moor. Gian Galeazzo
married Isabella of Aragon, granddaughter of the king of
Naples, and his sudden death was attributed by some to poison
administered by the regent. His daughter, BONA SFORZA
(1493-1557), married King Sigismund of Poland in 1518. She
displayed remarkable ability in government, built castles,
schools and hospitals, but increased corruption and intrigue at
the Polish court. She was accused of having killed her daughter-
in-law, the wife of Sigismund Augustus. On the death of her
husband she returned to Italy and was poisoned (1557) by her
paramour Pappacoda.
LODOVICO THE MOOR [Lodovico il Moro] (1451-1508), who is
famed as patron of Leonardo da Vinci and other artists, had
summoned Charles VIII. of France to his aid (1494) and received
the ducal crown from the Milanese nobles on the 22nd of October
in the same year, but finding his own position endangered by
the French policy, he joined the league against Charles VIII.,
giving his niece Bianca in marriage to Maximilian I. and receiving
in return imperial investiture of the duchy. Lodovico was driven
from Milan by Louis XII. in 1499, and although reinstated for
a short time by the Swiss he was eventually delivered over by
them to the French (April 1500) and died a prisoner in the
castle of Loches. FRANCESCO, the son of Gian Galeazzo, was
also taken to France by Louis XII., became abbot of Marmou tiers,
and died in 1511.
The two sons of Lodovico, MASSIMILIANO and FRANCESCO
MARIA, took refuge in Germany; the former was restored to
the duchy of Milan by the Swiss in 1512, but after the over-
whelming defeat of his allies at Marignano (1515) he abandoned
his rights to Francis I. for a pension of 30,000 ducats, and died
at Paris in 1530; the latter was put in possession of Milan after
the defeat of the French at La Bicocca in 1522, subsequently
entered the Italian League against the emperor Charles V.,
was unpopular on account of oppressive taxation, and his death
(24th of October 1535) marked the extinction of the direct
male line of the Sforza. The duchy went to Charles V.
The dukes of Sforza-Cesarini and the counts of Santa Fiora
are descended from collateral branches of the Sforza family.
See J. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, trans,
by S. G. C. Middlemore (London, 1898); J. A. Symonds, Age of the
Despots (New York, 1888); W. P. Urquhart, Life and Times of
Francesco Sforza (2 yols., Edinburgh, 1852); Mrs Julia Ady, Beatrice
d'Este, duchess of Milan, 1475-1497 (London, 1905) ; F. Calvi, Bianca
Maria Sforza- Visconti e ffi ambasciatori di Lodovico il Moro (Milan,
1888) ; A. Segre, " Lodovico Sforza, duca di Milano," in R. Accad. d.
Sci. Atti, vol. 36 (Turin, 1901). There is a critical bibliography
by Otto von Schleinitz in Zeitsc,hrifl fur Biicherfreunde, vol. v.
(Bielefeld, 1901). (C. H. HA.)
SFORZA, CATERINA (1463-1509), countess of Forli, was an
illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza (see above).
In 1473 she was betrothed to Girolamo Riario, a son of Pope
Sixtus IV., who was thus able to regain possession of Imola,
that city being made a fief of the Riario family. After a triumphal
SGAMBATI SHAD
757
entry into Imola in 1477 Caterina Sforza went to Rome with her
husband, who, with the help of the pope, wrested the lordship
of Forli from the Ordelaffi. Riario, by means of many crimes, for
which his wife seems to have blamed him, succeeded in accumu-
lating great wealth, and on the death of Sixtus in August 1484,
he sent Caterina to Rome to occupy the castle of St Angelo,
which she defended gallantly until, on the 2$th of October,
she surrendered it by his order to the Sacred College. They
then returned to their fiefs of Imola and Forli, where they tried
to win the favour of the people by erecting magnificent public
buildings and churches and by abolishing taxes; but want of
money obliged them to levy the taxes once more, which caused
dissatisfaction. Riario's enemies conspired against him with a
view to making Franceschetto Cybo, nephew of Pope Innocent
VIII., lord of Imola and Forli in his stead. Riario thereupon
instituted a system of persecution, in which Caterina was impli-
cated, against all whom he suspected of treachery. In 1488
he was murdered by three conspirators, his palace was sacked,
and his wife and children were taken prisoners. The castle of
Forli, however, held out in Caterina's interest, and every induce-
ment and threat to make her order its surrender proved useless;
having managed to escape from her captors she penetrated into
the castle, whence she threatened to bombard the city, refusing
to come to terms even when the besiegers threatened to murder
her children. With the assistance of Lodovico il Moro she was
able to defeat her enemies and to regain possession of all her
dominions; she wreaked vengeance on those who had opposed
her and re-established her power. Being now a widow she had
several lovers, and by one of them, Giacomo Feo, whom she
afterwards married, she had a son. Feo, who made himself
hated for his cruelty and insolence, was murdered before the eyes
of his wife in August 1495; Caterina had all the conspirators
and their families, including the women and children, massacred.
She established friendly relations with the new pope, Alexander
VI., and with the Florentines, whose ambassador, Giovanni
de' Medici, she secretly married in 1496. Giovanni died in 1498,
but Caterina managed with the aid of Lodovico il Moro and of
the Florentines to save her dominions from the attacks of the
Venetians. Alexander VI., however, angered at her refusal to
agree to a union between his daughter Lucrezia Borgia and her
son Ottaviano, and coveting her territories as well as the rest of
Romagna for his son Cesare, issued a bull on the gth of March
1499, declaring that the house of Riario had forfeited the lordship
of Imola and Forli and conferring those fiefs on Cesare Borgia.
The latter began his campaign of conquest with Caterina Sforza's
dominions and attacked her with his whole army, reinforced
by 14,000 French troops and by Louis XII. Caterina placed her
children in safety and took strenuous measures for defence.
The castle of Imola was held by her henchman Dionigi Naldi
of Brisighella, until resistance being no longer possible he sur-
rendered (December 1499) with the honours of war. Caterina
absolved the citizens of Forli from their oath of fealty, and
defended herself in the citadel. She repeatedly beat back the
Borgia's onslaughts and refused all his offers of peace. Finally
when the situation had become untenable and having in vain
given orders for the magazine to be blown up, she surrendered,
after a battle in which large numbers were killed on both sides,
to Antoine Bissey, bailli of Dijon, entrusting herself to the honour
of France (January 12, 1500). Thus her life was spared, but she
was not saved from the outrages of the treacherous Cesare;
she was afterwards taken to Rome and held a prisoner for a year
in the castle of St Angelo, whence she was liberated by the same
bailli of Dijon to whom she had surrendered at Forli. She took
refuge in Florence to escape from persecution from the Borgias,
and the power of that sinister family having collapsed on the
death of Alexander VI. in 1503, she attempted to regain possession
of her dominions. In this she failed owing to the hostility of
her brothers-in-law, Pierfrancesco and Lorenzo de' Medici, and
as they wished to get her son Giovanni de' Medici (afterwards
Giovanni dalle Bande Nere) into their hands, she took refuge
with him in the convent of Annalena, where she died on the
2oth f May 1509.
See Buriel, Vita di Caterina Sforssa-Riario (Bologna, 1785); F.
Oliva, Vita di C. Sforza, sienora di Forli (Forli, 1821); Pietro
Desiderio Pesolini Dall' Onda, Caterina Sforza (Rome, 1893);
English translation by P. Sylvester (1898). This is the best and most
complete work on the subject; E. M. de Vog(i6, Histoire et poesie
(Paris, 1898) ; and Ernesto Masi, " C. Sforza," m the Nuova Antologia
for May I and May 15, 1893.
SGAMBATI, GIOVANNI (1843- ), Italian composer, was
born in Rome on the 28th of May 1843, of an Italian father
and an English mother. His early education took place at
Trevi, in Umbria, and there he wrote some church music, and
obtained experience as a singer and conductor. In 1860 he
settled in Rome, and definitely took up the work of winning
acceptance for the best German music, which was at that time
neglected in Italy. The influence and support of Liszt, who
was in Rome from 1861, was naturally of the greatest advantage
to him, and concerts were given in which Sgambati conducted
as well as played the piano. His composition, of this period
(1864-1865) included a quartet, two piano quintets, an octet,
and an overture. He conducted Liszt's Dante symphony in
1866, and made the acquaintance of Wagner's music for the first
time at Munich, whither he travelled in Liszt's company. His
first album of songs appeared in 1870, and his first symphony
was played at the Quirinal in 1881; this, as well as a piano
concerto, was performed in the course of his first visit to England
in 1882; and at his second visit, in 1891, his Sinfonia epitalamio
was given at the Philharmonic. His most extensive work, a
Requiem Mass, was performed in Rome 1901. His many piano-
forte works have won permanent success; but his influence on
Italian musical taste has been perhaps greater than the merits
of his compositions, which, though often poetical and generally
effective, are often slight in style.
SHABATS (also written Shabalz and Sabac), a town in Servia,
capital of the Drina department, on the right bank of the river
Save. Pop. (1900) 12,072. It has a medieval castle, built in
1470 by Sultan Mahommed II., to facilitate the incursion of the
Turks into Slavonia, which lies on the left bank of the river.
It is the principal commercial town of north-western Servia,
exporting cereals, prunes, cattle and pigs to Hungary. It is
well known for the excellent white honey which comes from
its neighbourhood. The district is rich in lime-trees. Shabats is
the seat of a bishop, of the district prefecture, and of a tribunal.
It has a college and a library, and a garrison occupies the old
fort. The people of Shabats have the reputation of being the
wittiest in Servia.
SHAD, the name given to certain migratory species of herrings
(Clupea), which are distinguished from the herrings proper
by the total absence of teeth in the jaws. Two species occur
in Europe, much resembling each other one commonly called
allis shad (Clupea alosa or Alosa vulgaris), and the other known
as twaite sha.d(Clupeafintaoi Alosa finta). Both, like the majority
of herrings, are greenish on the back and silvery on the sides,
but they are distinguished from the other European species
Clupea by the presence of a large blackish blotch behind the
gill-opening, which is succeeded by a series of several other
similar spots along the middle of the side of the body. So
closely allied are these two fishes that their distinctness can be
proved only by an examination of the gill-apparatus, the allis
shad having from sixty to eighty very fine and long gill-rakers
along the concave edge of the first branchial arch, whilst the
twaite shad possesses from twenty-one to twenty-seven stout
and stiff gill-rakers only. In their habits and geographical
distribution also the two shads are similar. They inhabit the
coasts of temperate Europe, the twaite shad being more numerous
in the Mediterranean. While they are in salt water they live
singly or in very small companies, but during May (the twaite
shad some weeks later) they congregate, and in great numbers
ascend large rivers, such as the Severn (and formerly the Thames) ,
the Seine, the Rhine, the Nile, &c., in order to deposit their
spawn. A few weeks after they drop down the river, lean and
exhausted, numbers floating dead on the surface, so that only
a small proportion seem to regain the sea. At Elbeuf on the
Seine above Rouen there was formerly a hatchery for the artificial
75 8
SHADDOCK SHADOW
propagation of shad. The eggs are spawned in May and June,
and are similar in the two species; they are heavier than the fresh
water in which they develop, but unlike the herring's eggs they
are not adhesive. They remain free and separate at the bottom
of the river, carried down by the current or up by the tide. In
the Elbe the twaite shad spawns below Hamburg, the allis shad
above Dresden. In November the fry have reached 3 to 5 in.
in length, but very few specimens in their second year have
been found in rivers. The majority seem to descend to the sea
before their first winter, to return when mature. On rivers in
which these fishes make their periodical appearance they have
become the object of a regular fishery. They are much esteemed
on the middle Rhine, where they are generally known as
" Maifisch." The allis shad is caught at a size from 15 to 24 in.,
and is better flavoured than the twaite shad, which is generally
smaller.
Other, but closely allied species, occur on the Atlantic coasts of
North America, all surpassing the European species in importance
as food-fishes and economic value, viz., the American shad (Clupea
sapidissimd), the gaspereau or ale-wife (C. mattowocca orvernalis),
and the menhaden (C. menhaden).
SHADDOCK (Citrus decumana), a tree allied to the orange
and the lemon, presumably native to the Malay and Polynesian
islands, but generally cultivated throughout the tropics. The
leaves are like those of the orange, but downy on the under
surface, as are also the young shoots. The flowers are large
and white, and are succeeded by very large globose fruits like
oranges, but paler in colour, and with a more pungent flavour.
The name Shaddock is asserted to be that of a captain who
introduced the tree to the West Indies. The fruit is also known
under the name of grape-fruit, pommeloes,and "forbidden fruit."
Varieties occur with yellow and reddish pulp; and there are
also pear-shaped varieties.
~ SHADOOF (Arab, shdduf), an apparatus for drawing water,
used in the East generally, and particularly on the Nile for
the purpose of irrigation. It consists of an upright frame on
which is suspended a long pole at a distance of about one-fifth
of its length from one end ; to the other end is attached a bucket
or skin bag, while at the short end a weight is suspended serving
as the counterpoise of a lever. The vessel containing the water
is then swung round and emptied into the runnel, which conveys
the water in the direction required.
SHADOW (O. Eng. Schadewe, sceadu; a form of "shade";
connected with Gr. oxiros, darkness). When an opaque body
is placed between a screen and a luminous source, it casts a
" shadow " on the screen. If the source be a point, such as the
image formed by a lens of small focus or by a fine hole in a plate
held close to a bright flame, the outline of the shadow is to be
found by drawing straight lines from the luminous point so as to
envelop the opaque body. These lines form a cone. The points
of contact form a line on the opaque body separating the
illuminated from the non-illuminated portion of its surface.
Similarly, when these lines are produced to meet the screen,
their points of intersection with it form a line which separates
the illuminated from the non-illuminated parts of the screen.
This line is called the boundary of the geometrical shadow, and
its construction is based on the assumption that light, travels
in straight lines (in homogeneous media) and suffers no deviation
on meeting an obstacle. But a deviation, termed diffraction,
does occur, and consequently the complete theory of shadows
involves considerations based on the nature of the rays them-
selves; this aspect is treated in DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT. An
instance of the geometrical shadow is seen when a very small
gas-jet is burning in a ground-glass shade near a wall. In this
case the cone, above mentioned, is usually a right cone with its
axis vertical. Thus the boundary of the geometric shadow is a
portion of a circle on the roof, but a portion of an hyperbola
on the vertical wall. If the roof be not horizontal, we may obtain
in this way any form of conic section. Hints in projection may
be obtained by observing the shadows of bodies of various
forms cast in this way by rays which virtually diverge from one
point: e.g. how to place a plane quadrilateral of given form
so that its geometric shadow may be a square; how to place an
elliptic disk, with a small hole in it, so that the shadow may
be circular with a bright spoc at its centre, &c.
When there are more luminous points than one, we have
only to draw separately the geometrical shadows due to each
of the sources, and then superpose them. A new consideration
now comes in. There will be, in general, portions of all the
separate geometrical shadows which overlap one another in some
particular regions of the screen. In such regions we still have
full shadow; but around them there will be other regions, some
illuminated by one of the sources alone, some by two, &c., until
finally we come to the parts of the screen which are illuminated
directly by all the sources. There will evidently be still a definite
boundary of the parts wholly unilluminated, i.e. the true shadow
or umbra, and also a definite boundary of the parts wholly
illuminated. The region between these boundaries i.e. the
partially illumined portion is called the penumbra.
Fig. i represents the shadow of a circular disk cast by four
equal luminous points arranged as the corners of a square
FIG. i.
the disk being large enough to admit of a free overlapping of the
separate shadows. The amount of want of illumination in each
portion of the penumbra is roughly indicated by the shading.
The separate shadows are circular, if the disk is parallel to the
screen. If we suppose the number of sources to increase in-
definitely, so as finally to give the appearance of a luminous
surface as the source of light, it is obvious that the degrees of
darkness at different portions of the penumbra will also increase
indefinitely; i.e. there will be a gradual increase of brightness
in the penumbra from total darkness at the edge next the
geometrical shadow to full illumination at the outer edge.
Thus we see at once why the shadows cast by the sun or moon
are in general so much less sharp than those cast by the electric
arc. For, practically, at moderate distances the arc appears as
a mere luminous point. But if we place a body at a distance of
a foot or two only from the arc, the shadow cast will have as
much of penumbra as if the sun had been the source. The
breadth of the penumbra when the source and screen are nearly
equidistant from the opaque body is equal to the diameter of the
luminous source. The notions of the penumbra and umbra are
important in considering eclipses (q.v.). When the eclipse is
total, there is a real geometrical shadow very small compared
with the penumbra (for the apparent diameters of the sun and
moon are nearly equal, but their distances are as 370 : i); when
the eclipse is annular, the shadow is all penumbra. In a lunar
eclipse, on the other hand, the earth is the shadow-casting body,
and the moon is the screen, and we observe things according to
our first point of view.
Suppose, next, that the body which casts the shadow is a
large one, such as a wall, with a hole in it. If we were to plug
the hole, the whole screen would be in geometrical shadow.
Hence the illumination of the screen by the light passing through
SHADWELL SHAFI'I
759
the hole is precisely what would be cut off by a disk which fits the
hole, and the complement of fig. i , in which the light and shade
are interchanged, would give therefore the effect of four equal
sources of light shining on a wall through a circular hole. The
umbra in the former case becomes the fully illuminated portion,
and vice versa. The penumbra remains the penumbra, but it
is now darkest where before it was brightest, and vice versa.
Thus we see how, when a small hole is cut in the window-
shutter of a dark room, a picture of the sun, and bright clouds
about it, is formed on the opposite wall. This picture is obviously
inverted, and also perverted, for not only are objects depicted
lower the higher they are, but also objects seen to the right are
depicted to the left, &c. But it will be seen unperverted (though
still inverted) if it be received on a sheet of ground glass and
looked at from behind. The smaller the hole (so far at least
as geometrical optics is concerned) the less confused will the
picture be. As the hole is made larger the illuminated portions
from different sources gradually overlap; and when the hole
becomes a window we have no indications of such a picture
except from a body (like the sun) much brighter than the other
external objects. Here the picture has ceased to be one of the
sun, it is now a picture of the window. But if the wall could be
placed loo m. off, the picture would be one of the sun. To prevent
this overlapping of images, and yet to admit a good deal of light,
is one main object of the lens which usually forms part of the
camera obscura (<?..).
The formation of pictures of the sun in this way is well seen
on a calm sunny day under trees, where the sunlight penetrating
through small chinks forms elliptic spots on the ground. When
detached clouds are drifting rapidly across the sun, we often see
the shadows of the bars of the window on the walls or floor
suddenly shifted by an inch or two, and for a moment very much
more sharply defined. They are, in fact, shadows cast by a small
portion of the sun's limb, from opposite sides alternately.
Another beautiful illustration is easily obtained by cutting with
a sharp knife a very small T aperture in a piece of note paper.
Place this close to the eye, and an inch or so behind it place
another piece of paper with a fine needle-hole in it. The light
of the sky passing through the needle-hole forms a bright picture
of the T on the retina. The eye perceives this picture, which
gives the impression of the T much magnified, but turned upside
down.
Another curious phenomenon may fitly be referred to in this
connexion, viz. the phantoms which are seen when we look at
two parallel sets of palisades or railings, one behind the other,
or look through two parallel sides of a meat-safe formed of
perforated zinc. The appearance presented is that of a magnified
set of bars or apertures which appear to move rapidly as we slowly
walk past. Their origin is the fact that where the bars appear
nearly to coincide the apparent gaps bear the greatest ratio to the
dark spaces; i.e. these parts of the field are the most highly
illuminated. The exact determination of the appearances in any
given case is a mere problem of convergents to a continued
fraction. But the fact that the apparent rapidity of motion of
this phantom may exceed in any ratio that of the spectator is of
importance enabling us to see how velocities, apparently of
impossible magnitude, may be accounted for by the mere running
along of the condition of visibility among a group of objects no
one of which is moving at an extravagant rate.
SHADWELL, THOMAS (c. 1642-1692), English playwright and
miscellaneous writer, was born about 1642, at Santon Hall,
Norfolk, according to his son's account. He was educated at
Bury St Edmund's School, and at Caius College, Cambridge,
where he was entered in 1656. He left the university without
a degree, and joined the Middle Temple. In 1668 he produced
a prose comedy, The Sullen Lovers, or the Impertinents, based on
Les Facheux of Moliere, and written in avowed imitation of
Ben Jonson. His best plays are Epsom Wells (1672), for which
Sir Charles Sedley wrote a prologue, and the Squire of Alsalia
(1688). Alsatia was the cant name for Whitefriars, then a kind
of sanctuary for persons liable to arrest, and the play represents,
in dialogue full of the argot of the place, the adventures of a young
heir who falls into the hand of the sharpers there. For fourteen
years from the production of his first comedy to his memorable
encounter with Dryden, Shadwell produced a play nearly every
year. These productions display a genuine hatred of shams,
and a rough but honest moral purpose. They are disfigured by
indecencies, but present a vivid picture of con temporary manners.
Shadwell is chiefly remembered as the unfortunate Mac
Flecknoe of Dryden's satire, the " last great prophet of tauto-
logy," and the literary son and heir of Richard Flecknoe:
" The rest to some faint meaning make pretence,
But Shadwell never deviates into sense."
Dryden had furnished Shadwell with a prologue to his True
Widow (1679), and in spite of momentary differences, the two
had been apparently on friendly terms. But when Dryden
joined the court party, and produced Absalom and Achitophel
and The Medal, Shadwell became the champion of the true-blue
Protestants, and made a scurrilous attack on the poet in The
Medal of John Bayes: a Satire against Folly and Knavery (1682).
Dryden immediately retorted in Mac Flecknoe, or a Satire on
the True Blue Protestant Poet, T.S. (1682), in which Shadwell's
personalities were returned with interest. A month later he
contributed to Nahum Tate's continuation of Absalom and
Achitophel satirical portraits of Elkanah Settle as Doeg and of
Shadwell as Og. In 1687 Shadwell attempted to answer these
attacks in a version of the tenth satire of Juvenal. At the Whig
triumph in 1688 he superseded his enemy as poet laureate and
historiographer royal. He died at Chelsea on the igth of
November 1692.
His son, CHARLES SHADWELL, was the author of The Fair
Quaker of Deal and other plays, collected and published in 1720.
A complete edition of Shadwell's works was published by his son
Sir John Shadwell in 1720. His other dramatic works are The
Royal Shepherdess (1669), an adaptation of John Fountain's Rewards
of Virtue; The Humorist (1671); The Miser (1672), adapted from
Moliere; Psyche (1675); The Libertine (1676); The Virtuoso
(1676); The history of Timon of Athens the Man-hater (1678), on
this Shakespearian adaptation see O. Beber, Shadwell's Bearbeitung
des... Timon of Athens (Rostock, 1897); A True Widow (1679);
The Woman Captain (1680), revived in 1744 as The Prodigal; The
Lancashire Witches and Teague O'Divelly, the Irish Priest (1682);
Bury Fair (1689) ; The Amorous Bigot, with the second part of Teague
O'Divelly (1690); The Scowerers (1691); and The Volunteers, or
Stockjobbers, published posthumously (1693).
SHAFI'I [Mahommed ibn Idris ash-Shan 'i] (767-820), the
founder of the Shafi'ite school of canon law, was born in A.H.
150 (A.D. 767) of a Koreishite (Quraishite) family at Gaza or
Ascalon, and was brought up by his mother in poor circumstances
at Mecca. There, and especially in intercourse with the desert
tribe of Hudhail, he gained a knowledge of classical Arabic
and old Arabian poetry for which he was afterwards famous.
About 170 he went to Medina and studied canon law (fiqh)
under Malik ibn Anas. After the death of Malik in 179 legend
takes him to Yemen, where he is involved in an 'Alid conspiracy,
carried prisoner to Bagdad, but pardoned by Harun al-Rashid.
He was certainly pursuing his studies, and he seems to have
come to Bagdad in some such way as this and then to have
studied under Hanifite teachers. He had not yet formulated
his own system. After a journey to Egypt, however, we find him
in Bagdad again, as a teacher, between 195 and 198. There
he had great success and turned the tide against the Hanifite
school. His method was to restore the sources of canon law
which Abu Hanlfa, had destroyed by inclining too much to
speculative deduction. Instead, he laid equal emphasis upon
the four Koran, tradition, analogy, and agreement. See
further, under MAHOMMEDAN LAW. In 198 he went to Egypt
in the train of a new governor, and this time was received as
the leading orthodox authority in law of his time. There he
developed and somewhat changed the details of his system,
and died in 204 {A.D. 820). He was buried to the south-east of
what is now Cairo, and a great dome (erected c. A.D. 1240) is
conspicuous over his tomb.
See F. Wustenfeld, Schafi'iten, 31 ff.; M. J. de Goeje in ZDMG.
xlvii. 106 ff.; C. Brockelmann, Geschichte, i. 178 ff.; M'G. de Slane's
transl. of Ibn Khallikan, ii. 569 ff., Fihrist, 209, Nawawi's Biogr.
Diet. 56 ff . (D. B. MA.)
760
SHAPIRO V SHAFTESBURY, IST EARL OF
SHAFIROV, PETER PAVLOVICH, BARON (1670-1739),
Russian statesman, one of the ablest coadjutors of Peter the
Great, was of obscure, and in all probability of Jewish, extraction.
He first made himself useful by his extraordinary knowledge
of foreign languages. He was the chief translator in the Russian
Foreign Office for many years, subsequently accompanying
Peter on his travels. Made a baron and raised to the rank of
vice-chancellor, he displayed diplomatic talents of the highest
order. During the unlucky campaign of 1711, he succeeded
against all expectations in concluding the peace of the Pruth
(see TURKEY: History). Peter left him in the hands of the Turks
as a hostage, and on the rupture of the peace he was imprisoned
in the Seven Towers. Finally, however, with the aid of the
British and Dutch ambassadors, he defeated the diplomacy of
Charles XII. of Sweden and his agents, and confirmed the good
relations between Russia and Turkey by the treaty of Adrianople
(June sth, 1713). On the institution of the colleges or depart-
ments of state in 1718, Shafirov was appointed vice-president
of the department of Foreign Affairs, and a senator. In 1723,
however, he was deprived of all his offices and sentenced to death.
The capital sentence was commuted on the scaffold to banish-
ment, first to Siberia and then to Novgorod. Peculations and
disorderly conduct in the senate were the offences charged against
Shafirov, and with some justice. On the death of Peter, Shafirov
was released from prison and commissioned to write the life
of his late master. He had previously (1717), in an historical
tract on the war with Charles XII., in which Peter himself
collaborated, epitomized, in a high panegyric style, some of the
greatest exploits of the tsar-regenerator. The successful rivalry
of his supplanter, Andrei Osterman, prevented Shafirov from
holding any high office during the last fourteen years of his life.
See B. M. Solovev, History of Russia, vols. xiii.-xvi. (Rus.) (Peters-
burg, 1895). (R. N. B.)
SHAFT (O. Eng., sceafl, from scafan, to shave; the word is
common to Teutonic languages), any slender, smoothed rod or
stick, and so first used of the body of an arrow or spear to which
the head is attached; hence the word is applied to the handle of a
tool, and to the pair of bars between which a horse is harnessed to
a vehicle, and in machinery to connecting bars or rods conveying
power from one part of a machine to another. It is also applied
to an opening sunk in the ground for mining or other purposes
(see SHAFT-SINKING). This use is probably due to the use of
Ger. Schacht, a variant of schaft. In architecture the term
" shaft " is applied to the body of a column between the capital
and the base. In Romanesque work shafts are occasionally
octagonal, and are sometimes ornamented with the zigzag or
chevron, or fluted vertically or in spirals; the most beautiful
examples of the latter being found in the cloisters of St John
Lateran and at St Paul's outside the walls at Rome, where they
are enriched with mosaics. Perhaps the earliest ornamented
shafts are those of the Parthian Palace, now the mosque, at
Diarbekr in Mesopotamia.
SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, IST EARL OF
(1621-1683), son of Sir John Cooper of Rockbourne in Hamp-
shire, and of Anne, the only child of Sir Anthony Ashley, Bart.,
and was born at Wimborne St Giles, Dorset, on the 22nd of
July 1621. His parents died before he was ten years of age,
and he inherited extensive estates in Hampshire, Wiltshire,
Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, much reduced, however, by
litigation in Chancery. He lived for some time with Sir Daniel
Norton, one of his trustees, at Southwick, and upon his death
in 1635 with Mr Tooker, an uncle by marriage, at Salisbury.
In 1637 he went as a gentleman-commoner to Exeter College,
Oxford, where he remained about a year. No record of his
studies is to be found, but he has left an amusing account of
his part in the wilder doings of the university life of that day,
in which, in spite of his small stature, he was recognized by his
fellows as their leader. At the age of eighteen, on the 2$th of
February 1639, he married Margaret, daughter of Lord Coventry,
with whom he and his wife lived at Durham House in the Strand,
and at Canonbury House in Islington. In Marcy 1640, though
still a minor, he was elected for Tewkesbury, and sat in the parlia-
ment which met on the i3th of April, but appears to have taken
no active part in its proceedings. In 1640 Lord Coventry died,
and Cooper then lived with his brother-in-law at Dorchester
House in Covent Garden. For the Long Parliament, which met
on the 3rd of November 1640, he was elected for Downton in
Wiltshire, but the return was disputed, and he did not take his
seat his election not being declared valid until the last days of
the Rump. He was present as a spectator at the setting up of
the king's standard at Nottingham on the 25th of August 1642;
and in 1643 he appeared openly on Charles's side in Dorsetshire,
where he raised at his own expense a regiment of foot and a troop
of horse, of both of which he took the command. He was also
appointed governor of Weymouth, sheriff of Dorsetshire for the
king and president of the king's council of war in the county.
In the beginning of January 1644, however, for reasons which
are variously reported by himself and Clarendon, he resigned
his governorship and commissions and went over to the parlia-
ment. He appeared on the 6th of March before the standing
committee of the two Houses to explain his conduct, when he
stated that he had come over because he saw danger to the
Protestant religion in the king's service, and expressed his
willingness to take the Covenant. In July 1644 he went to
Dorsetshire on military service, and on the 3rd of August received
a commission as field-marshal general. He assisted at the
taking of Wareham, and shortly afterwards compounded for
his estates by a fine of 500 from which, however, he was after-
wards relieved by Cromwell. On the 25th of October he was
made commander-in-chief in Dorsetshire, and in November
he took by storm Abbotsbury, the house of Sir John Strangways
an affair in which he appears to have shown considerable
personal gallantry. In December he relieved Taunton. His
military service terminated at the time of the Self-denying
Ordinance in 1645; he had associated himself with the Presby-
terian faction, and naturally enough was not included in the
New Model. For the next seven or eight years he lived in com-
parative privacy. He was high sheriff of Wiltshire during 1647,
and displayed much vigour in this office. Upon the execution
of Charles, Cooper took the Engagement, and was a commissioner
to administer it in Dorsetshire. On the 25th of April 1650,
he married Lady Frances Cecil, sister of the earl of Essex, his
first wife having died in the previous year leaving no family.
In 1651 a son was born to him, who died in childhood, and on
the i6th of January 1652, another son, named after himself,
who was his heir. On the i7th of January he was named on
the commission for law reform, of which Hale was the chief;
and on the 1 7th of March 1653, he was pardoned of all delinquency
and thus at last made capable of sitting in parliament. He
sat for Wiltshire in the Barebones parliament, of which
he was a leading member, and where he supported Cromwell's
views against the extreme section. He was at once appointed
on the council of thirty. On the resignation of this parliament
he became a member of the council of state named in the " Instru-
ment." In the first parliament elected under this " Instrument "
he sat for Wiltshire, having been elected also for Poole and
Tewkesbury, and was one of the commissioners for the ejection
of unworthy ministers. After the z8th of December 1654, he
left the privy council, and henceforward is found with the
Presbyterians and Republicans in opposition to Cromwell.
His second wife had died during this year; in 1656 he married
a third, who survived him, Margaret, daughter of Lord Spencer,
niece of the earl of Southampton, and sister of the earl of
Sunderland, who died at Newbury. By his three marriages
he was thus connected with many of the leading politicians
of Charles II. 's reign.
Cooper was again elected for Wiltshire for the parliament of
1656, but Cromwell refused to allow him, with many others of
his opponents, to sit. He signed a letter of complaint, with
sixty-five excluded members, to the speaker, as also a " Remon-
strance " addressed to the people. In the parliament which
met on the zoth of January 1658, he took his seat, and was active
in opposition to the new constitution of the two Houses. He
was also a leader of the opposition in Richard Cromwell's
SHAFTESBURY, IST EARL OF
761
parliament, especially on the matter of the limitation of the
power of the protector, and against the House of Lords. He was
throughout these debates celebrated for the " nervous and
subtle oratory" which made him so formidable in after days.
Upon the replacing of the Rump by the army, after the breaking
up of Richard's parliament, Cooper endeavoured unsuccessfully
to take his seat on the ground of his former disputed election for
Downton. He was, however, elected on the council of state, and
was the only Presbyterian in it; he was at once accused by
Scot, along with Whitelocke, of corresponding with Hyde. This
he solemnly denied. After the rising in Cheshire Cooper was
arrested in Dorsetshire on a charge of corresponding with its
leader Booth, but on the matter being investigated by the council
he was unanimously acquitted. In the disputes between
Lambert at the head of the military party and the Rump in union
with the council of state, he supported the latter, and upon the
temporary supremacy of Lambert's party worked indefatigably
to restore the Rump. With Monk's commissioners he, with
Haselrig, had a fruitless conference, but he assured Monk of his
co-operation, and joined with eight others of the overthrown
council of state in naming him commander-in-chief of the forces
of England and Scotland. He was instrumental in securing the
Tower for the parliament, and in obtaining the adhesion of
Admiral Lawson and the fleet. Upon the restoration of the
parliament on the 26th of December Cooper was one of the
commissioners to command the army, and on the 2nd of January
was made one of the new council of state. On the 7th of January
he took his seat on his election for Downton in 1640, and was
made colonel of Fleetwoods regiment of horse. He speedily
secured the admission of the secluded members, having mean-
while been in continual communication with Monk, was again
one of the fresh council of state, consisting entirely of friends
of the Restoration, and accepted from Monk a commission to be
governor of the Isle of Wight and captain of a company of foot.
He now steadily pursued the design of the Restoration, but with-
out holding any private correspondence with the king , and only
on terms similar to those proposed in 1648 to Charles I. at the
Isle of Wight. In the Convention parliament he sat for Wiltshire.
Monk cut short these deliberations and forced on the Restoration
without condition. Cooper was one of the twelve commissioners
who went to Charles at Breda to invite him to return. On his
journey he was upset from his carriage, and the accident caused
an internal abscess which was never cured.
Cooper was at once placed on the privy council, receiving
also a formal pardon for former delinquencies. His first duty
was to examine the Anabaptist prisoners in the Tower. In the
prolonged discussions regarding the Bill of Indemnity he was
instrumental in saving the life of Haselrig, and opposed the clause
compelling all officers who had served under Cromwell to refund
their salaries, he himself never having had any. He showed in-
deed none of the avaricious temper so common among the
politicians of the time. He was one of the commissioners for
conducting the trials of the regicides, but was himself vehemently
" fallen upon " by Prynne for having acted with Cromwell.
He was named on the council of plantations and on that of trade.
In the debate abolishing the court of wards he spoke, like most
landed proprietors, in favour of laying the burden on the excise
instead of on the land, and on the question of the restoration
of the bishops carried in the interests of the court an adjourn-
ment of the debate for three months. At the coronation in
April 1661 Cooper had been made a peer, as Baron Ashley of
Wimborne St Giles, in express recognition of his services at the
Restoration ; and on the meeting of the new parliament in May
he was appointed chancellor of the exchequer and under-treasurer,
aided no doubt by his connexion with Southampton. He vehe-
mently opposed the persecuting acts now passed the Corpora-
tion Act, the Uniformity Bill, against which he is said to have
spoken three hundred times, and the Militia Act. He is stated
also to have influenced the king in issuing his dispensing declara-
tion of the 26th of December 1662, and he zealously supported a
bill introduced for the purpose of confirming the declaration,
rising thereby in favour and influence with Charles. He was
himself the author of a treatise on tolerance. He was now recog-
nized as one of the chief opponents of Clarendon and the High
Anglican policy. On the breaking out of the Dutch War hi 1664
he was made treasurer of the prizes, being accountable to the
king alone for all sums received or spent. He was also one of the
grantees of the province of Carolina and took a leading part in its
management; it was at his request that Locke in 1669 drew
up a constitution for the new colony. In September 1665 the
king unexpectedly paid him a visit at Wimborne. He opposed
unsuccessfully the appropriation proviso introduced into the
supply bill as hindering the due administration of finance, and
this opposition seems to have brought about a reconciliation with
Clarendon. In 1668, however, he supported a bill to appoint
commissioners to examine the accounts of the Dutch War, though
in the previous year he had opposed it. In accordance with
his former action on all questions of religious toleration he opposed
the shameful Five Mile Act of 1665. In 1667 he supported the
bill for prohibiting the importation of Irish cattle, on the ground
that it would lead to a great fall of rents in England. Ashley was
himself a large landowner, and, moreover, was opposed to
Ormonde, who would have benefited by the importation. In all
other questions of this kind he shows himself far in advance of
the economic fallacies of the day. His action led to an altercation
with Ossory, the son of Ormonde, in which Ossory used language
for which he was compelled to apologize. On the death of
Southampton, Ashley was placed on the commission of the
treasury, Clifford and William Coventry being his principal
colleagues. He appears to have taken no part in the attempt
to impeach Clarendon on a general charge of treason.
The new administration was headed by Buckingham, in whose
toleration and comprehension principles Ashley shared to the
full. An able paper written by him to the king in support of
these principles, on the ground especially of their advantage
to trade, has been preserved. He excepts, however, from tolera-
tion Roman Catholics and Fifth Monarchy men. His attention
to all trade questions was close and constant; he was a member
of the council of trade and plantations appointed in 1670, and
was its president from 1672 to 1676. The difficulty of the suc-
cession also occupied him, and he co-operated thus early in the
design of legitimizing Monmouth as a rival to James. In the
intrigues which led to the infamous treaty to Dover he had no
part. The treaty contained a clause by which Charles was
bound to declare himself a Catholic, and with the knowledge
of this Ashley, as a stanch Protestant, could not be trusted.
In order to blind him and the other Protestant members of the
Cabal a sham treaty was arranged in which this clause did not
appear, and it was not until a considerable while afterwards
that he found out that he had been duped. Under this misunder-
standing he signed the sham Dover treaty on the3ist of December
1670. This treaty, however, was kept from public knowledge,
and Ashley helped Charles to hoodwink parliament by signing
a similar treaty on the 2nd of February 1672, which was laid
before them as the only one in existence. His approval of the
attempt of the Lords to alter a money bill led to the loss of the
supply to Charles and to the consequent displeasure of the king.
His support to the Lord Roos Act, ascribed generally to his
desire to ingratiate himself with Charles, was no doubt due in
part to the fact that his son had married Lord Roos's sister.
So far from advising the " Stop of the Exchequer," he opposed
this bad measure; the reasons which he left with the king for
his opposition are extant. The responsibility rests with Clifford
alone. In the other great measure of the Cabal ministry, Charles's
Declaration of Indulgence, he concurred. He was now rewarded
by being made earl of Shaftesbury and Baron Cooper of Pawlett
by a patent dated the 23rd of April 1672. It is stated too that
he was offered, but refused, the lord treasurership. On the I7th
of November 1672, however,he became lord chancellor, Bridgman
having been compelled to resign the seat. As chancellor he
issued writs for the election of thirty-six new members to fill
vacancies caused during the long recess; this, though grounded
upon precedent, was open to suspicion as an attempt to fortify
Charles, and was attacked by an angry House of Commons
762
SHAFTESBURY, IST EARL OF
which met on the 4th of February 1673. The writs were cancelled,
and the principle was established that the issuing of writs rested
with the House itself. It was at the opening of parliament
that Shaftesbury made his celebrated " delenda est Carthago"
speech against Holland, in which he urged the Second Dutch
War, on the ground of the necessity of destroying so formidable
a commercial rival to England, excused the Stop of the Exchequer
which he had opposed, and vindicated the Declaration of Indulg-
ence. On the 8th of March he announced to parliament that
the declaration had been cancelled, though he did his best to
induce Charles to remain firm. For affixing the great seal to
this declaration he was threatened with impeachment by the
Commons. The Test Act was now brought forward, and Shaftes-
bury, who appears to have heard how he had been duped in
1670, supported it, with the object probably of thereby getting
rid of Clifford. He now began to be regarded as the chief upholder
of Protestantism in the ministry; he lost favour with Charles,
and on Sunday, the 9th of September 1673, was dismissed from
the chancellorship. Among the reasons for this dismissal is
probably the fact that he opposed grants to the king's mistresses.
He had been accused of vanity and ostentation in his office,
but his reputation for ability and integrity as a judge was high
even with his enemies.
Charles soon regretted the loss of Shaftesbury, and endeavoured,
as did also Louis, to induce him to return, but in vain. He
preferred now to become the great popular leader against all
the measures of the court, and may be regarded as the intellectual
chief of the opposition. At the meeting of parliament on the
8th of January 1674, he carried a motion for a proclamation
banishing Catholics to a distance of 10 m. from London. During
the whole session he organized and directed the opposition in
their attacks on the king's ministers. On the igth of May he
was dismissed the privy council and ordered to leave London.
He retired to Wimborne and urged upon his parliamentary
followers the necessity of securing a new parliament. He was
in the House of Lords, however, in 1675, when Danby brought
forward his famous Non-resisting Test Bill, and headed the
opposition which was carried on for seventeen days, distinguishing
himself, says Burnet, more in this session than ever before.
The bill was shelved, a prorogation having taken place in con-
sequence of a quarrel between the two Houses, supposed to have
been purposely got up by Shaftesbury, in which he supported
the right of the Lords to hear appeal cases, even where the
defendant was a member of the Lower House. Parliament
was prorogued for fifteen months until the isth of February
1677, and it was determined by the opposition to attack its
existence on the ground that a prorogation for more than a year
was illegal. In this matter the opposition were in the wrong,
and by attacking the parliament discredited themselves. The
result was that Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Wharton and
Salisbury were sent to the Tower. In June Shaftesbury applied
for a writ of habeas corpus, but could get no release until the
26th of February 1678, after his letter and three petitions to
the king. Being brought before the bar of the House of Lords
he made submission as to his conduct in declaring parliament
dissolved by the prorogation, and in violating the Lords' privileges
by bringing a habeas corpus in the King's Bench.
The breaking out of the Popish Terror in 1678 marks the worst
part of Shaftesbury's career. That so clear-headed a man could
have credited the lies of Gates and the other perjurers is beyond
belief; and the manner in which he excited baseless alarms,
and encouraged fanatic cruelty, for nothing but party advantage,
is without excuse. On the 2nd of November he opened the great
attack by proposing an address declaring the necessity for the
king's dismissing James from his council. Under his advice
the opposition now made an alliance with Louis whereby the
French king promised to help them to ruin Danby on condition
that they would compel Charles, by stopping the supplies, to
make peace with France, doing thus a grave injury to Protestant-
ism abroad for the sake of a temporary party advantage at home.
Upon the refusal in November of the Lords to concur in the address
of the Commons requesting the removal of the queen from court,
he joined in a protest against the refusal, and was foremost in
all the violent acts of the session. He urged on the bill by which
Catholics were prohibited from sitting in either House of Parlia-
ment, and was bitter in his expressions of disappointment when
the Commons passed a proviso excepting James, against whom
the bill was especially aimed, from its operation. A new parlia-
ment met on the 6th of March 1679. Shaftesbury had meanwhile
ineffectually warned the king that unless he followed his advice
there would be no peace with the people. On the 2$th of March
he made a striking speech upon the state of the nation, especially
upon the dangers to Protestantism and the misgovernment of
Scotland and Ireland. He was suspected, too, of doing all in his
power to bring about a revolt in Scotland. By the advice of
Temple, Charles now tried the experiment of forming a new
privy council in which the chief members of the opposition were
included, and Shaftesbury was made president, with a salary of
4000, being also a member of the committee for foreign affairs.
He did not, however, in any way change either his opinions
or his action. He opposed the compelling of Protestant
Nonconformists to take the oath required of Roman Catholics.
That indeed, as Ranke says, which makes him memorable in
English history is that he opposed the establishment of an
Anglican and Royalist organization with success. The question
of the succession was now again prominent, and Shaftesbury, in
opposition to Halifax, committed the error, which really brought
about his fall, of putting forward Monmouth as his nominee, thus
alienating a large number of his supporters; he encouraged, too,
the belief that this was agreeable to the king. He pressed on the
Exclusion Bill with all his power, and, when that and the inquiry
into the payments for secret service and the trial of the five
peers, for which too he had been eager, were brought to an end
by a sudden prorogation, he is reported to have declared aloud
that he would have the heads of those who were the king's
advisers to this course. Before the prorogation, however, he
saw the invaluable Act of Habeas Corpus, which he had carried
through parliament, receive the royal assent. In pursuance of
his patronage of Monmouth, Shaftesbury now secured for him
the command of the army sent to suppress the insurrection in
Scotland, which he is supposed to have fomented. In October
1679, the circumstances which led Charles to desire to conciliate
the opposition having ceased, Shaftesbury was dismissed from
his presidency and from the privy council; when applied to by
Sunderland to return to office he made as conditions the divorce
of the queen and the exclusion of James. With nine other peers
he presented a petition to the king in November, praying for the
meeting of parliament, of which Charles took no notice. In
April, upon the king's declaration that he was resolved to send
for James from Scotland, Shaftesbury advised the popular leaders
at once to leave the council, and they followed his advice. In
March we find him unscrupulously eager in the prosecution of the
alleged Irish Catholic plot. Upon the king's illness in May he
held frequent meetings of Monmouth's friends at his house to
consider how best to act for the security of the Protestant
religion. On the 26th of June, accompanied by fourteen others,
he presented to the grand jury of Westminster an indictment
of the duke of York as a Popish recusant. In the middle of
September he was seriously ill. On the isth of November the
Exclusion Bill, having passed the Commons, was brought up to
the Lords, and an historic debate took place, in which Halifax
and Shaftesbury were the leaders on opposite sides. The bill
was thrown out, and Shaftesbury signed the protest against its
rejection. The next day he urged upon the House the divorce
of the queen. On the 7th of December, to his lasting dishonour,
he voted for the condemnation of Lord Stafford. On the 23rd
he again spoke vehemently for exclusion, and his speech was
immediately printed. All opposition was, however, checked by
the dissolution on the i8th of January. A new parliament was
called to meet at Oxford, to avoid the influences of the city of
London, where Shaftesbury had taken the greatest pains to
make himself popular. Shaftesbury, with fifteen other peers,
petitioned the king that it might as usual be held in the capital.
He prepared instructions to be handed by constituencies to their
SHAFTESBURY, 3 R D EARL OF
7 6 3
members upon election, in which exclusion, disbanding, the
limitation of the prerogative in proroguing and dissolving
parliament, and security against popery and arbitrary power
were insisted on. At this parliament, which lasted but a few
days, he again made a personal appeal to Charles, which was
curtly rejected, to permit the legitimizing of Monmouth. The
king's advisers now urged him to arrest Shaftesbury; he was
seized on the 2nd of July 1681, and committed to the Tower, the
judges refusing his petition to be tried or admitted to bail.
This refusal was twice repeated in September and October, the
court hoping to obtain evidence sufficient to ensure his ruin.
In October he wrote offering to retire to Carolina if he were
released. On the 24th of November he was indicted for high
treason at the Old Bailey, the chief ground being a paper of
association for the defence of the Protestant religion, which,
though among his papers, was not in his handwriting; but the
grand jury ignored the bill. He was released on bail on the
ist of December. In 1682, however, Charles secured the appoint-
ment of Tory sheriffs for London; and, as the juries were chosen
by the sheriffs, Shaftesbury felt that he was no longer safe from
the vengeance of the court. Failing health and the disappoint-
ment of his political plans led him into violent courses. He
appears to have entered into consultation of a treasonable kind
with Monmouth and others; he himself had, he declared, ten
thousand brisk boys in London ready to rise at his bidding.
For some weeks he was concealed in the city and in Wapping;
but, finding the schemes for a rising hang fire, he went to Harwich,
disguised as a Presbyterian minister, and after a week's delay,
during which he was in imminent risk of discovery, if indeed, as is
probable, his escape was not winked at by the government, he
sailed to Holland on the 28th of November 1682, and reached
Amsterdam in the beginning of December. Here he was
welcomed with the jest, referring to his famous speech against
the Dutch, " nondum deleta Carthago." He was made a citizen
of Amsterdam, but died there of gout in the stomach on the 2ist
of January 1683. His body was sent in February to Poole,
in Dorset, and was buried at Wimborne St Giles.
Few politicians have been the mark of such abuse as Shaftesbury.
Dryden, while compelled to honour him as an upright judge, over-
whelmed his memory with scathing, if venal, satire; and Dryden's
satire has been accepted as truth by later historians. Macaulay in
especial exerted all his art, though in contradiction of probability
and fact, to deepen still further the shade which rests upon his
reputation. Christie, on the other hand, in possession of later sources
of information, and with more honest purpose, did much to rehabili-
tate him. Occasionally, however, he appears to hold a brief for the
defence, and, though the picture is comparatively true, this Life
(1871) should be read with caution. Finally, in his monograph (1886)
in the series of " English Worthies," H. D. Traill professes to hold
the scales equally. He makes an interesting addition to our concep-
tion of Shaftesbury's place in English politics, by insisting on his
position as the first great party leader in the modern sense, and as the
founder of modern parliamentary oratory. In other respects his
book is derived almost entirely from Christie. See also the present
writer's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog. Much of Shaftesbury's career,
increasingly so as it came near its close, is incapable of defence ; but
it has escaped most of his critics that his life up to the Restoration,
apparently full of inconsistencies, was evidently guided by one lead-
ing principle, the determination to uphold the supremacy of parlia-
ment, a principle which, however obscured by self-interest, appears
also to have underlain his whole political career. He was, too, ever
the friend of religious freedom and of an enlightened policy in all
trade questions. And, above all, it should not be forgotten, in justice
to Shaftesbury's memory, that " during his long political career, in
an age of general corruption, he was ever incorrupt, and never
grasped either money or land." (O. A.)
SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY" ASHLEY COOPER, 3x0 EARL
OF (1671-1713), was born at Exeter House in London on the
26th of February 1670/1. He was grandson of the first and son
of the second earl. His mother was Lady Dorothy Manners,
daughter of John, earl of Rutland. According to a curious
story, told by the third earl himself, the marriage between
his father and mother was negotiated by John Locke, who was
a trusted friend of the first earl. The second Lord Shaftesbury
appears to have been a poor creature, both physically and
mentally. At the age of three his son was made over to the
formal guardianship of his grandfather. Locke, who in his
capacity of medical attendant to the Ashley household had
already assisted in bringing the boy into the world, though not
his instructor, was entrusted with the superintendence of his
education. This was conducted according to the principles
enunciated in Locke's Thoughts concerning Education, and the
method of teaching Latin and Greek conversationally was
pursued with such success by his instructress, Mrs Elizabeth
Birch, that at the age of eleven, it is said, Ashley could read
both languages with ease. In November 1683, some months
after the death of the first earl, his father entered him at
Winchester as a warden's boarder. Being shy and constantly
taunted with the opinions and fate of his grandfather, he appears
to have been rendered miserable by his schoolfellows, and to
have left Winchester in 1686 for a course of foreign travel. He
was brought thus into contact with those artistic and classical
associations which exercised so marked an influence on his
character and opinions. On his travels he did not, we are told
by the fourth earl, " greatly seek the conversation of other
English young gentlemen on their travels," but rather that of
their tutors, with whom he could converse on congenial topics.
In 1689, the year after the Revolution, Lord Ashley returned
to England, and for nearly five years he appears to have led a
quiet and studious life. There can be no doubt that the greater
part of his attention was directed to the perusal of classical
authors, and to the attempt to realize the true spirit of classical
antiquity. He had no intention, however, of becoming a recluse,
or of permanently holding himself aloof from public life. Accord-
ingly he became a candidate for the borough of Poole, and was
returned the 2ist of May 1695. He soon distinguished himself by a
speech in support of the Bill for Regulating Trials in Cases of
Treason, one provision of which was that a person indicated for
treason or misprision of treason should be allowed the assistance
of counsel. But, though a Whig, alike by descent, by education
and by conviction, Ashley could by no means be depended on to
give a party vote; he was always ready to support any proposi-
tions, from whatever quarter they came, that appeared to him
to promote the liberty of the subject and the independence of
parliament. Unfortunately, his health was so treacherous that,
on the dissolution of July 1698, he was obliged to retire from
parliamentary life. He suffered much from asthma, a complaint
which was aggravated by the London smoke.
Lord Ashley now retired into Holland, where he became
acquainted with Le Clerc, Bayle, Benjamin Furly, the English
Quaker merchant, at whose house Locke had resided during
his stay at Rotterdam, and probably Limborch and the rest of
the literary circle of which Locke had been a cherished and
honoured member nine or ten years before. To Lord Ashley
this society was probably far more congenial than his surroundings
in England. Unrestrained conversation on the topics which
most interested him philosophy, politics, morals, religion
was at this time to be had in Holland with less danger and in
greater abundance than in any other country in the world.
To the period of this sojourn in Holland must probably be referred
the surreptitious impression or publication of an imperfect
edition of the Inquiry concerning Virtue, from a rough draught,
sketched when he was only twenty years of age. This liberty
was taken, during his absence, by Toland.
After an absence of over a twelvemonth, Ashley returned to
England, and soon succeeded his father as earl of Shaftesbury.
He took an active part, on the Whig side, in the general election
of 1700-1701, and again, with more success, in that of the autumn
of 1701. It is said that William III. showed his appreciation
of Shaftesbury's services on this latter occasion by offering
him a secretaryship of state, which, however, his declining
health compelled him to decline. Had the king's life continued,
Shaftesbury's influence at court would probably have been
considerable. After the first few weeks of Anne's reign, Shaftes-
bury, who had been deprived of the vice-admiralty of Dorset,
returned to his retired life, but his letters to Furly show that he
retained a keen interest in politics. In August 1703 he again
settled in Holland, in the air of which he seems, like Locke, to have
had great faith. At Rotterdam he lived, he says in a letter to
764
SHAFTESBURY, 3RD EARL OF
his steward Wheelock, at the rate of less than 200 a year, and
yet had much " to dispose of and spend beyond convenient
living." He returned to England, much improved in health,
in August 1704. But, though he had received immediate
benefit from his stay abroad, symptoms of consumption were
constantly alarming him, and he gradually became a confirmed
invalid. His occupations were now almost exclusively literary,
and from this time forward he was probably engaged in writing,
completing or revising the treatises which were afterwards
included in the Characteristics. He continued, however, to take
a warm interest hi politics, both home and foreign, and especially
in the war against France, of which he was an enthusiastic
supporter.
Shaftesbury was nearly forty before he married, and even
then he appears to have taken this step at the urgent instigation
of his friends, mainly to supply a successor to the title. The
object of his choice (or rather of his second choice, for an earlier
project of marriage had shortly before fallen through) was a
Miss Jane Ewer, the daughter of a gentleman in Hertfordshire.
The marriage took place in the autumn of 1 709, and on February
9, 1710/1, was born at his house at Reigate, in Surrey, his
only child and heir, the fourth earl, to whose manuscript accounts
we are in great part indebted for the details of his father's life.
The match appears to have been happy, though Shaftesbury
had little sentiment on the subject of married life.
With the exception of a Preface to the Sermons of Dr Whichcoie,
one of the Cambridge Platonists or latitudinarians, published
in 1698, Shaftesbury appears to have printed nothing himself
till 1708. About this time the French prophets, Camisards
(q.v.), as they were called, attracted much attention by their
extravagances and follies. Various repressive remedies were
proposed, but Shaftesbury maintained that fanaticism was best
encountered by " raillery " and " good-humour." In support
of this view he wrote a letter Concerning Enthusiasm to Lord
Somers, dated September 1 707, which was published anonymously
in the following year, and provoked several replies. In May
1709 he returned to the subject, and printed another letter,
entitled Sensus Communis, an Essay on the Freedom of Wit and
Humour. In the same year he also published The Moralists,
a Philosophical Rhapsody, and in the following year Soliloquy,
or Advice to an Author. None of these pieces seems to have been
printed either with his name or his initials. In 1711 appeared
the Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, in three
volumes, also without any name or initials on the title-page,
and without even the name of a printer. These volumes contain
in addition to the four treatises already mentioned, Miscellaneous
Reflections, now first printed, and the Inquiry concerning Virtue
or Merit, described as " formerly printed from an imperfect copy,
now corrected and published intire," and as " printed first in the
year 1699."
The declining state of Shaf tesbury's health rendered it necessary
for him to seek a warmer climate, and in July 1711 he set out
for Italy. He settled at Naples in November, and lived there
considerably over a year. His principal occupation at this time
must have consisted in preparing for the press a second edition
of the Characteristics, which appeared in 1713, soon after his
death. The copy, carefully corrected in his own handwriting,
is preserved in the British Museum. He was also engaged,
during his stay at Naples, in writing the little treatise (afterwards
included in the Characteristics) entitled A Notion of the Historical
Draught or Tablature of the Judgment of Hercules, and the letter
concerning Design. A little before his death he had also formed
a scheme of writing a Discourse on the Arts of Painting, Sculpture,
Etching, &c., but when he died he had made but little progress
with it. " Medals, and pictures, and antiquities," he writes to
Furly, " are our chief entertainments here." His conversation
was with men of art and science, " the virtuosi of this place."
The events preceding the peace of Utrecht, which he regarded
as preparing the way for a base desertion of our allies, greatly
troubled the last months of Shaftesbury's life. He did not,
however, live to see the actual conclusion of the treaty (March
31, 1713), as he died the month before, February 4, 1712/3.
He had not completed his forty-second year. His body was
brought back by sea to England and buried at St Giles's, the
family seat in Dorsetshire. His only son, Anthony Ashley,
succeeded him as 4th earl, and his great-grandson was the
famous philanthropist, the 7th earl.
Shaftesbury's amiability of character seems to have been one
of his principal characteristics. Like Locke he had a peculiar
pleasure in bringing forward young men. Among these may be
especially mentioned Michael Ainsworth, a native of Wimborne
St Giles, the young man who was the recipient of the Letters
addressed to a student at the university, and was maintained
by Shaftesbury at University College, Oxford. The interest
which Shaftesbury took in his studies, and the desire that he
should be specially fitted for the profession which he had selected,
that of a clergyman of the Church of England, are marked features
of the letters. Other proteges were Crell, a young Pole, the two
young Furlys and Harry Wilkinson, a boy who was sent into
Furly 's office at Rotterdam, and to whom several of the letters
still extant in the Record Office are addressed.
In the popular mind, Shaftesbury is generally regarded as a
writer hostile to religion. But, however short his orthodoxy
might fall if tried by the standards of any particular church,
his temperament was pre-eminently religious. This fact is
shown in his letters. The belief in a God, all-wise, all-just and
all-merciful, governing the world providentially for the best,
pervades all his works, his correspondence and his life. Nor
had he any wish to undermine established beliefs, except where
he conceived that they conflicted with a truer religion and a
purer morality.
To the public ordinances of the church he scrupulously con-
formed. But, unfortunately, there were many things both in
the teaching and the practice of the ecclesiastics of that day
which were calculated to repel men of sober judgment and high
principle. These evil tendencies in the popular presentation
of Christianity undoubtedly begot in Shaftesbury's mind a
certain amount of repugnance and contempt to some of the
doctrines of Christianity itself; and, cultivating, almost of
set purpose, his sense of the ridiculous, he was too apt to assume
towards such doctrines and their teachers a tone of raillery.
But, whatever might be Shaftesbury's speculative opinions
or his mode of expressing them, all witnesses bear testimony to
the elevation and purity of his life and aims. As an earnest
student, and ardent lover of liberty, an enthusiast in the cause of
virtue, and a man of unblemished life and untiring beneficence,
Shaftesbury probably had no superior in his generation. His
character and pursuits are the more remarkable, considering
the rank of life in which he was born and the circumstances
under which he was brought up. In many respects he reminds
us of the imperial philosopher Marcus Aurelius, whose works
he studied with avidity, and whose influence is stamped upon
his own productions.
Most of Shaftesbury's writings have been already mentioned. In
addition to these there have been published fourteen letters from
Shaftesbury to Molesworth, edited by Toland in 1721 ; some letters
to Benjamin Furly, his sons, and his clerk Harry Wilkinson, included
in a volume entitled Original Letters of Locke, Sidney and Shaftesbury,
which was published by Mr T. Fcrster in 1830, and again in an en-
larged form in 1847; three letters, written respectively to Stringer,
Lord Oxford and Lord Godolphin, which appeared, for the first time,
in the General Dictionary; and lastly a letter to Le Clerc, in his re-
collections of Locke, first published in Notes and Queries, Feb. 8,
1851. The Letters to a Young Man at the University (Michael Ains-
worth), already mentioned, were first published in 1716. The Letter
on Design was first published in the edition of the Characteristics
issued in 1732. Besides the published writings, there are several
memoranda, letters, rough drafts, &c., in the Shaftesbury papers
in the Record Office.
Shaftesbury took great pains in the elaboration of his style, and he
succeeded so far as to make his meaning transparent. The thought
is always clear. But, on the other hand, he did not equally succeed
in attaining elegance, an object at which he seems equally to have
aimed. There is a curious affectation about his style a falsetto
note which, notwithstanding all his efforts to please, is often irritat-
ing to the reader. Its main characteristic is perhaps best hit off by
Charles Lamb when he calls it " genteel." He poses too much as a
fine gentleman, and is so anxious not to be taken for a pedant of the
vulgar scholastic kind that he falls into the hardly more attractive
SHAFTESBURY, 7 EARL OF
765
pedantry of the aesthete and virtuoso. But he is easily read and
understood. Hence, probably, the wide popularity which his works
enjoyed in the l8th century; and hence the agreeable feeling with
which, notwithstanding all their false taste and their tiresome
digressions, they impress the modern reader.
Shaftesbury's philosophical importance (see ETHICS) is due mainly
to his ethical speculations, in which his motive was primarily the
refutaticn of Hobbes's egoistic doctrine. By the method of empirical
psychology, he examined man first as a unit in himself and secondly
in his wider relations to the larger units of society and the universe
of mankind. His great principle was that of Harmony or Balance,
and he based it on the general ground of good taste or feeling as
opposed to the method of reason. (l) In the first place man as an
individual is> a complex of appetites, passions, affections, more or
less perfectly controlled by the central reason. In the moral man
these factors are duly balanced. " Whoever," he says, " is in the
least versed in this moral kind of architecture will find the inward
fabric so adjusted, . . . that the barely extending of a single passion
too far or the continuance ... of it too long, is able to bring
irrecoverable ruin and misery " (Inquiry concerning Virtue or
Merit, Bk. II. ii. l). (2) As a social being, man is part of a greater
harmony, and, in order that he may contribute to the happiness of
the whole, he must order his extra-regarding activities so that they
shall not clash with his environs. Only when he has regulated his
internal and his social relations by this ideal can he be regarded as
truly moral. The egoist and the altruist are both imperfect. In the
ripe perfection of humanity, the two impulses will be perfectly ad-
justed. Thus, by the criterion of harmony, Shaftesbury retutes
Hobbes, and deduces the virtue of benevolence as indispensable to
morality. So also he has drawn a close parallel between the moral and
the aesthetic criteria. Just as there is a faculty which apprehends
beauty in the sphere of art, so there is in the sphere of ethics a faculty
which determines the value of actions. This faculty he described
(for the first time in English thought) as the Moral Sense (see
HUTCHESON) or Conscience (cf . BUTLER). In its essence, it is primarily
emotional and non-reflective; in process of development it becomes
rationalized by education and use. The emotional and the rational
elements in the " moral sense " Shaftesbury did not fully analyse
(see HUME).
From this principle, it follows (l) that the distinction between
right and wrong is part of the constitution of human nature; (2)
that morality stands apart from theology, and the moral qualities
of actions are determined apart from the arbitrary will of God; (3)
that the ultimate test of an action is its tendency to promote the
general harmony or welfare ; (4) that appetite and reason concur in
the determination of action; and (5) that the moralist is not con-
cerned to solve the problem of freewill and determinism. From
these results we see that Shaftesbury, opposed to Hobbes and Locke,
is in close agreement with Hutcheson (q.v.), and that he is ultimately
a deeply religious thinker, inasmuch as he discards the moral sanction
of public opinion, the terrors of future punishment, the authority
of the civil authority, as the main incentives to goodness, and substi-
tutes the voice of conscience and the love of God. These two alone
move men to aim at perfect harmony for its own sake in the man
and in the universe.
Shaftesbury's philosophical activity was confined to ethics,
aesthetics and religion. For metaphysics, properly so called, and
even psychology, except so far as it afforded a basis for ethics, he
evidently had no taste. Logic he probably despised as merely an
instrument of pedants a judgment for which, in his day, and
especially at the universities, there was only too much ground.
The main object of the Moralists is to propound a system of
natural theology, and to vindicate, so far as natural religion is
concerned, the ways of God to man. The articles of Shaftesbury's
religious creed were few and simple, but these he entertained with a
conviction amounting to enthusiasm. They may briefly be summed
up as a belief in one God whose most characteristic attribute is
universal benevolence, in the moral government of the universe, and
in a future state ot man making up for the imperfections and repairing
the inequalities of the present life. Shaftesbury is emphatically an
optimist, but there is a passage in the Moralists (pt. ii. sect. 4) which
would lead us to suppose that he regarded matter as an indifferent
principle, coexistent and coeternal with God, limiting His opera-
tions, and the cause of the evil and imperfection which, notwithstand-
ing the benevolence of the Creator, is still to be found in His work.
If this view of his optimism be correct, Shaftesbury, as Mill says of
Leibnitz, must be regarded as maintaining, not that this is the best of
all imaginable but only of all possible worlds. This brief notice of
Shaftesbury's scheme of natural religion would be conspicuously
imperfect unless it were added that it is popularized in Pope's Essay
on Man, several lines of which, especially of the first epistle, are
simply statements from the Moralists done into verse. Whether,
however, these were taken immediately by Pope from Shaftesbury,
or whether they came to him through the papers which Bolingbroke
had prepared for his use, we have no means of determining.
The influence of Shaftesbury's writings was considerable both at
home and abroad. His ethical system was reproduced, though in a
more precise and philosophical form, by Hutcheson, and from him
descended, with certain variations, to Hume and Adam Smith.
Nor was it without its effect even on the speculations of Butler. Of
the so-called deists Shaftesbury was probably the most important, as
he was certainly the most plausible and the most respectable. No
sooner had the Characteristics appeared than they were welcomed,
in terms of warm commendation, by Le Clerc and Leibnitz. In 1745
Diderot adapted or reproduced the Inquiry concerning Virtue in what
was afterwards known as his Essai sur le Merite et la Vertu. In 1769
a French translation of the whole of Shaftesbury's works, including
the Letters, was published at Geneva. Translations of separate
treatises into German began to be made in 1738, and in 1776-1779
there appeared a complete German translation of the Characteristics.
Hermann Hettner says that not only Leibnitz, Voltaire and Diderot,
but Lessing, Mendelssohn, Wieland and Herder, drew the most
stimulating nutriment from Shaftesbury. " His charms," he adds,
" are ever fresh. A new-born Hellenism, or divine cultus of beauty
presented itself before his inspired soul." Herder is especially
eulogistic. In the Adrastea he pronounces the Moralists to be a
composition in form well-nigh worthy of Grecian antiquity, and in
its contents almost superior to it. The interest felt by German
literary men in Shaftesbury was revived by the publication of two
excellent monographs, one dealing with him mainly from the theo-
logical side by Dr Gideon Spicker (Freiburg in Baden, 1872), the
other dealing with him mainly from the philosophical side by Dr
Georg von Gizycki (Leipzig, 1876). (T. F.; J. M. M.)
AUTHORITIES. In Dr Thomas Fowler's monograph on Shaftesbury
and Hutcheson in the series of " English philosophers " (1882) he
was able largely to supplement the printed materials for the Life by
extracts from the Shaftesbury papers in the Record Office. These
include, besides many letters and memoranda, two Lives of him, com-
posed by his son, the fourth earl, one of which is evidently the original,
though it is by no means always closely followed, of the Life con-
tributed by Dr Birch to the General Dictionary. For a description
and criticism of Shaftesbury's philosophy reference may also be made
to James Mackintosh's Progress of Ethical Philosophy, W. Whewell's
History of Moral Philosophy in England, Jouffroy's Introduction to
Ethics (Channing's translation), Sir Leslie Stephen's English Thought
in the Eighteenth Century, Martineau's Types of Ethical Theory,
Windelband's History of Philosophy (Eng. trans., 1893); W. M.
Hatch's unfinished edition with appendices of the Characteristics
(1870); I. M. Robertson's edition of the Characteristics (1900);
B. Rand s Life (1900). For his relation to the religious and theo-
logical controversies of his day, see, in addition to some of the above
works, J. Leland.Vtetf of the Principal Deistical Writers, V. Lechler,
Geschichte des Englischen Deismus, J. Hunt, Religious Thought in
England, C. J. Abbey and J. H. Overton, English Church in the
Eighteenth Century and A. S. Farrar's Hampton Lectures; G. Zart,
Einfluss der englischen Philosophen sett Bacon auf die deutsche
Philosophic des iSten Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1881).
SHAFTESBURY, ANTHONY ASHLEY COOPER, ?TH EARL
OF (1801-1885), son f Cropley, 6th earl (a younger brother
of the sth.earl; succeeded 1811), and Anne, daughter of the 3rd
duke of Marlborough, was born on the 28th of April 1801.
He was educated at Harrow and Christ Church, Oxford, where
he obtained a first class in classics in 1822, and graduated M.A.
in 1832. In 1841 he received from his university the degree of
D.C.L. He entered parliament as member for the pocket
borough of Woodstock in 1826; in 1830 he was returned for
Dorchester; from 1831 till February 1846 he represented the
county of Dorset; and he was member for Bath from 1847
till (having previously borne the courtesy title Lord Ashley)
he succeeded his father as earl in 1851. Although giving a general
support to the Conservatives, his parliamentary conduct was
greatly modified by his intense interest in the improvement of
the social condition of the working classes, his efforts in behalf
of whom have made his name a household word. He opposed
the Reform Bill of 183 2, but was a supporter of Catholic emancipa-
tion, and his objection to the continuance of resistanc p e to the
abolition of the Corn Laws led him to resign his seat for Dorset
in 1846. In parliament his name, more than any other, is
associated with the new factory legislation. He was a lord of
the admiralty under Sir Robert Peel (1834-1835), but on being
invited to join Peel's administration in 1841 refused, having been
unable to obtain Peel's support for the Ten Hours' Bill. Chiefly
by his persistent efforts a Ten Hours' Bill was carried in 1847,
but its operation was impeded by legal difficulties, which were
only removed by successive Acts, instigated chiefly by him, until
legislation reached a final stage in the Factory Act of 1874.
The part which he took in the legislation bearing on coal mines
was equally prominent. His efforts in behalf of the welfare
of the working classes were guided by personal knowledge.
Thus in 1846, after the resignation of his seat for Dorset, he
explored the slums of the metropolis, and not only gave a new
7 66
SHAFTESBURY SHAFT-SINKING
impulse to the movement for the establishment of ragged schools,
but was able to make it more widely beneficial. For forty years
he was president of the Ragged School Union. He was also one
of the principal founders of reformatory and refuge unions,
young men's Christian associations and working men's institutes.
He took an active interest in foreign missions, and was president
of several of the most important philanthropic and religious
societies of London. He died on the ist of October 1885. By
his marriage (1830) to Lady Emily (d. 1872), daughter of the
5th earl Cowper, he left a large family, and was succeeded by his
eldest son Anthony, who committed suicide in 1886, his son
(b. 1869) becoming pth earl.
See also Hodder's Life (1886).
SHAFTESBURY, a market town and municipal borough in
the northern parliamentary division of Dorsetshire, England,
103 m. W.S.W. from London by the London & South-Western
railway (Semley station). Pop. (1901) 2027. It lies high on a
hill above a rich agricultural district. The church of St Peter
is Perpendicular; those of Holy Trinity and St James are in
the main modern reconstructions. The borough is under a
mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 157 acres.
Although there are traces of both British and Roman occupa-
tion in the immediate neighbourhood, the site of Shaftesbury
(Caer Palladur, Caer Septon, Seaftonia, Sceafstesbyrig, Shafton)
was probably first occupied in Saxon times. Matthew Paris
speaks of its foundation by the mythical king Rudhudibras,
while Asser ascribes it to Alfred, who made his daughter
Ethelgeofu the first abbess. It is probable that a small religious
house had existed here before the time of Alfred, and that it
and the town were destroyed by the Danes, being both rebuilt
about 888. In 980 Dunstan brought St Edward's body here
from Wareham for burial, and here Canute died in 1035. Shaftes-
bury was a borough containing 104 houses in the king's demesne
during the reign of Edward the Confessor; in 1086, 38 houses
had been destroyed, but it was still the seat of a mint with
three mint-masters. In the manor of the abbess of Shaftesbury
were m houses and 151 burgesses; here 42 houses had been
totally destroyed since St Edward's reign. In 1280 the abbess
obtained the royal manor at an annual fee-farm rent of i 2 and
remained the sole mistress of the borough until it passed at the
dissolution of the monasteries to Sir Thomas Arundel, after
whose execution it was granted about 1552 to William Herbert,
earl of Pembroke. In 1252 the burgesses received their first
charter from Henry III. This granted that in all eyres the
justices itinerant should come to Shaftesbury and that the
burgesses should not answer for aught without the town and might
choose for themselves two coroners annually. The reeve of the
borough is mentioned in 1313-1317. The office of mayor was
created between the years 1350-1352, and an inquisition of
1392 records that the mayor held a court of pie-powder and
governed the town in the absence of the steward. The seal of
the commonalty is extant for 1350, and that of the mayoralty
first occurs in 1428. By 1471 a general asembly of burgesses
had acquired power to take part in elections. There is no evidence
that Elizabeth granted Shaftesbury a charter, as has been
asserted, but she confiscated the common lands in 1585, the town
only recovering them by purchase. This probably led to a
charter of incorporation being obtained from James I. in 1604.
A new charter was granted to the town in 1684, but without
the surrender of the old charter confirmed by Charles II. in 1665.
Shaftesbury returned two members to parliament from 1 294 to
1832, when the representation was reduced to one, and it was
lost in 1885. Leland speaks of Shaftesbury as a great market
town, and it possessed a market in the time of Edward I. The
Martinmas fair was granted in 1604. In the i7th century
worsted, buttons and leather were manufactured, but these
industries have disappeared.
See Charles Hubert Mayo, The Municipal Records of the Borough
of Shaftesbury (Sherborne, 1889).
SHAFT-SINKING, an important operation in mining for
reaching and working mineral deposits situated at a depth
below the surface, whenever the topography does not admit of
driving adits or tunnels. Shafts are often sunk also in connexion
with certain civil engineering works, e.g. at intervals along the
line of a railway tunnel, for starting intermediate headings,
thus securing more points of attack than if the entire work were
carried on from the end headings only. Sundry modifications
of shaft-sinking are adopted in excavating for deep foundations
of heavy buildings, bridge piers and other engineering structures.
If in solid rock, carrying but little water, shaft-sinking is a
comparatively simple operation. But when much water is
encountered or the formation penetrated comprises unstable,
watery strata, special forms of lining become necessary and the
work is slow and expensive. Mine shafts are often very deep;
notably in the Witwatersrand, South Africa; the Michigan
copper district; at Bendigo, Australia; and in certain parts of
Europe. Many vertical shafts exceed 4000 ft. in depth, and at
least two the Whiting shaft, of the Calumet and Hecla mine
and shaft No. 3 of the Tamarack mine (both in Michigan)
are over 5000 ft. deep. The last named at the beginning of 1907
was about 5200 ft., and was then the deepest in the world.
Several inclined shafts, in the same district, approximate 6000
ft. in length.
Shape of Shafts. In Europe shafts are generally cylindrical,
sometimes of elliptical cross-section, and are lined with masonry,
concrete, cast iron or steel; in the United States and elsewhere
throughout the mining regions of the world, rectangular cross-
sections are the rule for sinking in rock, the shaft walls being
supported by timbering, occasionally by steel lining. For sinking
in loose, water-bearing soils, the cross-section is almost invariably
cylindrical, as this form best resists pressure tending to cause
crushing or caving of the shaft walls. The European practice
of sinking cylindrical shafts even in rock is based mainly on four
considerations: (i) custom; (2) high cost of timber; (3) apart
from questions of first cost, a cylindrical shaft, lined with masonry
or iron, is strong and permanent, and its cost of maintenance
low; (4) more shafts in difficult formations have been sunk in
Europe than elsewhere. The cheaper timber-lined, rectangular
shaft, however, is generally appropriate under normal conditions
in rocky strata, in view of the temporary character of mining
operations. Vertical shafts may be either rectangular or
cylindrical; when inclined they are always rectangular.
The primary purpose of mine shafts is to act as hoisting-
and travelling- ways; incidentally they serve for ventilation,
for pumping and for transmitting power underground by steam,
compressed air or other means. Rectangular shafts are usually
divided longitudinally into compartments. One or more of
these are for the cages or skips, which run in guides bolted to the
shaft timbering (see MINING). Another is generally provided
for a ladder- and pipe-way andj for ventilation. When much
water is encountered a separate pump compartment is desirable.
Cylindrical shafts may be similarly divided by subsidiary
timbering, though in many timbering is omitted and the hoisting
cages areiguided by wire ropes stretched from top to bottom.
Dimensions. The cross-sectional area of shafts depends
mainly on the size of the cages or skips i.e. on the hoisting
loads. Small rectangular shafts of one or two compartments
measure inside of timbers, say 4 by 6 ft. up to. 7 by 12 ft.; larger
shafts of three compartments, from 5 by 12 ft. up to 8 or 10 ft.
by 20 ft. For four- ' or five-compartment shafts, sometimes
required for large scale work, as in the deep-level mines of the
Witwatersrand, the inside dimensions range from 6 by 20 ft.
to 6 or 8 by 30 ft., and for some of the Pennsylvania colliery
shafts, up to 13 by 52 ft. Cylindrical shafts rarely have more
than two hoisting compartments and are commonly from 10
to 16 ft., sometimes 20 or 21 ft. diameter, the segmental areas
surrounding the hoisting-ways being utilized for ventilation,
piping, &c.
Sinking in Rock. If the rock be overlaid by loose soil carrying
little water, excavation is begun by pick and shovel, and after
the rock is reached it is continued by drilling and blasting (see
BLASTING). The sinking plant, usually temporary, comprises
a small hoist and boiler, several buckets or sometimes a skip,
one or more sinking pumps, according to the quantity of water,
SHAFT-SINKING
767
occasionally a small ventilating fan, and a timber derrick or
head-frame over the shaft mouth, with appliances for dumping
the buckets, handling the rock and safe-guarding the men in
the shaft against falling objects. In some circumstances a portion
of the permanent mine plant is erected for sinking. The choice
between hand and machine drilling depends chiefly on the kind
of rock and the size and depth of shaft. For very hard rock
or when rapid work is desired, machine drilling is advisable,
a compressor and additional boiler capacity being then required.
Remarkable speeds, however, have been made by hand-sinking
in some of the deep vertical shafts on the Rand, the world's
record being that of the Howard shaft, sunk by hand labour 203
ft. in one month. But such speeds are attainable only in dry,
or nearly dry, ground, at a high cost per foot and by crowding as
many men into the shaft as possible, both for drilling and
loading away the blasted rock. The conditions being the same,
inclined shafts closely approaching the vertical can be put
down about as fast as vertical shafts; but for inclinations
between say 75 and 30 to the horizontal, inclines are generally
slower on account of the greater inconvenience of carrying on
the work, both of excavation and timbering. Very flat shafts,
on the other hand, can be sunk at speeds little less than for
driving tunnels, unless there is much water. The highest speed
on record for a very flat incline (10) is 267 ft. in one month.
As a rule, the speed attained in sinking depends less on the
drilling time per round of holes than on the time required to
handle and hoist out the rock; hence the speed generally
diminishes with increase of depth. Furthermore,.omitting shafts
of small area, the cost per foot of depth does not increase greatly
with the cross-sectional dimensions. For the same rock the rate
of advance in wet formations is always much slower than in dry
and the cost greater.
The work of sinking in rock is carried on as follows. A round of
holes is drilled, usually from 3 to 4 ft. deep if by hand, or from 5 to
8 or 9 ft. if by machine drilling (see BLASTING). A common mode of
arranging machine drill holes is shown in plan and section in fig. i.
The holes are charged with dynamite and fired by fuze or electricity
in deep shafts preferably by electricity, as the men may have to be
hoisted a long distance to reach a place of safety. After the smoke
has cleared away (which may be hastened by sprays or by turning on
the compressed air if machine drills are used), the work of hoisting
out the broken rock is begun and drilling resumed as soon as possible.
For shafts not over 6 or 8 ft. wide, machine drills are usually mounted
on horizontal bars stretching across from wall to wall, or, in wider or
cylindrical shafts, on tripods or special sinking-frames. In shafts of
small area, or deep shafts which are timbered during sinking, the
hoisting buckets must be guided to prevent them from striking
against the sides. Small quantities of water are bailed into the
buckets; when the inflow is too great to be so disposed of, a sinking
pump is employed (see MINING).
Shaft Timbering. In sinking rectangular vertical shafts under
normal conditions the excavation through the surface soil is com-
monly lined with cribbing, inside of which a concrete curb is some-
times built to dam out the surface water. After reaching rock the
lining is generally composed of horizontal sets of 8 by 8 in. to 12 by
1 2 in. squared timber wedged against the walls, with smaller pieces,
or planking, called " lagging," placed behind them, to prevent
portions of the walls from falling away. In firm rock lagging may
be omitted. Each set consists of (fig. 2) two long timbers (wall-
t. r<
Plan
t
E
10 C[
D
10 C[ E
n c
Plan
h ..
T, |
S s
S
Er DJ w y -id
Elevation
FlG. 2.
Longitudinal Section
Fig. I.
plates) W, W, two shorter, pieces (end plates) E,E, and usually one
or more cross pieces (dividers or buntons) D,D, to form the compart-
ments, strengthen the sets and support the cage guides, G,G. The
sets are from 4 to 6 ft. apart, with vertical posts (studdles) S,S,
between them. At intervals of say 80 to 120 ft., longer timbers
(" bearers ") are notched into the walls, under a set, to prevent dis-
placement of the lining as a whole. A series of shaft sets, with their
posts, are either built up from a bearing-set, or suspended from the
latter by hanger-bolts. When the rock is firm, a considerable depth
of shaft may be sunk and then timbered ; generally, however, it is
safer to put in a few sets at a time as sinking advances, the lowermost
set being always far enough from the bottom to prevent it from being
injured by the blasting. Inclined shafts in solid ground are often
timbered as described above, though sometimes merely by setting
longitudinal rows of posts, for supporting the roof and dividing the
shaft into compartments.
Lining for Cylindrical Shafts in Bock. Wooden linings are oc-
casionally put in small shafts, or for temporary support, before the
permanent lining is built, but a cylindrical shaft of any importance
is lined with masonry or iron. Masonry linings are generally built
in sections, as the sinking advances, each section being based on a
walling-crib AB, CD. (fig. 3). Specially moulded tapered bricks
are convenient, shaped to conform with the radius of the shaft.
Concrete may be similarly moulded into
large blocks, often weighing 1200 to 1600 Ib
each. The thickness of the walling depends
on the depth of shaft and pressure antici-
pated; it is usually from 13 in. to 2 ft., laid
in cement mortar. Such linings, while not
entirely water-tight, will shut out much of
the water present in the surrounding rock.
Iron lining, or " tubbing," is employed
when the inflow of water is rather large. It
is usually composed of cast iron flanged
rings, each cast in a single piece for shafts
of small diameter, or in segments bolted
together for large diameters. To permit the |
rings to adjust themselves to the pressure, I
the horizontal joints are rarely bolted ; they |
are packed with sheet-lead or thin strips of f
dry pine, any leaks appearing subsequently
being stopped with wedges. Though pre-
ferably of cast iron, tubbing is occasionally
built of steel plate rings, stiffened by angles FlG. 3.
or channels riveted to them. The irregular
annular space between the tubbing and rock-walls is afterwards
filled with concrete or cement grouting. The lowermost tubbing
ring is based upon a " wedging-crib." This is a heavy cast iron ring,
composed of segments bolted together, and set on a projecting shelf
of rock, carefully dressed down. The space behind the crib is driven
full of wooden wedges, which expand on becoming water-soaked and
thus make a tight joint at the bottom of the tubbing with the rock
just above the mineral deposit. By this means most of the water
may be permanently shut out of the shaft, and the cost of pumping
materially reduced.
Kind-Ckaudron System of Sinking. This ingenious method, intro-
duced in 1852, has thus far been confined to Europe. Up to 1904,
79 shafts had been sunk by its use, some of them to depths of looo ft.
or more, without a single instance of failure. It is applicable only
to firm rock and was devised to deal with cases where the quantity
of water is too great to be pumped out while excavation is in pro-
gress; that is, for inflows greater than looo or 1200 gallons per
minute. In its after results the system is most successful when the
water-bearing rocks rest on an impervious stratum, overlying the
mineral deposit. The entire excavation is carried on under water;
then a lining of special design is lowered into place and the shaft
unwatered. The shaft is sunk by boring on an immense scale, by
apparatus resembling the rod and drop-drill (see BORING). Instead
of ordinary drills,
massive tools
called " trepans "
are employed , con-
sisting of a heavy
iron frame, in the
lower edge of
which are set a
number of sepa-
rate cutters (fig.
4). Shafts not
exceeding 8 ft.
diameter are
bored in one
operation; for
larger diameters
an advance bore -*
is usually made FlG . 4 ._Large and Small Trepans for shaft sink-
with a small ; ng Haniel & Lueg, Diisseldorf , makers,
trepan and after-
wards enlarged to full size. The advance bore may be completed to the
required depth of shaft before beginning enlargement, or the small
and large trepans used alternately, the advance being kept 30 to
60 ft. ahead of the enlargement. An 8 ft. trepan weighs about
12 tons, those of 14 or 15 ft. 25 to 30 tons. The trepan is attached to
a heavy rod, suspended from a walking-beam operated by an engine
on the surface, as in ordinary boring. A derrick is erected over the
768
SHAFT-SINKING
shaft, with a hoisting engine for raising and lowering the tools.
Average rock is bored at a speed of about li ft. per 24 hours. The
advance bore is cleaned of debris at intervals by a bailer similar to
that used for bore-holes. The enlarging trepan is so shaped that the
bottom of the enlargement slopes to the centre, whereby the cuttings,
assisted by the agitation of the water, run into the advance bore and
are bailed out. Owing to the difficulty of this latter procedure the
advance bore is sometimes omitted even for large shafts, the debris
being removed by a special dredger (Coll. Guard., Dec. 22, 1899, p.
1181). For rather loose rock another somewhat similar system of
drilling, the Pattberg, has been satisfactorily employed.
When the shaft has passed through the watery strata the lining is
installed. This is composed of cast iron rings, like tubbing (cc, dd),
bolted together at the shaft mouth and gradually lowered through
the water (fig. 5). The first two rings,
called the " moss-box " (oa, bb) are designed
to telescope together and have a quantity
of dry moss packed between their outer
flanges. When the lowermost ring reaches
the bottom, the weight of the lining com-
presses the moss and forces it against the
surrounding rock, making a tight joint.
The lining is suspended from the surface
by threaded rods, and to regulate and
reduce its weight while it is being lowered
the bottom is closed by a diaphragm (ff),
from the centre of which rises an open
pipe (g). This pipe is provided with cocks
for admitting inside the lining from time to
time enough water to overcome buoyancy.
Finally, concrete is filled in behind the
lining, the diaphragm removed and the
completed shaft pumped out. In some
formations the moss-box is omitted, the
concreting being relied on to make the lining
FIG. 5.
water-tight. The cost of this method of sinking and lining (gener-
ally 35 to 60 per foot), as well as the speed, compare favour-
ably with results obtainable under the same conditions by other
means; in many cases it is the only practicable method.
Sinking in unstable, watery soils, which often cause serious
engineering difficulties, is accomplished by: (i) spiling, vertical or
inclined; (2) drop-shafts; (3) caisson and compressed air; (4) the
freezing process.
Vertical spiling consists in driving one or more series of spiles
around the sides of the excavation, supported by horizontal timber
cribs. When the first spiles have been driven, and the enclosed soil
removed, a second set follows inside, and so on. As a result of the
successive reductions in cross-section of the shaft, vertical spiling is
inapplicable to depths much greater than say 75 ft.
Inclined spiling is also limited to small depths. Cribs are put in
every few feet and around them, driven ahead of the excavation, are
short, heavy planks,
sharpened to a chisel
edge. The spiles in-
cline outward, being
driven inside of one
crib and outside of that
next below (fig. 6).
The shaft bottom also
is usually sheathed
with planking, braced
against the lowest crib
and advanced to new
positions as sinking
progresses.
Drop - Shafts. This
important method has
been used for depths
of nearly 500 ft. A
heavy timber, iron or
masonry lining (usu-
ally cylindrical) , is sunk
through the soil, new
sections being succes-
sively added at the sur-
face, while the excava-
tion goes on inside. In
quite soft soil the lining or drop-shaft sinks with its own weight ; when
necessary, additional weights of pig-iron, rails, &c., are applied at the
top. If, from excessive friction or other cause, the first lining refuses
to sink farther, a second is lowered telescopically inside, followed by
others if required. The drop-shaft, which must be strongly built
to resist collapse, distortion or rupture, is based on a massive wooden
or iron shoe, generally of triangular cross-section, which cuts into the
soil as the weight of the structure increases and the excavation pro-
ceeds. When built of masonry the great weight of the drop-shaft
may become unmanageable in very soft soil, either sinking too fast or
settling irregularly and spasmodically, accompanied by inrushes of
sand or mud at the bottom. It is then suspended by iron rods,
fastened to the shoe and threaded for passing through large nuts
FIG. 6.
supported by a framework on the surface. The rods are lengthened
as required for lowering the lining. For deep shafts the lining must
be of iron or steel, as wood is too weak and masonry too heavy.
When the inflow of water can be met by a reasonable amount of
pumping, the materiaj is excavated by hand; otherwise, the water
is allowed to stand at its natural level and the excavation carried on
by dredging. This saves the cost of pumping during sinking, and the
pressure of the unstable soil is largely counteracted by the weight of
the column of water within the shaft. After the lining has come to
rest on the solid sub-stratum, the shaft is pumped out, inflow under-
neath the shoe stopped as far as possible and sinking resumed by
ordinary means. The dredging appliance commonly employed is the
" sackborer." This consists of an iron or wooden rod, suspended
vertically in the shaft, at the lower end of which on each side is
attached a heavy hoop-like wing. The wings carry two large sacks
of canvas and leather, opening in opposite directions. By rotating
the rod by machinery at the surface, the sacks are swept round
horizontally like the cutting edges of an auger, and partly filling after
a few revolutions are then raised and emptied. The leakage under
the shoe may be stopped in several ways, e.g. by concreting the shaft
bottom, then pumping out the water and sinking through the con-
crete by drilling and blasting; by unwatering the shaft and calking
below the shoe; or by inserting a wedging crib. There are various
modifications of the drop-shaft which cannot here be detailed.
Sinking with caisson and compressed air is rarely adopted except
in civil engineering operations, for deep foundations of bridge piers,
&c. (see CAISSON).
Freezing Process. This useful process was introduced in Germany
jn 1883, by F. H. Poetsch. The soil in which the shaft is to be sunk
is artificially frozen and then excavated like solid rock. A number of
drive-pipes are put down (see BORING), usually 4 to 6 in. diameter
and about 3 ft. apart, in a circle whose radius is, say, 3 ft. greater than
that of the shaft, and reaching to bed-rock or other firm formation.
Each pipe is plugged at the lower end and within it is placed an open
pipe, ij in. in diameter, extending nearly to the bottom. Or, pre-
ferably, after the drive-pipes are down, a slightly smaller pipe, closed
at its lower end, is inserted in each drive-pipe, the latter being after-
wards pulled out. The inner i J in. open pipes are then put in place.
At the surface, the outer and inner pipes are connected respectively
to two horizontal distributing rings, which in turn are connected with
a pump and ice-machine. A circulatory system is thus established.
The freezing fluid, a nearly saturated solution of calcium or mag-
nesium chloride (freezing point about 29F.), is pumped through the
ice-machine, where it is cooled to at least oF., and goes thence to the
freezing pipes. It passes down the inner pipes, up through the outer
pipes, and returns to the ice-machine. The cold solution rising in the
large pipes absorbs the heat from the surrounding watery soil,
which freezes concentrically round each pipe. As the process goes
on the frozen masses finally join (in from 3 to 4 weeks), forming an
unbroken wall. The enclosed soft soil may then be excavated by
dredging; or the freezing may be continued (total time usually from
5 to 10 weeks according to the depth), until the solidification reaches
the centre and to some distance beyond the circle of pipes, after which
the ground is drilled and blasted. This process has been successfully
employed to depths of over 700 ft., and is applicable not only to the
most unstable soils but also to heavily water-bearing rocks. It is
questionable whether it will prove to be practicable for great depths,
largely because of the difficulty of maintaining verticality of the bore-
holes for the freezing pipes. Even a slight angular divergence would
leave breaks in the wall of frozen soil and cause danger. In a modi-
fication of the Poetsch process, introduced by A. Gobert in 1891, the
calcium chloride solution is replaced by anhydrous liquid ammonia,
which on vaporizing in the freezing pipes produces a temperature of
25 to 30 F. Sixty-four shafts had been sunk by the freezing
process up to 1904.
Another method proposed for dealing with quicksand or similar
watery ground is to inject through pipes a mixture of cement and
water. The entire mass of soil would be solidified by the setting of
the cement, and the shaft sunk by drilling and blasting, with no
trouble from water.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The following partial list of references may be
useful :
Sulking in Rock: Engineering (London, 2nd Feb. 1894); Coll.
Guardian (7th April 1898) p. 631, (2oth April 1906, and 2oth May
1898); Coll. Engineer (Oct. 1898) p. 135, (Dec. 1895) p. 100, and
(Jan. 1896) p. 103; Mines and Minerals (June 1900) p. 481, (Dec.
1905) p. 225, and (Feb. 1906), p. 311; Eng. and Min. Journ, (i3th
April 1901) p. 461, and (i6th Sep. 1905) p. 483; Min. and Set.
Press (3rd April 1904) p. 299; Australian Min. Standard (ist Feb.
1900); Trans. Instn. Min. and Met. xv. 333; Jour. South African
Assoc. Engs. (srd Feb. 1906); Rev. univ. des mines (Oct. 1899);
Gliickauf (8th Oct. 1904 and Ath March 1905).
Kind-Chaudron System: Engineer (London, Aug. 1904) ; Coll.
Guardian (23rd March 1900), p. 541 ; North of Eng. Inst., M.E.
xx. 187; Proc. Instn. C.E. Ixxi. 178; Rev. Univ. des Mines (Oct.
1902).
Sinking in Soft Ground: Das Schachtabteufen in schwierigen
Fallen, J. Riemer (1905), translated into English in 1907 by C. R.
Corning and Robert Peele; Coll. Guard. (6th April 1894, I4th Nov.
1902, 3rd Jan. 1903 and 29th Dec. 1905); Mines and Minerals
SHAGIA SHAHJAHANPUR
769
(Nov. 1904), p. 188; Trans. Amer. Inst. M.E., xx. 188;
Gluckauf (nth June 1902); School of Mines Quart, iii. 277; Rev.
univ. des mines (July 1902); Bull. Soc. de I'lnd. Min. (1903), No. i;
Ann. des mines de Belgique, x. pt. i; Mining Jour. (2ist April
1906).
Freezing Process: Gluckauf (i2th May 1906, 2nd June 1906);
Gstrr. Zeitschr. f. Berg- u. Hiittenwesen (i4th, 2ist and 28th July
1906, I4th, 2lst and 28th April, and 5th May, 1900); Ann. des
mines, xviii. 379; Genie civil (i8th and 25th Jan. and ist
Feb. 1902); Mines and Minerals (July 1898), p. 565; Trans. Fed.
Inst. M.E. xi. 297; Coll. Guard, (ist Dec. 1893) p. 960, and
(i2th June 1896) p. 1108; Eng. and Min. Jour. (i2th and 26th
Oct. 1907). (R. P.*)
SHAGIA (SHAIGIA, SHAIKIYEH), a tribe of Africans of Semitic
origin living on both banks of the Nile from Korti to the
Third Cataract, and in portions of the Bayuda Desert. The
Shagla are partly a nomad, partly an agricultural people. They
claim descent from one Shayig Ibn Hamaidan of the Beni Abbas,
and declare that they came from Arabia at the time of the con-
quest of Egypt in the 7th century. They must have dispossessed
and largely intermarried with a people of Nuba origin. They
appear (from a statement by James Bruce) to have been settled
originally south of their present country and to have moved
northward since 1772. Formerly subject to the Funj kings of
Sennar, they became independent on the decline of that state in
the i8th century. They were overcome c. 1811 at Dongola
by the Mamelukes, but continued to dominate a considerable
part of Nubia. To the Egyptians in 1820 they offered a stout
resistance, but finally submitted and served in the Egyptian ranks
during the suppression of the Ja'alin revolt (1822). For their
services they obtained lands of these latter between Shendi and
Khartum. At that time they were far more civilized than the
neighbouring tribes. Freedom-loving, brave, enlightened and
hospitable, they had schools in which all Moslem science was
taught, and were rich in corn and cattle. Their fighting men,
mounted on horses of the famous Dongola breed, were feared
throughout the eastern Sudan. Their chiefs wore coats of mail
and carried shields of hippopotamus or crocodile skin. Their
arms were lance, sword or javelin. The Shagia are divided into
twelve clans. Their country is the most fertile along the Nile
between Egypt and Khartum. Many of their villages are well
built; some of the houses are fortified. They speak Arabic and
generally preserve the Semitic type, though they are obviously
of very mixed blood. The typical Shagla has a sloping forehead,
aquiline nose and receding chin. They have adopted the
African custom of gashing the chests of their children. In the
wars of 1884-85 General Gordon's first fight was to rescue a few
Shagia besieged in a fort at Halfaya. In April 1884 Saleh Bey
(Saleh Wad el Mek), head of the tribe, and 1400 men surrendered
to the mahdi's forces. Numbers of Shagia continued in the
service of General Gordon and this led to the outlawry of the
tribe by the mahdi. When Khartum fell Saleh's sons were sought
out and executed by the dervishes. On the reconquest of the
Sudan by the Anglo-Egyptian army (1896-98) it was found that
the Shagla were reduced to a few hundred families.
See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
1905) ; A. H. Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (London,
1884).
SHAGREEN, a species of untanned leather with a roughened,
granular surface. The word is the English form ; cf . Ger. Schagrin,
of Fr. chagrin, Ital. zagrin, zigrino; these are usually referred to
Turkish and Persian saghri, lit. the back of a horse, and so applied
to leather made from this part. The skin of the wild ass was
especially used. The method of preparing the skins to secure the
rough, granular surface is as follows. The seeds of a plant, usually
some species of Chinopodium, are embedded in the skin while
soft, the surface is then shaved down and soaked in water, when
the edges of the indentations swell up. The leather is then dyed,
green being a favourite colour. Shagreen is now commonly made
of the skins of sharks and rays; the placoid scales of the shark
skin giving the necessary roughened surface. Shagreen is used
as an ornamental leather for making pocket-books, small cases
and the like, and for the handles of swords, daggers, &c.
The figurative use in French of " chagrin," for anxiety,
xxiv. 25
annoyance, was adopted in English in the I7th century. This
application of the word is due to the rasping surface of the leather.
SHAH, the title of the kings of Persia, the full title being
padshah, i.e. " lord king," Pers. pati, lord, and shah, king (see
PADISHAH, the Turkish form of the word). The word shah is a
much shortened form of the O. Pers. khsayathiya, probably
formed from khsayathi, might, power, khsi, to rule. The Sanskrit
kshatram, dominion, is allied, cf. also " satrap." From the
Pers. shah mat, the king is dead, is ultimately derived, through
the Arab, pronunciation shag, " check-mate," then " check,"
" chess," " exchequer," &c.
SHAHABAD, a district of British India, in the Patna division
of Bengal, with an area of 4373 sq. m. About three-fourths of
the area to the north is an alluvial flat, planted with mangoes,
bamboos and other trees; while the southern portion is occupied
by the Kaimur hills, a branch of the great Vmdhyan range, and
is a densely wooded tract. The chief rivers are the Ganges and
the Sone, which unite in the north-eastern corner of Shahabad.
In the southern portion large game abounds. The annual
rainfall averages 43 in. In 1901 the population was 1,962,696,
showing a decrease of 4-7% in the decade. The chief crops are
rice, millets, wheat, pulses, oilseeds, poppy and sugarcane.'
Shahabad is protected against drought by a system of canals from
the Sone, some of which are navigable. The district is traversed
by the East Indian railway near the Ganges, and by a branch from
Mogul Serai to Gaya, which crosses the Sone at Dehri-on-Sone,
where are the workshops of the canal. The administrative
headquarters are at Arrah. Among other historic sites, it includes
the hill-fort of Rohtas, the tomb of Shere Shah at Sasseram
and the battlefield of Buxar.
See Shahabad District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1906).
SHAH ALAM (1728-1806), Mogul emperor of Delhi, son of
Alamgir II., was born on the isth of June 1728, and was originally
known as the Shahzada Ali Gohar. Being proclaimed a rebel
by his father, he fled to Shuja-ud-Dowlah, wazir of Oudh, and
on the death of his father in 1759 assumed the name of Shah
Alam. He joined Shuja-ud-Dowlah against the British, but
after his defeat at the battle of Buxar, he sought British protec-
tion. In 1765 he granted the diivani (superintendence of the
revenue) of Bengal to Lord Clive for the East India Company
in return for a payment of 26 lakhs a year. In 1771 he fell into
the power of the Mahrattas, was installed emperor of Delhi, and
lost the British subsidy. In 1788 the Rohilla chief Ghulam
Kadir seized Delhi and put out Shah Alam's eyes. Sindhia
restored him to the throne, and after the Mahratta war of 1803 he
was again taken under British protection. He died on the loth
of November 1806.
See W. Francklin, History of the Reign of Shah Alam (Calcutta,
1798).
SHAH JAHAN (fl. 1627-1638), 'Mogul emperor of Delhi, the
fifth of the dynasty. After revolting against his father Jahangir,
as the latter had revolted against Akbar, he succeeded to the
throne on his father's death in 1627. It was during his reign that
the Mogul power attained its greatest prosperity. The chief
events of his reign were the destruction of the kingdom of
Ahmadnagar (1636), the loss of Kandahar to the Persians (1653),
and a second war against the Deccan princes (1655). In 1658
he fell ill, and was confined by his son Aurangzeb in the citadel
of Agra until his death in 1666. The period of his reign was the
golden age of Indian architecture. Shah Jahan erected many
splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal
at Agra, built as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal; while the
Pearl Mosque at Agra and the palace and great mosque at Delhi
also commemorate him. The celebrated " Peacock Throne,"
said to have been worth 6,000,000 also dates from his reign;
and he was the founder of the modern city of Delhi, the native
name of which is Shahjahanabad.
SHAHJAHANPUR, a city and district of British India, in
the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The city is on
the left bank of the river Deoha or Garra, 507 ft. above the
sea-level, with a station on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway,
768 m. N.W. of Calcutta, and a military cantonment. Pop.
770
SHAHPUR SHAIRP
(1901) 75,128. It was founded in 1647 during the reign of Shah
Jahan, whose name it bears, by Nawab Bahadur Khan, a
Pathan. His mosque is the only building of antiquarian interest.
There is a manufacture of sugar, but no great trade.
The DISTRICT OF SHAHJAHANPUR has an area of 1727 sq. m.
It consists of a long.and narrow tract running up from the Ganges
towards the Himalayas, and is for the most part level and without
any hills. The principal rivers are the Gumti, Khanaut, Garai
and Ramganga. To the north-east the country resembles the
tarai in the preponderance of waste and forest over cultivated
land, in the sparseness of population and in general unhealthi-
ness. Between the Gumti and the Khanaut the country varies
from a rather wild and unhealthy northern region to a densely
inhabited tract in the south, with a productive soil cultivated
with sugar-cane and other remunerative crops. The section
between the Deoha and Garai comprises much marshy land;
but south of the Garai, and between it and the Ramganga,
the soil is mostly of a sandy nature. From the Ramganga to
the Ganges in the south is a continuous low country of marshy
patches, alternating with a hard clayey soil that requires much
irrigation in parts. Shahjahanpur contains a number of jhtis
or lakes, which afford irrigation for the spring crops. The
climate is very similar to that of most parts of Oudh and Rohil-
khand, but moister than that of the Doab. The annual rainfall
averages about 37 in. In 1901 the population was 921,535.
The principal crops are wheat, rice, pulse, millets, sugar-cane
and poppy. The district suffered very severely from the famine
of 1877-1879. It is traversed by the Lucknow-Bareilly section
of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway, with a branch northwards
from Shahjahanpur city. At Rosa is a large sugar refinery and
rum distillery.
Shahjahanpur was ceded to the English by the nawab of
Oudh in 1801. During the Mutiny of 1857 it became the scene
of open rebellion. The Europeans were attacked when in church;
three were shot down, but the remainder, aided by a hundred
faithful sepoys, escaped. The force under Lord Clyde put a
stop to the anarchy in April 1858, and shortly afterwards peace
and authority were restored.
SHAHPUR, a town and district of British India, in Rawalpindi
division of the Punjab. The town is near the left bank of the
river Jhelum. Pop. (1901) 9386. The district of Shahpur has
an area of 4840 sq. m. Its most important physical subdivisions
are the Salt range in the north, the valleys of the Chenab and
Jhelum, and the plains between those rivers and between the
Jhelum and the Salt range. The characteristics of these two
plains are widely different: the desert portion of the southern
plain is termed the bar; the corresponding tract north of the
Jhelum is known as the thai. The climate of the plains is hot
and dry, but in the Salt range it is much cooler; the annual
rainfall averages about 15 in. Tigers, leopards and wolves
are found in the Salt range, while small game and antelope
abound among the thick jungle of the bar. In 1901 the popula-
tion was 524,259, showing an increase of 6% in the decade.
The principal crops are wheat, millets, pulses and cotton.
Irrigation is effected from government canals, and also from
wells. The largest town and chief commercial centre is Bhera.
The district is traversed by two branches of the North- Western
railway.
Shahpur passed into the hands of the English along with the
rest of the Punjab in 1849. During the Mutiny of 1857 the district
remained tranquil, and though the villages of the bar gave cause
for alarm no outbreak of sepoys occurred. Since annexation
the limits and constitution of the district have undergone
many changes.
SHAHRASTiNl [Abu'1-Fath Mahommed ibn 'Abdalkarim
ush-Shahrastam] (1076 or 1086-1153) Arabian theologian and
jurist, was born at Shahrastan in Khorasan and studied at
Jurjanlyah and Nishapur, devoting his attention chiefly to
Ash'arite theology. He made the pilgrimage in 1116, on his way
back stayed at Bagdad for three years, then returned to his
native place. His chief work is the Kitab ul Milal wan-Nihal,
an account of religious sects and philosophical schools, published
by W. Cureton (2 vols., London, 1846) and translated into German
by T. Haarbriicker (2 vols., Halle, 1850-1851). After a preface
of five chapters dealing with the divisions of the human race,
an enumeration of the sects of Islam, the objections of Satan
against God and against Mahomet and the principles on which
the sects may be classified, he deals with (i) the sects of Islam
in detail, (2) the possessors of a written revelation (Jews and
Christians) or something resembling it (the Magi), (3) the men
who follow their own reason, i.e. the philosophers of Greece and
their followers, among the Moslems; the pre-Islamic Arabs,
the Indians and the heathen. Among Shahrastanfs other
works still in manuscript only are a history of philosophers,
a dogmatic text-book and a treatment of seven metaphysical
questions.
A brief account of him is given on the authority of his pupil, the
historian Sam 'ani, in Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii., pp. 675 ff. (G. W. T.)
SHAHRUD, the capital of the Shahrud-Bostam province of
Persia, situated about 258 m. E. of Teheran, on the highroad
thence to Meshed, at an altitude of 4460 ft., in 36 25' N., 54 59'
E. It has a population of about 10,000, post and telegraph
offices, and a transit trade between western Khorasan and Astara-
bad. Although capital of the province, it is not the residence
of the governor, who prefers the more healthy Bostam, a small
city with fine gardens and a mosque of the i4th century, lying
3 m. to the north-east.
SHAH SHUJA (i78o?-i842), king of Afghanistan, was the
son of Timur Shah, and grandson of Ahmad Shah, founder of
the Durani dynasty. After conspiracies that caused the dethrone-
ment of two brothers, Taman Shah and Mahmud Shah, he became
king in 1803. He was, however, in his turn driven out of
Afghanistan in 1809 by Mahmud Shah, and found refuge and a
pension in British territory. Distrusting the attitude of the Amir
Dost Mahommed towards Russia, Lord Auckland in 1839
attempted to restore Shah Shuja to the throne against the
wishes of the Afghan people. This policy led to the disastrous
first Afghan War. After the retreat of the British troops from
Kabul, Shah Shuja shut himself up in the Bala Hissar. He
left this retreat on the sth of April 1842, and was immediately
killed by the adherents of Dost Mahommed and his son Akbar
Khan.
SHAIRP, JOHN CAMPBELL (1819-1885), Scottish critic and
man of letters, was born at Houstoun House, Linlithgowshire,
on the 3Oth of July 1819. He was the third son of Major Norman
Shairp of Houstoun, and was educated at Edinburgh Academy
and Glasgow University. He gained the Snell exhibition, and
entered at Balliol College, Oxford, in 1840. In 1842 he gained
the Newdigate prize for a poem on Charles XII., and took his
degree in 1844. During these years the " Oxford movement "
was at its height. Shairp was stirred by Newman's sermons,
and he had a great admiration for the poetry of Keble, on whose
Character and work he wrote an enthusiastic essay; but he
remained faithful to his Presbyterian upbringing. After leaving
Oxford he took a mastership at Rugby under Tail. In 1857 he
became assistant to the professor of humanity in the university
of St Andrews, and in 1861 he was appointed to that chair.
In 1864 he published Kilmahoe, a Highland Pastoral, and in 1868
he republished some articles under the name of Studies in Poetry
and Philosophy. In 1868 he was presented to the principalship of
the United College, St Andrews, and lectured from time to time
on literary and ethical subjects. A course of the lectures was
published in 1870 as Culture and Religion. In 1873 Principal
Shairp helped to edit the life of his predecessor J. D. Forbes, and
in 1874 he edited Dorothy Wordsworth's charming Recollections
of a Tour in Scotland. In 1877 he was elected professor of poetry
at Oxford in succession to Sir F. H. Doyle. Of his lectures from
this chair the best were published in 1881 as Aspects of Poetry.
In 1877 he had published The Poetic Interpretation of Nature, in
which he enters fully into the " old quarrel," as Plato called it,
between science and poetry, and traces with great clearness
the ideas of nature in all the chief Hebrew, classical and English
poets. In 1879 he contributed a life of Robert Burns to the
" English Men of Letters "series. He was re-elected to the chair of
SHAKERS
771
poetry in 1882, and discharged his duties there and at St Andrews
till the end of 1884. He died at Ormsary, Argyllshire, on the i8th
of September 1885. In 1888 appeared Glen Desseray, and other
Poems, edited by F. T. Palgrave.
See W. A. Knight's Principal Shairp and his Friends (1888).
SHAKERS, an American celibate and communistic sect,
officially called " The United Society of Believers in Christ's
Second Appearing " or " The Millennial Church." 1 The early
Quakers were sometimes called Shakers, and the name, or its
variant, Shaking Quakers, was applied in the early i8th century
to a Manchester offshoot of the English Quakers, who, led by
James and Ann Wardley, accepted the peculiar doctrines of the
French Prophets, or Camisards, of Vivarais and Dauphine. 2
The Wardleys were succeeded by the real founder of Shakerism,
Ann Lee (1736-1784), the daughter of a Manchester blacksmith.
Although a believer in celibacy, she had at her parents' urging
married one Abraham Stanley (Standley, or Standerin); had
borne him four children, who died in infancy; had joined the
Wardleys in 1758; and had influenced their followers to preach
more publicly the imminent second coming and to attack sin
more boldly and unconventionally. She was frequently im-
prisoned for breaking the Sabbath by dancing and shouting, and
for blasphemy; had many " miraculous " escapes from death;
and once, according to her story, being examined by four clergy-
men of the Established Church, spoke to them for four hours in
seventy-two tongues. While in prison in Manchester for fourteen
days, she said she had a revelation that " a complete cross against
the lusts of generation, added to a full and explicit confession,
before witnesses, of all the sins committed under its influence,
was the only possible remedy and means of salvation." After
this, probably in 1770, she was chosen by the society as " Mother
in spiritual things " and called herself " Ann, the Word." In
1774 a revelation bade her take a select band to America. Ac-
companied by her husband, who soon afterward deserted her;
her brother, William Lee (1740-1784); Nancy Lee, her niece;
James Whittaker (1751-1787), who had been brought up by
Mother Ann and was probably related to her; John Hocknell
(1723-1799), who provided the funds for the trip; his son,
Richard; and James Shepherd and Mary Partington, Mother
Ann arrived on the 6th of August 1774 in New York City. Here
they stayed for nearly two years. In 1776 Hocknell bought land
at Niskayuna, in the township of Watervliet, near Albany, and
the Shakers settled there. A spiritualistic revival in the neigh-
bouring town of New Lebanon sent many penitents to Watervliet,
who accepted Mother Ann's teachings and organized in 1787
(before any formal organization in Watervliet) the New Lebanon
Society, the first Shaker Society, at New Lebanon (since 1861
called Mt. Lebanon), Columbia county, New York. The Society
at Watervliet, organized immediately afterwards, and the New
Lebanon Society formed a bishopric. The Watervliet members,
as non-resistants and non-jurors, had got into trouble during the
War of Independence; in 1780 the Board of Elders were im-
prisoned, but all except Mother Ann were speedily set free,
and she was released in 1781.
In 1781-1783 the Mother with chosen elders visited her
followers in New York, Massachusetts and Connecticut. She died
in Watervliet on the 8th of September 1784. James Whittaker
was head of the Believers for three years. On his death he was
succeeded by Joseph Meacham (1742-1796), who had been a
Baptist minister in Enfield, Connecticut, and had, second only to
Mother Ann, the spiritual gift of revelation. Under his rule and
that of Lucy Wright (1760-1821), who shared the headship with
him during his lifetime and then for twenty-five years ruled
alone, the organization of the Shakers and, particularly, a rigid
communism, began. By 1793 property had been made a " con-
1 Some of its leaders prefer the name "Alethians," as they con-
sider themselves children of the truth; but they do not repudiate the
commonly applied name Shakers.
2 The Wardleys' followers, when " wrestling in soul to be freed
from the power of sin and a worldly life," writhed and trembled so
that they won the name Shakers; their trances and visions, their
jumping and dancing, were like those of many other sects, such as the
Low Countries dancers of the I4th and I5th centuries, the French
Convulsionnaires of 1720-1770, or the Welsh Methodist Jumpers.
secrated whole " in the different communities, but a " non-
communal order " also had been established, in which sym-
pathizers with the principles of the Believers lived in families.
The Shakers never forbade marriage, but refused to recognize it
as a Christian institution since the second coming in the person
of Mother Ann, and considered it less perfect than the celibate
state. Shaker communities in this period were established in
1790 at Hancock, West Pittsfield, Mass.; in 1791 at Harvard,
Mass.; in 1792 at East Canterbury (or Shaker Village), New
Hampshire; and in 1793 at Shirley, Mass.; at Enfield (or
Shaker Station), Connecticut; at Tyringham, Mass., where the
Society was afterwards abandoned, its members joining the
communities in Hancock and Enfield; at Gloucester (since 1890,
Sabbath-day Lake), Maine; and at Alfred, Maine, where,
more than anywhere else among the Shakers, spiritualistic
healing of the sick was practised. In Kentucky and Ohio
Shakerism entered after the Kentucky revival of 1800-1801, 3
and in 1805-1807 Shaker societies were founded at South Union,
Logan county, and Pleasant Hill, Mercer county, Kentucky.
In 1811 a community settled at Busro on the Wabash in Indiana;
but it was soon abandoned and its members went to Ohio and
to Kentucky. In Ohio later communities were formed at Water-
vliet, Hamilton county, and at Whitewater, Dayton county.
In 1828 the communal property at Sodus Bay, New York, was
sold and the community removed to Groveland, or Sonyea;
their land here was sold to the state and the few remaining
members went to Watervliet. A short-lived community at
Canaan, N.Y., was merged in the Mount Lebanon (New York)
and Enfield (Connecticut) communities. The numerical strength
of the sect decreased rapidly, probably from 4000 to 1000 in
1887-1908; and there has been little effort made to plant new
communities. The Mt. Lebanon Society in 1894 established a
colony at Narcoossee, Florida; the attempt of the Union Village
Society in 1898 to plant a settlement at White Oak, Camden
county, Georgia, was unsuccessful. In 1910 the Union Village
Society went into the hands of a receiver.
The period of spiritual manifestations among the Believers lasted
from 1837 to 1847; first, children told of visits to cities in the spirit
realm and gave messages from Mother Ann; in 1838 the gift of
tongues was manifested and sacred places were set aside in each
community, with names like Holy Mount; but in 1847 the spirits,
after warning, left the Believers. The theology of the denomination
is based on the idea of the dualism of God : the creation of male and
female " in our image " showing the bi-sexuality of the Creator; in
Jesus, born of a woman, the son of a Jewish carpenter, were the male
manifestation of Christ and the first Christian Church ; and in Mother
Ann, daughter of an English blacksmith, were the female manifesta-
tion of Christ and the second Christian Church she was the Bride
ready for the Bridegroom, and in her the promises of the Second
Coming were fulfilled. Adam's sin was in sexual impurity; marriage
is done away with in the body of the Believers in the Second Appear-
ance, who must pattern after the Kingdom in which there is no
marriage or giving in marriage. The four virtues are virgin purity;
Christian communism; confession of sin, without which none can
become Believers; and separation from the world. The Shakers do
not believe in the divinity or deity of Jesus, or in the resurrection of
the body. Their insistence on the bi-sexuality of God and their
reverence for Mother Ann have made them advocates of sex equality.
Their spiritual directors are elders and " eldresses," and their
temporal guides are deacons and deaconesses in equal numbers.
The prescribed uniform costume with woman's neckerchief and cap,
and the custom of men wearing their hair long on the neck and cut
in a straight bang on the forehead, still persist; but the women wear
different colours. The communism of the Believers was an economic
success, and their cleanliness, honesty and frugality received the
highest praise. They made leather in New York for several years, but
in selling herbs and garden seeds, in making " apple-sauce " (at
3 A prominent part in this revival had been taken by Richard
McNemar, a Presbyterian, who had broken with his Church because
of his Arminian tendencies and had established the quasi-inde-
pendent Turtle Creek Church. McNemar was won by Shaker
missionaries in 1805, and many of his parishioners joined him to form
the Union Village Community on the site of the old Turtle Creek, 4
m. W. of Lebanon, Warren county, Ohio. McNemar was a favourite of
Lucy Wright, who gave him the spiritual name Eleazer Right, which
he changed to Eleazer Wright; he wrote The Kentucky Revival
(Cincinnati, 1807), probably the earliest defence of Shakerism, and
a poem, entitled A Concise Answer to the General Inquiry Who or
What are the Shakers (1808).
772
SHAKESPEARE
Shirley), in weaving linen (at Alfred), and in knitting underwear they
did better work.
See John P. MacLean, A Bibliography of Shaker Literature, with an
Introductory Study of the Writings and Publications Pertaining to
Ohio Believers (Columbus, Ohio, 1905), and his Sketch of the Life and
the Labors of Richard McNemar (Franklin, Ohio, 1905) ; Charles
Edson Robinson, A Concise History of the United Society of Believers,
called Shakers (East. Canterbury, N.H., 1893); Anna White and
Leila S. Taylor, Shakerism, Its Meaning and Message (Columbus, Ohio,
1905); Frederick W. Evans, Shakers: Compendium of the Origin,
History, Principles, Rules and Regulations, Governments and Doctrines
of the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Appearing (Albany,
1858; and often elsewhere under other titles); M. Catherine Allen,
A Century of Communism (Pittsfield, 1902); and the works of
Nordhoff, Noyes, Hinds, &c., on American communism.
SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM (1564-1616), English poet, player
and playwright, was baptized in the parish church of Stratford-
upon-Avon in Warwickshire on the 26th of April
Birth j jg^ The exact date of his birth is not known. Two
parentage. 18th-century antiquaries, William Oldys and Joseph
Greene, gave it as April 23, but without quoting
authority for their statements, and the fact that April 23 was
the day of Shakespeare's death in 1616 suggests a possible
source of error. In any case his birthday cannot have been
later than April 23, since the inscription upon his monument
is evidence that on April 23, 1616, he had already begun his
fifty-third year. His father, John Shakespeare, was a burgess
of the recently constituted corporation of Stratford, and had
already filled certain minor municipal offices. From 1561 to
1563 he had been one of the two chamberlains to whom the
finance of the town was entrusted. By occupation he was a
glover, but he also appears to have dealt from time to time in
various kinds of agricultural produce, such as barley, timber
and wool. Aubrey (Lives, 1680) spoke of him as a butcher, and
it is quite possible that he bred and even killed the calves whose
skins he manipulated. He is sometimes described in formal
documents as a yeoman, and it is highly probable that he com-
bined a certain amount of farming with the practice of his trade.
He was living in Stratford as early as 1 552, in which year he was
fined for having a dunghill in Henley Street, but he does not
appear to have been a native of the town, in whose records the
name is not found before his time; and he may reasonably
be identified with the John Shakespeare of Snitterfield, who
administered the goods of his father, Richard Shakespeare,
in 1561. Snitterfield is- a village in the immediate neighbourhood
of Stratford, and here Richard Shakespeare had been settled
as a farmer since 1529. It is possible that John Shakespeare
carried on the farm for some time after his father's death, and
that by 1570 he had also acquired a small holding called Ingon
in Hampton Lucy, the next village to Snitterfield. But both
of these seem to have passed subsequently to his brother Henry,
who was buried at Snitterfield in 1596. There was also at
Snitterfield a Thomas Shakespeare and an Anthony Shakespeare,
who afterwards moved to Hampton Corley; and these may have
been of the same family. A John Shakespeare, who dwelt at
Clifford Chambers, another village close to Stratford, is clearly
distinct. Strenuous efforts have been made to trace Shake-
speare's genealogy beyond Richard of Snitterfield, but so far
without success. Certain drafts of heraldic exemplifications of
the Shakespeare arms speak, in one case of John Shakespeare's
grandfather, in another of his great-grandfather, as having been
rewarded with lands and tenements in Warwickshire for service
to Henry VII. No such grants, however, have been traced, and
even in the 16th-century statements as to " antiquity and service "
in heraldic preambles were looked upon with suspicion.
The name Shakespeare is extremely widespread, and is spelt
in an astonishing variety of ways. Tha,t of John Shakespeare
occurs 166 times in the Council Book of the Stratford corporation,
and appears to take 16 different forms. The verdict, not
altogether unanimous, of competent palaeographers is to the
effect that Shakespeare himself, in the extant examples of his
signature, always wrote " Shakspere." In the printed signa-
tures to the dedications of his poems, on the title-pages of nearly
all the contemporary editions of his plays that bear his name,
and in many formal documents it appears as Shakespeare.
This may be in part due to the martial derivation which the
poet's literary contemporaries were fond of assigning to his
name, and which is acknowledged in the arms that he bore. The
forms in use at Stratford, however, such as Shaxpeare, by far
the commonest, suggest a short pronunciation of the first syllable,
and thus tend to support Dr Henry Bradley's derivation from the
Anglo-Saxon personal name, Seaxberht. It is interesting, and
even amusing, to record that in 1487 Hugh Shakspere of Merton
College, Oxford, changed his name to Sawndare, because his
former name vile repulatum est. The earliest record of a Shake-
speare that has yet been traced is in 1 248 at Clapton in Gloucester-
shire, about seven miles from Stratford. The name also occurs
during the I3th century in Kent, Essex and Surrey, and during
the I4th in Cumberland, Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire, Essex,
Warwickshire and as far away as Youghal in Ireland. There-
after it is found in London and most of the English counties,
particularly those of the midlands; and nowhere more freely
than in Warwickshire. There were Shakespeares in Warwick
and in Coventry, as well as around Stratford; and the clan
appears to have been very numerous in a group of villages
about twelve miles north of Stratford, which includes Baddesley
Clinton, Wroxall, Rowington, Haseley, Hatton, Lapworth,
Packwood, Balsall and Knowle. William was in common use
as a personal name, and Williams from more than one other
family have from time to time been confounded with the
dramatist. Many Shakespeares are upon the register of the
gild of St Anne at Knowle from about 1457 to about 1526.
Amongst these were Isabella Shakespeare, prioress of the Bene-
dictine convent of Wroxall, and Jane Shakespeare, a nun of the
same convent. Shakespeares are also found as tenants on the
manors belonging to the convent, and at the time of the Dissolu-
tion in 1534 one Richard Shakespeare was its bailiff and collector
of rents. Conjectural attempts have been made on the one hand
to connect the ancestors of this Richard Shakespeare with a
family of the same name who held land by military tenure at
Baddesley Clinton in the i4th and isth centuries, and on the
other to identify him with the poet's grandfather, Richard
Shakespeare of Snitterfield. But Shakespeares are to be traced
at Wroxall nearly as far back as at Baddesley Clinton, and there
is no reason to suppose that Richard the bailiff, who was certainly
still a tenant of Wroxall in 1556, had also since 1529 been farming
land ten miles off at Snitterfield.
With the breaking of this link, the hope of giving Shakespeare
anything more than a grandfather on the father's side must be
laid aside for the present. On the mother's side he was connected
with a family of some distinction. Part at least of Richard
Shakespeare's land at Snitterfield was held from Robert Arden
of Wilmcote in the adjoining parish of Aston Cantlow, a cadet of
the Ardens of Parkhall, who counted amongst the leading
gentry of Warwickshire. Robert Arden married his second wife,
Agnes Hill, formerly Webbe, in 1548, and had then no less
than eight daughters by his first wife. To the youngest of these,
Mary Arden, he left in 1 556 a freehold in Aston Cantlow consisting
of a farm of about fifty or sixty acres in extent, known as Asbies.
At some date later than November 1556, and probably before
the end of 1557, Mary Arden became the wifeof John Shakespeare.
In October 1556 John Shakespeare had bought two freehold
houses, one in Greenhill Street, the other in Henley Street.
The latter, known as the wool shop, was the easternmost of
the two tenements now combined in the so-called Shakespeare's
birthplace. The western tenement, the birthplace proper, was
probably already in John Shakespeare's hands, as he seems to
have been living in Henley Street in 1552. It has sometimes
been thought to have been one of two houses which formed a
later purchase in 1575, but there is no evidence that these were
in Henley Street at all.
William Shakespeare was not the first child. A Joan was
baptized in 1558 and a Margaret in 1562. The latter was buried
in 1563 and the former must also have died young, although
her burial is not recorded, as a second Joan was baptized in 1569.
A Gilbert was baptized in 1566, an Anne in 1571, a Richard in
1574 and an Edmund in 1580. Anne died in 1579; Edmund,
SHAKESPEARE
773
Youth.
who like his brother became an actor, in 1607; Richard in 1613.
Tradition has it that one of Shakespeare's brothers used to visit
London in the i7th century as quite an old man. If so, this can
only have been Gilbert.
During the years that followed his marriage, John Shakespeare
became prominent in Stratford life. In 1565 he was chosen
as an alderman, and in 1568 he held the chief municipal office,
that of high bailiff. This carried with it the dignity of justice
of the peace. John Shakespeare seems to have assumed arms,
and thenceforward was always entered in corporation documents
as " Mr " Shakespeare, whereby he may be distinguished from
another John Shakespeare, a " corviser " or shoemaker, who
dwelt in Stratford about 1584-1592. In 1571 as an ex-bailiff he
began another year of office as chief alderman.
One may think, therefore, of Shakespeare in his boyhood as
the son of one of the leading citizens of a not unimportant
provincial market-town, with a vigorous life of its
own, which in spite of the dunghills was probably not
much unlike the life of a similar town to-day, and with constant
reminders of its past in the shape of the stately buildings formerly
belonging to its college and its gild, both of which had been
suppressed at the Reformation. Stratford stands on the Avon,
in the midst of an agricultural country, throughout which in
those days enclosed orchards and meadows alternated with open
fields for tillage, and not far from the wilder and wooded district
known as the Forest of Arden. The middle ages had left it
an heritage in the shape of a free grammar-school, and here it
is natural to suppose that William Shakespeare obtained a sound
enough education, 1 with a working knowledge of " Mantuan" 2
and Ovid in the original, even though to such a thorough scholar
as Ben Jonson it might seem no more than " small Latin and
less Greek." In 1577, when Shakespeare was about thirteen,
his father's fortunes began to take a turn for the worse. He
became irregular in his contributions to town levies, and had to
give a mortgage on his wife's property of Asbies as security
for a loan from her brother-in-law, Edmund Lambert. Money
was raised to pay this off, partly by the sale of a small interest
in land at Snitterfield which had come to Mary Shakespeare
from her sisters, partly perhaps by that of the Greenhill Street
house and other property in Stratford outside Henley Street,
none of which seems to have ever come into William Shake-
speare's hands. Lambert, however, refused to surrender the
mortgage on the plea of older debts, and an attempt to recover
Asbies by litigation proved ineffectual. John Shakespeare's
difficulties increased. An action for debt was sustained against
him in the local court, but no personal property could be found
on which to distrain. He had long ceased to attend the meetings
of the corporation, and as a consequence he was removed in
1 586 from the list of aldermen. In this state of domestic affairs it
is not likely that Shakespeare's school life was unduly prolonged.
The chances are that he was apprenticed to some local trade.
Aubrey says that he killed calves for his father, and " would do
it in a high style, and make a speech."
Whatever his circumstances, they did not deter him at the
early age of eighteen from the adventure of marriage. Rowe
recorded the name of Shakespeare's wife as Hathaway,
and Joseph Greene succeeded in tracing her to a family
of that name dwelling in Shottery, one of the hamlets of Stratford.
Her monument gives her first name as Anne, and her age as
sixty-seven in 1623. She must, therefore, have been about eight
years older than Shakespeare. Various small trains of evidence
point to her identification with the daughter Agnes mentioned
in the will of a Richard Hathaway of Shottery, who died in
1581, being then in possession of the farm-house now known
as " Anne Hathaway's Cottage." Agnes was legally a distinct
name from Anne, but there can be no doubt that ordinary
custom treated them as identical. The principal record of the
1 It is worth noting that Walter Roche, who in 1558 became
fellow of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, was master of the school in
1570-1572, so that its standard must have been good.
2 Baptista Mantuanus (i44 s -i5i6), whose Latin Eclogues were
translated by Turberville in 1567.
Marriage.
marriage is a bond dated on November 28, 1582, and executed
by Fulk Sandells and John Richardson, two yeomen of Stratford
who also figure in Richard Hathaway's will, as a security to the
bishop for the issue of a licence for the marriage of William
Shakespeare and " Anne Hathwey of Stratford," upon the
consent of her friends, with one asking of the banns. There
is no reason to suppose, as has been suggested, that the procedure
adopted was due to dislike of the marriage on the part of John
Shakespeare, since, the bridegroom being a minor, it would not
have been in accordance with the practice of the bishop's officials
to issue the licence without evidence of the father's consent.
The explanation probably lies in the fact that Anne was already
with child, and in the near neighbourhood of Advent within
which marriages were prohibited, so that the ordinary procedure
by banns would have entailed a delay until after Christmas.
A kindly sentiment has suggested that some form of civil
marriage, or at least contract of espousals, had already taken
place, so that a canonical marriage was really only required in
order to enable Anne to secure the legacy left her by her father
" at the day of her marriage." But such a theory is not rigidly
required by the facts. It is singular that, upon the day before
that on which the bond was executed, an entry was made in
the bishop's register of the issue of a licence for a marriage
between William Shakespeare and " Annam Whateley de Temple
Grafton." Of this it can only be said that the bond, as an
original document, is infinitely the better authority, and that
a scribal error of " Whateley " for " Hathaway " is quite a
possible solution. Temple Grafton may have been the nominal
place of marriage indicated in the licence, which was not always
the actual place of residence of either bride or bridegroom.
There are no contemporary registers for Temple Grafton, and
there is no entry of the marriage in those for Stratford-upon-
Avon. There is a tradition that such a record was seen during
the i gth century in the registers for Luddington, a chapelry
within the parish, which are now destroyed. Shakespeare's
first child, Susanna, was baptized on the 26th of May 1583,
and was followed on the 2nd of February 1585 by twins,
Hamnet and Judith.
In or after 1584 Shakespeare's career in Stratford seems to
have come to a tempestuous close. An iSth-century story of a
drinking-bout in a neighbouring village is of no obscure
importance, except as indicating a local impression years,
that a distinguished citizen had had a wildish youth. tsS4-
But there is a tradition which comes from a double *
source and which there is no reason to reject in substance, to
the effect that Shakespeare got into trouble through poaching
on the estates of a considerable Warwickshire magnate, Sir
Thomas Lucy, and found it necessary to leave Stratford in order
to escape the results of his misdemeanour. It is added that he
afterwards took his revenge on Lucy by satirizing him as the
Justice Shallow, with the dozen white louses in his old coat,
of The Merry Wives of Windsor. From this event until he
emerges as an actor and rising playwright in 1592 his history is
a blank, and it is impossible to say what experience may not
have helped to fill it. Much might indeed be done in eight years
of crowded Elizabethan life. Conjecture has not been idle, and
has assigned him in turns during this or some other period to
the occupations of a scrivener, an apothecary, a dyer, a printer,
a soldier, and the like. The suggestion that he saw military
service rests largely on a confusion with another William Shake-
speare of Rowington. Aubrey had heard that " he had been
in his younger years a schoolmaster in the country." The
mention in Henry IV. of certain obscure yeomen families.
Visor of Woncote and Perkes of Stinchcombe Hill, near Dursley
in Gloucestershire, has been thought to suggest a sojourn in
that district, where indeed Shakespeares were to be found from
an early date. Ultimately, of course, he drifted to London
and the theatre, where, according to the stage tradition, he
found employment in a menial capacity, perhaps even as a
holder of horses at the doors, before he was admitted into a
company as an actor and so found his way to his true vocation
as a writer of plays. Malone thought that he might have left
774
SHAKESPEARE
.
Stratford with one of the travelling companies of players which
from time to time visited the town. Later biographers have
fixed upon Leicester's men, who were at Stratford in 1587,
and have held that Shakespeare remained to the end in the same
company, passing with it on Leicester's death in 1 588 under the
patronage of Ferdinando, Lord Strange and afterwards earl of
Derby, and on Derby's death in 1594 under that of the lord
chamberlain, Henry Carey, Lord Hunsdon. This theory perhaps
hardly takes sufficient account of the shifting combinations
and recombinations of actors, especially during the disastrous
plague years of 1592 to 1594. The continuity of Strange's
company with Leicester's is very disputable, and while the names
of many members of Strange's company in and about 1593
are on record, Shakespeare's is not amongst them. It is at least
possible, as will be seen later, that he had about this time
relations with the earl of Pembroke's men, or with the earl of
Sussex's men, or with both of these organizations.
What is clear is that by the summer of 1592, when he was
twenty-eight, he had begun to emerge as a playwright, and had
evoked the jealousy of one at least of the group of
scholar poets who in recent years had claimed a
and poet, monopoly of the stage. This was Robert Greene,
who, in an invective on behalf of the play-makers
against the play-actors which forms part of his Groats-worth
of Wit, speaks of " an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers,
that with his Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide, supposes he
is as well able to bumbast out a blanke verse as the best of you:
and being an absolute Johannes fac totum, is in his owne conceit
the onely Shake-scene in a countrie." The play upon Shake-
speare's name and the parody of a line from Henry VI. make
the reference unmistakable. 1 The London theatres were closed,
first through riots and then through plague, from June 1392
to April 1594, with the exception of about a month at each
Christmas during that period; and the companies were dissolved
or driven to the provinces. Even if Shakespeare had been
connected with Strange's men during their London seasons of
1592 and 1593, it does not seem that he travelled with them.
Other activities may have been sufficient to occupy the interval.
The most important of these was probably an attempt to win
a reputation in the world of non-dramatic poetry. Venus and
Adonis was published about April 1393, and Lucrece about May
1594. The poems were printed by Richard Field, in whom
Shakespeare would have found an old Stratford acquaintance;
and each has a dedication to Henry Wriothesley, earl of South-
ampton, a brilliant and accomplished favourite of the court, still
in his nonage. A possibly super-subtle criticism discerns an
increased warmth in the tone of the later dedication, which is
supposed to argue a marked growth of intimacy. The fact of
this intimacy is vouched for by the story handed down from
Sir Wilh'am Davenant to Rowe (who published in 1 709 the first
regular biography of Shakespeare) that Southampton gave
Shakespeare a thousand pounds " to enable him to go through
with a purchase which he heard he had a mind to." The date of
this generosity is not specified, and there is no known purchase by
Shakespeare which can have cost anything like the sum named.
The mention of Southampton leads naturally to the most
difficult problem which a biographer has to handle, that of the
Sonnets. But this will be more conveniently taken up at a
later point, and it is only necessary here to put on record the
probability that the earliest of the sonnets belong to the period
now under discussion. There is a surmise, which is not in itself
other than plausible, and which has certainly been supported with
a good deal of ingenious argument, that Shakespeare's enforced
leisure enabled him to make of 1593 a Wanderjahr, and in
particular that the traces of a visit to northern Italy may clearly
be seen in the local colouring of Lucrece as compared with Venus
and Adonis, and in that of the group of plays which may be dated
in or about 1594 and 1595 as compared with those that preceded.
It must, however, be borne in mind that, while Shakespeare
may perfectly well, at this or at some earlier time, have voyaged
1 It is most improbable, however, that the apologetic reference in
Chettle's Kind-hart's Dream (December 1592) refers to Shakespeare.
to Italy, and possibly Denmark and even Germany as well,
there is no direct evidence to rely upon, and that inference from
internal evidence is a dangerous guide when a writer of so assimila-
tive a temperament as that of Shakespeare is concerned.
From the reopening of the theatres in the summer of 1594
onwards Shakespeare's status is in many ways clearer. He had
certainly become a leading member of the Chamber-
Iain's company by the following winter, when his w uhth"
name appears for the first and only time in the treasurer chamber-
of the chamber's accounts as one of the recipients of Iain's
payment for their performances at court; and there is ^/^^
every reason to suppose that he continued to act with
and write for the same associates to the close of his career. The
history of the company may be briefly told. At the death of the
lord chamberlain on the 22nd of July 1596, it passed under the
protection of his successor, George, 2nd Lord Hunsdon, and
once more became " the Lord Chamberlain's men " when he
was appointed to that office on the iyth of March 1 597. James I.
on his accession took this company under his patronage as grooms
of the chamber, and during the remainder of Shakespeare's
connexion with the stage they were " the King's men." The
records of performances at court show that they were by far the
most favoured of the companies, their nearest rivals being the
company known during the reign of Elizabeth as " the Admiral's,"
and afterwards as " Prince Henry's men." From the summer
of 1594 to March 1603 they appear to have played almost
continuously in London, as the only provincial performances by
them which are upon record were during the autumn of 1597,
when the London theatres were for a short time closed owing to
the interference of some of the players in politics. They travelled
again during 1603 when the plague was in London, and during
at any rate portions of the summers or autumns of most years
thereafter. In 1594 they were playing at Newington Butts, and
probably also at the Rose on Bankside, and at the Cross Keys
in the city. It is natural to suppose that in later years they
used the Theatre in Shoreditch, since this was the property, of
James Burbage, the father of their principal actor, Richard
Burbage. The Theatre was pulled down in 1598, and, after a
short interval during which the company may have played at the
Curtain, also in Shoreditch, Richard Burbage and his brother
Cuthbert rehoused them in the Globe on Bankside, built in part
out of the materials of the Theatre. Here the profits of the
enterprise were divided between the members of the company
as such and the owners of the building as " housekeepers,"
and shares in the " house " were held in joint tenancy by Shake-
speare and some of his leading " fellows." About 1608 another
playhouse became available for the company in the " private "
or winter house of the Black Friars. This was also the property
of the Burbages, but had previously been leased to a company
of boy players. A somewhat similar arrangement as to profits
-was made.
Shakespeare is reported by Aubrey to have been a good actor,
but Adam in As You Like It, and the Ghost in Hamlet indicate
the type of part which he played. 'As a dramatist, however,
he was the mainstay of the company for at least some fifteen years,
during which Ben Jonson, Dekker, Beaumont and Fletcher, and
Tourneur also contributed to their repertory. On an average
he must have written for them about two plays a year, although
his rapidity of production seems to have been greatest during
the opening years of the period. There was also no doubt a good
deal of rewriting of his own earlier work, and also perhaps, at
the beginning, of that of others. Occasionally he may have
entered into collaboration, as, for example, at the end of his
career, with Fletcher.
In a worldly sense he clearly flourished, and about 1396, if
not earlier, he was able to resume relations as a moneyed
man with Stratford-on-Avon. There is no evidence to show
whether he had visited the town in the interval, or whether
he had brought his wife and family to London. His son Hamnet
died and was buried at Stratford in 1596. During the last ten
years John Shakespeare's affairs had remained unprosperous.
He incurred fresh debt, partly through becoming surety for
SHAKESPEARE
775
his brother Henry; and in 1392 his name was included in a list
of recusants dwelling at or near Stratford-on-Avon,with a note
by the commissioners that in his case the cause was believed to
be the fear of process for debt. There is no reason to doubt
this explanation, or to seek a religious motive in
J orm Shakespeare's abstinence from church. William
Shakespeare's purse must have made a considerable
difference. The prosecutions for debt ceased, and in 1597 a
fresh action was brought in Chancery for the recovery of Asbies
from the Lamberts. Like the last, it seems to have been
without result. Another step was taken to secure the dignity
of the family by an application in the course of 1596 to the
heralds for the confirmation of a coat of arms said to have been
granted to John Shakespeare while he was bailiff of Stratford.
The bearings were or on a bend sable a spear or steeled argent,
the crest a falcon his wings displayed argent supporting a spear
or steeled argent, and the motto Non sanz droict. The grant
was duly made, and in 1599 there was a further application for
leave to impale the arms of Arden, in right of Shakespeare's
mother. No use, however, of the Arden arms by the Shake-
speares can be traced. In 1 597 Shakespeare made an important
purchase for 60 of the house and gardens of New Place in Chapel
Street. This was one of the largest houses in Stratford, and
its acquisition an obvious triumph for the ex-poacher. Presum-
ably John Shakespeare ended his days in peace. A visitor to
his shop remembered him as " a merry-cheekt old man " always
ready to crack a jest with his son. He died in 1601, and his wife
in 1608, and the Henley Street houses passed to Shakespeare.
Aubrey records that he paid annual visits to Stratford, and there
is evidence that he kept in touch with the life of the place. The
correspondence of his neighbours, the Quineys, in 1598 contains
an application to him for a loan to Richard Quiney upon a visit
to London, and a discussion of possible investments for him
in the neighbourhood of Stratford. In 1602 he took, at a rent
of as. 6d. a year, a copyhold cottage in Chapel Lane, perhaps
for the use of his gardener. In the same year he invested
320 in the purchase of an estate consisting of 107 acres in the
open fields of Old Stratford, together with a farm-house, garden
and orchard, 20 acres of pasture and common rights; and in
1605 he spent another 440 in the outstanding term of a lease
of certain great tithes in Stratford parish, which brought in an
income of about 60 a year.
Meanwhile London remained his headquarters. Here Malone
thought that he had evidence, now lost, of his residence in South-
wark as early as 1596, and as late as 1608. It is
known that payments of subsidy were due from him
tions. for 1597 and 1598 in the parish of St Helen's, Bishops-
gate, and that an arrear was ultimately collected
in the liberty of the Clink. He had no doubt migrated from
Bishopsgate when the Globe upon Bankside was opened by the
Chamberlain's men. There is evidence that in 1604 he " lay,"
temporarily or permanently, in the house of Christopher
Mountjoy, a tire-maker of French extraction, at the corner of
Silver Street and Monkwell Street in Cripplegate. A recently
recovered note by Aubrey, if it really refers to Shakespeare
(which is not quite certain), is of value as throwing light not
only upon his abode, but upon his personality. Aubrey seems to
have derived it from William Beeston the actor, and through
him from John Lacy, an actor of the king's company. It is
as follows: " The more to be admired q[uod] he was not a
company-keeper, lived in Shoreditch, would not be debauched,
& if invited to court, he was in paine." Against this testimony
to the correctness of Shakespeare's morals are to be placed an
anecdote of a green-room amour picked up by a Middle Temple
student in 1602 and a Restoration scandal which made him the
father by the hostess of the Crown Inn at Oxford, where he
baited on his visits to Stratford, of Sir William Davenant, who
was born in February 1606. His credit at court is implied by
Ben Jonson's references to his flights " that so did take Eliza
and our James," and by stories of the courtesies which passed
between him and Elizabeth while he was playing a kingly part in
her presence, of the origin of The Merry Wives of Windsor in
Friends.
her desire to see Falstaff in love, and of an autograph letter
written to honour him by King James. It was noticed with
some surprise by Henry Chettle that his " honied muse "dropped
no " sable tear " to celebrate the death of the queen. South-
ampton's patronage may have introduced him to the brilliant
circle that gathered round the earl of Essex, but there is no
reason to suppose that he or his company were held personally
responsible for the performance of Richard II. at the command
of some of the followers of Essex as a prelude to the disastrous
rising of February 1601. The editors of the First Folio speak
also of favours received by the author in his lifetime from
William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, and his brother Philip
Herbert, earl of Montgomery.
He appears to have been on cordial terms with his fellows
of the stage. One of them, Augustine Phillips, left him a
small legacy in 1605, and in his own will he paid a
similar compliment to Richard Burbage, and to John
Heminge and Henry Condell, who afterwards edited his plays.
His relations with Ben Jonson, whom he is said by Rowe to have
introduced to the world as a playwright, have been much
canvassed. Jests are preserved which, even if apocryphal,
indicate considerable intimacy between the two. This is not
inconsistent with occasional passages of arms. The anonymous
author of The Return from Parnassus (2nd part; 1602), for
example, makes Kempe, the actor, allude to a " purge " which
Shakespeare gave Jonson, in return for his attack on some of
his rivals in The Poetaster* It has been conjectured that this
purge was the description of Ajax and his humours in Troilus
and Cressida. Jonson, on the other hand, who was criticism
incarnate, did not spare Shakespeare either in his prologues or
in his private conversation. He told Drummond of Hawthornden
that " Shakspeer wanted arte." But the verses which he con-
tributed to the First Folio are generous enough to make all
amends, and in his Discoveries (pub. 1641; written c. 1624 and
later), while regretting Shakespeare's excessive facility and the
fact that he often " fell into those things, could not escape
laughter," he declares him to have been " honest and of an
open and free nature," and says that, for his own part, " I lov'd
the man and do honour his memory (on this side idolatry) as
much as any." According to the memoranda-book (1661-1663)
of the Rev. John Ward (who became vicar of Stratford in 1662),
Jonson and Michael Drayton, himself a Warwickshire poet, had
been drinking with Shakespeare when he caught the fever of
which he died; and Thomas Fuller (1608-1661), whose Worthies
was published in 1662, gives an imaginative description of the
wit combats, of which many took place between the two
mighty contemporaries.
Of Shakespeare's literary reputation during his lifetime there
is ample evidence. He is probably neither the " Willy " of
Spenser's Tears of the Muses, nor the " Action " of Contew-
his Colin Clout's Come Home Again. But from the
time of the publication of Venus and Adonis and
Lucrece honorific allusions to his work both as poet
and dramatist, and often to himself by name, come thick and
fast from writers of every kind and degree. Perhaps the most
interesting of these from the biographical point of view are those
contained in the Palladis Tamia, a kind of literary handbook
published by Francis Meres in 1598; for Meres not only extols
him as " the most excellent in both kinds [i.e. comedy and
tragedy] for the stage," and one of " the most passionate among
us to bewaile and bemoane the perplexities of Love," but also
takes the trouble to give a list of twelve plays already written,
which serves as a starting-point for all modern attempts at a
chronological arrangement of his work. It is moreover from
Meres that we first hear of " his sugred Sonnets among his
private friends." Two of these sonnets were printed in 1599
1 Kempe (speaking to Burbage), " Few of the university pen plays
well. They smell too much of that writer Ovid and that writer (sic)
Metamorphosis, and talk too much of Proserpina and Jupiter.
Why here's our fellow Shakespeare puts them all down; aye, and
Ben Jonson too. O that Ben Jonson is a pestilent fellow. He brought
up Horace giving the Poets a pill, but our fellow Shakespeare hath
given him a purge that made him beray his credit."
776
SHAKESPEARE
in a volume of miscellaneous verse called The Passionate Pilgrim.
This was ascribed upon the title-page to Shakespeare, but pro-
bably, so far as most of its contents were concerned, without
justification. The bulk of Shakespeare's sonnets remained
unpublished until 1609.
About 1610 Shakespeare seems to have left London, and
entered upon the 'definite occupation of his house at New
Place, Stratford. Here he lived the life of a retired
gentleman, on friendly if satirical terms with the
richest of his neighbours, the Combes, and interested
in local affairs, such as a bill for the improvement of the highways
in 1611, or a proposed enclosure of the open fields at Welcombe
in 1614, which might affect his income or his comfort. He had
his garden with its mulberry-tree, and his farm in the immediate
neighbourhood. His brothers Gilbert and Richard were still
alive; the latter died in 1613. His sister Joan had married
William Hart, a hatter, and in 1616 was dwelling in one of his
houses in Henley Street. Of his daughters, the eldest, Susanna,
had married in 1607 John Hall (d. 1635), a physician of some re-
putation. They dwelt in Stratford, and had one child, Elizabeth,
afterwards Lady Barnard (1608-1670). The younger, Judith,
married Thomas Quiney, a vintner, also of Stratford, two months
before her father's death. At Stratford the last few of the plays
may have been written, but it is reasonable to suppose that Shake-
speare's connexion with the King's company ended when the
Globe was burnt down during a performance of Henry VIII. on
the 2Qth of June 1613. Certainly his retirement did not imply
an absolute break with London life. In 1613 he devised an
impresa,or emblem, to be painted by Richard Burbage,and worn
in the tilt on Accession day by the earl of Rutland, who had
been one of the old circle of Southampton and Essex. In the
same year he purchased for 140 a freehold house in the Black-
friars, near the Wardrobe. This was conveyed to trustees,
apparently in order to bar the right which his widow would
otherwise have had to dower. In 1615 this purchase involved
Shakespeare in a lawsuit for the surrender of the title-deeds.
Richard Davies, a Gloucestershire clergyman of the end of the
I7th century, reports that the poet " died a papist," and the
statement deserves more attention than it has received from
biographers. There is indeed little to corroborate it; for an
alleged " spiritual testament " of John Shakespeare is of suspected
origin, and Davies's own words suggest a late conversion rather
than an hereditary faith. On the other hand, there is little to
refute it beyond an entry in the accounts of Stratford corporation
for drink given in 1614 to " a preacher at the Newe Place."
Shakespeare made his will on the 2$th of March 1616, appar-
ently in some haste, as the executed deed is a draft with many
erasures and interlineations. There were legacies to
his daughter Judith Quiney and his sister Joan Hart,
and remembrances to friends both in Warwickshire and in
London; but the real estate was left to his sister Susanna Hall
under a strict entail which points to a desire on the part of the
testator to found a family. Shakespeare's wife, for whom other
provision must have been made, is only mentioned in an inter-
lineation, by which the " second best bed with the furniture "
was bequeathed to her. Much nonsense has been written about
this, but it seems quite natural. The best bed was an important
chattel, which would go with the house. The estate was after all
not a large one. Aubrey's estimate of its annual value as 200
or 300 a year sounds reasonable enough, and John Ward's state-
ment that Shakespeare spent 1000 a year must surely be an
exaggeration. The sum-total of his known investments amounts
to 960. Mr Sidney Lee calculates that his theatrical income
must have reached 600 a year; but it may be doubted whether
this also is not a considerable overestimate. It must be
remembered that the purchasing value of money in the zyth
century is generally regarded as having been about eight times
its present value. Shakespeare's interest in the " houses " of the
Globe and Blackfriars probably determined on his death.
A month after his will was signed, on the 23rd of April 1616,
Shakespeare died, and as a tithe-owner was buried in the chancel
of the parish church. Some doggerel upon the stone that covers
the grave has been assigned by local tradition to his own pen. A
more elaborate monument, with a bust by the sculptor Gerard
Johnson, was in due course set up on the chancel wall.
Anne Shakespeare followed her husband on the 6th
of August 1623. The family was never founded. Shake-
speare's grand-daughter, Elizabeth Hall, made two childless
marriages, the first with Thomas Nash of Stratford, the second
with John, afterwards Sir John, Barnard of Abington Manor,
Northants. His daughter Judith Quiney had three sons, all
of whom had died unmarried by 1639. There were, therefore,
no direct descendants of Shakespeare in existence after Lady
Barnard's death in 1670. Those "ofhis sister, Joan Hart, could
however still be traced in 1864. On Lady Barnard's death the
Henley Street houses passed to the Harts, in whose family they
remained until 1806. They were then sold, and in 1846 were
bought for the public. They are now held with Anne Hathaway's
Cottage at Shottery as the Birthplace Trust. Lady Barnard
had disposed of the Blackfriars house. The rest of the property
was sold under the terms of her will, and New Place passed,
first to the Cloptons who rebuilt it, and then to the Rev. Francis
Gastrell, who pulled it down in 1 7 59. The site now forms a public
recreation-ground, and hard by is a memorial building with a
theatre in which performances of Shakespeare's plays are given
annually in April. Both the Memorial and the Birthplace contain
museums, in which books, documents and portraits of
Shakespearian interest, together with relics of greater or less
authenticity, are stored.
No letter or other writing in Shakespeare's hand can be proved
to exist, with the exception of three signatures upon his will,
one upon a deposition (May n, 1612) in a lawsuit with which
he was remotely concerned, and two upon deeds (March 10 and
u, 1613) in connexion with the purchase of his Blackfriars house.
A copy of Florio's translation of Montaigne (1603) in the British
Museum, a copy of the Aldine edition of Ovid's Metamorphoses
(1502) in the Bodleian, and a copy of the 1612 edition of Sir
Thomas North's translation of Plutarch's Lives of the Noble
Grecians and Romaines in the Greenock Library, have all been
put forward with some plausibility as bearing his autograph
name or initials, and, in the third case, a marginal note by him.
A passage in the manuscript of the play of Sir Thomas More has
been ascribed to him (vide infra), and, if the play is his, might
be in his handwriting. Aubrey records that he was " a hand-
some, well-shap't man," and the lameness attributed to him
by some writers has its origin only in a too literal interpretation
of certain references to spiritual disabilities in the Sonnets.
A collection of Mr William Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories
and Tragedies was printed at the press of William and Isaac
Jaggard, and issued by a group of booksellers in 1623.
This volume is known as the First Folio. It has
dedications to the carls of Pembroke and Montgomery, and to
" the great Variety of Readers," both of which are signed by
two of Shakespeare's " fellows " at the Globe, John Heminge
and Henry Condell, and commendatory verses by Ben Jonson,
Hugh Holland, Leonard Digges and an unidentified I. M.
The Droeshout engraving forms part of the title-page. The
contents include, with the exception of Pericles, all of the thirty-
seven plays now ordinarily printed in editions of Shakespeare's
works. Of these eighteen were here published for the first time.
The other eighteen had already appeared in one or more separate
editions, known as the Quartos.
The following list gives the date of the First Quarto of each
such play, and also that of any later Quarto which differs
materially from the First.
The Quarto Editions.
Titus Andronicus (1594).
2 Henry VI. (i594\
3 Henry VI. (1595).
Richard II. (1597, 1608).
Richard III. (1597).
Romeo and Juliet (1597, 1599).
Love's Labour's Lost (1598).
1 Henry IV. (1598}.
2 Henry IV. (1600).
Henry V. (1600).
A Midsummer Night's Dream
(1600).
The Merchant of Venice (1600).
Much Ado About Nothing (1600).
The Merry Wives of Windsor
(1602).
Hamlet (1603, ifx>4).
King Lear (1608).
Trouus and Cressida (ifxx)).
Othello (1622).
SHAKESPEARE
777
Entries in the Register of copyrights kept by the Company
of Stationers indicate that editions of As You Like It and
Anthony and Cleopatra were contemplated but not published in
1600 and 1608 respectively.
The Quartos differ very much in character. Some of them
contain texts which are practically identical with those of
the First Folio; others show variations so material as to suggest
that some revision, either by rewriting or by shortening for stage
purposes, took place. Amongst the latter are 2, 3 Henry VI.,
Richard III., Romeo and Juliet, The Merry Wives of Windsor,
Hamlet and King Lear. Many scholars doubt whether the
Quarto versions of 2, 3 Henry VI., which appeared under the titles
of The First Part of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses
of York and Lancaster and The True Tragedy of Richard Duke
of York, are Shakespeare's work at all. It seems clear that the
Quartos of The Troublesome Reign of John King of England (1591)
and The Taming of A Shrew(is<)4), although treated forcopyright
purposes as identical with the plays of King John and The Taming
of the Shrew, which he founded upon them, are not his. The First
Quartos of Romeo and Juliet, Henry V., The Merry Wives of
Windsor, and Hamlet seem to be mainly based, not upon written
texts of the plays, but upon versions largely made up out of
shorthand notes taken at the theatre by the agents of a piratical
bookseller. A similar desire to exploit the commercial value
of Shakespeare's reputation probably led to the appearance of
his name or initials upon the title-pages of Locrine (1595),
Sir John Oldcaslle (1600), Thomas Lord Cromwell (1602), The
London Prodigal (1605), The Puritan (1607), A Yorkshire
Tragedy (1608), and Pericles (1609). It is not likely that, with
the exception of the last three acts of Pericles, he wrote any part
of these plays, some of which were not even produced by his
company. They were not included in the First Folio of 1623, nor
in a reprint of it in 1632, known as the Second Folio; but all
seven were appended to the second issue (1664) of the Third
Folio (1663), and to the Fourth Folio of 1685. Shakespeare is
named as joint author with John Fletcher on the title-page of
The Two Noble Kinsmen ( 1 634) , and with William Rowley on that
of The Birth of Merlin (1662); there is no reason for rejecting
the former ascription or for accepting the latter. Late entries
in the Stationers' Register assign to him Cardenio (with Fletcher),
Henry I. and Henry II. (both with Robert Davenport), King
Stephen, Duke Humphrey, and I phis and lanthe; but none of
these plays is now extant. Modern conjecture has attempted
to trace his hand in other plays, of which Arden of Fever sham
(1592), Edward III. (1596), Mucedorus (1598), and The Merry
Devil of Edmonton (1608) are the most important; it is quite
possible that he may have had a share in Edward III. A play
on Sir Thomas More, which has been handed down in manu-
script, contains a number of passages, interpolated in various
handwritings, to meet requirements of the censor; and there
are those who assign one of these (ii. 4, 1-172) to Shakespeare.
Unfortunately the First Folio does not give the dates at which
the plays contained in it were written or produced; and the
endeavour to supply this deficiency has been one of the
main preoccupations of more than a century of Shake-
spearian scholarship, since the pioneer essay of Edmund Malonc
in his An Attempt to Ascertain the Order in which the Plays of
Shakespeare were Written (1778). The investigation is not a
mere piece of barren antiquarianism, for on it depends the
possibility of appreciating the work of the world's greatest poet,
not as if it were an articulated whole like a philosophical system,
but in its true aspect as the reflex of a vital and constantly
developing personality. A starting-point is afforded by the
dates of the Quartos and the entries in the Stationers' Register
which refer to them, and by the list of plays already in existence
in 1598 which is inserted by Francis Meres in his Palladis Tamia
of that year, and which, while not necessarily exhaustive of
Shakespeare's pre-1598 writing, includes The Two Gentlemen of
Verona, The Comedy of Errors, Love's Labour's Lost, A Mid-
summer Night's Dream, The Merchant of Venice, Richard II.,
Richard HI., Henry IV., King John, Titus Andronicus and
Romeo and Juliet, as well as a mysterious Love's Labour's Won,
which has been conjecturally identified with several plays,
but most plausibly with The Taming of the Shrew. There is a
mass of supplementary evidence, drawn partly from definite
notices in other writings or in diaries, letters, account-books, and
similar records, partly from allusions to contemporary persons
and events in the plays themselves, partly from parallels of
thought and expression between each play and those near to it
in point of time, and partly from considerations of style, includ-
ing the so-called metrical tests, which depend upon an analysis
of Shakespeare's varying feeling for rhythm at different stages
of his career. The total result is certainly not a demonstration,
but in the logical sense an hypothesis which serves to colligate
the facts and is consistent with itself and with the known events
of Shakespeare's external life.
The following table, which is an attempt to arrange the original
dates of production of the plays without regard to possible
revisions, may be taken as fairly representing the common
results of recent scholarship. It is framed on the assumption
that, as indeed John Ward tells us was the case, Shakespeare
ordinarily wrote two plays a year; but it will be understood-
that neither the order in which the plays are given nor the
distribution of them over the years lays claim to more than
approximate accuracy.
Chronology of the Plays.
'59'-
(i, 2) The Contention of York and
Lancaster (2, 3 Henry VI.).
1592.
(3) I Henry VI.
(The theatres were closed for riot
and plague from June to the end
of December.)
'593-
(4) Richard III.
(5) Edward III. (part only).
(6) The Comedy of Errors.
(The theatres were closed for
plague from the beginning of
February to the end of December. )
'594-
(7) Titus Andronicus.
(The theatres were closed for
plague during February and
March.)
(8) Taming of the Shrew.
(9) Love's Labour's Lost.
(10) Romeo and Juliet.
1595-
(n) A Midsummer Night's
Dream.
(la) TheTwoGentlemenofVerona.
(13) King John.
(14) Richard II.
(15) The Merchant of Venice.
1597-
(The theatres were closed for
misdemeanour from the end of
July to October.)
(16) i Henry IV.
IS98.
(17) 2 Henry IV.
(18) Much Ado About Nothing.
1599-
(19) Henry V.
(20) Julius Caesar.
1600.
(21) The Merry Wives of Windsor.
(22) As You Like It.
1601.
(23) Hamlet.
(24) Twelfth Night.
1602.
(25) Troilus and Cressida.
(26) All's Well that Ends Well.
1603.
(The theatres were closed on
Elizabeth's death in March, and
remained closed for plague
throughout the year.)
1604.
(27) Measure for Measure.
(28) Othello.
1605.
(29) Macbeth.
(30) King Lear.
1606.
(31) Anthony and Cleopatra.
(32) Coriolanus.
1607.
(33) Timon of Athens (un-
finished).
1608.
(34) Pericles (part only).
1609.
(35) Cymbeline.
1610.
(36) The Winter's Tale.
1611.
(37) The Tempest.
1612.
1613.
(38) The Two Noble Kinsmen
(part only).
(39) Henry VIII. (part only).
A more detailed account of the individual plays may now
be attempted. The figures here prefixed correspond to those
in the table above.
1, 2. The relation of The Contention of York and Lancaster
to 2, 3 Henry VI. and the extent of Shakespeare's responsibility
for either or both works have long been subjects of Comt)0fl .
controversy. The extremes of critical opinion are to tloa-
be found in a theory which regards Shakespeare as the
sole author of 2, 3 Henry VI. and The Contention as a shortened
and piratical version of the original plays, and in a theory which
regards The Contention as written in collaboration by Marlowe,
Greene and possibly Peele, and 2, 3 Henry VI. as a revision of
SHAKESPEARE
The Contention written, also in collaboration, by Marlowe and
Shakespeare. A comparison of the two texts leaves it hardly
possible to doubt that the differences between them are to be
explained by revision rather than by piracy; but the question
of authorship is more difficult. Greene's parody, in the " Shake-
scene " passage of his Groats-worth of Wit (1592), of a line which
occurs both in The Contention and in 3 Henry VI., while it clearly
suggests Shakespeare's connexion with the plays, is evidence
neither for nor against the participation of other men, and no
sufficient criterion exists for distinguishing between Shakespeare's
earliest writing and that of possible collaborators on grounds of
style. But there is nothing inconsistent between the reviser's
work in 2, 3 Henry VI. and on the one hand Richard III. or
on the other the original matter of The Contention, which the
reviser follows and elaborates scene by scene. It is difficult to
assign to any one except Shakespeare the humour of the Jack
Cade scenes, the whole substance of which is in The Contention
as well as in Henry VI. Views which exclude Shakespeare alto-
gether may be left out of account. Henry VI. is not in Meres's
list of his plays, but its inclusion in the First Folio is an almost
certain ground for assigning to him some share, if only as reviser,
in the completed work.
3. A very similar problem is afforded by i Henry VI., and here
also it is natural, in the absence of tangible evidence to the
contrary, to hold by Shakespeare's substantial responsibility
for the play as it stands. It is quite possible that it also may be
a revised version, although in this case no earlier version exists;
and if so the Talbot scenes (iv. 2-7) and perhaps also the Temple
Gardens scene (ii. 4), which are distinguished by certain qualities
of style from the rest of the play, may date from the period of
revision. Thomas Nash refers to the representation of Talbot
on the stage in his Pierce Penilesse, his Supplication to the Divell
(1592), and it is probable that i Henry VI. is to be identified
with the " Harey the vj." recorded in Henslowe's Diary to have
been acted as a new play by Lord Strange's men, probably at
the Rose, on the 3rd of March 1592. If so, it is a reasonable
conjecture that the two parts of The Contention were originally
written at some date before the beginning of Henslowe's record
in the previous February, and were revised so as to fall into a
series with i Henry VI. in the latter end of 1592.
4. The series as revised can only be intended to lead directly
up to Richard III., and this relationship, together with its style
as compared with that of the plays belonging to the autumn
of IS94, suggest the short winter season of 1592-1593 as the most
likely time for the production of Richard III. There is a difficulty
in that it is not included in Henslowe's list of the plays acted by
Lord Strange's men during that season. But it may quite well
have been produced by the only other company which appeared
at court during the Christmas festivities, Lord Pembroke's.
The mere fact that Shakespeare wrote a play, or more than one
play, for Lord Strange's men during 1592-1594 does not prove
that he never wrote for any other company during the same
period; and indeed there is plenty of room for guess-work as to
the relations between Strange's and Pembroke's men. The latter
are not known to have existed before 1592, and many difficulties
would be solved by the assumption that they originated out of
a division of Strange's, whose numbers, since their amalgamation
with the Admiral's, may have been too much inflated to enable
them to undertake as a whole the summer tour of that year.
If so, Pembroke's probably took over the Henry VI. series of
plays, since The Contention, or at least the True Tragedy, was
published as performed by them, and completed it with Richard
III. on their return to London at Christmas. It will be necessary
to return to this theory in connexion with the discussion of
Titus Andronicus and The Taming of the Shrew. The principal
historical source for Henry VI. was Edward Hall's The Union of
the Noble and lUustre Families of Lancaster and York (1542), and
for Richard III., as for all Shakespeare's later historical plays,
the second edition (1587) of Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles of
England, Scotland and Ireland (1577). An earlier play, The True
Tragedy of Richard the Third (1594), seems to have contributed
little if anything to Richard III.
5. Many scholars think that at any rate the greater part of the
first two acts of Edward III., containing the story of Edward's
wooing of the countess of Salisbury, are by Shakespeare; and,
if so, it is to about the time of Richard III. that the style of
his contribution seems to belong. The play was entered in the
Stationers' Register on December i, 1595. The Shakespearian
scenes are based on the 46th Novel in William Paynter's Palace
of Pleasure (1566). The line, " Lilies that fester smell far worse
than weeds " (ii. i. 451), is repeated verbatim in the 94th sonnet.
6. To the winter season of 1592-1593 may also be assigned
with fair probability Shakespeare's first experimental comedy,
The Comedy of Errors, and if his writing at one and the same
time for Pembroke's and for another company is not regarded as
beyond the bounds of conjecture, it becomes tempting to identify
this with " the gelyous comodey " produced, probably by
Strange's men, for Henslowe as a new play on January 5, 1593.
The play contains a reference to the wars of succession in France
which would fit any date from 1 589 to 1 594. The plot is taken
from the Menaechmi, and to a smaller extent from the Amphitruo
of Plautus. William Warner's translation of the Menaechmi
was entered in the Stationers' Register on June 10, 1594. A
performance of The Comedy of Errors by " a company of base
and common fellows " (including Shakespeare?) is recorded in
the Gesta Grayorum as taking place in Gray's Inn hall on
December 28, 1594.
7. Titus Andronicus is another play in which many scholars
have refused to see the hand of Shakespeare, but the double
testimony of its inclusion in Meres's list and in the First Folio
makes it unreasonable to deny him some part in it. This may,
however, only have been the part of a reviser, working, like the
reviser of The Contention, upon the dialogue rather than the
structure of a crude tragedy of the school of Kyd. In fact a
stage tradition is reported by Edward Ravenscroft, a late
17th-century adapter of the play, to the effect that Shakespeare
did no more than give a few " master-touches " to the work of a
" private author." The play was entered in the Stationers'
Register on February 6, 1594, and was published in the same
year with a title-page setting out that it had been acted by the
companies of Lords Derby (i.e. Strange, who had succeeded to
his father's title on September 25, 1593), Pembroke and Sussex.
It is natural to take this list as indicating the order in which the
three companies named had to do with it, but it is probable that
only Sussex's had played Shakespeare's version. Henslowe re-
cords the production by this company of Titus and Andronicus
as a new play on January 23, 1594, only a few days before
the theatres were closed by plague. For the purposes of Hen-
slowe's financial arrangements with the company a rewritten
play may have been classed as new. Two years earlier he had
appended the same description to a play of Tittus and Vespacia,
produced by Strange's men on April ii, 1592. At first sight the
title suggests a piece founded on the lives of the emperor Titus
and Vespasian, but the identification of the play with an early
version of Titus Andronicus is justified by the existence of a rough
German adaptation, which follows the general outlines of Shake-
speare's play, but in which one of the sons of Titus is named
Vespasian instead of Lucius. The ultimate source of the plot is
unknown. It cannot be traced in any of the Byzantine chroniclers.
Strange's men seem to have been still playing Titus in January
1593, and it was probably not transferred to Pembroke's until the
companies were driven from London byjthe plague of that year.
Pembroke's are known from a letter of Henslowe's to have been
ruined by August, and it is to be suspected that Sussex's, who
appeared in London for the first time at the Christmas of 1593,
acquired their stock of plays and transferred these to the Chamber-
lain's men, when the companies were again reconstituted in the
summer of 1594. The revision of Titus and Vespasian into
Titus Andronicus by Shakespeare may have been accomplished
in the interval between these two transactions. The Chamber-
lain's men were apparently playing Andronicus in June. The
stock of Pembroke's men probably included, as well as Titus
and Vespasian, both Henry VI. and Richard III., which also
thus passed to the Chamberlain's company.
SHAKESPEARE
779
8. In the same way was probably also acquired an old play of
The Taming of A Shrew. This, which can be traced back as far
as 1589, was published as acted by Pembroke's men in 1594.
In June of that year it was being acted by the Chamberlain's,
but more probably in the revised version by Shakespeare, which
bears the slightly altered title of The Taming of The Shrew.
This is a much more free adaptation of its original than had been
attempted in the case of Henry VI., and the Warwickshire
allusions in the Induction are noteworthy. Some critics have
doubted whether Shakespeare was the sole author of The Shrew,
and others have assigned him a share in A Shrew, but neither
theory has any very substantial foundation. The origins of
the play, which is to be classed as a farce rather than a comedy,
are to be found ultimately in widely distributed folk-tales, and
more immediately in Ariosto's / Suppositi (1509) as translated
in George Gascoigne's The Supposes (1566). It may have been
Shakespeare's first task for the newly established Chamberlain's
company of 1504 to furbish up the old farce. Thenceforward
there is no reason to think that he ever wrote for any other
company.
9. Love's Labour's Lost has often been regarded as the first
of Shakespeare's plays, and has sometimes been placed as early
as 1589. There is, however, no proof that Shakespeare was
writing before 1592 or thereabouts. The characters of Love's
Labour's Lost are evidently suggested by Henry of Navarre,
his followers Biron and Longaville, and the Catholic League
leader, the due de Maine. These personages would have been
familiar at any time from 1585 onwards. The absence of the
play from the lists in Henslowe's Diary does not leave it impossible
that it should have preceded the formation of the Chamberlain's
company, but certainly renders this less likely; and its lyric
character perhaps justifies its being grouped with the series of
plays that began in the autumn of 1594. No entry of the play
is found in the Stationers'.Regwfer, and it is quite possible that
the present First Quarto of 1598 was not really the first edition.
The title-page professes to give the play as it was " corrected and
augmented" for the Christmas either of 1597 or of 1598. It
was again revived for that of 1604. No literary source is known
for its incidents.
10. Romeo and Juliet, which was published in 1597 as played
by Lord Hunsdon's men, was probably produced somewhat
before A Midsummer Night's Dream, as its incidents seem to
have suggested the parody of the Pyramus and Thisbe interlude.
An attempt to date it in 1591 is hardly justified by the Nurse's
references to an earthquake eleven years before and the fact
that there was a real earthquake in London in 1580. The text
seems to have been partly revised before the issue of the Second
Quarto in 1599. There had been an earlier play on the subject,
but the immediate source used by Shakespeare was Arthur
Brooke's narrative poem Romeus and Juliet (1562).
11. A Midsummer Night's Dream, with its masque-like scenes
of fairydom and the epithalamium at its close, has all the air
of having been written less for the public stage than for some
courtly wedding; and the compliment paid by Oberon to the
"fair vestal throned by the west" makes it probable that it
was a wedding at which Elizabeth was present. Two fairly
plausible occasions have been suggested. The wedding of Mary
countess of Southampton with Sir Thomas Heneage on the
and of May 1594 would fit the May-day setting of the plot;
but a widowed countess hardly answers to the " little western
flower " of the allegory, and there are allusions to events later
in 1594 and in particular to the rainy weather of June and July,
which indicate a somewhat later date. The wedding of William
Stanley, earl of Derby, brother of the lord Strange for whose
players Shakespeare had written, and Elizabeth Vere, daughter
of the earl of Oxford, which took place at Greenwich on the 26th
of January 1595, perhaps fits the conditions best. It has been
fancied that Shakespeare was present when " certain stars shot
madly from their spheres" in the Kenilworth fireworks of 1575,
but if he had any such entertainment in mind it is more likely
to have been the more recent one given to Elizabeth by the earl
of Hertford at Elvetham in 1591. There appears to be no special
source for the play beyond Chaucer's Knight's Tale and the wide-
spread fairy lore of western Europe.
12. No very definite evidence exists for the date of The Two
Gentlemen of Verona, other than the mention of it in Pattadis
Tamia. It is evidently a more rudimentary essay in the genre
of romantic comedy than The Merchant of Venice, with which
it has other affinities in its Italian colouring and its use of the
inter-relations of love and friendship as a theme; and it may
therefore be roughly assigned to the neighbourhood of 1595.
The plot is drawn from various examples of contemporary fiction,
especially from the story of the shepherdess Filismena in Jorge
de Montemayor's Diana (1559). A play of Felix and Philiomena
had already been given at court in 1585.
13. King John is another play for which 1595 seems a likely
date, partly on account of its style, and partly from the impro-
bability of a play on an independent subject drawn from English
history being interpolated in the middle either of the Yorkist
or of the Lancastrian series. It would seem that Shakespeare
had before him an old play of the Queen's men, called The
Troublesome Reign of King John. This was published in 1591,
and again, with " W. Sh." on the title-page, in 1611. For copy-
right purposes King John appears to have been regarded as a
revision of The Troublesome Reign, and in fact the succession of
incidents in the two plays is much the same. Shakespeare's
dialogue, however, owes little or nothing to that of his pre-
decessor.
14. Richard II. can be dated with some accuracy by a com-
parison of the two editions of Samuel Daniel's narrative poem on
The Civil Wars Between the Two Houses of Lancaster and York,
both of which bear the date of 1595 and were therefore issued
between March 25, 1595 and March 24, 1596 of the modern
reckoning. The second of these editions, but not the first,
contains some close parallels to the play. From the first two
quartos of Richard II., published in 1597 and 1598, the deposition
scene was omitted, although it was clearly part of the original
structure of the play, and its removal leaves an obvious mutila-
tion in the text. There is some reason to suppose that this was
due to a popular tendency to draw seditious parallels between
Richard and Elizabeth; and it became one of the charges
against the earl of Essex and his fellow-conspirators in the
abortive emeute of February 1601, that they had procured a
performance of a play on Richard's fate in order to stimulate
their followers. As the actors were the Lord Chamberlain's men,
this play can hardly have been any other than Shakespeare's.
The deposition scene was not printed until after Elizabeth's
death, in the Third Quarto of 1608.
15. The Merchant of Venice, certainly earlier than July 22,
1598, on which date it was entered in the Stationers' Register,
and possibly inspired by the machinations of the Jew poisoner
Roderigo Lopez, (who was executed in June 1594, shows a con-
siderable advance in comic and melodramatic power over any
of the earlier plays, and is assigned by a majority of scholars
to about 1 596. The various stories of which its plot is compounded
are based upon common themes of folk-tales and Italian novelle.
It is possible that Shakespeare may have had before him a
play called The Jew, of which there are traces as early as 1579,
and in which motives illustrating " the greedinesse of worldly
chusers " and the " bloody mindes of usurers " appear to have
been already combined. Something may also be owing to
Marlowe's play of The Jew of Malta.
16. 17. The existence of Richard II. is assumed throughout
in Henry IV., which probably therefore followed it after no long
interval. The first part was published in 1598, the second not
until 1600, but both parts must have been in existence before
the entry of the first part in the Stationers' Register on February
25th 1598, since Falstaff is named in this entry, and a slip in a
speech-prefix of the second part, which was not entered in the
Register until August 23rd 1600, betrays that it was written
when the character still bore the name of Sir John Oldcastle.
Richard James, in his dedication to The Legend of Sir John
Oldcastle about 1625, and Rowe in 1709 both bear witness to the
substitution of the one personage for the other, which Rowe
y8o
SHAKESPEARE
ascribes to the intervention of Elizabeth, and James to that
of some descendants of Oldcastle, one of whom was probably
Lord Cobham. There is an allusion to the incident and an
acknowledgment of the wrong done to the famous Lollard
martyr in the epilogue to 2 Henry IV. itself. Probably Shake-
speare found Oldcastle, with very little else that was of service to
him, in an old play called The Famous Victories of Henry the Fifth,
which had been acted by Tarlton and the Queen's men at least
as far back as 1588, and of which an edition was printed in 1598.
Falstaff himself is a somewhat libellous presentment of the isth
century leader, Sir John Fastolf, who had already figured in
Henry VI.; but presumably Fastolf has no titled descendants
alive in 1598.
18. An entry in the Stationers' Register during 1600 shows
that Much Ado About Nothing was in existence, although its
publication was then directed to be " stayed." It may plausibly
be regarded as the earliest play not included in Meres's list. In
1613 it was revived before James I. under the alternative title
of Benedick and Beatrice. Dogberry is said by Aubrey to have
been taken from a constable at Grendori in Buckinghamshire.
There is no very definite literary source for the play, although
some of its incidents are to be found in Ariosto's Orlando Furioso
and Bandello's novelle, and attempts have been made to establish
relationships between it and two early German plays, Jacob
Ayrer's Die Schone Phoenicia and the Vincentius Ladiszlaus
of Duke Henry Julius of Brunswick.
19. The completion of the Lancastrian series of histories by
Henry V. can be safely placed in or about 1599, since there is
an allusion in one of the choruses to the military operations in
Ireland of the earl of Essex,who crossed on March 27 and returned
on September 28, 1599. The First Quarto, which was first
" stayed " with Much Ado About Nothing and then published
in 1600, is a piratical text, and does not include the choruses.
A geniune and perhaps slightly revised version was first published
in the First Folio.
20. That Julius Caesar also belongs to 1599 is shown, not only
by its links with Henry V. but also by an allusion to it in John
Weever's Mirror of Martyrs, a work written two years before its
publication in 1601, and by a notice of a performance on
September 2ist, 1599 by Thomas Platter of Basel in an account
of a visit to London. This was the first of Shakespeare's Roman
plays, and, like those that followed, was based upon Plutarch's
Lives as translated from the French of Jacques Amyot and pub-
lished by Sir Thomas North in 1 580. It was also Shakespeare's
first tragedy since Romeo and Juliet.
21. It is reported by John Dennis, in the preface to The
Comical Gallant (1702), that The Merry Wives of Windsor was
written at the express desire of Elizabeth, who wished to see
Falstaff in love, and was finished by Shakespeare in the space
of a fortnight. A date at the end of 1599 or the beginning of
1600, shortly after the completion of the historical Falstaff plays,
would be the most natural one for this enterprise, and with
such a date the evidence of style agrees. The play was entered
in the Stationers' Register on January i8th, 1602. The First
Quarto of the same year appears to contain an earlier version
of the text than that of the First Folio. Among the passages
omitted in the revision was an allusion to the adventures of the
duke of Wurttemberg and count of Mompelgard, whose attempts
to secure the Garter had brought him into notice. The Windsor
setting makes it possible that The Merry Wives was produced
at a Garter feast, and perhaps with the assistance of the children
of Windsor Chapel in the fairy parts. The plot has its analogies
to various incidents in Italian novelle and in English adaptations
of these.
22. As You Like It was one of the plays " stayed " from publica-
tion in 1600, and cannot therefore be later than that year. Some
trifling bits of evidence suggest that it is not earlier than 1599.
The plot is based upon Thomas Lodge's romance of Rosalynde
(1590), and this in part upon the pseudo-Chaucerian Tale of
Gamelyn.
23. A play of Hamlet was performed, probably by the Chamber-
lain's men, for Henslowe at Newington Butts on the pth of June
1594. There are other references to it as a revenge-play, and it
seems to have been in existence in some shape as early as 1589.
It was doubtless on the basis of this that Shakespeare constructed
his tragedy. Some features of the so-called Ur-Hamlet may
perhaps be traceable in the German play of Der bestrafte Bruder-
mord. There is an allusion in Hamlet to the rivalry between
the ordinary stages and the private plays given by boy actors,
which points to a date during the vogue of the children of the
Chapel, whose performance began late in 1600, and another to
an inhibition of plays on account of a " late innovation, " by
which the Essex rising of February 1601 may be meant. The
play was entered in the Stationers' Register on July 26, 1602.
The First Quarto was printed in 1603 and the Second Quarto
in 1604. These editions contain texts whose differences from
each other and from that of the First Folio are so considerable
as to suggest, even when allowance has been made for the fact
that the First Quarto is probably a piratical venture, that the
play underwent an exceptional amount of rewriting at Shake-
speare's hands. The title-page of the First Quarto indicates
that the earliest version was acted in the universities of Oxford
and Cambridge and elsewhere, as well as in London. The
ultimate source of the plot is to be found in Scandinavian legends
preserved in the Historia Danica of Saxo Grammaticus, and
transmitted to Shakespeare or his predecessor through the
Histoires tragiques (1570) of Francois de Belleforest (see HAMLET).
24. Twelfth Night may be fairly placed in 1601-1602, since it
quotes part of a song included in Robert Jones's First Book
of Songs and Airs (1600), and is recorded by John Manningham
to have been seen by him at a feast in the Middle Temple hall
on February and, 1602. The principal source of the plot was
Barnabe Riche's " History of Apolonius and Silla " in his Fare-
well to Military Profession (1581).
25. Few of the plays present so many difficulties as Troilus and
Cressida, and it cannot be said that its literary history has as yet
been thoroughly worked out. A play of the name, " as yt is acted
by my Lord Chamberlens men " was entered in the Stationers'
Register on February 7th, 1603, with a note that " sufficient
authority " must be got by the publisher, James Roberts,
before he printed it. This can hardly be any other than Shake-
speare's play; but it must have been " stayed, " for the First
Quarto did not appear until 1609, and on the 28th of January
of that year a fresh entry had been made in the Register by
another publisher. The text of the Quarto differs in certain
respects from that of the Folio, but not to a greater extent than
the use of different copies of the original manuscript might ex-
plain. Two alternative title-pages are found in copies of the
Quarto. On one, probably the earliest, is a statement that the
play was printed " as it was acted by the Kings Maiesties seruants
at the Globe "; from the other these words are omitted, and a
preface is appended which hints that the " grand possessors" of
the play had made difficulties about its publication, and describes
it-as " never staled with the stage." Attempts have been made,
mainly on grounds 'of style, to find another hand than Shake-
speare's in the closing scenes and in the prologue, and even to
assign widely different dates to various parts of what is ascribed
to Shakespeare. But the evidence does not really bear out these
theories, and the style of the whole must be regarded as quite
consistent with a date in 1601 or 1602. The more probable year
is 1602, if, as seems not unlikely, the description of Ajax and his
humours in the second scene of the first act is Shakespeare's
" purge " to Jonson in reply to the Poetaster (1601), alluded to,
as already mentioned, in the Return from Parnassus, a Cambridge
play acted probably at the Christmas of 1602-1603 (rather than,
as is usually asserted, 1601-1602). It is tempting to conjecture
that Troilus and Cressida may have been played, like Hamlet,
by the Chamberlain's men at Cambridge, but may never have
been taken to London, and in this sense " never staled with the
stage." The only difficulty of a date in 1602 is that a parody
of a play on Troilus and Cressida is introduced into Histrio-
mastix (c. 1599), and that in this Troilus "shakes his furious
speare." But Henslowe had produced another play on the
subject, by Dekker and Chettle, in 1599, and probably, therefore,
SHAKESPEARE
781
no allusion to Shakespeare is really intended. The material
for Troilus andCressidaw&s taken by Shakespeare from Chaucer's
Troilus and Criseyde, Caxton's Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye,
and Chapman's Homer.
26. It is almost wholly on grounds of style that All's Well thai
Ends Well is placed by most critics in or about 1602, and, as in
the case of Troilus and Cressida, it has been argued, though with
little justification, that parts of the play are of considerably earlier
date, and perhaps represent the Love's Labour's Won referred to by
Meres. The story is derived from Boccaccio's Decameron through
the medium of William Paynter's Palace of Pleasure (1566).
27. Measure for Measure is believed to have been played at
court on the 26th of December 1604. The evidence for this is to be
found, partly in an extract made for Malone from official records
now lost, and partly in a forged document, which may, however,
rest upon genuine information, placed amongst the account-books
of the Office of the Revels. If this is correct the play was probably
produced when the theatres were reopened after the plague in
1604. The plot is taken from a story already used by George
Whetstone, both in his play of Promos and Cassandra (1578)
and in his prose Heplameron of Civil Discourses (1582), and
borrowed by him from Giraldi Cinthio's Hecatommithi (1566).
28. A performance at court of Othello on November i, 1604,
is noted in the same records as those quoted with regard to
Measure for Measure, and the play may be reasonably assigned
to the same year. An alleged performance at Harefield in 1602
certainly rests upon a forgery. The play was revived in 1610
and seen by Prince Louis of Wurttemberg at the Globe on April 30
of that year. It was entered in the Stationers' Register on
October 6, 1621, and a First Quarto was published in 1622. The
text of this is less satisfactory than that of the First Folio, and
omits a good many lines found therein and almost certainly
belonging to the play as first written. It also contains some
profane expressions which have been modified in the Folio,
and thereby points to a date for the original production earlier
than the Act to Restrain Abuses of Players passed in the spring
of 1606. The plot, like that of Measure for Measure, comes
from the Hecatommithi (1566) of Giraldi Cinthio.
29. Macbeth cannot, in view of its obvious allusions to James I.,
be of earlier date than 1603. The style and some trifling allusions
point to about 1605 or 1606, and a hint for the theme may have
been given by Matthew Gwynne's entertainment of the Tres
Sibyllae, with which James was welcomed to Oxford on August
27, 1605. The play was revived in 1610 and Simon Forman saw
it at the Globe on April 20. The only extant text, that of the
First Folio, bears traces of shortening, and has been interpolated
with additional rhymed dialogues for the witches by a second
hand, probably that of Thomas Middleton. But the extent
of Middleton's contribution has been exaggerated; it is probably
confined to act iii. sc. 5, and a few lines in act. iv. sc. i. A ballad
of Macdobeth was entered in the Stationers' Register on August
27, 1596, but is not known. It is not likely that Shakespeare had
consulted any Scottish history other than that included in
Raphael Holinshed's Chronicle; he may have gathered witchlore
from Reginald Scot's Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) or King
James's own Demonologie (1599).
30. The entry of King Lear in the Stationers' Register on
November 26, 1607, records the performance of the play at court
on December 26, 1606. This suggests 1605 or 1606 as the date
of production, and this is confirmed by the publication in 1605
of the older play, The True Chronicle History of King Leir, which
Shakespeare used as his source. Two Quartos of King Lear
were published in 1608, and contain a text rather longer, but
in other respects less accurate, than that of the First Folio.
The material of the play consists of fragments of Celtic myth,
which found their way into history through Geoffrey of Mon-
mouth. It was accessible to Shakespeare in Holinshed and in
Spenser's Faerie Queene, as well as in the old play.
31. It is not quite clear whether Antony and Cleopatra was
the play of that name entered in the Stationers' Register on May
20, 1608, for no Quarto is extant, and a fresh entry was made
in the Register before the issue of the First Folio. Apart from
this entry, there is little external evidence to fix the date of the
play, but it is in Shakespeare's later, although not his last
manner, and may very well belong to 1606.
32. In the case of Coriolanus the external evidence available
is even scantier, and all that can be said is that its closest affinities
are to Antony and Cleopatra, which in all probability it directly
followed or preceded in order of composition. Both plays, like
Julius Caesar, are based upon the Lives of Plutarch, as Englished
by Sir Thomas North.
33. There is no external evidence as to the date of Timon
of Athens, but it may safely be grouped on the strength of its
internal characteristics with the plays just named, and there is
a clear gulf between it and those that follow. It may be placed
provisionally in 1607. The critical problems which it presents
have never been thoroughly worked out. The extraordinary
incoherencies of its action and inequalities of its style have
prevented modern scholars from accepting it as a finished pro-
duction of Shakespeare, but there agreement ceases. It is some-
times regarded as an incomplete draft for an intended play;
sometimes as a Shakespearian fragment worked over by a
second hand either for the stage or for printing in the First Folio;
sometimes, but not very plausibly, as an old play by an inferior
writer which Shakespeare had partly remodelled. It does not
seem to have had any relations to an extant academic play of
Timon which remained in manuscript until 1842. The sources
are to be found, partly in Plutarch's Life of Marcus Antonius,
partly in Lucian's dialogue of Timon or Misanthropes, and partly
in William Paynter's Palace of Pleasure (1566).
34. Similar difficulties, equally unsolved, cling about Pericles.
It was entered in the Stationers' Register on May 20, 1608, and
published in 1609 as " the late and much admired play " acted
by the King's men at the Globe. The title-page bears Shake-
speare's name, but the play was not included in the First Folio,
and was only added to Shakespeare's collected works in the
Third Folio, in company with others which, although they also
had been printed under his name or initials in quarto form,
are certainly not his. In 1608 was published a prose story,
The Painful Adventures of Pericles Prince of Tyre. This claims
to be the history of the play as it was presented by the King's
players, and is described in a dedication by George Wilkins
as " a poore infant of my braine. " The production of the play
is therefore to be put in 1608 or a little earlier. It can hardly be
doubted on internal evidence that Shakespeare is the author of
the verse-scenes in the last three acts, with the exception of the
doggerel choruses. It is probable, although it has been doubted, *
that he was also the author of the prose-scenes in those acts.
To the first two acts he can at most only have contributed a
touch or two. It seems reasonable to suppose that the non-
Shakespearian part of the play is by Wilkins, by whom other
dramatic work was produced about 1607. The prose story
quotes a line or two from Shakespeare's contribution, and it
follows that this must have been made by 1608. The close
resemblances of the style to that of Shakespeare's latest plays
make it impossible to place it much earlier. But whether Shake-
speare and Wilkins collaborated in the play, or Shakespeare
partially rewrote Wilkins, or Wilkins completed Shakespeare,
must be regarded as yet undetermined. Unless there was an
earlier Shakespearian version now lost, Dryden's statement
that " Shakespeare's own Muse her Pericles first bore " must
be held to be an error. The story is an ancient one which exists
in many versions. In all of these except the play, the name of
the hero is Apollonius of Tyre. The play is directly based upon
a version in Gower's Confessio Amantis, and the use of Gower as a
" presenter " is thereby explained. But another version in Laur-
ence Twine's Patterne of Painefutt Adventures (c. 1576), of which
a new edition appeared in 1607, may also have been consulted.
35. Cymbeline shows a further development than Pericles
in the direction of Shakespeare's final style, and can hardly have
come earlier. A description of it is in a note-book of Simon
Forman, who died in September 1611, and describes in the same
book other plays seen by him in 1610 and 1611. But these were
.not necessarily new plays, and Cymbeline may perhaps be assigned
7 82
SHAKESPEARE
conjecturally to 1609. The mask-like dream in act v. sc. 4
must be an interpolation by another hand. This play also is
based upon a wide-spread story, probably known to Shakespeare
in Boccaccio's Decameron (day 2, novel 9), and possibly also in
an English book of tales called Westward for Smelts. The historical
part is, as usual, from Holinshed.
36. The Winter's Tale was seen by Forman on May 15, 1611,
and as it clearly belongs to the latest group of plays it may well
enough have been produced in the preceding year. A document
amongst the Revels Accounts, which is forged, but may rest on
some authentic basis, gives November 5, 1611 as the date of a
performance at court. The play is recorded to have been
licensed by Sir George Buck, who began to license plays in 1607.
The plot is from Robert Greene's Pandosto, the Triumph of
Time, or Dorastus and Fawnia (1588).
37. The wedding-mask in act iv. of The Tempest has suggested
the possibility that it may have been composed to celebrate
the marriage of the princess Elizabeth and Frederick V., the
elector palatine, on February 14, 1613. But Malone appears
to have had evidence, now lost, that the play was performed
at court as early as 1611, and the forged document amongst
the Revels Accounts gives the precise date of November i, 1611.
Sylvester Jourdan's A Discovery of the Bermudas, containing an
account of the shipwreck of Sir George Somers in 1609, was pub-
lished about October 1610, and this or some other contemporary
narrative of Virginian colonization probably furnished the hint
of the plot.
38. The tale of Shakespeare's independent dramas is now
complete, but an analysis of the Two Noble Kinsmen leaves no
reason to doubt the accuracy of its ascription on the title-page
of the First Quarto of 1634 to Shakespeare and John Fletcher.
This appears to have been a case of ordinary collaboration.
There is sufficient resemblance between the styles of the two
writers to render the division of the play between them a matter
of some difficulty; but the parts that may probably be assigned
to Shakespeare are acts i. sec. 1-4; ii. i; iii. i, 2; v. i, 3, 4.
Fletcher's morris-dance in act iii. sc. 5 is borrowed from that in
Beaumont's Mask of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn, given on
February 20, 1613, and the play may perhaps be dated in 1613.
It is based on Chaucer's Knight's Tale.
39. It may now be accepted as a settled result of scholarship
that Henry VIII. is also the result of collaboration, and that one
of the collaborators was Fletcher. There is no good reason to
doubt that the other was Shakespeare, although attempts have
been made to substitute Philip Massinger. The inclusion, how-
ever, of the play in the First Folio must be regarded as conclusive
against this theory. There is some ground for suspicion that the
collaborators may have had an earlier work of Shakespeare
before them, and this'would explain the reversion to the " history "
type of play which Shakespeare had long abandoned. His share
appears to consist of act i. sec. 1,2; act ii. sec. 3, 4; act iii. sc. 2,
11. 1-203; ac t v - sc - i- The play was probably produced in
1613, and originally bore the alternative title of All is True.
It was being performed in the Globe on June 29, 1613, when the
thatch caught fire and the theatre was burnt. The principal
source was Holinshed, but Hall's Union of Lancaster and York,
Foxe's Acts and Monuments of the Church, and perhaps Samuel
Rowley's play of When You See Me, You Know Me (1605),
appear also to have contributed.
Shakespeare's non-dramatic writings are not numerous.
The narrative poem of Venus and Adonis was entered in the
Poeat Stationers' Register on April 18, 1593, and thirteen
editions, dating from 1593 to 1636, are known. The
Rape of Lucrece was entered in the Register on May 9, 1594,
and the six extant editions range from 1 594 to 1624. Each poem
is prefaced by a dedicatory epistle from the author to Henry
Wriothesley, earl of Southampton. The subjects, taken respect-
ively from the Metamorphoses and the Fasti of Ovid, were frequent
in Renaissance literature. It was once supposed that Shakespeare
came from Stratford-on-Avon with Venus and Adonis in his
pocket; but it is more likely that both poems owe their origin
to the comparative leisure afforded to playwrights and actors
by the plague-period of 1592-1594. In 1599 the stationer
William Jaggard published a volume of miscellaneous verse
which he called The Passionate Pilgrim, and placed Shakespeare's
name on the title-page. Only two of the pieces included herein
are certainly Shakespeare's, and although others may quite
possibly be his, the authority of the volume is destroyed by the
fact that some of its contents are without doubt the work of
Marlowe, Sir Walter Raleigh, Richard Barnfield and Bartholomew
Griffin. In 1601 Shakespeare contributed The Phoenix and
the Turtle, an elegy on an unknown pair of wedded lovers, to a
volume called Love's Martyr, or Rosalin's Complaint, which was
collected and mainly written by Robert Chester.
The interest of all these poems sinks into insignificance beside
that of one remaining volume. The Sonnets were entered in
the Register on May 20, 1609, by the stationer Thomas
Thorpe, and published by him under the title Shake-
speares Sonnets, never before Imprinted, in the same sonnets
year. In addition to a hundred and fifty-four sonnets,
the volume contains the elegiac poem, probably dating from the
Venus and Adonis period, of A Lover's Complaint. In 1640
the Sonnets, together with other poems from The Passionate
Pilgrim and elsewhere, many of them not Shakespeare's, were
republished by John Benson in Poems Written by Wil. Shake-
speare, Gent. Here the sonnets are arranged in an altogether
different order from that of 1609 and are declared by the publisher
to " appeare of the same purity, the Authour himselfe then
living avouched. " No Shakespearian controversy has received
so much attention, especially during recent years, as that which
concerns itself with the date, character, and literary history
of the Sonnets. This is intelligible enough, since upon the issues
raised depends the question whether these poems do or do not
give a glimpse into the intimate depths of a personality which
otherwise is at the most only imperfectly revealed through the
plays. On the whole, the balance of authority is now in favour
of regarding them as in a very considerable measure autobio-
graphical. This view has undergone the fires of much destructive
argument. The authenticity of the order in which the sonnets
were printed in 1609 has been doubted; and their subject-matter
has been variously explained as being of the nature of a philo-
sophical allegory, of an effort of the dramatic imagination, or
of a heartless exercise in the forms of the Petrarchan convention.
This last theory has been recently and strenuously maintained,
and may be regarded as the only one which now holds the field
in opposition to the autobiographical interpretation. But it
rests upon the false psychological assumption, which is disproved
by the whole history of poetry and in particular of Petrarchan
poetry, that the use of conventions is inconsistent with the
expression of unfeigned emotions; and it is hardly to be set
against the direct conviction which the sonnets carry to the most
finely critical minds of the strength and sincerity of the spiritual
experience out of which they were wrought. This conviction
makes due allowance for the inevitable heightening of emotion
itself in the act of poetic composition; and it certainly does,
not carry with it a belief that all the external events which underlie
the emotional development are capable at this distance of time
of inferential reconstruction. But it does accept the sonnets as
an actual record of a part of Shakespeare's life during the years
in which they were written, and as revealing at least the outlines
of a drama which played itself out for once, not in his imagination
but in his actual conduct in the world of men and women.
There is no advantage to be gained by rearranging the order
of the 1609 volume, even if there were any basis other than
that of individual whim on which to do so. Many of the sonnets
are obviously linked to those which follow or precede them;
and altogether a few may conceivably be misplaced, the order
as a whole does not jar against the sense of emotional continuity,
which is the only possible test that can be applied. The last
two sonnets, however, are merely alternative versions of a Greek
epigram, and the rest fall into two series, which are more probably
parallel than successive. The shorter of these two series (cxxvii.-
clii.) appears to be the record of the poet's relations with a
mistress, a dark woman with raven brows and mourning eyes.
SHAKESPEARE
783
In the earlier sonnets he undertakes the half-playful defence
of black beauty against the blonde Elizabethan ideal; but the
greater number are in a more serious vein, and are filled with a
deep consciousness of the bitterness of lustful passion and of
the slavery of the soul to the body. The woman is a wanton.
She has broken her bed-vow for Shakespeare, who on his side is
forsworn in loving her; and she is doubly forsworn in proving
faithless to him with other men. His reason condemns her,
but his heart has not the power to throw off her tyranny. Her
particular offence is that she, " a woman coloured ill, " has cast
her snares not only upon him, but upon his friend, " a man right
fair," who is his "better angel," and that thus his loss is double,
in love and friendship. The longer series (i.-cxxvi.) is written
to a man, appears to extend over a considerable period of time,
and covers a wide range of sentiment. The person addressed
is younger than Shakespeare, and of higher rank. He is lovely,
and the son of a lovely mother, and has hair like the auburn
buds of marjoram. The series falls into a number of groups,
which are rarely separated by any sharp lines of demarcation.
Perhaps the first group (i.-xvii.) is the most distinct of all. These
sonnets are a prolonged exhortation by Shakespeare to his
friend to marry and beget children. The friend is now on the
top of happy hours, and should make haste, before the rose of
beauty dies, to secure himself in his descendants against devouring
time. In the next group (xviii.-xxv.) a much more personal
note is struck, and the writer assumes the attitudes, at once
of the poet whose genius is to be devoted to eternizing the
beauty and the honour of his patron, and of the friend whose
absorbing affection is always on the point of assuming an
emotional colour indistinguishable from that of love. The con-
sciousness of advancing years and that of a fortune which bars
the triumph of public honour alike find their consolation in this
affection. A period of absence (xxvi.-xxxii.) follows, in which
the thought of friendship comes to remedy the daily labour of
travel and the sorrows of a life that is " in disgrace with fortune
and men's eyes " and filled with melancholy broodings over
the past. Then (xxxiii.-xlii.) comes an estrangement. The
friend has committed a sensual fault, which is at the same time
a sin against friendship. He has been wooed by a woman loved
by the poet, who deeply resents the treachery, but in the end
forgives it, and bids the friend take all his loves, since all are
included in the love that has been freely given him. It is difficult
to escape the suggestion that this episode of the conflict between
love and friendship is the same as that which inspired some of
the " dark woman " sonnets. Another journey (xliii.-lii.) is again
filled with thoughts of the friend, and its record is followed by
a group of sonnets (liii.-lv.) in which the friend's beauty and the
immortality which this will find in the poet's verse are especially
dwelt upon. Once more there is a parting (Ivi.-lxi.) and the
poet waits as patiently as may be his friend's return to him.
Again (Ixii.-lxv.) he looks to his verse to give the friend im-
mortality. He is tired of the world, but his friend redeems
it (Ixvi.-lxviii.) . Then rumours of some scandal against his
friend (Ixix.-lxx.) reach him, and he falls (Ixxi.-lxxiv.) into
gloomy thoughts of coming death. The friend,- however, is still
(Ixxv.-lxxvii.) his argument; and he is perturbed (Ixxviii.-
Ixxxvi.) by the appearance of a rival poet, who claims to be taught
by spirits to write " above a mortal pitch," and with " the
proud full sail of his great verse" has already won the countenance
of Shakespeare's patron. There is another estrangement (Ixxxvii.-
xc.), and the poet, already crossed with the spite of fortune,
is ready not only to acquiesce in the loss of friendship, but to
find the fault in himself. The friend returns to him, but the
relation is still clouded by doubts of his fidelity (xci.-xciii.)
and by public rumours of his wantonness (xciv.-xcvi.). For a
third time the poet is absent (xcvii.-xcix.) in summer and spring.
Then comes an apparent interval, after which a love already
three years old is renewed (c.-civ.), with even richer praises
(cv.-cviii.). It is now the poet's turn to offer apologies (cix.-
cxii.) for offences against friendship and for some brand upon his
name apparently due- to the conditions of his profession. He
is again absent (cxiii.) and again renews'his protestations of the
imperishability of love (cxiv.-cxvi.) and of his own unworthiness
(cxvii.-cxxi.), for which his only excuse is in the fact that the
friend was once unkind. If the friend has suffered as Shakespeare
suffered, he has " passed a hell of time." The series closes with
a group (cxxii.-cxxv.) in which love is pitted against time;
and an envoi, not in sonnet form, warns the " lovely boy " that
in the end nature must render up her treasure.
Such an analysis can give no adequate idea of the qualities
in these sonnets, whereby the appeal of universal poetry is built
up on a basis of intimate self-revelation. The human document
is so legible, and at the same time so incomplete, that it is easy
to understand the strenuous efforts which have been made to
throw further light upon it by tracing the identities of those
other personalities, the man and the woman, through his relations
to whom the poet was brought to so fiery an ordeal of soul, and
even to the borders of self-abasement. It must be added that
the search has, as a rule, been conducted with more ingenuity
than judgment. It has generally started from the terms of a
somewhat mysterious dedication prefixed by the publisher
Thomas Thorpe to the volume of 1609. This runs as follows:
" To the onlie begetter of these insuing sonnets Mr W. H. all
happinesse and that eternitie promised by our ever-living poet
wisheth the well-wishing adventurer in setting forth T. T."
The natural interpretation of this is that the inspirer
or " begetter " of the sonnets bore the initials W. H.;
and contemporary history has accordingly been ran- w. H."
sacked to find a W. H. whose age and circumstances
might conceivably fit the conditions of the problem which the
sonnets present. It is perhaps a want of historical perspective
which has led to the centring of controversy around two names
belonging to the highest ranks of the Elizabethan nobility,
those of Henry Wriothesley, earl of Southampton, and William
Herbert, earl of Pembroke. There is some evidence to connect
Shakespeare with both of these. To Southampton he dedicated
Venus and Adonis in 1593 and The Rape of Lucrece in 1594,
and the story that he received a gift of no less than 1000 from
the earl is recorded by Rowe. His acquaintance with Pembroke
can only be inferred from the statement of Heminge and Condell
in their preface to the First Folio of the plays, that Pembroke
and his brother Montgomery had " prosequuted both them and
their Authour living, with so much favour." The personal
beauty of the rival claimants and of their mothers, their amours
and the attempts of their families to persuade them to marry,
their relations to poets and actors, and all other points in their
biographies which do or do not fit in with the indications of the
sonnets, have been canvassed with great spirit and some erudition,
but with no very conclusive result. It is in Pembroke's favour
that his initials were in fact W. H., whereas Southampton's
can only be turned into W. H. by a process of metathesis; and
his champions have certainly been more successful than South-
ampton's in producing a dark woman, a certain Mary Fitton,
who was a mistress of Pembroke's, and was in consequence
dismissed in disgrace from her post of maid of honour to Elizabeth.
Unfortunately, the balance of evidence is in favour of her having
been blonde, and not " black." Moreover, a careful investiga-
tion of the sonnets, as regards their style and their relation to the
plays, renders it almost impossible on chronological grounds that
Pembroke can have been their subject. He was born on the
9th of April 1580, and was therefore much younger than South-
ampton, who was born on the 6th of October 1573. The earliest
sonnets postulate a marriageable youth, certainly not younger
than eighteen, an age which Southampton reached in the autumn
of 1591 and Pembroke in the spring of 1598. The writing of the
sonnets may have extended over several years, but it is impossible
to doubt that as a whole it is to the years 1593-1598 rather than
to the years 1598-1603 that they belong. There is not, indeed,
much external evidence available. Francis Meres in hisPalladis
Tamia of 1 598 mentions Shakespeare's " sugred sonnets among
his private friends," 1 but this allusion might come as well at
1 " The sweet witty soul of Ovid lives in mellifluous and honey-
tongued Shakespeare, witness his Venus and Adonis, his Lucrece,
his sugred sonnets among his private friends."
SHAKESPEARE
the beginning as at the end of the series; and the fact that two,
not of the latest, sonnets are in The Passionate Pilgrim of 1599
is equally inconclusive.
The only reference to an external event in the sonnets them-
selves, which might at first sight seem useful, is in the following
lines (cvii.):
" The mortal moon hath her eclipse endured,
And the sad augurs mock their own presage;
Incertainties now crown themselves assured,
And peace proclaims olives of endless age."
This has been variously interpreted as referring to the death of
Elizabeth and accession of James in 1603, to the relief caused by
the death of Philip II. of Spain in 1598, and to the illness of
Elizabeth and threatened Spanish invasion in 1 596. Obviously
the " mortal moon " is Elizabeth, but although "eclipse" may
well mean " death," it is not quite so clear that " endure an
eclipse " can mean " die."
Nor do the allusions to the rival poet help much. " The proud
full sail of his great verse " would fit, on critical grounds, with
Spenser, Marlowe, Chapman, and possibly Peele, Daniel or
Drayton; and the " affable familiar ghost," from whom the
rival is said to obtain assistance by night, might conceivably
be an echo of a passage in one of Chapman's dedications. Daniel
inscribed a poem to Southampton in 1603, but with this exception
none of the poets named are known to have written either for
Southampton or for Pembroke, or for any other W. H. or
H. W., during any year which can possibly be covered by the
sonnets. Two very minor poets, Barnabe Barnes and Gervase
Markham, addressed sonnets to Southampton in 1593 and 1595
respectively, and Thomas Nash composed improper verses for his
delectation.
But even if external guidance fails, the internal evidence for
1593-1598 as approximately the sonnet period in Shakespeare's
life is very strong indeed. It has been worked out in detail
by two German scholars, Hermann Isaac (now Conrad) in the
Shakes peare-Jahrbuch for 1884, and Gregor Sarrazin in William
Shakespeares Lehrjahre (1897) and Aus Shakespeares Meister-
werkstatt (1906). Isaac's work, in particular, has hardly received
enough attention even from recent English scholars, probably
because he makes the mistakes of taking the sonnets in Boden-
stedt's order instead of Shakespeare's, and of beginning his whole
chronology several years too early in order to gratify a fantastic
identification of W. H. with the earl of Essex. This, however,
does not affect the main force of an argument by which the
affinities of the great bulk of the sonnets are shown, on the ground
of stylistic similarities, parallelisms of expression, and parallel-
isms of theme, to be far more close with the poems and with the
range of plays from Love's Labour's Lost to Henry I V. than with
any earlier or later section of Shakespeare's work. This dating
has the further advantage of putting Shakespeare's sonnets in
the full tide of Elizabethan sonnet-production, which began
with the publication of Sidney's Astrophel and Stella in 1591 and
Daniel's Delia and Constable's Diana in 1592, rather than during
years for which this particular kind of poetry had already ceased
to be modish. It is to the three volumes named that the in-
fluence upon Shakespeare of his predecessors can most clearly
be traced; while he seems in his turn to have served as a model
for Drayton, whose sonnets to Idea were published in a series
of volumes in 1594, 1599, 1602, 1605 and 1619. It does not
of course follow that because the sonnets belong to 1593-1598
W. H. is to be identified with Southampton. On general grounds
he is likely, even if above Shakespeare's own rank, to have been
somewhat nearer that rank than a great earl, some young
gentleman, for example, of such a family as the Sidneys, or as
the Walsinghams of Chislehurst.
It is possible that there is an allusion to Shakespeare's romance
in a poem called " Willobie his Avisa," published in 1594 as from
the pen of one Henry Willoughby, apparently of West Knoyle in
Wiltshire. In this Willoughby is introduced as taking counsel
when in love with " his familiar friend W. S. who not long before
had tryed the curtesy of the like passion, and was now newly
recovered of the like infection." But there is nothing outside
the poem to connect Shakespeare with a family of Willoughbys
or with the neighbourhood of West Knoyle. Various other
identifications of W. H. have been suggested, which rarely rest
upon anything except a similarity of initials. There is little
plausibility in a theory broached by Mr Sidney Lee, that W. H.
was not the friend of the sonnets at all, but a certain William
Hall, who was himself a printer, and might, it is conjectured,
have obtained the " copy " of the sonnets for Thorpe. It is, of
course, just possible that the " begetter " of the title-page
might mean, not the " inspirer," but the " procurer for the
press " of the sonnets ; but the interpretation is shipwrecked
on the obvious identity of the person to whom Thorpe " wishes "
eternity with the person to whom the poet " promised " that
eternity. The external history of the Sonnets must still be
regarded as an unsolved problem; the most that can be said
is that their subject may just possibly be Southampton, and
cannot possibly be Pembroke.
In order to obtain a glimmering of the man that was Shake-
speare, it is necessary to consult all the records and to read
the evidence of his life-work in the plays, alike in the
light of the simple facts of his external career and in T^waa
that of the sudden vision of his passionate and dis- */<. *
satisfied soul preserved in the sonnets. By exclusive
attention to any one of these sources of information it is easy
to build up a consistent and wholly false conception of a Shake-
speare; of a Shakespeare struggling between his senses and
his conscience in the artistic Bohemianism of the London
taverns; of a sleek, bourgeois Shakespeare to whom his art was
no more than a ready way to a position of respected and influential
competence in his native town; of a great objective artist whose
personal life was passed in detached contemplation of the puppets
of his imagination. Any one of these pictures has the advantage
of being more vivid, and the disadvantage of being less real,
than the somewhat elusive and enigmatic Shakespeare who
glances at us for a perplexing moment, now behind this, now
behind that, of his diverse masks. It is necessary also to lay
aside Shakespeareolatry, the spirit that could wish with Hallam
that Shakespeare had never written the Sonnets, or can refuse
to accept Titus Andronicus on the ground that " the play
declares as plainly as play can speak, ' I am not Shakespeare's;
my repulsive subject, my blood and horrors, are not, and never
were his.' " The literary historian has no greater enemy than
the sentimentalist. In Shakespeare we have to do with one who
is neither beyond criticism as a man nor impeccable as an artist.
He was for all time, no doubt; but also very much of an age,
the age of the later Renaissance, with its instinct for impetuous
life, and its vigorous rather than discriminating appetite for
literature. When Ben Jonson said that Shakespeare lacked
" art," and when Milton wrote of his " native wood-notes wild,"
they judged truly. The Shakespearian drama is magnificent
and incoherent ; it belongs to the adolescence of literature,
to a period before the instrument had been sharpened and
polished, and made unerring in its touch upon the sources of
laughter and of tears. Obviously nobody has such power over
our laughter and our tears as Shakespeare. But it is the power
of temperament rather than of art; or rather it is the power of
a capricious and unsystematic artist, with a perfect dramatic
instinct for the exposition of the ideas, the characters, the
situations, which for the moment command his interest, and a
perfect disregard for the laws of dramatic psychology which
require the patient pruning and subordination of all material
that does not make for the main exposition. This want of
finish, this imperfect fusing of the literary ore, is essentially
characteristic of the Renaissance, as compared with ages in
which the creative impulse is weaker and leaves room for a
finer concentration of the means upon the end. There is nearly
always unity of purpose in a Shakespearian play, but it often
requires an intellectual effort to grasp it and does not result
in a unity of effect. The issues are obscured by a careless
generosity which would extend to art the boundless freedom
of life itself. Hence the intrusive and jarring elements which
stand in such curious incongruity with the utmost reaches of
SHAKESPEARE
785
which the dramatic spirit is capable; the conventional and
melodramatic endings, the inconsistencies of action and even of
character, the emotional confusions of tragicomedy, the com-
plications of plot and subplot, the marring of the give-and-take
of dialogue by superfluities of description and of argument,
the jest and bombast lightly thrown in to suit the taste of the
groundlings, all the flecks that to an instructed modern criticism
are only too apparent upon the Shakespearian sun. It perhaps
follows from this that the most fruitful way of approaching
Shakespeare is by an analysis of his work rather as a process
than as a completed whole. <. His outstanding positive quality
is a vast comprehensiveness, a capacity for growth and assimila-
tion, which leaves no aspect of life unexplored, and allows of
no finality in the nature of his judgments upon life. It is the
real and sufficient explanation and justification of the pains
taken to determine the chronological order of his plays, that the
secret of his genius lies in its power of development and that
only by the study of its development can he be known. He was
nearly thirty when, so far as we can tell, his career as a dramatist
began; and already there lay behind him those six or seven
unaccounted-for years since his marriage, passed no one knows
where, and filled no one knows with what experience, but assuredly
in that strenuous Elizabethan life with some experience kindling
to his intellect and formative of his character. To the woodcraft
and the familiarity with country sights and sounds which he
brought with him from Stratford, and which mingle so oddly in
his plays with a purely imaginary and euphuistic natural history,
and to the book-learning of a provincial grammar-school boy,
and perhaps, if Aubrey is right, also of a provincial school-
master, he had somehow added, as he continued to add through-
out his life, that curious store of acquaintance with the details
of the most diverse occupations which has so often perplexed
and so often misled his commentators. It was the same faculty
of acquisition that gave him his enormous vocabulary, so far
exceeding in range and variety that of any other English writer.
His first group of plays is largely made up of adaptations and
revisions of existing work, or at the best of essays in the con-
ventions of stage-writing which had already achieved popularity.
In the Yorkist trilogy he takes up the burden of the chronicle
play, in The Comedy of Errors that of the classical school drama
and of the page-humour of Lyly, in Titus Andronicus that of
the crude revenge tragedy of Kyd, and in Richard III. that of
the Nemesis motive and the exaltation of the Machiavellian
superman which properly belong to Marlowe. But in Richard
III. be begins to come to his own with the subtle study of the
actor's temperament which betrays the working of a profound
interest in the technique of his chosen profession. The style
of the earliest plays is essentially rhetorical; the blank verse
is stiff and little varied in rhythm; and the periods are built
up of parallel and antithetic sentences, and punctuated with
devices of iterations, plays upon words, and other methods of
securing emphasis, that derive from the bad tradition of a popular
stage, upon which the players are bound to rant and force the
note in order to hold the attention of a dull-witted audience.
During the plague-vacations of 1592 to 1594, Shakespeare tried
his hand at the ornate descriptive poetry of Venus and Adonis
and Lucrece; and the influence of this exercise, and possibly
also of Itah'an travel, is apparent in the next group of plays,
with their lyric notes, their tendency to warm southern colouring,
their wealth of decorative imagery, and their elaborate and not
rarely frigid conceits. Rhymed couplets make their appearance,
side by side with blank verse, as a medium of dramatic dialogue.
It is a period of experiment, in farce with The Taming of the
Shrew, in satirical comedy with Love's Labour's Lost, in lyrical
comedy with A Midsummer Night's Dream, in lyrical tragedy
with Romeo and Juliet, in lyrical history with Richard II.,
and finally in romantic tragicomedy with The Two Gentlemen
of Verona and with the masterpiece of this singular genre, The
Merchant of Venice. It is also the period of the sonnets, which
have their echoes both in the phrasing and in the themes of the
plays; in the black-browed Rosaline of Love's Labour's Lost,
and in the issue between friendship and love which is variously
set in The Two Gentlemen of Verona and in The Merchant
of Venice. But in the latter play the sentiment is already one of
retrospection; the tempest of spirit has given way to the tender
melancholy of renunciation. The sonnets seem to bear witness,
not only to the personal upheaval of passion, but also to some
despondency at the spite of fate and the disgrace of the actor's
calling. This mood too may have cleared away in the sunshine
of growing popularity, of financial success, and of the possibly
long-delayed return to Stratford. Certainly the series of plays
written next after the travels of 1597 are light-hearted plays,
less occupied with profound or vexatious searchings of spirit
than with the delightful externalities of things. The histories
from King John to Henry V. form a continuous study of the
conditions of kingship, carrying on the political speculations
begun in Richard II. and culminating in the brilliant picture
of triumphant efficiency, the Henry of Agincourt. Meanwhile
Shakespeare develops the astonishing faculty of humorous
delineation of which he had given foretastes in Jack Cade, in
Bottom the weaver, and in Juliet's nurse; sets the creation of
Falstaff in front of his vivid pictures of contemporary England;
and passes through the half-comedy, half melodrama, of Much
Ado About Nothing to the joyous farce of The Merry Wives of
Windsor, and to his two perfectly sunny comedies the sylvan
comedy of As You Like It and the urban comedy of Twelfth
Night.
Then there comes a change of mood, already heralded by
Julius Caesar, which stands beside Henry V. as a reminder that
efficiency has its seamy as well as its brilliant side. The tragedy
of political idealism in Brutus is followed by the tragedy of in-
tellectual idealism in Hamlet; and this in its turn by the three
bitter and cynical pseudo-comedies, All's Well That Ends Well,
in which the creator of Portia, Beatrice, Rosalind and Viola
drags the honour of womanhood in the dust TroilusandCressida,
in which the ideals of heroism and of romance are confounded
in the portraits of a wanton and a poltroon and Measure for
Measure, in which the searchlight of irony is thrown upon the
paths of Providence itself. Upon the causes of this new perturba-
tion in the soul of Shakespeare it is perhaps idle to speculate.
The evidence of his profound disillusion and discouragement of
spirit is plain enough; and for some years the tide of his pessi-
mistic thought advances, swelling through the pathetic tragedy
of Othello to the cosmic tragedies of Macbeth and King Lear,
with their Titan-like indictments not of man alone, but of the
heavens by whom man was made. Meanwhile Shakespeare's
style undergoes changes no less notable than those of his subject-
matter. The ease and lucidity characteristic of the histories
and comedies of his middle period give way to a more troubled
beauty, and the phrasing and rhythm often tend to become
elliptic and obscure, as if the thoughts were hurrying faster than
speech can give them utterance. The period closes with Antony
and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, in which the ideals of the love of
woman and the honour of man are once more stripped bare to
display the skeletons of lust and egoism, and in the latter of which
signs of exhaustion are already perceptible; and with Timon
of Athens, in which the dramatist whips himself to an almost
incoherent expression of a general loathing and detestation of
humanity. Then the stretched cord suddenly snaps. Timon
is apparently unfinished, and the next play, Pericles, is in an
entirely different vein, and is apparently finished but not begun.
At this point only in the whole course of Shakespeare's develop-
ment there is a complete breach of continuity. One can only
conjecture the occurrence of some spiritual crisis, an illness
perhaps, or some process akin to what in the language of religion
is called conversion, which left him a new man, with the fever
of pessimism behind him, and at peace once more with Heaven
and the world.
The final group of plays, the Shakespearian part of Pericles,
Cymbeline, The Winter's Tale, The Tempest, all belong to the class
of what may be called idyllic romances. They are happy dreams,
in which all troubles and sorrows are ultimately resolved into
fortunate endings, and which stand therefore as so many symbols
of an optimistic faith in the beneficent dispositions of an ordering
786
SHAKESPEARE
Providence. In harmony with this change of temper the style
has likewise undergone another change, and the tense structure
and marmoreal phrasing of Antony and Cleopatra have given
way to relaxed cadences and easy and unaccentuated rhythms.
It is possible that these plays, Shakespeare's last plays, with the
unimportant exceptions of his contributions to Fletcher's
Henry VIII. and The Two Noble Kinsmen, were written in
retirement at Stratford. At any rate the call of the country
is sounding through them; and it is with no regret that in the
last pages of The Tempest the weary magician drowns his book,
and buries his staff certain fathoms deep in the earth.
(E. K. C.)
The Shakespeare-Bacon Theory.
In view of the continued promulgation of the sensational theory
that the plays, and presumably the poems also, so long associated
with the name of Shakespeare, were not written by the man whose
biography is sketched above, but by somebody else who used this
pseudonym and especially that the writer was Lord Chancellor
Francis Bacon, Viscount St Albans (1561-1626) it appears de-
sirable to deal here briefly with this question. No such idea seems to
have occurred to anybody till the middle of the igth century (see
Bibliography below), but having once been started it has been elabor-
ated in certain quarters by a variety of appeals, both to internal
evidence as disclosed by the knowledge displayed in Shakespeare's
works and by their vocabulary and style, and to external evidence as
represented by the problems connected with the facts of Shakespeare's
known life and of the publication of the plays. To what may be
called ingenious inferences from data of this sort have even been
added attempts to show that a secret confession exists which may
be detected in a cipher or cryptogram in the printing of the plays.
It must suffice here to say that the contentions of the Americans,
Mr Donnelly and Mrs Gallup, on this score are not only opposed to
the opinion of authoritative bibliographers, who deny the existence
of any such cipher, but have carried their supporters to lengths which
are obviously absurd and impossible. Lord Penzance, a _great
lawyer whose support of the Baconian theory may be found in his
" judicial summing-up," published in 1902, expressly admits that
"the attempts to establish a cipher totally failed; there was not
indeed the semblance of a cipher." Sir Edwin Durning-Lawrence, in
his Bacon is Shakespeare (1910), goes still farther in an attempt to
prove the point by cryptographic evidence. According to him the
classical " long word cited in Love's Labour's Lost, " honorifica;
bilitudinitatibus," is an anagram for " hi ludi F. Baconis nati tuiti
orbi " (these plays F. Bacon's offspring preserved for the world);
and he juggles very curiously with the numbers of the words and
lines in the page of the First Folio containing this alleged anagram.
He also cites the evidence of (more or less) contemporary illustra-
tions to books, which he explains as cryptographic, in confirmation.
These interpretations are in the highest degree speculative. But
perhaps his argument is exposed in its full depth of incredibility
when he counts up the letters in Ben Jonson's verses " To the
Reader," describing the Droeshout portrait in the First Folio, and,
finding them to be 287 (taking each w " as two " v's "), concludes
(by adding 287 to 1623, i.e. the date of the First Folio) that Bacon
intended to reveal himself as the author in the year 1910! This sort
of argument makes the plain man's head reel. On similar principles
anything might prove anything. What may be considered_ the more
reasonable way of approaching the question is shown in Mr G.
Greenwood's Shakespeare Problem Restated (1908), in which the
alleged difficulties of the Shakespearian authorship are competently
presented without recourse to any such extravagances.
The plausibility of many of the arguments used by Mr Greenwood
and those whom he follows depends a good deal upon the real
obscurity which, for lack of positive evidence, shrouds the biography
of Shakespeare and our knowledge of the precise facts as to the publi-
cation of the works associated with his name ; and it has been assisted
by the dogmatism of some modern biographers, or the differences of
opinion between them, when they attempt to interpret the known
facts of Shakespeare's life so as to account for his authorship. But
it must be remembered that, if Shakespeare (or Shakspere) wrote
Shakespeare's works, it is only possible to reconcile our view of his
biography with our knowledge of the works by giving some interpre-
tation to the known facts or accepting some explanation of what may
have occurred in the obscure parts of his life which will be consistent
with such an identification. That different hypotheses are favoured
by different orthodox critics is therefore no real objection, nor that
some may appear exceedingly speculative, for the very reason that
positive evidence is irrecoverable and that speculation consistent
with what is possible is the only resource. In so far as evidence
is to be twisted and strained at all, it is right, in view of the long
tradition and the prima facie presumptive evidence, to strain it in
any possible direction which can reasonably make the Shakespearian
authorship intelligible. As a matter of fact the evidence is strained
alike by one side and the other ; but as between the two it has to be
remembered that the onus lies on the opponent of the Shakespearian
authorship to show, first that there is no possible explanation which
would justify the tradition, and secondly that there is positive
evidence which can upset it and which will saddle the authorship of
Shakespeare's works on Bacon or some one else. The contempt
indiscriminately thrown on supporters of the Baconian theory by
orthodox critics is apt to be expressed in terms which are occasionally
unwarranted. But even if we leave out of account the lunatics and
fabricators who have been so prominently connected with it, the
adventurous amateur however eminent as a lawyer or however
acute as a critic of everyday affairs may easily be too ingenious in
his endeavours to solve a literary problem in which judgment largely
depends on a highly trained and subtle sense of literary style and a
special knowledge of the conditions of Elizabethan England and of
the early drama. In such an exposition of what may be called the
" anti-Shaksperian " case as Mr Greenwood's, many points appear
to make for his conclusion which are really not more than doubtful
interpretations of evidence; and though these interpretations may
be derived from orthodox Shakespearians orthodox, that is to say,
so far at all events as their view of Shakespearian authorship is
concerned there have been a good many such interpreters whose
zeal has outrun their knowledge. The fact remains that the most
competent special students of Shakespeare, however they may
differ as to details, and also the most authoritative special students
of Bacon, are unanimous in upholding the traditional view. The
Baconian theory simply stands as a curious illustration of the
dangers which, even in the hands of fair judges of ordinary evidence,
attend certain methods of literary investigation.
There is one simple reason for this: in order to establish even a
prima facie case against the identification of the man Shakespeare
(however the name be spelt) with the author of Shakespeare's works,
the Baconian must clearly account for the positive contemporary
evidence in its favour, and this cannot well be done ; it is highly
significant that it was not attempted or thought of for centuries.
It is comparatively easy to point to certain difficulties, which are due
to the gaps in our knowledge. As already explained, the orthodox
biographer, armed with the results of accurate scholarship and pro-
longed historical research, attempts to reconstruct the life of the
penod so as to offer possible or probable explanations of these diffi-
culties. But he does so backed by the unshaken tradition and the
positive contemporary evidence that the Stratford boy and man, the
London actor, the author of Venus and Adonis and Lucrece, and the
dramatist (so far at least as criticism upholds the canon of the plays
ascribed to Shakespeare), were one and the same.
It may be useful here to add to what has been written in the pre-
ceding article some of the positive contemporary allusions to Shake-
speare which establish this presumption. The evidence of Francis
Meres in Palladis Tamia (1598) has already been referred to. It is
incredible that Ben Jonson, who knew both Shakespeare and Bacon
intimately, who himself dubbed Shakespeare the " swan of Avon,"
and who survived Bacon for eleven years, could have died without
revealing the alleged secret, at a time when there was no reason for
concealing it. Much has been made of Jonson's varying references
to Shakespeare, and of certain inconsistencies in his references to both
Shakespeare and Bacon ; but these can be twisted in more than one
direction and their explanation is purely speculative. His positive
allusions to Shakespeare are inexplicable except as the most authori-
tative evidence of his identification of the man and his works.
Richard Barnfield (1598) speaks of Shakespeare as " honey-flowing,"
and says that his Venus and Lucrece have placed his name " in
Fame's immortal book." John Weever (1599) speaks of " honey-
tongued Shakespeare," admired for " rose-cheeked Adonis," and
" Romeo, Richard, more whose names I know not." John Davies of
Hereford (1610) calls him "our English Terence, Mr Will Shake-
speare." Thomas Freeman (1614) writes " to Master W. Shake-
speare : " " Who loves chaste life, there's Lucrece for a teacher |
Who list read lust there's Venus and Adonis | . . . | Besides in
plays thy wit winds like Meander." Other contemporary allusions,
all treating Shakespeare as a great poet and tragedian, are also on
record.
Finally, it may be remarked that although many problems in
connexion with Shakespeare's authorship can only be solved by the
answer that he was a " genius," the Baconian view that " genius "
by itself could not confer on Shakespeare, the supposed Stratford
" rustic," the positive knowledge of law, &c., which is revealed in his
works, depends on a theory of his upbringing and career which
strains the evidence quite as much as anything put forward by
orthodox biographers, if not more. As shown in the preceding article,
it is by no means improbable that the Stratford " rustic " was quite
well educated, and that his rusticity is a gross exaggeration. We
know very little about his early years, and, in so far as we are ignorant,
it is legitimate to draw inferences in favour of what makes the re-
mainder of his career and achievements intelligible. The Baconian
theory entirely depends on straining every assumption in favour of
Shakespeare's not having had any opportunity to acquire knowledge
which in any case it would require genius to absorb and utilize;
and this method of argument is directly opposed to the legitimate
procedure in approaching the undoubted difficulties. Isolated
phrases, such as Ben Jonson's dictum as to his small knowledge of
Latin and Greek, which may well be purely comparative, the con-
temptuous expression of a university scholar for one who had no
academic training, can easily be made too much of. The extreme
SHAKESPEARE
787
inferences as to his illiteracy, drawn from his handwriting, depend on
the most meagre data. The preface to the First Folio says that
" what he thought he uttered with that easiness that we have scarce
received from him a blot in his papers " ; whereas Ben Jonson, in his
Discoveries, says, " I remember the players often mentioned it as an
honour to Shakespeare that in his writing, whatsoever he penned,
he never blotted a line. My answer had been, would he had blotted
a thousand! which they thought a malevolent speech." Reams
have been written about these two sayings, but we do not know the
real circumstances which prompted either, and the non-existence of
any of the Shakespeare manuscripts leaves us open, unfortunately,
to the wildest conjectures. That there were such manuscripts
(unless Ben Jonson and the editors of the First Folio were liars) is
certain; but there is nothing peculiar in their not having survived,
though persons unacquainted with the history of the manuscripts of
printed works of the period sometimes seem to think so.
We know so little of the composition of Shakespeare's works, and
the stages they went through, or the influence of other persons on
him, that, so far as technical knowledge is concerned (especially the
legal knowledge, which has given so much colour to the Baconian
theory), various speculations are possible concerning the means
which a dramatic genius may have had to inform his mind or acquire
his vocabulary. The theatrical and social milieu of those days was
small and close; the influence of culture was immediate and mainly
oral. We have no positive knowledge indeed of any relations between
Shakespeare and Bacon; but, after all, Bacon was a great con-
temporary, personally interested in the drama, and one would expect
the contents of his mind and the same sort of literary expression that
we find in his writings to be reflected in the mirror of the stage ; the
same phenomenon would be detected in the drama of to-day were
any critic to take the trouble to inquire. Assuming the genius of
Shakespeare, such a poet and playwright would naturally be full of
just the sort of matter that would represent the culture of the day
and the interests of his patrons. In the purlieus of the Temple and
in Jiterary circles so closely connected with the lawyers and the court,
it is just the dramatic " genius " who would be familiar with any-
thing that could be turned to account, and whose works, especially
plays, the vocabulary of which was open to embody countless sources,
in the different stages of composition, rehearsal, production and
revision, would show the imagination of a poet working upon ideas
culled from the brains of others. Resemblances between phrases
used by Shakespeare and by Bacon, therefore, carry one no farther
than the fact that they were contemporaries. We cannot even say
which, if either, originated the echo. So far as vocabulary is con-
cerned, in every age it is the writer whose record remains and who by
degrees becomes its representative; the truth as to the extent to
which the intellectual milieu contributed to the education of the
writer, or his genius was assisted by association with others, is hard
to recover in after years, and only possible in proportion to our
knowledge of the period and of the individual factors in operation.
(ft. CH.)
THE PORTRAITS OF SHAKESPEARE
The mystery that surrounds much in the life and work of
Shakespeare extends also to his portraiture. The fact that the
only two likenesses of the poet that can be regarded as carrying
the authority of his co-workers, his friends, and relations
yet neither of them a life-portrait differ in certain essential
points, has opened the door to controversy and encouraged the
advance and acceptance of numerous wholly different types.
The result has been a swarm of portraits which may be classed
as follows: (i) the genuine portraits of persons not Shakespeare
but not unlike the various conceptions of him; (2) memorial
portraits often based on one or other of accepted originals,
whether those originals are worthy of acceptance or not; (3)
portraits of persons known or unknown, which have been
fraudulently " faked " into a resemblance of Shakespeare; and
(4) spurious fabrications especially manufactured for imposition
upon the public, whether with or without mercenary motive. It
is curious that some of the crudest and most easily demonstrable
frauds have been among those which have from time to time been,
and still are, most eagerly accepted and most ardently championed.
There are few subjects which have so imposed upon the credulous,
especially those whose intelligence might be supposed proof against
the chicanery practised upon them. Thus, in the past, a president
of the Royal Academy in England, and many of the leading
artists and Shakespearian students of the time, were found to
support the genuineness, as a contemporary portrait of the poet,
of a picture which, in its faked Shakespeare state, a few months
before was not even in existence. This, at least, proves the intense
interest taken by the world in the personality of Shakespeare,
and the almost passionate desire to know his features. It is
desirable, therefore, to describe those portraits which have chief
claim to recollection by reason either of their inherent interest
or of the notoriety which they have at some time enjoyed; it
is to be remarked that such notoriety once achieved never
entirely dies away, if only because the art of the engraver, which
has usually perpetuated them either as large plates, or as illustra-
tions to reputable editions of the works, or to commentaries
or biographies, sustains their undeserved credit as likenesses
more or less authentic.
Exhaustive study of the subject, extended over a series of
years, has brought the present writer to the conclusion identical
with that entertained by leading Shakespearian authorities
that two portraits only can be accepted without question as
authentic likenesses: the bust (really a half-length statue)
with its structural wall-monument in the choir of Holy Trinity
Church, Stratford-on-Avon, and the copper-plate engraved by
Martin Droeshout as frontispiece to the First Folio of Shake-
speare's works (and used for three subsequent issues) published
in 1623, although first printed in the previous year.
The Stratford bust and monument must have been erected
on the N. wall of the chancel or choir within six years after Shake-
speare's death in 1616, as it is mentioned in the prefatory memorial
lines by Leonard Digges in the First Folio. The design in its
general aspect was one often adopted by the " tombe-makers " of
the period, though not originated by them, and according to
Dugdale was executed by a Fleming resident in London since
1567, Garratt Johnson (Gerard Janssen), a denizen, who was
occasionally a collaborator with Nicholas Stone. The bust is
believed to have been commissioned by the poet's son-in-law,
Dr John Hall, and, like the Droeshout print, must have been
seen by and likely enough had the approval of Mrs Shake-
speare, who did not die until August 1623. It is thought to have
been modelled from either a life or death mask, and inartistic
as it is has the marks of facial individuality; that is to say, it
is a portrait and not a generalization such as was common
in funereal sculpture. According to the practice of the day,
especially at the hands of Flemish sculptors of memorial figures,
the bust was coloured; this is sufficient to account for the
technical summariness of the modelling and of the forms. Thus
the eyebrows are scarcely more than indicated by the chisel,
and a solid surface represents the teeth of the open mouth;
the brush was evoked to supply effect and detail. To the colour,
as reapplied after the removal of the white paint with which
Malone had the bust covered in 1793, must be attributed a
good deal of the wooden appearance which is now a shock to
many. The bust is of soft stone (not alabaster, as incorrectly
stated by " the accurate Dugdale "), but a careful examination
of the work reveals no sign of the alleged breakage and restora-
tion or reparation to which some writers have attributed the
apparently inordinate length of the upper lip. As a matter of
fact the lip is not long; it is less than seven-eighths of an inch:
the appearance is to a great extent an optical illusion, the result
partly of the smallness of the nose and, especially, of the thinness
of the moustache that shows the flesh above and below. Some
repair was made to the monument in 1649, and again in 1748,
but there is no mention in the church records of any meddling
with the bust itself. Owing, however, to the characteristic
inaccuracy of the print by one of Hollars' assistants in the
illustration of Dugdale's Antiquities of Warwickshire (p. 688),
the first edition of which was published in 1656, certain writers
have been misled into the belief that the whole monument
and bust were not merely restored but replaced by those which
we see to-day. As other prints in the volume depart grossly
from the objects represented, and as Dugdale, like Vertue
(whose punctilious accuracy has also been baselessly extolled
by Walpole), was at times demonstrably loose in his descrip-
tions and presentments, there is no reason to believe that the
bust and the figures above it are other than those originally
placed in position. Other engravers, following the Dugdale
print, have further stultified the original, but as they (Vertue,
Grignion, Foudrinier, and others) differ among themselves,
little importance need be attached to the circumstance. A
788
SHAKESPEARE
warning should be uttered against many of the so-called " casts "
of the busts. George Bullock took a cast in 1814 and Signer A.
Michele another about forty years after, but those attributed to
W. R. Kite, W. Scoular, and others, are really copies, departing
from the original in important details as well as in general effect.
It is from these that many persons derive incorrect impressions
of the bust itself.
Mention should here be made of the " Kesselstadt Death
Mask, " now at Darmstadt, as that has been claimed as the true
death-mask of Shakespeare, and by it the authenticity of other
portraits has been gauged. It is not in fact a death-mask at
all, but a cast from one and probably not even a direct cast.
In three places on the back of it is the inscription |-ADm 1616:
and this is the sole actual link with Shakespeare. Among the
many rapturous adherents of the theory was William Page, the
American painter, who made many measurements of the mask
and found that nearly half of them agreed with those of the
Stratford bust; the greater number which do not he conveniently
attributed to error in the sculptor. The cast first came to light
in 1849, having been searched for by Dr. Ludwig Becker, the
owner of a miniature in oil or parchment representing a corpse
crowned with a wreath, lying in bed, while on the background,
next to a burning candle, is the date Ao 1637. This little
picture was by tradition asserted to be Shakespeare, although
the likeness, the death-date, and the wreath all point unmistak-
ably to the poet-laureate Ben Jonson. Dr Becker had purchased
it at the death-sale at Mainz of Count Kesselstadt hi 1847,
in which also " a plaster of Paris cast " (with no suggestion of
Shakespeare then attached to it) had appeared. This he found
in a broker's rag-shop, assumed it to be the same, recognized
in it a resemblance to the picture (which most persons cannot
see) and so came to attribute to it the enormous historical value
which it would, were his hypothesis correct, unquestionably
possess. In searching for the link of evidence necessary to be
established, through the Kesselstadt line to England and Shake-
speare, a theory has been elaborated, but nothing has been proved
or carried beyond the point of bare conjecture. The arguments
against the authenticity of the cast are strong 'and cogent
the chief of which is the fact that the skull reproduced is funda-
mentally of a different form and type from that shown in the
Droeshout print the forehead is receding instead of upright.
Other important divergencies occur. The handsome, refined,
and pleasing aspect of the mask accounts for much of the favour
in which it has been held. It was believed in by Sir Richard
Owen and was long on view in the British Museum, and
was shown in the Stratford Centenary Exhibition in 1864.
The " Droeshout print " derives its importance from its
having been executed at the order of Heminge and Condell to
represent, as a frontispiece to the Plays, and put forth as his
portrait, the man and friend to whose memory they paid the
homage of their risky enterprise. The volume was to be his real
monument, and the work was regarded by them as a memorial
erected hi a spirit of love, piety, and veneration. Mrs Shake-
speare must have seen the print; Ben Jonson extolled it. His
dedicatory verses, however, must be regarded hi the light of
conventional approval as commonly expressed in that age of
the performances of portrait-engravers and habitually inscribed
beneath them. It is obvious, therefore, that in the circumstances
an authentic portrait must necessarily have been the basis of
the engraving; and Sir George Scharf, judging from the contra-
dictory lights and shadows in the head, concluded that the
original must have been a limning more or less an outline
drawing which the youthful engraver was required to put into
chiaroscuro, achieving his task with but very partial success.
That this is the case is proved by the so-called " unique proof "
discovered by Halli well-Phillips, and now in America. Another
copy of it, also an early proof but not in quite the same " state, "
is in the Bodleian Library. No other example is known. In
this plate the head is far more human. The nose is here longer
than in the bust, but the bony structure corresponds. In the
proof, moreover, there is a thin, wiry moustache, much widened
in the print as used; and in several other details there are
important divergencies. In this engraving by Droeshout the
head is far too large for the body, and the dress the costume
of well-to-do persons of the time is absurdly out of perspective:
an additional argument that the unpractised engraver had only
a drawing of a head to work from, for while the head shows
the individuality of portraiture the body is as clearly done
de chic. The first proof is conclusive evidence against the con-
tention that the " Flower Portrait "at the Shakespeare Memorial
Museum, Stratford-on-Avon the gift of Mrs Charles Flower
(1895) and boldly entitled the " Droeshout original " is the
original painting from which the engraving was made, and is
therefore the actual life-portrait for which Shakespeare sat.
This view was entertained by many connoisseurs of repute until
it was pointed out that had that been the case the first proof,
if it had been engraved from it, would have resembled it in all
particulars, for the engraver would have merely copied the picture
before him. Instead of that, we find that several details in the
proof the incorrect illumination, the small moustache, the shape
of the eyebrow and of the deformed ear, &c. have been corrected
in the painting, in which further improvements are also imported.
The conclusion is therefore irresistible. At the same time the
picture may possibly be the earliest painted portrait in existence
of the poet, for so far as we can judge of it in its present condition
(it was to some extent injured by fire at the Alexandra Palace)
it was probably executed in the earlier half of the I7th century.
The inscription Willrl Shakespeare, 1609 is suspect on account
of being written hi cursive script, the only known example at
the date to which it professes to belong. If it were authentic it
might be taken as showing us Shakespeare's appearance seven
years before his death, and fourteen years before the publica-
tion of the Droeshout print. The former attribution of it to
Cornells Janssen's brush has been abandoned it is the work of
a comparatively unskilful craftsman. The picture's pedigree
cannot definitely be traced far back, but that is of little import-
ance, as plausible pedigrees have often been manufactured to
bolster up the most obvious impostures. The most interesting
of the copies or adaptations of this portrait is perhaps that by
William Blake now in the Manchester Corporation Art Gallery.
One of the cleverest imitations, if such it be, of an old picture
is the " Buttery " or " Ellis portrait, " acquired by an American
collector in 1902. This small picture, on panel, is very poor
judged as a work of art, but it has all the appearance of age.
In this case the perspective of the dress has been corrected, and
Shakespeare's shield is shown on the background. The head ,is
that of a middle-aged man ; the moustache, contrary to the usual
type, is drooping. It is curious that the " Thurston miniature ' ' done
from the Droeshout print gives the moustache of the " proof. "
Two other portraits of the same character of head and arrange-
ment are the " Ely Palace portrait " and the " Felton portrait,"
both of which in their time have had, and still have, convinced
believers. The " Ely Palace portrait " was discovered in 1845
in a broker's shop, and was bought by Thomas Turton, bishop
of Ely, who died in 1864, when it was bougnt by Henry Graves
and by him was presented to the Birthplace. An unsatisfactory
statement of its history, similar to that of many other portraits,
was put forth; the picture must be judged on its merits. It
bears the inscription "M 39 + 1603," and it shows a moustache
and a right eyebrow identical with those in the Droeshout "proof."
It was therefore hailed by many competent judges as the original
of the print; by others it was dismissed as a " make-up ";
at the same time it is very far from being a proved fraud.
Supposing both it and the " Flower portrait " to be genuine,
this picture, which came to light long before the latter, antedates
it by six years. Judged by the test of the Droeshout " proof"
it must have preceded and not followed it. The " Felton
portrait," which made its first appearance in 1792, had the
valiant championship of the astute and cynical Steevens, of
Britton, Drake, and other authorities, as the original of the
Droeshout print, while a few those who believed in the
" Chandos portrait " denounced it as "a rank forgery. "
On the back of the panel was boldly traced in a florid hand
" Gul. Shakespear 1597 R.B." (by others read " R.N."). If
SHAKESPEARE
PLATE I.
PORTRAITS OF SHAKESPEARE
Photo, Harold Baker, Birmingham.
THE STRATFORD BUST AND MONUMENT
IN HOLY TRINITY CHURCH, STRAT-
FORD-ON-AVON. Erected before 1623.
Photo, Emery Walker.
THE ENGRAVING BY MARTIN DROESHOUT.
In the First Folio Edition. 1623.
Photo, Emery Walker.
THE CHANDOS PORTRAIT.
In the National Portrait Gallery.
THE FLOWER PORTRAIT.
( The " Droeshout Original " ).
In the Shakespeare Memorial Gallery.
XXIV. 788.
PLATE II.
SHAKESPEARE
PORTRAITS OF SHAKESPEARE
i. THE JANSSEN.
2. THE FELTON.
3. THE ELY PALACE.
4. THE HUNT OR
STRATFORD.
5. THE LUMLEY.
6. THE ASHBOURNE. 7. THE HAMPTON COURT. 8. THE SOEST.
9. THE HILLIARD
MINIATURE.
10. THE AURIOL
MINIATURE.
Photo, W.A. Uansell.
ii. THE DUNFORD.
Pholo, W.A. Man.iell.
12. THE STAGE.
13. THE DEATH-MASK.
14. THE ROUBILIAC
STATUE.
15- THE SCHEEMAKERS
STATUE.
16. THE DAVENANT
BUST.
SHAKESPEARE
789
R.B. is correct, it is contended the initials indicate Richard
Burbage, Shakespeare's fellow-actor. Traces of the writing
may still be detected. Boaden's copy, made in 1792, repeating
the inscription on the back, has " Guil. Shakspeare 1587 R.N."
The spelling of Shakespeare's name which in succeeding ages
has been governed by contemporary fashion has a distinct
bearing on the authenticity of the panel. At the first appearance
of the " Felton portrait " in a London sale-room it was bought by
Samuel Felton of Drayton, Shropshire, for five pounds, along
with a pedigree which carried its refutation along with it.
Nevertheless, it bears evidence of being an honest painting
done from life, and is probably not a make-up in the sense that
most of the others are. It fell into the hands of Richardson
the printseller, who issued fraudulent engravings of it by Trotter
and others (by which it is best known), causing the character-
istic lines of the shoulders to be altered, so that it is set upon
a body attired in the Droeshout costume, which does not appear
in the picture; and then, arguing from this falsely-introduced
costume, the publisher maintained that the work was the original
of the Droeshout print and therefore a life-portrait of Shakespeare.
Thus foisted on the public it enjoyed for years a great reputation,
and no one seems to have recognized that with its down-turned
moustache it agrees with the inaccurate print after the Droeshout
engraving which was published as frontispiece to Ayscough's
edition of Shakespeare in 1790, i.e. two years before the dis-
covery of the Felton portrait ! The " Napier portrait, " as the
excellent copy by John Boaden is known, has recently been
presented to the Shakespeare Memorial. Josiah Boydell also
made a copy of the picture for George Steevens in 1797. Quite
a number of capital miniatures from it are in existence. With
these should be mentioned a picture of a similar type discovered
by Mr M. H. Spielmann in 1905. Finding a wretched copy of
the Chandos portrait executed on a panel about three hundred
years old, he had the century-old paint cleaned off in order to
ascertain the method of the forger. On the disappearance of
the Chandos likeness under the action of the spirit another por-
trait of Shakespeare was found beneath, irretrievably damaged
but obviously painted in the i7th century. At the time of the
" fake " only portraits of the Chandos type were saleable, and
this would account for the wanton destruction of an interesting
work which was probably executed for a publisher likely
enough for Jacob Tonson but not used. Early as it is in date
it can make no claim to be a life-portrait.
The " Janssen " or " Somerset portrait " is in many respects
the most interesting painted likeness of Shakespeare, and
undoubtedly the finest of all the paintings in the series. It is
certainly a genuine as well as a very beautiful picture of the
period, and bears the inscription 1(> ^ Q but doubt has been
expressed whether the 6 of 46 has not been tampered with,
and whether it was not originally an o and altered to fit Shake-
speare's age. It was made known through Earlom's rare
mezzotint of it, but the public knowledge of it has been mainly
founded on Cooper's and Turner's beautiful but misleading
mezzotint plates until a photograph of the original was published
for the first time in 1909 (in The Connoisseur) by permission
of the owner, the Lady Guendolen Ramsden, daughter of the
duke of Somerset, the former owner of the picture. The resem-
blance to the main forms of the death-mask is undoubted; but
that is of little consequence as confirmation unless the mask
itself is supported by something beyond vague conjectures.
Charles Jennens, the wealthy and eccentric amateur editor of
the poor edition of King Lear issued in 1770, was the first
known owner, but vouchsafed no information of its source and
shrank from the challenge to produce the picture. Of the beauty,
excellence, and originality of this portrait there is no question;
it is more than likely that Janssen was the author of it; but
that it was intended to represent Shakespeare is still to be proved.
A number of good copies of it exist, all but one (which enjoys
a longer pedigree) made in the i8th century: the " Croker
Janssen " now lost, unless it be that of Lord Darnley's; the
" Staunton Janssen," the " Buckston Janssen," the " Marsden
Janssen, " and the copy in the possession of the duke of Anhalt.
These are all above the average merit of such work.
The portrait which has made the most popular appeal is that-
called the " Chandos, " formerly known as the " d'Avenant, "
the " Stowe, " and the " Ellesmere, " according as it passed from
hand to hand; it is now in the National Portrait Gallery.
Tradition, tainted at the outset, attributes the authorship of
it to Richard Burbage, although it is impossible that the painter
of the head in the Dulwich Gallery could have produced a
work so good in technique; and Burbage is alleged to have given
it to his fellow-actor Joseph Taylor, who bequeathed it to Sir
William d'Avenant, Shakespeare's godson. As a matter of fact,
Taylor died intestate. Thenceforward, whether or not it be-
longed to d'Avenant, its history is clear. At the great Stowe
sale of the effects of the duke of Buckingham and Chandos
(who had inherited it) the earl of Ellesmere bought it and then
presented it to the nation. Many serious inquirers have refused
to accept this romantic, swarthy, Italian-looking head here
depicted as a likeness of Shakespeare of the Midlands, if only
because in every important physiognomical particular, and in
face-measurement, it is contradicted by the Stratford bust and
the Droeshout print. It is to be noted, however, that judged
by the earlier copies of it which agree in the main points
some of the swarthiness complained of may be due to the restorer.
Oldys, indifferent to tradition, attributed it to Janssen, an un-
allowable ascription. This, except the " Lumley portrait,"
the " Burdett Coutts portrait," and . the admitted fraud, the
" Dunford portrait," is the only picture of Shakespeare executed
before the end of the i8th century which represents the poet
with earrings the wearing of which, it should be noted, either
simple gold circles or decorated with jewel-drops, was a fashion
that extended over two centuries, in England mainly, if not
entirely, affected by nobles and exquisites. Contrary to the
general belief, the picture has not been subjected to very extensive
repair. That it was not radically altered by the restorer is proved
by the fine copy painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller, and by him
presented to John Dryden. The poet acknowledged the gift
in his celebrated Fourteenth Epistle, written after 1691 and
published in 1694, and containing the passage beginning,
" Shakespeare, thy gift, I place before my sight; With awe
I ask his blessing ere I write." D'Avenant had died in 1668,
and so could not, as tradition contends was the case, have been
the donor. In Malone's time the -picture was already in the
possession of the earl Fitzwilliam. This at least proves the
esteem in which the Chandos portrait was held so far back as
the end of the I7th century, only three-quarters of a century
after Shakespeare's death.
From among the innumerable copies and adaptations of the
Chandos portrait a few emerge as having a certain importance
of their own. That which Sir Joshua Reynolds is traditionally
said to have made for the use of Roubiliac, then engaged in his
statue of Shakespeare for David Garrick (now in the British
Museum), and another alleged to have been done for Bishop
Newton, are now lost. That by Ranelagh Barret was presented
in 1779 to Trinity College Library, Cambridge, by the Shake-
spearian commentator Edward Capell. Dr Matthew Maty,
principal librarian of the British Museum, presented his copy
to the museum in 1760. There are also the smooth but rather
original copy (with drapery added) belonging to the earl of Bath
at Longleat; the Warwick Castle copy; the fair copy
known as the Lord St Leonards portrait; the large copy in
coloured crayons, formerly in the Jennens collection and now
belonging to Lord Howe, by van der Gucht, which seems to
be by the same hand as that which executed the pastel portrait
of Chaucer in the Bodleian Library; the " Clopton miniature "
attributed to John Michael Wright, which formed the basis of
the drawing by Arlaud, by whose name the engravings of this
modified type are usually known; the Shakespeare Hirst picture,
based on Houbraken's engraving; the full-size chalk drawing
by Ozias Humphry, R.A., at 'the Birthplace, which Malone
guaranteed to be a perfect transcript, but which more resembles
the late W. P. Frith, R.A., than Shakesper.re. Humphry also,
790
SHAKESPEARE
adhering to his modified type, executed three beautiful but
inaccurate miniatures from the picture, one of which is in the
Garrick Club, and the others in private hands.
The " Lumley portrait " is in type a curious blend of the
faces in the Chandos portrait and the Droeshout print, with
a dash of the " Auriol miniature " (see later). It represents
a heavy-jowled man with pursed-up lips, and with something of
the expression but little of the vitality of the Chandos. Although
it is thought to be indicated though not actually mentioned
in the Lumley sale catalogues of 1785 and 1807, it was only when
it came into the possession of George Rippon, presumably about
the year 1848, that it was brought to the notice of the world,
and additional attention was secured by the owner's contention
that it was the original of the Chandos. It is claimed that the
picture originally belonged to the portrait collector John, Lord
Lumley, of Lumley castle, Durham, who died in 1609, and
descended to Richard, the 4th earl of Scarborough, and George
Augustus, the sth earl, at whose respective sales at the dates
mentioned it was put up to auction. On the first occasion it was
bought in, and on the second it was acquired by George Walters.
It is to be observed, however, that it does not appear by name
in the early inventory, and it is unconvincingly claimed that
it was mistakenly entered as Chaucer, a portrait of whom is
mentioned. When in the possession of George Rippon the picture
was so superbly chromo-lithographed by Vincent Brooks that
copies of it, mounted on old panel or canvas, and varnished,
have often changed hands as original paintings. It is clear that
if the picture was indeed in possession of John, Lord Lumley,
we have here a contemporary portrait of Shakespeare, and the
fact that it is an amateur performance would in no way in-
validate the claim. It is thinly painted and scarcely looks the
age that is claimed for it; but it is an interesting work, which, in
1875, entered the collection of the late Baroness Burdett-Coutts.
To Frederigo Zuccaro are attributed three of the more important
portraits now to be mentioned; upon him also have been foisted
several of the more impudent fabrications herein named. The
" Bath" or "Archer portrait" it having been in the possession
of the Bath Librarian, Archer, when attention was first drawn
to it in 1859 is worthy of Zuccaro's brush. It is Italian in
feeling, with an inscription (" W. Shakespear ") in an Italian
but apparently more modern hand. The type of head, too,
is Italian, and it is curious that in certain respects it bears some
resemblance not only to the Chandos, and to the Droeshout
and Janssen portraits, but also to the "death-mask"; yet it
differs in essentials from all. Certain writers have affirmed
that Reynolds in one of his Discourses expressed his faith in
the picture; but the alleged passage cannot be identified.
This eloquent, refined, and well-bred head suggests an Italian
noble, or, if an English poet, a man of the type of Edmund
Spenser; a lady-love shoe-string, or " twist " (often used to
tie on a jewel), threads the ear and a fine lace ruff frames the
head. The whole picture is beautifully painted by a highly
accomplished artist. If this portrait represents Shakespeare
at about the age of 30, that is to say in 1594, the actor-dramatist
had made astonishing progress in the world, and become well-to-
do, and had adopted the attire of a dandy. But Zuccaro came
to England in 1574, and as his biographers state " did not stay
long, " and returned to Florence to complete the work at the
Duomo there begun by Vasari. The conclusion appears to be
definite. The picture was acquired for the Baroness Burdett-
Coutts by W. H. Wills.
Stronger objection applies to the " Boston Zuccaro " or " Joy
portrait, " now in Boston, U.S.A. A Mr Benjamin Joy, who
emigrated from London to Boston, owned a picture with a doubt-
ful pedigree transparently a manufactured tradition. R. S.
Greenough, the American sculptor, used it along with " other
authentic portraits " to produce his bust. In parts it has been
viciously restored, but it is in very fair condition and appears
to be a good picture of the Flemish school. In the vague assertion
that it was found in the Globe Tavern which was frequented by
Shakespeare and his associates, no credence can be placed, if
only because no such tavern is known to have existed.
The " Cosway Zuccaro portrait " is now in America; but the
reproduction of it exists in England in the miniature of it by
Cosway's pupil, Charlotte Jones, as well as in the rare mezzotint
by Hanna Greene. The picture is alleged to have disappeared
from the possession of Richard Cosway; it was sold in his sale,
however, and passed through the hands of Lionel Booth and
of Augustin Daly. No one would imagine that it is intended
for a portrait of the poet. It is far more like Shelley (some-
what caricatured, especially as to the cat-like eyes and the
Mephistophelian eyebrows) or Torquato Tasso. The attribution
to Zuccaro is absurd, yet Cosway and Sir Charles Eastlake
believed in it. The inscription on the back, " Guglielm :
Shakespear," with its mixture of Italian and English, resembles
in wording and spelling that adopted in the case of several
admitted " fakes." No attempt at discovering the history of
the picture was ever made, but there is no doubt that at the
beginning of the ipth century it was widely credited; Wivell
and others attributed it to Lucas Franchois. It is said to be
well painted, but the copies show that it is ill drawn. The
miniature by Charlotte Jones, a fashionable artist in her day,
is pretty and weak, but well executed; it was painted in 1823.
Of the " Burdett-Coutts portrait " (the fourth interesting
portrait of Shakespeare in the possession of Mr Burdett-Coutts)
there is no history whatever to record. No name has been
suggested for the artist, but the hands and accessories of dress
strongly resemble those in the portrait of Elizabeth Hard wick,
countess of Shrewsbury, in the National Portrait Gallery. The
ruff, painted with extreme care, reveals a pentimento. The picture
is admirably executed, but the face is weak and is the least
satisfactory part of it; especially feeble is the ear with the ring.
Shakespeare's shield, crest, with red mantling, which appear
co-temporary with the rest, and the figures " 37 " beneath it,
appear on the background, in the manner adopted in 17th-
century portraits. From this picture the " Craven portrait "
seems to have been " faked."
Equally striking is the " Ashbourne portrait," well known
through G. F. Storm's engraving of it. It is sometimes called the
" Kingston portrait " as the first known owner of it was the Rev.
Clement U. Kingston, who issued the engraving in 1847. It
is an important three-quarter length, representing a figure in
black standing beside a table at the corner of which is a skull
whereon the figure rests his right forearm. It is an acceptable
likeness of Shakespeare, in the manner of Paul van Somer,
apparently pure except in the ruff. The inscription " M.TATIS
SVAE. 47. A 1611," and the decoration of cross spears on a book
held by the right hand, are also raised from the ground, so that
it would be injudicious to decide that these are not of a later
date yet at the same time ancient additions. It is the only
picture if we disregard the inadmissible " Hampton Court
portrait " in which Shakespeare is shown wearing a sword-
belt and a thumb-ring, and holding a gauntleted glove. The
typs is that of a refined, fresh-coloured, fair-haired English
gentleman. There is no record of the picture before Mr Kingston
bought it from a London dealer.
More famous, but less reputable, is the " Stratford " or
" Hunt portrait," amusingly exhibited in an iron safe in the
Birthplace at Stratford, to which it was presented by W. 0.
Hunt, town clerk, in 1867. It had been in the Hunt family for
many years and represented a black-bearded man. Simon
Collins, the picture cleaner and restorer who had cleansed the
Stratford bust of Malone's white paint and restored its colours,
declaring that another picture was beneath it, was engaged
to exercise himself upon it. He removed the top figure from
the dilapidated canvas with spirit and found beneath it the
painted version of the Stratford bust. At that time Mr Rabone's
copy, now at Birmingham, was made; it is valuable as evidence.
Then Collins, always a suspect in this matter, proceeded with
the restoration, and by treatment of the hair made the portrait
more than ever like the bust; and the owner, and not a few
others, proclaimed the picture to be the original from which
the bust was made. No judge of painting, however, accepts the
picture as dating further back than the latter half of the i8th
SHAKESPEARE
791
century when it was probably executed, among a score of others,
about the time of the bicentenary of Shakespeare's birth, an
event which gave rise to much celebration. The ingenious but
entirely unconvincing explanations offered to account for the
state in which the picture was found need not be recounted here.
The " Duke of Leeds' portrait," now at Hornby castle, has
been for many years in the family, but the circumstances of
its provenance are unknown. It has been thought possible
that this is the lost portrait of which John Evelyn speaks as
having been in the collection of Lord Chancellor Clarendon,
the companion picture to that of Chaucer; but no evidence
has been adduced to support the conjecture. It represents a
handsome, fair man, with auburn beard, with an expression
recalling the Janssen portrait; the nose, however, is quite
different. He wears a standing " wired band," as in the Droe-
shout print. It is a workmanlike piece of painting, but there
is nothing in the picture to connect it with Shakespeare. The
same may be said of the " Welcombe portrait," which was bought
by Mark Philips of Welcombe and descended to Sir George
Trevelyan. It is a fairly good picture, having some resemblance
to the " Boston Zuccaro " with something of the Chandos.
The figure, a half-length, wears a falling spiked collar edged with
lace, and from the ear a love-lace, the traces of which only are
left. Two other portraits at the Shakespeare Memorial should
be named. The " Venice portrait," which was bought in Paris
and is said to have come from Venice, bears an Italian unde-
cipherable inscription on the back; it seems to have no obvious
connexion with Shakespeare apart from its exaggeration of the
general aspect of the Chandos portrait; it is a weak thing.
The " Tonson portrait," inscribed on the frame " The Jacob
Tonson Picture, 1 735," a small oval, with the attributes of comedy
and tragedy, is believed to have been executed for Tonson's
4th edition of Shakespeare, but not used.
The " Soest portrait " (often called Zoust or Zoest), formerly
known as " the Douglas," the " Lister Kaye " or the " Clarges
portrait," according to the owner of the moment, was for many
years a public favourite, mainly through J. Simon's excellent
mezzotint. The picture, a short half-length within an oval,
is manifestly meant for Shakespeare, but the head as nearly
resembles the head of Christ at Lille by Charles Delafosse (1636-
1716) who also painted pictures in England. Gerard Soest
was not bom until 1637, and according to Granger the picture
was painted in Charles II. 's reign. It is a pleasing but weak
head, possibly based on the Chandos. The whereabouts of the
picture is unknown, unless it is that in the possession of the
earl of Craven. A number of copies exist, two of which are at
the Shakespeare Memorial . Simon 's print was the first announce-
ment of the existence of the picture, which at that time belonged
to an obscure painter, F. Wright of Covent Garden.
The " Charlecote portrait," which was exhibited publicly
at Stratford in 1896, represents a burly, bull-necked man, whose
chief resemblance to Shakespeare lies in his baldness and hair,
and in the wired band he wears. The former possession of the
picture by the Rev. John Lucy has lent it a sort of reputation;
but that gentleman bought it as recently as 1853.
Similarly, the " Hampton Court portrait " derives such
authority as it possesses from the dignity of its owner and its
habitat. William IV. bought it as a portrait of Shakespeare,
but without evidence, it is suggested, from the de Lisles. This
gorgeously attired officer in an elaborate tunic of green and
gold, with red bombasted trunks, with fine worked sword and
dagger pendent from the embroidered belt, and with a falling
ruff and laces from his ear, bears some distant resemblance to
the Chandos portrait. Above is inscribed, " JEt&t. suae. 34."
It appears to be the likeness of a blue-eyed soldier; but it has
been suggested that the portrait represents Shakespeare in stage
dress a frequent explanation for the strange attire of quaintly
alleged portraits of the poet. A copy of this picture was made
by H. Duke about 1860. Similarly unacceptable is the"H.
Danby Seymour portrait" which has disappeared since it was
lent to the National Portrait Exhibition of 1866. This is a fine
three-quarter length in the Miervelt manner. The dignified
bald-headed man has a light beard, brown hair, and blue eyes,
and wears white lace-edged falling collars and cuffs over a
doublet gold-embroidered with points; and ,in the left hand
holds a black hat. The " Lytton portrait," a royal gift made to
Lord Lytton from Windsor Castle, is mainly interesting as having
been copied by Miller in his original profile engraving of Shake-
speare. The " Rendelsham " and " Crooks " portraits also
belong to the category of capital paintings representing some one
other than Shakespeare; and the same may be hazarded of
the " Grafton " or " Winston " portrait, the " Sanders portrait,"
the " Gilliland portrait " (an old man's head impudently
advanced), the striking " Thorne Court portrait," the " Aston
Cantlow portrait, "the" Burn portrait," the " Gwennet portrait,"
the " Wilson portrait " and others of the class.
Miniature-painting has assumed a certain importance in relation
to the subject. The " Welbeck Abbey " or " Harleian miniature,"
is that which Walpole caused to be engraved by Vertue for Pope's
edition of Shakespeare (1723-1725), but which Oldys declared, in-
correctly, to be a juvenile portrait of James I. According to Scharf,
it belonged to Robert Harley, 1st earl of Oxford, but it is more likely
that it was bought by his son Edward Harley in the father's lifetime.
It already was in his collection in 1719, but whence it came is not
known. It has been denounced as a piece of arrant sycophancy that
Pope consented to adopt this very beautiful but entirely unauthenti-
cated portrait, which bears little resemblance to any other accepted
likeness (more, however, to the Chandos than to the rest) simply in
order to please the aristocratic patron of his literary circle. It
measures 2 in. high; Vertue's exquisite engraving, executed in 1721,
enlarged it to sJ, and became the " authority " for numerous copies,
British and foreign. The " Somerville " or " Hilliard miniature,"
belonging to Lord and Lady Northcote, is claimed to have descended
from Shakespeare's friend, Somerville of Edstone, grandfather of the
poet William Somerville. It was first publicly spoken of in 1818
when it was in the possession of Sir James Bland Burges. It is
certainly by Hilliard, but although Sir Thomas Lawrence and many
distinguished painters ana others agreed that it was an original life-
portrait of the poet, few will be disposed to give adherence to the
theory, in view of its complete departure from other portraits. It
represents a pale man with flaxen hair and beady eyes; yet in it
Burges found " a general resemblance to the best busts (sic) of
Shakespeare," and an attempt was made to prove a relationship
between the Ardens and the Somervilles an untenable theory.
The miniature has frequently been exhibited and has figured in
important collections on its own merits. The well-known " Auriol
miniature," now in America, is one of the least sympathetic and the
least acceptable of the Shakespeare miniatures, excellent though it is
in technique. It has the forehead and hair of the Chandos, but it is
utterly devoid of the Shakespeare expression. In the background
appears! " &* 33." The costume is that worn by the highest in the
land. It first appeared in its present character in 1826, but it had
been known for a few years before, as being in the collection of
" Dog " Jennings, and ultimately it came into the hands of the
collector, Charles Auriol. Its early history is unknown. The other
principal miniatures of interest, but lacking authority, are the
' Waring miniature," the " Tomkinson miniature " (which, like the
" Hilliard " and the " Auriol," was formerly in the Lumsden Propert
collection), the doubtful " Isaac Oliver miniature " (alleged to have
been in the Jaff6 collection at Hamburg), the " Mackey " and
" Glen " miniatures, and those presented to the Shakespeare
Memorial by Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower, T. Kite, and Henry
Graves. These are all contemporary or early works. Miniature
copies of recognized portraits are numerous and many of them of high
excellence, but they do not call for special enumeration. That,
however, by Mary Anne Nichols, " an imitative cameo after
Roubiliac," exhibited in the Royal Academy, 1848, claims notice. In
this category are a number of enamels by accomplished artists, the
chief of them Henry Bone, R.A., H. P. Bone, and W. Essex.
Several recorded painted portraits have disappeared, other than
those already mentioned; these include the " Earl of Oxford
portrait " and the " Challis portrait." The " Countess of Zetland's
portrait," which had its adherents, was destroyed by fire.
Not a few of the existent representations of Shakespeare, un-
authoritative as they are, were honestly produced as memorial
pictures. There is another class, the earnest attempts made to
reconstitute the face and form of the poet, combining within them
the best and most characteristic features of the earliest portraits.
The most successful, perhaps, is that by Ford Madox Brown, in the
Manchester Corporation Art Gallery. Those by J. F. Rigaud, R.A.,
and Henry Howard, R.A., take a lower rank. It is to be regretted
that Gainsborough did not execute the portrait for Garrick, for which
he made serious preparations. The " Booker portrait," which gained
wide publicity in Stratford, might be included here; it has dignity,
but the pigment forbids us to allow the age claimed for it. The
portraits by P. Kramer and Rumpf are among the best recently
executed in Germany. The remarkable pen-and-ink drawings by
Minanesi and Philip H. Newman deserve to be remembered.
792
SHAKESPEARE
The " faked " portraits have been at times as ardently accepted as
those with some solid claim to consideration. The " Shakespeare
Marriage picture," with its rhyming confirmatory " tag " intended
as an inscription, was discovered in 1872. It is a genuine Dutch
picture of man and wife weighing out money in the foreground a
frequent subject while through the open door Shakespeare and,
presumably, Ann Hathaway are seen going through the ceremony of
handfasting. The inscription and the Shakespeare head (probably
the whole group) are fakes. The " Rawson portrait," inscribed with
the poet's name, is faked; it is really a beautiful little portrait of
Lord Keeper Coventry by Janssen. The " Matthias Alexander
portrait " shows a modern head on an old body. The " Belmount
Hall portrait " with its pseudo-Garrick MS. inscription on the back,
is in the present writer's opinion not the genuine thing which it
claims to be. It represents the poet looking up from his literary
work. In the early part of the igth century two clever " restorers, '
Holder and Zincke, made a fairly lucrative trade of fabricating
spurious portraits of Shakespeare (as well as of Oliver Cromwell and
Nell Gwynn) and the clumsiness of most of them did not impede a
ready sale. The way in which they imposed upon scholars as well as
on the public is marvellous. Many of these impudent impostures
won wide acceptance, sometimes by the help of the fine engravings
which were made of them. Such are the " Stace " and the " Dunford
portraits " so named after the unscrupulous dealers who put them
forward and promulgated them. They have both disappeared, but
of the latter a copy is still in existence known as the " Dr Clay
portrait." The former is based upon the portrait of Robert Carr,
earl of Somerset. These are the two " Winstanley portraits," the
"Bishop Newton," the " Cygnus AvoniaV' the " Norwich " or
" Boardman," the " Bellows " or " Talma " portraits most of them,
as well as others, traceable to one or other or both of the enterprising
fakers already named. At least a dozen are reinforced, as corrobo-
rative evidence, with verses supposed to issue from the pen of
Ben Jonson. These are all to be attributed to one ready pseudo-
Elizabethan writer whose identity is known. With these pic-
tures, apparently, should be ranged the composition, now in
America, purporting to represent Shakespeare and Ben Jonson
playing chess.
The " fancy-portraits " are not less numerous. The i8th : century
small full-length " Willett portrait " is at the Shakespeare Memorial.
It is a charmingly touched-in little figure. There are many represen-
tations of the poet in his study in the act of composition they include
those by Benjamin Wilson (Stratford Town Hall), John Boaden, John
Faed, R.A., Sir George Harvey, R.S.A., C. Bestland, B. J. N. Geiger,
and the painter of the Warwick Castle picture, &c. ; others have for
subject Shakespeare reading, either to the Court or to his family,
by John Wood, E. Ender, R. Westall, R.A., &c.; or the infancy and
childhood of Shakespeare, by George Romney (three pictures),
T. Stothard, R.A., John Wood, James Sant, R.A.; Shakespeare
before Sir Thomas Lucy, by Sir G. Harvey, R.S.A., Thomas Brooks,
A. Chisholme, &c. These, and kindred subjects such as " Shake-
speare's Courtship," have provided infinite material for the industry
and ingenuity of Shakespeare-loving painters.
The engraved portraits on copper, steel, and wood are so numerous
amounting to many hundreds that it is impossible to deal with
them here; but one or two must be referred to, as they have genuine
importance and interest. Vertue and Walpole speak of an engraved
portrait by John Payne (fl. 1620, the pupil of Simon Pass and one of
the first English engravers who achieved distinction) ; but no such
print has even been found and its existence is doubted. Walpole
probably confounded it with that by W. Marshall, a reversed and
reduced version of the Droeshout, which was published as frontis-
piece to the spurious edition of Shakespeare's poems (1640). It is
good but hard. An admirable engraving, to all but expert eyes un-
recognizable as a copy, was made from it in 1815, and another later.
William Faithorne (d. 1691) is credited with the frontispiece to
Quarles's edition of " The Rape of Lucrece, by William Shakespeare,
gent." (1655). It was copied f or Rodd by R. Sawyer and republished
in 1819. It represents the tragic scene between Tarquin and Lucrece,
and above is inset an oval medallion, being a rendering of the Droe-
shout portrait reversed. The earliest engravings from the Chandos
portrait are of interest. The first by L. du Guernier (Arlaud type)
and that by M. (father of G.) van der Gucht are introduced into a
pleasing composition. The same elaborate design was adopted by
L. van der Gucht. These, like Vertue's earlier prints, look to the
left; subsequent versions are reversed. Perhaps the most cele-
brated, partly because it was the most important and technically the
finest, up to that time, is the large engraving (to the right) by
Houbraken, a Dutchman, done for Birch's " Heads of Illustrious
Persons of Great Britain " published by T. and P. Knapton (1747-
1752). This free rendering of the Chandos portrait is the parent of
the numerous engravings of " the Houbraken type." Since that date
many plates of a high order, from all_the principal portraits, have
been issued, many of them extremely inaccurate.
Numerous portraits in stained glass have been inserted in the
windows of public institutions. Typical of them are the German
Chandos windows by Franz Mayer (Mayer & Co.) at Stationers' Hall,
and in St Helens, Bishopsgate (Professor Blaim); and that of the
Droeshout type in the great hall of the City of London school.
Madox Brown's design is one of the best ever executed.
Ford
We now come to the sculptured memorials. After Gerrard
Johnson's bust no statuary portrait was executed until 1740, when
the statue in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey, was set up by public
subscription, mainly through the enthusiastic activity of the earl of
Burlington, Dr Richard Mead, and the poet Pope. It was designed
or " invented " by William Kent and modelled and carried out by
Peter Scheemakers; what is, as Walpole said, " preposterous
about it mainly the pedestal with its incongruous heads may be
credited to the former, and what is excellent to the latter. It is
good sculpture, and is interesting as being the first sculptured portrait
of the poet based upon the Chandos picture. , Lord Pembroke
possesses a replica of it. A free repetition, reversed and with many
changes of detail, is erected in a niche on the exterior wall of the
town-hall of Stratford-on-Avon. A copy of it in lead by Schee-
makers' pupil, Sir Henry Cheere, used to stand in Drury Lane theatre.
Wedgwood copied this work, omitting the absurdities of the pedestal,
with much spirit in black basalt. The marble copy, much simplified,
in Leicester Square, is by Fontana, a gift to London by Baron Albert
Grant. Busts were executed by Scheemakers, founded on the same
portrait. One is still at Stowe in the " Temple of British Worthies,"
and in Lord Cobham's possession is that presented by Pope to Lord
Lyttelton. Some very fine engravings of the monument have been
produced, the most important that in Boydell's Shakespeare (larger
edition). By L. F. Roubiliac, Cheere's prot6g<5, is the statue which
in 1758 David Garrick commissioned him to carve and which he be-
queathed to the British Museum. It is also based upon the Chandos
portrait. The terra-cotta model for the statue is in the Victoria and
Albert Museum; and a marble reproduction of it is in private hands.
To Roubiliac also must be credited the celebrated " D'Avenant
Bust " of blackened terra-cotta in the possession of the Garrick Club.
This fine work of art derives its name from having been found
bricked up in the old Duke's theatre in Portugal Row, Lincoln's Inn
Fields, which 180 years before was d'Avenant's, but which after-
wards passed through various vicissitudes. It was again adapted
for theatrical purposes by Giffard, for whom this bust, together with
one of Ben Jonson which was smashed at the moment of discovery,
must have been modelled by the sculptor, who at the same time was
engaged on Garrick's commission. The model for the British
Museum statue is seen in the portrait of Roubiliac by Carpentiers,
now in the National Portrait Gallery. Another portrait of Shake-
speare is in Westminster Abbey a medallion based on the Chandos
B'cture, introduced into Webber's rather fantastic monument to
avid Garrick. An important alto-relievo representation of Shake-
speare, by J. Banks, R.A., between the Geniuses of Painting and
the Drama, is now in the garden of New Place, Stratford-on-Avon.
It was executed for BoydeH's Shakespeare Gallery in Pall Mall,
and was presented to the British Institution which afterwards
occupied the premises; on the dissolution of that body it was
given to Stratford by Mr Holte Bracebridge. It is a fine thing,
but the likeness adheres to no clearly specified type. It has been
excellently engraved in line by James Stow, B. Smith, and others,
and was reproduced on the admirable medal by Kiichler, presented
by Boydell to every subscriber to his great illustrated edition of
Shakespeare's works. It is remarkable that Banks's was the first
British hand to model a portrait of the poet.
In more recent times numerous attempts have been made to re-
constitute the figure of Shakespeare in sculpture. The most ambitious
of these is the elaborate memorial group modelled and presented
by Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower to Stratford and set up outside
the Memorial Theatre in 1888. The large seated figure of Shakespeare
is mounted on a great circular base around which are arranged the
figures of Hamlet, Lady Macbeth, Prince Henry, and Falstaff. In
1864 J. E. Thomas modelled the colossal group of Shakespeare with
attendant figures of Comedy and Tragedy that was erected in the
groflnds of the Crystal Palace, and in the same year Charles Bacon
produced his colossal Centenary Bust, a reproduction of which forms
the frontispiece to John H. Heraud's Shakspere: His Inner Life
(1865). The chief statues, single or in a group, in London still to be
mentioned are the following: that by H. H. Armstead, R.A., in
marble, on the southern podium of the Albert Memorial ; by Hamo
Thornycroft, R.A. (1871), on the Poets' Fountain in Park Lane; by
Messrs Daymond on the upper storey of the City of London School,
on the Victoria Embankment ; and by F. E. Schenck, a seated figure,
on the facade of the Hammersmith Public Library. The Droeshout
portrait is the basis of the head in the bronze memorial by Professor
Lanteri set into the wall on the conjectural site of the Globe Theatre
(1909) and of the excellent bust by Mr C. J. Allen in the churchyard
of St Mary the Virgin, Aldermanbury, in memory of Heminge and
Condell (1896). A recumbent statue, with head of the Chandos type,
was in preparation in 1910 for erection in the south aisle of South wark
Cathedral. Among statues erected in the provinces are those by
Mr H. Pegram, A.R.A., in the building of Birmingham University
(1908) and by M. Guillemin for Messrs Farmer and Brindley for the
Nottingham University buildings.
Several statues of importance nave been erected in other countries.
The bronze by M. Paul Fournier in Paris (presented by an English
resident) marks the junction of the Boulevard Haussmann and the
Avenue de Messine (1888). The seated marble statue by Professor
O. Lessing was set up in Weimar by the German Shakespeare Society ;
the sculptor has also modelled a couple of busts of a very personal
SHAKESPEARE
793
and, it may be said, un-English type. A seated statue in stone
roughly hewn with characteristic breadth by the Danish sculptor,
Louis Hasselriis, has for some years been placed in the apartment of
the Castle of Kronborg, in which, according to the Danish tradition,
Shakespeare and his company acted for the king of Denmark.
America possesses some well-known statues. That by J. Q. A. Ward
is in Central Park, New York (1872). In 1886 William Ordway
Partridge modelled and carved the seated marble figure for Lincoln
Park, Chicago; and later, Frederick MacMonnies produced his
very original statue for the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
This is in some measure based on the Droeshout engraving. William
R. O'Donovan also sculptured a portrait of Shakespeare in 1874.
Great consideration is given by some to the bust made by William
Page of New York in preparation for a picture of the poet he was
about to paint. He founded it with pathetic faith and care and
amazing punctiliousness on the so-called " Death Mask," which it
little resembles; as he was no sculptor the bust is no more successful
than the picture. The bust by R. S. Greenough, already mentioned
as based in part on the " Boston Zuccaro " portrait, must be included
here, as well as the romantic, dreamy, marble bust by Augusto
Possaglio of Florence (presented to the Garrick Club by Salvini in
1876); the imaginative work by Altini (Duke of Northumberland,
Alnwick Castle) ; and the busts by F. M. Miller, E. G. Zimmermann,
Albert Toft, J. E. Carew (Mr Muspratt, Liverpool) and P. J. Char-
digny of Pans. The last named was a study made in 1850, for a
proposed statue, too ft. high, which the sculptor hoped to be com-
missioned to produce. A multitude of small bronze and silver busts
and statuettes have also been produced. Some attention has been
accorded for several years past to the great pottery bust attributed
to John Dwight's Fulham Pottery (c. 1675). The present writer,
however, has ascertained that it is by Lipscombe, in the latter portion
of the igth century.
The wood carvings are numerous. The most interesting among
them is the medallion traditionally believed to have been carved by
Hogarth, and inset in the back of the " Shakespeare chair " pre-
sented by the artist to David Garrick (in the possession of Mr W.
Burdett-Coutts). The statuettes alleged to be carved from the wood
of Shakespeare's mulberry-tree are numerous; among the most
attractive are the archaic carvings by Salsbee (1761). One statu-
ette of a primitive order of art was sold in 1909 in London for a
fantastic sum; it was absurdly claimed to be the original of
Scheemakers' statue, but without the slightest attempt at proof
or Justification.
The Medals and Coins of Shakespeare offer material for a separate
numismatic study. Those of the Chandos type are by far the most
numerous. The best of them are as follows: Jean Dassier (Swiss;
in the " Series of Famous Men," c. 1730); J. J. Barre (French; in
the "Series numismatica universalis," 1818); Westwood (Garrick
Jubilee, 1769); J. G. Hancock the young short-lived genius who
engraved the die when only seven years old; J. Kirk (for the Hon.
Order of Shakespeareians, 1777) ; W. Barnett (for the Stratford
Commemoration, 1816); J. Moore (to celebrate the Birthplace,
1864) ; and L. C. Wyon (the gift of Mr C. Fox-Russell to Harrow
School, 1870). The latest, and one of the most skilful, is the plaquette
(no reverse) in the series of " Beriihmter Manner " by Wilhelm Mayer
and Franz Wilhelm of Stuttgart, the leading medal-partnership of
Germany (1908). After the " Droeshout " engraving: Westwood
(1821); T. A. Vaughton (1908-1909). After the "Stratford bust":
W. F. Taylor (celebrating the Birthplace, 1842); and T. J. Minton;
T. W. Ingram (for Shakespearean Club, Stratford, 1824); J. Moore,
Birmingham ; and, head only, Antoine Desbceufs (French, exhibited
in the Salon, 1822 obverse only) ; B. Wyon (for the City of London
School, Beaufoy Shakespearean prize, 1851); J. S. and A. B. Wyon
(for the M'Gill University, Montreal, 1864) ; John Bell and L. C.
Wyon (for the Tercentenary Anniversary, 1864); Allen and Moore
(with incorrect birthdate, " 1574," 1864). From the " Janssen "
type: Joseph Moore (a medal imitating a cast medal, 1908). There
is an Italian medal, cast, of recent date; with the exception of this
all the medals are struck.
The 18th-century tradesmen's Tokens, which passeo. current as
money when the copper coinage was inadequate for the public
needs, constitute another branch for collectors. About thirty-
four of these, including variations, bear the head of Shakespeare.
With one exception (a farthing, 1815, issued much later than the
bulk of the tokens) all represented half-pence. They comprise the
" local " and " not local." There are the " Warwickshire " series,
the " London and Middlesex," and the " Stratford Promissory "
series. Many are stamped round the edge with the names of
the special places in which they are payable. In addition to
these may be mentioned the 24 " imitation regal " tokens which
bear Shakespeare's name, around (except in one or two cases)
the effigy of the king. They belong to the last quarter of the
l8th century.
Many of the more important kilns have produced portraits of
Shakespeare in porcelain and pottery, in statuettes, busts, in
" cameos " and in painted pieces. We have them in Chelsea; old
Derby; Chelsea-Derby; old Staffordshire (salt-glaze), frequently
reproducing, as often as not with fantastic archaism, Scheemakers'
statue; and on flat surfaces by transfer of printed designs both
i8th-and 19th-century productions; also French-Dresden and Wedg-
wood. In the last-named ware is the fine bust, half-life size, in black
basalt, as well as several " cameos " in various sizes, in blue and
white jasper, or yellow ground, and in black basalt. The busts were
also produced in different sizes. Worcester produced the well-known
" Benjamin Webster " service, with the portrait, Chandos type,
en camaieu, as well as the mug in " jet enamel," which was the fifth
of the set of thirteen. Several of the portraits have also been pro-
duced commercially in biscuit china.
Gems with intaglio portraits of Shakespeare have been copiously
produced since the middle of the igth century, nearly all of them
based upon earlier works by men who were masters of their still-
living craft. The principal of these latter are as follows: Edward
Burch, A.R.A., exhibited in 1765; Nathaniel Marchant, R.A., ex-
hibited 1773 (Garrick turning to a bust of Shakespeare); Thomas
Pownall (c. 1750); William Barnett; J. Wicksted the Elder (Shake-
speare and Garrick) ; W. B. Wray (a beautiful drawing for this is in
the Print Room of the British Museum) ; and Yeo. In the same class
may be reckoned the Cameos, variously sardonyx, chalcedony, and
shell, some excellent examples of which have been executed, and the
Ivories, both in the round and in relief. The Waxes form a class by
themselves; in the latter portion of the i8th century a few small
busts and reliefs were put forth, very good of their kind. These have
been imitated within recent years and attempts made to pass them
off as originals, but only the novice is deceived by them. Similarly
the old Shakespeare brass pipe-stoppers have latterly been widely
reproduced, and the familiar little brass bust is widely reproduced
from the bronze original. So voracious is the public appetite for por-
traits of the poet that the old embroideries in hair and more recently
in woven silk found a ready market; reliefs in silver, bronze, iron,
and lead are eagerly snapped up, and postage stamps with Shake-
speare's head have been issued with success. The acquisitiveness of
the collector paralyses his powers of selection. The vast number of
other objects for daily use bearing the portrait of Shakespeare call
for no notice here. (M. H. S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following is an attempt to supply the want of a select classified
bibliography of the literature connected with Shakespeare (here
abbreviated S.). The titles are arranged chronologically under
each heading in order to give the literary history of the special
subject. Articles in periodicals not issued separately, and modern
critical editions of single plays, are not included ; and only those of
the plays usually contained in the collective editions are noticed.
I. PRINCIPAL COLLECTIVE EDITIONS
Date.
1623
1632
1663, 64
1685
1709
1723-25
1733
1743. 44
1747
1765
1767
'773
1773-75
1790
'793
1795-96
1799-1801
1802
1805
1807
1818
1821
1825
1826
1829
1830
1832-34
1838-43
1839-43
1841-44
1842-44
1844
1847
1851
1852
1852-57
1853
1853-65
1854-65
Plays
or
Works
r.
P.
P.
P.
W.
W.
W.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
p.
W.
p.
W.
W.
p.
p.
p.
W.
p.
p.
p.
W.
W.
W.
W.
W.
W.
p.
p.
W.
p.
W.
p.
W.
W.
Editors, Publishers, &c.
ist folio, J. Heminge and H. Condell (Jaggard & Blount) [reprintec
by J. Wright (1807, folio) and by L. Booth (1862-4. 3 vols. 4to)
photo-lithographic facsimile by H. Staunton (1866, folio); re
. .j i T n TT_II: II T*i-:il: _o_^ o . i t.
duced by J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, 1876, 8vo; reprod. from
Chatsworth copy, introd. by S. Lee, 1902, folio; Methuen, 1910
folipl .
2d folio (Cotes) [fasc. 1909 (Methuen) folio].
3d folio (Chetwinde) [fasc. 1905 (Methuen) folio].
4th folio [fasc. 1904 (Methuen) folio),
ist 8vo, Rowe (Tonson), 7 vols., plates.
A. Pope (Tonson), 7 vols. 4to.
L. Theobald (Tonson), 7 vols. 8vo, plates.
Sir T. Hanmer (Oxford), 6 vols. 4to, plates.
Bp. Warburton, 8 vols. 8vo.
Dr S. Johnson (Tonson), 8 vols. 8vo.
E. Capell (Tonson), 10 vols. sm. 8vo.
Johnson and G. Steevens, 10 vols. 8vo.
"Stage ed." (Bell), 8 vols. 12 mo, plates.
E. Malone (Baldwin), first " Variorum ed." 10 vols. sm. 8vo.
Johnson and Steevens's 4th ed., by I. Reed, 15 vols. 8vo.
ist American ed,. S. Johnson (Philadelphia), 8 vols. i ^ mo.
1st Continental ed. (Brunswick), 8 vols. 8vo; repr. of 1793 ed. at
Basle, 1700-1802, 23 vols. 8vo.
Boydell's ulus. ed. (Buhner), 9 vols. fol., plates, and 2 additional
vols.
A. Chalmers, 9 vols. 8vo, Fuseli's plates.
Heath's engravings, 6 vols. imp. 4to.
T. Bowdler's "Family ed.," complete, 10 vols. i8mo.
E. Malone, by J. Boswell, "Variorum ed.," 21 vols. 8vo.
Rev. W. Harness, 8 vols. 8vo.
S. W. Singer (Pickering), 10 vols. l8mo, woodcuts.
ist French ed. (Baudry), 8vo.
L. Tieck (Leipzig), roy. 8vo.
J. Valpy, "Cabinet Pictorial ed.," 15 vols. sm. 8vo.
C. Knight, "Pictorial ed.," 8 vols. imp. 8vo.
B. Cornwall, 3 vols. imp. 8vo, woodcuts by Kenny Meadows.
J. P. Collier, 8 vols. 8vo.
C. Knight, "Library ed.," 12 vols. 8vo, woodcuts.
O. W. Peabody (Boston, U.S.), 7 vols. 8vo.
Dr G. C. Verplanck (N.Y.), 3 vols. roy. 8vo, woodcuts.
W. Hazlitt, 4 vols. I2mo.
"Lansdowne ed." (White), 8vo.
Rev. H. N. Hudson (Boston. U.S.), n vols. izmo.
J. P. Collier (see Payne Collier Controversy, xix.), 8vo.
J. O. Halliwell, 16 vols. folio, plates.
N. Delius (Elberfeld), 8 vols. 8vo.
794
SHAKESPEARE
Date.
Plays
or
Works
Editors, Publishers, &c.
1856
P.
Singer and W. W. Lloyd (Bell), lo vols. izmo.
1857
W.
Rev. A. Dyce (Moxon), 6 vols. 8vo, 2d ed., 1864-67.
1857-60
1858-60
W.
W.
R. G. White (Boston, U.S.), 12 vols. cr. 8vo.
H. Staunton, 3 vols. roy. 8vo, illustrated by Sir J. Gilbert.
i860
W.
Mrs. Cowden Clarke (N.Y.), 2 vols. roy. 8vo.
1863-66
W.
W. G. Clark, J. Glover and W. A. Wright, "Cambridge ed.,"
9 vols. 8vo.
1864
1865-69
P.
P.
J. B. Marsh, "Reference ed.," large 8vo.
C. and M. C. Clarke (Cassell), illustrated by H. C. Selous, 3 vgls.
la. 8vo.
1871 &c.
P.
H. H. Furness, "Variorum ed." (Phil.), vols. 1-16, 8vo in progress.
1872-74
1874
P.
W.
C. Knight, "Imperial," 4 vols. imp. 4to, plates.
W. G. Clark and W. A. Wright, " Globe,* sm. 8vo.
ft
1875
1876
W.
W.
S. Neil. "Library Shakespeare" (Mackenzie), 3 vols. 410, illus.
G. L. Duyckinck (Phil.), large 8vo, illus.
1877 &c.
p.
A. A. Paton, " Hamnet ed.," 8vo, ist folio text, spelling modernized.
1877
W.
M. Delius (F. J. Furnivall), "Leopold" Shakespeare, 4to.
1878
I SSI
W.
W.
T. S. Hart, "Avon ed." (Phil.), large 8vo, portraits.
Rev. H. N. Hudson, "Harvard ed." (Boston, U.S.), 20 vols. izmo.
1883
p.
C. Wordsworth, " Historical Plays," 3 vols. sm. 8vo.
1883
W.
R. G. White, "Riverside ed." (Camb., Mass.), 3 vols. 8vo.
1884
W.
Rolfe's "Friendly ed.," 20 vols. i6mo (N.Y.).
1887-90
W.
Sir H. Irving and F. A. Marshall, " H. Irving ed.." 8 vols. 4to.
1888-92
p.
r. A. Morgan, "Bankside ed.," orig. players' text (N.Y. S. Soc.),
20 vols.
1889
W.
'Bedford ed.," N.Y., 12 vols. 8vo."
1891-93
W.
W. A. Wright, "Cambridge ed.," g vols. 8vo; also 1893-95, 40
vols. sm. 8vo.
1894-96
W.
[. Gollancz. "Temple ed.," 40 vols. sm. 8vo.
1899-1903
W.
2. H. Herford, "Eversley ed.," 10 vols. 8vo.
1899-1002
W.
[. Dennis, "Chiswick ed.," ill. by Byam Shaw, 39 vols. sm. 8vo.
1899 &c.
p.
IV. J. Craig, " Arden ed.," each play separate editor.
IOOI-4
1006-9
W.
W.
W. E. Henley (and W. Raleigh), "Edinburgh folio ed.," 10 vols.
S. Lee, " Univ. Press S. Renaissance ed.," 40 vols.
1907 &c.
W.
F. J. Furnivall, "Old Spelling S" (I. Gollancz S. Lib.).
1907 &c.
p.
F. A. Morgan, "Bankside-Restoration S." (N.Y. S. Soc.).
G. Steevens, Twenty of the Plays, 1766, 4 vols. 8vo, contains
reprints of the early editions. 48 vols. of the quartos were
facsimiled by E. W. Ashbee (1866-71), under the superintend-
ence of Halliwell; photo-lithographic reproductions of early
editions by Griggs and Praetorius, with introductions by
Furnivall, &c., 1883-9, 43 vols. 4to.]
II. SELECTIONS AND READINGS
J. R. Pitman, The School S., 1822, 8vo; B. H. Smart, S. Readings, 1839, I2mo;
Howell, Select Plays, 1848, I2mo, Roman Catholic; C. Kean, Selections, as at Ike
Princess' Theatre, 1860, 2 vols. sm. 8vo; T. and Rev. S. G. Bulfinch, S. adapted for
Reading Classes and the Family, Boston, 1865, I2tno; W. A. Wright, Select Plays,
1860-86, 14 vols. sm. 8vo; J. W. S. Hows, Historical S.ian Reader, N.Y., 1870, 8vo;
R. J. Lane (editor), C. Kemble's S. Readings, 1870, sm. 8vo; R. Baughan, Plays,
Abridged and Raised for Girls, 1871, 8vo; H. N. Hudson, Plays, Selected, Boston,
1872, 3 vols. sm. 8vo; H. Cundell, The Boudoir S., 1876, 77, 3 vols. 8vo, eight plays
for reading aloud; H. C. Bowen, S. Reading Book, 1881, 3 pts. 8vo. seventeen plays for
schools and reading aloud; S. Brandram, Selected Plays, abridged for Ike Young,
1882, sm. 8vo; C. M. Yonge, S. J s Plays for Schools, 1883-85, five plays abridged and
annotated; M. A. Woods, Scenes from S. for use in Schools, 1898, &c., 8vo; Lamb, S.
for the Young (I. Gollancz, S. Lib.) 1908, &c., based on Lamb's Tales from S.
III. PRINCIPAL TRANSLATIONS or WORKS
i6mo; J. Meyer and H. Doring, 1824-34, 52 pts. i8mo; Schlegel-Tieck, 1825-33, 9 vois.
i2mo;P.Kaufmann,i830-36, 4 vols. I2mo; E.Ortlepp, 1838-39, 8 vols. i2mo;Schlegel-
Tieck-Ulrici, 1867-71 , 1 2 vols. 8vo; Dingelstedt. W. Jordan and others, 1865-70, 9 vols.
8vo; F. Bodenstedt and others, 1867-71, sthed. 1800,9 vols. 8vo; Schlegel-Tieck-Bernays,
1871-73, 12 vols. sm'. 8vo; Schlegel-Gundolf, 1908, &c. French. Letourneur, 1776-82
20 vols. 8vp; Letourneur-Guizot, 1821, 13 vols. 8vo; B. Laroche, 1838-39, 2 vols. roy.
8vo; Francisque-Michel, 1839-40, 3 vols. roy. 8vo; F. Victor Hugo fils, 1850-66, 18 vols
8vo; Guizot, 1860-62, 8 vols. 8vo; E. Montegut, 1868-73, 10 vols. I2mo' G Duval
1008-9, 8 vols. 8vo; J. H. Rosny, 1909, &c. Italian. M. Leoni, 1814-15, 8 vols 8vo-'
C. Rusconi, 1838, 8vo; C. Pasqualigo, 1870, &c.; G. Carcano, 1875-82, 12 vols. 8vo.
Foersom and E. Lembcke, 1861-73, 18 vols. 8vo. Swedish. C. A. Hagberg 1847-
51, 12 vols. 8vo. Bohemian.]. Cejka, F. Doucha, &c., 1856-73, 9 vols. Svo. Bun-
ganan. Dobrentei, 1824, 8vo; Lemouton, 1845. &c. Polish. I. Kefalinski and J v
Placyd, 1830-47, 3 vols. 8vo; S. Kozmiana, 1866, &c.; H. C. Selousa, 1875-77 i vols'
Russian. N.Ketschera, 1841-50, 5 vols. (18 plays); P.A.Kanshin, 1893, 12 vols (com-
plete works).
IV. CRITICISM, ILLUSTRATION AND COMMENT
A. General Works.
T. Rymer, The Tragedies of the Last Age, 1678, 8vo, and A Short View of Tragedy
1693, 8vo; C. Gildon, "Some Reflections on Mr Rymer" (in Miscellaneous Lectures.
Notes and Various Readings lo S., 1759, 4to (1779-80), 3
Dramatic Miscellanies, 1783-84, 3 vols. 8vo; J. M. Mason, Comments on the Last
Edition, 1785, 8vo; T. Whately, Remarks on some of the Characters, 1785, 8vo, new
edition by Archbishop Whately, 1839, izmo; J. J. Eschenburg, Versuch u. S., Leipzig
1787, 8vo; J. Ritson, The Quip Modest, 1788, 8vo; S. Felton, Imperfect Bints toward!
a New Edition of S., 1787-88,2 pts. 4to; A. Eccles, Illustrations and Variorum
Comments on Lear, Cymbeline, and Merchant of Venice, 1792-1805, 3 vols. I2mo; E.
Malone, Letter lo R. Farmer, 1792, 8vo; J. Ritson, Cursory Criticism on Malone's
Edition, 1792, 8vo; E. Malone, Prospectus of an Edition in i$ vols. roy. Svo, 1792, 410;
Bishop Percy, Origin of the English Stage, 1793, 8vo; E. Malone, Proposals for an
Intended Edition in 20 mis. roy. Sm, 1795, folio; W. Richardson, Essays on some of
S.'s Dramatic Characters, 1797, 1812, 8vo, reprint of separate pieces; Lord Chedworth,
Notes on some Obscure Passages, 1805, 8vo, privately printed; E. H. Seymour,
Remarks on the Plays of S., 1805, 2 vols. 8vo; F. Douce, Illustrations of S. and
Ancient Manners, 1807, 2 vols. 8vo, new edition 1839, 8vo; H. J. Pye, Comments on
the Commentators, 1807, 8vo; J. M. Mason, Comments on the several Editions, 1807,
8vo; C. (and M.) Lamb, Tales from S., i8o_7, 2 vols. 1 2mo, plates, frequently translated
Errors in his Plays, 1819, Svo; [ Variorum] Annotations Illustrative of the Plays of
S., 1819, 2 vols. I2mo, published with Scholey's edition; W. Hazlitt, Lectures on the
Dramatic Literature of the Age of Elizabeth, 1820, Svo: R. Bowdler, Letter to Editor
of British Critic, 1823, 8vo, defends omissions; T. P. Courtenay, Commentaries upon
the Historical Plays of S., 1840, 2 vols. sm. 8vo; K. Sybrandi, Verhandeling ner
Vondel en S., Haarlem, 1841, 410; Rev. A. Dyce, Remarks on Collier's and Knight's
Editions, 1844, 8vo; J. Hunter, New Illustrations of S., 1845, 2 vols. 8vo; G. Fletcher,
Studies of S., 1847, 8vo; L. Tieck, Dramaturgische Blatter, 2d ed. 1848-52, 3 vols. 8vo;
H. N. Hudson, Lectures on S., N.Y., 1848, 2 vols. 8vo; C. Knight, Studies ofS., 1849,
8vo; S. T. Coleridge, Notes and Lectures upon S., &c., 1849, 2 vols. sm. Svo, and
Lectures and Notes on S., by T. Ashe, 1883, sm. Svo; J. Britton, Essay on the Merit
and Characteristics of S.'s Writings, 1849, roy. Svo; K. Simrock, Remarks on the Plots
of S.'s Plays (Shakespeare Society), 18501 Svo; Rev. T. Grinfield, Moral Influence of
S.'i Plays, 1850, Svo; V. E. P. Chasles, Eludes sur W. S., Marie Stuart, etl'Arelin,
1851, iSmo; F. A. T. Kreyssig, Vorlesungen u. S., 1858-60, 3 vols., 3rd ed., 1876, a vols.
Svo, and S. Fragen, Leipzig, 1871, Svo; [O'Connell), New Exegesis of S., 1859, Svo;
S. Jervis, Proposed Emendations of S., 2nd ed. 1861, Svo; R. Cartwright, The Footsteps
of S., 1862, Svo, New Readings in S., 1866, Svo, and Papers onS., 1877, Svo; G. G.
N.Y., 1864, sm. Svo; A. Mezieres, S. ses feuvres el ses critiques, 1865, 8vo; H. Wellesley
Stray Notes on the Text of S., 1865, 4to; A. M. L. de Lamartine, S. el son ocuvre,
1865, Svo; W. L. Rushton, S. illustrated by old Authors, 1867-68,2 pts. Svo; T.
Keightley, The S. Expositor, 1867, sm. Svo; B. Tschischwitz, S. Forschungen, 1868, 3
vols. Svo; F. JacpT, S. Divisions, 1875-77, vols. Svo; H. v. Friesen, Das Buck: S. t.
Gervinus, Leipzig, 1869, Svo, S. Studien, Vienna, 1874-76, 2 vols. Svo; H. T.
Hall, Shakespearian Ply Leaves, 1874, Svo; K. R. Proelss, Erldulerungen, Leipzig,
1874-78, pts. 1-6, sm. Svo, including Hamlet, Julius Caesar, Merchant of Venice,
Much Ado, &c., Richard II., Romeo and Juliet; C. W. H. G. v. Rumelin, S.
Studien, 2nd ed., Stuttg., 1874, Svo; R. A. C. Hebler, Aufsatze lib. S., 2nd ed., Bern,
1874, Svo; F. J. Furnivall, The Succession of S.'i Works and the Uses of Metrical
Tests, 1874, Svo; O. Ludwig, S. Studien, 1874, Svo; E. Dowden, S..- a Critical Study
of his Mind and Art, 1875, nth ed. 1897, Svo; C. M. Ingleby, S. Bermeneulics, 1875.
4to, S., the Man and the Book, 1877-81, 2 pts. 4to, and Occasional Papers on S., 1881,
sq. i6mo; F. K. Elze, Abhandlungen zu S., 1877, Svo and Essays on S., translated,
1874, Svo; E. Hermann, Drei S. Studien, Erlangen, 1877-79, 4 Pts. sm. Svo, Weilere
Beitriige, ib., 1881, sm. Svo; H. H. Vaughan, New Readings and New Renderings tf
S.'s Tragedies. 1878-86, 3 vols. Svo; F. G. Fleay, S. Manual, 1878, sm. Svo; J. O.
Halliwell-Phillipps, Notes and Memoranda [on 4 Plays), 1868-80, 4 pts., Svo, and
Memoranda |on 12 Plays), 1870-80, 7 pts. Svo; A. C. Swinburne, A Study of S., 1880,
3rd ed. 1895, Svo; D. J. Snider, System of S.'s Dramas, 1880, Svo; F. A. Kemble, Notes
some of S.'s. Plays, 1882, Svo; H. Giles, Human Life in S., Boston, 1882, I2mo; B.
in S., Boston, 1885, Svo; J. Brown, Repertoire de S.. 1885, sm. Svo: E. Rossi, Sludii
drammatici, Firenze, 1885, sm. Svo; C. H. Hawkins (ed.), Nodes S.ianae (Winchester
Coll. S. Soc.), 1887; E. Reichel, S. Lilleratur, 1887, Svo; G. Dawson, S and other
Lectures, 1888, Svo; F. I. Furnivall, Modern S.ean Criticism, 1888, Svo; W.T. Thorn,
S. and Chaucer Examinations, I 88, Svo; R. Beyersdortf, Giordano Bruno und S.,
1889, 4to; C. Ransome, Short Studies of S.'s Plots, 1890, Svo; H. v. Basedow,
Charaktere und Temperamenle, 1893, Svo; T. Ten Brink, S.: fiinf Vorlesungen, 1893,
Svo; transl. by J. Franklin, 1895, Svo; H. Bulthaupt, S. und a. Naluralismus,
Weimar, 1893, Svo; E. Dowden, Introd. to S., 1893, sm. Svo; T. S. Baynes, S. Studies,
1894, Svo; B. Wendell, W. S., a Study in Elizabethan Literature, 1894, Svo; W.
Winter, S.'s England, N.Y., 1894, new ed., 1910, Svo; V. F. Janssen, S. Studien, 1897,
Svo; T. F. Ordish, S.'s London, 1897, sm. Svo; J. M. Robertson, Montaigne and S,,
1897, 8vo; G. Brandes, S., transl., 1898, 2 vols. Svo; L. Kellner, S., 1900, Svo; A. H.
Thorndike, The Influence of Beaumont and Fletcher on S., Wore. (U.S.), lool, Svo;
R. G. Moulton, The Moral System of S., 1903, Svo; M. J. Wolff, W. S. Studien und
Aufsatze, 1903, Svo; T. Seccombe and J. W. Allen, The Age of S., 1903, a vols. Svo;
A. C. Bradley, S.ean Tragedy, 1904, Svo; J. C. Collins, Studies in S., 1904, sm. Svo;
S. A. Brooke, On Ten Plays of S,, 1905, Svo; A. P. Wright, Children of S., 1905.
Svo; H. J. Stephenson, S.'j London, 1905, sm. Svo; F. W. Kilbourne, Alterations and
Adaptations of S., Boston (U.S.), 1906, sm. Svo; T. R. Lounsbury, The Text of S., its
History, 1906, Svo; E. H. Griggs, S.: a Handbook, 1907, Svo; W. Raleigh, S. (Engl.
Men of Letters). 1907, sm. Svo; Count L. N. Tolstoi, S. and the Drama, transl., 1007,
Svo; J. Kohler, Verbrecher-Typen in S.'s Dramen, Berlin [1907), Svo; Gi F. Boardman,
S.:Five Lectures, 1908, Svo; B. A. Goll, Verbrecher bei S., 1908, Svo; C. F. Johnson,
S. and his Critics, 1909, Svo; A. C. Swinburne, Three Plays of S., 1909, sm. Svo; and
S. (written in 1905). 1909, sm. Svo; Carlyle. Emerson andGoethe On S. (De la More
Booklets), 3 vols.; F. E. Schelling, Engl. Lit. during Lifetime of S., 1910, Svo.
B. Special Works on Separate Plays, &c., with Dales of Early Quartos.
All's Well that Ends Well (ist ed. in F. i, 1623): H. v. Hagen, Ob. die allfranzds.
Vorslufe des Lustspieles, Halle, 1879, Svo. Antony and Cleopatra (ist ed. in F. i).
As You Like It (ist ed. in F. i.): W. Whiter, Specimen of a Commentary, 1794, Svo;
Lomeay of hrrors, 1909, Svo. Coriolanus (ist ed. in F. i): F. A. Leo, Die Delius'sche
Ausgabe kritisch beleuchtel, Berlin, 1861, Svo; F. von Westenholz, Die Tragit in S.'s
Coriolanus, Stuttgart, 1895, Svo. Cymbeline (ist ed. in F. i): K. Elze, Letter to C.
M. Ingleby, 1885, Svo; R. Ohle, S.'s Cymbeline u. seine romanischen Vorlaufer.
1890, 8vo. Hamlet (Q.i, 1603; Q.2, 1604; 0.3, 1605,; Q.4, 1611; Q.s, n.d.;
Q.6, 1637): L. Theobald, S. Restored, 1726, 410, devoted to Hamlet: Sir T. Hanmer.
Some Remarks on Hamlet, 1736, Svo, reprinted 1863, sm. 8vo: J. Plumptre, Observa-
tions on Hamlet, and Appendix, 1796-1797, 2 pts. Svo; F. L. Schmidt, Sammluni der
SHAKESPEARE
795
testen Urlheile iiber Hamlel, Quedl.. 1808, 8vo; A. G. Barante, Sur Hamlet, 1824,
vo; P. Macdonnell, Essay on Hamlel, 1843, 8vo; Sir E. Strachcy, S.'s Hamlel, 1848,
Svo; H. K. S. Causton, Essay art Mr Singer's Wormwood, 1831. 8vo; L. Noire,
Hamlet, twei Vortrage, Mainz, 1856, i6mo; M. W. Rooney, Hamlel, First Edition
(1603), 1856. Svo; S.'s Hamlel, 1603 and 1604, with Bibliographical Preface, by S.
Timmins, 1860, Svo; A. Gerth, Der Hamlet v. S., Leip., 1861, Svo; J. Conolly, A
Study of Hamlet, 1863, sm. Svo; H. v. Friesen, Brie/e lib. S.'s Hamlel, Leipzig, 1865,
Svo; A. Flir, Briefe iib. S.'s Hamlet, Innsbruck, 1865, Svo; W. D. Wood, Hamlet from
Psychological Point of Vim, 1870, Svo; R. H. Home (editor). Was Hamlet Mad? a
Series of Critiques, 1871, Svo; G. F. Stedefetd, Hamlet ein Tendenidrama, Berlin,
1871, Svo; A. Meadows, Hamlet; art Essay, 1871, Svo; R. G. Latham, Tke Hamlel of
Saxo Grammatical and S., 1872, Svo; F. A. Marshall, Study of Hamlel, 1875, Svo;
H. v. Struve, Hamlet cine Charaklerstudie, Weimar, 1876, Svo; H. Baumgart, Die
Hamlel Tragidie u. Hire Kritik, Konigsb., 1877, Svo; A. Zinzow, Die Hamlel Sate,
Halle, 1877, Svo; A. Buchner, Hamlet le Danois, 1878, Svo; M. Moltke, S.'s Hamlet
Quellen, 1881, Svo; E. P. Vining, The Mystery of Hamlet, Philad., 1881, sm. Svo
(Hamlet a woman); H. Besser, Zur Hamlet Frage, 1882, Svo; E. Stenger, Der Hamlet
Ckarakter, 1883, Svo; A. Brereton, Some Famous Hamlets, 1884, Svo; N. R.
d' Alfonso, La Personality di Amleto, 1804, Svo; H. Conrad, S.'s Selbslbekenntnisse,
1897, Svo; E. Heuse, Zur Losung des Hamlet-Problems, 1897, Svo; G. S. Preston,
Tke Secret of Hamlet, 1897, Svo; A. Doering, Hamlel, ein never Versuch, 1898, Svo;
H. Traut, Die Hamlet-Controverse, 1898, Svo; F. Grcgori, Das Schafen des Sckau-
spielers, 1899, Svo; C. W. Scott, Some Notable Hamlets of Ike Present Day, Jooo, Svo;
H. Ford, S.'s Hamlet, 1900, Svo; M. E. Evans, Tke Ghost in Hamlet, 1902, Svo; A.
H. Tolman, The Views about Hamlet, 1906, Svo; C. M. Lewis, The Genesis of
Hamlel, 1007, Svo; R. Limberger, Polonius, 1908, Svo; A. Wurm, S.'s Hamlel, 1008,
Svo; W. Pfleiderer, Hamlet u. Ophelia, 1908, Svp; A. V. Weilen, Hamlet auf da
deutscken Biikne, 1008, Svo; S. M. Perlmann, Eine neue Hamlet-Auffassung, 1909,
Svo. Henry IV. (Pt. i.. Q.I, 1598; Q.2, 1599; Q.3, 1604; Q.4, 1608; Q.s, 1613; Q.6,
1622; Q.?. 1633; Q.S, 1639. Pt. ii.:Q. i udQ.l, 1600): E. A. Struve, Studien IH S.'s
HenrylV.,K.K\, 1851,410. Henry V. (Q.i, 1600; Q.2, 1602; Q.3, 1608(1619]): G. A.
Schmeding, Essays on S.'s Henry V., 1874, 8vo; P. Kabel, Die Sage ton Heinrick V.,
1908, Svo. Henry VI. (Pt. i. 1st ed. in F.I. Pt. ii. 1st ed. in F.I. Contention, &c.:
~l.l, 1594; Q.2, 1600; Q.3 [1610]. Pt. iii. ist ed. in F. I. Richard of Yorke: Q.I, 1595;
i.2, 1600; Q.3, (1619]): E. Mafone, Dissertation on Henry VI., 1792, Svo; G. I,. Rives,
ulhorship of Henry VI., 1874, Svo: C. Schmidt, M. v. Anjou vor und bei S., 1906,
Svo. Henry Vffi. (ist ed. in F.I): T. E. Pemberton, Henry VIII. onthe Stage, 1002,
Svo. Julius Caesar (ist ed. in F.I): G. L. Craik, The English of S. Illustrated, 3rd
ed. 1804, sm. Svo; H. Gomont, Le Cesar de S., 1874, Svo; M. G. Moberly, Hints for
S. Study exemplified in Julius Caesar, 1881, Svo; P. Trabaud, Elude sur le Jules Cesar
de S. etde Voltaire, 1889, Svo; P. Kreutzberg. Brutus in S.'s Julius Caesar, 1894, 4to;
F. von Westenholz, Idee u. Ckaraklere in S.'s Julius Caesar, 1897, Svo. King John
(ist authentic ed. in F.l. Troublesome Raigne, spurious: Q.I, 1591; Q.2, 1611;
Q.3, 1612). King Lear (Q.i, 1608; Q.2. 1608 [1619); Q.t, 1655): |C. Jennensl./Cinj Lear
vindicated, 1772, Svo; H. Neumann, Uber Lear u. Ophelia, Breslau, 1866, Svo; J. R.
Seeley; W. Young and E. A. Hart, Three Essays on Lear, 1851, Svo, Beaufoy Prize
Essays; Dr Hirschfeld, K. Lear im Lichte arstlicher Wiss., 1882, Svo; F. G. F. Verdi,
Re Lear, lettere, 1902, Svo; E. Bode, Die Lear-Sage, 1904, Svo. Love's Labour's Lost
(Q.i, 1598; Q.2, 1631). Macbeth (ist ed. in F.I): |Dr S. Johnson) Miscellaneous
Observations on Macbeth, 1745, I2mp; J. P. Kemble, Macbeth and Richard III., 1817,
Svo; C. W. Opzoomer, Aanteekeningen op Macbeth, Amst., 1854, Svo; G. Sexton,
Psychology of Macbeth, 1869, Svo; J. G. Ritter, Beilrage tur Erkl. des Macbeth, Leer,
1871, 2 pts. 4to; V. Kaiser, Macbeth und Lady Macbeth, Basel, 1875, Svo; E. R.
Russell, Tke True Macbeth, 1875, Svo; T. Hall Caine, Richard III. and Macbeth,
1877, Svo; A. Horst, Konig Macbeth, eine schotlische Sage, Bremen, 1876, i6mo;
M. Zerbst, Die dramat. Technik des Macbeth, 1888, Svo; F. K.iim, S.'s Macbeth, eine
Sludie, 1888, Svo; J. C. Carr, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, 1889, Svo; G. Fletcher,
Character Studies in Macbeth, 1889, 8vo; E. Kroeger, Die Sage von Macbeth, 1904,
Svo. Measure for Measure (ist ed. in F.I): J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, Memoranda on
Measure for Measure, iSSo, uino: A. E. Thiselton, Some Textual Notes, 1901, Svo.
Merchant of Venice (Q.i, 1600; 6.2, 1600 (1619]; Q.3, 1637; 0.4, 1652): G. Farren,
Essay on Shylock, 1833, Svo; F. V. Hugo, Commentary on Ike Merchant of Venice,
translated 1863, Svo; H. Graetz, Shylock in d. Sage, 1880, Svo; A. Pietscher. Versuch
riner Studie iib. S.'s Kaufmann v. V., 1881, Svo; C. H. C. Plath, S.'s Kaufmann v.
V ., 1882, Svo; H. Heinemann, Shylock und Nathan, 1886, Svo; A. Manzi, L'Ehreo e la
libbra di carne, 1896, Svo; O. Burmeister, Nachdichlungen, 1902, Svo. Merry Wives of
Windsor (Q.i, 1602; Q.2, 1619; Q.3, 1630): J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, Account ofthe only
known MS. ofS'.s Plays, 1843, 8yo. Midsummer Night's Dream (Q.I, 1600; Q.2, 1600
(i6i9)):N. J. Halpin.Ofttffim's Vision and Lylie' s Endymion (Shakespeare Society), 1843,
Svo; J. O. Halliwetl-Phillipps, Introduction to S.'s Midsummer Night's Dream, 1841,
vo, and Illustrations of the Fairy Mythology of Midsummer Night's Dream (Shakesp.
Soc.), 1845, Svo; the same with J. Ritson, Fairy Tales, Legends, and Romances, ed.
Hazlitt, 1875, Svo; E. Hermann, Drei S. Studien, Erlangen, 1877-9, 4 Pts. sm. Svo;
L. E. A. Proescholdt, On the Sources of S.'s Midsummer Night's Dream, 1878, Svo;
A. E. Thiselton, Some Textual Notes, 1903, Svo; F. Sidgwick, Sources and Analogues,
1908, Svo. Much Ado About Nothing (Q.i, 1600): W. W. Lloyd. Muck Ado, Ire.,
with essay, 1884, Svo, to prove reputed prose to be metrical; F. Holleck-Weithmann,
Zur Quellenfrage von Much ado, Ire., 1002, Svo. Othello (Q.i, 1622; Q.2, 1630;
Q-3. 1655): W. Parr, The Story of Ike Moor of Venice, 1795, Svo; R. G. Macgregor,
Olhetto's Character, 1832, Svo; J. E. Taylor, The Moor of Venice, Cintkio's Tale and
S.'s Tragedy, 1855, Svo; G. Piccini, L'Otello di G. S., 1888, Svo; W. Given,
Further Study of Othello, N.Y. 1899, Svo; W. R. Turnbull, Othello, 1892, Svo;
S. Bobsin, S.' Othello in engliscker Biihnenbearbeitung, 1004. Svo. Pericles (Q.I, 2,
1609; Q.3, i6n;Q.4, 1619; Q.s, Q.6, 1630; Q. 7, 1635): R. Boyle, On Wilkins's Share in
Pericles, 1882, Svo; A. H. Smyth, Pericles and Apollonius of Tyre, 1898, Svo. Rich-
ard H. (Q.i, Q.2, 1597; Q.3, 1508; Q.4, Q.s, 1608; Q.6, 1615; Q.7, 1634): Riechel-
mann. Zu Richard II. S. u. Holinshed, Plauen, 1860, Svo; B. Tschischwitz, S.'s Slaal
und Konistkum, iS66, Svo; T. D. Barnett, Notes on Richard II., 1890, Svo; E. W.
Sievers, S.'s tweiter mitlelalterlicker Dramen-CyUus, 1896, Svo. Richard III. (Q.i,
Richard III., Hertford, 1869, Svo; H. Mueller, Grundlegung und Entwickelung des
Charaklers Richards III. bei S., 1889, Svo; G. B. Churchill, Richard III. up to S.,
Berlin, 1000, Svo; J. Petersen, Richard III., ein Vortrag, 1901, Svo; A. Leschtsch,
Richard III., eine Charaklerstudie, 1908, Svo. Romeo and Juliet (Q.i, 1597; Q.2,
1599; Q.3, 1609; Q.4. n.d.; Q.s. 16.57): J. C. Walker, Historical Memoir on Italian
Tragedy, 1799, 4to; G. Pace Sanfelice, The Original Story of Romeo and Juliet, by
L, da Porto, 1868, Svo; T. Straeter, Die Kompasition S.'s Romeo u. Julia, Bonn, 1861,
Svo; C. R. E. Hartmann, Romeo u. Julia, Leipzig, 1874, Svo, a critical essay; M. F.
Guenther, Defence of S.'s Romeo and Juliet, 1876, Svo; R. Gericke, Romeo . Julia
nock S.'s MS.. 1880, Svo; J. L. Fraenkel, Staff- u. Quellenkunde van Romeo u. Juliet,
1889, Svo. Taming of the Shrew (ist ed. in F.I): A. H. Tolman, S.'s part in Ike
Taming of the Sitrew (Modern Lang. Ass. of Am.), 1890, Svo; H. Jacobson, W. S.
und Kathchen Minola, 1903, Svo; E. H. Schomberg, Eine Studie (Stud, zur engl.
Phil.), 1004, Svo. Tempest (ist ed. in F.I): J. Holt, Remarks on The Tempest, 1750,
Svo; E. Malone, Incidents from which S.'s Tempest was derived, 1808-9, 2 pts. Svo;
G. Chalmers, Another Account, trc., 1815, Svo; Rev. J. Hunter, Disquisition on The
Tempest, 1839, Svo; P. Macdonnell, Essay on the Tempest, 1840. Svo; Notes of
Studies on The Taming of Ike Shrew, S. Society of Philadelphia, 1866, 410, with
bibliography of The Tempest; J. Meissner, Untersuchungen iib. S.'s Sturm, Dessau.
1872, Svo; D. Wilson, Caliban, the Missing Link, 1873, Svo; C. C. Hense, Das
Antike in S.'s Dramen: D. Sturm, 1879, Svo; F. Boas, Der Sturm und das tt'intrr-
marchen, 1882. Svo; R. Boyle. S.'s Winlermarchen u. Sturm, 1885. Svo; P. Rodin.
S.'s Sturm, 1893, Svo. Timoa of Athens (ist ed. in F.I): A. Mueller, Uber die
Quellen aus denen S. den Timon v. A thin entnommen hat, Jena, 1873, Svo; A. E.
Thiselton, Two Passages, 1904, Svo. Titus Andronicus (Q.i, 1594; Q.2. 1600; Q.3,
1611): M. M. A. Schroeder, Vbtr Titus Andronicus, 1891, Svo; J. M. Robertson, Did
S. write T.A.I 1905, Svo. Troilus and Cressida (Q.i, Q.2, 1609): Annotations by S.
Johnson, G. Steevens, frc., upon Troilus and Cressida, 1787, I2mo; L. Boening, De
S. fabula tjuae Troilus et Cressida inscribitur.i&'jQ, Svo; J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps,
Memoranda, 1880, X2mo. Twelfth Night, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, and
The Winter's Tale (all three first printed in F.I): C. H. Coote, On S.'s new map in
Twelfth Night, 1878, Svo.
Sonnets (Q.i, 1600): J. Boaden, On Ike Sonnets of S., 1837, Svo; C. A. Brown,
S.'s Autobiographical Poems, 1838, Svo; I. Donnelly, Tke Sonnets of S., 1859, Svo;
Dr Barnstorff, Key to S.'s Sonnets, translated, 1862, Svo; B. Corney, The Sonnets
ofS., 1862, Svo; (E. A. Hitchcock), Remarks on the Sonnets of S., N.Y., 1865,
I2mo; R. Simpson, Introduction to the Philosophy of S.'s Sonnets, 1868, Svo; H.
Brown, The Sonnets of S. solved, 1870, Svo; C. M. Ingleby, Tke Soule arrayed.
Sonnet cxlvi. t 1872, Svo; G. Massey, The Secret Drama of S.'s Sonnets unfolded,
2nd ed. 1872, priv. pr. iSSS, Svo; Baron E. von Dunckelmann, S. in seinen Sonetten,
1897, Svo; F. J. Furnivall, S. and MaryFilton, 1897, Svo; S. Butler, S.'s Sonnets, 1809,
Svo; O. Wilde, The Portrait of Mr. W. B., 1901, 8vo: J. L. O'Flanagan, S'sSelf-
Revelalion, 1902, Svo; E. A. Jackson, Consideration of S.s Sonnets, 1904, Svo; A. B.
MacMahan, S.'s Love Story, 1909, Svo. Venus ana Adonis (Q.i, 1593; Q.2, 1594;
sm. Svo, 1596, i5QQ,i6oo(P), 1602, 1617, 1620,1627, 1630, 1636:8*0, l67s):A. Morgan,
Venus and Adonis, Study in Warwickshire Dialect, N.Y., 1885, 4th ed. 1900, Svo.
Lucrece (Q.i, I594;sm. Svo, 1598, 1600, 1607,1616,1624, 1632, 1655): A. Wucrzner, Die
Orthographic der^erslen Quarto-Ausgabe von Venus u. Adonis und Lucrece,i&&T, Svo.
Passionate Pilgrim (i6mo, 1599; 2nd ed. not known; 3rd ed. i6mo, 1612): A. Hoehaen,
S.'j Passionate Pilgrim, 1867, Svo, dissertation.
Falstaff: C. Morris, True Standard of Wit, with Character of Sir J. Falstaf, 1744,
Svo; W. Richardson, Essays on Character of Sir J. Falstaff, 1788, Svo; M. Morgan,
Essay on Sir J. Falstaff, 1777, new edition 1825, Svo, vindicates his courage; J. H.
Hackett, Falstaf, 1840, Svo; J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, On the Character of Falstaf
in Henry IV., 1841, Svo; E. Schueller, Don Quixote und Falstaf, Berlin. 1858, Svo;
G. W. Rusden, Character of Falstaff, Melbourne, 1870, Svo; G. Barone, D'un antenalo
ilaliano di Falstaf , 1895, Svo; C. E. Phelps, Falstaf and Equity, 1001, Svo; W.
Baeske, Oldcastle-Falstaff in der engl. Literatur bis tu S., 1905, Svo. Female Char-
acters: W. Richardson, On S.'s Female Characters, trc., 1788, Svo; A. M. Jameson,
Characteristics ofWomen,i&^2, 2 vols., I2mo, illustrated; S's Heroines, 1879, sm. Svo,
same book; C. Heath, The Heroines of S., 1848, large 4(0. illustrated, and The S.
Gallery, containing the Principal Female Characters, 1836, large Svo, plates reproduced
in H. L. Palmer's Stratford Gallery, N.Y., 1859, Urge Svo; M. C. Clarke, Girlhood of
S.'s Heroines, 1850-2, 3 vols. Svo; H. Heine, Engliscke Fragmente und S.'s Madchen
und Frauen, Hamburg, 1861, sm. Svo, S.'s Maidens and Women, transl. by C. G.
Leland, 1891, Svo; F. A. Leo, S.'j Frauenideale, Halle, 1868, Svo; F. M. von Boden-
stedt, S.'s Frauencharaktere.and ed., Berlin, 1876, Svo; M. Summer, Les Heroines de
Kalidasa etles Heroines de S., 1879, sm. Svo; R. Gene>,K'/tissisrAe Frauenbilder, 1884,
Svo; Lady Martin, On Some of S.'s Female Characters, 1885, Svo; Mrs M. L. Elliott.
S.'s Garden of Girls, 1885, Svo; L. Lewes, The Women of S., Ire., 1894, Svo; G.
Cosentino, Le donne di S., 1906, Svo: Baron A. von Gleichen-Russwurm. S.'s Franen-
gestalten, 1909, Svo. Humour: J. Weiss, Wit, Humour and S., Boston, 1876, x6mo;
J. R. Ehrlich, Der Humor S.'s, Vienna. 1878, Svo; L. Wurth, Das Wortspiel bei S.,
1894, Svo; E. Dowden, S. as a Comic Dramatist, 1903, Svo.
V. LANGUAGE, INCLUDING GRAMMARS AND GLOSSARIES
T. Edwards, Supplement to Mr Warburlon's Edition, being the Canons of Criticism
and Glossary, 1748, Svo, 71 h ed. 1765; R. Warner, Letter on a Glossary to S.. 17(18
8vo;R.Nares,Gfossory,l822,4to,by Halliwell and Wright, 1 888, Svo; J.M. Jost.ErW.
Worterbuch, Berlin, 1830, sm. Svo: C. L. W. Francke, Bemerkungen utter d. Sprachge-
brauch des S., Berlin, 1837, Svo; J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, Dictionary of Archaic and
Provincial Words, 1846-47, a vols. Svo, and Hand-Book Index to the Works, 1866, Svo,
phrases, manners, &c.; J. L. Hilgers, Sind nicht in S. nock manche Verse wiederher-
zustellen in Prosaf Aix-la-Chapelle, 1852, 4(0; N. Delius, S. Lexikon, Bonn. 1852,
8yo; W. S. Walker, S.'s Versification, 1854, Svo, and Examination of the Text of S.,
with Remarks on his Language, 1860, 3 vols. Svo; C. Bathurst, S.'s Versification at
different Periods, 1857, sm. Svo; S. Jervis, Dictionary of the Language of S., 1868, 4to;
G. Helmes, The English Adjective in S., Bremen, 1868, Svo; A. I. Ellis, On Early
English Pronunciation, 1869-75, 4 vols. Svo; W. L. Rushton, S. j Euphuism, 1871,
Svo; D. Rohde, Das Hulfsteilwort "To do" bei S., Gottingen, 1872, Svo; E. A. Abbott.
Shakespearian Grammar, 1873, 1901, sm. Svo; A. Schmidt, S. Lexikon, 1874,
third ed. by G. Sarrazin, Berlin, 1902, 2 vols., large Svp, in English, includes all words,
phrases and constructions; K. Seitz, Die Alliteration im Engl.vor u. bei S., 1875, 4to;
F. Pfeffer, Die Anredepronomina bei S., 1877, Svo; P. A. Bronisch, Das neutrale
Possessivpronom bei S., 1878, Svo; O. W. F. Lohmann, Die Auslassung des Relativ-
pronomens, &c.. 1879, Svo; A. Dyce, Glossary, revised by H. Littledale, 1902, Svo; C.
Deutschbein, S. Grammatik f. Deutsche, 1882, Svo; A. Lummert, Die Orthographie
der ersten Folioausgabe, 1883, Svo; C. Mackay, Obscure Words and Phrases in S.,
1884, Svo; G. H. Browne, S.'s Versification, Boston, 1884, Z2mo, includes bibliography;
L. Kellner, Zur Syntax des engl. Verbums, Vienna, 1885, Svo; J. H. Siddons, Shate-
spearian Referee, Washington, 1886, Svo, encyclopaedic glossary; H. M. Selby , The S.
Classical Did., 1888, Svo; S. F. Surtees, S.'j Provincialisms, Words used in Sussex,
1889, sm. Svo; H. Conrad, Metrische Untersuch. sur Feststellung der Abfassungszeil
von S.'s Dramen, Berlin, 1895, Svo; E. Hermann, Vrheberschaft u. Urquell 9. S.'s
Dichtungen, 1886, Svo; G. Koenig, Der Vers in S.'s Dramen. 1888, Svo; J. Mara, Der
dichlerische Entwickelungsgang S., 1895, Svo; W. Franz, S. Grammatik, Halle. 1900,
2nd ed. 1909, Svo; B. A. P. van Dam, S. : Prosody and Text, 1900, Svo; J. Phin, S.
Encyclopaedia, 1902, sm. Svo; S. Lamer, S. and his Forerunners, 1902, 2 vols. Svo
(Elizabethan poetry); W. Victor, S.'s Pronunciation, Marburg, 1906, 2 vols. sm.
Svo; J. Foster, A S. Word-book, 1908, Svo; R. J. Cunliffe, New S.ean Diet. 1910, Svo.
VI. QUOTATIONS
C. Glldon, Shakes feariana. in his Complete Art of Poetry, 1718, 1 2mo, the first of the
class; DrW. Dodd, The Beauties o/S.,1752, 2 vols. I2mo, reprinted (in various forms)
more frequently than any similar work; The Beauties of S. (G. Kearsley), 1784, I2mo,
not the same as Dodd's Beauties; C. Lofit, Aphorisms from S., 1812, i2mo; T. Dolby,
The Shakespearian Dictionary, 1832, Svo, and A Thousand Shakespearian Mottoes,
1856, 32mo; T. Price, Tke Wisdom and Genius of S., 1838, i2mo; Mrs M. C. Clarke,
The Mind of S., 1880, Svo, quotations in alphabetical order; C. Arnold, Index to Shake-
spearian Thought, 1880, Svo.
VII. CONCORDANCES AND INDEXES
A. Becket, Concordance, 1787, Svo, the earliest; S. Ayscough, Index, 1700, large Svo.
2nd ed. enlarged, 1827, useful; F. Twiss, Complete Verbal Index, 1805, 2 vols. Syo; M.
Cowden Clarke, Complete Concordance, 1844, new ed. 1889, Svo, deals only with the
796
SHAKESPEARE
plays; Mrs H. H. Furness, Concordance to Poems, Philadelphia, 1874, 8vo, completing
Mrs C. Clarke's; C. and M. C. Clarke, The S. Key, 1879, 8vc, companion to the Con
cordanct; J. Bartlett, The S. Phrase Bonk, 1881, 8vo; W. H. D. Adams, Concordanci
to Plays, 1886, 8vo; E. M. O'Connor, An Index to the Work of S., N.Y., 1887, 8vo;
J. Bartlett, New and Complete Concordance, 1894, 4to, the best; M. Edwardes
Pocket Lexicon and Concordance to Temple S., 1909, izmo.
VIII PROBABLE SOURCES
Mrs C. Lennox, S. Illustrated 1753-54, 3 vols. 1 2mo, dedication by Johnson, many of
the observations also said to be by him; T. Hawkins, The Origin of the English Drama,
'773, 3 vols. 8vo; J. Nichols, The Six Old Play! on which S. founded Measure for
'feature, frc., 1779, 2 vols. I2mo; S. W. Singer, S.'s Jest Book, 1814-13, 2 pts. 8vo;
* !?!,*-...,. ^ T 1 1 .... ...1...1 - 1 v c: i. r, tt j o TI-_I' _o__ i
[I __ _...._
Books', 1864, 3 vols. 8vo; W. W. Skeat, S'.'s Plutarc~h~\Ws, 8vo7 F7~A."Leo,' "four
Chapters of North's Plutarch, 1878, folio; R. Simpson, The School of S, 1878, 2 vols.
8vo; P. Stapler, S. etl'antiquite, 1870-1882, i pts. 8vo, transl. 1880: E. Viles and F. J.
Furnivall, The Rogues and Vagabonds of S.'s Youth, 1880, 8vo; J. J. Jusserand, Le
Roman du temps de S., 1887, sm. 8vo, transl. 1890, 8vo; B. Graefe, D. Commedia ah
QuellenJ. S. u. Golhe, 1896, 8vo; J. W. White, Our English Homer, 1892, 8vo; W. G.
Boswell Stone, S.'s Bolinshed, 1896, 4to; R. K. Root, Classical Mythology in S.,
N.Y., 1903, 8vo; H. R. D. Anders, S.'s Books, on S.'s Reading and Immediate Sources,
Berlin, 1904, 8vo; C. F. Tucker Brooke, S.'j Plutarch, 1909, 2 vols. sm. 8vo; W.
Theobald, Classical Element in S.'s Plays, 1909, 8vo; W. M. MacCullum, S.'s Roman
Plays, 1910, 8vo; The S. Classics, 1908, Sic. and S.'s England, 1908, &c. (I. Gollancz,
S. Library).
IX. SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE
Angling: H. N. Ellacombe, S. as an Angler. 1883, 8vo. Bible: T. R. Eaton, S.
lit ill* Kthff Tfii-Q Q<PA. I D ,-.,. C '!,;_ T jL- "iL. C*f. _ t .. i .* Tt i_t_ __i
1879, 8vo; W. H. Malcolm, S. and Holy Writ, 1881, 8vo; G. Q. Colton S and the
Bible, N.Y., 1888, 8vo; C. Ellis, S. and the Bible, 1897, sm. 8vo, 3rd ed. with
title, The Christ in S., 1902, sm. 8vo; W. Burgess, The Bible in S., 1903, 8vo.
S.'j Garden, 1903, 8vo. Emblems: H. Green, S. and the Emblem Writers, 1870, 4to.
Folk-lore and Use of Supernatural: W. Bell, S.'j Puck and his Folks-lore
1852-64, 3 vols. sm. 8vo; W. J. Thorns, "The Folk-lore of Shakespeare," in Three
Nolelels, 1865, 8vo, reprinted from Athenaeum, 1847; B. Tschischwitz, Nachkliinge
Cermamscher Mythe in S., Halle, 1868, 8vo; [W. C. Hazlitt, editor], Fairy Tales,
Legends, and Romances illustrating S., Sfc., 1875. 8vo; T. F. T. Dyer, Folk-lore of
S., 1884, 8vo; T. A. Spalding, Elizabethan Demonology, 1880, 8vo; A. Nutt.
Fairy Mythology of S., 1900, 8vo; J. P. S. R. Gibson, S.'s Use of the
Supernatural, 1907, 8vo; M. Lucy, S. and the Supernatural, 1906, 8vo; H. H.
Stewart, The Supernatural in S., 1908, 8vo; J. E. Poritzky, S.'j Bexen, 1909,
8vo. Learning: P. Whalley, Enquiry into the Learning of S., 1748, 8vo; R.
Farmer, Essay on the Learning of S., 1767, 8vo, reprinted in the variorum (1821) and
other editions, criticized by W. Maginn, see S. Papers, annotated by S. Mackenzie.
N.Y.. 1856, sm. 8vo; |K. Prescot], Essay on the Learning of S., 1774, 4to; E. Capell,
The School of S., 1780, 410 (vol. iii. of his Notes and Various Readings to S., 1779-83,
3 vols. 410); see also PROBABLE SOURCES (above). Legal: W. L. Rushton, S. a Lawyer,
1858, 8vo, S.'s Legal Maxims, 1859, 8vo, new ed. 1907, S.'j Testamentary Language,
1869, 8vo, and S. illustrated by the Lex Scripta, 1870, 8vo; Lord Campbell S 's Legal
Acquirements, 1859, 8vo; H. T., Was S. a Lawyer? 1871, 8vo; J. Kohler, S. nor
dem Forum der Jurisprudenz, und Nachwort, 1883-84, i pts. 8vo; F. F. Heard, S. as a
Lawyer, Boston, 1884, i6mo; C. K. Davis, The Law in S., St Paul, U.S., 1884, 8vo;
W. C. Devecmon, In re S.'s Legal Acquirements, N.Y., 1899, sm. 8vo. Medicine:
G. Farren, Essays on Mania exhibited in Hamlet, Ophelia, &c.. 1833 8vo- T C
Bucknill, The Medical Knowledge of S., 1860, 8vo, and The Mad Folk of S., 1867, sm.
8vo: C. W. Stearns, S.'j Medical Knowledge, N.Y.. 1865, sm. 8vo; G. Cless, Medicinische
Blumenlese aus S., Stuttgart. 1865, 8vo; A. O. Kellogg, S.'j Delineations of Insanity,
ire., N.Y., 1866, i6mo; H. R. Aubert, S. als Mediciner, Rostock, 1873, 8vo, J P.
Chesney, S. as a Physician, St Louis, 1884, 8vo; B. R. Field, Medical Thoughts of S.,
2nd ed., Easton, U.S., 1885, 8vo; J. Moyes, Medicine and Kindred Arts in the Plays of
S., 1896, 8vo; H. Lahr, Die Darslellung Krankhafler Ceisleszusldnde in S.'s Dramen,
Stuttgart, 1898, 8vo. Military: W. J. Thorns, "Was S. ever a Soldier?" in his
Three Nolelels, 1865, 8vo. Natural History: R. Patterson, Insects mentioned in
. s Plays, 1838, 8vo; J. H. Fennell, S. Cyclopaedia, 1862, 8vo, pt. i. Zoology, Man (all
U. von Lippmann, Nalurwiss. aus S., 1902, 8vo. Philosophy: W. J. Birch,
Philosophy and Religion of S., 1848, sm. 8vo; V. Knauer, W. S., der Philosoph,
Innsbruck, 1879, 8vo. Printing: W. Blades, S. and Typography, 1872, 8vo.
Psychology: J. C. Bucknill, The Psychology of S., 1859, 8vo; E. Onimus La
Psychologie dans let Dramcs de S, 1876, 8vo; Biaut, Etude mfdico-psychologique
X. PERIODICALS
S Museum, edited by M. L. Moltke, Leipzig, 23rd April 1870 to 23rd February 1874,
* N OS. (all published); Shakcspcariana, 1883, &c., sm. 8vo; New Shakespeareana
(N.Y. Shakespeare Soc.), 1902, &c. From the commencement of Notes and Queries in
1856, a special Shakespeare department (see Indexes) has been carried on.
XI. SHAKESPEARE SOCIETIES AND THEIR PUBLICATIONS
Proceedings of the Sheffield S. Club (1819-29), 1829, 8vo; Shakespeare Society (1841)
arious publications, 1841-53, 48 vols. 8vo; New Shakspere Society. Transactions and
-j/ * jo y*i, fv vuis., iiim oanitsiac j\csiofaiton o
(J007.&C.), underthe editorshipofj. A. Morgan, itsfirst President, and has issued other
publications. The S. Societies of Philadelphia, Birmingham and Clifton may also be
mentioned.
XII. Music
, W V Li le y,' S -'i D ""alic Songs, n.d., 2 vols. folio; The S. Album, or Warwick-
shire Garland (C. Lonsdale). 1862, folio; G. G. Gervinus, Handel u. S Leipzig 1868
8vo; H. Lavoix, Les Traducleurs de S. en musique, 1869, 8vo; A. Roffe, Handbook of
S. Music, 1878, 410; List of Songs and Passages set to Music (N.S. Soc.), 1884 8vo- E.
W. Naylor, S. and Music, 1896; W. K. White, Index to the Songs, &c., in S. which
hate been set to Music, xooo. 8vo; L. C. Elson, S. in Music, 1901, 8vo; H. J. Conrat,
La Musica in S., 1903, 8vo. See also the musical works of J. Addison, T. A. Arne C
H. Berlioz, Sir H. R. Bishop, C. Dibdin, W. Linley, M. Locke, G. A. Macfarren F.
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, H. Purcell, Sir A. Sullivan, G. Verdi, &c.
XIII. PICTORIAL ILLUSTRATIONS
Harding, S. illustrated, 1793, 4to; S. Ireland, Picturesque Scenes upon the Avon, 1795,
8vo; J. and J. Boydell, Collection of Prints from Pictures illustrating the Dramatic
Works of S., 1802-3, 2 vols. atlas folio, 100 plates, forms supplement to Boydell's
edition; reproduced by photography, 1864, 4to, reduced, and edited by J. P. Norris,
spirit til me flays oj St., 1833, 5 vols. 8vo; L,. b. Kuhl, SMnm zu S.'l dram. Werken,
Frankfort. 1827-31, Cassel, 1838-40, 6 vols. oblong folio; G. F. Sargent, S. illustrated
in a Series of Landscape and Architectural Designs, 1842, 8vo, reproduced as The
S. Pictures. 1896, 8vo; M. Miller, S.ean Costumes (characters of each play).
XIV. BIOGRAPHY
A. General Works.
'. S., 1743, 8vo, the
vols. 410; J. Brittoi
Vrilings of S., revised edition, 1818, sm. 8vo; A. Skottowe Life 'of S
824, 2 vols. 8vo; J. P. Collier, New Facts, 1835, 8vo (see XIX. Payne-Collier Controv j
and Traditionary Anecdotes of S. collected in 1673, 1838, 8vo; T. Campbell Life and
Writings of W. S., 1838, 8vo; C. Knight, S., a Biography, 1843, 8vo, reprinted in
Studies, 1850, 2 vols. 8vo; J. O. Halliwell-PTiillipps, The Life of W. S., 1848 8vo S
Facsimiles, 1863, folio, Illustrations of the Life of S., 1874, folio, and Outlines of the
Life of S., 1881, 8vo, 6th ed. 1886, 2 vols. 8vo; F. P. G. Guizot, S. el son temps 1852
8vo, translated into English, 1852, 8vo; G. M. Tweddell, S., his Times and Contem-
poraries, 1852, I2mo, 2nd ed. 1861-63, unfinished: W. W. Lloyd, Essays on Life and
Plays of S., 1858, 8vo; S. Neil, S., a Critical Biography, 1861, 8vo- T De Quinccy
S., a Biography, 1864, 8vo; T. Kenny, Life and Genius of S., 1864, 8vo- W Bekk'
W. S., eine biogr. Studie, Munich, 1864, sm. 8vo; S. W. Fullom, The History of W
S, 2nd ed. 1864, 8vo; Victor M. Hugo, W.S., 1864, 8vo, translated into Dutch, German
and English; H. G. Bohn. Biography and Bibliography of S. (Philobiblon Soc., 1863),
8vo, illustrations; J. Jordan, Original Collections on S. and Stratford, 1780 edited by
J. O. Halliwell Phillipps, 1864, 410: J. A. Heraud, S.'s Inner Life as intimated in his
Works, 1865, 8vo; R. G. White, Memoirs of the Life of W. S., Boston, 1865 8vo-
S. A. Allibone, Biography of S. (in Dictionary, vol. 2, 1870); H. N. Hudson, S.:his
Life, Art, and Characters, Boston, 1872, 4th ed. 1883, 2 vols. I2mo; R. Genee S sein
Leben u. s. Werke, Hildburghausen, 1872, 8vo; F. K. Elze, W. S. Halle, 1876, large
8vo, transl. 1888; G. H. Calvert, S.: A Biographic, Aesthetic Study, Boston 1879
i6mo; W. Tegg, S. e.nd his Contemporaries, 1879, 8vo; W. Hcnty, S., with some
nimseij, IBSB, vo (u m character of Prince Henry); W. J. Rolfe S the Boy 1897
sm. 8vo; Sidney Lee, Life of W. S., 1898, 6th ed. 1908, 8vo. illustrated ed. 1899 large
8vo; Goldwin Smith, S. the Man, Toronto, 1899. 8vo; G. Duval, La Vie ttridique de
S ; 2 ? d f, d -,, I9 ', sm - 8v ;D.H. Lambert, Carlae S.ianae, S. documents, 1904, sm.Svo;
W. I. KfUe.Liff of W. S., 1904, 8vo, illustrated; W. C. Hazlitt, S., the Man and
his Work, 3rd ed., 1908, 8vo; Frank Harris, The Man S. and his Tragic Life Story
1909, 8vo; E. Law, S. as Groom of the Chamber, 1910, sm. 8vo.
B. Special Works.
Autographs, 1864, 4 to; F. J. Furnivall, On S.'s Signatures, 1895, 8vo; A. Hall, S.'s
Handwriting further illustrated, 1899, 8vo; Birthday: B. Corney, Argument on the
Assumed Birthday, 1864, 8vo. Bones: C. M. Ingleby, S.'s Bones, 1883, sm. 4to; W.
Hall, S. s Grave, Notes of Traditions, 1884, 8vo. Crab Tree: C. F. Green, Legend of
S. s Crab Tree, 1857, 4 to, illustrated. Deer Stealing: C. H. Bracebridge, S. no Deer
y'"!'* 1 vgitu, iouv, ovo; j. \j. ojuuwcu rniuipps. Knmts nspteunt i>
Ml Family and Connexions, 1864, 4 to; C. C. Slopes, S.'j Warwickshire Contemporaries'
1897, new ed. 1907, 8vo, and Family, with an Account of the A rdens, 1901, 8vo; C. I.
fclton, W. S., His Family and Friends, 1004, 8vo; J. W. Gray, S.'j Marriage, etc.
1005, 8vo. Ghost-Belief: A. Roffe, The Ghost Belief of S., 1851, 8vo. For S 'j use of
the supernatural see IX. SPECIAL KNOWLEDGE (Folk-lore, etc.). Name: I. O. Halliwell
1 hilhpps, New Lamps or Old? 1880, 8vo, advocates "Shakespeare"; J. Winsor Wa
O T> Sii 5 li v ^ ' * ***! *-*! * rtsrt urtu /iCLWlum, 1OU7, Sill. OVO,
B s , w 'fc T . h . e R * I 'S'<"'S S 8 . 8vo; H. S. Bowden, The Religion of S., chiefly
from the Writings of R. Simpson, 1809, sm. 8vo;J. Countermine, The Religious Belief
"4, ,'f y?i 2 v o' Stratford-upon-Avon: R. B. Whelcr, History and Antiquities of
* .' '?? i, 8v ?.' <",""' of the Birthplace, new edition, 1863, 8vo, and Collectanea.
o ..." -- ' .--* ,, v ' J- y A ". ntntw, .j. j numc at /yew iiacc, 1001, sm
8vo, illustrated, with pedigrees; R. E. Hunter, S. and Stratford, 1864, 8vo; J. M
SHAKESPEARE
797
Jephson, S., His Birthplace, Home, and Crave, 1864, 4to, illustrated; J. Walter, S.'j
Home and Rural Life, 1874, 410, illustrative of localities; C. M. Ingleby, S. and the
Welcombe Enclosures, 1883, folio; S. Lee, Slratford-on-Avon, 1884, folio, illustrated,
Homeland, 1903, 8vo; Marie Corelli, The Plain Truth of the Slratford-on-Avon
Controversy, 1903, 8vo, birthplace; S. Lee, The Alleged Vandalism, 1903, 8vo; G.
Morley, Sweet Avon, 1906, 8vo.
XV. PORTRAITS
G. Steevens, Proposals for Publishing the Felton Portrait, 1794, 8vo; J. Britton,
On the Monumental Bust, 1816, 8vo; J. Boaden, Authenticity of Various Pictures
and Prints ofercd as Portraits of S., 1824, 4to; A. Wivell, The Monumental Bust,
1827, 8vo, and Inquiry into the S. Portraits, 1840, 8vo; H. Rodd, The Chandos
Bibliography of Works on the Portraits of S., Philadelphia, 1879, 8vp, 44 titles, The
Death Mask of S., 1884, and The Portraits of S., Phil., 1885, 4to, with bibliography
of in referencesand illustrations; ArnecjgePicliot, "S.,aveclesporlraits authenliques,'
Revue Britannique, Paris, 1888; Edwin Bprmann, Der S. Dichter: wer war's
and wie salt er aus, Leipzig, 1902 (Baconian); A. A. Bekk, Des DicUers Bild,
Berlin, 1902, 8vo; John Corbin, A New Portrait of S. (the "Ely Palace"), 1903, 8vo;
C. C. Slopes, True Story of the Stratford Bust, 1904, 8vo; M. H. Spielmann, The
Portraits of S., 1907, 8vo. An elaborate account by A. M. Knapp of the portraits in
the Barton collection, Boston Public Library, may be found in the S. Catalogue, 1880,
large 8vo. For medals and tokens, see E. Hawkins (ed. A. W. Franks and H. A.
Grueber), Medallic Hist, of Great Britain, Brit. Mus., 1885; for tokens, James Atkin's
Tradesmen's Tokens of the iSth Century, 1892.
XVI. LITERARY AND DRAMATIC HISTORY
E. Malone, Historical Account of the English Stage, 1790, enlarged in Boswi
dition, 1821; J. P. Collier, History of English Dramatic Poetry, 1831, new ed. 18
>sweU's
..,,., 1879,
, 8vo. The Alleyne
, __8i, 8vo], and Memoirs of the Principal Actors in the Plays of S. (Shakespeare
Society), 1846, 8vo; N. J. Halpin, The Dramatic Unities of S., 1849. 8vo, ed. by C. M.
Ingleby (N.S. Soc., series i., T875-76); N. Delias, Uber das englische Thealerwesc*
zu S.'s Zeit, Bremen, 1853, 8vo; A. J. F. Mezieres, Predecesseurs et contemporains de
S., 1863, new ed. 1905, am. 8vo, and Conlemporains et successeurs de S., 3rd ed. 1881;
Rev. W. R. Arrowsmith, S.'s Editors and Commentators, 1865, 8vo; W. Kelly, Notices
of Ike Drama and Popular Amusements of the l6lh and I7th Centuries, 1865, 8vo; C.
M. Ingleby, Traces of the Authorship of the Works attributed to S., 1868, 8vo, S.'j
Centurie of Prayse, culled from Writers of the First Century after his Rise, 1874, 410
(enlarged by Miss Toulmin Smith for N.S. Soc., 1879), and S. Allusion Book, 1874,
re-ed. by J. Munro, 1909, 2 vols. 8vo; H. I. Ruggles, The Method of S. as an Artist,
N.Y., 1870, 8vo; A. H. Paget, S.'s Plays, a Chapter of Stage History, 1875, 8vo; H.
Ulrici, S.'s Dramatic Art, translated by L. D. Schmitz, 1876, 2 vols. 8vo; H. P.
Stokes, The Chronological Order of S.'s Plays, 1878, 8vo; K. Knortz, S. in Amerika,
Berlin, 1882, 8vo; C. Muerer, Synchronise Zusammenslellung der wichtigslen Notizen
ub. S.'s Leben u. Werke, 1882, 410; J. A. Symonds, S.'s Predecessors in the English
Drama, 1884, new ed. 1900, 8vo; A. R. Frey, S. and the alleged Spanish Prototypes,
N.Y., 1886, sm. 4to; F. G. Fleay, A Chronicle History of the London Stage 1559-1642,
,Q Q..- 1 ;;:,,.., */.,v,,/ I'L,,^,,;.!., ,,f /!,,. !?*'' '- ** -"-- - * ^ T
uryaen to cna oj loitt century. 1095, ovo; v^. L,. **. ,, ... O ..v~, ~. . uv ,., ruJ .... ,
Stage, 1895, 8vo; F. S. Boas, S. and his Predecessors, 1896, sm. 8vo; H. Schwab, Das
Schauspiel im Schauspiel zur Zeit S.'s, Vienna, 1896, 8vo; A. Brandl, Quellen des
weltlichcn Dramas in England vor S., Strassburg, 1898, 8vo; T. R. Lounsbury, S.ean
Wars, N.Y., 1902, 8vo, and The First Editors of S., 1906, 8vo, Pope and Theobald;
F. E. Schclling, The English Chronicle Play, 1902, 8vo; G. Schiavello, La Fama delta
S. nel iS sec., 1903, 8vo; D. N. Smith, Eighteenth-Century Essays on S., 1903, 8vo;
C. Brodmeir, Die S.-Biihne, Weimar, 1904, 8vo; C. Gaehde, D. Garrick als S. Dar-
steller, 1904, 8vo; C. E. Hughes, The Praise of S., 1904, 8vo; A. H. Woolf, S. and the
Old Southwark Playhouses, 1903, 8vo; P. Henslowe, Diary (1593-1608), ed. W. W.
ovo; ivi. Dernays, C.UT cniscenunssgcscmcnie I
R. J. Benedix, Die S.omanie, Stuttgart, 1873
te Kritik, Hamburg, 187*4, 8vo; J. Meissner
Studien tiber S.'s Wirkung auf zeitgenoss. Dramatiker, 1905, 8vo; A. Boetlingk, S.
und unsere Klassiker, IQOQ, 8vo.
France: H. Beyle, Racine et S. 1823-25, 2 pts. 8vo; J. B. M. A. Lacroix,_/?ij/<nre
del' influence de S. sur le theatre franfais, Brussels, 1856, 8vo;
XVII. SHAKESPEARE JUBILEES
Essay on the Jubilee at Stratford, 1769, 8vo; S.'s Garland, 1769, 8vo, second
edition 1826, 8vo; Concise Account of Garrick's Jubilee, 1769, and the Festivals of
1827 and l8jo, 1830, 8vo; Descriptive Account of the Second Gala, 1830, 8yo; K. F.
Gutzkow, Eine S. Feier an der Ilm, Leipzig, 1864, 8vo; P. H. A. Mobius, Die deutscke
S. Feier, Leipzig, 1864, 8vo; Tercentenary Celebration by the New England Historic-
Genealogical Society at Boston, 1864, 8vo; Official Programme at the Tercentenary
Festival at Stratford, with Life, Guide, ire., 1864, 8vo; Proceedings of S.ian Enter-
tainment at New Orleans, 1894, 4to.
XVIII. IRELAND CONTROVERSY
Miscellaneous Papers and Legal Instruments under the Band and Seal of W. S.,
1795, imp. folio, 2nd ed. 1796, 8vo (W. H. Ireland's forgeries); Vortigern, an Historical
Tragedy, 1796, sm.Svo, 2nd ed. 1832, 8vo (forgery); E. Malone, Inquiry into the Authen-
ticity of Certain Papers and Legal Instruments, 1796, 8vo; W, H, Ireland, Authentic
Account of the S.ian MSS., 1796, 8vo; S. Ireland, Investigation of Mr Malone, 1797.
8vo; J. J. Eschenburg, Uber den vorgeblichen Fund S.scher Handscftriften, Leipzig,
1797, sm. 8vo; G. Chalmers, Apology for the Believers inthe S. Papers, cVc., 1797-1800,
3 pts. 8vo; [G. Hardinge], Chalmeriana, 1800, 8vo; W. H. Ireland, Confessions, 1805,
sm. 8vo, new edition, with introduction by R. G. White, 1874, i2mo.
XIX. PAYNE COLLIER CONTROVERSY
J. P. Collier, New Facts regarding the Life of S., 1835, 8vo, New Particulars, 1836,
8vo, Further Particulars, 1839, 8vo, Reasons for a new Edition of S.'s Works, 1841.
2nd ed. 1842, 8vo, and Notes and Emendations to the Text (S. Soc.), 1852, 2nd ed.
Ingleby, The S. Fabrications, 1859. sm. 8vo, and Complete View of the S. Controversy,
:86l, with bibliography (anti-Collier); N. E. S. A. Hamilton, Inquiry into the Genuine-
ness of the MS. Corrections, 1860, 4to (anti-Collier); Collier's Reply to Hamilton, 1860,
8vo; Sir T. D. Hardy, Review of the Present State of the S. Controversy, 1860, 8vo;
J. P. Collier, Trilogy: Conversations, 1874, 3 pts. 410; H. B. Wheatley, Account of
Life ofj. P. Collier, 1884, 8vo.
XX. SHAKESPEARE-BACON CONTROVERSY
J. C. Hart, The Romance of Yachting, N.Y., 1848, umo, first work containing
doubt of S.'s authorship; W. H. Smith, Was Bacon the Author of S.'s Playsf 1856.
8vo, extended as Bacon and S., 1857, I2mo (anti-S.); D.Bacon, The Philosophy oj
the Plays of S. unfolded, 1857. 8vo (anti-S.); N. Holmes, Authorship of S., 1866, new
ed. 1886, 2 vols. I2mo (anti-S.); Bacon's Promus, edited by Mrs H. Pott, 1883, 8vo
(anti-S.); W. H. Wyman, Bibliography of the Bacon-S. Controversy, Cincinnati, 1884,
8vo, 255 entries (of which 117 pro-S., 73 anti-, and 65 unclassified), continued in S.iana,
1886, &c.; I. Donnelly, The Great Cryptogram, 1888, 2 vols. la. 8vo (anti-S.); Sir T.
Martin, S. or Bacon f 1888, sm. 8vo (pro-S.); J. A. Morgan, S. in Fact and Criticism,
N.Y., 1888, sm. 8vo; C. C. Slopes, The Bacon-S. Question, 1888, 8vo; C. A. Lentzer
Zur S.-Bacon Theoric, Halle, 1890, 8vo; E. Bormann, The S. Secret, transl. 1895, 8vo;
L. Schipper, S. und dessen Gegner, Miinster, 1895, 8vo; C. Alien, Notes on the Bacon-
S. Question, Boston, 1900, 8vo (pro-S.); Lord Penzance (ed. M. H. Kinnear), The
Bacon-S. Controversy, 1902, 8vo; W. Willis, The S.-Bacon Controversy, 1902, 8vo;
and The Baconian Mint, 1903, 8vo; G. G. Greenwood, The S. Problem Restated,
1908, 8vo, and In re S., Beeching v. Greenwood, 1909, 8vo (anti-S.}; H. C. Beeching,
W. S., a Reply to Greenwood, 1908, 8vo (pro-S.); Sir E. Durning-Lawrence, Bacon is S.,
1910, 8vo.
XXI. BIBLIOGRAPHY
F. Meres, Palladis Tamia: Witts Treasury, 1598, Z2mo, contains the earliest list of
S.'s works; E. Capell, Cat. of S.iana, 1799, 8vo; J. Wilson, Shakespeariana,
Catalogue of all the Books, fire, relating to S., 1827, sm. 3vo; W. T. Lowndes, S. and
his Commentators, 1831, 8vo, reprinted from the Manual; J. O. Halliwell Phillipps,
Shakespeariana: Catalogue of Early Editions, Commentaries, cVc., 1841, 8vo, Some
Account of Antiq. Books, MSS., &<;., Must, of S., in his possession, 1852, 4to, illustraled,
Garland of S.iana, 1854, 4to, Early Editions of S., 1857, 8vo (notices of 14 early
quartos), Brief Hand List of Books, &c., illustrative of S., 1859, 8vo, Skeleton Hand
List of the Early Quartos, 1860, 8vo, Hand List of Shakespeariana, 1862, 8vo, Brief
Hand List of Collections formed by R. B. Wheler, 1863, 410, List of Works illustrative
of S., 1867, 8vo, Catalogue of the S. Library and Museum at Slratford-on-Avon, 1868,
8vo, Rand List of Early Editions, 1867, 8vo, Catalogue of Warehouse Library, 1876,
8vo, Brief Hand List of Selected Parcels, 1876, Catalogue of S. Study Books, 1876,
8vo, Brief List of S. Rarities at Hollingbury Copse, 1886, 8vo; J. Moulin, Omtrekken
eener alzemeene Literatuur over W. S., Kampen, 1845, 8vo (only part 2 published); S.
Literatur in Deutschland, 1762-1851, by P. H. Cassel, 1852, sm. 8vo; P. H. Sillig, Die
S. Literalur bis Mitle 1854. cinzefiikrt v. H. Ulrici, Leipzig, 1854, 8vo; L'enox), S.'s
Plays in Folio, 1861, 410, bibliographical notice; H. G. Bohn, Biography and Biblio-
graphy of S.,Pnilobiblon Soc., 1863, sm. 8vo, bibliography with some additions from his
edition of Lowndes; J. R. Smilh, S.iana, a Catalogue, 1864, 8vo; Shakespeareana:
Verzeichniss, Vienna, 1864, 8vo; F. Thimm, S.iana from 1564, and edition containing
Ihe lilerature lo 1871, 1872, 8yo, continued in Transactions of N. S. Soc.; bibliographies
of each play may be found in H. H. Furness's New Variorum edition, Philadelphia,
1873, &c.; Catalogue of the S. Memorial Library at the Cambridge Free Public
Library, 1 88 1, nearly all presented by H. T. Hall; S. A. Allibone, Shakespeare
Bibliography (seehisDictionary,v. 2, 1870), based on Bobnwith additional Americana;
A. Cohn, S. Bibliographic, 1871, &c., contributed to S. Jahrbuch; H. T. Hall,
Shakespearian Statistics, new edition 1874, 8vo; J. D. Mullins, Catalogue of the S.
Memorial Library, Birmingham Free Libraries, 1872-76, 3 pts. 8vo, a magnificent
collection of 7000 vols. destroyed by fire in 1879, now fully replaced; A. C. Shaw, Index
lo the S. Memorial Library, Birmingham, 1903, 8vo; Kalalog d. Bibliolhek der
deulschen S. Ges.. Weimar, 1876, 8vo; K. Knortz, An American S. Bibliography,
1876, I2mo; J. Winsor, Bibliography of the Original Quartos and Folios, Cambridge,
U.S.,l876, 4to (with facsimiles), and S.'s Poems, a Bibliography of the Early Editions,
1879, 8vo; Catalogue of Works of, and relating lo, W. S., Barton Coll., Boston Pub.
Lib., by J. M. Hubbard, 1878-80, 2 vols. la. 8vo, the largest collection in U.S.; H. H.
Morgan, Topical S.iana, arranged under Headings, St. Louis, 1879, 8vo; Topical Index
\nShakespeariana, 1885-86, pts. xv.-xxii.,repr. as Digesta,pt. uA-F), N.Y., 1886, 8vo;
T. 1. 1. Arnold, S. Bibliography in the Netherlands, The Hague, 1879, sm. 8vo; L. Un-
flad, Die S. Literatur in Deutschland, 1880, 8vo; H. T. Hall, The Separate Editions
of S.'s Plays, with the Alterations by various Hands, 1880, 8vo; J. Jeremiah, Aid to
S.ean Study, i&So, 8vo; S. Timmins, Books on S., 1885, sm. 8vo; F. Thimm, S. in the
British Museum (Lib. Chr.), 1887; H. R. Tedder, The Classification of Shakespeareana
(Lib. Chr.), 1887, 8vo; E. E. Baker, Calendar of S. Rarities, 1891, 8vo, collected by
J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps; Cat. of British Museum: W. S., 1897, folio; W. S.
Brassinglon, Hand List of Collective Editions of S. before 1800, 1898, 8vo; S. Lee.
Catalogue oj Shakespeareana, 1899, 4to, very complete; and Notes and Additions to
Census of Copies of First Folio, 1906, 8vo, Four Quarto Editions of Plays by S., 1908,
8vo, and A S. Reference Library, 1910, 8vo; L. Haas, Verleger . Drucker der Werke
S.'s bei 1640, 1904, 8vo; F. Madan, &c., The Original Bodleian Copy of the First Folio.
1005, folio; R. Proelss, Von d. allesl. Drucken d. Dramen S.'s, Leipzig, 1905, 8vo; A.
W. Pollard, S. Folios and Quartos, 1 594-1685, 1909, folio; Cat. of Early Editions of S.
at Eton Coll., 1909, 8vo; G. W. Cole, First Polio of S., N.Y., 1909, 8vo; Cat. of Ike
Books, Antiquities. Sfc., exhibited at Shakespeare's Birthplace, 1910, 8vo. (H. R. T.)
798
SHALLOT SHAMASH
SHALLOT, Allium ascalonicum, a hardy bulbous perennial,
which has not been certainly found wild and is regarded by
A. de Candolle as probably a modification of A. Cepa, dating
from about the beginning of the Christian era (Origin of Culti-
vated Plants, p. 71). It is extensively cultivated and is much
used in cookery, besides which it is excellent when pickled. It
is propagated by offsets, which are often planted in September
or October, but the principal crop should not be got in earlier
than February or the beginning of March. In planting, the tops
of the bulbs should be kept a little above ground, and it is a
commendable plan to draw away the soil surrounding the bulbs
when they have got root-hold. They should not be planted
on ground recently manured. They come to maturity about
July or August. There are two sorts the common, and the
Jersey or Russian, the latter being much larger and less
pungent.
SHALMANESER [Ass. Sulmanu-asarid, " the god Sulman
(Solomon) is chief "], the name of three Assyrian princes.
SHALMANESER I., son of Hadad-nirari I., succeeded his father
as king of Assyria about 1310 B.C. He carried on a series of
campaigns against the Aramaeans in northern Mesopotamia,
annexed a portion of Cilicia to the Assyrian empire, and estab-
lished Assyrian colonies on the borders of Cappadocia. According
to his annals, discovered at Assur, in his first year he conquered
eight countries in the north-west and destroyed the fortress of
Arinnu, the dust of which he brought to Assur. In his second
year he defeated Sattuara, king of Malatia, and his Hittite allies,
and conquered the whole country as far south as Carchemish.
He built palaces at Assur and Nineveh, restored " the world-
temple " at Assur, and founded the city of Calah.
SHALMANESER II. succeeded his father Assur-nazir-pal III.
858 B.C. His long reign was a constant series of campaigns
against the eastern tribes, the Babylonians, the nations of
Mesopotamia and Syria, as well as Cilicia and Ararat. His
armies penetrated to Lake Van and Tarsus, the Hittites of
Carchemish were compelled to pay tribute, and Hamath (Hamah)
and Damascus were subdued. In 854 B.C. a league formed by
Hamath, Arvad, Ammon, " Ahab of Israel " and other neigh-
bouring princes, under the leadership of Damascus, fought an
indecisive battle against him at Karkar (Qarqar), and other
battles followed in 849 and 846 (see JEWS 10). In 842 Hazael
was compelled to take refuge within the walls of his capital.
The territory of Damascus was devastated, and Jehu of Samaria
(whose ambassadors are represented on the Black Obelisk now
in the British Museum) sent tribute along with the Phoenician
cities. Babylonia had already been conquered as far as the
marshes of the Chaldaeans in the south, and the Babylonian
king put to death. In 836 Shalmaneser made an expedition
against the Tibareni (Tabal) which was followed by one against
Cappadocia, and in 832 came the campaign in Cilicia. In the
following year the old king found it needful to hand over the
command of his armies to the Tartan (commander-in-chief),
and six years later Nineveh and other cities revolted against him
under his rebel son Assur-danin-pal. Civil war continued for
two years; but the rebellion was at last crushed by Samas-
Rimmon or Samsi-Hadad, another son of Shalmaneser. Shal-
maneser died soon afterwards in 823 B.C. He had built a palace
at Calah, and the annals of his reign are engraved on an obelisk
of black marble which he erected there.
See V. Scheil in Records of the Past, new series, iv. 36-79.
SHALMANESER III. (or IV.) appears as governor of Zimirra in
Phoenicia in the reign of Tiglath-pileser IV. (or III.) and is
supposed by H. Winckler to have been the son of the latter king.
At all events, on the death of Tiglath-pileser, he succeeded to
the throne the 25th of Tebet 727 B.C., and changed his original
name of Ulula to that of Shalmaneser. The revolt of Samaria
took place during his reign (see JEWS 15), 'and while he was
besieging the rebel city he died on the izth of Tebet 722 B.C.
and the crown was seized by Sargon.
For all these rulers see BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, Sections V.
and VIII., and works quoted. (A. H. S.)
SHAMANISM, the name commonly given to the religion of
the Ural-Altaic peoples. Properly speaking, however, there
is nothing to distinguish Shamanism from the religions of other
peoples in a similar stage of culture. On the other hand, the
shaman or priest (Tungus saman, Altain Turk kama, cf. Russian
kamlanie) performs duties which differ in some respects from
those of the ordinary magician; one of his main functions is to
protect individuals from hostile supernatural influence. He deals
both with good and bad spirits; he also performs sacrifices and
procures oracles. The drum (tungur) is an important instrument
in his ceremonies; it may be assumed that in many cases the
effect of the preliminary performances is to induce autohypnotic
phenomena. The shaman's office is held to be hereditary and
his chief assistants are ancestral spirits.
See Radloff, A us Sibirien, ii. ; C. de Harlez, Religion nationale des
Tatares orientaux; Hiekisch, " Die Tungusen," Mitt, der anthropo-
logischen Gesellschaft, Wien, xviii. 1 65- 182; Revue de I'hisloire des
religions, xl. 321, xlvii. 51.
SHAMASH, or SAMAS, the common name of the sun-god in
Babylonia and Assyria. The name signifies perhaps " servitor,"
and would thus point to a secondary position occupied at one
time by this deity. Both in early and in late inscriptions Sha-
mash is designated as the " offspring of Nannar," i.e. of the
moon-god, and since, in an enumeration of the pantheon, Sin
generally takes precedence of Shamash, it is in relationship,
presumably, to the moon-god that the sun-god appears as the
dependent power. Such a supposition would accord with the
prominence acquired by the moon in the calendar and in astro-
logical calculations, as well as with the fact pointed out (see
SIN) that the moon-cult belongs to the nomadic and therefore
earlier, stage of civilization, whereas the sun-god rises to full
importance only after the agricultural stage has been reached.
The two chief centres of sun-worship in Babylonia were Sippara
(Sippar), represented by the mounds at Abu Habba, and Larsa,
represented by the modern Senkerah. At both places the chief
sanctuary bore the name E-barra (or E-babbara) " the shining
house " a direct allusion to the brilliancy of the sun-god. Of
the two temples, that at Sippara was the more famous, but
temples to Shamash were erected in all large centres as Babylon,
Ur, Nippur and Nineveh.
The attribute most commonly associated with Shamash is
justice. Just as the sun disperses darkness, so Shamash brings
wrong and injustice to light. Khammurabi attributes to
Shamash the inspiration that led him to gather the existing laws
and legal procedures into a code, and in the design accompanying
the code the king represents himself in an attitude of adoration
before Shamash as the embodiment of the idea of justice. Several
centuries before Khammurabi, Ur-Engur of the Ur dynasty
(c. 3600 B.C.) declared that he rendered decisions " according
to the just laws of Shamash." It was a logical consequence of
this conception of the sun-god that he was regarded also as
the-one who released the sufferer from the grasp of the demons.
The sick man, therefore, appeals to Shamash as the god who
can be depended upon to help those who are suffering unjustly.
This aspect of the sun-god is vividly brought out in the hymns
addressed to him, which are, therefore, among the finest pro-
ductions in the entire realm of Babylonian literature.
It is evident from the material at our disposal that the Shamash
cults at Sippara and Larsa so overshadowed local sun-deities
elsewhere as to lead to an absorption of the minor deities by the
predominating one. In the systematized pantheon these minor
sun-gods become attendants that do his service. Such are
Bunene, spoken of as his chariot driver, whose consort is Atgi-
makh, Kettu ("justice") and Mesharu ("right"), who are
introduced as servitors of Shamash. Other sun-deities, as
Ninib (q.v.) and Nergal (q.v.), the patron deities of important
centres, retained their independent existence as certain phases
of the sun, Ninib becoming the sun-god of the morning and of
the spring time, and Nergal the sun-god of the noon and of the
summer solstice, while Shamash was viewed as the sun-god in
general.
Together with Sin and Ishtar, Shamash forms a second triad
SHAMBLES SHANGHAI
799
by the side of Anu, Bel and Ea. The three powers, Sin, Shamash
and Ishtar (q.v.), symbolized the three great forces of nature,
the sun, the moon and the life-giving force of the earth. At
times, instead of Ishtar, we find Adad (q.v.), the storm-god,
associated with Sin and Shamash, and it may be that these two
sets of triads represent the doctrines of two different schools
of theological thought in Babylonia which were subsequently
harmonized by the recognition of a group consisting of all four
deities.
The consort of Shamash was known as A. She, however, is
rarely mentioned in the inscriptions except in combination with
Shamash. (M. JA.)
SHAMBLES, a slaughter-house, a place where butchers kill
animals for domestic food, an " abattoir." The word in the
singular means properly a bench or stall on which butchers
display their meat for sale in a market, and appears in O. Eng.
fot-scamel, foot-stool. It represents the La. Aamellum, diminu-
tive of scamnum, step, bench ; the root is seen in Gr. (TKrjirTfiv,
to prop, cf. " sceptre." The distinct word " shamble," meaning
to walk awkwardly, is to be traced to the O. Du. schampelen,
to stumble, an adaptation of O. Fr. escamper, to decamp (Lat.
ex, out of, and campus, field). The same French word has given
the English " scamp," a worthless rascal, a rogue, vagabond.
SHAMMAI, a Jewish scribe of the time of King Herod, whom
tradition almost invariably couples with Hillel (q.v.), with whom
he stood in striking contrast, not merely in legal-religious
decisions and discussions, but also in character and temperament.
His motto (Aboth i. 15) reads: "Make thy study of the Thora
a firmly established duty; say little and do much; and receive
every man with friendly countenance." The last admonition is
characteristic, as Shammai was choleric and brusque. The
opposition between Shammai and Hillel was perpetuated by
their respective schools, till, under Gamaliel II., the strife was
decided at Jabneh in favour of the school of Hillel. (W. BA.)
SHAMOKIN, a borough of Northumberland county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., on Shamokin Creek, about 45 m. (73 m. by rail)
N. by E. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 18,202, of whom 2703
were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 19,588. Shamokin is served
by the Philadelphia & Reading, the Northern Central, and two
interurban railways. There are two parks. The mining and
shipping of anthracite coal and the manufacture of silk goods
and of hosiery and knit goods are the borough's principal
industries, but it has, also, foundries and machine shops, and
manufactories of powder, powder-kegs, shirts, overalls, hooks
and eyes, brick, flour and dressed lumber. The total value of
its factory product in 1905 was $1,443,915. The borough was
named from Shamokin Creek; the name is probably a mutilation
of a Delaware Indian word meaning "full of eels." The Indian
village named Shamokin was on the site of the present Sunbury,
Pa. Sbamokin was formed in 1852 by the union of two villages,
Groveville and Mary Ann. It was incorporated as a borough
in 1864.
SHAMPOO, a word now principally used as a hair-dresser's
term for washing the head and hair with soap and water or some
special preparation. It is properly the Hindustani word
(champna, to thrust, press ; imperative champo) for the kneading
and rubbing of the body, &c., which is one of the principal
features of the various forms of hot bath as practised in the East.
SHAMYL (c. 1797-1871), the leader of the tribes of the Cau-
casus in the war against Russia. He was born about 1797 and,
educated by the Mullah Djemaleddin, soon took a leading part
in preaching a holy war against the Russians. He was both
the spiritual and military leader of the tribes, who maintained
the struggle for twenty-five years (1834-1859). This perpetual
guerrilla was a severe strain upon the resources of the great
power, and Shamyl's romantic fight for independence, making
him a sort of ally of England and France at the time of the
Crimean War (1853-55), earned him a European reputation. But
the capacity of the tribes for resistance was already failing,
and when at the close of the Crimean War Russia was able to
employ large forces on the Caucasus, the defenders were gradually
subdued, Shamyl himself being captured in 1859. The rest
of his life was spent in an easy captivity at Kaluga, St Petersburg
and Kiev. He died at Mecca during a pilgrimage in 1871. One
of his sons took service in the Russian, the other in the Turkish
army.
SHANGALLA, or SHANKALLA, a name loosely applied by
Abyssinians to the non-Arab and non-Abyssinian tribes living
west of Gojam in the Abyssinian-Sudan frontier lands. The
principal tribes included are the Legas, Bertat, Gumus, Kadalos
and Sienetjo. In some tribes Galla blood appears to pre-
dominate; others are Negroids.
SHANGHAI, a city in the Chinese province of Kiang-su. The
native city of Shanghai is situated in 31 15' N., 121 27' E.
and stands on the left or W. bank of the Hwang-p'u river, about
12 m. from the point where that river empties itself into the
estuary of the Yangtsze-kiang. The walls which surround it
are about 35 m. in circumference, and are pierced by seven gates.
The streets and thoroughfares may be said to illustrate all the
worse features of Chinese cities; while the want of any building
of architectural or antiquarian interest robs the city of any
redeeming traits. On the E. face of the city, between the walls
and the river, stands the principal suburb, off which the native
shipping lies anchored. Situated in the extreme E. portion of the
province of Kiang-su, and possessing a good and commodious
anchorage, as well as an easy access to the ocean, it forms the
principal port of central China. From the W. wall of the city
there stretches a rich alluvial plain extending over 45,000 sq. m.,
which is intersected by waterways and great chains of lakes
and bears a population of 800 to the sq. m. The products of this
fertile district, as well as the teas and silks of more distant
regions, find their natural outlet at Shanghai. The looms of
Suchow and the tea plantations of Ngan-hui, together with the
rice of this" garden of China," for many years before treaty days,
supplied the Shanghai junks with their richest freight. But
though thus favourably situated as an emporium of trade,
Shanghai did not attract the attention of foreign diplomatists
until the outbreak of the War of 1841, when the inhabitants
purchased protection from the attacks of Admiral Parker by
the payment of a ransom of 145,000. In the Nanking treaty,
which was signed in the following year, Shanghai was included
among the four new ports which were thrown open to trade.
In 1843 Captain (afterwards Sir) George Balfour was appointed
British consul, and it was on his motion that the site of the
present English settlement, which is bounded on the N. by the
Suchow creek, on the S. by the Yang-king canal, and on the E.
by the river, was chosen. The site, thus defined on its three
sides (on the W. no boundary was marked out), is three-fifths of
a mile in length, and was separated from the native city by a
narrow strip of land which was subsequently selected as the site
of the French settlement. Later again the Americans established
themselves on the other side of the Suchow creek, on a piece of
land fronting on the river, which there makes a sharp turn in an
easterly direction.
A handsome bund runs along the river frontage of the three
foreign settlements, and the public buildings, especially in the
British settlement, are large and fine. The cathedral, which is
built in the Gothic style^ is a notable example of Sir G. Gilbert
Scott's skill, and the municipal offices, club-house and hospitals are
all admirable in their way. The climate is somewhat trying. Shang-
hai lies low, and, though the early winter is enjoyable, snow and ice
being occasionally seen, the summer months are excessively hot.
Cholera occurs in the native city every summer, malarial fever
exists and dysentery is apt to become chronic in spring and autumn
on account of the sudden changes of temperature a fall of 20 to 30
taking place in a few hours and the moisture-laden atmosphere.
Smallpox is endemic in the Chinese city during the autumn and
winter, and enteric is common in the autumn. In the foreign
settlements, owing to sanitary enactments, cholera is rare, and
Europeans who adopt ordinary precautions " have nothing to
fear from the climate of Shanghai " (China Sea Directory, vol. iii.,
ed. 1904).
At first merchants appeared disinclined to take advantage
of the opportunities offered them at Shanghai. " At the end
of the first year of its history as an open port Shanghai could
count only 23 foreign residents and families, i consular flag,
ii merchants' houses, and 2 Protestant missionaries. Only
8oo
SHANGHAI
forty-four foreign vessels had arrived during the same period." 1
By degrees, however, the manifold advantages as a port of trade
possessed by Shanghai attracted merchants of all nationalities;
and from the banks of the Hwang-p'u arose handsome dwelling-
houses, which have converted a reed-covered swamp into one of
the finest cities in the East.
The number of foreigners, other than British, who took up
their abode in the British settlement at Shanghai made it soon
necessary to adopt some more catholic form of government than
that supplied by a British consul who had control only over British
subjects, and by common agreement a committee of residents,
consisting of a chairman and six members, was elected by the
renters of land for the purposes of general municipal administra-
tion. It was expected when the council was formed that the
three settlements the British, French and Americans -would
have been incorporated into one municipality, but international
jealousy prevented the fulfilment of the scheme, and it was not
until 1863 that the Americans threw in their lot with the British.
In 1853 the prosperity of the settlements received a severe check
in consequence of the capture of the native city by the T'ai-p'ing
rebels, who held possession of the walls from September in that
year to February 1855. This incident, though in many ways
disastrous, was the cause of the establishment of the foreign
customs service, which has proved of such inestimable advantage
to the Chinese government. The confusion into which the customs
system was thrown by the occupation of the city by the rebels
induced the Chinese authorities to request the consuls of Great
Britain, France and the United States to nominate three officers
to superintend the collection of the revenue. This arrangement
was found to work so well that on the reoccupation of the city
the native authorities proposed that it should be made permanent,
and H. N. Lay, of the British consular service, was in consequence
appointed inspector of the Shanghai customs. The results of Mr
Lay's administration proved so successful that when arranging
the terms of the treaty of 1858 the Chinese willingly assented
to the application of the same system to all the treaty ports,
and Mr Lay was thereupon appointed inspector-general of
maritime customs. On the retirement of Mr Lay in 1862 Sir
Robert Hart was appointed to the post.
From 1856 to 1864 the trade of Shanghai vastly increased, and its
prosperity culminated between l86o - and 1864, when the influx of
Chinese into the foreign settlement in consequence of the advance
E. of the T'ai-p'ing rebels added enormously to the value of land.
Both in 1860 and again in 1861 the rebels advanced to the walls of
Shanghai, but were driven back by the British troops and volunteers,
aided by the naval forces of England and France. It was in this
connexion that General Gordon assumed the command of the Chinese
force, which under his direction gave a reality to the boastful title
of " ever-victorious army " it had assumed under the two American
adventurers Ward and Burgevine. To Shanghai the successful
operations of Gordon brought temporarily disastrous consequences.
With the disappearance of the T'ai-p'ings the refugees returned to
their homes, leaving whole quarters deserted. The loss thus in-
flicted on the municipality was very considerable, and was intensified
by a commercial crisis in cotton and tea, in both of which there had
been a great deal of over-speculation. But, though the abnormal
prosperity was thus suddenly brought to an end, the genuine trade
of the port has steadily advanced, subject of course to occasional
fluctuations. For example, in 1880 the value of trade was 8,223,01 7,
and in 1908 it was 40,400,000. The total burthen of foreign steamers
which entered and cleared at Shanghai during 1884 was 3,145,242
tons, while in 1908 it was over 15,000,000 tons. The principal
items of import are cotton yarns, metals, sugar, petroleum and
coal; of export, silk, representing in value 34% of the total exports,
cotton, tea, rice, hides and skins, wool, wheat and beans. Great
Britain and the British colonies supply nearly 31 % of the imports,
Japan 12 J%, and the United States 12%; and of the exports
Great Britain and the British colonies take 18%, the United States
12% and Japan_lo%. Shanghai, moreover, is not only a port of
trade, but is rapidly becoming a large manufacturing and industrial
centre. In this category the first place must be given to cotton
mills, which, though not very numerous, give promise of con-
siderable development. The demand in China for cotton yarn,
chiefly the produce of the Bombay mills, has been steadily on the
increase. On the other hand, China produces raw cotton in indefinite
1 The Treaty Ports of China and Japan, by W. F. Mayers.
reeling of silk cocoons by machinery. This is gradually supplanting
the wasteful method of native reeling, giving a much better finished
and consequently more valuble article. Shanghai also contains
three large establishments for docking, repairing and building ships.
Among minor industries are match factories, rice and paper mills,
ice, cigarette, piano, carriage and furniture factories, wood carving,
&c.
The vastness of British interests in China and the large British
population at Shanghai gave rise in 1865 to the establishment of a
British supreme court for China and Japan, Sir Edmund Hornby,
then judge of the British court at Constantinople, being the first
judge appointed to the new office. Now, by virtue of extra-terri-
torial clauses in the various treaties, all foreigners, subjects of any
treaty power, are exempted from the jurisdiction of the Chinese
authorities, and made justiciable only before their own officials.
As there are now fourteen treaty powers represented at Shanghai,
there are consequently fourteen distinct courts sitting side by side,
each administering-the law of its own nationality. In addition, there
is also a Chinese court, commonly called the Mixed Court, though
it is no more mixed than any of the others in an international sense,
except that a foreign assessor sits with the Chinese judge in cases
where any of his own nationality are interested as plaintiffs. At
first sight this arrangement seems somewhat complicated, but the
principle is simple enough, viz. that a defendant must always be
sued in the court of his own nationality In criminal cases there is,
of course, no difficulty. For the British, English law alone prevails,
and they can only be tried and punished in the British court, and so
on for every nationality. In civil cases, where both parties are of
the same nationality, there is also no difficulty, e.g. for British sub-
jects the British court is the forum, for German subjects it is the
German court. In cases involving cross actions with mutual accounts,
say between an Englishman and a German, if the German constitutes
himself plaintiff he must sue his opponent before the British court,
and vice versa. The greatest anomaly, however, in respect ot
the government of Shanghai is the local municipal control. This
is exercised by the foreign community as a whole without regard to
nationality, and is a share of the power which properly belonged to
the Chinese local authorities, but which by convention or usage
they have allowed to fall into foreign hands. It is exercised only
within the area termed the foreign settlements, which were originally
nothing more than the " area set apart for the residence of foreign
merchants." Of these " settlements " there were and are still only
three the British, acquired in 1845, the French, acquired in 1849,
and the American, acquired in 1862. At an early date, as a foreign
town began to spring up, the necessity of having some authority
to lay out and pave streets, to build drains, &c., for the common
benefit, became evident, and as the Chinese authorities shirked the
work and the expense, the foreigners resolved to tax themselves
voluntarily, and appointed a committee of works to see the money
properly laid out. In 1854 the consuls of Great Britain, France
and the United States drew up a joint code of regulations applicable
to both the then settlements, British and French, which being ratified
by the respective governments became binding on their respective
subjects. The two areas thus became an international settlement,
and the subjects of all three nationalities the only powers then
interested acquired the same privileges and became liable to the
same burdens. The code thus settled was acquiesced in by the
Chinese authorities and by other nationalities as they came in, and
it conferred on the foreign community local self-government, prac-
tically free from official control of any description. In 1863 the area
covered by the regulations was extended by the addition of the
American settlement, which meanwhile had been obtained by that
government from {he Chinese. But about the same time, 1862, the
French decided to withdraw from the joint arrangement, and pro-
mulgated a set of municipal regulations of their own applicable
to the French area. These regulations differed from those appli-
cable to the joint settlement, in that a general supervision over
municipal affairs was vested in the French consul-general, his
approval being made necessary to all votes, resolutions, &c., of the
ratepayers before they could be enforced at law. Since the above
date there have, consequently, been two municipalities at Shanghai,
the French and the amalgamated British and American settlements,
to which the original regulations continued to apply. The area of
the latter now amounts to some 9 or 10 sq. m. The regula-
tions have been altered and amended from time to time, and
they have been accepted expressly or impliedly by all the treaty
powers which have since come into the field. The settlements have
thus lost their original character of British or American, and become
entirely cosmopolitan. The consuls of all the treaty powers rank
equally, and claim to have an equal voice in municipal affairs with
the British or American consuls.
The powers of self-government thus conferred on the foreign
community consist in exclusive police control within the area, in
draining, lighting, maintenance of streets and roads, making and
enforcement of sanitary regulations, control of markets, dairies
and so_ forth. .To meet these expenses the foreign ratepayers are
authorized to levy taxes on land and houses, to levy wharfage dues
on goods landed or shipped, and to charge licence fees. Taxes
are payable by every one living within the settlements, Chinese
included, though the latter have no voice in the local administration.
SHANHAI-KWAN SHANNON
801
The executive is entrusted to a municipal council of nine, elected
annually from among the general body of foreign ratepayers,
irrespective of nationality. The legislative function is exercised
by all ratepayers possessing a certain pecuniary qualification
in public meeting assembled. Proxies for absentee landlords
are allowed. One such public meeting must be held annually to
pass the budget and fix the taxation for the year. No official
sanction is required, and no veto is allowed for such money votes.
Special meetings may be held at any time for special purposes.
New legislation of a general kind requires to be approved by all the
treaty powers in order to be binding on their several nationalities,
but within certain limits the ratepayers can pass by-laws which
do not require such sanction. The French municipality is worked
on similar lines, except that every vote and every disbursement of
money is subject to the approval of the French consul-general.
The executive council consists of eight members, four of whom
must be French and four may be foreign. The French consul-general
is chairman ex officio, so that the control in any case is French and
practically official.
Both settlements were originally intended for the residence of
foreign merchants only, but as the advantages of living under
foreign protection became evident by reason of the security it
gave from arbitrary taxation and arrest, Chinese began to nock
in. This movement has continued, and is now particularly notice-
able in the cases of retired officials, many of whom have made
Shanghai their home. The total native population in the settle-
ments by the census of 1895 was 286,753, and the estimated popula-
tion of the native city was 125,000, making a total for all Shanghai
of 411,753. The census of the foreign population in 1905 showed
3713 British, 2157 Japanese, 1329 Portuguese, 991 Americans,
785 Germans and 568 Indians, out of a total of 1 1,497. The magni-
tude of the foreign interests invested in Shanghai may be gathered
from the following rough summary: Assessed value of land in
settlements registered as foreign-owned 5,500,000; docks, wharves
and other industrial public companies market value of stock,
2,250,000; private property estimated 1,500,000 total
9,250,000. This is exclusive of banks, shipping and insurance
companies, and other institutions which draw profits from other
places besides Shanghai.
SHANHAI-KWAN, a garrison town in the extreme east of the
province of Chih-li, China. Pop. about 30,000. It is situated
at the point where the range of hills carrying the Great Wall of
China dips to the sea, leaving a kwan or pass of limited extent
between China proper and Manchuria. It is thus an important
military station, and the thoroughfare of trade between Man-
churia and the great plain of China. The Imperial Northern
railway from Tientsin and Taku, 174 m. from the former, runs
through the pass, and skirts the shore of the Gulf of Liao-tung as
far as the treaty port of Niu-chwang, where it connects with the
railways leading from Port Arthur to the Siberian main line.
The pass formed the southern limit of the Russian sphere of
influence as defined in the convention between Great Britain and
Russia of the 28th of April 1899.
SHANKARSETT, JAGANNATH (1800-1865), the recognized
leader of the Hindu community of Bombay for more than
forty years, was born in 1800 into a family of goldsmiths of the
Daivadnya caste. Unlike his forefathers, he engaged in com-
merce, and soon acquired what was in those days a large fortune,
a great part of which he devoted to the good of the public. So
high was his credit that Arabs, Afghans and other foreign
merchants chose to place their treasures in his custody rather
than with the banks. Foreseeing the need of better methods of
education, he became one of the founders of the School Society
and the Native School of Bombay, the first of its kind in Western
India, which in 1824 developed into the Bombay Native In-
stitution, and again in 1840 into the Board of Education which
preceded theElphinstone Educational Institution founded ini8s6.
When the Students' Literary and Scientific Society first opened
their girls' schools, in spite of strong opposition of the Hindu
community, he set the good example of providing another girls'
school entirely at his private cost. His zeal for progress was also
shown in his starting the English School, the Sanskrit Seminary
and the Sanskrit Library, all in Girgaum. To Jagannath
Shankarsett and his public-spirited friends, Sir George Bird wood
and Dr Bhau Daji, Bombay is also indebted for the reconstruc-
tion which, beginning in 1857, gradually changed a close network
of lanes and streets into a spacious and airy city, adorned with
fine avenues and splendid buildings. He was the first Indian
to be nominated to the legislative council of Bombay under the
xxiv. 26
Act of 1 86 1. While his influence was used by Sir John Malcolm
to induce the Hindus to acquiesce in the suppression of suttee or
widow-burning, his own community remember gratefully that
to him they owe the cremation ground at Sonapur. He died
at Bombay on the 3ist of July 1865, regretted by all classes of
society, who, about a year before his death, in a public meeting
assembled at the Town Hall, voted a marble statue to perpetuate
his memory.
SHANKLIN, a watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England,
8| m. S. of Ryde by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4533.
It is beautifully situated on the cliffs bordering the S.E. coast,
and is sheltered W. by high-lying downs. The church of St John
the Baptist is Perpendicular. There are several modern churches
and chapels, numerous villas, a pier and a lift connecting the
town with the esplanade beneath the cliff. The picturesque
winding chasm of Shanklin Chine breaches the cliffs S. of the
town.
SHANNON, CHARLES HAZELWOOD (1865- ), English
artist, was born at Sleaford m Lincolnshire, the son of the Rev.
Frederic Shannon He attended the Lambeth school of art, and
was subsequently considerably influenced by his friend Charles
Ricketts and by the example of the great Venetians. In his early
work be was addicted to a heavy low tone, which he abandoned
subsequently for clearer and more transparent colour. He
achieved great success with his portraits and his Giorgionesque
figure compositions, which are marked by a classic sense of style,
and with his etchings and lithographic designs. The Dublin
Municipal Gallery owns his circular composition " The Bunch of
Grapes " and " The Lady with the Green Fan " (portrait of Mrs
Hacon). His " Study in Grey " is at the Munich Gallery, a
" Portrait of Mr Staats Forbes " at Bremen, and a " Souvenir
of Van Dyck " at Melbourne. One of his most remarkable
pictures is " The Toilet of Venus " in the collection of Lord
Northcliffe. Complete sets of his lithographs and etchings have
been acquired by the British Museum and the Berlin and Dresden
print rooms. He was awarded a first-class gold medal at Munich
in 1895 and a first-class silver medal in Paris in 1900.
SHANNON, JAMES JEBUSA (1862- ), Anglo-American
artist, was born at Auburn, New York, in 1862, and at the age of
eight was taken by his parents to Canada. When he was sixteen,
he went to England, where he studied at South Kensington, and
after three years won the gold medal for figure painting. His
portrait of the Hon. Horatia Stopford, one of the queen's maids
of honour, attracted attention at the Royal Academy in 1881,
and in 1887 his portrait of Henry Vigne in hunting costume was
one of the successes of the exhibition, subsequently securing
medals for the artist at Paris, Berlin and Vienna. He soon
became one of the leading portrait painters in London. He was
one of the first members of the New English Art Club, and in
1897 was elected an associate of the Royal Academy, and
R.A. in 1909. His picture, " The Flower Girl," was bought in
1901 for the National Gallery of British Art.
SHANNON, the principal river of Ireland. It flows with a
bow-shaped course from N. to S. and S.W., from the N.W. part
of the island to its mouth in the Atlantic on the S.W. coast, with
a length of about 240 m. and a drainage area of 4544 sq. m.
Rising in county Cavan in some small pools at the foot of Cuilcagh
Mountain, the Shannon crosses county Leitrim, traversing the
first of a series of large lakes, Lough Allen (9 m. in length). It
then separates county Roscommon on the right (W.) bank from
counties Leitrim, Longford, Westmeath and King's County on
the left. In this part of its course it forms Loughs Boderg
(7 m. long), Forbes (3 m.) and Ree (18 m.), and receives from
W. the river Boyle and from E. the Inny, while in county Long-
ford it is joined by the Royal Canal. It now separates county
Gal way on the right from King's County and county Tipperary;
receiving the Suck from W. and the Brosna from E., and forming
Lough Derg (23 m.). Dividing county Clare from counties
Tipperary and Limerick, the Shannon reaches the city of Limerick
as a broad and noble river, and debouches upon an estuary 60 m.
in length with a direction nearly E. and W. This divides county
Clare on the right from counties Limerick and Kerry on the left.
802
SHANS SHAN STATES
A wide branch estuary, that of the Fergus, joins from N., and the
rivers Mulkear, Maigne and Deel enter from S. From Lough
Allen to Limerick, where the Shannon becomes tidal, its fall is
144 ft. With the assistance of short canals the river is navigable
for light vessels to Lough Allen, and for small steamers to Athlone ;
while Limerick is accessible for large vessels. The salmon-
fishing is famous; trout are also taken in the loughs and tributary
streams. Carrick-on-Shannon, Athlone, Killaloe, and Castle-
connel are favourite stations for sportsmen. The scenery is
generally pleasant, and on the loughs, with their deeply indented
shores and numerous islands, often very beautiful. These islands
are in several cases sites of early religious settlements, while of
those on the river-banks the most noteworthy is that of the seven
churches of Clonmacnoise.
SHANS, a collective name, probably from Chinese Shan-tse,
Shan-yen (Shan = " mountain "), " Highlanders," given by the
Burmese to all the tribes of Thai stock subject to the former
kingdom of Burma (see SHAN STATES below). The Shans call
themselves Tai or Punong; while the Chinese call them Pai
or Pai-yi. Among them exist the purest types of the Thai race.
They are found all over the province of Yunnan and in the border-
land between China and Burma. Politically, where not under the
direct control of Chinese magistrates, the tribes are organized
under their own chiefs, who are recognized by the Chinese
government and endowed with official rank and title. In Burmese
such native chiefs are termed Smabwa.
For the history of the Thai race see TH Ais. See also LAOS, MlAOTZE,
LOLOS. Also A. R. Colquhoun, Amongst the Shans (1885); E.
Aymonier, " Les Tchaines," in Revue de I'histoire des religions for
1891.
SHAN-SI, a northern province of China, bounded N. by
Mongolia, E. by Chih-li, S. by Ho-nan, and W. by Shen-si.
Estimates of its area vary from 66,000 to 81,000 sq. m. and it has
besides its capital, Tai-yuen Fu (pop. 230,000), eight prefectural
cities. The population is returned as 12,200,000. It includes,
in the northern districts, about 500,000 Mongols. The con-
figuration of Shan-si is noteworthy, forming, from its southern
frontier as far north as Ning-wu Fu an area of about 30,000.
sq. m. a plateau 2600 to 6000 ft. above the level of the sea, the
whole of which is one vast coal-field. North and west the plateau is
bounded by high mountain ranges trending south-west and north-
east. Down the central line of the province from north to south
lies a series of deep depressions, all of which are ancient lake
basins. But though forming a series these lakes were not
formerly connected with each other, some being separated from
those next adjoining by high ridges, and being drained by
different rivers and in different directions. The Ffin-ho, the largest
river in Shan-si, with a general S.S.W. direction, and the Chin-ho,
also a considerable stream, are both tributaries of the Yellow
river.
Shan-si is one of the most remarkable coal and iron regions in
the world, a veritable second Pennsylvania, and Baron von Richtho-
fen gave it as his opinion that the world, at the present
Tfl la rateofconsumptionofcoal.couldbesuppliedforthousands
of years from Shan-si alone. In the south the neighbour-
hood of Tsi-chow Fu abounds in both coal and iron, and
has probably, partly through being within reach of the populous
plain of Hwai-king Fu, of the Yellow river, of Tao-kow Chin and
Sew-wu Hien (the shipping places for Tientsin and the Grand
Canal) and of Ho-nan Fu, furnished more iron to the Chinese than
any other region of a similar extent in the empire. The iron is of
great purity and easily fusible, while clay and sand for crucibles,
moulds, &c., and a superior anthracite coal, lie ready to hand. The
coal is of two kinds, bituminous and anthracite, the line of demar-
cation between the two being formed by the hills which are the
continuation of the Ho-shan range, the fields of bituminous coal
being west of these hills, and those of anthracite east. In the
neighbourhood of P'ing-ting Chow the extent of the coal-field is
incalculable; and speaking of the whole plateau, Baron von Richt-
hofen says: " These extraordinary conditions, for which I know no
parallel on the globe, will eventually give rise to some curious
features in mining. It may be predicted that, if a railway should
ever be built from the plain to this region, . . . branches of it will
be constructed within the body of one or other of these beds of
anthracite, which are among the thickest and most valuable known
anywhere, and continue for miles underneath the hills west of the
present coal-belt of P'ing-ting Chow. Such a tunnel would allow of
putting the produce of the various coal-beds immediately on rail-
road carts destined for distant places." These mines are worked by
the Peking Syndicate, who have gained a concession to develop
them, and have a railway to connect their workings with the Lu-
Han trunk line, which traverses the east of the province.
Salt is produced in the. prefecture of P'ing-yang in the south of
the province, both from a salt lake and from the alluvial soil
in the neighbourhood of the Fen-ho. Shan-si produces cereals,
tobacco, cotton and sometimes rice, but in agricultural products
the province is poor; the means of transport are rude and in-
sufficient. The people of Shan-si are great traders, and nearly
all the commerce of southern Mongolia is in their hands. A
railway connecting the capital with Pekin was opened in 1908.
The only wagon road leading into and through Shan-si is the
great highway from Peking to Si-gan Fu, which enters Shan-si
west of Cheng-ting Fu, and leaves the province at Tung-kwan
at the great bend of the Hwang-ho. Transport is chiefly on the
backs of camels, mules and asses. The province suffered from
a terrible famine in 1878-1879, about which time Protestant
missionaries began work in the capital. In the north, beyond
the Great Wall, is the city of Kwei-hwa-Cheng (pop. about
200,000), formerly the residence of the grand Lama of Mongolia;
it has many Lama monasteries.
Shan-si university, one of the best equipped in China, owes
its existence to the Boxer rising. Certain Protestant missionary
bodies in the province refused to accept the compensation
awarded them for damage to their property, and at their request
the money was devoted to the foundation of a university, the
missionaries being guaranteed for ten years the control of the
western side of the education given therein.
See Richard's Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire
(Shanghai, 1908), I, ch. iii. and the authorities there cited.
SHAN STATES, a collection of semi-independent states on the
E. frontier of Upper Burma inhabited by the Shan or Thai race.
The Shan States have a total area of 57,915 sq. m. and a total
population (1901) of 1,137,444. There are six states under the
supervision of the superintendent of the N. Shan States, and
37 under the superintendent and political officer of the S. Shan
States. In addition, two states are under the commissioner
of the Mandalay division, namely, Hkamti L6ng on the N. of
Myitkyina district and Mong Mit which is temporarily admin-
istered as a subdivision of the Ruby Mines district; and two
states, Sinkaling Hkamti and Hsawng Hsup, near Manipur, are
under the supervision of the commissioner of the Sagaing division.
There are besides a number of Shan States beyond the border of
Burma, which are tributary to China, though China exercises
an authority which is little more than nominal. The British
Shan States were tributary to Burma and came under British
control at the time of the annexation of Upper Burma. They rank
as British territory, not as native states. By section 1 1 of the
Burma Laws Act 1898, the civil, criminal and revenue administra-
tion of each state is vested in the chief, subject to the restriction
specified in the sanad or order" of appointment granted to him.
Under the same section the law to be administered is the
customary law of each state so far as it is in accordance with
justice, and not opposed to the spirit of the law in British India.
Physical Features. The shape of the Shan States is roughly that
of a triangle, with its base on the plains of Burma and its apex on
the Mekong river. The Shan plateau is properly only the country
between the Salween and Irrawaddy rivers. On the W. it is abruptly
marked by the long line of hills, which begin about Bhamo and
run S. till they sink into the plains of Lower Burma. On the E.
it is no less sharply defined by the deep and narrow rift of the
Salween. The average height of the plateau is between 2000 and
3000 ft., but it is seamed and ribbed by mountain ranges, which
split up and run into one another. On the N. the Shan States are
barred across by the E. and W. ranges which follow the line of the
Namtu. The huge mass of Loi Ling, 9000 ft., projects S. from this,
and from either side of it a_nd to the S. extends the wide plain which
extends down to Mong Nai. The highest peaks are in the N. and the
S. Loi Ling is the highest point W. of the Salween, and in Kokang
and other parts of N. Hsenwi there are many peaks above 7000 ft.
The majority of the intermediate parallel ranges have an average
of between 4000 and 5000 ft. with peaks rising to over 6000. The
country beyond the Salween is a mass of broken hills, ranging in
the S. towards the Menam from 2000 to 3000 ft., while in the N.
towards the Wa states they average from 5000 to 7000. Several
peaks rise to 8000 ft. such as Loi Maw (8102). The climate varies
SHAN-TUNG SHAPIRA
803
considerably. From December to March it is cool everywhere, and
IO of frost are experienced on the open downs. The hot season
temperature is 80 to 90, rising to 100 in the Salween valley.
The rains begin about the end of April, but are not continual till
August, which is usually the wettest month. They last until the
end of October or beginning of November. The annual rainfall
varies from 60 in. in the broader valleys to ICO on the higher
mountains.
Race and Language. According to the census of 1901 there were
787,087 Shans (see above) in Burma. The Thai or Tai, as they call
themselves, were first known to the Burmese as Tar6ks or Tarets.
The original home of the Thai race was S.W. China, or rather that
was the region where they attained to a marked separate develop-
ment as a people. It is probable that their first settlement in Burma
proper was in the Shweli valley, and that from this centre they
radiated at a comparatively recent date N., W. and S.E. through
Upper Burma into Assam. It is supposed that the Thai race boasts
of representatives across the whole breadth of Indo-China, from the
Brahmaputra as far as the gulfs of Siam and Tongking; that it
numbers among its members not only the Shans proper, the Laos
and the Siamese, but also the Muongs of French Indo-China, the
Hakas of S. China, and the Li, the inhabitants of the interior of the
far Eastern island of Hainan in the China seas. But no exhaustive
survey of the Thai has yet been accomplished. For the purposes of
Burma they may be divided into the N.W., the N.E., the E. and the
S. Shans. The Siamese and the Laos are the principal representatives
of the S. division. Siamese are found in considerable numbers in
the districts of Amherst, Tavoy and Mergui in the Tenasserim
division. The total at the time of the census of 1901 was 31,800,
while that of the Laos was 1047. The country of the E. Shans lies
between the Rangoon-Mandalay railway and the Mekong, and is
bounded roughly on the N. and S. by the 22nd and 2Oth parallels
of latitude. It includes the S. Shan States, and comprises the
country of the Lu and the Hktin of the states of Kengtung and
Kenghung. Linguistically the connexion between the latter two
races and the Laos is very close, but apparently the racial affinity
is not sufficiently near to justify the classification of the Hktin and
the Lu with the S. Thai. The N.W. Shan region is the area ex-
tending from Bhamo to Assam between the 23rd and 28th parallels
of latitude. It corresponds more or less with those portions of
Katha, Myitkyina, Bhamo and Upper Chindwin districts which at
one time or other during the palmy days of the Shan dominion
acknowledged the suzerainty of the Sawbwa of Mogaung. The
N.E. Shans are the Chinese-Shans who are found where Upper
Burma and the N. Shan states border on China.
The Thai language may be divided into two sub-groups, the N.
and the S. The S. includes Siamese, Lao, Lu and Hkiin; the N.,
the three forms of Shan, namely, N. Burmese-Shan, S.-Burmcse
Shan and Chinese-Shan with Hkamti and Ahom. The vernacular of
the people who are directly known in Burma as Shan is S. Burmese-
Shan. This language is isolating and polytpnic. It possesses five
tones, a mastery of which is a sine qud non if the language is to be
properly learnt. It is exhaustively described in the works of Dr
Gushing. The Shans are a peaceful race, fond of trading. During
the past decade the trade with Burma has increased very largely,
and with the construction of the railway to Lashio a still further
increase may be expected in the N. states. The cultivation of wheat
and potatoes in the S. states promise them wealth also when a
railway furnishes them means of getting the produce out of the
country. Since 1893 the peace of the Shan States has been practi-
cally undisturbed.
See Ney Elias, Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in
Upper Burmah and West Yun-nan (Calcutta, 1876); Gushing, Shan
Dictionary (Introduction); Bock, Temples and Elephants; Sir A.
Phayre, History of Burmah; A. R. Colquhoun, Across Chryse
(London, 1883), and Amongst the Shans (1885); Diguet, Etude de la
langue Thai (Paris, 1896). (J. G. Sc.)
SHAN-TUNG (" East of the Mountains ") , a maritime province
of China, bounded N. by the province of Chih-li and the Gulf
of Chih-li, E. by the Yellow Sea, S. by Kiang-su and the Yellow
Sea and W. by Chih-li. Area about 56,000 sq. m., population
(estimated) 37,500,000. It is the most densely inhabited part
of China, and is celebrated as the native province both of Con-
fucius and Mencius. It is divided into ten prefectures, with as
many prefectural cities, of which Chi-nan Fu (q.v.), the provincial
capital, is the chief.
The physical features of the province are very plainly marked.
The centre and eastern are occupied by mountain ranges running
N.E. and S.W., between which lie fertile valleys, while the north-
western, southern and western portions form part of the great
deltaic plain of the north of China. The mountainous region pro-
jects seaward beyond the normal coast line forming a large peninsula,
the shores of which are deeply' indented and contain some good
harbours, such as that of Kiao-chow. The most considerable range
of mountains occupies the centre of the province, the highest peak
being the T'ai-shan (5060 ft.), a mountain famous in Chinese history
for more than 4000 years, and to which hundreds of pilgrims
annually resort. The Lao-shan, east of Kiao-chow, fringes the
south-eastern coast for about 18 m. With the exception of the
Hwang-ho, which traverses the province in a north-easterly direction
to the sea, there are no large rivers in Shan-tung. The most con-
siderable are the Wei, which flows into the Gulf of Chih-li; the
I-ho, which empties into a lake lying east of the Grand Canal; and
the Ta-wen, which rises at the southern foot of the I-sham Mountains
and terminates in the Grand Canal. The canal traverses the pro-
vinces S. to N. east of the mountain region. There are several
lakes, notably the Tu-shan Hu, which borders on the Grand Canal
in the south-west. The fauna includes wild boars, wolves, foxes,
badgers, partridges, quails and snipe. Cotton, silk, coal, grain, &c.
are produced in the fertile tracts in the neighbourhood of the lakes.
Not being a loess region, the mountains are unproductive, and yield
only brushwood and grass, while the plain to the north is so im-
pregnated with salt that it is almost valueless, especially near the
sea, for agricultural purposes. The valleys between the mountains
and the plain to the south-west are, however, extremely rich and
fertile.
The chief wealth of Shan-tung consists in its minerals, the principal
of which is coal. Several coal-fields are worked ; the most considerable
lies in the valley of the Lao-fu river in the centre of the province.
Another large field lies on the plain a little to the south of I -chow Fu
in the south. A third field is in the district of Wei Hien to the
north; and a fourth in the neighbourhood of I-Hien in the south-
west. Iron ore, ironstone, gold, galena, lead and copper are also
found in considerable quantities in many districts.
Agricultural products are wheat, millet, Indian corn, pulse,
arrowroot and many varieties of fruits and vegetables. Rice is
grown in the extreme south of the province. Among trees, stunted
pines, dwarf oaks, poplars, willows and the cypress are fairly plentiful.
The castor-oil plant is common, and the wax tree grows plentifully
in the neighbourhood of Lai-yang in the east, giving rise to a con-
siderable trade in the wax produced by the wax insects. Unlike
those of their kind in Sze Ch'uen, the wax insects of Shan-tung breed
and become productive in the same districts. They are placed upon
the trees in the spring, and at the close of the summer they void a
peculiar substance which when melted forms wax. In the autumn
they are taken off the trees, and are preserved within doors until
the following spring. Sericulture is an important industry. The
worms are fed m the west on mulberry leaves, in the east on those
of the dwarf oak, the material made from the silk produced from
the oak-fed worms being known as pongee or Chifu silk. The worm
itself, after the cocoon has been used, is eaten and is esteemed a
delicacy.
Besides Chi-nan Fu, the provincial capital, other inland
cities are Tsao-Chow Fu (pop. 150,000) on the Grand Canal
(an industrial centre) and Wei-hsien (100,000), a commercial
centre. The ports of Shan-tung include Chifu, Wei-hai-wei and
Kiao-chow (Tsing-tao), all separately noticed.
As part of compensation for the murder of two German
missionaries in 1897 in this province Protestant mission work
in Shan-tung dates from 1860 the Germans took possession on
lease of the port of Kiao-chow, 300 m. N. of Shanghai, a 36 hours'
run by steamer, with which were associated many railway and
mining rights in the district. In fulfilment of these rights a
railway has been constructed connecting Kiao-chow with Chinan-
fu, the capital; there it connects with another railway crossing
the province north to south and forming part of the Tientsin
and Chin-kiang line. In consequence of this acquisition of
territory by Germany and the subsequent seizure of Port Arthur
by Russia, Great Britain accepted the lease of Wei-hai-wei on
the same terms. The convention confirming this arrangement
was signed on the ist of July 1898. It was in Shang-tung that the
Boxer movement was first turned against foreigners (see CHINA,
History).
See M. Broomhall, The Chinese Empire (London, 1907), pp. 93-
100; L. Richard, Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire
(Shanghai, 1908), pp. 79-89, and authorities there cited.
SHAPIRA, M. W. (c. 1830-1884), Polish vendor of spurious
antiquities, was of Jewish birth, but appears to have become a
Christian early in life. He opened a shop for the sale of antiquities
in Palestine, and after the discovery of the Moabite Stone in 1872
was successful in selling to the Prussian government for 20,000
thaler a number of alleged pieces of Moabite pottery. These
were shown by Clermont-Ganneau and others (cf. Kautzsch
and A. Socin, Achtheit der moabitischen AUertiimer, 1876)
to be forgeries produced by Shapira's client Selim al-Kari.
Undeterred by this exposure, Shapira continued to do a con-
siderable trade especially in Hebrew MSS. from Yemen, but
8 04
SHAPUR SHARE
ultimately ruined himself by a fraud perpetrated upon the
British Museum. In 1883 he offered, for the price, it is said, of
1,000,000, a number of leather strips containing speeches of
Moses varying in many particulars from, though similar in matter
to, those in Deuteronomy, and written in archaic Hebrew
characters. He pretended that he had obtained them from
a Bedouin who had discovered them in a Moabite cave. The
fragments were submitted to C. D. Ginsburg, who published
translations in The Times of Aug. 4, 17, 22, 1883. The French
government,however,sent over Clermont-Ganneau to investigate,
and, though the British Museum authorities declined to give him
permission to make a complete study, he satisfied himself from
a few strips which were publicly exhibited that the whole collec-
tion must be a forgery ( The Times, Aug. 15). This view was con-
firmed by Ginsburg's report to the Museum. Shapira, who was
never shown to have been the actual forger, committed suicide
in Rotterdam on the nth of March 1884.
For the fragments see Guthe, Fragmenta einer Lederhandschrift
(Leipzig, 1884); see also Clermont-Ganneau, Les Fraudes arch&o-
logiques (Paris, 1885), iii., iv.
SHAPUR (Pahlavi, Shdhpuhre, " son of the king " ; Greek
Sapores, commonly Sapor) , the name of three Sassanian kings.
i. SHAPUR I. (A.D. 241-272), son of Ardashir I. The Persian
legend which makes him the son of an Arsacid princess is not
historical. Ardashir I. had towards the end of his reign renewed
the war against Rome; Shapur conquered the Mesopotamian
fortresses Nisibis and Carrhae and advanced into Syria; but he
was driven back by C. Furius Timesitheus, 1 father-in-law of the
young emperor, Gordianus III., and beaten at Resaena (243).
Shortly afterwards Timesitheus died, and Gordianus (q.v.) was
murdered by Philip the Arabian, who concluded an ignominious
peace with the Persians (244). When the invasion of the Goths
and the continuous elevation of new emperors after the death of
Decius (251) brought the Roman empire to utter dissolution,
Shapur resumed his attacks. He conquered Armenia, invaded
Syria, and plundered Antioch. At last the emperor Valerianus
marched against him, but suffered near Edessa the fate of Crassus
(260). Shapur advanced into Asia Minor, but was beaten by
Ballista; and now Odaenathus (Odainath), prince of Palmyra,
rose in his rear, defeated the Persian army, reconquered Carrhae
and Nisibis, captured the royal harem, and twice invested
Ctesiphon (263-265) . Shapur was unable to resume the offensive ;
he even lost Armenia again. But according to Persian and
Arabic traditions, which appear to be trustworthy, he conquered
the great fortress of Hatra in the Mesopotamian desert ; and the
great glory of his reign was that a Roman emperor was by him
kept prisoner to the day of his death. In the valley of Istakhr
(near Persepolis), under the tombs of the Achaemenids at
Nakshi Rustam, Shapur is represented on horseback, in the royal
armour, with the crown on his head; before him kneels Valerian,
in Roman dress, asking for grace. The same scene is represented
on the rocks near the ruins of the towns Darabjird and Shapur
in Persis. Shapur left other reliefs and rock inscriptions;
one, at Nakshi-Rajab near Persepolis, is accompanied by a
Greek translation; here he calls himself " the Mazdayasnian
(worshipper of Ahuramazda), the god Sapores, king of kings
of the Aryans (Iranians) and non-Aryans, of divine descent,
son of the Mazdayasnian, the god Artaxares, king of kings of the
Aryans, grandson of the god-king Papak." Another long in-
scription at Hajjiabad (Istakhr) mentions the king's exploits in
archery in the presence of his nobles.
From his titles we learn that Shapur I. claimed the sovereignty
over the whole earth, although in reality his domain extended
1 Timesitheus is the generally accepted variant for the Misitheus
("God-Hater") of Capitolinus; Zosimus, i. 16. 17, preferred
Timesicles. In a paper read before a meeting of the British School
of Archaeology at Rome on the 3Oth of January, 1908, Mr A. S.
Yeames endeavoured to show that Timesitheus is the general
commemorated by a bust in the Sala delle Colombe of the Capitoline
Museum, and by the great sarcophagus in the Museo delle Terme,
representing a battle between Romans and barbarians. On the
forehead in each case is a non-Christian incised cross of unknown
significance.
little farther than that of Ardashir I. Shapur built the great
town Gundev-Shapur near the old Achaemenian capital Susa,
and increased the fertility of this rich district by a barrage through
the Karun river near Shushter, which was built by the Roman
prisoners and is still called Band-i-Kaisar, " the mole of the
Caesar." Under his reign the prophet Mani, the founder of
Manichaeism (q.v.) began his preaching in Persia, and the king
himself seems to have favoured his ideas.
For the monuments and inscriptions cf . Sir R. Ker Porter, Travels ;
Flandin and Coste, Voyage en Perse; Stolze, Persipolis; Thomas,
Journal R. Asiat. Soc., new series, iii., 1868; West in Grundriss
der iranischen Philologie, ii. 76 f. ; Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci
inscr. i., No. 434. A gem with the portrait of the king is in the
museum of Gotha, cf. Pertsch, Zeitsch. d, deutschen morgenl. Ges.
xxii. 280.
2. SHAPUR!!. (310-379). When King Hormizd II. (302-310)
died, the Persian magnates killed his eldest son, blinded the
second, and imprisoned the third (Hormizd, who afterwards
escaped to the Romans); the throne was reserved for the un-
born child of one of the wives of Hormizd. This child, named
Shapur, was therefore born king; the government was con-
ducted by his mother and the magnates. But when Shapur
came of age, he turned out to be one of the greatest monarchs of
the dynasty. Under his reign the collection of the Avesta was
completed, heresy and apostasy punished, and the Christians
persecuted. This was the natural oriental reaction against the
transformation of the Roman empire into a Christian empire by
Constantine. In 337, just before the death of Constantine,
Shapur broke the peace concluded in 297 between Narses and
Diocletian, which had been observed for forty years, and a
war of twenty-six years (337-363) began. Shapur attempted
with varying success to conquer the great fortresses of Roman
Mesopotamia, Singara, Nisibis (which he invested three times
in vain), Amida (Diarbekr). The emperor Constantius II.
was always beaten in the field. Nevertheless Shapur made
scarcely any progress; the military power of his kingdom was
not sufficient for a lasting occupation of the conquered districts.
At the same time he was attacked in the E. by nomad tribes,
among whom the Chionites are named. After a prolonged
struggle they were forced to conclude a peace, and their king,
Grumbates, accompanied Shapur in the war against the Romans.
Shapur now conquered Amida after a siege of seventy-three days
(3 59), and took Singara and some other fortresses in the next year.
In 363 the emperor Julian, at the head of a strong army, advanced
to Ctesiphon, but was killed. His successor Jovian was defeated
and made an ignominious peace, by which the districts on the
Tigris and Nisibis were ceded to the Persians, and the Romans
promised to interfere no more in Armenia. In the rock-sculptures
near the town Shapur in Persis (Stolze, Persepolis, pi. 141) the
great success is represented; under the hoofs of the king's horse
lies the body of an enemy, probably Julian, and a suppliant
Roman, the emperor Jovian, asks for peace.
_ Shapur now invaded Armenia, took king Arsaces III. (of the
Arsacid race), the faithful ally of the Romans, prisoner by
treachery and forced him to commit suicide. He then attempted
to introduce Zoroastrian orthodoxy into Armenia. But the
Armenian nobles resisted him successfully, secretly supported
by the Romans, who sent King Pap, the son of Arsaces III. into
Armenia. The war with Rome threatened to break out again;
but Valens sacrificed Pap and caused his assassination in Tarsus,
where he had taken refuge (374). Shapur had conducted great
hosts of captives from the Roman territory into his dominions,
most of whom were settled in Susiana. Here he rebuilt Susa,
after having killed her rebellious inhabitants, and founded some
other towns. He was successful in the east, and the great town
Nishapur in Khorasan (E. Parthia) was founded by him.
3. SHAPUR III. (383-388), son of Shapur II., elevated to the
throne by the magnates against his uncle, Ardashir II., and
killed by them after a reign of five years. He concluded a
treaty with Theodosius the Great. (ED. M.)
SHARE (O. Eng. scearu, chiefly in compounds, e.g. land-scearu,
a share of land, from sceran to cut; cf. " shear" ), something cut
off, a portion, a definite part of anything distributed among a
SHARI SHARK
805
number of persons. The word is particularly applied to the fixed
and equal amounts into which the capital of a limited company is
divided (see STOCKS AND SHARES; COMPANY; and DEBENTURES).
From the same O. Eng. verb sceran is derived " share " (O. Eng.
scear), the cutting blade of a plough (q.v.).
SHARI, an important river of North-Central Africa, carrying
the drainage of a large area into Lake Chad (q.v.). Its head-
streams rise on the watersheds between the Lake Chad basin and
those of the Nile and Congo. The principal headstream, known
variously as the Wahme, Wa, Warn or Worn, rises, in about
6 30' N., 15 E., in mountainous country forming the divide
between the Chad system and the basin of the Sanga affluent of
the Congo.
The Warn flows east and then north and in about 7 20' N.,
1 8 20' E. is joined by the Fafa, a considerable stream rising east
of the Warn. The upper course of the Warn is much obstructed by
rapids, but from a little above the Fafa confluence it becomes
navigable. Below the confluence the river, now known as the Bahr
Sara, receives three tributaries from the west. In about 9 20' N.,
1 8 E., it is joined by the Bamingi, which is formed by the junction
of the eastern headstreams of the Shari. The Bamingi, before the
exploration of the Warn, was thought to be the true upper course
of the Shari. One of its branches, the Kukuru, rises in about 7 N.,
21 15' E. Some 90 m. from its source the Bamingi becomes navig-
able, being 12 ft. deep and flowing with a gentle current. In
8 42' N. it receives on the west bank the Gribingi, a river rising in
about 6" 20' N. It is narrow and tortuous with rocky banks and
often broken by rapids, but navigable at high water to 7 N. It
flows in great part through a forest-clad country. A few miles
above its confluence with the Bahr Sara the Bamingi receives on
the right hand another large river, the Bangoran, which rises in
about 7 45' N. and 22 E., in a range of hills which separates the
countries of Dar Runga and Dar Banda, and, like the Bamingi,
flows through open or bush-covered plains with isolated granite
ridges.
Below the junction of the Bahr Sara and the Bamingi the Shari,
as it is now called, becomes a large river, reaching, in places, a width
of over 4 m. in the rains; while its valley, bordered by elevated
tree-clad banks, contains many temporary lakes and back-waters.
Its waters abound with hippopotami and crocodiles, and the country
on either side with game of all kinds. In 9 46' N. it receives the
Bakare or Awauk (Aouk) from the east, known in its upper course
as the Aukadebbe. This, like the Bahr es Salamat, which enters
the Shari in io_ 2' N., traverses a wide extent of arid country in
southern Wadai, and brings no large amount of water to the Shari.
In 10 12' a divergent branch, the Ergig, leaves the main stream,
only to rejoin it in 1 1 30'.
In 12 15' N. and 15 E. the Shari receives on the west bank its
largest tributary, the Logone, the upper branches of which rise
far to the south between 6 and 7 N. The principal headstreams are
the Pende and the Mambere. The Pende rises some 30 m. N. by E.
of the source of the Warn. It flows northwards through a fertile
valley and in 9 35' N. and 16 E. is joined by the Mambere, which
rises in the hills of Adamawa and flows in a course roughly parallel
to the Pende. Below the junction of the Pende and Mambere the
Logone is a broad and deep river. Its system is connected with
that of the Benue (see NIGER) by the Tuburi Swamp, which sends
northward a channel joining the Logone in about 10 30' N. Below
the Logone confluence the Shari, here a noble stream, soon splits up
into various arms, forming an alluvial delta, flooded at high water,
before entering Lake Chad. From the source of the Warn to the
mouth of the river is a distance, following the windings of the
stream, of fully 1400 m.
The existence of the Shari was made known by Oudney,
Denham and Clapperton, the first Europeans to reach Lake
Chad (1823). In 1852 Heinrich Earth spent some time in the
region of the lower Shari and Logone, and in 1872-1873 Gustav
Nachtigal studied their hydrographical system and explored
the Gribingi, which he called the Bahr el Ardhe. It was not,
however, until the partition of the Chad basin between Great
Britain, France and Germany (1885-1890) that the systematic
exploration of the Shari and its affluents was undertaken. The
most prominent explorers have been Frenchmen. In 1896
Emile Gentil reached the Bamingi and in a small steamer passed
down the river to its mouth. The existence of the Bahr Sara
had been made known by C. Maistre in 1892, and in 1894 F. J.
Clozel discovered the Warn. In 1900 A. Bernard demonstrated
the identity of these two streams. In 1907 an expedition under
Captain E. Lenfant followed the Wam-Bahr Sara from its
source to the confluence with the Bamingi and showed it to be
the true upper course of the Shari. The same expedition also
discovered the Pende tributary of the Logone. Captain Lenfant
had previously demonstrated (1903) the connexion between the
Benue and Logone. From the mouth of the Shari in Lake Chad
there is a current towards the Bahr-el-Ghazal channel at the
south-eastern end of that lake. This channel has been supposed
to be a dried-up affluent of the lake (see CHAD) . Investigations by
the French scientists E. F. Gautier and R. Chudeau led Chudeau
to the conclusion that the Shari did not end in Lake Chad, but,
by way of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, passed between Tibesti and
Ennedi and ended in some shat in the Libyan desert. That the
Shari may have reached the Nile is an hypothesis not absolutely
rejected. (See Missions au Sahara, tome ii. (Paris, 1909), and for
theories as to the Niger-Nile connexion see NIGER.)
From the spot where it is intersected by 10 40' N. to Lake
Chad the Shari forms the boundary between the German colony of
Cameroon and French Congo. The best route from the Congo to
Lake Chad is via the Sanga affluent of the Congo to the station of
Carnot, and thence across the watershed to the Pende.
See the works of Earth, Nachtigal and other travellers, especially
Lenfant's La Decouverte des grandes sources du centre de I'Afrique
(Paris, 1909).
SHARK, a Selachian fish (see SELACHIANS), belonging to the
order Plagiostomi, suborder Squali.
Sharks are almost exclusively inhabitants of the sea, but some
species enter the mouths of large rivers, and one species (Car-
charias gangeticus) occurs frequently high up in the large rivers
of India. C. nicaraguensis of the lake of Nicaragua and the Rio
San Juan appears to have taken up its residence permanently
in fresh water. Sharks are most numerous between the tropics,
a few only reaching the Arctic circle; it is not known how far
they advance S. in the Antarctic region. Altogether some
hundred and fifty different species have been described.
With regard to their habits many are littoral species, the
majority pelagic, and a few are known to belong to the deep-sea
fauna, having hitherto been obtained down to a depth of nearly
1000 fathoms.
Littoral Sharks. The littoral forms are of small size, and
generally known under the name of " dog-fishes," " hounds,"
&c. Some pelagic sharks of larger size also live near the shore
on certain parts of a coast, but they are attracted to it by the
abundance of food, and are as frequently found in the open sea,
which is their birthplace; therefore we shall refer to them when
we speak of the pelagic kinds.
The majority of the littoral species live on the bottom, some-
times close inshore, and feed on small marine animals or on any
animal substance. The following are deserving of special notice.
The tope (Galeus) is common on the coasts not only of England,
Ireland and of S. Europe, but also of S. Africa, California,
Tasmania and New Zealand. Its teeth are
equal in both jaws, of rather small size, flat,
triangular, with the point directed towards the
one side, and with a notch and denticulations
on the shorter side (fig. i). It is of a uniform
slaty-grey colour, and attains to a length of 6 ft.
The female brings forth some thirty living
young at one birth in May. It becomes trouble-
some at times to fishermen by taking their
bait and driving away other fish they desire
to catch. The fins of G. zyopterus of the
Californian coast are much esteemed for culi-
nary purposes by the Chinese.
The hounds proper (Mustelus) possess a very different dentition,
the teeth being small, obtuse,
numerous, arranged in several rows
like pavement (fig. 2). Five or six
species are known from the shores of
the various temperate and subtropical
seas, one (M . vulgaris) being common
on the coasts of Great Britain and
the United States, on the Pacific as
well as the Atlantic side. It is of a uniform grey colour or
sparingly spotted with white, and attains to a length of 3 or
FIG. i. Teeth
of Tope. u,
Upper ; /, lower.
(X 2.)
FIG. 2. Teeth of Mustelus.
8o6
SHARK
4 ft. The young, about twelve in number, are brought forth
alive in November. It is comparatively harmless and feeds on
shells, crustaceans and decomposing animal substances.
The dogfishes proper (Scyllium, Chttoscyllium, &c.) are spread
over nearly all the temperate and tropical seas. Their teeth are
small, in several series, with a longer pointed cusp in the middle,
and generally one or two smaller ones on each side (figs. 3 and 5).
They are all oviparous, their oblong egg-shells being produced
at each corner into a long thread by which the egg is fastened to
some fixed object. Some of the
tropical species are ornamented
with a pretty pattern of colora-
tion. The two British species,the
lesser and the larger spotted dog-
fish (Sc. canicula and Sc. catulus),
belong to the most common fishes
of the coast and are often con-
founded with each other. But the
former is finely dotted with brown
above, the latter having the same
FIG. 3> Teeth of Scyllium
canicula.
parts covered with larger rounded brown spots, some of which are
nearly as large as the eye. As regards size, the latter exceeds
somewhat the other species, attaining to a length of 4 ft. Dog-
fishes may become extremely troublesome by the large numbers
in which they congregate at fishing stations; they are rarely
used as food, except in the Mediterranean countries, in China
and Japan, and in the Orkneys, where they are dried for home
consumption. The black-mouthed dogfish (Pristiurus melano-
stomus) is rarely caught on the British coasts, and is recognized
FIG. 4. Chiloscyllium trispeculare.
by a series of small, flat spines with which each side of the upper
edge of the caudal fin is armed.
The tiger-shark (Stegostoma tigrinum) is one of the commonest
and handsomest sharks in the Indian Ocean. The ground colour
is a brownish-yellow, ornamented with black or brown transverse
bands or rounded spots. It is a littoral species, but adult
specimens, which are from 10 to 15 ft. long, are met far from
land. It is easily recognized by its enormously long bladelike
tail, which is half as long as the whole fish. The teeth are small,
trilobed, in many series. The
fourth and fifth gill-openings
are c l se together.
The genus Crossorhinus, of
which three species are known
from the coasts of Australia and
Japan, is remarkable as the
only instance in this group of
fishes in which the integu-
ments give a " celative " rather
than a " protective " resem-
blance to their surroundings.
Skinny frond-like appendages
FIG. s-Conflueat Nasal and ^e developed near the angle
Buccal Cavities of the same fish. of the mouth, or form a wreath
round the side of the head, and
the irregular and varied coloration of the whole body closely
assimilates that of a rock covered with short vegetable and
coralline growth. The species of Crossorhinus grow to a length
of 10 ft.
The so-called Port Jackson shark (Heterodontus = Ceslracion)
is likewise a littoral form. Besides the common species (H.
philippf), three other closely allied kinds from the Indo- Pacific
are known. This genus, which is the only existing type of a
separate family, is one of special interest, as similar forms occur
in Primary and Secondary strata. The jaws are armed with
small obtuse teeth in front, which in young individuals are
pointed, and provided with from three to five cusps. The lateral
teeth are larger, pad-like, twice as broad as long and arranged
in oblique series (fig. 7). The fossil forms far exceeded in size
the living, which scarcely attain to a length of 5 ft. The shells
of their eggs are found thrown ashore like those of our dogfishes.
The shell is pyriform, with two broad lamellar ridges each wound
edgewise five times round it (fig. 8).
The spiny or piked dogfish (Acanthias) inhabits the temperate
seas of both the N. and S. hemispheres. For some part of the
year it lives in deeper water than the sharks already noticed,
FIG. 6. Heterodontus galeatus.
but at uncertain irregular times it appears at the surface and
close inshore in almost incredible numbers. Couch says that he
has heard of 20,000 having been taken in a seine at one time;
and in March 1858 the newspapers reported a prodigious shoal
reaching W. to Uig, whence it extended from 20 to 30 m. seaward,
and in an unbroken phalanx E. to Moray, Banff and Aberdeen.
These fishes are distinguished by each of the two dorsal fins
being armed in front by an acute spine. They do not possess
an anal fin. Their teeth are rather small, placed in a single
series, with the point so much turned aside that the inner
margin of the tooth forms the cutting edge (fig. 9). The spiny
FIG. 7. Upper Jaw of Port Jackson Shark (Heterodontus
philippi). (X J.)
dogfish are of a greyish colour, with some whitish spots in young
specimens, and attain to a length of 2 or 3 ft. They are vivi-
parous, the young being produced throughout the summer
months.
Finally, we have to notice among the littoral sharks the
" angel-fish " or " monk-fish " (Rhino, squalina), which, by its
broad flat head and expanded pectoral fins, approaches in general
appearance the rays. It occurs in the temperate seas of the S.
as well as the N. hemisphere, and is not uncommon on sandy
parts of the coast of England and Ireland. It does not seem
to exceed a length of 5 ft., and is too rare to do much injury
to other fish. It is said to produce about twenty young at a
birth.
SHARK
807
Pelagic Sharks. All these are of large size, and some are
surpassed in bulk and length only by the larger kinds of cetaceans.
FIG. 8. Egg-shell of same fish (X i). I., External view; II.,
section; a and 6, the two spiral ridges; c, cavity for the ovum.
Those armed with powerful cutting teeth are dangerous to man,
whilst others, which are provided with numerous but very small
teeth, feed on small fishes only or marine
invertebrates, and are of a timid disposition,
which causes them to retire into the solitudes
of the open sea. On this account we know
very little of their life. All pelagic sharks
have a wide geographical range, and nearly
all seem to be viviparous.
Of the more remarkable forms which we
propose to notice here the genus most abun-
dantly represented in species and individuals
is Carcharias, now split up by many authors
into several separate genera. Perhaps nine-tenths of the sharks
of which we read in books of travel belong to this genus. Between
FIG. 9. -Teeth of
Acanthias vulgaris.
FIG. 10. Dentition of the Blue Shark (Carcharias glaucus). The
single teeth are of the natural size.
thirty and forty species have been distinguished, all of which
are found in tropical seas. They are the sharks which so readily
attach themselves to sailing vessels, following them for weeks.
Others affect more the neighbourhood of land. One of the most
common species is the blue shark (Carcharias glaucus), of which
specimens (4 to 6 ft. long) are frequently caught on the S. coasts
of England and Ireland. Other species of Carcharias attain a
length of 30 ft. The mouth of all is armed with a series of large
flat triangular teeth, which have a sharp, smooth or serrated
edge (fig. 10).
Galeocerdo is likewise a large shark very dangerous to man,
differing from the preceding chiefly by having the outer side
of its teeth deeply notched. It has long been known to occur
in the N. Atlantic, close to the Arctic Ocean (G. arcticus), but
its existence in other parts has been ascertained within a recent
period; in fact, it seems to be one of the most common and
dangerous sharks of the Indo-Pacific, the
British Museum having obtained speci-
mens from Mauritius, Kurrachee, Madras
and the W. coast of Australia.
Hammerheaded sharks (Sphyrna =
Zygaena) are sharks in which the anterior FIG. n. Upper and
portion of the head is produced into a Lower Tooth of Lamna.
lobe on each side, the extremity of which
is occupied by the eye. The relation of this unique configuration
of the head to the economy of the fish is unknown. Otherwise
these sharks resemble Carcharias, and are equally formidable,
but seem to be more stationary in their habits. They occur in
all tropical and subtropical seas, even in the Mediterranean,
where 5. Zygaena is by no means rare. In the Indian Ocean it
is common, and Cantor states that specimens may be often seen
ascending from the clear blue depths of the ocean like a great
cloud.
The porbeagles (Lamna) differ from the preceding sharks in
their dentition and are not dangerous to man; at least there is no
instance known of a person having been attacked by the species
common on the British coast (L. cornubica). This is referred to
in the works of older British authors as " Beaumaris shark."
The short and stout form of
its body contrasts strikingly
with its much attenuated
tail, which, however, is streng-
thened by a keel on each side
and terminates in a large and
powerful caudal fin. The
snout is pointed, and the jaws
are armed with strong lanceo-
late teeth, each of which bears
a small cusp on each side of
the base (see fig. n). The
teeth are not adapted for cut-
ting, like the flat triangular
teeth of man-eating sharks,
but rather for seizing and
holding the prey, which con-
sists chiefly of various kinds
of fishes and cephalopods. In
the upper jaw there are from
thirteen to sixteen teeth on
each side, the third being remarkable for its small size; in the
lower jaw from twelve to fourteen. The gill-openings are very
wide. The porbeagle attains to a length of 10 or 12 ft., and is
a pelagic fish, not rare in the N. Atlantic and Mediterranean,
and frequently wandering to the British and more rarely to the
American shores. This species is widely distributed over the N.
of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Other closely allied species
(L. spallanzanii, L. glauca) are known to occur in the S. Atlantic,
from the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope.
To the genus Carcharodon particular interest is attached,
because the single still existing species is the most formidable
of all sharks, as were those which preceded it in Tertiary times.
The existing species (C. rondeletii) occurs in almost all tropical
and subtropical seas, but seems to be verging towards extinction.
It is known to attain to a length of 40 ft. The tooth figured
FIG. 12. Tooth of Carcharodon
rondeletii.
8o8
SHARK
here of the natural size (fig. 1 2) is taken from a jaw much shrunk
in drying, but still 20 in. wide in its transverse diameter, and
taken from a specimen 36! ft. long. The extinct species must
have been still more gigantic in bulk, probably reaching a length
of 90 ft., as we may judge from teeth which are found in the
crag or which were dredged up from the Pacific Ocean by the
" Challenger " expedition, and which are 4 in. wide at the
base and 5 in. long measured along their lateral margin. In
some Tertiary strata these teeth are extremely abundant, so
much so that for instance, in Florida the strata in which
they occur are quarried to obtain the fossil remains for export
to England, where they are converted into artificial manure.
The fox-shark or thresher (Alopecias wipes),
of which every year specimens are captured on
the British coast, but which is common in the
N. and S. hemispheres, is readily recognized
with the upper part of the back raised above the surface of
the water, a habit which it has in common with the true
sunfish (Orthagoriscus) , and from which it has derived its
name.
A shark similar in many points to the basking shark, and
an inhabitant of the Indo-Pacific Ocean, is Rhinodon typicus.
So far as our present knowledge goes, it is the largest of all
sharks, as it is known to exceed a length of 50 ft., but it is stated
to attain that of 70. The captures of only a few specimens
are on record, at the Cape of Good Hope and near the Seychelles,
where it is known as the " chagrin." The snout is extremely
short, broad and flat, with the mouth and nostrils placed at its
extremity; the gill-openings very wide, and the eye very small.
The teeth are extremely small and numerous, conical in shape.
No opportunity should be lost of obtaining exact information
FIG. 13. Basking Shark.
by its extremely slender tail, the length of which exceeds that
of the remainder of the body. Its teeth are small, flat, triangular
and without serrature. It follows the shoals of herrings, pilchards
and sprats in their migrations, destroying incredible numbers
and frequently injuring the nets. When feeding it uses the long
tail in splashing the surface of the water, whilst it swims in
gradually decreasing circles round a shoal of fishes which are
thus kept crowded together. Sometimes two threshers may be
seen working together. Statements that it has been seen to
attack whales and other large cetaceans rest upon erroneous
observations; its dentition is much too weak to bite through
their skin. The thresher attains to a length of 15 ft., the tail
included.
The basking shark (Selache maxima}, sometimes erroneously
called " sunfish," is the largest fish of the N. Atlantic, growing
FIG. 14. Greenland Shark (Laemargus borealis).
to a length of more than 30 ft. Though best known from the
N. of the Atlantic or Pacific oceans, this species has also been
recorded from the Australian seas. The mouth is of an extra-
ordinary width, and, like the gill-cavity, capable of great expan-
sion, so as to enable the fish to take at one gulp an enormous
quantity of the small fish and other marine creatures on which
it subsists. Also the gill-clefts are of great width, and the
internal opening of each is guarded by a kind of strainer, formed
by the enormously elongated gill-rakers, which serves to prevent
the food organisms from passing out through the clefts. The
teeth are very small, numerous, arranged in several series,
conical and probably without use in feeding. This shark is
therefore quite harmless if not attacked. Off the W. coast of
Ireland it was at one time hunted for the sake of the oil from
the liver, one fish yielding from a ton to a ton and a half. Its
capture is not unattended with danger, as one blow from the
tail is sufficient to .stave in the sides of a large boat. The basking
shark is gregarious, and may be seen in calm weather lying
on this shark. The same applies to the allied Micristodus
punctatus recorded from off the W. coast of America.
The Greenland shark (Laemargus borealis) belongs to the
same family as the spiked dogfish, but grows to a much larger
size, specimens 26 ft. long having been met with. The two
dorsal fins are small and destitute of spines. The teeth (fig. 1 5)
in the upper jaw are small, narrow, conical in shape; those of
the lower flat, arranged in several series, one on the top of the
other, so that only the uppermost forms the sharp dental edge
of the jaw. The points of these lower teeth are so much turned
aside that the inner
margin only enters
the dental edge.
TheGreenland shark
is an inhabitant of
the Arctic regions,
sometimes straying
to. the latitudes of
Great Britain and of
Cape Cod in the W.
Atlantic; it is one
of the greatest
enemies of the
whale, which is often
found with large
pieces bitten out
of the tail by this
shark. Its voracity
is so great that, as
Scoresby tells us, whilst engaged in feeding on the carcase of
a whale it will allow itself to be stabbed with a lance or knife
without being driven away.
The spinous shark (Echinorhinus spinosus) is readily recognized
by the short bulky form of its body, its short tail, and the large
round bony tubercles which are scattered all over its body,
each of which is raised in the middle into a pointed conical spine.
While most frequently recorded from the E. Atlantic, specimens
have also been obtained from the coasts of N. America and of
New Zealand. It always lives on the bottom, and probably
descends to some depth. It does not seem to exceed a length
of 10 ft.
BathyUal Sharks. Sharks do not appear to have yet reached
the greatest depths of the ocean; and so far as we know at
present we have to fix the limit of their vertical distribution at
jooo fathoms. Those which we find to have reached or to pass
FIG. 15. Dentition of Greenland Shark.
SHARON SHARP, G.
809
the 100 fathoms line belong to generic types which, if they
include littoral species, are ground-sharks as we generally
find the bottom-feeders of our littoral fauna much more strongly
represented in the deep sea than the surface swimmers. All
belong to two families only, the Scylliidae and Spinacidae, the
littoral members of which live for the greater part habitually
on the bottom and probably frequently reach to the 100 fathoms
line. Distinctly bathy-
bial species are two
small dogfishes
Spinax granulatus from
120 fathoms, and
Scyllium canescens
from 400 fathoms, both
on the S.W. coast of
S. America; also Cent-
roscyllium granulatum
from 340 fathoms in
the S. Ocean, whose
congener from the
coast of Greenland
probably descends to
a similar depth. The
shark which reaches
the greatest depth
recorded hitherto
appears to be Scyllio-
rhinus indicus obtained
by the Valdivia ex-
pedition from a depth
of nearly 1000 fathoms
in the W. Indian Ocean.
It belongs to the genus
Centrophorus, of which
some ten species are
known, all from deep
water in the N.
Atlantic, Mediter-
ranean, the Molucca
and Japanese seas.
The Japanese species
were discovered by the
naturalists of the
FIG. 16. Chlamydoselachus anguineus.
" Challenger " on the Hyalonema ground off Inosima in 345
fathoms. Dr E. P. Wright found C. coelolepis at a still greater
depth on the coast of Portugal. The fishermen of Setubal fish
for these sharks in 400 or 500 fathoms, with a line of some
600 fathoms in length. " The sharks caught were from 3 to 4
ft. long, and when they were hauled into the boat fell down into
it like so many dead pigs "; in fact, on being rapidly withdrawn
from the great pressure under which they lived they were killed,
like other deep-sea fishes in similar circumstances. It is note-
worthy that the organization of none of these deep-sea sharks
has undergone such a modification as would lead us to infer that
they are inhabitants of great depths.
One of the most interesting types of the division of sharks is
the small family of Notidanidae, which is externally distinguished
by the presence of a single dorsal fin only, without spine and
opposite to the anal, and by having six or seven wide branchial
openings. They represent an ancient type, the presence of which
in Jurassic formations is shown by teeth extremely similar
to those of the living species. Their skeleton is notochordal.
Only four species are known, of which one (Notidanus griseus)
has now and then strayed N. to the English coast. Allied to
the Notidanidae are the Chlamydoselachidae or frilled sharks,
represented so far as is known by a single living species, C.
anguineus Garman (fig. 16), which occurs frequently in deep
water off the coast of Japan and as isolated specimens off the
coasts of New South Wales, Madeira and Norway. A fossil
species has been described from the Pliocene of N. Italy. It
resembles a conger in shape, and differs from the Notidani
proper by its elongated body, wide nearly terminal mouth,
extremely wide gill-openings and peculiarly formed teeth.
The teeth are similar in both jaws, each composed of three
slender curved cusps separated by a pair of minute intermediate
points, and with a broad base directed backwards.
A few words may be added with reference to the economic uses of
this group of fishes. As mentioned above, some of the smaller dog-
fishes are eaten at certain seasons by the captors, and by the poorer
classes of the population. An inferior kind of oil, chiefly used for the
adulteration of cod-liver oil, is extracted on some of the N. fishing-
stations from the liver of the spiked dogfishes, and occasionally
of the larger sharks. Cabinet-makers make extensive use of shark's-
skin under the name of " shagreen " for smoothing or polishing
wood. This shagreen is obtained from species (such as our dog-
fishes) whose skin is covered with small, pointed, closely-set, calcined
papillae, whilst very rough skins, in which the papillae are large
or blunt, are useless for this purpose. The dried fins of sharks (and
of rays) form in India and China an important article of trade, the
Chinese preparing gelatin from them, and using the better sort for
culinary purposes. They are assorted in two kinds, viz. " white "
and " black. ' The former consists exclusively of the dorsal fins,
which are reputed to yield more gelatin than the other fins. The
pectoral, ventral and anal fins constitute the "black" sort; the
caudal are not used. (A. C. G. ; J. G. K.)
SHARON, a borough of Mercer county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
on the Shenango river, about 70 m. by rail N.N.W. of Pittsburg.
Pop. (1900) 8916, of whom 1805 were foreign-born and 113 were
negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 15,270. Sharon is served by the
Erie, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the Pennsylvania
(Erie and Pittsburg division) railways. Sharon has an excellent
public school system, and the F. H. Buhl Club (1903) is a social
and educational institution, named in honour of its founder,
an iron manufacturer of the borough. The borough has blast
furnaces and rolling-mills; and iron and steel products, tin-
plate and terne-plate are its principal manufactures. The total
value of factory products in 1905 was $4,776,914, being 26-9%
more than in 1900. Sharon and South Sharon (pop. by U.S.
census in 1910, 10,190), which was separately incorporated
as a borough in 1901, form what is virtually a single industrial
community. Sharon was first settled in 1795, but was only a
small village when a movement for developing the coal-mines
in the vicinity was begun in 1836. It was incorporated as a
borough in 1841.
SHARP, GRANVILLE (1735-1813), English philanthropist,
was the ninth of the fourteen children of Thomas Sharp (1693-
1758), a prolific theological writer and biographer of his father,
John Sharp, archbishop of York. Granville, who was born
at Durham in 1735, was educated at the grammar school there,
and apprenticed to a London draper, but obtained employment
in the government ordnance department in 1758. Sharp's
tastes were scholarly; he managed to acquire knowledge of
Greek and Hebrew, and before 1779 he had published more
than one treatise on biblical criticism. His fame rests, however,
on his untiring efforts for the abolition of slavery. In 1767 he
had become involved in litigation with the owner of a slave
called Jonathan Strong, in which it was decided that a slave
remained in law the chattel of his master even on English soil.
Sharp devoted himself to fighting this judgment both with his
pen and in the courts of law; and finally it was laid down in
the case of James Sommersett that a slave becomes free the
moment he sets foot on English territory. Sharp was an ardent
sympathizer with the revolted American colonists, and at home
advocated parliamentary reform and the legislative independence
of Ireland, and agitated against the impressment of sailors for
the navy. It was through his efforts that bishops for the United
States of America were consecrated by the archbishop of Canter-
bury in 1787. In the same year he was the means of founding
a society for the abolition of slavery, and a settlement for
8io
SHARP, JAMES
emancipated slaves at Sierra Leone. Granville Sharp was also one
of the founders of the British and Foreign Bible Society, and of
the Society for the Conversion of the Jews. One of his tracts,
entitled Remarks on the Uses of the definitive article in the Greek
text of the New Testament, published in 1798, propounded the
rule known as " Granville Sharp's canon," which on account
of its important bearing on Unitarian doctrine led to a celebrated
controversy, in which many leading divines took part, including
Christopher Wordsworth. This rule was to the effect that " when
two personal nouns of the same case are connected by the copulate
KOI, if the former has the definite article and the latter has not,
they both belong to the same person. " Sharp died on the 6th
of July 1813, and a memorial of him was erected in Westminster
Abbey.
See Prince Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (London, 1820),
which contains observations by Bishop Burgess on Sharp's biblical
criticisms; Sir James Stephen, Essays in Ecclesiastical Biography
(London, 1860) ; Thomas Clarkson, History of the Rise, Progress
and Accomplishment of the Abolition of the African Slave Trade by
the British Parliament (London, 1839).
SHARP, JAMES (1618-1679), Scottish divine, the son of
William Sharp, sheriff-clerk of Banffshire, and Isabel Leslie
or Lesley, daughter of Leslie of Kininvie, of the family of
Halyburtons of Pitcur in Angus, was born in Banff Castle on the
4th of May 1618. In 1633 he went to King's College, Aberdeen,
and graduated in 1637. He there studied divinity for one
or two years, Aberdeen being at that time the home of Episcopal
sentiment. On the outbreak of the Covenanting war he went
to England (1639) and visited Oxford and perhaps Cambridge,
becoming acquainted with the principal English divines. Upon
his return he was chosen in 1643, through the influence of Lord
Rothes, to be one of the " regents " of philosophy in St Leonard's
College, St Andrews. In December 1647 he went through his
ordinary trials for the ministerial office before the presbytery
of St Andrews, and was appointed minister of Crail in Fifeshire,
on the presentation of the earl of Crawford, in January 1648.
In the great schism of Resolutioners and Protestors, he, with
the large majority of educated men, took active part with the
former. As early as March 1651 he was recognized as one of
the leading men of the party, and was taken prisoner by Crom-
well's forces. For eight months he was kept in the Tower of
London, and liberated on parole. His first public employment
was in 1656, when he went to London to endeavour to counteract
with the Protector the influence of Archibald Johnston, Lord
Warriston, who was acting for the Protestors. He displayed
all his undoubted talents for small diplomacy, and considerable
subtlety in argument, while on this service, and his mission was
decidedly successful. He returned to Scotland in 1659, but upon
Monk's march to London was again, in February 1660, sent by
the Resolutioners to watch over their interests in London,
where he arrived on the I3th of February. He was most favour-
ably received by Monk, to whom it was of great importance
to remain on good terms with the dominant party in Scotland.
His letters to Douglas and others during this period, if they may
be trusted, are useful towards following the intrigues of the
time day by day. In the beginning of May he was despatched
by Monk to the king at Breda. His letters on this occasion to
Douglas show that he regarded himself equally as the emissary
of the Scottish kirk. It is to be noticed that he was also the
bearer of a secret letter from Lauderdale to the king. There
can be little doubt that while on this mission he was finally
corrupted by Charles and Clarendon, not indeed so far as to
make up his mind to betray the kirk, but at any rate to decide
in no way to imperil his own chances by too firm an integrity.
The first thing that aroused the jealousy of his brethren was
his writing from Holland in commendation of Clarendon. This
jealousy was increased on his return to London (May 26) by his
plausible endeavours to stop all coming of Presbyterian com-
missioners from Scotland and Ireland, though he professed
to desire the presence of Douglas and Dickson, by his urgent
advice that the Scots should not interfere in the restoration of
Episcopacy in England, and by his endeavours to frustrate the
proposed union of Resolutioners and Protestors. He informed
them that Presbyterianism was a lost cause in England, but as
late as August n he intimated that, though there had been great
danger for the Scottish kirk as well, this danger had been con-
stantly and successfully warded off by his efforts. He returned
to Scotland in this month, and busied himself in endeavouring
to remove all suspicions of his loyalty to the kirk; but at the
same time he successfully stopped all petitions from Scottish
ministers to king, parliament or council. His letters to
Drummond, a Presbyterian minister in London, and to Lauder-
dale, without absolutely committing him, show clearly that he
was certain that Episcopacy was about to be set up. How far
he was actively a traitor in the matter had always been disputed
until the question was set at rest by the discovery of his letter,
dated May 21, from London, whither he went in April 1661,
to Middleton, the high commissioner, whose chaplain he now
was, showing that he was in confidential communication with
Clarendon and the English bishops, that he was earnestly
co-operating in the restoration of Episcopacy in Scotland, that
he had before leaving Scotland held frequent conferences with
Middleton on the subject (a fact which he had vehemently
denied) and was aware that Middleton had all along intended it,
and that he drew up the quibbling proclamation of June 10,
the sole purpose of which was " the disposing of minds to
acquiesce in the king's pleasure." The original of this letter
(which is printed in the Lauderdale Papers and in the Scottish
Review) is preserved in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries,
Edinburgh. It should be noticed that as late as the end of April,
on the eve of starting on his mission to court with Rothes and
Glencairne, he declared to Baillie that no change in the kirk
was intended. The mask was at length dropped in August,
when Episcopacy was restored, and Sharp was appointed
archbishop of St Andrews. He and Leighton, Fairfoul and
Hamilton " were dubbed, first preaching deacons, then presbyters,
and then consecrated bishops in one day, by Dr Sheldon and a
few others." On April 8th the new prelates entered Scotland,
and on the 2Oth of April 1662 Sharp preached his first sermon
at St Andrews.
Sharp had carefully kept on good terms with Lauderdale,
and when the Billeting Plot was concocted in September 1662
against the latter by Middleton, he managed to avoid acting
against him; indeed it is probable that, after being appointed
under an oath of secrecy to be one of the scrutineers of the
billets, he, in violation of the oath, was the cause of Lauderdale
receiving timely information of the decision against him; and
yet he shortly went up to London to explain the whole affair
in Middleton's interest. When Lauderdale's supremacy was
established he readily co-operated in passing the National
Synod Act in 1663, the first step in the intended subjection
of the church to the crown. In 1664 he was again in London,
returning in April, having secured the grant of a new church
commission. So oppressive was his conduct and that of others
of- the bishops that it called forth a written protest from Gilbert
Burnet. Sharp at once summoned him before the bishops
and endeavoured to obtain a sentence of deprivation and
excommunication against him, but was overruled by his brethren.
On the death of Glencairne, the chancellor's greatest efforts were
made to secure the vacant office for Sharp, and he was not
inactive in his own interest; the place was not, however, filled
up until 1667, and then by the appointment of Rothes. He
was in strict alliance with Rothes, Hamilton and Dalyell, and
the other leaders of oppression, and now placed himself in
opposition to the influence of Lauderdale, attacking his friends,
and especially the earl of Kincardine. In 1665 he was again
in London, where, through his own folly and mendacity, he
suffered a complete humiliation at the hands of Lauderdale,
well described by the historian Burnet. The result of their
system of violence and extortion was the rising of the Covenanters,
during which, being in temporary charge during Rothes's
absence, he showed, according to Bellenden, the utmost fear,
equalled only by his cruelty to the prisoners after the rout of
Pentland. When the convention of estates met in January
1667 Hamilton was substituted for him as president. He now
SHARP, J. SHARP, W.
811
wrote letters of the most whining contrition to Lauderdale, who
extended him a careless reconciliation. For a time he made
himself actively useful, and helped to restrain his brethren
from writing to London to complain of the conciliation policy
which for a while Lauderdale carried out. On July 10, 1668 an
attempt was made upon his life by James Mitchell, who fired
a pistol at him while driving through the streets of Edinburgh.
The shot, however, missed Sharp, though his companion, the
bishop of Orkney, was wounded by it, and Mitchell for the time
escaped. In August Sharp went up to London, returning in
December, and with his assistance Tweeddale's tolerant proposals
for filling the vacant parishes with some of the " outed "
ministers were carried out. In the debates on the Supremacy
Act, by which Lauderdale destroyed the autonomy of the church,
Sharp at first showed reluctance to put in motion the desired
policy, but gave way upon the first pressure. When, however,
Leighton, as archbishop of Glasgow, endeavoured to carry out
a comprehensive scheme, Sharp actively opposed him, and
expressed his joy at the failure of the attempt. From this time
he was completely subservient to Lauderdale, who had now
finally determined upon a career of oppression, and in 1674 he
was again in London to support this policy. In this year also
Mitchell, who had shot at him six years before, was arrested,
and, upon Sharp's promise to obtain a pardon, privately made
a full confession. When Mitchell later claimed this promise,
Sharp denied that any such promise had been given. His
falsehood was proved by the entry of the act in the records of
the court. Mitchell was finally condemned, but a reprieve would
have been granted had not Sharp himself insisted on his death.
This was speedily avenged. On the 3rd of May 1679, as he was
driving with his daughter Isabel to St Andrews, he was set upon
by nine men, and, in spite of the appeals of his daughter, was
cruelly murdered. The place of the murder, on Magus Muir,
now covered with fir trees, is marked by a monument erected
by Dean Stanley, with a Latin inscription recording the deed.
Unless otherwise mentioned, the proofs of the statements in this
article will be found in vols. i. and ii. of the Lauderdale Papers
(Camden Society) and in two articles in the Scottish Review, July
1884 and January 1885.
SHARP, JOHN (1645-1714), English divine, archbishop of
York, was born at Bradford on the i6th of February 1645, and
was educated at Christ's College, Cambridge. He was ordained
deacon and priest on August i2th 1667, and until 1676 was
chaplain and tutor in the family of Sir Heneage Finch at
Kensington House. Meanwhile he became archdeacon of Berk-
shire (1673), prebendary of Norwich, rector of St Giles's-in-the-
Fields, and in 1681 'dean of Norwich. In 1686, when chaplain
to James II., he was suspended for ten months on a charge of
having made some reflections on the king, and in 1688 was
cited for refusing to read the declaration of indulgence. Under
William and Mary he succeeded Tillotson as dean of Canterbury
in 1689, and (after declining a choice of sees vacated by non-
jurors who were his personal friends) followed Thomas Lamplugh
as archbishop of York in 1691. He made a thorough investiga-
tion of the affairs of his see, and regulated the disordered chapter
of Southwell. He preached at the coronation of Queen Anne
and became her almoner and confidential adviser in matters
of church and state. He welcomed the Armenian bishops
who came to England in 1713, and corresponded with the
Prussian court on the possibility of the Anglican liturgy as a
means of reconciliation between Lutherans and Calvinists.
He died at Bath on the znd of February 1714.
His works (chiefly sermons) were published in 7 volumes in 1754,
and in 5 volumes at Oxford in 1829.
SHARP, RICHARD (1750-1835), known as " Conversation
Sharp," was born in Newfoundland in 1759, the son of a British
officer in garrison there. He was for many years in business
in London, and amassed a large fortune. He was the host of
leading literary and political men at his houses in Park Lane
and near Dorking. Johnson, Burke, Rogers, Hallam, Grattan,
Sydney Smith, James Mill, Wordsworth and Coleridge were
among his many friends. From 1806 to 1812 he was M.P. for
Castle Rising, and subsequently he represented Portarlington
and Ilchester. He was the author of a volume of Letters and
Essays in Prose and Verse (1834), which the Quarterly Review
declared to be remarkable for " wisdom, wit, knowledge of the
world and sound criticism." Sharp died at Dorchester on the
30th of March 1835.
SHARP, WILLIAM (1740-1824), English line-engraver, was
born at London on the 29th of January 1749. He was originally
apprenticed to what is called a bright engraver, and practised
as a writing engraver, but gradually became inspired by the
higher branches of the engraver's art. Among his earlier plates
are some illustrations, after Stothard, for the Novelists' Magazine.
He engraved the " Doctors Disputing on the Immaculateness
of the Virgin " and the " Ecce Homo " of Guido Reni, the " St
Cecilia " of Domenichino, the " Virgin and Child " of Dolci, and the
portrait of John Hunter of Sir Joshua Reynolds. His style of en-
graving is thoroughly masterly and original, excellent in its play
of line and rendering of half- tints and of " colour." He died at
Chiswick on the 25th of July 1 824. In his youth, owing to his hotly
expressed adherence to the politics of Paine and Home Tooke,
he was examined by the privy council on a charge of treason.
Mesmer and Brothers found in Sharp a stanch believer; and for
long he maintained Joanna Southcott at his own expense. As
an engraver he achieved a European reputation, and at the
time of his death he enjoyed the honour of being a member of
the Imperial Academy of Vienna and of the Royal Academy
of Munich.
SHARP, WILLIAM (1856-1905), Scottish poet and man of
letters, was born at Paisley on the I2th of September 1856.
His was a double personality, for during his lifetime he was
known solely by a series of poetical and critical works of great,
but not of outstanding merit, while from 1894 onwards he pub-
lished, with elaborate precautions of secrecy, under the name
of " Fiona Macleod," a series of stories and sketches in poetical
prose which made him perhaps the most conspicuous Scottish
writer of the modern Gaelic renaissance. His early life was
spent chiefly in the W. highlands of Scotland, and after leaving
Glasgow University he went to Australia in 1877 in search of
health. After a cruise in the Pacific he settled for some time
in London as clerk to a bank, became an intimate of the Rossettis,
and began to contribute to the Pall Mall Gazette and other
journals. In 1885 he became art critic to the Glasgow Herald.
He spent much time abroad, in France and Italy, and travelled
extensively in America and Africa. In 1885 he married his
cousin, Elizabeth Amelia Sharp, who helped him in much
of his literary work and collaborated with him in com-
piling the Lyra Celtica (1896). His volumes of verse were
The Human Inheritance (1882), Earth's Voices (1884), Romantic
Ballads and Poems of Fantasy (1886), Sospiri di Roma (1891),
FloTvero'the Vine (1894), Sospiri d' Italia (1906). William Sharp
was the general editor of the " Canterbury Poets " series. He was
a discriminating anthologist, and his Sonnets of the Century (i 886) ,
to which he prefixed a useful treatise on the sonnet, ran through
many editions. This was followed by American Sonnets (1889).
He wrote biographies of Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1882), of
Shelley (1887), of Heinrich Heine (1888), of Robert Browning
(1890), and edited the memoirs of Joseph Severn (1892). The
most notable of his novels was Silence Farm (1899). During
the later years of his life he was obliged for reasons of health
to spend all his winters abroad. The secret of his authorship
of the " Fiona Macleod " books was faithfully kept until his
death, which took place at the Castello di Manlace, Sicily, on the
I2th of December 1905. As late as the i3th of May 1899 Fiona
Macleod had written to the Athenaeum stating that she wrote
only under that name and that it was her own. She began to
publish her tales and sketches of the primitive Celtic world
in 1894 with Pharais: A Romance of the Isles. They found
only a limited public, though an enthusiastic one. The earlier
volumes include The Mountain Lovers (1895), The Sin-Eater
(1895), The Washer of the Ford and other Legendary Moralities
(1896), &c. In 1897 a collected edition of the shorter stories,
with some new ones, was issued as Spiritual Tales, Barbaric
Tales and Tragic Romances. Later volumes are The Dominion
812
SHARPE SHAW, G. B.
of Dreams (1899); The Divine Adventure: lona: and other
Studies in Spiritual History (1900), and Winged Destiny (1904).
SHARPE, DANIEL (1806-1856), English geologist, was born
in Marylebone, London, on the 6th of April 1806. His mother
was a sister of Samuel Rogers, the poet. At the age of 16
he entered the counting-house of a Portuguese merchant in
London. At the age of 25, after spending a year in Portugal,
he joined his elder brother as a partner in a Portuguese mercantile
business. As a geologist he first became known by his researches
(1832-1840) on the geological structure of the neighbourhood
of Lisbon. He studied the Silurian rocks of the Lake District
and North Wales (1842-1844), and afterwards investigated the
structure of the Alps (1854-1855). He was elected F.R.S. in
1850. He published several essays on cleavage (1847-1852),
and showed from the evidence of distortion of organic remains
that the direction of the pressure producing contortions in the
rocks was perpendicular to the planes of cleavage. Most of his
papers were published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological
Society, but one " On the Arrangement of the Foliation and
Cleavage of the Rocks of the North of Scotland," was printed in
the Phil. Trans. 1852. He was author also of a Monograph on the
Cephalopoda of the Chalk, published by the Palaeontographical
Society (1853-1857). In 1856 he was elected president of the
Geological Society, but he died in London, from the effects of
an accident, on the 3ist of May that year.
SHARPSBURG, a borough of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on the Allegheny river, opposite the N.E. part of Pitts-
burg. Pop. (1900) 6842 (1280 foreign-born); (1910) 8153.
Sharpsburg is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore &
Ohio railways. Coal is mined in the vicinity. Among the manu-
factures are iron pipes, truck and bar iron, wire, stoves, paint and
lubricating oil. Sharpsburg was settled in 1826, was named
in honour of James Sharp, the original proprietor, and was
incorporated in 1841.
SHASI, a city in the province of Hu-peh, China, on the left
bank of the river Yangtsze, about 85 m. below Ich'ang. Pop.
about 80,000. It was opened to foreign trade under the Japanese
treaty of 1895. The town lies below the summer level of the
Yangtsze, from which it is protected by a strong embankment.
Formerly Shasi was a great distributing centre, but the opening
of Ich'ang to foreign trade diverted much of the traffic to the
last-named port. It is the terminus of an extensive network
of canals which run through the low country lying on the north
bank of the Yangtsze as far down as Hankow. Native boats,
as a rule, prefer the canal route to the turbulent waters of the
Yangtsze, their cargoes being transhipped at Shasi across the
embankment into river boats. Foreign residents are few, and
the trade passing through the maritime customs is comparatively
insignificant. The place is still, however, a large distributing
centre for native trade, and is the seat of an extensive manu-
facture of native cotton cloth. The British consulate was
withdrawn in January 1899, British interests being placed under
the care of the consul at Ich'ang.
SHAW, GEORGE BERNARD (1856- ), British dramatist
and publicist, was born in Dublin on the 26th of July 1856.
His father, George Carr Shaw, was a retired civil servant, the
younger son of Bernard Shaw, high sheriff of Kilkenny. His
mother, Lucinda Elizabeth Gurly, was a good musician, who
eventually became a teacher of singing in London. G. B. Shaw
went to school in Dublin, and began to earn his living when he
was fifteen. He was for five years a clerk in the office of an Irish
land-agent, but came to London with his family in 1876, and
in 1879 was, according to his own account in the preface to
The Irrational Knot, in the offices of the Edison telephone
company. He had begun to write novels, which did not immedi-
ately find their market. The Irrational Knot, written in 1880,
and Love among the Artists (written in 1881) first appeared as
serials in Our Corner, a monthly edited by Mrs Annie Besant;
Cashel Byron 1 s Profession (reprinted in 1901 in the series of
" Novels of his Nonage ") and An Unsocial Socialist first appeared
in a Socialist magazine To-day, which no longer exists. Shaw
joined the Fabian Society in 1884, a year after its formation,
and was active in socialistic propaganda, both as a street orator
and as a pamphleteer. In 1889 he edited the Fabian Essays,
to which he contributed " The Economic Basis of Socialism"
and " The Transition to Social Democracy." He began journal-
ism, through the influence of William Archer, on the reviewing
staff of the Pall Mall Gazette in 1885; he then became art and
musical critic, writing from 1888 to 1890 for the Star, where
his articles were signed " Corno di Bassetto," and then in 1890
to 1894 for the World. In 1895 to 1898 he was dramatic critic
to the Saturday Review, his articles being collected in 1907 as
Dramatic Opinions and Essays. He was an early champion of
Richard Wagner and of Henrik Ibsen, and indicated his aesthetic
point of view in the pamphlets, The Quintessence of Ibsenism
(1891) and The Perfect Wagnerite (1898). His first play, Widowers'
Houses, two acts of which had been written in 1885 in collabora-
tion with Mr William Archer, was produced by the Independent
Theatre under the management of Mr J. T. Grein at the Royalty
in 1892. This found few admirers outside Socialist circles, and
was hooted by the ordinary playgoer. In 1893 he wrote The
Philanderer, a topical comedy on Ibsenism and the " new
woman," for the same theatre, but the piece proved technically
unsuitable for Mr Grein's company. To replace it Mr Shaw
wrote Mrs Warren's Profession, a powerful but disagreeable
play, which was rejected by the censor and not presented until
the sth of January 1902, when it was privately given by the
Stage Society at the New Lyric Theatre. When it was played
in New York by Mr Arnold Daly's company in 1905 the actors
were prosecuted. These three plays were classed by the author
as " unpleasant plays " in the printed version. Arms and the
Man was produced at the Avenue Theatre (2ist of April 1894)
by Miss Florence Farr, who was experimenting on the lines of
the Independent Theatre, and by Mr Richard Mansfield at the
Herald Square Theatre, New York (the i7th of Sept. 1894).
The scene was laid in Bulgaria, the piece being a satire on
romanticism, a destructive criticism on military " glory."
Candida was written in 1894 for Mr Mansfield, who did not
produce it until December 1903; but it was played in Aberdeen
in July 1897 by the Independent Theatre Company. This
defence of the poetic point of view against brute force and
common sense was admirably constructed and it proved one of
the most popular of his plays. The pieces which followed are:
The Man of Destiny (written in 1895, played at Croydon in
1897 by Mr Murray Carson), a Napoleonic drama, which was
revived at New York by Arnold Daly in 1904; You Never Can
Tell (written in 1896, produced at the Strand Theatre in 1900),
a farcical comedy; The Devil's Disciple (produced at New
York by Richard Mansfield in 1897, and in London in 1899),
the scene of which is laid in the War of American Independence,
Caesar and Cleopatra (1898) and Captain Brassbound's Conversion
(1898) printed as Three Plays for Puritans (1900); The
Admirable Bashville (Stage Society, Imperial Theatre, 1903),
a dramatization of Cashel Byron's Profession.
He had found no regular English audience when he published
Plays Pleasant and Unpleasant (2 vols.) in 1898, and his pieces
first became well known to the ordinary playgoer by the per-
formances given at the Royal Court Theatre under the manage-
ment of Messrs Vedrenne and H. Granville Barker. Man and
Superman (published in 1903) was produced there on the 23rd
of May 1005, in a necessarily abridged form, with Granville
Barker in the part of John Tanner, the author of the " Revolu-
tionists's Handbook and Pocket Companion," printed as an
appendix to the play. Mr Shaw asserted that the piece originated
in a suggestion from Mr A. B. Walkley that he should write a
Don Juan play, which he proceeded to do in a characteristic
topsy-turvy fashion. John Tanner (Juan Tenor) is a voluble
exponent of Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, who finally falls a
victim to the life force in Ann. Major Barbara (Court Theatre,
Nov. 1905), a " discussion in three acts," placed the Salvation
Army on the stage. The Vedrenne-Barker management also
revived Candida (April 1904), You Never Can Tell (May 1905),
Captain Brassbound's Conversion (March 1906) and John Bull's
other Island (November 1904), a statement of the Irish land
SHAW, H. W. SHAW, R. N.
813
question, which had been produced at the Camden Theatre
in 1903, and later by the Stage Society. At the same theatre
was produced (2Oth of November 1906) The Doctor's Dilemma,
a satire on the medical profession, and How He lied to Her
Husband (Feb. 1905), which had been previously played in
New York. Later plays were: Getting Married (1908), The
Showing-up of Blanco Posnet (1909) and Press-cuttings (1909).
Among Mr Shaw's later writings on economics are: Socialism
for Millionaires (1901), The Common Sense of Municipal Trading
(1904), and Fabianism and the Fiscal Question (1904). Although
an energetic member of the South St Pancras borough council,
he failed to secure election to the London County Council when
he stood as a candidate in 1904. Mr Shaw married in 1898
Miss Charlotte Frances Payne-Townshend.
There are essays on his work by H. L. Mencken (Boston and
London, 1905), by E. E. Hale (Dramatists of To-Day. London, 1906),
&c. ; "The Plays of Mr Bernard Shaw," in the Edinburgh Review
(April 1905); "Mr Bernard Shaw's Counterfeit Presentment of
Women," in the Fortnightly Review (March 1906); "Bernard Shaw
as Critic," in the Fortnightly Review (June 1907) ; and an apprecia-
tion by Holbrook Jackson, Bernard Shaw (1907).
SHAW, HENRY WHEELER (1818-1885), American humorist,
known by the pen-name of " Josh Billings," was born of Puritan
stock at Lanesborough, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of April
1818, the son of Henry Shaw (1788-1857), who was a representa-
tive in Congress in 1817-1821. The son left Hamilton College
to go West. In 1858 he settled in Poughkeepsie, N.Y., as a
land-agent and auctioneer, and began writing newspaper
articles, especially for the Poughkeepsie Daily Press. His
" Essa on the Muel bi Josh Billings" (1860) in a New York
paper was followed by many similar articles, chiefly in the New
York Weekly and the New York Saturday Press, and by several
popular volumes, among which are Josh Billings: His Sayings
(1866), Josh Billings on Ice (1868), Everybody's Friend (1876),
Josh Billings: His Works, Complete (1876), Trump Kards (1877),
Old Probabilities (1879), Josh Billings' Spice-Box (1881), and
Josh Billings' Farmers' Allminax, burlesquing the Old Farmers'
Almanac, issued annually between 1870 and 1880, and collected
into a volume in 1902 under the title Josh Billings' Old Farmers'
Allminax. He died in Monterey, California, on the i4th of
October 1885. His platform lectures, such as " Milk," " Hobby
Horse," " The Pensive Cockroach," and " What I kno about
Hotels," his mannerisms and apparently unstudied witticisms
made him conspicuous.
See Life and Adventures of Josh Billings (New York, 1883), by
Francis S. Smith.
SHAW, LEMUEL (1781-1861), American jurist, was born
at Barnstable, Massachusetts, son of the minister of the West
Parish there, on the gth of January 1781. He graduated from
Harvard College in 1800, and was admitted to the bar (of New
Hampshire and of Massachusetts) in 1804. In 1805 he began
to practise law in Boston. He was a prominent Federalist
and was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
in 1811-1814, in 1820, and in 1829, and of the state Senate in
1821-1822, a delegate to the state constitutional convention of
1820-1821, and chief justice of the Supreme Court of the state
from 1830 to 1860. He died in Boston on the 3oth of March 1861.
As chief justice Shaw maintained the high standard of excellence
set by Theophilus Parsons. He presided over the trial in 1850
of Professor John White Webster (1793-1850) for the murder
of Dr George Parkman. His work in extending the equity,
jurisdiction and powers of the court was especially notable.
He was also largely instrumental in defeating an attempt (1843)
to make a reduction of salary apply to judges already in office,
and an attempt (1853) to abolish the life term of judges. His
opinion in Gary v. Daniels (8 Metcalf) is the basis of the present
law in Massachusetts as to the regulation of water power rights
of riparian proprietors.
See the address by B. F. Thomas in Proceedings of the Massa-
chusetts Historical Society, x. 50-79 (Boston, 1869) ; and the sketches
by Samuel S. Shaw and P. Emory Aldrich in vol. iv. pp. 200-247,
of Memorial Biographies of the New England Historic Genealogical
Society (Boston, 1885).
SHAW, RICHARD NORMAH (1831- ), British architect,
was born in Edinburgh on the yth of May 1831. At the age of
sixteen he went to London and became a pupil of William Burn.
In Burn's office he formed that friendship with William Eden
Nesfield which so profoundly influenced the careers of both,
and was thoroughly grounded in the science of planning and in
the classical vernacular of the period. He also attended the
architectural schools of the Royal Academy, and devoted
careful study both to ancient and to the best contemporary
buildings. In 1854, having finished his term of apprenticeship
with Burn, he gained the gold medal and travelling studentship
of the Royal Academy, and until 1856 travelled on the continent,
studying and drawing old work. On his return in 1856 he was
requested by the Council of the Royal Academy to publish his
drawings. This work, entitled Architectural Sketches from the
Continent, was issued in 1858. In the meantime Nesfield was
continuing his studies with Anthony Salvin; Mr Shaw also
entered his office, and remained there until 1857, when he
widened his experience by working for three years under George
Edmund Street. In 1863, after sixteen years of severe training,
he began to practise. For a short time he and Nesfield joined
forces, but their lines soon diverged. Mr Shaw's first work of
importance was Leyes Wood, in Surrey, a building of much
originality, followed shortly afterwards by Cragside, for Lord
Armstrong, which was begun in 1869. From that time until he
retired from active practice his works followed one another in
quick succession. In 1872 Mr Shaw was elected an Associate
of the Royal Academy, and a full member in 1877; he joined
the " retired " list towards the end of 1901.
Other characteristic examples of Shaw's work are Preen Manor,
Shropshire ; New Zealand Chambers, Leadenhall Street ; Pierre-
pont, Wispers, and Merrist Wood, in Surrey; Lowther Lodge,
Kensington; Adcote, in Shropshire; his houses at Kensington,
Chelsea, and at Hampstead; Flete House, Devonshire; Greenhara
Lodge, Berkshire; Dawpool, in Cheshire; Bryanstone, in Dorset-,
shire; Chesters, Northumberland; New Scotland Yard, on the
Thames Embankment ; besides several fine works in Liverpool and
the neighbourhood. He also built and restored several churches, !
the best known of which are St John's Church, Leeds; St Margaret's, .,
Ilkley, and All Saints', Leek. His early buildings were most
picturesque, and contrasted completely with the current work of the
time. The use of " half timber " and hanging tiles, the projecting
gables and massive chimneys, and the cunningly contrived bays and
recessed fireplaces, together with the complete freedom from the con-
ventions and trammels of " style," not only appealed to the artist,
but gained at once a place in public estimation. Judged in the light
of his later work, some of those early buildings appear almost too
full of feature and design; they show, however, very clearly that
Mr Shaw, in discarding " academic style," was not drifting rudder-
less on a sea of fancy. His buildings, although entirely free from
archaeological pedantry, were the outcome of much enthusiastic and
intelligent study of old examples, and were based directly on old
methods and traditions. As his powers developed, his buildings
gained in dignity, and had an air of serenity and a quiet homely
charm which were less conspicuous in his earlier works; the " half
timber " was more sparingly used, and finally disappeared entirely.
His work throughout is especially distinguished by treatment of
scheme. There is nothing tentative or hesitating. His planning is
invariably fine and full of ingenuity. Adcote (a beautiful drawing
of which hangs in the Diploma Gallery at Burlington House) is ,
perhaps the best example of the series of his country houses built
between 1870 and 1880. The elements are few but perfectly pro-
portioned and combined, and the scale throughout is consistent.
The Great Hall is the keynote of the plan, and is properly but not
unduly emphasized. The grouping of the rooms round the Hall
is very ably managed each room is in its right position, and has
its proper aspect. New Zealand Chambers, in Leadenhall Street,
another work of about the same period (1870-1880), is a valuable
example of Mr Shaw's versatility. Here he employed a completely
different method of expression from any of his preceding works,
in all of which there is a trace of " Gothic " feeling. This is a facade
only of two storeys, divided by piers of brickwork into three equal
spaces, filled by shaped bays rich with modelled plaster; above,
drawing the whole composition together, is a finely enriched plaster
cove. An attic storey, roofed with three gables, completes the
building, which is the antithesis of the accepted type of city offices;
it is yet perfectly adapted to modern uses. New Scotland Yard is
undoubtedly Mr Shaw's finest and most complete work. The plain
granite base is not only subtly suggestive of the purposes of the
building, but by dividing the height with a strongly marked line
gives a greater apparent width to the structure ; it suggests also a
division of departments. By its mass, too, it prevents the eye from
dwelling on the necessary irregularity of the lower windows, which
are not only different in character from those of the upper storeys,
but more numerous and quite irregularly spaced. The projecting
814
SHAW-KENNEDY SHAWNEE
angle turrets are most happily conceived, and besides giving em-
phasis to the corners, form the main point of interest in the com-
position of the river front. The chimneys are not allowed to cut the
sky-line in all directions, but have been drawn together into massive
blocks, and contribute much to the general air of dignity and strength
for which this building is remarkable. Simple roofs of ample span
complete a composition conspicuous for its breadth and unity.
Mr Shaw's influence on his generation can only be adequately
gauged by a comparison of current work with that which was
in vogue when he began his career. The works of Pugin, Scott, and
others, and the architectural literature of the time, had turned
the thoughts both of architects and the public towards a " revived
Gothic." Before he entered the field, this teaching had hardened
into a creed. Mr Shaw was not content to hold so limited a view,
and with characteristic courage threw over these artificial barriers
and struck out a line of his own. The rapidity with which he
conceived and created new types, and as it were set a new fashion
in building, compelled admiration for his genius, and swelled the
ranks of his adherents. It is largely owing to him that there is
now a distinct tendency to approach architecture as the art of
Building rather than as the art of Designing, and the study of old
work as one of methods and expressions which are for all time,
rather than as a means of learning a language of forms proper
only to their period.
SHAW-KENNEDY, SIR JAMES (1788-1865), British soldier
and military writer, was the son of Captain John Shaw, of Dalton,
Kirkcudbrightshire. Joining the 43rd (Monmouthshire) Light
Infantry in 1805, he first saw service in the Copenhagen Expedi-
tion of 1807 as a lieutenant, and under Sir David Baird took
part in the Corunna Campaign of 1808-9. I n tne retreat
Shaw contracted a fever, from the effects of which he never
fully recovered. The 43rd was again engaged in the Douro and
Talavera Campaigns, and Shaw became adjutant of his now
famous regiment at the battle of Talavera. As Robert Craufurd's
aide-de-camp he was on the staff of the Light Division at the
Coa and the Agueda, and with another officer prepared and
edited the " Standing Orders of the Light Division " (printed
inHome's Precis of Modern Tactics, pp. 257-277), which serve as a
model to this day. He was wounded at Almeida in 1810, but
rejoined Craufurd at the end of 181 1 and was with his chief at the
siege of Ciudad Rodrigo in January 1812. At the great assault
of January i9th Shaw carried his general, mortally wounded,
from the glacis, and at Badajoz, now once more with the 43rd,
he displayed, at the lesser breach, a gallantry which furnished
his brother officer William Napier with the theme of one of his
most glorious descriptive passages (Peninsular War, bk. xvi.
ch. v.). At the siege and the battle of Salamanca, in the retreat
from Burgos, Shaw, still a subaltern, distinguished himself
again and again, but he had to return to England at the end of
the year, broken in health. Once more in active service in 1815,
as one of Charles Allen's staff officers, Captain Shaw, by his
reconnoitring skill and tactical judgment was of the greatest
assistance to Alien and to Wellington, who promoled him
brevet-major in July, and brevet lieut.-colonel in 1819. During
the occupation of France by the allied army Shaw was com-
mandant of Calais, and on his return to England was employed
as a staff officer in the North. In this capacity he was called
upon to deal wilh ihe Manchester riots of 1819, and his memor-
andum on the methods lo be adopled in dealing with civil
disorders embodied principles which have been recognized
to ihe present day. In 1820 he married, and in 1834, on succeed-
ing, in right of his wife, to the estate of Kirkmichael, he took the
name of Kennedy. Two years later Colonel Shaw-Kennedy
was entrusled wilh Ihe organizalion of the Royal Irish Con-
slabulary, which he raised and Irained according lo his own
ideas. He remained inspector-general of Ihe R.I.C. for two
years, after which for ten years he led a retired country life.
In 1848, during the Chartist movements, he was suddenly
called upon lo command at Liverpool, and soon afterwards was
offered successively a command in Ireland and the governorship
of Mauritius. Ill-health compelled him to decline these, as also
the Scotlish command a little later, and for the rest of his life
he was practically an invalid. He became full General in 1862
and was made K.C.B. a year later. In 1859, at the time of the
Orsini case, he published a remarkable essay on The Defence
of Great Britain and Ireland, and in 1865 appeared his famous
Notes on Waterloo, appended lo which is a Plan for the defence
of Canada. He died Ihe same year.
See the autobiographical notice in Notes on Waterloo, also the
regimental history of the 43rd and Napier, passim.
SHAWL, a square or oblong article of dress worn in various
ways dependent from the shoulders. The term is of. Persian
origin (shot), and the article itself is most characteristic of the
natives of N.W. India and Central Asia; but in various forms,
and under different names, the same piece of clothing is found
in most parts of the world. The shawls made in Kashmir occupy
a pre-eminent place among textile products; and it is to them
and to their imitations from Western looms that specific import-
ance attaches. The Kashmir shawl is characterized by the
elaboration of its design, in which the "cone" pattern is a
prominent feature, and by the glowing harmony, brilliance,
depth, and enduring qualities of ils colours. The basis of Ihese
excellences is found in the very fine, soft, short, flossy under-wool,
called pashm or pashmina, found on the shawl-goat, a variety
of Capra hircus inhabiting the elevated regions of Tibet. There
are several varieties of pashm, but the finesl is a strict monopoly
of the maharaja of Kashmir. Inferior pashm and Kirman wool
a fine soft Persian sheep's wool are used for shawl weaving at
Amritsar and olher places in the Punjab, where colonies of
Kashmiri weavers are established. Of shawls, apart from shape
and pattern, there are only two principal classes: (i) loom-
woven shawls called tiliwalla, tilikar or kani kar somelimes
woven in one piece, but more often in small segments which are
sewn together with such precision that the sewing is quite
imperceptible; and (2) embroidered shawls amlikar in
which over a ground of plain pashmina is worked by needle
a minute and elaborate pattern.
SHAWM, SHALM (Fr. chalumeau, chalemelle, hautbois; Ger.
Schalmei, Schalmey; Ital. Piffar cenamelle; Lat. calamus^
tibia; Gr. aiiXos), the medieval forerunner of the oboe, the treble
members of the large family of reed instruments known in
Germany as the Pommer (q.v.), Bombart or Schalmey family.
Michael Praetorius, at the beginning of the i ?th century, enumer-
ates the members of this family (see OBOE); the two of highest
pitch are Schalmeys, the first or litlle Schalmey being in B[>
(third line) or A, and the second, also called cantus or discant,
in E or D below. The shawm or Schalmey had a compass of
two octaves, the second diatonic octave being obtained by
overblowing each of Ihe notes of the first octave an octave
higher; ihe chromalic semilones were produced by half stopping
the holes and by cross-fingering. In some instances the reed
mouthpiece was half enclosed in a pirouette, a small case having
a slit through which that part of the reed which is taken into the
mouth of the player was alone exposed, the edges of the slit
thus forming a rest for his lips.
In the miniatures of the illuminated MSS. of all countries, more
especially from the I4th century, and in early printed books,
Schalmeys and Pommers are represented in every conceivable phase
of social life in which music takes a part. (K. S.)
SHAWNEE or SHAWANO (said to mean " soulherner "), a
tribe of Norlh American Indians of Algonquian stock. They
are said to have been firsl found in Wisconsin. Under the name
Sacannahs lowards Ihe end of Ihe i7lh cenlury they had their
headquarters in South Carolina on the upper Savannah. Moving
eastward they came in contact with Ihe Iroquois, by whom Ihey
were driven S. again inlo Tennessee. Thence they crossed the
mountains into South Carolina and again spread northward
as far as New York state and southward to Florida. Subse-
quently they recrossed Ihe Alleghany mounlains, once more came
in conlacl wilh the Iroquois and were driven into Ohio. They
joined in Pontiac's conspiracy. They fought on the English
side in the War of Independence and again in 1812 under
Tecumseh. They are now on a reservalion in Oklahoma.
SHAWNEE, a cily of Pollawalomie county, Oklahoma, U.S.A.,
on the North Fork of the Canadian river, about 38 m. E.S.E.
of Oklahoma city. Pop. (1907) 10,955, including 748 negroes and
20 Indians; (1910) 12,474. Shawnee is served by the Atchison,
Topeka & Sanla Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and the
Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways and by inlerurban eleclric
SHAYS SHEATHBILL
815
lines. The city has two large public parks and a Carnegie
library, and is the seat of the Curtice Industrial School. Shawnee
is situated in a fine agricultural region, is a shipping-point for
alfalfa, cotton and potatoes, is an important market for mules,
and has large railway repair shops, and cotton-gins and cotton
compresses; among its manufactures are cotton-seed oil,
cotton goods, lumber, bricks and flour. Shawnee was first settled
in 1895 and was chartered as a city in 1896.
SHAYS, DANIEL (1747-1825), American soldier, the leader
of Shays's Insurrection in W. Massachusetts in 1786-1787 (see
MASSACHUSETTS: History), was born in Hopkinton, Massa-
chusetts, in 1747. In the War of Independence he served as
second lieutenant in a Massachusetts regiment from May to
December 1775, became captain in the sth Massachusetts
regiment in January 1 7 7 7 , and resigned his commission in October
1780. After the collapse of Shays's Insurrection he escaped to
Vermont. He was pardoned in June 1788, and died at Sparta,
New York, on the 2Qth of September 1825.
SHEARER, THOMAS, English iSth-century furniture designer
and cabinet-maker. The solitary biographical fact we possess
relating to this distinguished craftsman is that he was the
author of most of the plates in The Cabinet Maker's London
Book of Prices and Designs of Cabinet Work, issued in 1788 " For
the London Society of Cabinet Makers." The majority of these
plates were republished separately as Designs for Household
Furniture. They exhibit their author as a man with an eye at
once for simplicity of design and delicacy of proportion. Indeed
some of his pieces possess a dainty and slender elegance which
has never been surpassed in the history of English furniture.
There can be little doubt that Shearer exercised considerable
influence over Hepplewhite, with whom there is reason to suppose
that he was closely associated, while Sheraton has recorded his
admiration for work which has often been attributed to others.
Shearer, in his turn, owes something to the brothers Adam, and
something no doubt, to the stock designs of his predecessors.
There is every reason to suppose that he worked at his craft
with his own hands and that he was literally a cabinet-maker
so far as we know, he never made chairs. Much of the elegance
of Shearer's work is due to his graceful and reticent employment
of inlays of satinwood and other foreign woods. But he was
as successful in form as in decoration, and no man ever used
the curve to better purpose. In Shearer's time the sideboard
was in process of evolution; previously it had been a table
with drawers, the pedestals and knife-boxes being separate
pieces. He would seem to have been first to combine them
into the familiar and often beautiful form they took at the
end of the i8th century. The combination may have been
made before, but his plate is, in point of time, the first published
document to show it.
Shearer, like many of his contemporaries, was much given
to devising " harlequin " furniture. He was a designer of high
merit and real originality, and occupies a distinguished place
among the little band of men, often, like himself, ill-educated
and obscure of origin, who raised the English cabinet-making
of the second half of the i8th century to an illustrious place in
artistic history.
SHEARS, an implement for cutting or clipping. The O. Eng.
sceran, to clip, cut, represents one branch of a very large number
of words in Indo-European languages which are to be referred
to the root skar-, to cut, and of which may be mentioned Gr.
Kdpfiv, Lat. curlus, Eng. " short," " share," " sherd," " score."
For cutting cloth " shears " take the form of a large, heavy pair
of scissors with two crossed flat blades pivoted together, each with
a looped handle for the insertion of the fingers; for clipping or
" shearing " sheep the usual form is a single piece of steel bent
round, the ends being shaped into the cutting blades, and the
bend or " bow " forming a spring which opens the blades when
the pressure used in cutting is released. Another form of the
same word, " sheers," is used of an apparatus for hoisting heavy
weights, generally known as " sheer-legs." These consist of two
or more uprights meeting at the top, where the hoisting tackle is
placed, and set wide apart at the bottom. The masting of ships
was formerly carried out from another vessel, a dismasted hulk,
hence called a " sheer-hulk," on which the " sheer-legs " were
placed (see CRANE). From this word must be distinguished
"sheer," straight, precipitous, also absolute, downright; this is
to be connected with Dan. skjaer, clear, bright, Ger. schier, free,
clear; the root is also seen in O. Eng. scinan, to shine. The
nautical phrase " to sheer off," to deviate from a course, is due
to a similar Dutch use of scheren, to cut, shear, to cut off a course
abruptly.
SHEARWATER, the name of a bird, first published in F.
Willughby's Ornithologia (p. 252), as made known to him by
Sir T. Browne, who sent a picture of it with an account that is
given more fully in J. Ray's translation of that work (p. 334),
stating that it is " a Sea-fowl, which fishermen observe to resort
to their vessels in some numbers, swimming 1 swiftly to and
fro, backward, forward and about them, and doth as it were
radere aquam, shear the water, from whence perhaps it had its
name." 2 Ray's mistaking young birds of this kind obtained
in the Isle of Man for the young of the coulterneb, now usually
called " Puffin," has already been mentioned under that heading;
and not only has his name Puffinus anglorum hence become
attached to this species, commonly described in English books
as the Manx puffin or Manx shearwater, but the barbarous
word Puffinus has come into use for all birds thereto allied,
forming a well-marked group of the family Procellariidae
(see PETREL), distinguished chiefly by their elongated bill,
and numbering some twenty species, if not more the discrimina-
tion of which has taxed the ingenuity of ornithologists. Shear-
waters are found in nearly all the seas and oceans of the world, 5
generally within no great distance from the land, though rarely
resorting thereto, except in the breeding season. But they also
penetrate to waters which may be termed inland, as the Bosporus,
where they are known to the French-speaking part of the
population as Ames damnees, it being held by the Turks that they
are animated by condemned human souls. Four species of
Puffinus are recorded as visiting the coasts of the United
Kingdom; but the Manx shearwater is the only one that at all
commonly breeds in the British Islands. It is a very plain-
looking bird, black above and white beneath, and about the size
of a pigeon. Some other species are larger, and almost whole-
coloured, being of a sooty or dark cinereous hue both above and
below. All over the world shearwaters seem to have precisely
the same habits, laying their single purely white egg in a hole
under ground. The young are thickly clothed with long down,
and are extremely fat. In this condition they are thought to
be good eating, and enormous numbers are caught for this pur-
pose in some localities, especially of a species, the P. brevicaudus
of Gould, which frequents the islands off the coast of Australia,
where it is commonly known as the " Mutton-bird." (A. N.)
SHEATHBILL, a bird so-called by T. Pennant in 1781 (Gen.
Birds, ed. 2, p. 43) from the horny case 4 which ensheaths the
basal part of its bill. It was first made known from having been
met with on New- Year Island, off the coast of Staten Land,
where Cook anchored on New Year's eve 1774.' A few days
1 Meaning, no doubt, skimming or " hovering," the latter the
word used by Browne in his Account of Birds found in Norfolk (Mus.
Brit. MS. Sloane, 1830, fol. 5. 22 and 31), written in or about 1662.
Edwards (Gleanings, iii. 315) speaks of comparing his own drawing
" with Brown's old draught of it, still preserved in the British
Museum," and thus identifies the latter's " shearwater " with the
" puffin of the Isle of Man."
2 Lyrie appears to be the most common local name for this bird
in Orkney and Shetland; but Scraib and Scraber are also used in
Scotland^ These are from the Scandinavian Skraape or Skrofa, and
considering Skeat's remarks (Etym. Dictionary) as to the alliance
between the words shear and scrape it may be that Browne's hesita-
tion as to the derivation of " shearwater ' had more ground than at
first appears.
3 The chief exception would seem to be the Bay of Bengal and
thence throughout the W. of the Malay Archipelago, where, though
they may occur, they are certainly uncommon.
4 A strange fallacy arose that this case or sheath was movable.
It is absolutely fixed.
6 Doubtless some of the earlier voyagers had encountered it, as
Forster suggests (Descr. animalium, p. 330) and Lesson asserts
8i6
SHEBOYGAN SHECHEM
later he discovered the islands that now bear the name of South
Georgia, and there the bird was again found in both localities
frequenting the rocky shores. On his third voyage, while seeking
some land reported to have been found by Kerguelen, Cook in
December 1776 reached the cluster of desolate islands now
generally known by the name of the French explorer, and here,
among many other kinds of birds, was a Sheathbill, which for
a long while no one suspected to be otherwise than specifically
identical with that of the western Antarctic Ocean; but, as
will be seen, its distinctness has been subsequently admitted.
The Sheathbill, so soon as it was brought to the notice of natu-
ralists, was recognized as belonging to a genus hitherto unknown,
and J. R. Forster in 1788 (Enchiridion, p. 37) conferred upon it,
from its snowy plumage, the name Chionis, which has most properly
received general acceptance, though in the same year the compiler
Gmelin termed the genus Vaginalis, as a rendering of Pennant's
English name, and the species alba. It has thus become the Chionis
alba of ornithology. It is about the size of and has much the aspect
of a Pigeon; 1 its plumage is pure white, its bill somewhat yellow at
the base, passing into pale pink towards the tip. Round the eyes
the skin is bare, and beset with cream-coloured papillae, while the
legs are bluish-grey. The second or eastern species, first discriminated
by G. Hartlaub (Rev. zoologique, 1841, p. 5; 1842, p. 402, pi. 2) 1
as C. minor, is smaller in size, with plumage just as white, but having
the bill and bare skin of the face black and the legs much darker.
The form of the bill's " sheath " in the two species is also quite
different, for in C. alba it is almost level throughout, while in C. minor
it rises in front like the pommel of a saddle. The western and larger
species gathers its food, consisting chiefly of sea-weeds and shell-
fish, on rocks at low water; but it is also known to eat birds' eggs.
As to the flavour of its flesh, some assert that it is wholly uneatable,
and others that it is palatable. Though most abundant as a shore-
bird, it is frequently met with far out at sea, and has once been shot
in Ireland. It is not uncommon on the Falkland Isles, where it
breeds. C. minor of Kerguelen Land, Prince Edward Island, Marion
Island and the Crozets, is smaller, with pinkish feet. The eggs of
both species, though of peculiar appearance, bear an unmistakable
likeness to those of oyster-catchers, while occasionally exhibiting a
resemblance to those of the tropic-birds.
The systematic position of the sheathbills has been the subject
of much hesitation, but they are now placed in a special family,
Chionidae, amongst Charadniform birds (see BIRDS), not far from
the curious little group of " seed-snipes " of the genera Thinocorys
and Allans, which are peculiar to certain localities in S. America
and its islands. (A. N.)
SHEBOYGAN, a city and the county seat of Sheboygan county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Lake Michigan at the
mouth of the Sheboygan river, about 52 m. N. of Milwaukee.
Pop. (1910 census) 26,398. The population is largely of
German ^descent, and two German newspapers are published;
many Greeks settled here after 1895. Sheboygan is served by
the Chicago & North-Western railway, by interurban electric
lines and by a steam-boat line (the Goodrich Transportation Co.).
The city N. of the river and the southern half of the part S. of
the river are built on a plateau 20-40 ft. above the lake level.
Along the river is the factory district. The principal public
buildings are a fine Federal building in which are housed the post
office and the office of the internal revenue; a Carnegie library,
the Sheboygan County Court House, an opera house, St Nicholas
Hospital and a county insane asylum. Included in the public
school system is a school for deaf children, partly supported
by the state. The city has a good harbour and is an important
distributing point for coal and salt. A rich agricultural region,
(Man. d'ornilhologie, ii. 343); but for all practical purposes we
certainly owe its discovery to the naturalists of Cook's second voyage.
By some error, probably of transcription, New Zealand, instead of
New- Year Island, appears in many works as the place of its discovery,
while not a few writers have added thereto New Holland. Hitherto
there is no real evidence of the occurrence of a Sheathbill in the waters
of Australia or New Zealand.
1 In the Falkland Isles it is called the " Kelp-Pigeon," and by
some of the earlier French navigators the " Pigeon blanc antarctique.
The cognate species of Kerguelen Land is named by the sealers
bore-eyed Pigeon, from its prominent fleshy orbits, as well as
Paddy-bird the last doubtless from its white plumage calling to
mind that of some of the smaller Egrets, so-called by the English in
India and elsewhere.
'Lesson (loc. cit.) cites a brief but correct indication of this
species as observed by Lesquin (Lycie armoricain, x. 36) on
Crozet Island, and, not suspecting it to be distinct, was at a loss
to reconcile the discrepancies of the latter's description with that
given of the other species by earlier authors.
devoted largely to dairying, extends to the N., S. and W., and
large quantities of cheese are exported. Among the city's
other manufactures are furniture, particularly chairs (for which
the city is noted), toys, machinery, bee hives, gloves, knit goods,
brick, carriages, wagons, excelsior, tanned leather, shoes,
enamel ware, canned vegetables (especially peas), beer, flour,
pianos and plumbing supplies. The total value of the factory
product in 1905 was $10,086,648, 38-1% representing furniture;
and 56-7% of the whole number of factory wage-earners were
employed in the furniture factories. A trading post at the
mouth of the Sheboygan river was established about 1820 and
was maintained for about fourteen years; in 1834 a saw-mill
was built at the first rapids of the river, about 2 m. from its
mouth, and during the next three years many settlers came and
a great city was platted on paper. Sheboygan was incorporated
as a village in 1846, and was first chartered as a city in 1853.
Several miles from Sheboygan Falls (pop. in 1905, 1411), a
village about 5 m. W. of Sheboygan and S.W. of Plymouth
(pop. in 1905, 2764), the Spring Farms Association, a Fourierite
community of ten families, farmed successfully thirty acres
of land from 1845 until 1848, when lack of interest in the experi-
ment brought about a dissolution by mutual agreement.
SHECHEM (mod. Nablus), an ancient town of Palestine, S.E.
of Samaria, which first appears in history as the place where
Jacob and his family settled for a while (Gen. xxxiii. 18; cf.
John iv. 12). It was occupied then by Hivites (Gen. xxxiv. 2),
and a tragedy took place in connexion with the chieftain's
violation of Jacob's daughter Dinah. It was set apart as a city
of refuge (Jos. xx. 7) and was occupied by the Kohathite Levites
in the tribe of Ephraim (xxi. 21). Here, between Ebal and
Gerizim, Joshua made his last speech to the elders of the Israelites
(Jos. xxiv. i). The mother of Abimelech the son of Gideon was
a Shechemite, and Shechem was the centre of his short-lived
kingdom (Jud. viii. 31, ix.). Here Rehoboam made the foolish
speech which kindled the revolt of the N. kingdom (i Kings xii. i),
after which it was for a time the headquarters of Jeroboam
(i Kings xii. 25).
Shechem was evidently a holy place in remote antiquity.
The " oak " under which Jacob hid his teraphim (Gen. xxxv. 4)
was doubtless a sacred tree, as there the images (which it was
not seemly to bring on a pilgrimage to Beth-el) would be safe.
The god of the Canaanite city was Baal-Berith: his temple was
destroyed when Abimelech quelled the rising of his fickle subjects
(Jud. ix. 4, 46). A great standing stone under an oak-tree here
was traditionally associated with Joshua's last speech (Jos. xxiv.
26). During the latter part of the Hebrew monarchy we hear
nothing of Shechem, no doubt on account of the commanding
importance of the neighbouring city of Samaria. It no doubt
owed its subsequent development to the destruction of Samaria
and the rise in the district surrounding of the Samaritan nation
founded on the colonists settled by Sargon and Assurbani-pal.
To_Josephus it was " the new city " by the inhabitants called
Mabortha (B. J., IV. viii. i), but the official name Neapolis or
Flavia Neapolis, so called to commemorate its restoration by
Vespasian (Titus Flavius Vespasianus), soon became universal,
and is still preserved in the modern nam Nablus a signal
exception to the general rule that the place-names of Palestine,
whenever disturbed by foreign influence, usually revert in time
to the old Semitic nomenclature.
There was a bishopric at Neapolis during the Byzantine period,
and an attack made by the Samaritans on the bishop (Pentecost,
A.D. 474) was punished by the emperor Zeno, who gave Gerizim
to the Christians. It was captured by the crusaders under
Tancred soon after the conquest of Jerusalem (1099); they held
it till 1184, when they lost it to Saladin. The principal mosque
of the town is a church of the crusaders converted to Mahommedan
worship. Towards the end of the i8th century it was the head-
quarters of the turbulent sheikh Kasim el-Ahmad. In 1834 the
soldiers of Ibrahim Pasha pillaged it.
Nablus is now the chief town of a subdivision of the province of
Beirut. It lies in the valley between Ebal and Gerizim, on the
main caravan route from Jerusalem northward. The situation
SHED SHEEP
817
is famous for its beauty. There are about 24,000 inhabitants
all Moslems except about 150 Samaritans and perhaps 700
Christians. The inhabitants are notorious for fanaticism and
lawlessness, and Europeans are usually greeted with vile epithets.
There are missions, both Protestant and Roman Catholic; and
an important hospital under the auspices of the Church Missionary
Society. There is a flourishing trade in soap, which is here
manufactured, and a considerable commerce in wool and cotton
with the regions E. of the Jordan.
In the neighbourhood of Nablus are shown: (i) a modern building
which covers the traditional site of the tomb of Joseph, as accepted
by Jews, Samaritans and Christians. The authority for the burial
of Joseph at Shechem is the speech of Stephen (Acts yii. 16), though
Josephus places the sepulchre at Hebron (Ant. II. viii. 2). Moslem
tradition also regards Shechem as the burial-place of Joseph; but
it appears as though the actual site, as shown, has not been always
in one unvarying spot. (2) The well of Jacob, about a mile and a
half from Nablus on the way to Jerusalem, which is an excavation of
great depth. The tradition fixing this hallowed place seems to have
been constant throughout the whole of the Christian centuries, and
it is one of the very few " holy places " shown to travellers and
pilgrims in Palestine, the authenticity of which deserves considera-
tion. It is one of the small number of sites mentioned by the
Bordeaux pilgrim (A.D. 333).
The site of the sacred oak has been sought at two places: one
called El-'Amud, "the column" where is "Josephs tomb";
and the other at Balata (a name containing the consonants of the
Semitic word for " oak "), near Jacob's well. (R. A. S. M.)
SHED, (i) A small hut, shelter or outhouse, especially one
with a " shed roof " or " lean-to," a roof with only one set of
rafters, falling from a higher to a lower wall, like an aisle roof.
" Shed " is also the term applied to a large roofed shelter open at
the sides for the storage of goods, rolling-stock, locomotives, &c.,
on a railway or dock-wharf. According to Skeat, the word is a
Kentish form of " shade," " shadow," in O. Eng. scad, sceadu,
cf. Ger. Schatten; the ultimate origin is the root ska-, to cover,
seen in Gr. truta, shadow, <?Kr]vi\, tent, shelter, stage, whence
Eng. " scene "; the Eng. " sky " comes from a closely allied
root sku, also to cover, cf. Lat. obscurus. (2) To spill, to scatter,
to cast off; originally the word seems to have meant to part,
to divide, a use only surviving in " watershed." The O. Eng. verb
was sce&dan, in Mid. Eng. shceden, to divide, separate. " Shed "
in the sense of to spill has, however, by some etymologists been
taken to be a separate word from that meaning to part ; it would
in that case appear to be connected with O. Fris. schedda, to shake,
the root of which is found in " shudder."
SHEDD, WILLIAM GREENOUGH THAYER (1820-1894),
American Presbyterian, was born in Acton, Massachusetts, on
the 2ist of June 1820. In 1839 he graduated at the University
of Vermont, and in 1843 at Andover Theological Seminary.
After a short pastorate at Brandon, Vermont, he was successively
professor of English literature in the University of Vermont
(1845-1852), professor of sacred rhetoric in Auburn Theological
Seminary (1852-1854), professor of church history in Andover
Theological Seminary (1854-1862), and, after one year (1862-
1863) as associate pastor of the Brick Church of New York City,
of sacred literature (1863-1874) and of systematic theology
(1874-1890) in Union Theological Seminary. He died in New
York City on the i7th of November 1894.
Dr Shedd was a high Calvinist and was one of the greatest system-
atic theologians of the American Presbyterian church. His great
work was Dogmatic Theology (3 vols., 1888-1894). He also wrote
Lectures on the Philosophy of History (1856), in which he applied to
history the doctrine of organic evolution; Discourses and Essays
(1856); A Manual of Church History (2 vols., 1857), a translation of
Guericke; A History of Christian Doctrine (2 vols., 1863); Theologi-
cal Essays (1877); Literary Essays (1878); Commentary on the
Epistle to the Romans (1879); The Doctrine of Endless Punishment
(1885); and he edited Coleridge's Complete Works (7 vols., New
York, 1894).
SHEE, SIR MARTIN ARCHER (1770-1850), English portrait-
painter and president of the Royal Academy, was born in
Dublin on the 23rd of December 1770. He was sprung from an
old Irish family, and his father, a merchant, regarded the profes-
sion of a painter as no fit occupation for a descendant of the
Shees. Young Shee became, nevertheless, a student of art in
the Dublin Society, and came early to London, where he was, in
1788, introduced by Burke to Reynolds, by whose advice he
studied in the schools of the Royal Academy. In 1789 he
exhibited his first two pictures, the Head of an Old Man and
Portrait of a Gentleman. During the next ten years he steadily
increased in practice. He was chosen an associate of the Royal
Academy in 1798, shortly after Flaxman, and in 1800 he was
made a Royal Academician. In the former year he had married,
removed to Romney's house in Cavendish Square, and set up as
his successor. Shee continued to paint with great readiness of
hand and fertility of invention, although his portraits were
eclipsed by more than one of his contemporaries, and especially
by Lawrence, Hoppner, Phillips, Jackson and Raeburn. The
earlier portraits of the artist are carefully finished, easy inaction,
with good drawing and excellent discrimination of character.
They show an undue tendency to redness in the flesh painting
a defect which is still more apparent in his later works, in which
the handling is less " square," crisp and forcible. In addition
to his portraits he executed various subjects and historical works,
such as Lavinia, Belisarius, his diploma picture Prospero and
Miranda, and the Daughter of Jephthah. In 1805 he published
a poem consisting of Rhymes on Art, and it was succeeded by a
second part in 1809. Byron spoke well of it in his English Bards
and Scotch Reviewers, and invoked a place for " Shee and genius "
in the temple of fame. Shee published another small volume
of verses in 1814, entitled The Commemoration of Sir Joshua
Reynolds, and other Poems, but this effort did not greatly increase
his fame. He now produced a tragedy called Alasco, of which
the scene was laid in Poland. The play was accepted at Covent
Garden, but Colman, the licenser, refused it his sanction, on the
plea of its containing certain treasonable allusions, and Shee, in
great wrath, resolved to make his appeal to the public. This
violent threat he carried out in 1824, but Alasco is still on the
list of unacted dramas. On the death of Lawrence in 1830,
Shee was chosen president of the Royal Academy, and shortly
afterwards he received the honour of knighthood. In the dispute
regarding the use of rooms to be provided by government, and
in his examination before the parliamentary committee of 1836,
he ably defended the rights of the Academy. He continued to
paint till 1845, and died on the i3th of August 1850.
SHEEP (from the Anglo-Saxon scedp, a word common in
various forms to Teutonic languages; e.g. the German Schaf),
a name originally bestowed in all probability on the familiar
domesticated ruminant (Ovis aries) , but now extended to include
its immediate wild relatives. Although many of the domesticated
breeds are hornless, sheep belong to the family of hollow-horned
ruminants or Bovidae (q.v.). Practically they form a group im-
possible of definition, as they pass imperceptibly into the goats.
Both sexes usually possess horns, but those of the females are
small. In the males the horns are generally angulated, and
marked by fine transverse wrinkles; their colour being greenish
or brownish. They are directed outwards, and curve in an open
spiral, with the tips directed outwards. Although there may be a
fringe of hair on the throat, the males have no beard on the chin;
and they also lack the strong odour characteristic of goats.
Usually the tail is short; and in all the wild species the coat
takes the form of hair, and not wool. Like goats, sheep have
narrow upper molar teeth, very different from those of the oxen,
and narrow hairy muzzles. Between the two middle toes, in
most species, is lodged a deep glandular bag having the form of
a retort with a small external orifice, which secretes an unctuous
and odorous substance. This, tainting the herbage or stones over
which the animal walks, affords the means by which, through
the powerfully developed sense of smell, the neighbourhood of
other individuals of the species is recognized. The crumen or
suborbital face-gland, which is so largely developed and probably
performs the same office in some antelopes and deer, is present,
although in a comparatively rudimentary form, in most species,
but is absent in others. Wild sheep attain their maximum
development, both in respect of number and size, in Central Asia.
They associate either in large flocks, or in family-parties; the
old males generally keeping apart from the rest. Although
essentially mountain animals, sheep generally frequent open.
8i8
SHEEP
undulating districts, rather than the precipitous heights to which
goats are partial. It may be added that the long tails of most
tame breeds are, like wool, in all probability the results of
domestication.
The Pamir plateau, on the confines of Turkestan, at an eleva-
tion of 16,000 ft. above the sea-level, is the home of the magnifi-
cent Ovis poll, named after the celebrated Venetian traveller
Marco Polo, who met with it in the i3th century. It is remark-
able for the great size of the horns of the old rams and the wide
open sweep of their curve, so that the points stand boldly out
on each side, far away from the animal's head, instead of curling
round nearly in the same plane, as in most of the allied species.
A variety inhabiting the Thian Shian is known as O. poli carelini.
An even larger animal is the argali, O. ammon, typically from
the Altai, but represented by one race in Ladak and Tibet
(O. ammon hodgsoni) , and by a second in Mongolia. Although its
horns are less extended laterally than those of O. poli, they are
grander and more massive. In their short summer coats the old
rams of both species are nearly white. Ovis sairensis from the
Sair mountains and 0. liltledalei from Kulja are allied species.
In the Stanovoi mountains and neighbouring districts of E.
Siberia and in Kamchatka occur two sheep which have been
respectively named O. borealis and O. nivicola. They are, how-
ever, so closely allied to the so-called bighorn sheep of N. America,
A Mouflon Ram (Ovis musimon).
that they can scarcely be regarded as more than local races of
O. canadensis, .or O. cervina, as some naturalists prefer to call the
species. These bighorns are characterized by the absence of
face-glands, and the comparatively smooth front surface of the
horns of the old rams, which are thus very unlike the strongly
wrinkled horns of_the argali group. The typical bighorn is the
khaki-coloured and white-rumped Rocky Mountain animal;
but on the Stickin river there is a nearly black race, with the
usual white areas (O. canadensis stonei), while this is replaced in
Alaska by the nearly pure white O. c. dalli; the grey sheep of the
Yukon (O. c. fannini) being perhaps not a distinct form. Return-
ing to Asia, we find in Ladak, Astor, Afghanistan and the Punjab
ranges, a sheep whose local races are variously known as urin,
urial and shapo, and whose technical name is O. vignei. It is
a smaller animal than the members of the argali group, and
approximates to the Armenian and the Sardinian wild sheep or
mouflon (Ovis orientalis and O. musimon) (see MOUFLON). We
nave in Tibet the bharal or blue sheep, Ovis (Pseudois) bharal,
and in N. Africa the udad or aoudad, O. (Ammotragus) lervia,
both of which have no face-glands ' and in this and their smooth
horns approximate to goats (see BHARAL and AOUDAD).
The sheep was domesticated in Asia and Europe before the
dawn of history, though unknown in this state in the New World
until after the Spanish conquest. It has now been introduced by
man into almost all parts of the world where agricultural opera-
tions are carried on, but flourishes especially in the temperate
regions of both hemispheres. Whether this well-known and
useful animal is derived from any one of the existing wild species,
or from the crossing of several, or from some now extinct species,
are matters of conjecture. The variations of external characters
seen in the different breeds are very great. They are chiefly
manifested in the form and number of the horns, which may be
increased from the normal two to four or even eight, or may be
altogether absent in the female alone or in both sexes; in the
shape and length of the ears, which often hang pendent by the
side of the head; in the peculiar elevation or arching of the nasal
bones in some eastern races; in the length of the tail, and the
development of great masses of fat at each side of its root or in
the tail itself; and in the colour and quality of the fleece.
On the W. coast of Africa two distinct breeds of hairy sheep
are indigenous, the one characterized by its large size, long limbs
and smooth coat, and the other by its inferior stature, lower
build and heavily maned neck and throat. Both breeds, which
have short tails and small .horns (present only in the rams),
were regarded by the German naturalist Fitzinger as specifically
distinct from the domesticated Ovis aries of Europe; and for
the first type he proposed the name O. longipes and for the second
O. jubata. Although such distinctions may be doubtful (the two
African breeds are almost certainly descended from one ancestral
form), the retention of such names may be convenient as a
provisional measure.
The long-legged hairy sheep, which stands a good deal taller
than a Southdown, ranges, with a certain amount of local varia-
tion, from Lower Guinea to the Cape. In addition to its long
limbs, it is characterized by its Roman nose, large (but not droop-
ing) ears, and the presence of a dewlap on the throat and chest.
The ewes are hornless, but in Africa the rams have very short,
thick and somewhat goatlike horns. On the other hand, in the
W. Indian breed, which has probably been introduced from
Africa, both sexes are devoid of horns. The colour is variable.
In the majority of cases it appears to be pied, showing large
blotches of black or brown on a white ground; the head being
generally white with large black patches on the sides, most of the
neck and the fore-part of the body black, and the hind-quarters
white with large coloured blotches. On the other hand, these
sheep may be uniformly yellowish white, reddish brown, greyish
brown or even black. The uniformly reddish or chestnut-brown
specimens approach most nearly to the wild mouflon or urial
in colour, but the chestnut extends over the whole of the under-
parts and flanks; domestication having probably led to the
elimination of the white belly and dark flank band, which are
doubtless protective characters. The feeble development of the
horns is probably also a feature due to domestication.
In Angola occurs a breed of this sheep which has probably
been crossed with the fat-tailed Malagasy breed; while in Guinea
there is a breed with lappets, or wattles, on the throat, which is
probably the result of a cross with the lop-eared sheep of the
same district. The Guinea lop-eared breed, it may be mentioned,
is believed to inherit its drooping ears and throat wattles from
an infusion of the blood of the Roman-nosed hornless Theban
goat (see GOAT). Hairy long-legged sheep are also met with in
Persia, but are not pure-bred, being apparently the result of a
cross between the long-legged Guinea breed and the fat-tailed
Persian sheep.
The maned hairy sheep (Ovis jubata), which appears to be
confined to the W. coast of Africa, takes its name from a mane
of longish hair on the throat and neck; the hair on the body
being also longer than in the ordinary long-legged sheep. This
breed is frequently black or brown and white; but in a small
sub-breed from the Cameroons the general colour is chestnut or
foxy red, with the face, ears, buttocks, lower surface of tail
and under-parts black. The most remarkable thing about this
Cameroon sheep is, however, its extremely diminutive size, a
full-grown ram standing only 19 in. at the withers.
In point of size this pigmy Cameroon breed comes very close
to an exceedingly small sheep of which the limb-bones have been
SHEEP
PLATE I.
LINCOLN LONGWOOL RAM.
LEICESTER RAM.
WENSLEYDALE RAM.
DEVON LONGWOOL RAM.
SOUTHDOWN RAM.
HAMPSHIRE DOWN RAM.
OXFORD DOWN RAM.
SHROPSHIRE RAM.
BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP, from photographs by F. Babbage. The comparative sizes of the animals are indicated by
XXIV. 818. the scale of reproduction.
PLATE II.
SHEEP
KENT OR ROMNEY MARSH RAM
LONK RAM.
WELSH MOUN1
BRITISH BREEDS OF SHEEP, from photographs by F. Babbage. The comparative sizes of the animals are indicated by
the scale of reproduction.
SHEEP
819
found in certain ancient deposits in the S. of England; and the
question arises whether the two breeds may not have been nearly
related. Although there are no means of ascertaining whether
the extinct pigmy British sheep was clothed with hair or with
wool, it is practically certain that some of the early European
sheep retained hair like that of their wild ancestor; and there
is accordingly no prima facie reason why the breed in question
should not have been hairy. On the other hand, since the so-
called peat-sheep of the prehistoric Swiss lake-dwellers appears
to be represented by the existing Graubunden (Grisons) breed,
which is woolly and coloured something like a Southdown, it may
be argued that the former was probably also woolly, and hence
that the survival of a hairy breed in a neighbouring part of
Europe would be unlikely. The latter part of the argument is
not very convincing, and it is legitimate to surmise that in the
small extinct sheep of the S. of England we may have a possible
relative of the pigmy hairy sheep of W. Africa.
Fat-rumped sheep, Ovis steatopyga, are common to Africa and
Asia, and are piebald with rudimentary horns, and a short hairy
coat, being bred entirely for their milk and flesh. In fat-tailed
sheep, on the other hand, which have much the same distribution,
the coat is woolly and generally piebald. Four-horned sheep are
common in Iceland and the Hebrides; the small half -wild breed
of Soa often showing this reduplication. There is another four-
horned breed, distinguished by its black (in place of brown)
horns, whose home is probably S. Africa. In the unicorn sheep
of Nepal or Tibet the two horns of the rams are completely
welded together. In the Himalayan and Indian hunia sheep, the
rams of which are specially trained for fighting, and have highly
convex foreheads, the tail is short at birth. Most remarkable of
all is the so-called Wallachian sheep, or Zackelschaf (Ovis
strepsiceros), represented by several more or less distinct breeds
in E. Europe, in which the long upright horns are spirally twisted
like those of the mazkhor wild goat.
For the various breeds of wild sheep see R. Lydekker, Wild Oxen,
Sheep and Goats (London, 1898), and later papers in the Proceedings
of the Zoological Society of London. Also Rowland Ward, Records
of Big Game (sth ed., London, 1906). (R. L.*)
Modern British Breeds of Sheep. The sheep native to the
British Isles may be classified as the lowland and the mountain
breeds, and subdivided into longwools and shortwools the
latter including the Down breeds, sometimes termed black-faced.
The longwool breeds are the Leicester, Border Leicester, Cotswold,
Lincoln, Kent, Devon Longwool, South Devon, Wensleydale
and Roscommon. The short-wool breeds are the Oxford Down,
Southdown, Shropshire, Hampshire Down, Suffolk, Ryeland,
Dorset and Somerset Horn, Kerry Hill, Radnor and Clun Forest.
The mountain breeds include the Cheviot, Scotch Black-face,
Lonk, Rough Swaledale, Derbyshire Gritstone, Penistone,
Limestone, Herdwick, Dartmoor, Exmoor and Welsh Mountain.
These breeds are all English, except the Border Leicester,
Cheviot and Scotch Black-face, which belong to Scotland; the
Welsh Mountain, which belongs to Wales; and the Roscommon,
which is Irish. The majority of the true mountain breeds are
horned, the males only in the cases of Cheviot, Herdwick,
Penistone and Welsh, though most Cheviot and many Herdwick
rams are hornless. Of Derbyshire Gritstone neither sex has
horns. In the other horned breeds, the Dorset and Somerset,
Limestone, Exmoor, Old Norfolk, and Western or Old Wiltshire,
both sexes have horns. The remaining breeds are hornless.
The white-faced breeds include the Leicester, Border Leicester,
Lincoln, Kentish, Cheviot, Ryeland, Devon Longwool, South
Devon, Dorset and Somerset Horn, Limestone, Penistone,
Exmoor and Roscommon.
The Leicester, though now not numerous, is of high interest.
It was the breed which Robert Bakewell took in hand in the i8th
century, and greatly improved by the exercise of his skill and
judgment. Bakewell lived at Dishley Grange, Leicestershire,
and in France the Leicester sheep are still called Dishleys. In
past times Leicester blood was extensively employed in the
improvement or establishment of other longwool breeds of sheep.
The Leicester, as seen now, ha* a white wedge-shaped face, the
forehead covered with wool; thin mobile ears; neck full
towards the trunk, short and level with the back; width over
the shoulders and through the heart; a full broad breast; fine
clean legs standing well apart; deep round barrel and great depth
of carcass; firm flesh, springy pelt, and pink skin, covered with
fine, curly, lustrous wool. The breed is maintained pure upon the
rich pastures of Leicestershire, E. and N. Yorkshire, Cheshire,
Cumberland and Durham, but its chief value is for crossing,
when it is found to promote maturity and to improve the fattening
propensity.
The Border Leicester originated after the death in 1795 of
Bakewell, when the Leicester breed, as it then existed, diverged
into two branches. The one is represented by the breed still
known in England as the Leicester. The other, bred on the
Scottish Borders, with an early admixture of Cheviot blood,
acquired the name of Border Leicester. The distinguishing
characteristics of the latter are: that it is an upstanding animal
of gay appearance with light offal; and has a long though strong
neck carrying a long, lean, clean head covered with white, hard,
but not wiry hair, free from wool, long highset ears and a black
muzzle; back broad and muscular, belly well covered with
wool; legs clean, and a fleece of long white wavy wool, arranged
in characteristic locks or pirls.
The Blue-faced Wensleydales take their name from the York-
shire dale of which Thirsk is the centre. They are longwool
sheep, derived from the old Teeswater breed by crossing with
Leicester rams. They have a tuft of wool on the forehead. The
skin of the body is sometimes blue, whilst the wool has a bright
lustre, is curled in small distinct pirls, and is of uniform staple.
The rams are in much favour in Scotland and the N. of England
for crossing with ewes of the various black-faced horned mountain
breeds to produce mutton of superior quality and to use the
cross-ewes to breed to a pure longwool or sometimes a Down ram.
The Cotswold is an old-established breed of the Gloucestershire
hills, extending thence into Oxfordshire. It was but slightly
crossed for improvement by the Dishley Leicesters and has
retained its characteristic type for generations. They are big,
handsome sheep, with finely-arched necks and graceful carriage.
With their broad, straight backs, curved ribs, and capacious
quarters, they carry a great weight of carcass upon strong,
wide-standing legs. The fine white fleece of long wavy wool gives
the Cotswold an attractive appearance, which is enhanced by its
topknot or forelock. The mutton of the Cotswolds is not of high
quality except at an early age, but the sheep are useful for
crossing purposes to impart size, and because they are excep-
tionally hardy.
The Lincolns are descended from the old native breed of
Lincolnshire, improved by the use of Leicester blood. They are
hardy and prolific, but do not quite equal the Cotswolds in size.
They have larger, bolder heads than the Leicesters. Breeders of
Lincoln rams like best a darkish face, with a few black spots on
the ears; and white legs. The wool has a broad staple, and is
denser and longer, and the fleece heavier, than in any other
British breed. For this reason it has been the breed most in
favour with breeders in all parts of the world for mating with
Merino ewes and their crosses. The progeny is a good general-
purpose sheep, giving a large fleece of wool but only a medium
quality of mutton. With a greater proportion of Lincoln blood
in the mixed flocks of the world there is a growing tendency to
produce finer mutton by using Down rams, but at the sacrifice
of part of the yield of wool. In 1906 Henry Dudding, of Riby
Grove, Lincolnshire, obtained at auction the sum of 1450 guineas
for a Lincoln ram bred by him, the highest price paid for a
sheep in the United Kingdom. In the same year Robert and
William Wright, of Nocton Heath, Lincoln, sold their flock of
950 animals to Senor Manuel Cobo, Buenos Aires, for 30,000.
The Devon Longwool is a breed locally developed in the valleys
of W. Somerset, N. and E. Devon, and parts of Cornwall. It
originated in a strong infusion of Leicester blood amongst the old
Bampton stock of Devonshire. The Devon Longwool is not
unlike the Lincoln, but is coarser. It is white-faced, with a lock
of wool on the forehead.
The South Devon or South Dum are, like the cattle of that
820
SHEEP
name, a strictly local breed, which likewise exemplify the good
results of crossing with the Leicesters. The South Devons have
a fairly fine silky fleece of long staple, heavier than that of the
Devon Longwool, which it also excels in size.
The Roscommon the one breed of modern sheep native to
Ireland is indebted for its good qualities largely to the use
of Leicester blood. It is a big-bodied, high-standing sheep,
carrying a long, wavy, silky fleece. It ranges mainly from the
middle of Ireland westwards, but its numbers have declined
considerably in competition with the Shropshire.
The Kent or Romney Marsh is native to the rich tract ot
grazing land on the S. coast of Kent. They are hardy, white-
faced sheep, with a close-coated longwool fleece. They were
gradually, like the Cotswolds, improved from the original type
of slow-maturity sheep by selection in preference to the use of
rams of the Improved Leicester breed. With the exception of
the Lincoln, no breed has received greater distinction in New
Zealand, where it is in high repute for its hardiness and general
usefulness. When difficulties relating to the quantity and quality
of food arise the Romney is a better sheep to meet them than the
Lincolns or other longwools.
The Oxford Down is a modern breed which owes its origin to
crossing between Cotswolds and Hampshire Downs and South-
downs. Although it has inherited the forelock from its longwool
ancestors, it approximates more nearly to the shortwool type,
and is accordingly classified as such. An Oxford Down ram has
a bold masculine head; the poll well covered with wool and
the forehead adorned by a topknot; ears self-coloured, upright,
and of fair length; face of uniform dark brown colour; legs
short, dark, and free from spots; back level and chest wide;
and the fleece heavy and thick. The breed is popular in Oxford
and other midland counties. Its most notable success in recent
years is on the Scottish and English borders, where, at the
annual ram sales at Kelso, a greater number of rams is auctioned
of this than of any other breed, to cross with flocks of Leicester-
Cheviot ewes especially, but also with Border Leicesters and
three-paJts-bred ewes. It is supplanting the Border Leicester
as a sire of mutton sheep; for, although its progeny is slower in
reaching maturity, tegs can be fed to greater weights in spring
65 to 68 Ib per carcass without becoming too fat to be
classed as finest quality.
The Southdown, from the short close pastures upon the chalky
soils of the South Downs in Sussex, was formerly known as the
Sussex Down. In past times it did for the improvement of the
shortwool breeds of sheep very much the same kind of work
that the Leicester performed in the case of the longwool breeds.
A pure-bred Southdown sheep has a small head, with a light
brown or brownish grey (often mouse-coloured) face, fine bone,
and a symmetrical, well-fleshed body. The legs are short and
neat, the animal being of small size compared with the other
Down sheep. The fleece is of fine, close, short wool, and the
mutton is excellent. " Underbill " flocks that have been kept
for generations in East Anglia, on the Weald, and on flat
meadow land in other parts of the country, have assumed a
heavier type than the original " Upperdown " sheep. It was at
one time thought not to be a rent-paying breed, but modern
market requirements have brought it well within that category.
The Shropshire is descended from the old native sheep of the
Salopian hills, improved by the use of Southdown blood. Though
heavier in fleece and a bulkier animal, the Shropshire resembles
an enlarged Southdown. As distinguished from the latter,
however, the Shropshire has a darker face, blackish brown as a
rule, with very neat ears, whilst its head is more massive, and is
better covered with wool on the top and at the sides. This breed
has made rapid strides in recent years, and it has acquired favour
in Ireland as well as abroad. It is an early-maturity breed, and
no other Down produces a better back to handle for condition
the frame is so thickly covered with flesh and fat.
The Hampshire Down is another breed which owes much of its
improved character to an infusion of Southdown blood. Early
in the ipth century the old Wiltshire white-faced horned sheep,
with a scanty coat of hairy wool, and the Berkshire Knot,
roamed over the downs of their native counties. Only a remnant
of the former under the name of the Western sheep survives in a
pure state, but their cross descendants are seen in the modern
Hampshire Down, which originated by blending them with the
Southdown. Early maturity and great size have been the
objects aimed at and attained, this breed, more perhaps than
any other, being identified with early maturity. One reason
for this is the early date at which the ewes take the ram. Whilst
heavier than the Shropshire, the Hampshire Down sheep is less
symmetrical. It has a black face and legs, a big head with
Roman nose, darkish ears set well back, and a broad level back
(especially over the shoulders) nicely filled in with lean meat.
The Dorset Down or West Country Down, " a middle type of
Down sheep pre-eminently suited to Dorsetshire," is a local
variety of the Hampshire Down breed, separated by the forma-
tion of a Dorset Down sheep society in 1904, about eighty years
after the type of the breed had been established.
The Suffolk is another Down, which took its origin about 1790
in the crossing of improved Southdown rams with ewes of the
old black-face Horned Norfolk, a breed still represented by a
limited number of animals. The characteristics of the latter are
retained in the black face and legs of the Suffolk, but the horns
have been bred out. The fleece is moderately short, the wool
being of close, fine, lustrous fibre, without any tendency to mat.
The limbs, woolled to the knees and hocks, are clean below. The
breed is distinguished by having the smoothest and blackest
face and legs of all the Down breeds and no wool on the head.
Although it handles hard on the back when fat, no breed except
the old Horned Norfolk equals it in producing a saddle cut of
mutton with such an abundance of lean red meat in proportion
to fat. It carried off the highest honours in the dressed carcass
competition at Chicago in 1903, and the championship in the
" block test " at Smithfield Club Show was won for the five years
1902-1906 by Suffolks or Suffolk cross lambs from big-framed
Cheviot ewes. In 1907, the championship went to a Cheviot
wether, but in the two pure, short-woolled classes all the ten
awards were secured by Suffolks, and in the two cross-bred
wether classes nine of the ten awards went to a Suffolk cross.
The mutton of all the Down breeds is of superior quality, but
that of the Suffolk is pre-eminently so.
The Cheviot takes its name from the range of hills stretching
along the boundary between England and Scotland, on both sides
of which the breed now extends, though larger types are produced
in East Lothian and in Sutherlandshire. The Cheviot is a hardy
sheep with straight wool, of moderate length and very close-set,
whilst wiry white hair covers the face and legs. Put to the
Border Leicester ram the Cheviot ewe produces the HalJ-bred,
which as a breeding ewe is unsurpassed as a rent-paying, arable-
land sheep.
The Scotch Black-face breed is chiefly reared in Scotland, but
it is of N. of England origin. Their greater hardiness, as com-
pared with the Cheviots, has brought them into favour upon the
higher grounds of the N. of England and of Scotland, where
they thrive uoon heather hills and coarse and exposed grazing
lands. The colour of face and legs is well-defined black and white,
the black predominating. The spiral horns are low at the crown,
with a clear space between the roots, and sweep in a wide curve,
sloping slightly backwards, and clear of the cheek. The fashion-
able fleece is down to the ground, hairy and strong, and of
uniform quality throughout.
The Lonk has its home amongst the moorlands of N. Lancashire
and the W. Riding of Yorkshire, and it is the largest of the
mountain breeds of the N. of England and Scotland. It bears most
resemblance to the Scotch Black-face, but carries a finer, heavier
fleece, and is larger in head. Its face and legs are mottled black
and white, and its horns are strong. The tail is long and rough.
The Herdwick is the hardiest of all the breeds thriving upon the
poor mountain land in Cumberland and Westmorland. The
rams sometimes have small, curved, wide horns like those of the
Cheviot ram. The colour of the fleece is white, with a few
darkish spots here and there; the faces and legs are dark in the
lambs, gradually becoming white or light grey in a few years.
SHEEP
821
The wool is strong and coarse, standing up round the shoulders
and down the breast like a mane. The forehead has a topknot,
and the tail is well covered.
The Limestone is a breed of which little is heard. It is almost
restricted to the fells of Westmorland, and is probably nearly
related to the Scotch Black-face. The breed does not thrive off
its own geological formation, and the ewes seek the ram early in
the season. The so-called " Limestones " of the Derbyshire
hills are really Leicesters.
The Welsh Mountain is a small, active, soft-woolled, white-
faced breed of hardy character. The legs are often yellowish,
and this colour may extend to the face. The mutton is of
excellent quality. The ewes, although difficult to confine by
ordinary fences, are in high favour in lowland districts for
breeding fattening lambs to Down and other early maturity rams.
The Clun Forest is a local breed in W. Shropshire and the
adjacent part of Wales. It is descended from the old Tan-faced
sheep. It is now three parts Shropshire, having been much
crossed with that breed, but its wool is rather coarser.
The Radnor is short-limbed and low-set with speckled face and
legs. It is related to the Clun Forest and the Kerry Hill sheep.
The draft ewes of all three breeds are in high demand for breeding
to Down and longwool rams in the English midlands.
The Ryeland breed is so named from the Ryelands, a poor
upland district in Herefordshire. It is a very old breed, against
which the Shropshires have made substantial headway. Its
superior qualities in wool and mutton production have been fully
demonstrated, and a demand for rams is springing up in S. as
well as in N. America. The Ryeland sheep are small, hornless,
have white faces and legs, and remarkably fine short wool, with
a topknot on the forehead.
The Dartmoor, a hardy local Devonshire breed, is a large horn-
less, longwool, white-fleeced sheep, with a long mottled face.
It has been attracting attention in recent years.
The Exmoor is a horned breed of Devonshire moorland, one
of the few remaining remnants of direct descent from the old
forest breeds of England. They have wjiite legs and faces and
black nostrils. The coiled horns lie more closely to the head than
in the Dorset and Somerset Horn breed. The Exmoors have a
close, fine fleece of short wool. They are very hardy, and yield
mutton of choice flavour.
The Dorset and Somerset Horn is an old west-country breed of
sheep. The fleece is fine in quality, of close texture, and the wool
is intermediate between long and short, whilst the head carries
a forelock. Both sexes have horns, very much coiled in the ram.
The muzzle, legs and hoofs are white; the nostrils pink. This
is a hardy breed, in size somewhat exceeding the Southdown.
The special characteristic of the breed is that the ewes take the
ram at an unusually early period of the year, and cast ewes are
in demand for breeding house lamb for Christmas. Two crops of
lambs in a year are sometimes obtained from the ewes, although
it does not pay to keep such rapid breeding up regularly.
The Merino is the most widely distributed sheep in the world.
From a photo in Professor Robert Wallace's Farm Live Stock of Great Britain Uth
edition) - Champion Merino Ram.
It has been the foundation stock of the flocks of all the great
sheep countries. A few have existed in Britain for more than a
hundred years. They thrive well there, as they do everywhere,
but they are wool-sheep which produce slowly a secondary
quality of mutton thin and blue in appearance. The Merino
resemble the Dorset Horn breed. The rams possess large coiling
horns the ewes may or may not have them. The muzzle is
flesh-coloured and the face covered with wool. The wool,
densely set on a wrinkled skin, is white and generally fine, al-
though it is classified into long, short, fine and strong. Merino
cross with early-maturity longwool, Down, or other close- wooled
rams, are good butchers' sheep, and most of the frozen mutton
imported into the United Kingdom has had more or less of a
merino origin. (W. FR. ; R. W.)
Lowland Sheep-breeding and Feeding. A Shropshire flock of about
two hundred breeding ewes is here taken as a typical example of the
numerous systems of managing sheep on a mixed farm of grazing
and arable land. The ewes lamb from early in January till the
end of February. The lambs have the shelter of a lambing shed for
a few days. When drafted to an adjoining field they run in front
of their mothers and get a little crushed oats and linseed cake meal,
the ewes receiving kail or roots and hay to develop milk. Swedes
gradually give place to mangolds, rye and clover before the end of
April, when shearing of the ewe flock begins, to be finished early in
May. At this time unshorn lambs are dipped and dosed with one
of Copper's tablets of sulphur-arsenic dip material to destroy internal
parasites. The operation is repeated in September. The lambs
are weaned towards the end of June and the ewes run on the poorest
pasture till August to lose surplus fat. In August the ewes are culled
and the flock made up to its full numbers by selected shearling ewes.
All are assorted and mated to suitable rams. Most of the older
ewes take the ram in September, but maiden ewes are kept back till
October. During the rest of the year the ewes run on grass and
receive hay when necessary, with a limited amount of dry artificial
food daily, \ ft each, gradually rising as they grow heavy in lamb
to I Ib per day. Turnips before lambing, if given in liberal quantities,
are an unsafe food. To increase the number of doubles, ewes are
sometimes put on good fresh grass, rape or mustard a week before
the tups go out a ram to sixty ewes is a usual proportion, though
with care a stud ram can be got to settle twice the number. With
good management twenty ewes of any of the lowland breeds should
produce and rear thirty lambs, and the proportion can be increased
by breeding from ewes with a prolific tendency. The period of
gestation of a ewe is between 21 and 22 weeks, and the period of
oestrum 24 hours. If not settled the ewe comes back to the ram in
from 13 to 1 8 (usually 16) days. To indicate the time or times of
tupping three colours of paint are used. The breast of the ram is
rubbed daily for the first fortnight with blue, for a similar period
with red, and finally with black.
Fattening tegs usually go on to soft turnips in the end of September
or beginning of October, and later on to yellows, green-rounds and
swedes and, in spring and early summer, mangolds. The roots are
cut into fingers and supplemented by an allowance of concentrated
food made up of a mixture of ground cakes and meal, J ft rising to
about i ft; and \ Ib to I Ib of hay per day. The dry substance
consumed per 100 ft live weight in a ration of J ft cake and corn,
12 ft roots and I ft hay daily, would be 165 ft per week, and this
gives an increase of nearly 2% live weight or I ft of live weight
increase for 8J ft of dry food eaten. Sheep finishing at 135 ft live
weight yield about 53 % of carcass or over 70 ft each.
Management of Mountain Breeds. Ewes on natural pastures
receive no hand feeding except a little hay when snow deeply covers
the ground. The rams come in from the hills on the 1st of January
and are sent to winter on turnips. Weak ewes, not safe to survive
the hardships of spring, are brought in to better pasture during
February and March. Ewe hogs wintered on grass in the low country
from the 1st of November are brought home in April, and about the
middle of April on the average mountain ewes begin to lamb. One
lamb at weaning time for every ewe is rather over the normal amount
of produce. Cheviot and cross-bred lambs are marked, and the
males are castrated, towards the end of May. Nearly a month
later black-face lambs are marked and the eild sheep are shorn
the shearing of milch ewes being delayed till the second week of July.
Towards the end of July sheep are all dipped to protect them from
maggot flies (which are generally worst during August) with
materials containing arsenic and sulphur, like that of Cooper and
Bigg. Fat wethers for the butcher are drafted from the hills in
August and the two succeeding months. Lamb sales are most
numerous in August, when lowland farmers secure their tegs to feed
in winter. In this month breeding ewes recover condition and
strength to withstand the winter storms. Ram auctions are on in
September and draft ewe sales begin and continue through October.
Early this month winter dipping is done at midday in dry weather.
Early in November stock sheep having lost the distinguishing
" buist " put on at clipping time with a large iron letter dipped
in hot tar, have the distinctive paint or kiel mark claimed by the
farm to which they belong rubbed on the wool. The rams are
turned out to the hills between the 15th and the 24th of November.
822
SHEEPSHANKS SHEFFIELD
Lowland rams put to breed half-bred and cross lambs receive about
I Ib of grain daily to prevent their falling off too rapidly in condition,
as they would do if exclusively supported on mountain fare.
LITERATURE. D. Low, Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the
British Isles (1842, illustrated, and 1845) ; R. Wallace, Farm Live Stock
of Great Britain (1907); J. Coleman, Sheep of Great Britain (1907),
and the Flock Books of the various breed societies. (R. W.)
SHEEPSHANKS, JOHN (1787-1863), British manufacturer
and art collector, was born in Leeds, and became a partner in
his father's business as a cloth manufacturer. His brother
Richard (1794-1855) was a distinguished astronomer and man
of science, whose collection of instruments eventually passed to
the Royal Astronomical Society. John Sheepshanks collected
pictures, mainly by British artists, and in 1857 presented his
magnificent collection to the nation. He retired from business
in 1833 and died a bachelor in 1863.
SHEEPSHEAD, the name of one of the largest species of the
genus Sargus, marine fishes known on the coasts of S. Europe
as " sargo " or " saragu." These fishes possess two kinds of
teeth: one, broad and flat, like incisors, occupying in a single
series the front of the jaws; the other, semiglobular and molar-
like, arranged in several series on the sides of the jaws. The
genus belongs to the Acanthopterygian family Sparidae which
includes the Sea-breams. The sheepshead, Sargus ovis, occurs in
abundance on the Atlantic coasts of the United States, from
Cape Cod to Florida, and is one of the most valued food-fishes of
Sheepshead.
North America. It is said to attain to a length of 30 in. and a
weight of 15 Ib. Its food consists of shellfish, which it detaches
with its incisors from the base to which they are fixed, crushing
them with its powerful molars. It may be distinguished from
other allied species by seven or eight dark cross-bands traversing
the body, by a recumbent spine in front of the dorsal fin, by
twelve spines and as many rays of the dorsal and ten rays of the
anal fin, and by forty-six scales along the lateral line. The term
" sheepshead " is also given in some parts of North America
to a freshwater Sciaenoid, Corvina oscula, which is much less
esteemed for the table.
SHEERNESS, a garrison town and naval seaport in the
Faversham parliamentary division of Kent, England, in the
Isle of Sheppey, on the right bank of the Medway estuary at its
junction with the Thames, 51 m. E. of London by the South-
Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
18,179. Blue Town, the older part of the town, with the dock-
yard, is defended by strong modern-built fortifications, especi-
ally the forts of Garrison Point and Barton's Point, commanding
the entrance of both the Thames and the Medway. The dockyard,
chiefly used for naval repairs, covers about 60 acres, and consists
of three basins and large docks, the depth of water in the basins
ranging down to 26 ft. Within the yard there are extensive
naval stores and barracks. Outside the dockyard are the
residences of the admiral of the home fleet and other officers,
and barracks. The harbour is spacious, sheltered, and deep
even at low water. Sheerness has some trade in corn and seed,
and there is steamboat connexion with Port Victoria, on the
opposite side of the Medway; with Southend, on the opposite
side of the Thames; and with Chatham and London, and the
town is in some favour as a seaside resort. A small fort was
built at Sheerness by Charles II., which, on the loth of July 1667,
was taken by the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter.
SHEET, an expanse or surface, flat and thin, of various
materials ; a rope attached to a sail. These two apparently widely
separated meanings are to be explained by the generally received
etymology. In O. Eng. there are three words, all from the
root seen in " shoot," to dart, let fly, thrust forward; scete or
scyte, a sheet of cloth, sceat, corner or fold of a garment, projecting
angles, region (e.g. sees scedt, portion of the sea, gulf, bay), and
sceata, foot of a sail, pes veli (Wright, Gloss.). The original
meaning, according to Skeat, is " projection," or that which
shoots out, then a corner, especially of a garment or of a cloth;
after which it was extended to mean a whole cloth or " sheet."
In Icelandic, the cognate word skaut has much the same meanings,
including that of a rope attached to a sail. Other cognate forms
in Teutonic languages are Ger. Schoss, lap, bosom, properly fold
of a garment, Dutch school, Icel. skaut, &c. In current English
usage, " sheet " is commonly applied to any flat, thin surface, such
as a sheet of paper, a sheet of metal, or, in a transferred appli-
cation, to an expanse of water, ice, fire, &c. More specifically
it is used of a rectangular piece of linen or cotton used as that
part of the usual bed clothes which are next the sleeper's body.
In nautical usage the term " sheet " is applied to a rope or chain
attached to the lower corners of a sail for the purpose of extension
or change of direction (see RIGGING). The connexion in deriva-
tion with " shoot " is clearly seen in " sheet-anchor," earlier
" shoot-anchor " one that is kept in reserve, to be " shot " in
case of emergency (see ANCHOR).
SHEFFIELD, JOHN BAKER HOLROYD, IST EARL OF (1735-
1821), English politician, came of a Yorkshire family, a branch
of which had settled in Ireland. He inherited considerable
wealth, and in 1769 bought Sheffield Place in Sussex from
Lord de la Warr. Having served in the army he entered the
House of Commons in 1780, and in that year was prominent
against Lord George Gordon and the rioters. In 1783 he was
created an Irish peer as Baron Sheffield of Roscommon, a barony
of the United Kingdom (Sheffield of Sheffield, Yorks) being
added in 1802. In 1816 he was created Viscount Pevensey
and earl of Sheffield. He was a great authority on farming,
and in 1803 he was made president of the Board of Agriculture;
but he is chiefly remembered as the friend of Gibbon (q.v.),
whose works he afterwards edited. His son and grandson
succeeded as 2nd and 3rd earls, the latter (1832-1909) being a
well-known patron of cricket, at whose death the earldom
became extinct. The Irish barony, however, under a special
remainder, passed to the 4th baron Stanley of Alderley, who
thtis became Baron Sheffield of Roscommon.
SHEFFIELD, a city, and municipal, county and parlia-
mentary borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
158$ m. N.N.W. from London. Pop. (1901) 409,070. It is
served by the Midland, Great Central and Great Northern
railways, and has direct connexion with all the principal lines in
the north of England. The principal stations are Victoria (Great
Central) and Midland. Sheffield is situated on hilly ground in
the extreme south of the county, and at the junction of several
streams with the river Don, the principal of which are the Sheaf,
the Porter, the Rivelin and the Loxley. The manufacturing
quarter lies mainly in the Don valley, while the chief residential
suburbs extend up the picturesque hills to the south. The centre
of the city, with the majority of the public buildings, lies on the
slope south of the Don, and here are several handsome thorough-
fares. The older portions were somewhat irregular and over-
crowded, but a great number of improvements were effected
under an act of 1875, and have been steadily continued. There
is an extensive system of tramways, serving the outlying town-
ships. The parish church of St Peter is a cruciform building,
mainly Perpendicular. The original Norman building is supposed
SHEFFIELD
823
to have been burned during the wars of Edward III. with
the barons, and the most ancient existing part is the tower,
'dating from the i4th century. A restoration in 1880, when
transepts and a W. front were added, improved the church by
demolishing the galleries and other heavy internal fittings.
There are a number of interesting mural monuments; and the
Shrewsbury chapel contains a fine tomb of the 4th earl of Shrews-
bury, who founded it in the i6th century. Of the principal
public buildings, the town hall was opened by Queen Victoria
in 1897. It is a fine building in the style of the Renaissance,
surmounted by a lofty tower, which is crowned by an emblematic
statue in bronze. The Cutlers' hall was built in 1 83 2 and enlarged
in 1857 by the addition of a magnificent banqueting hall. The
handsome corn exchange, in Tudor style, and the market hall
were acquired from the duke of Norfolk by the corporation.
Among several theatres, the Theatre Royal was originally
erected in 1793. Others are the Alexandra, Lyceum and
Alhambra. There are extensive barracks. Literary and social
institutions include the Athenaeum (1847), with news-room and
library; the literary and philosophical society (1822), the
Sheffield club (1862), the Sheffield library, founded in 1777, and
the free library (1856), with several branches. The public
museum and the Mappin art gallery are situated in Weston Park ;
and in Meersbrook Hall is the fine Ruskin museum, containing
Ruskin's art, mineralogical, natural history, and botanical
collections, and some original drawings and valuable books.
These are in the custody of the corporation. Beyond St Peter's
church relics of antiquity are few, but there remains a part of
the manor-house of Hallam, dating from the i6th century. In
the S. of the city is Broom Hall, a fine ancient half-timbered
building.
The educational establishments are important. University
College, constituted by that title in 1897, was founded in 1879
as the Firth College by Mark Firth (1819-1880), an eminent
steel-manufacturer. This institution was enlarged in 1892, and
comprised, besides the college, a technical department (1886)
occupying the buildings of the former grammar school, and
equipped with metallurgical laboratories, steel works, iron
foundry, a machine and fitting shop, &c. ; and a medical school,
together with a school of pharmacy. In 1903 the foundation was
laid of a building, at Western Bank, to contain the departments
of medicine, arts, pure science, commerce, &c. When the
college became dissociated in 1904 from the Victoria University,
Manchester, of which it had formed a constituent, the necessary
financial and other preparations were taken in hand to enable
the college to be incorporated as the Sheffield University, and it
was opened as such by King Edward VII. Other educational
institutions are the free writing school (1715, rebuilt in 1827),
the boys' charity school (founded 1706), the girls' charity school
(1786), the Church of England educational institute, the Roman
Catholic reformatory (1861), the Wesley College, associated
with London University, Ranmoor College of the Methodist
New Connexion, the mechanics' institute, and the school of
art.
Among numerous medical or benevolent institutions may be
mentioned the general infirmary, opened in 1797; the public
hospital, erected in 1858 in connexion with the Sheffield medical
school established in 1792; the school and manufactory for the
blind, 1879, an d the South Yorkshire lunatic asylum, 1872.
Among many charities founded by citizens the most noteworthy
is the Shrewsbury hospital for twenty men and twenty women,
originally founded by the 7th earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1616),
but greatly enlarged by successive benefactions.
Among public monuments are the statue of Queen Victoria
before the town hall; the statue to James Montgomery the poet
(1771-1854), chiefly erected by the Sunday school teachers of
Sheffield; the monument in Weston Park to Ebenezer Elliot
(1781-1849), known as the Corn Law rhymer; the column to
Godfrey Sykes the artist (1825-1866); the monument to those
who died during an outbreak of cholera in 1833; and the monu-
ment to the natives of Sheffield who fell in the Crimean War.
Sir Francis Chantrey, the eminent sculptor, was born (1781) and
died (1842) near Norton in Derbyshire, in the neighbourhood of
Sheffield, which was the scene of his earlier work.
Sheffield is well supplied with parks and public grounds. In
the western suburbs is Weston Park, occupying the grounds of
Weston Hall, purchased by the corporation in 1873. The Firth
Park, of 36 acres, on the N.E. of the city, was presented by Mark
Firth, and was opened in 1875 by King Edward VII. and Queen
Alexandra when prince and princess of Wales. There are
botanical gardens of 18 acres in the western suburbs. A park
and other recreation grounds have been presented by the duke
of Norfolk as lord of the manor. To the N. W. , towards Penistone,
is Wharncliffe, retaining much of the characteristics of an ancient
forest, and overlooking the valley of the Don from bold rocky
terraces and ridges. The Bramall Lane cricket ground in Sheffield
is the scene of many of the Yorkshire county cricket matches.
The prosperity of Sheffield is chiefly dependent on the manu-
facture of steel. The smelting of iron in the district is supposed to
date from Roman times, and there is distinct proof carrying it back
as far as the Norman Conquest. The town had become famed for
its cutlery by the I4th century, as is shown by allusions in Chaucer.
There was an important trade carried on in knives in the reign of
Elizabeth, and the Cutlers' Company was incorporated in 1624.
In early times cutlery was made of blister or bar steel; afterwards
shear steel was introduced for the same purpose; but in 1740
Benjamin Huntsman of Handsworth introduced the manufacture
of cast steel, and Sheffield retains its supremacy in steel manufacture,
notwithstanding foreign competition, especially that of Germany
and the United States, its trade in heavy steel having kept pace with
that in the other branches. It was with the aid of Sheffield capital
that Henry Bessemer founded his pioneer works to develop the
manufacture of his invention, and a large quantity of Bessemer steel
is still made in Sheffield. The heavy branch of the steel manufacture
includes armour plates, rails, tyres, axles, large castings for engines,
steel shot, and steel for rifles. The cutlery trade embraces almost
every variety of instrument and tool spring and table knives,
razors, scissors, surgical instruments, mathematical instruments,
edge tools, files, saws, scythes, sickles, spades, shovels, engineering
tools, hammers, vices, &c. The manufacture of engines and machinery
is also largely carried on, as well as that of stoves and grates. The
art of silver plating was introduced by Thomas Bolsover in 1742,
and specimens of early Sheffield plate are highly prized. Among
the other industries of the town are tanning, confectionery, cabinet-
making, bicycle-making, iron and brass founding, silver refining,
the manufacture of brushes, combs, optical instruments, horse-hair
cloth, and railway fittings, and testing. The Cutlers' Company
(1624) exercises, by acts of 1883-1888, jurisdiction in all matters
relating to the registration of trade marks, over all goods com-
posed in whole or in part of any metal, wrought or unwrought, as
also over all persons carrying on business in Hallamshire and within
6 m. thereof. There are numerous collieries in the neighbourhood.
Sheffield is the seat of a suffragan bishop in the diocese of York.
The town trust for the administration of property belonging to the
town dates from the I4th century, and in 1681 the number and
manner of election of the " town trustees " was definitely settled
by a decree of the Court of Chancery. Additional powers were
conferred on the trustees by an act passed in 1874. The town first
returned members to parliament in 1832. In 1885 the representation
was increased from two to five members, the parliamentary divisions
being Attercliffe, Brightside, Central, Ecclesall and Hallam. The
county borough was created in 1888, and in 1893 the town became
a city. The corporation consists of a lord mayor (the title was
conferred on the chief magistrate in 1897), 16 aldermen, and 48
councillors. Area, 23,662 acres.
At the time of the Domesday Survey the four manors of
Grimesthorpe, Hallam, Attercliffe and Sheffield (Escafeld) made
up what is now the borough of Sheffield. Of these Hallam was
the most important, being the place where Earl Waltheof, the
Saxon lord of the manors, had his court. After the Conquest the
earl was allowed to retain his possessions, and when he was
executed for treason they passed to his widow Judith, niece of
William the Conqueror, of whom Roger de Busli was holding
Hallam with the three less important manors at the time of the
Domesday Survey. From him the manors passed to the family
of de Lovetot, but in the reign of Henry II., William de Lovetot,
the 2nd lord, died without male issue, and his property passed
to his daughter Maud, afterwards married to Gerard de Furnival.
By the end of the I4th century Sheffield had become more im-
portant than Hallam, partly no doubt on account of the castle
which one of the Furnivals had built here. Thomas de Furnival,
great-great-grandson of Gerard and Maud, in 1296 obtained a
grant of a market every Tuesday and a fair every year on the
824
SHEFFIELD PLATE SHEIKH
eve, day and morrow of Holy Trinity, and in the following year
he gave the inhabitants a charter granting them the privileges of
holding the town at a fee-farm rent of 3, 8s. Qjd. yearly, of
having a court baron held every three weeks, and of freedom
from toll throughout the whole of Hallamshire. From the
Furnivals the manor passed by marriage to John Talbot, after-
wards earl of Shrewsbury, whose descendant the 6th earl was
entrusted with the care of Mary Queen of Scots during her
twelve years' imprisonment in Sheffield castle. In the reign of
Edward VI. the property belonging to the town which had been
amalgamated with other land left to the burgesses in trust for
certain charitable uses was forfeited to the crown under the act
for the suppression of colleges and chantries, but on their petition
it was restored in 1 5 54 by Queen Mary, who at the same time incor-
porated the town under the government of twelve capital burgesses.
See Victoria County History, Yorkshire: Joseph Hunter, Hallam-
shire: the history and topography of the parish of Sheffield (1869).
SHEFFIELD PLATE, the name applied to a variety of articles
of domestic use or ornament, made of copper coated with silver
by a special and now abandoned process. Many of them were
actually manufactured in Birmingham, but as the secret of
producing the material was discovered and brought to perfection
in Sheffield, the name of that town was naturally connected with
it, and thence transferred to articles constructed from it.
In 1742 a workman named Thomas Bolsover was mending
the handle of a knife made of silver and copper, when, accident-
ally overheating it, he caused the metals to fuse and flow, and
found that as a consequence the silver adhered to the copper as
a thin coating. Being an intelligent man, he perceived the
commercial value of his chance discovery, and began the manu-
facture of articles which, with all the appearance of silver, were
both cheaper and stronger than those made of the pure metal.
He apparently, however, confined himself to applying the silver
direct to the surface of the copper after the latter had been
given the shape destined to it, and was thus limited to the
production of small articles such as snuff-boxes, knife handles,
toilet articles, &c. It was reserved to Joseph Hancock to realize
that by making the plate first and working it into the desired
form afterwards he could almost indefinitely extend the possi-
bilities of the material. The process in its final and highest
development was as follows. The groundwork was a mixture of
copper and brass, either metal alone having serious defects.
This was cast into an oblong ingot, i to i\ in. in thickness,
2^ in. in breadth, and of a length regulated by the size of the
plate desired. The surface of this was brought by planing,
grinding and other means to the highest possible pitch of smooth-
ness and evenness. A sheet of silver of a finer quality than
standard, ranging in thickness from fa in. to nearly i in. according
to the quality aimed at, and of the same superficial extent as
the copper bar, was levelled and polished in the same way and
accurately fitted to it, neither surface at any time being soiled
by contact with the workman's fingers. A sheet of copper,
rather smaller than the other two and fa in. thick was laid upon
the silver, and on the top of all was added a piece of iron, i in.
thick, i in. wide, and a little shorter than the three others, to
protect them from the direct contact of the strong iron wire
with which all were firmly bound together. The junction of the
edges of the silver and copper-blend was treated with a flux of
borax and the whole was submitted to the heat of a furnace until
the silver was seen to be melting, when it was instantly removed,
care being taken to avoid pressing upon the upper or lower
surfaces, as the liquid silver in that case would have been squeezed
out from between the two enclosing plates and the operation
ruined. It was then left to cool, and after being thoroughly
cleansed presented the appearance of a copper ingot with one
silver side. This was passed again and again between gradually
approximated rollers, with occasional annealing, until the
desired thickness had been attained. The great extension of
surface thus produced had the drawback of exaggerating any
small defect in the union of the two metals, increasing it to a
blister of an inch or more in diameter. It was, however, fortun-
ately found easy to remedy this. The blister if unbroken was
heated, pricked, and then rubbed level with a burnisher; if, as
sometimes happened, the silver had flaked away it was replaced
by coatings of pure leaf silver rubbed in with a burnisher. The
plate when passed as flawless was cut into the desired form and
moulded as far as possible into shape, the edges where necessary
being soldered. At first only one surface of the copper was plated
with silver and thus its usefulness was necessarily restricted,
but it was a simple matter to apply the silver to both sides and
thenceforward whatever was made in solid metal could be
reproduced in plate, and firm after firm went into the business,
ever and anon introducing further improvements. The possi-
bility of embossing the metal beyond a certain point without
fracturing the coating of silver was got over by casting or stamping
the raised ornament in silver, filling the hollows with a form of
pewter and soldering the result to the appropriate part of the
general design. Another difficulty, the concealment of the inner
core of copper which was seen as a thin red line when a cut edge
was exposed, was met about 1784 by George Cadman, who
adopted the practice of soldering on an edging, generally orna-
mented, of solid silver so as to cover the junction, and the
presence of this is one of the trustworthy tests by which genuine
Sheffield plate may be recognized. The labour of rolling the
metal by hand was done away with about 1760, by the firm of
Tudor, Leader & Sherburn, who first employed horse-power,
and for more than half a century the trade both in Sheffield and
Birmingham continued to flourish. In 1736 there were under
10,000 inhabitants in the former city; in 1760 when Horace
Walpole passed through it, buying for two guineas a pair of
candlesticks of the local plate, which he thought " quite pretty,"
and pronouncing it to be " one of the foulest towns in England,"
there were two-and-twenty thousand who remitted eleven
thousand pounds a week to London. It would be impossible,
were it desirable, to enumerate all the varieties of the articles
turned out, or to overpraise the beauty and elegance of most of
them. The designs were identical with those in favour with the
gold- and silver-smiths of the period, which was happily one when
exceptionally good taste prevailed. The appreciation of light
and well-proportioned curves and the skilful employment of
well-contrived pierced work are conspicuous features.
The success was, however, doomed to be short lived and to
come to an end as swiftly as it had grown up. In the year 1800
W. Cruikshank was already experimenting with a process of
electro-plating, and in 1837 Mr Spencer in England, and in 1838
Professor M. H. Jacobi (1801-1874) in Russia, working inde-
pendently, succeeded in contriving methods which could be made
commercially profitable. Two years later Messrs Elkington in
London and M. de Ruolz of Paris started in business on those lines,
and the slower and consequently more costly manufacture at
Sheffield and Birmingham rapidly died out.
Of recent years old Sheffield plate after long neglect has come
into fashion again, and genuine articles in good condition have
greatly gone up in value, often exceeding in cost those of more
modern date in sterling silver. Concurrently fraudulent imita-
tion has regrettably increased. In some cases the whole object
is a modern reproduction in electro-plate, but more often really
old articles from which the original plating has been worn off in
course of time have been replated, both equally being in the eyes of
the connoisseurj unworthy of serious attention and comparatively
valueless. The difference after a little experience is not difficult
to detect, though inexpressible in words. The pressure to which
the Sheffield plate was submitted produces a definite colour and
texture which is absent from the surface produced by the deposit
of silver in a liquid medium by electrical means, and the coat
of silver is spread by the latter uniformly over the whole surface
without a break, while in the former the junction between the
embossed ornaments and the silver strips covering the cut edges
may often be detected on careful examination.
See Sheffield Plate by Bertie Wyllie; H. N. Veitch, Sheffield Plate:
its history, manufacture and art (London, 1908). (M. BE.)
SHEIKH, or SHAIKH, an Arabic title of respect. Strictly it
means a venerable man, of more than fifty years of age.
It is specially borne by heads of religious orders, chiefs of
SHEIL SHEKINAH
825
tribes and headmen of villages. Every village, how-
ever small, every separate quarter of a town, has a sheikh
in whom is lodged the executive power of government
a power loosely defined, and of more or less extent according to
the personal character and means of the individual who wields it.
A village sheikh is a sort of head magistrate and chief of police.
The Koran, the sole authentic authority in all matters, legal or
civil, never accurately distinguished between the sheikh and the
cadi (?..), and its phrases, besides, are vague and capable of
admitting different and even opposite interpretations. (For the
Sheikh ul-lslam see MUFTI.)
SHEIL, RICHARD LALOR (1791-1851), Irish politician and
writer, was born at Drumdowney, Tipperary, on the I7th of
August 1791. His father, Edward Sheil, had acquired consider-
able wealth in Spain, and owned an estate in Tipperary. The
son was taught French and Latin by the Abbe de Grimeau, a
French refugee. He was then sent to a school in Kensington,
London, presided over by another 6migre, M. de Broglie. In
October 1804 he was removed to Stonyhurst college, Lancashire,
and in November 1807 entered Trinity College, Dublin, where
he specially distinguished himself in the debates of the Historical
Society. After taking his degree in 1811 he entered Lincoln's
Inn, and was admitted to the Irish bar in 1814. His play of
Adelaide, or the Emigrants, was played at the Crow Street theatre,
Dublin, on the I9th of February 1814, with complete success,
and on the 23rd of May 1816 it was performed at Covent Garden.
The Apostate, produced at the latter theatre on the 3rd of May
1817, firmly established his reputation as a dramatist. His
principal other plays are Bellamira (written in 1818), Evadne
(1819), Huguenot, produced in 1822, and Montini (1820). In
1822 he began, along with W. H. Curran, to contribute to the
New Monthly Magazine a series of graphic and racy papers
entitled Sketches of the Irish Bar. These were edited by M. W.
Savage in 1855 in two volumes, under the title of Sketches Legal
and Political. Sheil was one of the principal founders of the
Catholic Association in 1823 and drew up the petition for inquiry
into the mode of administering the laws in Ireland, which was
presented in that year to both Houses of Parliament. In 1825
Sheil accompanied O'Connell to London to protest against the
suppression of the Catholic Association. The protest was
unsuccessful, but, although nominally dissolved, the association
continued its propaganda after the defeat of the Catholic Relief
Bill in 1825; and Sheil was one of O'Connell's leading supporters
in the agitation persistently carried on till Catholic emancipation
was granted in 1 829. In the same year he was returned to Parlia-
ment for Milborne Port, and in 1831 for Louth. He took a
prominent part in all the debates relating to Ireland, and although
he was greater as a platform orator than as a debater, he gradually
won the somewhat reluctant admiration of the House. In
August 1839 he became vice-president of the board of trade in
Lord Melbourne's ministry. After the accession of Lord John
Russell to power in 1846 he was appointed master of the mint,
and in 1850 he was appointed minister at the court of Tuscany.
He died at Florence on the 23rd of May 1851.
See Memoirs of Richard Lalor Sheil, by W. Torrens M'Cullagh
(2 vols., 1855). His Speeches were edited in 1845 by Thomas
McNevin.
SHEKEL (from Heb. shakal, to weigh), originally a Jewish
unit of weight (sV of a mina, and ^9-7 of a talent) and afterwards
a coin of the same weight. The Biblical references to shekels
must refer to uncoined ingots. In the time of Josephus it seems
that the light shekel weighed from 210 to 210-55 grains; the
heavy shekel was twice that amount, which is practically identical
with the Phoenician weight (224-4 grains). It corresponds to
is. 4|d. and 25. gd. respectively in English silver. Jewish
shekels were first coined by Simon the Hasmonean, probably in
130-138 B.C. These bear inscriptions in the archaic Hebrew and
various emblems, such as the cup or chalice, the lily branch with
three flowers, the candlestick, the citron and palm branch and
so forth. They never bear the portraits of rulers or figures of
animals. A later series of shekels, belonging to the Roman
period, are tetradrachms, " which came from the mints of
Caesarea and Antioch and were used as blanks on which to
impress Jewish types." Hence in Matt. xvi. 24 the temple tax
of half a shekel is called a didrachm (2 drams). In 2 Samuel xiv.
26 we read of " shekels after the King's weight." The royal
norm was heavier than the common norm. The Hebrews divided
the shekel into 20 parts, each of which was called a gerah. (See
also NUMISMATICS.)
See articles in Ency. Bibl. col. 4442, and Hastings' Diet, of the
Bible, ii. 417 seq.; F. W. Madden, Coins of the Jews (1881); T.
Reinach, Jewish Coins (1903). (I. A.)
SHEKINAH, a Hebrew word meaning " that which dwells "
or " the dwelling." It is one of the expressions used in the
Targums in place of " God."
In the Targums. The word " Shekinah " is of constant
occurrence in the Targums or Aramaic paraphrases of the Biblical
lections that were read in the synagogue-service to the people.
Great care was taken by the scribes in these renderings to
mitigate the anthropomorphic expressions applied to God in the
Scriptures, and by paraphrase, the use of abstract terms and
indirect phraseology, to prevent such expressions from giving
rise to erroneous views as to God's personal manifestation in the
popular mind. Whenever, e.g. any indication of local limitation
or action was implied or expressed, in the Hebrew text, of
God the Targumists were careful to substitute some expres-
sion involving the use of " Shekinah." In these connexions
" Shekinah " thus becomes the equivalent of " God " or its
synonyms. One or two examples will make the Targum-usage
clear. Thus Ex. xxix. 45 (" and I will dwell among the children
of Israel and will be their God ") is rendered in the Targum
(Onkelos) : " And I will cause my Shekinah to dwell in the midst
of the children of Israel, and I will be their God." All expressions
implying God's local presence are similarly rendered: thus e.g.
Habak. ii. 20 (" Jehovah is in His holy temple ") is rendered
" Jehovah was pleased to cause His Shekinah to dwell," &c. " To
see " God is similarly paraphrased. Thus Is. xxxiii. 17 (" thine
eyes shall see the King in His beauty ") is rendered (Targum
of Jonathan): " Thine eyes shall see the Shekinah of the king of
the worlds in His beauty." So too " hiding the face " when used
of God is regularly paraphrased " remove His Shekinah "
(Is. Ivii. 17, viii. 17, lix. 2; Jer. xxxiii. 5; cf. Is. i. 15, &c.).
Closely connected with the idea of the Shekinah, but distinct
from it, is that of " the glory of the Lord." " Glory," indeed,
in this connexion was conceived of as a property of the Shekinah
(as, in fact, it is of God for whom " Shekinah " is the equivalent).
For the divine " glory " as a property of the Shekinah, cf. e.g.
Is. vi. 5 (" mine eyes have seen the King, the Lord of hosts "),
which is rendered in the Targum: " mine eyes have seen
the glory of the Shekinah of the King of the worlds the Lord of
hosts."
In Ike New Testament. In the New Testament both the term
and the idea are referred to in various ways. The close associa-
tion of the divine " glory " with the visible Shekinah has already
been referred to. This Shekinah-glory is several times denoted
in the New Testament by S6a. The most notable passage is
Rom. ix. 4 where St Paul, enumerating the list of Israel's privi-
leges, says: " whose is the adoption, and the glory " (i.e. the
Shekinah-glory, the visible presence of God among His people),
&c. cf . Luke ii. 9. There is also an obvious allusion to the Shekinah
in the description of the theophanic cloud of the transfiguration-
narrative (St. Matt. xvii. 5: "a bright cloud overshadowed
them, and behold a voice out of the cloud, saying " &c.; cf.
St Mark ix. 7; St Luke ix. 34), the same verb being used as in
the LXX. of Exod. xl. 34, 35, of the cloud which rested on the
tabernacle when it was filled with " the glory of the Lord."
There can be no doubt, too, that the word rendered " tabernacle"
(<jKt]vri) with the corresponding verb " to tabernacle " (aictivovv)
has been chosen for use in St John i. 14 and Rev. xii. 3, from its
likeness both in sound and meaning to the term " Shekinah."
The passage in Revelation runs: " Behold the tabernacle
(<rKT]vri) of God is with men, and He will tabernacle (aiaivkati)
with them." In St John i. 14 there is an allusion to the Word
( = memra of the Targums), the Shekinah, and the Shekinah-glory,
826
SHELBY SHELD-DRAKE
all of which the writer declares became incarnate in Jesus.
Cf. also Heb. i. 3 (" effulgence of the [Shekinah] glory ").
In Talmud and Midrash. It is remarkable that the memra
( = Logos or " Word ") of the Targums almost entirely disappears
in the Midrashic literature and the Talmud, its place being taken
by Shekinah. The Rabbis apparently dreaded the possibility of
such terms becoming hypostasized into personal entities distinct
from God. Against this they emphasized the Shekinah-idea.
It is safe to say that wherever Shekinah is mentioned in Rabbinic
literature it is God's direct action or activity that is thought of.
Independent personality is never imputed to it. 1 It is probable
that the use of the term was often in Rabbinic writings polemical
(against Jewish Christians or gnostic sects).
See under " Shekinah " in Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, and Diet,
of Christ and the Gospels, and in the Jewish Encyclopedia; also
Weber, Judisehe Theologie, 2nd ed., especially pp. 185-190. For the
Targums in English, cf. Etheridge, The Targums on the Pentateuch
(2 vols., 1862 and 1865); and Pauli, The Chaldee Paraphrase of the
Prophet Isaiah (London, 1871). (G. H. Bo.)
SHELBY, ISAAC (1750-1826), American soldier and pioneer,
was born at North Mountain, near Hagerstown, Maryland, on
the nth of December 1750. With his father, Evan Shelby
(1720-1794), an emigrant from Wales, he removed to what is
now Bristol, Tennessee, in 1771, and in 1774 took a conspicuous
part in the battle of Point Pleasant. 2 He was a surveyor in
Kentucky for the Transylvania Company in 1775; became a
captain of Virginia minute-men in 1776, and in 1777 became
commissary with supervision over transportation of supplies from
Staunton, Virginia, to the frontier. In 1779 he was elected to
the Virginia House of Delegates, but, by the line established
between Virginia and North Carolina at this time, he became a
resident of North Carolina and he was appointed colonel of the
Sullivan county militia, which in 1780 he commanded in guerilla
fighting, and he led the left centre of the American force at
King's Mountain (October 7). He served under General Francis
Marion in 1781, and in 1782 was a member of the North Carolina
House of Commons. He was active in the movement for the
erection of the state of Kentucky, was a member of the Kentucky
Constitutional Convention of 1792, and was governor of the new
state in 1792-1796 and in 1812-1816; in 1813 he commanded
twelve Kentucky regiments at the battle of the Thames, and for
his services received the thanks of Congress and a gold medal. In
1818 he was a commissioner with Andrew Jackson to the Chick-
asaws. He died on his estate in Lincoln county, Kentucky,
on the i8th of July 1826.
SHELBYVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Shelby county,
Indiana, U.S.A., about 27m. S.E. of Indianapolis, on the Big Blue
river. Pop. (1890) 5451 ; (1900) 7169, including 326 foreign-born;
(1910) 0500. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago
& St Louis and the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
railways, and by an interurban electric line. It has a public
library, a hospital and a children's home. The city is a trading
centre for the surrounding farming region; among its manu-
factures furniture is the most important. Shelbyville, named in
honour of General Isaac Shelby of Kentucky, was platted in 1822,
incorporated as a town in 1850, and chartered as a city in 1860.
SHELD-DRAKE, or, as commonly spelt in its contracted
form, SHELDRAKE, a word whose derivation 3 has been much
1 Maimonides, however, regarded the Shekinah, like the memra
and " the glory," as a distinct entity.
2 Isaac Shelby's letter describing the battle is printed in Theodore
Roosevelt's Winning of the West, \. 341-344.
1 Ray in 1674 (Engl. Words, p. 76) gave it from the local " sheld "
( = particoloured), which, applied to animals, as a horse or a cat, still
survives in East Anglia. This opinion is not only suitable but is
confirmed by the bird's Old Norsk name Skjoldungr, from Skioldr,
primarily a patch, and now commonly bestowed on a piebald horse,
just as Skjalda (Cleasby's Icel. Diet., sub voce), from the same source,
is a particoloured cow. But some scholars interpret Skjoldungr by
the^secondary meaning of Skjoldr, a shield, asserting that it refers
to " the shield-like band across the breast" of the bird. If they be
right the proper spelling of the English word would be " Shield-
drake," as some indeed have it. A third suggested meaning, from
the Old Norsk Skjol, shelter, is philologically to be rejected, but, if
true, would refer to the bird's habit, described in the text, of breeding
under cover.
discussed, one of the most conspicuous birds of the duck tribe,
Anatidae, called, however, in many parts of England the
" Burrow-Duck" and in some districts by the almost obsolete
name of " Bergander" (Du. Berg-eende, Ger. Bergente), a word
used by Turner in 1544.
The sheldrake is the Anas iadorna* of Linnaeus, and the
Tadorna cornuta of modern ornithology, a bird somewhat larger
and of more upright stature than an ordinary duck, having its
bill, with a basal fleshy protuberance (whence the specific term
cornuta), pale red, the head and upper neck very dark glossy green,
and beneath that a broad white collar, succeeded by a still
broader belt of bright bay extending from the upper back across
the upper breast. The outer scapulars, the primaries, a median
abdominal stripe, which dilates at the vent, and a bar at the tip
of the middle tail-quills are black; the inner secondaries and
the lower tail-coverts are grey; and the speculum or wing-spot
is a rich bronzed-green. The rest of the plumage is pure white,
and the legs are flesh-coloured. There is little external difference
between the sexes, the female being only somewhat smaller and
less brightly coloured. The sheldrake frequents the sandy coasts
of nearly the whole of Europe and North Africa, extending across
Asia to India, China and Japan, generally keeping in pairs and
sometimes penetrating to favourable inland localities. The nest
is always made under cover, usually in a rabbit-hole among
sandhills, and in the Frisian Islands the people supply this
bird with artificial burrows, taking large toll of it in eggs and
down.
T. radjah of Australia, Papuasia and the Moluccas almost
equals the true sheldrake in its brightly contrasted plumage, but
the head is white in both sexes. Barbary, south-eastern Europe,
and Central Asia are inhabited by an allied species of more
inland range and very different coloration, the T. casarca or
Casarca ruttta of ornithologists, the ruddy sheldrake of English
authors for it has several times strayed to the British Islands
and the " Brahminy Duck " of Anglo-Indians, who find it resort-
ing in winter, whether by pairs or by thousands, to their inland
waters. This species is of an almost uniform bay colour all over,
except the quill-feathers of the wings and tail, and (in the male)
a ring round the neck, which are black, while the wing-coverts are
white and the speculum shines with green and purple; the bill
and legs are dark-coloured. 5 A species closely resembling the
last, but with a grey head, C. cana, inhabits South Africa. In
Australia occurs another species of more sombre colours, the
C. tadornoides; and New Zealand is the home of another
species, C. variegata, still less distinguished by bright hues.
In the last two the plumage of the sexes differs not incon-
siderably.
Sheldrakes will, if attention be paid to their wants, breed
freely in captivity, crossing if opportunity be given them with
other species, and an incident therewith connected possesses an
importance hardly to be overrated by the philosophical naturalist.
In the Zoological Society's gardens in London in the spring of
1859 a male of T. cornuta mated with a female of C. cana, and,
as will have been inferred from what has been before stated,
these two species differ greatly in the colouring of their plumage.
The young of their union, however, presented an appearance
wholly unlike that of either parent, and an appearance which can
hardly be said, as has been said (P.Z.S., 1859, p. 442), to be " a
curious combination of the colours of the two." Both sexes of
this hybrid have been admirably portrayed by J. Wolf; and,
strange to say, when these figures are compared with equally
faithful portraits by the same master of the Australian and New
Zealand species, C. tadornoides and C. variegata, it will at once
be seen that the hybrids present an appearance almost midway
This is the Latinized form of the French Tadorne, first published
by Belon (1555), a word on which Littr^ throws no light except to
state that it has a southern variant Tardone.
6 Jerdon (B. India, iii. 793) tells of a Hindu belief that once upon
a time two lovers were transformed into birds of this species, and
that they or their descendants are condemned to pass the night
on the opposite banks of a river, whence they unceasingly call to one
another: " Chakwa, shall I come?" "No, Chakwi." " Chakwi,
shall I come?" "No, Chakwa." As to how, in these circum-
stances, the race is perpetuated the legend is silent.
SHELDON, C. M. SHELLEY, P. B.
827
between the two species last named species which certainly
had nothing to do with their production. 1
The genera Tadorna and Casarca, as shown by the tracheal
characters and coloration, are most nearly related to Chenalopex,
containing the bird so well known as the Egyptian goose, C.
aegyptiaca, and an allied species, C. jubata, from South America.
For the same reason the genus Plectropterus, composed of the
spur-winged geese of Africa, and perhaps the Australian Anser-
anas and the Indian and Ethiopian Sarcidiornis, also appear to
belong to the same group, which should be reckoned rather to
the Anatine than to the Anserine section of the Anatidae. (A. N.)
SHELDON, CHARLES MONROE (1857- ), American
Congregational clergyman, was born in Wellsville, New York,
on the 26th of February 1857. Graduating at Brown University
in 1883 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1886, he was
pastor of a church at Waterbury, Vermont, in 1886-1888, and
in 1889 became pastor of the Central Congregational Church of
Topeka, Kansas. He is well known as the author of a number of
widely read books of fiction, which at the same time inculcate an
uncompromising obedience to the precepts of the Gospel in every-
day life. Of these, In His Steps (1896), though not the earliest,
is perhaps the best, and it is this one which first brought him into
prominence.
SHELDON, GILBERT (1598-1677), archbishop of Canterbury,
was born at Stanton in the parish of Ellastone, Staffordshire,
and educated at Oxford. He was ordained in 1622 and was
appointed chaplain to Thomas Lord Coventry (1578-1640).
Four years later he was elected warden of All Souls' College,
Oxford. During the years 1632-1639 he received the livings of
Hackney (1633); Oddington, Oxfordshire; Ickford, Buckingham-
shire (1636); and Newington, Oxfordshire; besides being a
prebendary of Gloucester from 1632. In 1638 he was on a
commission appointed to visit Merton College, Oxford. He was
intimate with the Royalist leaders, participated in the negotia-
tions for the Uxbridge treaty of 1644, and collected funds for
Charles II. in exile. In 1648 he was ejected from All Souls' by
order of parliament, and imprisoned for some months, but he
regained the wardenship in 1659. In 1660 he became bishop of
London and master of the Savoy, and the Savoy Conference was
held at his lodgings. He was consecrated archbishop of Canter-
bury in 1663. He was greatly interested in the welfare of Oxford
University, of which he became chancellor in 1667, succeeding
Clarendon (1609-1674). The Sheldonian theatre at Oxford was
built and endowed at his expense.
SHELL (O. Eng. scell, scytt, cf. Du. schel, shell, Goth, skalja,
tile; the word means originally a thin flake, cf. Swed. skalja,
to peel off; it is allied to " scale " and " skill," from a root
meaning to cleave, divide, separate), the hard outside natural
covering of anything, as of some fruits and seeds; more par-
ticularly, the conch (q.v.) or integument which acts as a defence
for the bodies of various animals (see MOLLUSCA, GASTROPODA,
MALACOSTRACA, &c.), the test, crust or carapace; also the outer
covering of an egg. The word is also used of many objects
resembling the natural shell in use or shape, and especially of a
hollow projectile filled with explosives (see AMMUNITION, Shell,
and ORDNANCE).
See also SHELL-HEAPS, SHELL-MONEY.
SHELLEY, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1797-1851), English
writer, only daughter of William Godwin and his wife Mary
Wollstonecraft, and second wife of the poet Percy Bysshe
Shelley, was born in London on the 3oth of August 1797. For
the history of her girlhood and of her married life see GODWIN,
WILLIAM, and SHELLEY, P.B. When she was in Switzerland
with Shelley and Byron in 1816 a proposal was made that various
members of the party should write a romance or tale dealing
with the supernatural. The result of this project was that
Mrs Shelley wrote Frankenstein, Byron the beginning of a
narrative about a vampyre, and Dr Polidori, Byron's physician, a
tale named The Vampyre, the authorship of which used frequently
1 It is further worthy of remark that the young of C. variegata
when first hatched closely resemble those of C. rutila, and when
the former assume their first plumage they resemble their father
more than their mother (P.Z.S., 1866, p. 150).
in past years to be attributed to Byron himself. Frankenstein,
published in 1818, when Mrs Shelley was at the utmost
twenty-one years old, is a very remarkable performance for so
young and inexperienced a writer; its main idea is that of the
formation and vitalization, by a deep student of the secrets of
nature, of an adult man, who, entering the world thus under
unnatural conditions, becomes the terror of his species, a half-
involuntary criminal, and finally an outcast whose sole resource
is self-immolation. This romance was followed by others:
Valperga, or the Life and Adventures of Castruccio, Prince of
Lucca (1823), an historical tale written with a good deal of spirit,
and readable enough even now; The Last Man (1826), a fiction
of the final agonies of human society owing to the universal
spread of a pestilence this is written in a very stilted style,
but possesses a particular interest because Adrian is a portrait of
Shelley; The Fortunes of Per kin Warbeck (1830); Lodore (1835),
also bearing partly upon Shelley's biography, and Falkner (1837).
Besides these novels there was the Journal of a Six Weeks'
Tour (the tour of 1814 mentioned below), which is published
in conjunction with Shelley's prose-writings; and Rambles in
Germany and Italy in 1840-1842-1843 (which shows an observant
spirit, capable of making some true forecasts of the future),
and various miscellaneous writings. After the death of Shelley,
for whom she had a deep and even enthusiastic affection, marred
at times by defects of temper, Mrs Shelley in the autumn of 1823
returned to London. At first the earnings of her pen were her
only sustenance; but after a while Sir Timothy Shelley made
her an allowance, which would have been withdrawn if she had
persisted in a project of writing a full biography of her husband.
In 1838 she edited Shelley's works, supplying the notes that
throw such invaluable light on the subject. She succeeded,
by strenuous exertions, in maintaining her son Percy at Harrow
and Cambridge; and she shared in the improvement of his
fortune when in 1840 his grandfather acknowledged his responsi-
bilities and in 1844 he succeeded to the baronetcy. She died
on the 2ist of February 1851.
SHELLEY, PERCY BYSSHE (1792-1822), English poet, was
born on the 4th of August 1792 at Field Place, near Horsham,
Sussex. He was the eldest child of Timothy Shelley (1753-1844),
M.P. for Shoreham, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Charles
Pilfold, of Effingham, Surrey. His father was the son and heir
of Sir Bysshe Shelley, Bart. (d. 1815), whose baronetcy (1806)
was a reward from the Whig party for political services. Sir
Bysshe's father Timothy had emigrated to America, and he
himself had been born in Newark, New Jersey; but he
came back to England, and did well for himself by marrying
successively two heiresses, the first, the mother of Timothy,
being Mary Catherine, daughter of the Rev. Theobald Michell
of Horsham. He was a handsome man of enterprising and
remarkable character, accumulated a vast fortune, built Castle
Goring, and lived in sullen and penurious retirement in his
closing years. None of his talent seems to have descended to
his son Timothy, who, except for being of a rather oddly self-
assertive character, was undistinguishable from the ordinary
run of commonplace country squires. The mother of the poet
is described as beautiful, 'and a woman of good abilities, but
not with any literary turn; she was an agreeable letter- writer.
The branch of the Shelley family to which the poet Percy Bysshe
belonged traces its pedigree to Henry Shelley, of Worminghurst,
Sussex, who died in 1623. These Worminghurst or Castle
Goring Shelleys are of the same stock as the Michelgrove Shelleys,
who trace up to Sir William Shelley, judge of the common
pleas under Henry VII., thence to a member of parliament
in 1415, and to the reign of Edward I., or even to the epoch
of the Norman Conquest. The Worminghurst branch was a
family of credit, but not of special distinction, until its fortunes
culminated under the above-named Sir Bysshe.
In the character of Percy Bysshe Shelley three qualities
became early manifest, and may be regarded as innate: im-
pressionableness or extreme susceptibility to external and internal
impulses of feeling; a lively imagination or erratic fancy, blurring
a sound estimate of solid facts; and a resolute repudiation
828
SHELLEY, P. B.
of outer authority or the despotism of custom. These qualities
were highly developed in his earliest manhood, were active
in his boyhood, and no doubt made some show even on the
borderland between childhood and infancy. At the age of six
he was sent to a day school at Warnham, kept by the Rev.
Mr Edwards; at ten to Sion House School, Brentford, of which
the principal was Dr Greenlaw, while the pupils were mostly
sons of local tradesmen; at twelve (or immediately before
that age, on the agth of July 1804) to Eton. The headmaster
of Eton, up to nearly the close of Shelley's sojourn in the school,
was Dr Goodall, a mild disciplinarian; it is therefore a mistake
to suppose that Percy (unless during his very brief stay in the
lower school) was frequently flagellated by the formidable
Dr Keate, who only became headmaster after Goodall. Shelley
was a shy, sensitive, mopish sort of boy from one point of view
from another a very unruly one, having his own notions of justice,
independence and mental freedom; by nature gentle, kindly
and retiring under provocation dangerously violent. He
resisted the odious fagging system, exerted himself little in the
routine of school-learning, and was known both as " Mad Shelley "
and as " Shelley the Atheist." Some writers try to show that
an Eton boy would be termed atheist without exhibiting any
propensity to atheism, but solely on the ground of his being
mutinous. However, as Shelley was a declared atheist a good
while before attaining his majority, a shrewd suspicion arises
that, if Etonians dubbed him atheist, they had some relevant
reason for doing so.
Shelley entered University College, Oxford, in April 1810,
returned thence to Eton, and finally quitted the school at mid-
summer, and commenced residence in Oxford in October. Here
he met a young Durham man, Thomas Jefferson Hogg, who had
preceded him in the university by a couple of months; the two
youths at once struck up a warm and intimate friendship. Shelley
had at this time a love for chemical experiment, as well as for
poetry, philosophy, and classical study, and was in all his tastes
and bearing an enthusiast. Hogg was not in the least an en-
thusiast, rather a cynic, but he also was a steady and well-read
classical student. In religious matters both were sceptics, or
indeed decided anti-Christians; whether Hogg, as the senior
and more informed disputant, pioneered Shelley into strict
atheism, or whether Shelley, as the more impassioned and un-
flinching speculator, outran the easy-going jeering Hogg, is a
moot point; we incline to the latter opinion. Certain it is that
each egged on the other by perpetual disquisition on abstruse
subjects, conducted partly for the sake of truth and partly for
that of mental exercitation, without on either side any disposition
to bow to authority or stop short of extreme conclusions. The
upshot of this habit was that Shelley and Hogg, at the close
of some five months of happy and uneventful academic life,
got expelled from the university. Shelley for he alone figures
as the writer of the " little syllabus," although there can be no
doubt that Hogg was his confidant and coadjutor throughout
published anonymously a pamphlet or flysheet entitled The
Necessity of Atheism, which he sent round to bishops and all sorts
of people as an invitation orchallengetodiscussion. Itamounted
to saying that neither reason nor testimony is adequate to
establish the existence of a deity, and that nothing short of a
personal individual self-revelation of the deity would be sufficient.
The college authorities heard of the pamphlet, identified Shelley
as its author, and summoned him before them " our master,
and two or three of the fellows." The pamphlet was produced,
and Shelley was required to say whether he had written it or not.
The youth declined to answer the question, and was expelled
by a written sentence, ready drawn up. Hogg was next sum-
moned, with a result practically the same. The precise details
of this transaction have been much controverted; the best
evidence is that which appears on the college records, showing
that both Hogg and Shelley (Hogg is there named first) were
expelled for " contumaciously refusing to answer questions,"
and for " repeatedly declining to disavow " the authorship.
Thus they were dismissed as being mutineers against academic
authority, in a case pregnant with the suspicion not the proof
of atheism; but how the authorities could know beforehand
that the two undergraduates would be contumacious and stiff
against disavowal, so as to give warrant for written sentences
ready drawn up, is nowhere explained. Possibly the sentences
were worded without ground assigned, and would only have
been produced in terrorem had the young men proved more
malleable. The date of this incident was the 25th of March 181 1.
Shelley and Hogg came up to London, where Shelley was soon
left alone, as his friend went to York to study conveyancing.
Percy and his incensed father did not at once come to terms,
and for a while he had no resource beyond pocket-money saved
up by his sisters (four in number altogether) and sent round to
him, sometimes by the hand of a singularly pretty school-fellow,
Miss Harriet Westbrook, daughter of a retired and moderately
rich hotel-keeper. Shelley, in early youth, had a somewhat
" priggish " turn for moralizing and argumentation, and a
decided mania for proselytizing; his school-girl sisters, and their
little Methodist friend Miss Westbrook, aged between fifteen
and sixteen, must all be enlightened and converted to anti-
Christianity. He therefore cultivated the society of Harriet,
calling at the house of her father, and being encouraged in his
assiduity by her much older sister Eliza. Harriet not unnaturally
fell in love with him; and he, though not it would seem at any
time ardently in love with her, dallied along the flowery pathway
which leads to sentiment and a definite courtship. This was
not his first love-affair; for he had but a very few months before
been courting his cousin Miss Harriet Grove, who, alarmed at
his heterodoxies, finally broke off with him to his no small
grief and perturbation at the time. It is averred, and seemingly
with truth, that Shelley never indulged in any sensual or dissipated
amour; and, as he advances in life, it becomes apparent that,
though capable of the passion of love, and unusually prone to
regard with much effusion of sentiment women who interested
his mind and heart, the mere attraction of a pretty face or an
alluring figure left him unenthralled. After a while Percy
was reconciled to his father, revisited his family in Sussex, and
then stayed with a cousin in Wales. Hence he was recalled to
London by Miss Harriet Westbrook, who wrote complaining
of her father's resolve to send her back to her school, in which
she was now regarded with repulsion as having become too apt
a pupil of the atheist Shelley. He replied counselling resistance.
" She wrote to say " (these are the words of Shelley in a letter
to Hogg, dating towards the end of July 1811) " that resistance
was useless, but that she would fly with me, and threw herself
upon my protection." Shelley, therefore, returned to London,
where he found Harriet agitated and wavering; finally they
agreed to elope, travelled in haste to Edinburgh, and there,
on the z8th of August, were married with the rites of the Scottish
Church. Shelley, it should be understood, had by this time
openly broken, not only with the dogmas and conventions of
Christian religion, but with many of the institutions of Christian
polity, and in especial with such as enforce and regulate marriage;
he held with William Godwin and some other theorists that
marriage ought to be simply a voluntary relation between a man
and a woman, to be assumed at joint option and terminated
at the after-option of either party. If, therefore, he had acted
upon his personal conviction of the right, he would never have
wedded Harriet, whether by Scotch, English or any other law;
but he waived his own theory in favour of the consideration
that in such an experiment the woman's stake, and the dis-
advantages accruing to her, are out of all comparison with the
man's. His conduct, therefore, was so far entirely honourable;
and, if it derogated from a principle of his own (a principle which,
however contrary to the morality of other people, was and always
remained matter of genuine conviction on his individual part),
this was only in deference to a higher and more imperious standard
of right.
Harriet Shelley was not only beautiful; she was amiable,
accommodating, adequately well educated and well bred. She
liked reading, and her reading was not strictly frivolous. But
she could not (as Shelley said at a later date) "feel poetry and
understand philosophy." Her attractions were all on the surface;
SHELLEY, P. B.
829
there was (to use a common phrase) " nothing particular in her."
For nearly three years Shelley and she led a shifting sort of life
upon an income of 400 a year, one-half of which was allowed
(after his first severe indignation at the mesalliance was past)
by Mr Timothy Shelley, and the other half by Mr Westbrook.
The couple left Edinburgh for York and the society of Hogg;
broke with him upon a charge made by Harriet, and evidently
fully believed by Shelley at the time, that, during a temporary
absence of his upon business in Sussex, Hogg had tried to seduce
her (this quarrel was entirely made up at the end of about a year) ;
moved off to Keswick in Cumberland, where they received kind
attentions from Southey, and some hospitality from the duke
of Norfolk, who, as chief magnate in the Shoreham region of
Sussex, was at pains to reconcile the father and his too unfilial
heir; sailed thence to Dublin, where Shelley was eager, and
in some degree prominent, in the good cause of Catholic emancipa-
tion, conjoined with repeal of the union; crossed to Wales,
and lived at Nant-Gwillt, near Rhayader, then at Lynmouth
in Devonshire, then at Tanyrallt in Carnarvonshire. All this
was between September 1811 and February 1813. At Lynmouth
an Irish servant of Shelley's was sentenced to six months' im-
prisonment for distributing and posting up printed papers,
bearing no printer's name, of an inflammatory or seditious
tendency being a Declaration of Rights composed by the
youthful reformer, and some verses of his named The Devil's
Walk. At Tanyrallt Shelley was (according to his own and
Harriet'saccount, confirmed by the evidence of Miss Westbrook,
the elder sister, who continued an inmate in most of their homes)
attacked on the night of 2 6th February by an assassin who fired
three pistol-shots. It was either a human assassin or (as Shelley
once said) " the devil." The motive of the attack was undefined;
the fact of its occurrence was generally disbelieved, both at the
time and by subsequent inquirers. Shelley was full of wild
unpractical notions; he dosed himself occasionally with laudanum
as a palliative to spasmodic pains; he was given to strange
assertions and romancing narratives (several of which might
properly be specified here but for want of space), and was not
incapable of conscious fibbing. His mind no doubt oscillated at
times along the line which divides sanity from insane delusion.
It is now, however, at last proved that he did not invent such a
monstrous story to serve a purpose. The Century Magazine for
October 1905 contained an article entitled " A Strange Adventure
of Shelley's," by Margaret L. Croft, which shows that a shepherd
close to Tanyrallt, named Robin Pant Evan, being irritated by
some well-meant acts of Shelley in terminating the lives of dying
or diseased sheep, did really combine with two other shepherds
to scare the poet, and Evan was the person who played the part
of " assassin." He himself avowed as much to members of a
family, Greaves, who were living at Tanyrallt between 1847 and
1865. This was the break-up of the residence of the Shelleys
at Tanyrallt; they revisited Ireland, and then settled for a while
in London. Here, in June 1813, Harriet gave birth to her
daughter lanthe Eliza (she married a Mr Esdaile, and died in
1876). Here also Shelley brought out his first poem of any
importance, Queen Mab; it was privately printed, as its exceed-
ingly aggressive tone in matters of religion and morals would
not allow of publication. In July the Shelleys took a house at
Bracknell near Windsor Forest, where they had congenial
neighbours, Mrs Boinville and her family.
The speculative sage whom Shelley especially reverenced
was William Godwin, the author of Political Justice and of the
romance Caleb Williams; in 1796 he had married Mary Wollstone-
craft, authoress of The Rights of Woman, who died shortly
after giving birth, on the 3oth of August 1797, to a daughter
Mary. With Godwin Shelley had opened a volunteered corre-
spondence late in 1811, and he had known him personally since
the winter which closed 1812. Godwin was then a bookseller,
living with his second wife, who had been a Mrs Clairmont;
there were four other inmates of the household, two of whom
call for some mention here Fanny Wollstonecraft, the daughter
of the authoress and Mr Imlay, and Claire (Clara Mary Jane),
the daughter of Mrs Clairmont. Fanny committed suicide in
October 1816, being, according to some accounts which remain
unverified, hopelessly in love with Shelley; Claire was closely
associated with all his subsequent career. It was towards May
1814 that Shelley first saw Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin as a
grown-up girl (she was well on towards seventeen); he instantly
fell in love with her, and she with him . Just before this, on the 24th
of March, Shelley had remarried Harriet in London, apparently
with a view to strengthening his position in his relations with
his father as to the family property; but, on becoming enamoured
of Mary, he seems to have rapidly made up his mind that Harriet
should not stand in the way,. She was at Bath while he was
in London. They had, however, met again in London and come
to some sort of understanding before the final crisis arrived
Harriet remonstrating and indignant, but incapable of effective
resistance Shelley sick of her companionship, and bent upon
gratifying his own wishes, which as we have already seen were not
at odds with his avowed principles of conduct. For some months
past there had been bickerings and misunderstandings between
him and Harriet, aggravated by the now detested presence of
Miss Westbrook in the house; more than this cannot be said,
and it seems dubious whether more will be hereafter known.
Shelley, and not he alone, alleged grave misdoing on Harriet's
part perhaps mistakenly. The upshot came on the 28th
of July, when Shelley aided Mary to elope from her father's house,
Claire Clairmont deciding to accompany them. They crossed
to Calais, and proceeded across France into Switzerland. Godwin
and his wife were greatly incensed. Though he and Mary
Wollstonecraft had entertained and avowed bold opinions
regarding the marriage-bond, similar to Shelley's own, and had
in their time acted upon these opinions, it is not clearly made
out that Mary Godwin had ever been encouraged by paternal
influence to think or do the like. Shelley and she chose to act
upon their own likings and responsibility he disregarding
any claim which Harriet had upon him, and Mary setting at
nought her father's authority. Both were prepared to ignore
the law of the land and the rules of society.
The three young people returned to London in September.
In the following January 1815 Sir Bysshe Shelley died, and Percy,
who had lately been in great money-straits, became the im-
mediate heir to the entailed property inherited by his father
Sir Timothy. This entailed property seems to have been worth
6000 per annum, or little less. There was another very much
larger property which Percy might shortly before have secured
to himself, contingently upon his father's death, if he would
have consented to put it upon the same footing of entail; but
this he resolutely refused to do, on the professed ground of his
being opposed upon principle to the system of entail; there-
fore, on his grandfather's death the larger property passed
wholly away from any interest which Percy might have had in it,
in use or in expectancy. He now came to an understanding with
his father as to the remaining entailed property; and, giving up
certain future ad vantages, he received henceforth a regular income
of 1000 a year. Out of this he assigned 200 a year to Harriet,
who had given birth in November to a son, Charles Bysshe
(he died in 1826). Shelley, and Mary as well, were on moderately
good terms with Harriet, seeing her from time to time. His
peculiar views as to the relations of the sexes appear markedly
again in his having (so it is alleged) invited Harriet to return
to his and Mary's house as a domicile; a curious arrangement
which of course did not take effect. He had, undoubtedly,
while previously abroad with Mary, invited Harriet to stay in
their immediate neighbourhood. Shelley and Mary (who was
naturally always called Mrs Shelley) now settled at Bishopgate,
near Windsor Forest; here he produced his first excellent poem,
Alastor, or the Spirit of Solitude, which was published soon after-
wards with a few others. Thomas Love Peacock was one of
his principal associates at Bishopgate.
In May 1816 the pair left England for Switzerland, together
with Miss Clairmont, and their own infant son William. They
went straight to Secheron, near Geneva; Byron, whose separation
from his wife had just then taken place, arrived there immediately
afterwards. A great deal of controversy has arisen as to the
8 3 o
SHELLEY, P. B.
motives and incidents of this foreign sojourn. The clear fact
is that Miss Clairmont, who had a fine voice and some inclination
for the stage, had seen Byron, as connected with the management
of Drury Lane theatre, early in the year, and an amorous intrigue
had begun between them in London. Prima facie it seems quite
reasonable to suppose that she had explained the facts to Shelley
or to Mary, or to both, and had induced them to convoy her
to the society of Byron abroad; were this finally established
as the fact, it would show no inconsistency of conduct, or breach
of his own code of sexual morals, on Shelley's part. On the other
hand, documentary evidence exists showing that Mary was
totally ignorant of the amour shortly before they went abroad.
Whether or not they knew of it while they and Claire were in
daily intercourse with Byron, and housed close by him on the
shore of the Lake of Geneva, may be left unargued. The three
returned to London in September 1816, Byron remaining abroad;
and in January 1817 Miss Clairmont gave birth to his daughter
named Allegra.
The return of the Shelleys was closely followed by two suicides
first that of Fanny Wollstonecraft (already referred to), and
second that of Harriet Shelley, who on the gth of November
drowned herself in the Serpentine. The body was not found
until the toth of December. The latest stages of the lovely
and ill-starred Harriet's career have never been very explicitly
recorded. It seems that she formed a connexion with some
gentleman from whom circumstances or desertion separated
her, that her habits became intemperate, and that she was
treated with contumelious harshness by her sister during an
illness of their father. She had always had a propensity (often
laughed at in earlier and happier days) to the idea of suicide,
and she now carried it out in act possibly without anything
which could be regarded as an extremely cogent predisposing
motive, although the total weight of her distresses, accumulating
within the past two years and a half, was beyond question heavy
to bear. Shelley, then at Bath, hurried up to London when he
heard of Harriet's death, giving manifest signs of the shock
which so terrible a catastrophe had produced on him. Some
self-reproach must no doubt have mingled with his affliction
and dismay; yet he does not appear to have considered himself
gravely in the wrong at any stage in the transaction, and it is
established that in the train of quite recent events which im-
mediately led up to Harriet's suicide he had borne no part.
This was the time when Shelley began to see a great deal
of Leigh Hunt, the poet and essayist, editor of the Examiner;
they were close friends, and Hunt did something to uphold
the reputation of Shelley as a poet which, we may here say once
for all, scarcely obtained any. public acceptance or solidity
during his brief lifetime. The death of Harriet having removed
the only obstacle to a marriage with Mary Godwin, the wedding
ensued on the 3Oth of December 1816, and the married couple
settled down at Great Marlow in Buckinghamshire. Their
tranquillity was shortly disturbed by a Chancery suit set in motion
by Mr Westbrook, who asked for the custody of his two grand-
children, on the ground that Shelley had deserted his wife
and intended to bring up his offspring in his own atheistic and
anti-social opinions. Lord Chancellor Eldon delivered judgment
on the 27th of March 1817. He held that Shelley, having avowed
condemnable principles of conduct, and having fashioned his
own conduct to correspond, and being likely to inculcate the same
principles upon his children, was unfit to have the charge of them.
He appointed as their curator Dr Hume, an orthodox army-
physician, who was Shelley's own nominee. The poet had to pay
for the maintenance of the children a sum which stood eventually
at 120 per annum; if it was at first (as generally stated) 200,
that was no more than what he had previously allowed to Harriet.
This is the last incident of marked importance in the perturbed
career of Shelley; the rest relates to the history of his mind, the
poems which he produced and published, and his changes of
locality in travelling. The first ensuing poem was The Revolt
of Islam, referred to near the close of this article.
In March 1818, after an illness which he regarded (rightly
or wrongly) as a dangerous pulmonary attack, Shelley, with his
wife, their two infants William and Clara, and Miss Clairmont
and her baby Allegra, went off to Italy, where the short remainder
of his life was passed. Allegra was soon sent on to Venice, to
her father, who, ever since parting from Miss Clairmont in Switzer-
land, showed a callous and unfeeling determination to see and
know no more about her. In 1818 the Shelleys always nearly
with Miss Clairmont in their company were in Milan, Leghorn,
the Bagni di Lucca, Venice and its neighbourhood, Rome, and
Naples; in 1819 in Rome, the vicinity of Leghorn, and Florence
(both their infants were now dead, but a third was born late in
1819, Percy Florence Shelly, who in 1844 inherited the baron-
etcy); in 1820 in Pisa the Bagni di Pisa (or di San Giuliano),
and Leghorn; in 1821 in Pisa and with Byron in Ravenna;
in 1822 in Pisa and on the Bay of Spezia, between Lerici and San
Terenzio. The incidents of this period are but few, and of no
great importance apart from their bearing upon the poet's
writings. In Leghorn he knew Mr and Mrs Gisborne, the latter
a once intimate friend of Godwin; she taught Shelley Spanish,
and he was eager to promote a project for a steamer to be built
by her son by a former marriage, the engineer Henry Reveley;
it would have been the first steamer to navigate the Gulf of Lyons.
In Pisa he formed a sentimental intimacy with the Contessina
Emilia Viviani, a girl who was pining in a convent pending her
father's choice of a husband for her; this impassioned but vague
and fanciful attachment which soon came to an end, as Emilia's
character developed less favourably in the eyes of her Platonic
adorer produced the transcendental love-poem of Epipsychidion
in 1821. In Ravenna the scheme of the quarterly magazine
the Liberal was concerted by Byron and Shelley, the latter
being principally interested in it with a view to benefiting
Leigh Hunt by such an association with Byron. In Pisa Byron
and Shelley were -very constantly together, having in their
company at one time or another Shelley's cousin and schoolfellow
Captain Thomas Medwin (1788-1869), Lieutenant Edward
Elliker Williams (1793-1822) and his wife, to both of whom
the poet was very warmly attached, and Captain Edward John
Trelawny, the adventurous and romantic-natured seaman, who
has left important and interesting reminiscences of this period.
Byron admired very highly the generous, unworldly and enthu-
siastic character of Shelley, and set some value on his writings;
Shelley half -worshipped Byron as a poet, and was anxious, but
in some conjunctures by no means able, to respect him as a man.
In Pisa he knew also Prince Alexander Mavrocordato, one of
the pioneers of Grecian insurrection and freedom; the glorious
cause fired Shelley, and he wrote the drama of Hellas (1821).
The last residence of Shelley was the Casa Magni, a bare and
exposed dwelling on the Gulf of Spezia. He and his wife, with
the Williamses, went there at the end of April 1822 to spend
the summer, which proved an arid and scorching one. Shelley
and Williams, both of them insatiably fond of boating, had a
small schooner named the " Don Juan " (or more properly the
" Ajiel "), built at Genoa after a design which Williams had
procured from a naval friend, but the reverse of safe. They
received her on the i2th of May, found her rapid and alert, and
on the ist of July started in her to Leghorn, to meet Leigh Hunt,
whose arrival in Italy had just been notified. After doing his
best to set things going comfortably between Byron and Hunt,
Shelley returned on board with Williams on the 8th of July.
It was a day of dark, louring, stifling heat. Trelawny took
leave of his two friends, and about half-past six in the evening
found himself startled from a doze by a frightful turmoil of storm.
The " Don Juan " had by this time made Via Reggio; she
was not to be seen, though other vessels which had sailed about
the same time were still discernible. Shelley, Williams, and their
only companion, a sailor-boy, perished in the squall. The exact
nature of the catastrophe was from the first regarded as somewhat
disputable. The condition of the " Don Juan " when recovered
did not favour any assumption that she had capsized in a heavy
sea rather that she had been run down by some other vessel,
a felucca or fishing-smack. In the absence of any counter-
evidence this would be supposed to have occurred by accident ;
but a rumour, not strictly verified and certainly not refuted,
SHELLEY, P. B.
831
exists that an aged Italian seaman on his deathbed confessed
that he had been one of the crew of the fatal felucca, and that the
collision was intentional, as the men had plotted to steal a
sum of money supposed to be on the " Don Juan," in charge
of Lord Byron. In fact there was a moderate sum there, but
Byron had neither embarked nor intended to embark. This
may perhaps be the true account of the tragedy; at any rate
Trelawny, the best possible authority on the subject, accepted
it as true. He it was who laboriously tracked out the shore-
washed corpses of Williams and Shelley, and who undertook
the burning of them, after the ancient Greek fashion, on the
shore near Via Reggio, on the isth and i6th of August. The
great poet's ashes were then collected, and buried in the new
Protestant cemetery in Rome. He was, at the date of his
untimely death, within a month of completing the thirtieth year
of his age a surprising example of rich poetic achievement
for so young a man.
The character of Shelley can be considered according to two
different standards of estimation. We can estimate the original
motive forces in his character; or we can form an opinion of his
actions, and thence put a certain construction upon his personal
qualities. We will first try the latter method. It cannot be
denied by his admirers and eulogists, and is abundantly clear to
his censors, that his actions were in some considerable degree
abnormal, dangerous to the settled basis of society, and marked
by headstrong and undutiful presumption. But it is remarkable
that, even among the censors of his conduct, many persons are
none the less impressed by the beauty of his character; and this
leads us back to our first point the original motive forces in that.
Here we find enthusiasm, fervour, courage (moral and physical),
an unbounded readiness to act upon what he considered right
principle, however inconvenient or disastrous the consequences
to himself, sweetness and indulgence towards others, extreme
generosity (he appears to have given Godwin, though sometimes
bitterly opposed to him, between 4000 and 5000), and the prin-
ciple of love for humankind in abundance and superabundance.
He respected the truth, such as he conceived it to be, in spiritual
or speculative matters, and respected no construction of the
truth which came to him recommended by human authority.
No man had more hatred or contempt of custom and prescription;
no one had a more authentic or vivid sense of universal charity.
The same radiant enthusiasm which appeared in his poetry
as idealism stamped his speculation with the conception of
perfectibility and his character with loving emotion.
In person Shelley was attractive, winning and almost beautiful,
but not to be called handsome. His height was nearly 5 ft. n;
he was slim, agile, and strong, with something of a stoop; his
complexion brilliant, his hair abundant and wavy, dark brown
but early beginning to grizzle; the eyes, deep blue 'in tint,
have been termed " stag-eyes " large, fixed and beaming. His
voice was wanting in richness and suavity high-pitched, and
tending to the screechy; his general aspect, though extremely
variable according as his mood of mind and his expression shifted,
was on the whole uncommonly juvenile. The only portrait of
Shelley, from which some idea of his looks used to be formed,
is that painted by an amateur, Miss Curran, in 1819; Mrs Shelley,
later, pronounced it to be " in many things very like." This
is now in the National Portrait Gallery, together with a quasi-
duplicate of it painted by Clint, chiefly from Miss Curran's
likeness, and partly from a water colour (now lost) by Lieutenant
Williams. In 1905 (Century Magazine) another portrait was
brought forward:] a pencil sketch taken in the last month
of the poet's life by an American artist, William E. West, followed
by an oil-painting founded on that sketch. The two works
differ very considerably, and neither of them resembles Miss
Curran's portrait, yet we incline to believe that the sketch was
really taken from Shelley.
If we except Goethe (and leave out of count any living writers,
whose ultimate value cannot at present be assessed), we must
consider Shelley to be the supreme poet of the new era which,
beginning with the French Revolution, remains continuous
into our own day. Victor Hugo comes nearest to him in
poetic stature, and might for certain reasons be even preferred to
him ; Byron and Wordsworth also have their numerous champions
not to speak of Tennyson or Browning. The grounds,
however, on which Shelley may be set highest of all are mainly
three. He excels all his competitors in ideality, he excels them
in music, and he excels them in importance. By importance
we here mean the direct import of the work performed, its con-
trolling power over the reader's thought and feeling, the con-
tagious fire of its white-hot intellectual passion, and the long
reverberation of its appeal. Shelley is emphatically the poet
of the future. In his own day an alien in the world of mind
and invention, and in our day but partially a denizen of it,
he appears destined to become, in the long vista of years, an
informing presence in the innermost shrine of human thought.
Shelley appeared at the time when the sublime frenzies of the
French revolutionary movement had exhausted the elasticity
of men's thought at least in England and had left them
flaccid and stolid; but that movement prepared another in which
revolution was to assume the milder guise of reform, conquering
and to conquer. Shelley was its prophet. As an iconoclast
and an idealist he took the only position in which a poet could
advantageously work as a reformer. To outrage his contem-
poraries was the condition of leading his successors to triumph
and of personally triumphing in their victories. Shelley had the
temper of an innovator and a martyr; and in an intellect
wondrously poetical he united speculative keenness and humani-
tarian zeal in a degree for which we might vainly seek his pre-
cursor. We have already named ideality as one of his leading
excellences. This Shelleian quality combines, as its constituents,
sublimity, beauty and the abstract passion for good. It should
be acknowledged that, while this great quality forms the chief
and most admirable factor in Shelley's poetry, the defects which
go along with it mar his work too often producing at times
vagueness, unreality and a pomp of glittering indistinctness,
in which excess of sentiment welters amid excess of words. This
blemish affects the long poems much more than the pure lyrics ;
in the latter the rapture, the music and the emotion are in
exquisite balance, and the work has often as much of delicate
simplicity as of fragile and flower-like perfection.
Some of Shelley's principal writings have already been
mentioned above; we must now give a brief account of others.
Of his early work prior to Queen Mab such romances as Zastrozzi
and St Irvyne, such verse as the Poems by Victor and Cazire,
and the Fragments of Margaret Nicholson we can only here
say that they are intrinsically worthless. Alastor was succeeded
(1817) by The Revolt of Islam, a poem of no common length
in the Spenserian stanza, preaching bloodless revolution; it
was written in a sort of friendly competition with Keats (who
produced Endymion) and is amazingly fine in parts, but as a
whole somewhat long-drawn and exhausting. This transcen-
dental epic (for such it may be termed) was at first named
Loon and Cythna, or the Revolution of the Golden City, and the
lovers of the story were then brother and sister as well as lovers
an experiment upon British endurance which the publishers
would not connive at. The year 1818 produced Rosalind and
Helen, a comparatively weak poem, begun in England and
finished in Italy, and Julian and Maddalo, a very strong
one, written in the neighbourhood of Venice demonstrating in
Shelley a singular power of seeing ordinary things with direct-
ness, and at once figuring them as reality and transfiguring them
into poetry. In each of these two poems Shelley gives a quasi-
portraiture of himself. The next year, 1819, was his culmination,
producing as it did the grand tragedy of The Cenci and the
sublime ideal drama Prometheus Unbound, composed partly on
the ruins of the Baths of Caracalla in Rome. This last we have
no hesitation in calling his masterpiece. It embodies, in forms
of surpassing imagination and beauty, Shelley's deepest and
most daring conceptions. Prometheus, the human mind and
will, has invested with the powers proper to himself Jupiter, the
god of heaven, who thereupon chains and torments Prometheus
and oppresses mankind; in other words, the anthropomorphic
god of religion is a creation of the human mind, and both the
8 3 2
SHELLEY'S CASE SHELL-HEAPS
mind of man and man himself are enslaved as long as this god
exercises his delegated but now absolute power. Prometheus,
who is from of old wedded to Asia, or Nature, protests against
and anathematizes the usurper enthroned by himself. At last
the anathema (although Prometheus has revoked it by an act
of self-conquest) takes effect: Eternity, Demogorgon, dismisses
Jupiter to unending nothingness. Prometheus is at once un-
bound, the human mind is free; be is reunited to his spouse
Nature, and the world of man passes from thraldom and its
degradation into limitless progression, or (as the phrase goes)
perfectibility, moral and material. This we regard as in brief
the argument of Prometheus Unbound. It is closely analogous
to the argument of the juvenile poem Queen Mab, but so raised
in form and creative touch that, whereas to write Queen Mab
was only to be an ambitious and ebullient tiro, to invent Pro-
metheus Unbound was to be the poet of tbe future. The Witch
of Atlas (1820) is the most perfect work among all Shelley's
longer poems, though it is neither the deepest nor the most
interesting. It may be rated as a pure exercise of roving imagina-
tion guided, however, by an intense sense of beauty, and by
its author's exceeding fineness of nature. The poem has often
been decried as practically unmeaning; we do not subscribe
to this opinion. The " witch " of this subtle and magical inven-
tion seems to represent that faculty which we term " thefancy ";
using this assumption as a clue, we find plenty of meaning
in the poem, but necessarily it is fanciful or volatile meaning.
The elegy on Keats, Adonais, followed in 1821; the Triumph
of Life, a mystical and most impressive allegory, constructed
upon lines marked out by Dante and by Petrarch, was occupying
the poet up to the time of his death. The stately fragment which
remains is probably a minor portion of the projected whole.
The translations chiefly from Homer, Euripides, Calderon
and Goethe date from 1819 to 1822, and testify to the poetic
endowment of Shelley not less absolutely than his own original
compositions; there are also prose translations from Plato.
Shelley, it will be seen, was not only a prolific but also a versatile
poet. Works so various in faculty and in form as The Revolt
of Islam, Julian and Maddalo, The Cenci, Prometheus Unbound,
Epipysychidion, and the grotesque effusions of which Peter
Bell the Third is the prime example, added to the consummate
array of lyrics, have seldom to be credited to a single writer
one, moreover, who died before he was thirty years of age. In
prose Shelley could be as admirable as in poetry. His letters
to Thomas Love Peacock and others, and his uncompleted
Defence of Poetry, are the chief monuments of his mastery in
prose; and certainly no more beautiful prose having much
of the spirit and the aroma of poetry, yet without being
distorted out of its proper essence is to be found in the English
language.
The chief original authorities for the life of Shelley (apart from his
own writings, which contain a good deal of autobiography, if heed-
fully sifted and collated) are (i) the notices by Mrs Shelley inter-
spersed in her edition of the Poems; (2) Hogg's amusing, discerning
and authentic, although in some respects exaggerated, book; (3)
Trelawny's Records; (4) the Life by Medwin; and (5) the articles
written by Peacock. Some other writers, especially Leigh Hunt,
might be mentioned, but they come less close to the facts. Among
biographical books produced since Shelley's death, by authors who
did not know him personally, the leading work is the Life by
Professor Dowden (2vols., 1886), which embodies important materials
imparted by the Shelley family. The Real Shelley, by J. C. Jeaffreson
(1885), is controversial in method and decidedly hostile in tendency,
and tries a man of genius by tests far from well adapted (in our
opinion) to bring out a right result; it contains, however, an ample
snare of solid information and sharp disquisition. The memoir by
W. M. Rossetti, prefixed to an edition of Shelley's Poems in two forms
of _ publication (1870 and 1878), was an endeavour to formulate in
brief space, out of the then confused and conflicting records, an
accurate account of Shelleyadmiring, but not uncandidly one-sided.
There is valuable material in Lady Shelley's Shelley Memorials, and
in Dr Garnett's Relics of Shelley; and the memoir by J. Addington
Symonds, in the English Men of Letters series, is characteristic of
the writer. The most complete edition of Shelley's poems is now
the Oxford edition, edited by Thomas Hutchinson (Clarendon Press,
'95). which includes several pieces not in any other edition, and
uses the emendations, &c., published by Mr C.D. Locock (1903) from
examination of the MSS. in the Bodleian Library. Mr Buxton
Forman's earlier and excellent edition includes the writings in prose
as well as in verse. (W. M. R.)
SHELLEY'S CASE, RULE IN, an important decision in the
law of real property. The litigation was brought about by the
settlement made by Sir William Shelley (c. 1480-1549), a judge
of the common pleas, of an estate which he had purchased on
the dissolution of Sion Monastery. After prolonged argument
the celebrated rule was laid down by Lord Chancellor Sir Thomas
Bromley, who presided over an assembly of all the judges to
hear the case in Easter term 1580-1581. The rule may be stated
as follows: when an ancestor by any gift or conveyance takes
an estate of freehold and in the same gift or conveyance an
estate is limited, either mediately or immediately, to his heirs
or the heirs of his body, in such a case the word " heirs " is a
word of limitation and not of purchase; that is to say, the estate
of the ancestor is not a life or other freehold estate with remainder
to the heirs or heirs of the body, but an estate in fee or an estate
tail according to circumstances. The rule is a highly technical
one, and has led to much litigation and in many cases without
a doubt to the defeat of a testator's intentions. It is said to
have had its origin in the wish of the law to preserve to the lords
their right of wardship, which would have been ousted by the
heir taking as purchaser and not as successor. The rule is
reported by Lord Coke in i Reports 93 b. (see also Van Grutten
v. Foxwell, 1897, A.C. 658). In the United States the rule in
Shelley's case was at one time in operation as a part of the
common law, but it has been repealed by statute in most states.
SHELL-HEAPS, or KITCHEN-MIDDEN (Dan. Kjokken-modding),
prehistoric refuse heaps or mounds found in all quarters of the
globe, which consist chiefly of the shells of edible molluscs mixed
with fragments of animal bones, and implements of stone, bone
and horn. They may sometimes, as in the Straits of Magellan,
be seen in process of formation. Many having a prehistoric
origin have been examined, notably on the eastern coast of
Denmark. These were at first thought to be raised beaches,
but a cursory examination at once proved their artificial
construction. Further investigation by archaeologists proved
these shell-heaps to belong to a very ancient period, probably
the early part of the Neolithic age, " when the art of polishing
flint implements was known, but before it had reached its
greatest development " (Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times,
6th ed. p. 235). They contained the remains of quadrupeds,
birds and fish, which served as the food of the prehistoric
inhabitants. Among the bones were those of the wild bull or
aurochs, beaver, seal and great auk, all now extinct or rare in this
region. Moreover, a striking proof of the antiquity of these
shell-heaps is that they contain full-sized shells of the common
oyster, which cannot live at present in the brackish waters of
the Baltic except near its entrance, the inference being that the
shores where the oyster at that time flourished were open to
the salt sea. Thus also the eatable cockle, mussel and periwinkle
abounding in the kitchen-middens are of full ocean size, whereas
those now living in the adjoining waters are dwarfed to a third
of their natural size by the want of saltness. It thus appears
that the connexion between the ocean and the Baltic has notably
changed since the days of these rude stone-age peoples. The
masses of debris were in some places ten to twenty feet thick
and stretched a thousand feet. It does not appear that the men
of the kitchen-middens had any knowledge of agriculture, no
traces of grain of any sort being found. The only vegetable
remains were burnt pieces of wood and some charred substance,
possibly a sea-plant used in the production of salt. Flat stones
blackened with fire, forming hearths, were also found. That
periods of scarcity must have been frequent in the absence of
cereals is indicated by the discovery of bones of the fox, wolf
and other carnivora, which would hardly have been eaten from
choice. The kitchen-middens of Denmark were not mere summer-
quarters: the ancient fishermen appear to have stayed in the
neighbourhood for two-thirds, if not the whole, of the year. This
is suggested by an examination of the bones of the wild animals,
from which it is often possible to tell the time of year when they
were killed. Thus the remains ofthewildswan (Cy gnus musicus) ,
SHELL-MONEY SHELTON
833
a winter visitor, leaving the Danish coast in March and returning
in November, are found in abundance. Additional proof is
afforded among the mammalian remains by two periodical
phenomena, the shedding of the stag's antlers and the birth
and growth of the young. The flint implements found include
flakes, axes, awls, sling-stones or net-weights, and rude lance-
heads. A fragment of one polished axe was found at Havelse
which had been worked up into a scraper Small pieces of
coarse pottery are also met with. The Danish kitchen-midden
men were not cannibals. In physique they seem to have
resembled the Lapps, a race of small men with heavy over-
hanging brows and round heads. The excavation of the Danish
shell-heaps 'was followed by the investigation of others in other
countries. At Omori (Japan), in the Aleutian Islands, in British
Columbia, Oregon and California shell-mounds were explored,
always with the result of proving that the present populations
had been preceded by ruder tribes of great antiquity. On the
Atlantic coast of Brazil shell-heaps, which must have taken
thousands of years to accumulate, are now overgrown with
dense forests.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Paul Schumacher, Kjokken-moddings on the
Northern Coast of America (Smithsonian Reports, 1873); E. Reclus,
The Earth and its Inhabitants (New York, 1890), vol. xix. ; D. G.
Brinton, Artificial Shell-deposits of the United States (Smithsonian
Reports, Washington, 1866); Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times
(6th ed., 1900); J. Wyman, "Fresh-water Shell-mounds of Florida,"
Memoirs of the Peabody Academy of Sci. vol. i. (Salem, Mass., 1875);
Morse, Shell-mounds of Omori (Tolcio, 1879); F. H. Gushing, Ancient
Key-Dwellers' Remains (Philadelphia, 1897); W. H. Dall, Tribes of the
Extreme North-West: Contributions to North American Ethnology,
vol. i. (Washington, 1877).
SHELL-MONEY, a medium of exchange common to many
primitive races, consisting of sea. shells or pieces of them worked
into beads or artificially shaped. Shell-money has not been re-
stricted to one quarter of the globe, but in some form or other
appears to have been almost universal. It has been found
in America, Asia, Africa and Australia. The shell used by the
Indians of Alaska and California was the Dentalium pretiosum, a
species of tusk-shell found along the north-west coast. It received
its name from its tusk-like appearance, and was valued by length
and not by the number of shells. The usual method of measuring
was by the finger-joints, and the ligua, the highest denomination
of their coinage, consisted of twenty-five shells strung together,
which from end to end made a total measurement of a fathom
(6 ft.) or thereabouts, equalling in English coinage about 50.
Farther south on the shore of California the Indians used the
Saxidomus gracilis or Tapis gracilis, while in the islands close
to the littoral the Litornia obesa was in commonest use.
But the shell most used by primitive peoples has always
been the Cypraea moncta, or money-cowry (see COWRY). It
is most abundant in the Indian Ocean, and is collected more
particularly in the Maldive Islands, in Ceylon, along the Malabar
coast, in Borneo and other East Indian islands, and in various
parts of the African coast from Ras Hafun to Mozambique.
It was formerly in familiar use in Bengal, where, though it
required 3840 to make a rupee, the annual importation was
valued at about 30,000. In western Africa it was, until past
the middle of the igth century, the usual tender, and before the
abolition of the slave trade there were large shipments of cowry
shells to some of the English ports for reshipment to the slave
coast. As the value of the cowry was very much greater in
West Africa than in the regions from which the supply was
obtained, the trade was extremely lucrative, and in some cases
the gains are said to have been 500%. The use of the cowry
currency gradually spread inland in Africa, and about 1850
Heinrich Barth found it fairly recognized in Kano, Kuka, Gando,
and even Timbuktu. Barth relates that in Muniyoma, one of the
ancient divisions of Bornu, the king's revenue was estimated
at 30,000,000 shells, every full-grown man being required to
pay annually 1000 shells for himself, 1000 for every pack-ox,
and 2000 for every slave in his possession. In the countries
on the coast the shells were fastened together in strings of 40
or 100 each, so that fifty or twenty strings represented a dollar;
but in the interior they were laboriously counted one by one,
xxiv. 27
or, if the trader were expert, five by five. The districts mentioned
above received their supply of kurdi, as they were called, from
the west coast; but the regions to the north of Unyamwezi,
where they were in use under the name of simbi, were dependent
on Moslem traders from Zanzibar. The shells are still used in
the remoter parts of Africa, but are yearly tending to give way
to ordinary currency. The shell of the land-snail, Achalina
monetaria, cut into circles with an open centre has been long
used as coin in Benguella, Portuguese West Africa. In parts
of Asia Cyproea annulus, the ring cowry, so-called from the
bright orange-coloured ring on the back or upper side of the
shell, was commonly used. Many specimens were found by
Sir Henry Layard in his excavations at Nimrud in 1845-1851.
In north Australia different shells were used, one tribe's
shell being often absolutely valueless in the eyes of another
tribe. In the islands north of New Guinea the shells are broken
into flakes. Holes are bored through these flakes, which are
then valued by length, as in the case of the American tusk-
shell, the measuring, however, being done between the nipples
of the breasts instead of by the finger-joints. Two shells are
used by these Pacific islanders, one a cowry found on the New
Guinea coast, and the other the common pearl shell broken into
flakes. As late as 1882 local trade in the Solomon Islands was
carried on by means of a coinage of shell beads, small shells
laboriously ground down to the required size by the women.
No more than were actually needed were made, and as the process
was difficult, the value of the coinage was satisfactorily maintained.
The custom of breaking or flaking shells was common among
some of the American Indian tribes, but the shells so manipulated
were of the ponderous Pachyderma crassatelloides species, while
in the South Pacific Islands the Oliva carneola was used .
AUTHORITIES. Robert E. C. Stearns, " Ethno-conchology: a
Study of Primitive Money," in Smithsonian Report, part ii. (Bureau
of Ethnology, Washington), for 1887; "Shell-money," in The
American Naturalist, vol. iii. (Salem, 1869); "Aboriginal Shell-
money," in The American Naturalist (1877), vol. xi. ; " On the Shell-
money of New Britain," in Jour. Anthrop, Institute (1888), vol. xvii. ;
" Aboriginal Shell-money," Proc. California Acad. of Science (San
Francisco, 1875), vol. v. ; E. Ingersoll in Country Cousins (New
York, 1884); S. Powers, Contributions to North American Ethnology
(Washington, 1877), vol. iii.
SHELTON, THOMAS (fl. 1612-1620), English translator of
Don Quixote. In the dedication of The delightfull history of the
wittie knight, Don Quishote (1612) he explains to his patron,
Lord Howard de Walden, afterwards 2nd Earl of Suffolk, that
he had translated Don Quixote from Spanish into English some
five or six years previously in the period of forty days for a
" very dear friend " who was unable to understand the original.
Shelton did not use the original edition of Cervantes, but one
published in Brussels in 1607. On the appearance of the Brussels
imprint of the second part of Don Quixote in 1616, he translated
that also into English, completing his task in 1620, and printing
at the same time a revised edition of the first part. His perform-
ance has become a classic among English translations for its
racy, spirited rendering of the original. Light was thrown on
Thomas Shelton's personal history by the researches of Mr
Alexander T. Wright in a paper published in October 1898.
Among the kinsfolk of the earl of Suffolk were three persons
bearing the name Thomas Shelton, and though all died before
1600 he was probably a member of the same family. It seems
safe to identify him with the Thomas Shelton who wrote a sonnet
prefixed to the Restitution of Decayed Intelligence (1605) of
Richard Verstegan, who was most likely the friend referred to
in Shelton's preface, for there is reason to believe that both of
them were then employed in a matter of doubtful loyalty,
the intrigues of the Roman Catholics in England. He was
acquainted with the " cries of the wild Irish," and seems to have
been honestly employed in carrying letters to persons in England
from Lord Deputy Fitzwilliam at Dublin Castle. But in 1599
he apparently acted as agent for Florence McCarthy to offer his
service to the king of Spain, a commission for which his knowledge
of Spanish especially fitted him. Soon afterwards an official
precis of the facts was drawn up, in which Shelton was implicated
SHEM SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS
by name. A second version of this document in 1617 is actually
signed by him, but all reference to his share in the matter is
omitted. Lady Suffolk, the wife of his patron, received yearly
1000 in secret service money from the Spanish king, and
Shelton may have been her accomplice. If the " many affairs "
of his preface were official he would not wish to call atten-
tion to his antecedents by owning friendship with Verstegan.
The 1612 edition is available in Mr Fitzmaurice Kelly's reprint
for the Tudor Translations (1892); that of 1620 is reproduced in
Macmillan's " Library of English Classics " with an introduction
by Mr A. W. Pollard, who incorporates the suggestions made
by Mr A. T. Wright in his Thomas Shelton, Translator.
SHEH (Hebrew for " name, renown, posterity "), in the
Bible, the eldest of the three sons of NOAH, whose superiority
over Canaan is reflected in the tradition that Noah pronounced
a curse upon the latter (Gen. ix. 20-27). In the genealogies
(x. 21 sqq.), Shem numbers among his descendants Assyrian,
Arabian, Aramaean and Hebrew populations, whence the ethnic
Semitic (strictly speaking, Shemitic) has been coined as a con-
venient term for these peoples. It is not altogether scientific,
since the Lydians (Lud) and Elamites are included among
Shem's " sons," apparently on account of their geographical
position or because of their indebtedness to Assyrian culture.
On the traditions of Shem, see E. Meyer, Israeliten . Nach-
barslamme (Halle, 1906), pp. 219 sqq.
SHEMAKHA, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern-
ment of Baku, 70 m. W. of the town of Baku, and in 40 38' N.
and 48 40' E. It has some 20,000 inhabitants, consisting of
Tatars (75%), Armenians and Russians. Shemakha was the
capital of the khanate of Shirvan, and was known to the
Roman geographer Ptolemy as Kamachia. About the middle
of the 1 6th century it was the seat of an English commercial
factory, under the traveller Jenkinson, afterwards envoy extra-
ordinary of the khan of Shirvan to Ivan the Terrible of Russia.
In 1742 Shemakha was taken and destroyed by Nadir Shah of
Persia, who, to punish the inhabitants for their creed (Sunnite
Mahommedanism), built a new town under the same name about
1 6 m. to the W., at the foot of the main chain of the Caucasus.
The new Shemakha was at different times a residence of the
khan of Shirvan, but it was finally abandoned, and the old town
rebuilt. The Russians first entered Shirvan in 1723, but soon
retired. In 1795 they captured Shemakha as well as Baku;
but the conquest was once more abandoned, and Shirvan was
not finally annexed to Russia until 1805.
SHENANDOAH, a borough of Schuylkill county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., about 40 m. N.N.W. of Reading. Pop. (1910,
census), 25,774. Among the foreign-born the Lithuanians
and Poles predominate in 1910 a Lithuanian and a Polish
paper were published here. Shenandoah is served by the
Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways. The borough has a public library. The United Greek
Catholic Church (Ruthenian Rite) here is said to be the first of
this sect in the United States; it was organized as St Michael's
Parish in 1885, the first building was erected in 1886, and a new
building was completed in 1909. Shenandoah is situated in
the eastern part of the middle basin of the great anthracite coal
region of Pennsylvania, and the mining and shipping of coal
are its chief industries. A log house was built on the site of
the present Shenandoah as early as 1835, but there was no
further development until 1862, when the first colliery was
opened. The borough was incorporated in 1866.
SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS. During the American
Civil War the Shenandoah Valley was frequently the scene of
military operations, and at two points in the war these opera-
tions rose to the height of separate campaigns possessing great
significance in the general development of the war. From a
military point of view the Shenandoah Valley was valuable
to the army which controlled it as a requisitioning area, for in
this fertile region crops and cattle were plentiful. There were,
moreover, numerous mills and factories. For the Confederates
the Valley was also a recruiting area. A macadamized road
from Lexington via Staunton and Winchester to Martinsburg
gave them easy access to Maryland and enabled them to cover
Lynchburg from the north. By a system of railways which
united at Gordonsville and Charlottesville troops from Richmond
and Lynchburg were detrained within easy distance of five good
passes over Blue Ridge, and as Strasburg in the valley lies almost
due west of Washington it was believed in the North that a
Confederate army thereabouts menaced a city the protection
of which was a constant factor in the Federal plan of campaign.
The Valley was 60 m. wide at Martinsburg and had been cleared
of timber, so that the movements of troops were not restricted
to the roads: the creeks and rivers were fordable at most places
in summer by levelling the approaches: the terrain was
specially suitable for mounted troops. The existence of the
parallel obstacle between Strasburg and Newmarket, the two
forks of the Shenandoah river enclosing the Massanutton range,
afforded opportunities for strategic manoeuvres.
In the spring of 1862 the immense army organized by General
McClellan advanced and threatened to sweep all before it.
The Confederates, based on Richmond, were compelled to show
a front westward to the AUeghanies, northward to the Potomac
and eastwards to the Atlantic. The main armies were engaged
on the Yorktown peninsula and the other operations were
secondary. Yet in one instance a Confederate detachment
that varied in strength between 5000 and 17,000 contrived to
make some stir in the world and won renown for its commander.
General Thomas J. Jackson with small means achieved great
results, if we look at the importance which politics played in the
affairs of the belligerents; and even in a military sense he was
admirable for skilfully utilizing his experiences, so that his
discomfitures of the winter of 1861, when Rosecrans and Lander
and Kelley were opposed to him, taught him how to deal with
such Federal leaders as Shields and Banks, Milroy and Fremont,
fettered as they all were by the Lincoln administration. The
Valley operations in 1862 began by a retrograde movement
on the part of the Confederates, for Jackson on the i2th of March
retired from Winchester, and Banks at the head of 20,000 men
took possession. Banks pushed a strong detachment under
General Shields on to Strasburg a week later, and Jackson then
withdrew his small division (5000) to Mount Jackson, so yielding
the Shenandoah Valley for 40 m. south of Winchester. He was
now acting under instructions to employ the invaders in the
Valley and prevent any large body being sent eastward to rein-
force their main army; but he was not to expose himself to
the danger of defeat. He was to keep near the enemy, but not
so near as to be compelled to fight Banks's superior forces.
Such instructions, however, were difficult to carry out. When,
on the 2ist of March, Banks recalled Shields in accordance with
orders from Washington, Jackson conceived that he was bound
to follow Shields, and, when Shields stood at bay at Kernstown
on the 23rd of March with 7000 men, Jackson at the head of
3500 attacked and was badly beaten.
For such excess of zeal two years later Sigel was removed
from his command. But in 1862 apparently such audacity was
true wisdom, for the proof thus afforded by Jackson of his inability
to contend with Shields seems to have been regarded by the
Federal authorities as an excuse for reversing their plans: Shields
was reinforced by Williams's division, and with this force Banks
undertook to drive Jackson from the Valley. A week after the
battle of Kernstown, Banks moved to Strasburg with 16,000 men,
and a month later (April 29) is found at Newmarket, after much
skirmishing with Jackson's rear-guard which burnt the bridges
in retiring. Meanwhile Jackson had taken refuge in the passes
of Blue Ridge, where he too was reinforced. Ewell's division
joined him at Swift Run Gap, and at the beginning of May he
decided to watch Banks with Ewell's division and to proceed
himself with the remainder of his command to join Edward
Johnson's division,then beset by General Milroy west of Staunton.
Secretly moving by rail through Rockfish Gap, Jackson united
with Johnson and in a few days located Milroy at the village of
McDowell. After reconnaissance Jackson concentrated his forces
on Setlington Hill and proposed to attack on the morrow
(May 8th), but on this occasion the Federals (Milroy having
just been joined by Schenck) took the initiative, and after a four
SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS
835
hours' battle Jackson was able to claim his first victory. The
Confederates lost 500 out of 6000 men and the Federals 250 out
of 2 500 men. Jackson's pursuit of Milroy and Schenck
"campabra " was profitless, and he returned to his camp at McDowell
on the i4th of May. Meanwhile General Banks had
been ordered by President Lincoln to fall back from New-
market, to send Shields's division to reinforce General McDowell
at Fredericksburg, to garrison Front Royal and to entrench
there was of brief duration, for McDowell was moving westward
from Fredericksburg and F'remont eastward from Franklin
under instructions from Washington to intercept him. On
the 3ist of May Fremont had reached Cedar Creek, McDowell
was at Front Royal and Jackson had retired to Strasburg,
where he was compelled to wait for a detachment to come in.
This rejoined on the evening of the ist of June. Ewell's division
held Fremont back until Jackson was on his way to Newmarket.
SHENANDOAH
VALLEY
CAMPAIGNS.
1862-4.
the remainder of his command at Strasburg: and in this situation
the enemy found him on the 2 2nd of May. Jackson's opportunity
had come to destroy Banks's force completely. The Confederates
numbered 16,000, the Federals only 6000 men. Jackson availed
himself of the Luray Valley route to intercept Banks after
capturing the post at Front Royal. He captured the post,
but failed to intercept Banks, who escaped northwards by the
turnpike road and covered his retreat across the Potomac by a
rear-guard action at Winchester on the zsth of May. Jackson
followed and reached Halltown a few days later. But his stay
McDowell had sent Shields up the Valley by the Luray route.
But Jackson gained Newmarket in safety and destroyed the
bridge by which Shields could emerge from the Luray Valley to
join Fremont, who was left to cope with Jackson single-handed.
Jackson's rearguard destroyed the bridges and otherwise cross
impeded Fremont's advance, but a week later (June Keys ana
7th) Fremont at Harrisonburg located his enemy at Pori
Cross Keys and next day he attacked with 10,500 men. Ke P ut > lic -
Shields was still at Luray. Jackson held Fremont with Ewell's
division (8000) and with the remainder proceeded to the left bank
8 3 6
SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS
of the Shenandoah near Port Republic to await developments,
for Shields had pushed forward a strong advanced guard under
General Tyler, whose vanguard (two squadrons) crossed the river
while Fremont was engaged with Ewell. Tyler's cavalry was
driven back with heavy loss. Jackson retained possession of the
bridge by which Tyler and Fremont could unite, and next day
he crossed the river to attack Tyler's two brigades. The engage-
ment of the gth of June is called the battle of Port Republic.
Jackson with 13,000 men attacked Tyler with 3000 men, and
Tyler, after stoutly resisting in the vain hope that the main
body under Shields would come up from Conrad's Store or that
Fr6mont would cross the river and fall upon Jackson, retired
with a loss of some 800 men, leaving as many Confederates
hors de combat. Tyler's brave efforts were in vain, for Shields
had once more received orders from Washington which appeared
to him to justify leaving his detachment to its fate, and Fremont
could not reach the river in time to save the bridge, which Ewell's
rear-guard burnt after Jackson had concentrated his forces
against Tyler on the right bank. A few days later Jackson
received orders to quit the Valley and join the main army before
Richmond, and President Lincoln simultaneously discovered
that he could not afford to keep the divisions of Fremont, Banks
and McDowell engaged in operations against Jackson: so the
Valley was at peace for a time.
In stricter connexion with the operations of the main armies
in Virginia, the Confederates brought off two great coups in the
Valley Jackson's capture of Harper's Ferry and Martinsburg
in the autumn of 1862 and Ewell's expulsion of Milroy from
Martinsburg and Winchester in June 1863. The concentration
of the Federal forces in N. Virginia in May 1864 for the campaign
which ultimately took Grant and Lee south of the James involved
a fresh series of operations in the Valley. At first a Union
containing force was placed there under Sigel; this general,
however, took the offensive and unwisely accepted battle and was
defeated at Newmarket. Next Hunter, who superseded Sigel
in command in West Virginia and the Valley, was to co-operate
with the Army of the Potomac by a movement on Staunton
and thence to Gordonsville and Lynchburg, with the object
of destroying the railways and canal north of the James river
by which troops and supplies reached the Confederates from
the West. Sigel meanwhile was to cover the Ohio railroad at
Martinsburg. Hunter encountered Jones's division at Piedmont
(Mount Crawford) on the sth of June and caused General Lee
to detach from his main army a division under Breckinridge to aid
Jones. Grant then detached Sheridan to join Hunter at Char-
lottesville, but Lee sent Hampton's cavalry by a shorter route
to intercept Sheridan, and a battle at Trevillian Station com-
pelled Sheridan to return and leave Hunter to his fate. The
losses in this cavalry combat exceeded 1000, for the dense
woods, the use of barricades and the armament of the mounted
troops caused both sides to fight on foot until lack of ammuni-
tion brought the action to an end. Sheridan during his three
months' command of the Federal cavalry had steadfastly
adhered to the principle of always fighting the enemy's cavalry,
and, though now compelled to return to the Pamunkey, he con-
trived to draw Hampton's force after him in that direction. Mean-
while on the I3th of June General Early had moved from Cold
Harbor to add his command to the Confederate forces in the
Valley. Early succeeded in interposing between Hunter and
Lynchburg, and within a week drove Hunter out of Virginia by
the Kanawha river route. Early then moved down the Valley
turnpike unmolested. Expelling Sigel from Martinsburg on the
4th of July and crossing the Potomac opposite Sharpsburg,
he soon appealed before Washington, after defeating an im-
provised force under Lew Wallace on the Monocacy. Grant
then detached Wright's corps (VI.) from Petersburg and called
Emory's corps (XIX.) from the West to oppose Early,
who after creating serious alarm retired, on the I3th of July,
by Leesburg and Snicker's Gap into the Valley at Winchester.
Hunter had meanwhile gained Harper's Ferry via the Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad, and, when Early withdrew towards Strasburg,
General Crook collected the forces of Hunter and Sigel to follow
the Confederates, but Early turned upon Crook and drove
him back to the Potomac. Early then sent a detachment
into Maryland to burn the town of Chambersburg. The alarm
in the North for the safety of Washington was only quieted
by the appointment of General Sheridan to command in the
Valley.
He arrived on the scene early in August. His mission was
to drive Early up the Valley or, if the Confederates crossed into
Maryland, to intercept their return, and in any case
he was to destroy all supplies in the country which
could not be consumed by his own army. Sheridan
made Harper's Ferry his headquarters and concentrated at
Halltown. Early retained his position about Bunker's Hill,
destroyed the Ohio railroad, and held the main road up the
Valley until Sheridan moved out in force on the loth of August.
Early then retreated up the Valley to Fisher's Hill (Strasburg),
where he expected to be joined by Anderson's corps from
Richmond. Sheridan had followed Early, but hearing of this
reinforcement to the enemy, he decided to take up a de-
fensive line at Halltown the only point in the Valley which
did not favour flanking operations and await reinforcements.
Sheridan's retrograde movement from Cedar Creek on the I7th
of August was, however, regarded in the North as a sign of
pusillanimity, and his removal from the Valley command was
loudly called for. During the retreat Sheridan's cavalry en-
countered Early's reinforcements, Anderson's corps and Fitz
Lee's cavalry, about Winchester. Early had observed the
Federal movements from the heights south of Strasburg, and
now followed Sheridan down to Halltown. On the zist of August
he again attacked Sheridan at Summit Point south of Charles-
town. A few days later Early detached a force to raid Williams-
port, and concentrated his main body behind the Opequan
near Bunker's Hill, leaving outposts on the railway, a position
which he held at the end of August. Sheridan meanwhile had
moved out between the Shenandoah and the Opequan to seize
all routes towards Washington, from Martinsburg on Early's
left as far up as the Winchester-Berry ville turnpike by which
his own reinforcements reached the Valley through Snicker's
Gap. Sheridan also held the Smithfield crossing of the Opequan
in Early's front. Each commander, however, hesitated to bring
on a battle, Sheridan because the result of the Presidential
election would be seriously affected by his defeat at this moment,
and Early because with his inferior forces he was content to
know that his position on Sheridan's flank effectively covered
the Valley. But Sheridan was now at the head of the most
formidable army that had ever invaded this region. It consisted
of three small army corps under Wright (VI.), Emory (XIX.)
and Crook (VIII.) and Torbert's cavalry (6000) in three divisions
under Averel!, Merritt and Wilson, the whole numbering 30,000
infantry, 6000 cavalry and 27 batteries. Early continued to
hold Winchester with four divisions under Rodes, Gordon,
Breckinridge and Ramseur and two cavalry divisions under
Fitz Lee and Lomax. He had soon been deprived of Anderson's
corps which was sorely needed at Richmond, a fact which
Sheridan discovered through his spies in Winchester, and indeed
Sheridan had been waiting a fortnight for this movement by
which Early's command was to be reduced. For a month the
two armies had manoeuvred between Halltown and Strasburg,
each commander hoping for such an increase to his own or decrease
of his enemy's numbers as would justify attack. The Valley
operations were aided indirectly by assaults and sorties about
Petersburg. Grant aimed at preventing Lee sending reinforce-
ments to Early until Sheridan's plans had been carried out.
Meanwhile Early had been gathering up the harvests in the
lower Valley, but on the 2oth of August Sheridan was able to
report " I have destroyed everything that was eatable south of
Winchester, and they will have to haul supplies from well up
to Staunton." Sheridan in September could put 23,000 infantry
and 8000 cavalry into action, and at this moment he was visited
by Grant, who encouraged his subordinate toseize an opportunit>
to attack the enemy.
The first encounter of Sheridan and Early took place on the
SHENANDOAH VALLEY CAMPAIGNS
837
Win-
chester.
ipth of September about 2 m. east of Winchester. Sheridan
had crossed the Opequon and found the enemy in position
astride the Winchester-Berryville road. Early was out-
numbered and outfought,but he attributed his defeat to
the enemy's " immense superiority in cavalry," and in
fact Sheridan depicts Merritt's division as charging with sabre
or pistol in hand and literally riding down a hostile battery,
taking 1200 prisoners and 5 guns. The Federal victory,
however, cost Sheridan 4500 casualties and he had hoped for
greater success, since Early had divided his forces. Sheridan's
plan was to overwhelm Ramseur before he could be supported
by Rodes and Gordon, but Early contrived to bring these
divisions up and counter-attack while Sheridan was engaged
with Ramseur. Early had confided his left to Fitz Lee's cavalry
and taken Breckinridge to strengthen his right. But Merritt's
horsemen rode through the Confederate cavalry, who fled,
communicating their panic to the infantry of the left wing,
and the day was lost. Early retreated through
Hf er Newtown and Strasburg, but at Fisher's Hill behind
Tumbling Run, where the Valley was entrenched on
a front of 3 m. between the Shenandoah river and Little North
Mountain, Early rallied his forces and again detailed his cavalry
to protect his left from a turning movement. But Sheridan
repeated his manoeuvre, and again on the 22nd of September
Early was attacked and routed, General Crook's column having
outflanked him by a detour on the western or Back road. Early
now retreated to Mount Jackson, checked the pursuit at Rode's
Hill, and, evading all Sheridan's efforts to bring him again to
battle, reached Port Republic on the 2$th of September. On
learning of this disaster, and the distress of his troops, General
Lee promised to send him boots, arms and ammunition, but
under pressure of Grant's army, he could not spare any troops.
Lee had estimated Sheridan's force at 1 2,000 effective infantry,
and Early's report as to his being outnumbered by three or
four to one was not credited. Yet Early had much to do to
avoid destruction, for Sheridan had planned to cut off Early
by moving his cavalry up the Luray Valley to Newmarket
while the infantry held him at Fisher's Hill; but Torbert
with the cavalry blundered. Sheridan made Harrisonburg
his headquarters on the 2 5th of September, where he relieved
Averell of his command for having failed to pursue after the
battle of Fisher's Hill. In the first week of October Sheridan
held a line, across the Valley from Port Republic along North
river to the Back road, and his cavalry had advanced to Waynes-
boro to destroy the railroad bridge there, to drive off cattle,
and burn the mills and all forage and breadstuffs. Early had
taken refuge in Blue Ridge at Rockfish Gap, where he awaited
Rosser's cavalry and Kershaw's division (Longstreet's corps),
for Lee had resolved upon again reinforcing the Valley command,
and upon their arrival Early advanced to Mount Crawford and
thence to Newmarket. The Federals retired before him, but
his cavalry was soon to suffer another repulse, for Rosser and
Lomax having followed up Sheridan closely on the gth of
October with five brigades, the Federal cavalry under Torbert
turned upon this body when it reached Tom's Brook (Fisher's
Hill) and routed it. Sheridan burnt the bridges behind him
as he retired on Winchester, and apparently trusted that Early
would trouble him no more and then he would rejoin Grant at
Petersburg. But Early determined to go north again, though
he had to rely upon Augusta county, south of Harrisonburg,
for supplies, for Sheridan had wasted Rockingham and Shenan-
doah counties in accordance with Grant's order. The Union
commander-in-chief, contemplating a longer struggle between
the main armies than he had at first reckoned on, had deter-
mined that the devastation of the Valley should be thorough
and lasting in its effect.
Sheridan at Winchester was now free to detach troops to aid
Grant, or remain quiescent covering the Ohio railroad, or move
east of Blue Ridge. He had resisted the demand of the govern-
ment, which Grant had endorsed, that Early should be driven
through the Blue Ridge back on Richmond. Sheridan pointed
out that guerrilla forces were always in his rear, that he would need
to reopen the Alexandria railroad as a line of supply, that he
must detach forces to hold the Valley and protect the railroads,
and that on nearing Richmond he might be attacked by a column
sent out by Lee to aid Early. Yet in fact Sheridan carried out
the government programme at the beginning of 1865, and
therefore we may assume that his objections in October were
not well-founded. Then he was expected to drive Early out
of the Valley, but halted at Harrisonburg and, although in
superior force,- afterwards retired to Winchester, and his boast of
having wasted the Valley seemed ill-timed, since Early was able
to follow him down to Strasburg. There was evidently some
factor in the case which is not disclosed by Sheridan in his
Memoirs.
Early at Newmarket on the 9th of October said that he could
depend on only 6000 muskets if he detached Kershaw, and
he had discovered that all positions in the Valley
could be turned, that the open country favoured the creek
shock tactics of the Federal cavalry, and so placed
his own cavalry at a disadvantage, who, he declared, could not
by dismounted action withstand attacks by superior numbers
with the arme blanche. In these circumstances it would appear
that Early showed great enterprise in following Sheridan down
to Strasburg on the i3th of October " to thwart his purposes
if he should contemplate moving across the Ridge or sending
troops to Grant." But as his forward position at Fisher's Hill
could not be long maintained for want of forage, he resolved
to attack Sheridan, and on the night of the i8th of October he
sent three divisions under Gordon to gain the enemy's rear,
while Kershaw's division attacked his left and Wharton's division
and the artillery engaged him in front. The attack was timed
to commence at 5 A.M. on the igth of October, when Rosser's
cavalry was to engage Sheridan's cavalry and that of Lomax
was to close the Luray Valley. This somewhat complicated
disposition of forces was entirely successful, and Early counted
his gains as 1300 prisoners and 18 guns after routing the Federal
corps VIII. and XIX. and causing Wright's corps (VI.) to retire.
Yet before nightfall Early's force was in turn routed and he lost
23 guns. Early's report is that of a disheartened general.
He complains that his troops took to plundering, that his regi-
mental officers were incapable; and it is always the Federal
cavalry that cause panic by threatening to charge; he has to
confess that with a whole day before him he could neither com-
plete his victory nor take up a position for defence, nor even
retreat in good order with the spoils of battle. Sheridan had,
it seems, actually put Wright's corps in march for Petersburg
when news of Early's advance down the Valley reached him;
then he recalled Wright and on the I4th of October was holding
a defensive line along the north bank of Cedar Creek west of the
Valley pike about Middleton. Early had reconnoitred and
withdrawn as far as Fisher's Hill near Strasburg. Sheridan
at this juncture was called to Washington to consult Halleck,
the " chief of staff," on the i6th of October in reference to his
future movements: for Halleck claimed to control Sheridan and
often modified Grant's instructions to his subordinate. Before
Sheridan could rejoin his army on the igth of October Early
had attacked and routed it, but Sheridan met the fugitives and
rallied them with the cry: " We must face the other way."
He found Getty's division and the cavalry acting as rear-guard,
and resolved to attack as soon as his troops could be reorganized.
Sheridan was, however, disturbed by reports of Longstreet's
coming by the Front Royal road to cut him off at Winchester,
and hesitated for some hours; but at 4 p.m. he attacked and
drove back the Confederates and so recovered all the ground
lost in the morning, and recaptured his abandoned guns and
baggage.
After the battle of Cedar Creek, Early again retreated south to
Newmarket and Sheridan was in no. condition to pursue. The
Federal government had agreed to Sheridan's proposal to fortify
a defensive line at Kernstown and hold it with a detachment
while Sheridan rejoined Grant with the main body. On the nth
of November, Early again advanced to reconnoitre at Cedar
Creek, but was driven back to Newmarket. At the beginning
8*8
SHENDI SHEN-SI
of December the weather threatened to interfere with movement,
and both sides began to send back troops to Petersburg. During
the winter there were only cavalry raids and guerrilla warfare,
and in February 1865 the infantry remaining on each side was
less than a strong division. Sheridan seized the opportunity to
advance with 10,000 cavalry. Early delayed this advance with
his cavalry, while he evacuated Staunton; he called up a
brigade to defend Lynchburg and proceeded to Waynesboro
to await developments. Sheridan feared to advance on Lynch-
burg leaving Early on his flank and decided to attack Early at
Waynesboro; and on the 2nd of March the Federal commander
was rewarded by decisive victory, capturing 1600 Confederates
and their baggage and artillery. Early himself escaped and
Rosser's cavalry dispersed to their homes in the Valley, but with
Early's third defeat all organized resistance in the Shenandoah
Valley came to an end. Sheridan moved over Blue Ridge to
Charlottesville and began his work of destruction south and
east. Lynchburg was too strongly held to be captured, but from
Amherst Court House the railway to Charlottesville and the
canal to Richmond were destroyed, and thus Lee's army was
deprived of these arteries of supply. On the loth of March at
Columbia, on the James river south of Charlottesville, Sheridan
sent couriers to advise Grant of his success, and on the ipth of
March he rejoined the main army in Eastern Virginia, receiving
Grant's warm commendation for having " voluntarily deprived
himself of independence." (G. W. R.)
SHENDI, a town in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in the mudiria
(province) of Berber, on the right bank of the Nile in 18 i' N.,
33 59' E., and 104 m. N.N.W. of Khartum by rail. Shendi
possesses small manufactories of leather, iron and cotton; ex-
tensive railway workshops and a government experimental farm.
It is the headquarters of the cavalry of the Egyptian army
stationed in the Sudan. Shendi lies within the " Island of
Meroe " and is a town of great antiquity. Thirty miles north
are the pyramids of Meroe. On the opposite (west) bank of
the Nile is the village of Metemma, whence there is a caravan
route across the Bayuda Desert to the Merawi (Merowe) by Jebel
Barkal; this was the route followed by the desert column
under Sir Herbert Stewart in 1884 in the Gordon relief expedition.
In 1772 James Bruce stayed some time at Shendi then governed
by a woman on his way to Egypt after visiting the source of
the Blue Nile. When the Egyptians invaded the Sudan in 1820
Shendi, then a place of considerable size, submitted to Ismail
Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, the pasha of Egypt. In 1822, how-
ever, Ismail and his chief followers were treacherously burnt to
death at Shendi by order of the mek (ruler) of the town, in revenge
for the cruelties committed by the Egyptians. Later in the same
year an Egyptian army from Kordofan razed the town to the
ground, most of the inhabitants being massacred. From that
period until the establishment of Anglo-Egyptian rule in 1898
Shendi was but a poor village. Its subsequent growth has been
comparatively rapid. There is a considerable area of fertile land
on either side of the Nile in the neighbourhood.
SHENG-KING, SHEN-KING, or LIAO-TUNG, a province of
the Chinese empire, in southern Manchuria. It occupies an
area of 50,000 sq. m. and contains a population of 4,000,000.
Its capital is Mukden, or, as it is otherwise known, Sheng-king,
" the Flourishing Capital." The province includes the Liao-
tung peninsula, the most southern part of which, including
Port Arthur, is leased to Japan.
Shene-king is largely mountainous. A line drawn from King-chow
Fu (41 12' N., 121 10' E.) N.E. to Mukden, and then south by west
through Leaoi-yang and Hai-chgng to Kai-ping and the sea, would
define the level country. A large portion of the plain, being an
alluvial deposit, is extremely fertile, but in the neighbourhood of the
sea the saline exudation common in the north of China renders futile
all attempts at cultivation. North and east of this district run
numerous mountain ranges, for the most part in a north-and-south
direction. The climate of Sh6ng-king is marked by extremes of heat
and cold. In summer the temperature varies from 70 to 90 F., and
in winter from 50 above to 10 below zero. The mountain scenery
is extremely picturesque, and the trees and shrubs are such as are
common in England, the mountain ash being the only common
English tree which is there conspicuous by its absence. The most
important rivers are the Liao-ho and the Yalu. The former takes its
rise in Mongolia, and after running an easterly course for about
400 m., turns S.W., and empties into the Gulf of Liao-tung, in the
neighbourhood of Ying-tsze, up to which town, 20 m. from the bar,
the river is navigable for large junks. The Yalu rises in the moun-
tains to the south of the plain, and empties into the Yellow Sea.
The chief cities, Mukden, Liao-yang, Niu-chwang, Port
Arthur and Tairen (Dalny) are separately noticed. Niu-chwang
is the chief port of the province. Sheng-king is well supplied
with railways, Mukden being in direct railway connexion with
Peking, Niu-chwang, Port Arthur and Tairen as well as with the
Korean railways, and with Eurppe and Vladivostock by the
trans-Siberian line. The Mukden-Peking railway follows the
route of the imperial highway from Peking, which passes through
the Great Wall at Shan-kai-kwan and along the shores of the
Gulf of Chih-li, and after leaving Mukden divides into three
branches one going eastward to Korea, another going by
Kirin and A-she-ho to San-sing, while a third diverges N. by
W. to Fakumen, thence through Mongolia to Pe-tu-na, and
then to Tsi-tsi-har, Mergen, and the Amur. Another road leads
east from Niu-chwang to Fung-hwang-chung, now a station on
the Mukden-Korea railway. The chief agricultural products are
wheat, barley, millet, oats, maize, cotton, indigo and tobacco.
Coal, iron and gold are also found in considerable quantities
in various localities. (See also MANCHURIA and CHINA.)
SHEN-SI, a northern province of China, bounded N. by the
Great Wall, W. by the province of Kan-suh, S. by the province
of Sze-ch'uen, and E. by Shan-si, from which it is separated by
the Hwang-ho. Area about 75,000 sq. m.; pop. about 8,300,000.
Si-gan Fu (q.v.), or Sian Fu, is the provincial capital; there are six
other prefectural cities. Shen-si is divided into two parts by a
barrier of mountains, consisting of the Fu-niu Shan and the Tsing-
ling Shan, which attain elevations of over 11,000 ft., and run
across the southern portion of the province from east to west. To
the north of the mountains lie the basins of the Wei-ho and of
several other tributaries to the Hwang-ho. The name Shen-si,
" west of the pass," refers to the Tungkwan pass, near the
confluence of the Wei and the Hwang-ho. The valley of the
Wei, situated between high tableland (the Ordos plateau) on
the north and rugged mountains to the south, forms the great
channel of communication between Eastern China and Central
Asia. Were it in the hands of an enemy the Chinese colonies
in Central Asia would be completely severed from the mother
country, hence the eagerness evinced by the government through-
out all history to retain possession of the region. In this district
are the sites of cities used as capitals of China in remote antiquity.
Si-gan Fu, founded in the 3rd century B.C., was usually the capital
until the time of the Kin dynasty (A.D. 1127), and it was chosen
by the dowager empress as the temporary capital during the
stress of the Boxer outbreak (1900-1901). It is noted also as
containing the celebrated Nestorian tablet, erected A.D. 781, on
which is engraved an edict according tolerance to the Nestorian
missionaries. Modern Christian (Protestant) mission work in the
city dates from 1876. The walls of Si-gan enclose a square
space of 6 m. each way, and, unlike most Chinese cities, its
fortifications are kept in perfect repair. During the Mahommedan
rebellion it was closely invested for two years (1868-1870) by the
rebels, who, however, failed to capture it. During a great famine
which occurred in 1902 about 2,500,000 persons in the province
died of starvation.
From Si-gan Fu radiate a number of roads going east, south and
west. The east road is the great Tung-kwan road, which forms the
principal means of communication between Peking and the north-
eastern provinces of the empire, and Sze-ch'uen, Yun-nan and Tibet.
To the south, one road crosses the mountains to Shang Chow, and
on to the Tan river, an affluent of the Han-kiang, and is thus con-
nected with the trade of the Yangtsze-kiang; and another leads to
Han-chung Fu and Sze-ch'uen. Leaving the west gate of the city
two roads lead to Lan-chow Fu, from which town begins the great
high road into Central Asia by way of Lian-chow Fu, Kan-chow
Fu and Su-chow to Hami, where it forks into two branches which
follow respectively the northern and southern foot of the Tian-shan
range, and are known as the Tian-shan pei lu and the Tian-shan nan
In. It was along these roads that the fame of China first reached
Europe, and it was by the Tian-shan nan lu that Marco Polo entered
the empire. To defend this line of communication the Great Wall
SHENSTONE SHEPPEY
839
was extended beyond Su-chow, and the Kia-yu gate, " the door of the
empire," was built. During the reign of Hia-wu Ti of the Han dynasty,
Chinese colonies and high roads lined with fortified cities were
established along this route, and though at times the government
have lost possession of the line beyond the Great Wall, it has always
succeeded in re-establishing its supremacy over it. Occupying a
position, the.n, at the confluence of the roads which connect north-
eastern China with its western and south-western portions, Si-gan
Fu is a city of great commercial importance. It has few manufac-
tures, but does an extensive trade principally in the importation of
silk from Cheh-kiang and Sze-ch'uen, tea from Hu-peh and Hu-nan,
and sugar from Sze-ch'uen, and in the exportation of these and other
articles (such as skins and furs) to Kan-suh, Russia and Central Asia.
Shen-si is purely an agricultural province. Its principal products
are cotton, wheat and opium the anti-opium decrees of 1906 had
little effect on the province up to 1910 and these it exchanges
with the neighbouring provinces for coal, iron, salt, &c. Kao-liang,
pulse, millet, maize, groundnut, barley, beans, pease, lucerne, and
rape seed are also grown. The Wei basin being a loess region is unfit
for rice, but for the same reason it produces fine crops of the kinds
mentioned at a minimum expenditure of labour. The Shen-si
opium is much valued by smokers and ranked next to the Shan-si
drug, which was second only to that produced in Kan-suh. Coal
abounds in the northern part of the province, but owing to difficulty
of transit it is not worked to any great extent. The winters are cold,
but short, and though fruit trees abound and are most productive, no
evergreen trees or shrubs are to be met with within the province.
Shen-si is specially noted for the varnish tree. Wolves are numerous
in the mountains; the heron, ibis, wild goose and snipe in the
valley of the Wei.
See M. Broomhall, The Chinese Empire (London, 1907), pp. 198-
208; L. Richard, Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire
(Shanghai, 1908), pp. 39-46, and the authorities there cited.
SHENSTONE, WILLIAM (1714-1763), English poet, son of
Thomas Shenstone and Anne, daughter of William Penn of
Harborough Hall, Hagley, was born at the Leasowes, a property
in the parish of Halesowen, now in Worcestershire, but then
included in the county of Shropshire. At school he began a life-
long friendship with Richard Jago, and at Pembroke College,
Oxford, where he matriculated in 1732, he made another firm
friend in Richard Graves, the author of The Spiritual Quixote.
He took no degree, but, while still at Oxford, he published
for private circulation Poems on various occasions, written
for the entertainment of the author (1737). This edition, containing
the first draft of " The Schoolmistress," Shenstone tried hard
to suppress, but in 1742 he published anonymously a revised
form of The Schoolmistress, a Poem in imitation of Spenser. . . .
The original was Sarah Lloyd, teacher of the village school
where Shenstone received his first education. Isaac D 'Israeli
pointed out that it should not be classed, as it was by Robert
Dodsley, as a moral poem, but that it was intended asaburlesque,
to which Shenstone appended in the first instance a " ludicrous
index." In 1741 he published The Judgment of Hercules. He
inherited the Leasowes estate, and retired there in 1745 to
undertake what proved the chief work of his life, the beautifying
of his property. He embarked on elaborate schemes of landscape
gardening which gave the Leasowes a wide celebrity, but sadly
impoverished the owner. Shenstone was not a contented recluse.
He desired constant admiration of his gardens, and he* never
ceased to lament his lack of fame as a poet.
Shenstone's poems of nature were written in praise of her most
artificial aspects, but the emotions they express were obviously
genuine. His Schoolmistress was admired by Goldsmith, with
whom Shenstone had much in common, and his " Elegies"
written at various times and to some extent biographical in
character won the praise of Robert Burns who, in the preface
to Poems, chiefly in the Scottish Dialect (1786), called him " that
celebrated poet whose divine elegies do honour to our language,
our nation and our species." The best example of purely
technical skill in his works is perhaps his success in the manage-
ment of the anapaestic trimeter in his " Pastoral Ballad in Four
Parts " (written in 1743), but first printed in Dodsley's Collection
of Poems (vol. iv., 1755). Shenstone died unmarried on the nth
of February 1763.
His works were first published by his friend Robert Dodsley (3
vols., 1764-1769). The second volume contains Dodsley's descrip-
tion of the Leasowes. The last, consisting of correspondence with
Graves, Jago and others, appeared after Dodsley's death. Other
letters of Shenstone's are included in Select Letters (ed. Thomas Hill
1778). The letters of Lady Luxborough (nee Henrietta St John) to
Shenstone were printed by T. Dodsley in 1775; much additional
correspondence is preserved in the British Museum letters to Lady
Luxborough (Add. MS. 28958), Dodsley's letters to Shenstone (Add.
MS. 28959), and correspondence between Shenstone and Bishop
Percy from 1757 to 1763 the last being of especial interest. To
Shenstone was due the original suggestion of Percy's Reliques, a
service which would alone entitle him to a place among the precursors
of the romantic movement in English literature. See also Richard
Graves, Recollections of some particulars in the Life of the Late William
Shenstone (1788); H. Sydney Grazebrook, The Family of Shenstone
the Poet (1890); Lennox Morison, " Shenstone," in the Gentleman's
Magazine (vol. 289, 1900, pp. 196-205); A. Chalmers, English Poets
(1810, vol. xiii.), with "Life" by Samuel Johnson; his Poetical
Works (Edinburgh, 1854), with " Life " by G. Gilfillan; T. D'Israeli,
" The Domestic Life of a Poet Shenstone vindicated," in Curiosities
of Literature; and " Burns and Shenstone," in Furth in Field (1894),
by " Hugh Haliburton " (J. L. Robertson).
SHEPPARD, JOHN [JACK] (1702-1724), English criminal,
was born at Stepney, near London, in December 1702. His
father, who, like his grandfather and great-grandfather, was
a carpenter, died the following year, and Jack SHeppard was
brought up in the Bishopsgate workhouse. One of his father's
old employers apprenticed him to the family trade, but young
Sheppard fell into bad company at a neighbouring Drury Lane
tavern. Here he met Elizabeth Lyon, known as " Edgeworth
Bess," a woman of loose character with whom he lived, and to
gratify whose tastes he committed many of his crimes. At the
end of 1723 he was arrested as a runaway apprentice, and thence-
forward, he says, " I fell to robbing almost every one that stood
in my way," Joseph Blake, known as " Blueskin," being a
frequent confederate. In the first six months of 1724 he twice
escaped from gaol, and towards the end of that period he was
responsible for an almost daily robbery in or near London.
Eventually, however, his independent attitude provoked the
bitter enmity of Jonathan Wild, who procured his capture at
the end of July. Sheppard was tried at the Old Bailey and
condemned to death, but, largely thanks to " Edgeworth Bess,"
he managed to escape from the condemned cell, and was soon
back in his old haunts. In September he was rearrested and
imprisoned in the strongest part of Newgate, being actually
chained to the floor of his cell, but by a combination of strength
and skill he escaped through the chimney to the roof of the prison,
whence he lowered himself into the adjoining house. After a
few days' concealment he was rash enough to reappear in the
Drury Lane quarter. He was captured, hopelessly drunk, in
a Clare Market tavern and reimprisoned, his cell being now
watched night and day. On the i6th of November 1724 he
was hanged at Tyburn. He was then not quite twenty-two.
Sheppard has been made the unworthy hero of much romance,
of which Harrison Ainsworth's novel, Jack Sheppard (1839), is
the most notable instance. In truth he was merely a vulgar
scoundrel, who did not hesitate to rob his only real friend.
See A Narrative of all the Robberies, Escapes, &c., of John Sheppard,
attributed to Daniel Defoe (London, 1724); Newgate Calendar,
ed. Knapp and Baldwin; Griffiths, Chronicles of Newgate; British
Journal (August, October 1724) ; Weekly Journal (August, September,
November 1 724) ; Celebrated Trials.
SHEPPEY, an island off the Kentish coast of England, included
in the north-eastern parliamentary division of Kent. It is the
largest of the several low islands which are separated from the
mainland by the ramifying creeks about the mouth of the river
Medway. The strait isolating Sheppey is called the Swale;
it is about 3 m. broad at its eastern end, but narrows to some
300 yds. at the west, where it is crossed on a bridge by a branch of
the South-Eastern & Chatham railway, and by a road. There was
formerly a ferry here, as there are at two other points. Sheppey
is low-lying, with one small elevation slightly exceeding 200 ft.
near the north coast, which presents slight cliffs towards the
shallow sea. These are frequently encroached upon by the sea,
while the flat shore on the south is protected by embankments.
Sheppey is tof m. in extreme length from E. to W., while the
greatest breadth is about 5 m. On the south, narrow branches
of the Swale, formerly wider, divide the. isles of Harty and Elmley
from the main island, of which, however, they now practically
form part. Sheppey is for the most part treeless but very fertile,
840
SHEPSTONE SHERANI
bearing much grain and fruit; its name, meaning the " island
of sheep," is still appropriate, as great flocks are bred. On the
west are the port of Queenborough and the naval station of Sheer-
ness. From here the Sheppey light railway runs east through
the island, serving Minster and Leysdown, which are in some
favour as seaside resorts. The London day, of which the island
is composed, abounds in fossils.
SHEPSTONE, SIR THEOPHILUS (1817-1893), British South
African statesman, was born at Westbury near Bristol, England,
on the 8th of January 1817. When he was three years old his
father, the Rev. William Shepstone, emigrated to Cape Colony.
Young Shepstone was educated at the native mission stations
at which his father worked, and the lad acquired great pro-
ficiency in the Kaffir languages, a circumstance which determined
his career. In the Kaffir War of 1835 he served as headquarters
interpreter on the staff of the governor, Sir Benjamin D'Urban,
and at the end of the campaign remained on the frontier as clerk
to the agent for the native tribes. In 1838 he was one of the party
sent from Cape Colony to occupy Port Natal on behalf of Great
Britain. This force was recalled in 1839, when Shepstone was
appointed British resident among the Fingo and other tribes in
Kaffraria. Here he remained until the definite establishment
of British rule in Natal and its organization as an administrative
entity, when Shepstone was made (1845) agent for the native
tribes. In 1848 he became captain-general of the native levies;
in 1855 judicial assessor in native causes; and, in 1856, on the
remodelling of the Natal government, secretary for native affairs
and a member of the executive and legislative councils. This
position he held until 1877. Thus for over thirty years he was
the director of native policy in Natal. A man of strong will and
pronounced views he gained a great influence over the natives,
by whom he was called " father," and, in acknowledgment of
his hunting exploits, " Somsteu." The mam line of his policy
was to maintain tribal customs as far as consistent with principles
of humanity, and not to attempt to force civilization. The result
of his policy is still traceable in the condition and status of the
Natal natives. While he remained in charge there was but one
serious revolt of the natives that of Langalibalele in 1873
against white control.
Shepstone's influence with the Zulus was made use of by the
Natal government; in 1861 he visited Zululand and obtained
from Panda a public recognition of Cetywayo as his successor.
Twelve years later Shepstone attended the proclamation of
Cetywayo as king, the Zulu chief promising Shepstone to live
at peace with his neighbours. In 1874 and again in 1876 Shep-
stone was in London on South African affairs, and to his absence
from Natal Cetywayo's failure to keep his promises is, in part,
attributed. When in London in 1876 Shepstone was entrusted
by the 4th earl of Carnarvon, then secretary of state for the
colonies, with a special commission to confer with the Transvaal
executive on the question of the federation of the South African
states, and given power, should he deem it necessary, to annex
the country, subject to the confirmation of the British govern-
ment. Shepstone went to Pretoria in January 1877, and on the
1 2th of April issued a proclamation announcing the establish-
ment of British authority over the Transvaal. Shepstone's
force consisted of twenty-five mounted policemen only, but no
overt opposition was made to the annexation; the republic
at the time was in a condition bordering on anarchy. " Nothing
but annexation," wrote Sir Theophilus to the Colonial Office,
" will or can save the state, and nothing else can save South
Africa from the direst consequences. All the thinking and
intelligent people know this, and will be thankful to be delivered
from the thraldom of petty factions by which they are perpetually
kept in a state of excitement and unrest because the govern-
ment and everything connected with it is a thorough sham "
(Martineau's Life of Sir Bartle Frere, ch. 18). Shepstone's action
has been condemned as premature. He had, however, reason
to believe that if Great Britain remained inactive, Germany
would be induced to undertake the protection of the Transvaal. 1
1 Frere to J. M. Maclean, 22nd of April 1881 (Life of Sir Bartle
Frere, vol. ii. p. 183).
Moreover, had the policy of self-government for the Boers
which he outlined in his annexation proclamation been carried
out, the revolt of 1880-81 might not have occurred. The
annexation also, probably, saved the Transvaal from an attack
by the Zulus under Cetywayo. Shepstone remained in Pretoria
as administrator of the Transvaal until January 1879; his rule
was marked, according to Sir Bartle Frere, who described him
as "a singular type of an Africander Talleyrand," by an
" apparent absence of all effort to devise or substitute a better
system " than that which had characterized the previous
regime. Shepstone had been summoned home to advise the
Colonial Office on South African affairs and he reached England
in May 1879; on his return to Natal he retired (1880) from
the public service. In 1883, however, he was commissioned to
replace Cetywayo as king in Zululand. He was active in church
matters in Natal, and a friend of Bishop Colenso. He opposed
the grant of self-government to Natal. He died at Pieter-
maritzburg on the 23rd of June 1893. Shepstone married in
.1833 Maria, daughter of Charles Palmer, commissary-general
at Cape Town, and had six sons and three daughters. One of
his sons was killed at Isandhlwana; of the other sons H. C.
Shepstone (b. 1840) was secretary for native affairs in Natal
from 1884 to 1893; Theophilus was adviser to the Swazis
(1887-1891); and A. J. Shepstone (b. -1852) served in various
native expeditions, as assistant-commissioner in Zululand, in the
South African War, 1890-1902, and became in 1909 secretary for
native affairs (Natal) and secretary of the Natal native trust.
A younger brother of Sir Theophilus, John Wesley Shepstone
(b. 1827), filled between 1846 and 1896 various offices in Natal
in connexion with the administration of native affairs.
SHEPTON MALLET, a market town in the eastern parlia-
mentary division of Somersetshire, England, 22m. S.W. of Bath,
on the Somerset & Dorset and the Great Western railways.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 5238. The old town extends in a
narrow line along the river Sheppey, while the newer town
has for its main street a viaduct across the river valley. The
church of St Peter and St Paul is especially noteworthy. Con-
sisting of a chancel, clerestoried nave, and aisles, it is Early
English and Perpendicular in style, and contains a beautiful
13th-century oak roof of 350 panels, each with a different design;
a isth-century pulpit of carved stone; and some interesting old
monuments of the Strode, Mallet and Gournay families. The
market cross, over 50 ft. high, and one of the finest in Somerset,
was erected by Walter and Agnes Buckland in 1500. Shepton
possesses a grammar school of the i7th century, and a science
and art school. The once flourishing cloth and woollen trades
have declined, but there are large breweries, roperies, potteries,
and, in the neighbourhood, marble, granite, asphalt and lime
works.
Shepton, before the conquest called Sepeton, was in the
possession of the abbots of Glastonbury for four hundred years,
and then passed to a Norman, Roger de Courcelle. Afterwards
it carte into the possession of the Norman barons Malet or
Mallet, one of whom was fined for rebellion in the reign of King
John. From the Mallets it went to the Gournays, but in 1536
it reverted to the crown, and it is now included in the duchy of
Cornwall. The town received the grant of a market from
Edward II. Monmouth and the rebel army passed through
Shepton twice in 1685, and twelve of the rebels were hanged
here by Judge Jeffreys.
SHERANI, or SHIRANI, a Pathan tribe on the Dera Ismail Khan
border of the North-west Frontier Province of India. The
Sherani Agency occupies an area of 1500 sq. m. and had a
population in 1901 of 12,371. The Sheranis occupy the principal
portion of the mountain known as the Takht-i-Suliman and the
country thence eastward down to the border of Dera Ismail
Khan district. They are bounded on the north by the Gomal
Pass, and beyond that by the Mahsud Waziris; on the south by
the Ustaranas and Zmarais; and on the west by the Haripals,
Kakars and Mandu Khels. Between the Sherani country and
the British border lie several small mountain ridges, across
which the three chief passes are the Zarakni or Sheikh Haidar,
SHERATON
841
the Draband and the Chandwan. The Sheranis are generally
of middling stature, thin, but haidy and active. They have
bold features, high cheek-bones, and their general appearance is
wild and manly. Their dress consists of a coarse black blanket
tied round the waist, and another thrown over the shoulders.
Their chief occupation is agriculture, but they carry on an
extensive trade in the autumn months in Dera Ismail Khan
district. The Sherani tribe and country are divided into two
well-defined branches called Bargha and Largha, or the High-
lands and the Lowlands, the inhabitants being called respectively
Barghawals and Larghawals. The Highlands are on the side of
Zhob, the -Lowlands on the side of the Derajat, the dividing
line being generally the watershed and higher peaks of the
Takht-i-Suliman range of mountains. The physical configura-
tion of the country makes the separation so complete that the
two tribal divisions act independently of each other. After the
Zhob expedition of 1890 the question of boundaries between
the Punjab and Baluchistan came up for settlement, and the
government decided that Bargha should remain with Baluchistan
and Largha with the Punjab. The Gomal river from Kundar-
Domandi to Kajuri-Kach is the boundary between Baluchistan
and Waziristan, as well as between the respective provinces.
In 1901 these frontier districts were transferred from the Punjab
to the North-west Frontier Province.
SHERATON, THOMAS (c. 1751-1806), next to Chippendale
the most famous English furniture-designer and cabinet-maker,
was born in humble circumstances at Stockton-on-Tees. His
education was rudimentary, but he picked up drawing and
geometry. He appears to have been apprenticed to a cabinet-
maker, but he was ever a strange blend of mechanic, inventor,
artist, mystic and religious controversialist. Indeed, it is as a
writer on theological subjects that we first hear of him. Although
his parents were church people he was a Baptist, and in 1782
he published at Stockton A Scriptural Illustration of the Doctrine
of Regeneration, to which was added A Letter on the Subject of
Baptism, describing himself on the title page as a " mechanic,
one who never had the advantage of a collegiate or academical
education." Of his career as a maker and designer of furniture
nothing is known until he is first heard of in London in 1790,
when he was nearly forty. The date of his migration is uncertain,
but it probably took place while he was still a young man. In
London he did work which, although it has made him illustrious
to posterity, never raised him above an almost sordid poverty.
Biographical particulars are exceedingly scanty, and we do not
know to what extent, if at all, he worked with his own hands,
or whether he confined himself to evolving new designs, or
modifying and adapting, and occasionally partly copying,
those of others. Such evidence as there is points to artistic,
rather than mechanical work, after he began to write, and we
know that some part of his scanty income was derived from
giving drawing lessons. Even the remarkable series of volumes
of designs for furniture which he published during the last
sixteen years of his life, and upon which his fame depends, were
not a commercial success. He was a great artistic genius who
lived in chronic poverty. The only trustworthy information
we possess regarding his circumstances is found in the Memoirs
of Adam Black, who when he first arrived in London lodged
a week in his house, only two years before Sheraton's death.
"Sheraton," he says, "lived in a poor street in London, his
house half shop, half dwelling-house, and himself looked like a
worn-out Methodist minister, with threadbare black coat. I
took tea with them one afternoon. There was a cup and saucer
for the host, and another for his wife, and a little porringer for
their daughter. The wife's cup and saucer were given to me,
and she had to put up with another little porringer. My host
seemed a good man, with some talent. He had been a cabinet-
maker, and was now author, publisher, and teacher of drawing,
and, I believe, occasional preacher." Black shrewdly put his
finger upon the causes of Sheraton's failure. " This many-sided
worn-out encyclopaedist and preacher is an interesting character.
. . . He is a man of talent and, I believe, of genuine piety. He
understands the cabinet business I believe was bred to it. He
is a scholar, writes well, and, in my opinion, draws masterly
is an author, bookseller, stationer and teacher. . . I believe
his abilities and resources are his ruin in this respect by at-
tempting to do everything he does nothing." There is, however,
little indication that Sheraton chafed under the tyranny of
" those twin jailors of the daring heart, low birth and iron
fortune. " " I can assure the reader," he writes in one of his
books, " though I am thus employed in racking my invention
to design fine and pleasing cabinet-work, I can be well content
to sit upon a wooden-bottom chair, provided I can but have
common food and raiment wherewith to pass through life in
peace."
His first book on furniture was published in i7gr with the
title of The Cabinet-Maker and Upholsterer's Drawing Book.
It was issued in parts by T. Bensley, of Bolt Court, Fleet Street;
there was a second edition in 1793 and a third in 1802, each with
improvements. In the first edition it was stated that copies
could be obtained from the author at 41 Davies Street, Grosvenor
Square; in the second, that he was living at 1 06 Wardour Street;
the last address we have is 8 Broad Street, Golden Square.
There was also an " Accompaniment " and an " Appendix."
In this book, which contained in copper-plate engravings,
Sheraton gives abundant evidence of the arrogance and conceit
which marred all his publications. He dismisses Chippendale's
designs in a patronizing way as " now wholly antiquated and
laid aside, though possessed of great merit according to the
times in which they were executed." His lack of practical
common sense is suggested by the fact that more than half the
book is taken up with a treatise on perspective, needless then
and unreadable now. He falls foul of every volume on furniture
which had been published before his time, and is abundantly
satisfied of the merit of his own work. The designs in the book
are exceedingly varied and unequal, ranging from pieces of perfect
proportion and the most pleasing simplicity to efforts ruined by
too abundant ornament. Some of the chair-backs are delightful
in their grace and delicacy, but in them, as in other of his draw-
ings, it is easy to trace the influence of Hepplewhite and Adam
it has even been suggested that he collaborated with the Adams.
Sheraton, indeed, like his predecessors, made extensive use not
so much perhaps of the works of .other men as of the artistic
ideas underlying them which were more or less common to the
taste of the time. He was sometimes original, sometimes
adaptive what Alexandre Dumas pere called a " conqueror "
sometimes a copyist. His " conquest " of Hepplewhite was
especially unmerciful, for he abused as well as pillaged him. But
his slender forms and sweeping curves were his own inspiration,
and his extensive use of satinwood differentiated his furniture
from most of that which had preceded it.
It must be remembered that Sheraton's books, like those of
the other great cabinet-makers of the second half of the i8th
century, were intended not for the " general reader " but for
the practical use of the trade, which, no doubt, copied their
designs extensively, although it is reasonable to suppose that he
himself obtained orders by the publication of his books and
employed other cabinet-makers to manufacture the work. It
seems certain, however, that he himself never possessed anything
more than a small shop. Of his own actual manufacture only
one piece is known with certainty a glass-fronted book-case,
of somewhat frigid charm, stamped "T.S." on the inside of one
of the drawers. It lacks the agreeable swan-necked pediment
so closely associated with his style. The Drawing Book, of
which a German translation appeared at Leipzig in 1794, was
followed in 1802 and 1803 by The Cabinet Dictionary, containing
an Explanation of all the Terms used in the Cabinet, Chair and
Upholstery branches, containing a display of useful articles of
furniture, illustrated with eighty-eight copperplate engravings.
The text is in alphabetical form, and, in addition to a supplement
with articles on drawing and painting, the book contained a list
of " most of the master-cabinet-makers, upholsterers, and chair
makers," 252 in number, then living in and around London.
Sheraton told his readers that he had hitherto derived no profit
from his publications on account of the cost of producing them.
842
SHERBET SHERBORNE
Some of the designs in this volume show the earlier stages of
the tendency to the tortured and the bizarre which disfigured
so much of Sheraton's later work. This debased taste reached
its culmination in The Cabinet Maker, Upholsterer and General
Artists' Encyclopedia, the publication of which began in 1804.
It was to consist of 125 numbers, but when the author died two
years later only a few had been issued. The plates are in colour.
The scope of this work was much v/ider than the title suggests.
It dealt not only with furniture and decoration, but with history,
geography, biography, astronomy, botany and other sciences.
This fragmentary undertaking makes it clear that Sheraton ruined
his style, once so graceful and so delicate, by an over-anxious
following of the pseudo-classical taste which in France marked
the period of the Consulate and the Empire. The harmonious
marquetry, the dainty painting of flowers in wreaths and
festoons, the lightness and finish were replaced by pieces of
furniture which at the best were clumsy and at the worst were
hideous. Some of the chairs especially which he designed in
this last period are amazingly grotesque, their backs formed
of fabulous animals, their " knees " and legs of the heads
and claws of crowned beasts. Many charming little work-tables
bear Sheraton's attribution, but even these graceful trifles in
his later forms lose their delicacy and become squat and heavy.
He designed many beautiful sideboards and bookcases, but he
finished by drawing pieces that were ruined by insistence upon
the characteristics, and often the worst characteristics, of the
Empire manner. Sheraton's inventive ingenuity had led him
to devise many of the ingenious pieces of combination or
" harlequin" furniture which the later iSth century loved. Thus
a library table would conceal a step-ladder for reaching the top
shelves of bookcases, a dressing table would be also a wash-
stand and an escritoire but this he admitted that he did not
introduce looking-glasses would enclose dressing-cases, writing-
tables or work-tables. But his most astonishing fancy was an
ottoman with " heating urns " beneath, " that the seat may
be kept in a proper temperature in cold weather." How far he
was responsible for the introduction of the hideous hall chair,
made of mahogany, with the owner's crest painted on the back,
which was common for three-quarters of a century after he
died, is not clear; but he describes and illustrates it.
That Sheraton can have been personally popular is incredible.
His books make it evident that his character was tart, angular
and self-assertive, and that he was little disposed to be generous
towards the work of predecessors or rivals. Such an attitude
towards the world would suffice to explain his lack of substantial
success. He appears to have preached occasionally to the end,
and even in his furniture books he sometimes falls into improving
remarks of a religious character. As we have seen, his first
publication was a religious work, and when in 1794 his friend
Adam Callender, the landscape painter, wrote a pamphlet
entitled Thoughts on the Peaceable and Spiritual Nature of
Christ's Kingdom, Sheraton contributed to it an exhortation
upon Spiritual Subjection to Civil Government, which was reprinted
separately with additions a year later. In 1805 he issued A
Discourse on the Character of God as Love. He died on Oct.
zznd, 1806, at No. 8 Broad Street, Golden Square, aged about
55, from, it is said, over-work. An obituary notice of him
appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine of the following month,
which stated that he had been for many years " a journeyman
cabinet-maker, but since 1793 supported a wife and two children
by authorship." He was described as " a well-disposed man, of
an acute and enterprising disposition." The writer added that he
had " left his family, it is feared, in distressed circumstances,"
and that he had travelled to Ireland to obtain subscribers
for the Encyclopedia, of which at the time of his death nearly
1000 copies had been sold. In 1812 there appeared a folio
volume, Designs for Household Furniture exhibiting a Variety
of Elegant and Useful Patterns in the Cabinet, Chair and Upholstery
Branches on eighty-four Plates. By the late T.Sheraton, Cabinet-
maker. This was in the. main, if not entirely, a collection of
plates from the Cabinet Dictionary and the Encyclopedia.
Thomas Sheraton is unquestionably the most remarkable
man in the history of English furniture. His genius was less
sane and less balanced than that of Chippendale, but despite
his excursions into the Chinese and Louis Quinze manners,
Chippendale always produced an impression of English work.
Sheraton's greater adaptability, his readiness to receive foreign
impressions, his adaptations of Louis Seize ideas, the lightness
of his forms and the grace of his conceptions had about them a
touch of the exotic which was heightened by his lavish employ-
ment of satin-wood and other beautifully grained woods sus-
ceptible of a high polish. There are no more charming things
outside French furniture than some of the creations of Sheraton
in his great period. The severe and balanced forms, the delicate
inlay, the occasional slight carving in low relief, the painted
enrichments, the variety of the backs and legs of his chairs
produce an impression of lightness and grace that has never been
surpassed; .whether he designed a little knife-case or the body
of a long clock, harmony, proportion and a delicate fancy
were ever present. It is true that he adapted and even copied
extensively, but so did every one else, and it is impossible to
be sure that a given conception is rightly attributed to the
particular man whose name has become associated with it.
Indeed " Sheraton," like " Chippendale," has come to indicate
a style rather than a personal attribution. But the volume
and the beauty of the designs in his books is such that, when
every allowance has been made for adaptation, there remains
a mass of beautiful work which cannot be denied to him. In
later life his very adaptability was his undoing. The public,
always ready to take its mobiliary fashions from France, de-
manded Empire furniture, and Sheraton may have been, or have
believed himself to be, compelled to give them what they wanted.
His extravagant creations in that sphere far worse than
anything that was designed in France had much to do with the
development of a fashion of English Empire which finally
ruined British furniture design. He rioted in sphinxes and lions
and fabulous beasts, he evolved forms that were dull and
cumbrous, and added to their heaviness by brass mounts at once
massive and uninspired. After his death the eccentricity may
have been less, but the heaviness and dullness were greater,
and with the disappearance of Sheraton the brief but splendid
summer of English furniture ended in gloom. It had lasted
little more than half a century, but it was a half-century which
only France ever could, or did, rival. It is one of the strangest
ironies in the history of art that the last and almost the greatest
exponent of the English genius in the sphere of furniture was
in the end mainly responsible for a decay from which there has
as yet been no renaissance. (J. P.-B.)
SHERBET (the Turkish form of the Arabic sharbat, drink,
shariba, he drank, cf. " shrub," an English derivative), properly
the name of an Oriental beverage, consisting of the juice of such
fruits as the lemon, citron, &c., dropped upon a cake of sugar
and partially frozen with snow or otherwise cooled. The word,
and also the French form sorbet, are applied in Western usage
to a water-ice not frozen as hard as the ordinary ice, and flavoured
with fruit juice, spirit, &c. A cheap sweetened effervescing
drink is also so styled.
SHERBORNE, a market town in the northern parliamentary
division of Dorsetshire, England, 118 m. W.S.W. from London
by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 5760. It lies near the border of Somersetshire,
on the southern slope of a hill overlooking the river Yeo, in a
fertile, well-wooded district. The abbey church of St Mary the
Virgin is a stately cruciform building with central tower, the nave
and choir having aisles and clerestory. Some pre-Norman
work appears in the western wall, the tower arches and south
porch are Norman, and there are an Early English chapel and
some Decorated windows. The church, however, was almost
wholly reconstructed in the Perpendicular period, and is a fine
example of that style, the interior gaining in beauty from the
scheme of colour-decoration in the choir, while the magnificent
stone-vaulted roof with fan tracery, extending throughout
the church, excepting the south transept, is unsurpassed. The
parish church of All Hallows adjoined the abbey church on the
SHERBROOKE, VISCOUNT
843
west, but was taken down after the Dissolution, when the abbey
church was sold to the parish. Portions of the abbey buildings,
including the Lady chapel of the church, now converted into a
dwelling-house, are incoporated 'in those of Sherborne grammar
school, founded (although a school existed previously) by
Edward VI. in 1550, and now holding a high rank among English
public schools. The almshouse known as the hospital of St John
the Baptist and St John the Evangelist was founded in 1437
on the site of an earlier establishment, and retains a Perpendicular
chapel, hall and other portions. The abbey conduit, of the
middle of the I4th century, is conspicuous in the main street
of the town. Of the old castle, the gatehouse and other parts
are of Norman construction, but the mansion near it was built
by Sir Walter Raleigh.
As there is no evidence of Roman or British settlement, it is
probable that Sherborne (Scireburn, Shireburne) grew up after
the Saxon conquest of the country from the Corn- Welsh in the
middle of the 7th century. It is first mentioned in 705 as the
place where St Aldhelm fixed his bishop-stool for the new
diocese of Western Wessex, being chosen probably for its central
position. ^Ethelberht, king of Wessex, was buried here by the
side of his brother /Ethelbald in 866. For the next eighteen
years its freedom from Danish attack made Sherborne the
capital of Wessex. In 978 Bishop Wulfsey introduced the
stricter form of Benedictine rule into his cathedral of Sherborne,
and became the first abbot. The see, which was united with
that of Ramsbury in 1058, was removed to Old Sarum in 1075.
In 1086 the bishop of Sarum and the monks of Sherborne held
the place, which seems to have been of fair size and an agricultural
centre. On the separation of the offices of bishop and abbot
in 1 1 22, the abbot's fee was carved out of the bishop's manor,
but did not include the town. Bishop Roger of Caen (1107-1139)
built the castle, described by Henry of Huntingdon as scarcely
inferior to that of Devizes, " than which there was none greater
within the confines of England." Its strength made Stephen
force Bishop Roger to surrender it in 1139, but during the civil
war in his reign it passed into the hands of the empress Maud.
It was later granted to the earls of Salisbury, who seem to have
allowed it to fall into disrepair, for in 1315 and in 1319 the abbot
of Sherborne was appointed to inquire into its condition. It was
recovered by the bishop in 1355, and retained by the see until
granted in 1599 to Elizabeth, who gave it to Sir Walter Raleigh.
The abbey church was partly burnt in 1437, in a riot due to the
monks' refusal to recognize the town's chapel of All Hallowes
as the parish church, though they had restricted their use of the
abbey church for parochial purposes. Signs of this fire are still
visible on the walls, which are in part tinged red by the flames.
The town, though frequently the centre for medieval assizes
and inquisitions, never became a municipal or parliamentary
borough, but was governed by two constables, elected in the
manorial court. In 1540 Sir John Horsey, who had bought
the manor and church at the Dissolution, sold the abbey to the
vicar and parishioners. The Reformation made no break in the
continuity of the school, which had probably existed in the
abbey since the nth century. Edward VI. by his charter in
1550 made its governors one of the first purely lay educational
corporations founded in England. The town suffered severely
during the civil wars, the castle being besieged by the parlia-
mentary forces in 1642 and 1645. The fairs now held on the
8th of May, the 26th of July and the first Monday after the loth
of October were granted to the bishop in 1227, 1240 and 1300.
After the decline of the medieval trade in cloth, lace and buttons
were the only articles manufactured here until the introduction
of silk-weaving in 1740. In June 1905, in commemoration of the
I2ooth anniversary of " the town, the bishopric and the school,"
an historical pageant, invented and arranged by Louis N. Parker
(at one time music-master at the school) , was held in the grounds
of Sherborne Castle, and set the model for a succession of pageants
held subsequently in other historic English towns.
See William Beauchamp Wildman, A Short History of Sherborne
from A.D. 705 (1902), and Life of S. Ealdhelm, first Bishop of Sher-
borne (Sherborne, 1905).
SHERBROOKE, ROBERT LOWE, VISCOUNT (1811-1892),
British statesman, was born on the 4th of December 1811 at
Bingham, Notts, where his father was the rector. He was
educated at Winchester and University College, Oxford, where
he took a first class in classics and a second in mathematics,
besides taking a leading part in the Union debates. In 1835
he won a fellowship at Magdalen, but vacated it on marrying,
in 1836, Miss Georgina Orred (d. 1884). He was for a few years
a successful " coach " at Oxford, but in 1838 was bitterly
disappointed at not being elected to the professorship of Greek at
Glasgow. In 1841 Lowe moved to London, to read for the Bar
("called" 1842); but his eyesight showed signs of serious
weakness, and, acting on medical advice, he determined to try
his fortune in the colonies rather than in London. He went to
Sydney, where he set to work in the law courts. In 1843 he was
nominated by Sir George Gipps, the governor, to a seat in the
New South Wales Legislative Council; owing to a difference
with Gipps he resigned his seat, but was elected shortly after-
wards for Sydney. Lowe soon made his mark in the political
world by his clever speeches, particularly on finance and educa-
tion; and besides obtaining a large legal practice, he was one
of the principal writers for the Atlas newspaper. In 1850 he
went back to England, in order to enter political life there.
His previous university reputation and connexions, combined
with his colonial experience, stood him in good stead. The
Times was glad to employ his ready pen, and as one of its ablest
leader-writers he made his influence widely felt. In 1852 he
was returned to Parliament for Kidderminster in the Liberal
interest. In the House of Commons his acute reasoning made a
considerable impression, and under successive Liberal ministries
(1853-1858) he obtained official experience as secretary of the
Board of Control and vice-president of the Board of Trade.
In 1859 he went to the Education Office as vice-president of the
Council in Lord Palmerston's ministry; there he pursued a
vigorous policy, insisting on the necessity of payment by results,
and bringing in the revised code (1862), which embodied this
principle and made an examination in " the three R's " the test
for grants of public money. He felt then, and still more after
the Reform Act of 1866, that " we must educate our masters," 1
and he rather scandalized his old university friends by the
stress he laid on physical science as opposed to classical studies.
Considerable opposition was aroused by the new regime at the
Education Office, and in 1864 Lowe was driven to resign by an
adverse vote in Parliament with reference to the way in which
inspectors' reports were " edited." The result was unjust to
Lowe, but a good deal of feeling had been aroused against
Lingen's administration of the Education Office (see LINGEN,
BARON), and this was the outcome. Lord Palmerston's death
in October 1865 was followed by the formation of the Russell-
Gladstone ministry and the introduction of the Reform Bill
of 1866. Lowe, a Liberal of the school of Canning and Peel,
had already made known his objections to the advance of
" democracy " notably in his speech in 1865 on Sir E. Baines's
Borough Franchise Bill and he was not invited to join the new
ministry. He retired into what Bright called the " Cave of
Adullam," and opposed the bill in a series of brilliant speeches,
which raised his reputation as an orator to its highest point
and effectually caused the downfall of the government. He
remained, nevertheless, a Liberal; and after the franchise
question had been settled by what Lowe considered Disraeli's
betrayal, and he had been elected the first member for London
University, he accepted office again in the Gladstone Cabinet of
1868 as chancellor of the exchequer. Lowe was a rather cut-and-
dry economist, who prided himself that during his four years of
office he took twelve millions off taxation; but later opinion
has hardly accepted hisremoval of the shilling registration duty
on corn (1869) as good statesmanship, and his failures are
remembered rather than his successes. His proposed tax of a
1 This phrase is always ascribed to Lowe, and has become history
in association with him. But what he really said in his address to the
Edinburgh Philosophical Institution in 1867 was that it was neces-
sary " to induce our future masters to learn their letters."
SHERBROOKE SHERIDAN
halfpenny a box on lucifer matches in 1871 (for which he sug-
gested the epigram ex luce lucellum, "out of light a little profit")
roused a storm of opposition, and had to be dropped. In 1873
he was transferred to the Home Office, but in 1874 the govern-
ment resigned. When the Liberals returned to power in 1880
he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Sherbrooke, but from
1875 till his death at Warlingham, Surrey, on the 27th of July
1892, his health was constantly failing, and by degrees he
figured less and less in public life.
Bobby Lowe, as he was popularly known, was one of the most
remarkable personalities of his day, with his tall, striking figure,
albino complexion and hair, and faculty for epigram and irony.
During the 'seventies the following epitaph was suggested for
him by one of the wits of his day:
" Here lies poor old Robert Lowe;
Where he s gone to I don't know;
If to the realms of peace and love,
Farewell to happiness above ;
If, haply, to some lower level,
We can t congratulate the devil."
Lowe was delighted with this, and promptly translated it
into Latin, as follows:
" Ccntinentur hac in fossa
Humilis Robert! ossa ;
Si ad coelum evolabit,
Pax in coelo non restabit ;
Sin in inferis jacebit,
Diabolum ejus poenitebit."
His literary talent, though mainly employed in journalism,
was also shown in a little volume of verses, Poems of a Life
(1884). He married a second time, in 1885, but left no children.
See Life and Letters by A. Patchett Martin (London, 1893).
(H. CH.)
SHERBROOKE, a city and port of entry of Quebec, Canada,
and capital of Sherbrooke county, 101 m. E. of Montreal, at
the confluence of the rivers Magog and St Francis, and on the
Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific, Quebec Central and Boston
& Maine railways. Pop. (1901) 11,765. It is the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishopric and of the district courts, and contains
manufactories of woollen and cotton goods and machinery, also
saw and grist mills. It derives its name from Sir John Coape
Sherbrooke (1764-1830), who from 1816 to 1818 was governor-
general of Canada.
SHERE ALI KHAN (1825-1879), Amir of Afghanistan,
was born in 1825, one of the younger sons of the amir Dost
Mahommed, whom he succeeded in 1863. For some time after
his succession Afghanistan was in a state of anarchy, and his
rebellious half-brothers overran the country while he remained
at Kandahar mourning the loss of a favourite son. At length,
however, the capture of Kabul in 1866 roused him to action;
but in spite of his own bravery he suffered general defeat until
1868, when he regained Kabul. Supported by the viceroys of
India, Lord Lawrence and Lord -Mayo, Shere All remained on
good terms with the British government for some years; but
after the rebellion of his- son Yakub Khan, 1870-74, he leaned
towards Russia, and welcomed a Russian agent at Kabul in 1878,
and at the same time refused to receive a British mission. This
led to long negotiations, and ultimately to war, when the British
forced the Khyber Pass in November 1878, and defeated the
amir's forces on every occasion. Shere AH fled from his capital
and, taking refuge in Turkestan, died at Mazar-i-Sharif on the
2ist of February 1879.
SHERIDAN, the name of an Anglo-Irish family, made illus-
trious by the dramatist Richard Brinslcy (No. 4 below), but
prominently connected with literature in more than one genera-
tion before and after his.
i. THOMAS SHERIDAN (1687-1738), grandfather of the drama-
tist, was born at Cavan in 1687, and was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, taking his B.A. degree in 1711 and that of M.A.
in 1714; he became B.D. in 1724 and D.D. in 1726. By a
marriage with Elizabeth, heiress of Charles MacFadden, he
restored to the Sheridan family Quilcagh House, which they
had forfeited by their Jacobite sympathies. Thomas Sheridan
is chiefly known as the favourite companion and confidant of
Swift during his later residence in Ireland. His correspondence
with Swift and his whimsical treatise on the " Art of Punning" 1
make perfectly^clear from whom his grandson derived his high
spirits and delight in practical joking. The " Art of Punning "
might have been written by the author of The Critic. Swift
had a high opinion of his scholarship, and that it was not con-
temptible is attested by a translation of the Satires of Persius,
printed in Dublin in 1728. He also translated the Satires of
Juvenal and the Philoctetes of Sophocles. When Swift came to
Dublin as dean of St Patrick's, Sheridan was established there
as a schoolmaster of very high repute, and the two men were
soon close friends. Sheridan was his confidant in the affair of
Drapier's Letters; and it was at Quilcagh House that Gulliver's
Travels was prepared for the press. Through Swift's influence
he obtained a living near Cork, but damaged his prospects of
further preferment by a feat of unlucky absence of mind. Having
to preach at Cork on the anniversary of Queen Anne's death he
hurriedly chose a sermon with the text, " Sufficient unto the
day is the evil thereof," and was at once struck off the list of
chaplains to the lord-lieutenant and forbidden the castle. In
spite of this mishap, for which the archdeacon of Cork made
amends by the present of a lease worth 250 per annum, he
" still remained," said the earl of Orrery (Remarks on the Life and
Writings of Jonathan Swift, 175:), "a punster, a quibbler, a
fiddler and a wit," the only person in whose genial presence
Swift relaxed his habitual gloom. His latter days were not
prosperous, probably owing to his having " a better knowledge
of books than of men or of the value of money." He offended
Swift by fulfilling an old promise to tell the dean if he ever saw
signs of avarice in him, and the friends parted in anger. He
died in poverty on the loth of October 1738.
The original source of information about Dr Sheridan is his son's
Life of Swift (vol. i. pp. 369-395), where his scholarship is dwelt
upon as much as his improvident conviviality and simple kindliness
of nature.
2. THOMAS SHERIDAN (1719-1788), son of the above, was born
in Dublin in 1719. His father sent him to an English school
(Westminster); but he was forced by stress of circumstances to
return to Dublin and complete his education at Trinity College,
where he took his B.A. degree in 1739. Then he went on the
stage, and at once made a local reputation. He even wrote a
play, Captain 0' Blunder, or the Brave Irishman, which became a
stock piece, though it was never printed. There is a tradition
that on his first appearance in London he was set up as a rival
to Garrick, and Moore countenances the idea that Garrick
remained jealous of him to the end. For this tradition there is
little foundation. Sheridan's first appearance in London was at
Covent Garden in March 1744, when, heralded in advance as the
brilliant Irish comedian, he acted for three weeks in a succession
of leading parts, Hamlet being the first. In October he appeared
at Drury Lane, playing Horatio in Rowe's Fair Penitent, and
subsequently as Pierre in Otway's Venice Preserved, and in
Hamlet and other parts. On his return to Dublin he became
manager of the Theatre Royal, and married Frances Chamber-
laine. He was driven from Dublin as a result of his unpopular
efforts to reform the theatre. A young man named Kelly had
insulted the actresses, and when Sheridan interfered threatened
him. A riot followed, in consequence of which Kelly was
imprisoned, but he was released on Sheridan's petition. This
disturbance was followed in 1754 by another outbreak, when he
refused to allow the actor, West Digges, to repeat a passage re-
flecting on the government in James Miller's tragedy, Mahomet
the Impostor, After two seasons in London he tried Dublin
again, but two years more of unremunerative management
induced him to leave for England in 1758. By this time he had
conceived his scheme of British education, and it was to push
this rather than his connexion with the stage that he crossed
St George's Channel. He lectured at Oxford and Cambridge,
and was incorporated M.A. in both universities. But the scheme
did not make way, and we find him in 1760 acting under Garrick
at Drury Lane. His merits as an actor may be judged from
1 Published in Nichols's Supplement to the works of Swift (1779).
SHERIDAN
845
the description of him in the Rosciad (1. 987) at this period.
He is placed in the second rank, next to Garrick, but there is no
hint of possible rivalry. Churchill describes him as an actor
whose co'nceptions were superior to his powers of execution,
whose action was always forcible but too mechanically calculated,
and who in spite of all his defects rose to greatness in occasional
scenes. Churchill never erred on the side of praising too much,
and his description may be accepted as correct, supported as
it is by the fact that the actor eked out his income by giving
lessons in elocution. Sheridan solicited a pension for Samuel
Johnson from Lord Bute through Wedderburn. The pension,
300 a year, was granted, and shortly afterwards Bute was so
favourably impressed with a scheme submitted to him by
Sheridan of his Pronouncing Dictionary that he bestowed a
pension of 200 on him also. Some hasty remarks of Johnson's
on the matter were repeated to Sheridan, who broke off his
acquaintance with the doctor in consequence. Sheridan, how-
ever, attracted attention chiefly by his enthusiastic advocacy,
in public lectures and books, of his scheme of education, in which
elocution was to play a principal part. In the case of his son,
Richard Brinsley Sheridan, his instruction was certainly not
wasted. Sheridan's indictment of the established system of
education was that it did not fit the higher classes for their
duties in life, that it was uniform for all and profitable for none;
and he urged as a matter of vital national concern that special
training should be given for the various professions. Oratory
came in as part of the special training of men intended for public
affairs, but his main contention was one very familiar now
that more time should be given in schools to the study of the
English language. He rode his hobby with great enthusiasm,
published an elaborate and eloquent treatise on education, and
lectured on the subject in London, Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh
and other towns. In 1764 he went to live in France, partly for
economy, partly for Mrs Sheridan's health, and partly to study
the system of education. His wife died in 1766 and soon after-
wards he returned to England. In 1769 he published a matured
Plan of Education for the Young Nobility and Gentry with a letter
to the king, in which he offered to devote the rest of his life to
the execution of his theories on condition of receiving a pension
equivalent to the sacrifice of his professional income. His offer
was not accepted; but Sheridan, still enthusiastic, retired to
Bath, and prepared his pronouncing General Dictionary of the
English Language (2 vols., 1780). After his son's brilliant
success he assisted in the management of Drury Lane, and
occasionally acted. His Life of Swift, a very entertaining work
in spite of its incompleteness as a biography, was written for the
1784 edition of Swift's works. He died at Margate on the i4th
of August 1788.
3. FRANCES SHERIDAN (1724-1766), wife of the above and
mother of the dramatist, was the daughter of Dr Philip Chamber-
laine of Dublin. When only fifteen years of age she wrote a
story, Eugenia and Adelaide, published after her death in two
volumes. She took Sheridan's part in the so-called Kelly riots,
writing some verses and a pamphlet in his defence. This led
to her acquaintance, and finally in 1747 to her marriage, with
the unpopular manager. It was by Richardson's advice that she
wrote the Memoirs of Miss Sidney Bidulph. ... It was issued
anonymously in 1761 with a dedication to Richardson, and had
great success, both in England and France. A second part
(2 vols.) was published in 1767. Two of her plays were produced
in 1763 at Drury Lane, The Discovery and The Dupe. We have
it on the authority of Moore that, when The Rivals and The,
Duenna were running at Covent Garden, Garrick revived The
Discovery at Drury Lane, as a counter-attraction, " to play
the mother off against the son, taking on himself to act the
principal part in it." But the statement, intrinsically absurd,
is inaccurate. The Discovery was not an old play at the time,
but one of Garrick's stock pieces, and Sir Anthony Branville
was one of his favourite characters. It was first produced at
Drury Lane in 1763. So far from being jealous of the elder
Sheridan, Garrick seems to have been a most useful friend to
the family, accepting his wife's play which he declared to be
" one of the best comedies he ever read " and grving the husband
several engagements. The Dupe was a failure and was only
played once. Her last work was an Oriental tale, Nourjahad,
written at Blois, where she died on the 26th of September 1766.
Her third play, A Journey to Bath, was refused by Garrick,
and R. B. Sheridan made some use of it in The Rivals.
4. RICHARD ,BRINSLEY BUTLER SHERIDAN (1751-1816), third
son of Thomas and Frances Sheridan, was born in Dublin on the
3Oth of October 1751. There is a story, discredited by Mr Fraser
Rae, that Mrs Sheridan on placing her sons with their first school-
master, Samuel Whyte, said that she had been the only instructor
of her children hitherto, and that they would exercise the school-
master in the quality of patience, " for two such impenetrable
dunces she had never met with." One of the children thus
humorously described was Richard Brinsley, then aged seven.
At the age of eleven he was sent to Harrow school. Sheridan was
extremely popular at school, winning somehow, Dr Parr con-
fesses, " the esteem and even admiration of all his schoolfellows ";
and he acquired, according to the same authority, more learning
than he is usually given credit for. He left Harrow at the age
of seventeen, and was placed under the care of a tutor. He was
also trained by his father daily in elocution, and put through a
course of English reading. He had fencing and riding lessons
at Angelo's.
After leaving Harrow he kept up a correspondence with a
school friend who had gone to Oxford. With this youth, N. B.
Halhed, he concocted various literary plans, and between them
they actually executed and published (1771) metrical transla-
tions of Aristaenetus. In conjunction with Halhed he wrote a
farce entitled Jupiter, which was refused by both Garrick and
Fcote and remained in MS., but is of interest as containing the
same device of a rehearsal which was afterwards worked out with
such brilliant effect in The Critic. Some of the dialogue is very
much in Sheridan's mature manner. Extracts given from
papers written in the seven years between his leaving Harrow
and the appearance of The Rivals sketches of unfinished plays,
poems, political letters and pamphlets show that he was far
from idle. The removal of the family to Bath in 1770-1771 led
to an acquaintance with the daughters of the composer Thomas
Linley. The eldest daughter, Elizabeth Ann (b. 1754), a girl
of sixteen, the prima donna of her father's concerts, was exceed-
ingly beautiful, 1 and had many suitors, among them Sheridan,
N. B. Halhed and a certain Major Mathews. To protect her
from this man's persecutions, Sheridan, who seems to have acted
at first only as a confidential friend, carried out the romantic
plan of escorting Miss Linley, in March 1772, to a nunnery in
France. Sheridan returned and fought two duels with Mathews,
which made a considerable sensation at the time. The pair had
gone through the ceremony of marriage in the course of their
flight, but Sheridan kept the marriage secret, and was sternly
denied access to Miss Linley by her father, who did not consider
him an eligible suitor. Sheridan was sent to Waltham Abbey,
in Essex, to continue his studies, especially in mathematics.
He was entered at the Middle Temple on the 6th of April 1773,
and a week later he was openly married to Miss Linley.
His daring start in life after this happy marriage showed a
confidence in his genius which was justified by its success.
Although he had no income, and no capital beyond a few thousand
pounds brought by his wife, he took a house in Orchard Street,
Portman Square, furnished it " in the most costly style," and
proceeded to return on something like an equal footing the
hospitalities of the fashionable world. His first comedy, The
Rivals, was produced at Covent Garden on the I7th January
1775. It is said to have been not so favourably received on its
first night, owing to its length and to the bad playing of the part
of Sir Lucius O'Trigger. But the defects were remedied before
the second performance, which was deferred to the 28th of the
month, and the piece at once took that place on the s.tage which
it has never lost. His second piece, St Patrick's Day, or the
Scheming Lieutenant, a lively farce, was written for the benefit
1 Her portrait, by Gainsborough, one of the best examples of the
artist's work, hangs at Knole, Sevenoaks, Kent.
8 4 6
SHERIDAN
performance (znd of May 1775) of Lawrence Clinch, who had
succeeded as Sir Lucius. In November 1775, with the assistance
of his father-in-law, he produced the comic opera of The Duenna,
which was played 75 times at Covent Garden during that season.
Sheridan now began to negotiate with Garrick for the purchase
of his share of Drury Lane, and the bargain was completed
in June 1776. The sum paid by Sheridan and his partners,
Thomas Linley and Dr Ford, for the half -share was 35,000;
of this Sheridan contributed 10,000. The money was raised
on mortgage, Sheridan contributing only 1300 in cash. 1 Two
years afterwards Sheridan and his friends bought the other half
of the property for 35,000.
From the first the direction of the theatre would seem to
have been mainly in the hands of Sheridan, who derived very
material assistance from his wife. In February 1777 he produced
his version of Vanbrugh's Relapse, under the title of A Trip to
Scarborough. This is printed among Sheridan's works, but he
has no more title to the authorship than Colley Gibber to that
of Richard III. His chief task was to remove indecencies;
he added very little to the dialogue. The School for Scandal
was produced on the 8th of May 1777. Mrs Abington, who had
played Miss Hoyden in the Trip, played Lady Teazle, who may
be regarded as a Miss Hoyden developed by six months' experi-
ence of marriage and town life. The lord chamberlain refused
to license the play, and was only persuaded on grounds of
personal friendship with Sheridan to alter his decision. There
are tales of the haste with which the conclusion of The School
for Scandal was written, of a stratagem by which the last act
was got out of him by the anxious company, and of the fervent
" Amen " written on the last page of the copy by the prompter,
in response to the author's "Finished at last, thank God!"
But, although the conception was thus hurriedly completed,
we know from Sheridan's sister that the idea of a " scandalous
college " had occurred to him five years before in connexion with
his own experiences at Bath. His difficulty was to find a story
sufficiently dramatic in its incidents to form a subject for the
machinations of the character-slayers. He seems to have tried
more than one plot, and in the end to have desperately forced
two separate conceptions together. The dialogue is so brilliant
throughout, and the auction scene and the screen scene so
effective, that the construction of the comedy meets with little
criticism. The School for Scandal, though it has not the unity
of The Rivals, nor the same wealth of broadly humorous incident,
is universally regarded as Sheridan's masterpiece. He might
have settled the doubts and worries of authorship with Puff's
reflection: " What is the use of a good plot except to bring in
good things ? "
Sheridan's farce, The Critic, was produced on the zgth of
October 1779, The School for Scandal meantime continuing to
draw larger houses than any other play every time it was put
on the stage. In The Critic the laughable infirmities of all
classes connected with the stage authors, actors, patrons
and audience are touched off with the lightest of hands;
the fun is directed, not at individuals, but at absurdities that
grow out of the circumstances of the stage as naturally and
inevitably as weeds in a garden. It seems that he had accumu-
lated notes for another comedy to be called Affectation, but
his only dramatic composition during the remaining thirty-six
years of his life was Pizarro, produced in 1799 a tragedy in
which he made liberal use of some of the arts ridiculed in the
person of Mr Puff. He also revised for the stage Benjamin
Thompson's translation, The Stranger, of Kotzebue's Menschen-
hass und Rene.
He entered parliament for Stafford in 1780, as the friend and
ally of Charles James Fox. Apparently he owed his election
for Stafford to substantial arguments. He is said to have paid
the burgesses five guineas each for the honour of representing
them, beside gifts in dinners and ale to the non-voting part of
the community, for their interest and applause. His first speech
in parliament was to defend himself against the charge of bribery,
1 For the elucidation of these transactions, see Brander Matthews's
edition (1885) of Sheridan's Comedies (pp. 29-31).
and was well received. He spoke little for a time and chiefly
on financial questions, but soon took a place among the best
speakers in the House. Congress recognized his services in
opposing the war in America by offering him a gift of 20,000
which, however, he refused. Under the wing of Fox he filled
subordinate offices in the short-lived ministries of 1782 and 1783.
He was under-secretary for foreign affairs in the Rockingham
ministry, and a secretary of the treasury in the Coalition ministry.
In debate he had the keenest of eyes for the weak places in an
opponent's argument, and the happy art of putting them in an
irresistibly ludicrous light without losing his good temper or
his presence of mind. In those heated days of parliamentary
strife he was almost the only man of mark that was never called
out, and yet he had no match in the weapon of ridicule.
Sheridan found his great opportunity in the impeachment
of Warren Hastings. His speeches in that proceeding were by
the unanimous acknowledgment of his contemporaries among
the greatest delivered in that generation of great orators. The
first was on the 7th of February 1787, on the charges brought
against Hastings with regard to the begums or princesses of
Oude. Sheridan spoke for more than five hours, and the effect
of his oratory was such that it was unanimously agreed to adjourn
and postpone the final decision till the House should be in a
calmer mood. Of this, and of his last great speech on the
subject in 1794, only brief abstracts have been preserved; but
with the second, the four days' speech delivered in his capacity
of manager of the trial, in Westminster Hall, on the occasion
so brilliantly described by Macaulay, posterity has been more
fortunate. Gurney's verbatim reports of the speeches on both
sides at the trial were published at Sir G. Cornewall Lewis's
instigation in 1859, and from them we are able to form an idea
of Sheridan's power as an orator. There are passages here
and there of gaudy rhetoric, loose ornament and declamatory
hyperbole; but the strong common sense, close argumentative
force and masterly presentation of telling facts enable us to
understand the impression produced by the speech at the time.
From the time of the break-up of the Whig party on the
secession of Burke he was more or less an " independent member,"
and his isolation was complete after the death of Fox. When
Burke denounced the French Revolution, Sheridan joined
with Fox in vindicating the principle of non-intervention.
He maintained that the French people should be allowed to
settle their constitution and manage their affairs in their own
way. But when the republic was succeeded by the empire,
and it became apparent that France under Napoleon would
interfere with the affairs of its neighbours, he employed his
eloquence in denouncing Napoleon and urging the prosecution
of the war. One of his most celebrated speeches was delivered
in support of strong measures against the mutineers at theNore.
He was one of the few members who actively opposed the union
of the English and Irish parliaments. When the Whigs came
into power in 1806 Sheridan was appointed treasurer of the navy,
and became a member of the Privy Council. After Fox's death
he succeeded his chief in the representation of Westminster,
and aspired to succeed him as leader of the party, but this claim
was not allowed, and thenceforward Sheridan fought for his
own hand. When the prince became regent in 1811 Sheridan's
private influence with him helped to exclude the Whigs from
power. Throughout his parliamentary career Sheridan was one
of the boon companions of the prince, and his champion in
parliament in some dubious matters of payment of debts. But
he always resented any imputation that he was the prince's
confidential adviser or mouthpiece. A certain proud and
sensitive independence was one of the most marked features
in Sheridan's parliamentary career. After a coolness arose
between him and his Whig allies he refused a place for his son
from the government, lest there should be any suspicion in the
public mind that his support had been bought.
His last years were harassed by debt and disappointment.
He sat in parliament for Westminster in 1806-1807. At the
general election of 1807 he stood again for Westminster and
was defeated, but was returned as member for Ilchester, at
SHERIDAN, P. H.
847
the expense apparently of the prince of Wales. In 1812 he
failed to secure a seat at Stafford. He could not raise money
enough to buy the seat. He had quarrelled with the Prince
Regent, and seems to have had none but obscure friends to stand
by him. As a member of parliament he had been safe against
arrest for debt, but now that this protection was lost his creditors
closed in upon him, and the history of his life from this time till
his death in 1816 is one of the most painful passages in the
biography of great men. It may be regarded as certain, however,
that the description of the utter destitution and misery of the
last weeks of his life given in the Croker Papers (i. pp. 288-312,
ed. L. J. Jennings) is untrue. In any attempt to judge of
Sheridan as he was apart from his works, it is necessary to make
considerable deductions from the mass of floating anecdotes
that have gathered round his name. It was not without reason
that his grand-daughter Mrs Norton denounced the unfairness
of judging of the real man from unauthenticated stories. The
real Sheridan was not a pattern of decorous respectability, but
we may fairly believe that he was very far from being the
Sheridan of vulgar legend. Against the stories about his reckless
management of his affairs we must set the broad facts that he
had no source of income but Drury Lane theatre, that he bore
from it for thirty years all the expenses of a fashionable life,
and that the theatre was twice rebuilt during his proprietorship,
the first time (1791) on account of its having been pronounced
unsafe, and the second (1809) after a disastrous fire. Enough
was lost in this way to account ten times over for all his debts.
The records of his wild bets in the betting book of Brooks's
Club date from the years after the loss, in 1792, of his first wife,
to whom he was devotedly attached. He married again in 1795,
his second wife being Esther Jane, daughter of Newton Ogle,
dean of Winchester. The reminiscences of his son's tutor, Mr
Smyth, show anxious and fidgetty family habits, curiously at
variance with the accepted tradition of his imperturbable reck-
lessness. He died on the 7th of July 1816, and was buried with
great pomp in Westminster Abbey.
Sheridan's only son by his first marriage, THOMAS SHERIDAN
(1773-1817), was a poet of some merit. He became colonial
treasurer at the Cape of Good Hope. His wife, Caroline Henrietta,
nee Callander (1779-1851), wrote three novejs, which had some
success at the time. She received, after her husband's death,
quarters at Hampton Court, and is described by Fanny Kemble
as more beautiful than anybody ' but her daughters. The
eldest child, HELEN SELINA (1807-1867), married Commander
Price Blackwood, afterwards Baron Dufferin. Her husband
died in 1841, and in 1862 she consented to a ceremony of marriage
with George Hay, Earl of Gifford, who died a month later. Her
Songs, Poems and Verses (1894) were published, with a memoir,
by her son, the marquess of Dufferin. The second daughter,
CAROLINE, became Mrs Norton (q.v.). The youngest, JANE
GEORGINA, married Edward Adolphus Seymour, afterwards
1 2th duke of Somerset.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Memoirs of the . . . Life of . . .R.B.Sheridan,
with a Particular Account of his Family and Connexions (1817), by
John Watkins (" who deals," said Byron, " in the life and libel line"),
was an altogether inadequate piece of work, and made many false
statements. The Memoirs, &c.(l82$), compiled by Thomas Moore did
not make full use of the papers submitted by the family. William
Smyth (Memoir of Mr Sheridan, 1840), who had been a tutor in
Sheridan's house, was responsible for many of the scandalous and
sometimes baseless stories connected with Sheridan's name. Accounts
of the dramatist's parents and of his grandfather are given by Alicia
Lefanu in her Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Mrs Frances
Sheridan, &c. (1824). There are numerous references to Sheridan in
the Letters and Journals of Byron, and several anecdotes (see especi-
ally vol. v. p. 411 seq., ed. Prothero, 1901). Popular works on
the Sheridans are Mrs Oliphant's Sheridan (1883) in the " English
Men of Letters " series; Mr Percy Fitzgerald's Lifes of the Shertdans
(2 vols., 1886); and the Life of R. B. Sheridan (1890) by Lloyd C.
Sanders in the " Great Writers " series. An admirable sketch of
Sheridan's political career is given in Wilkes, Sheridan, Fox : the
Opposition under George the Third (1874), by Mr W. Fraser Rae, who
reconstructed Sheridan's biography from the original sources and
vindicated his reputation from the misstatements of earlier writers,
in Sheridan :a Biography (2 vols., 1896), which has an introduction
by the marquess of Dufferin and Ava, the great-grandson of the
dramatist. The Life of R. B. Sheridan by Walter Sichel (1909) is,
however, the best account now available.
Among the numerous modern editions of Sheridan's plays, of which
only The Rivals was published by the dramatist himself, may be
mentioned: Sheridan's Plays now printed as he wrote them (1902),
edited by W. Fraser Rae, who quotes at length the criticisms in the
contemporary press; The Plays of R. B. Sheridan (1900), edited by
Mr A. W. Pollard; and Sheridans Comedies (Boston, U.S.A., 1885),
with a valuable introduction by Mr Brander Matthews. For further
details consult the extensive bibliography by Mr J. P. Anderson in
the Life by Lloyd C. Sanders.
SHERIDAN, PHILIP HENRY (1831-1888), American general,
was born at Albany, N.Y., on the 6th of March 1831. His early
life was spent in a country district in Perry county, Ohio, and he
proceeded to West Point in 1848, graduating in 1853. He was
assigned to the infantry and served on the frontier and on the
Pacific coast, gaining some experience of war in operations
against the Indians. At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861
he had just become first lieutenant, and soon afterwards he was
promoted captain and entrusted with administrative duties in
the western theatre of war. Early in 1862 he was commissioned
colonel of the 2nd Michigan cavalry, with which he served in
Halleck's army on the Tennessee. In June he was placed in
command of a cavalry brigade, and a month later he won pro-
motion to the rank of brigadier-general U.S.V. by his skilful
conduct of the fight of Booneville on the ist of July. He took
part in General Buell's campaign against Bragg, and led the
nth division of the Army of the Ohio at the hard-fought battle
of Perry ville (October 8). Sheridan distinguished himself still
more at the sanguinary battle of Murfreesboro (Stone river), and
on the recommendation of Rosecrans was made major-general
of volunteers, to date from the 3ist of December 1862. His
division took part in Rosecrans's campaign of 1863 and a very
distinguished part at Chickamauga and Chattanooga (?..).
Sheridan's leading of his division at the latter battle attiacted
the notice of General Grant, and when the latter, as general in
chief of the U.S. armies, was seeking an " active and energetic
man, full of spirit and vigour and life " to command the cavalry
of the Army of the Potomac, Sheridan was chosen on the sug-
gestion of General Halleck. The extraordinary activity of the
Union cavalry under his command justified the choice. Sheri-
dan's corps took part in the battles of the Wilderness and Spott-
sylvania Court House (see the article WILDERNESS) , incidents of
which led to a bitter quarrel between Sheridan and Meade and
to Sheridan's being despatched by General Grant on a far-
reaching cavalry raid towards Richmond. In the course of this
was fought the battle of Yellow Tavern, where the Confederate
general J. E. B. Stuart was killed. After rejoining the army
Sheridan fought another well-contested action at H awes' Shop
and took and held Cold Harbor. After the battle at that place
Sheridan undertook another raid, this time towards Charlottes-
ville (June 7-28), in view of co-operation with the army of
General David Hunter in the Valley. In the course of this was
fought the action of Trevilian's Station (June n). A little
later came General Sheridan's greatest opportunity for distinc-
tion. He was appointed to command a new " Army of the
Shenandoah " to oppose the forces of General Early, and con-
ducted the brilliant and decisive campaign which crushed the
Confederate army and finally put an end to the war in Northern
Virginia (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR and SHENANDOAH VALLEY
CAMPAIGNS). The victories of the Opequan, or Winchester
(September 19), Fisher's Hill (September 22) and Cedar Creek
(October 19), produced great elation in the North and correspond-
ing depression in the Confederacy, and Sheridan was made
successively brigadier-general U.S.A. for Fisher's Hill and
major-general U.S.A. for Cedar Creek. " Sheridan's Ride " of
20 m. from Winchester to Cedar Creek to take command of the
hard-pressed Union troops is a celebrated incident of the war.
His capacity for accepting the gravest responsibilities was shown,
not less than by his handling of an army in battle, by his ruthless
devastation of the Valley a severe measure felt to be necessary
both by Sheridan himself and by Grant. From the Valley the
cavalry rode through the enemy's country to join Grant before
Petersburg, fighting the action of Waynesboro 1 , destroying
848
SHERIFF
communications and material of war, and finally reporting to
the general-in-chief on the 25th of March 1865. A few days later
the indefatigable Sheridan won the last great victory of the war
at Five Forks. The operations were conducted entirely by him
and were brilliantly successful, leading to the retreat of Lee
from the lines of Petersburg and the final catastrophe of Appo-
mattox Court House. In the course of the battle of Five Forks
Sheridan once more displayed his utter fearlessness of criticism
by summarily dismissing from his command General G. K.
Warren, an officer of the highest repute, whose corps was only
temporarily under Sheridan's orders. The part played by the
cavalry corps in the pursuit of Lee was most conspicuous, and
Sheridan himself commanded the large forces of infantry and
cavalry which cut off Lee's retreat and compelled the surrender
of the famous Army of Northern Virginia (see AMERICAN CIVIL
WAR and PETERSBURG).
Soon after the close of the war Sheridan, who by these services
had gained his reputation as one of the greatest soldiers of the
time, was sent to exercise the military command in the south-
west, where a corps of observation, on the Mexican frontier,
watched the struggle between Maximilian and the Liberals
(see MEXICO: History). General Sheridan stated in his memoirs
that material assistance was afforded to the Liberals out of the
U.S. arsenals, and the moral effect of his presence on the frontier
certainly influenced the course of the struggle to a very great
extent. Later, in the Reconstruction period, he commanded
the Fifth Military District (Louisiana and Texas) at New Orleans,
where his administration of the conquered states was most
stormy, his differences with President Johnson culminating in
his recall in September 1867. He was then placed in charge
of the Department of the Missouri, which he commanded for
sixteen years, and in 1869, on Grant's election to the presidency
and Sherman's consequent promotion to the full rank of general,
he was made lieutenant-general. In 1868-1869 he conducted a
winter campaign against the Indians, which resulted in their
defeat and surrender. During the Franco-German War of 1870
General Sheridan accompanied the great headquarters of the
German armies as the guest of the king of Prussia. In 1873,
at the time of the " Virginius " incident (see CUBA), when an
invasion of Spain was projected, Sheridan was designated to
command the United States field army. In 1875 he was sent
to New Orleans to deal with grave civil disorder, a duty which
he carried out with the same uncompromising severity that he
had previously shown in 1867. In 1883 he succeeded Sherman
in the chief command of the United States army, which he held
until his death at Nonquitt, Mass., on the 5th of August 1888. A
few months previously he had been raised to the full rank of general.
As a soldier, Sheridan combined brilliant courage and pains-
taking skill. As a fighting general he was unsurpassed. Few
of the leaders of either side could have stemmed the tide of
defeat as he did at Stone river and turned a mere rally into a
great victory as he did at Cedar Creek, by the pure force of
personal magnetism. His restless energy was that of a Charles
XII., to whom in this respect he has justly been compared,
while, unlike the king of Sweden, he was as careful and vigilant
as the most methodical strategist. He was a devout Roman
Catholic, and in his private life he had the esteem and admiration
of all who knew him well. General Sheridan was president of
the Society of the Army of the Potomac and of the Society of the
Army of the Cumberland, the latter for fourteen years. In 1875
he married Irene, daughter of General D. H. Rucker, U.S.A.
His Personal Memoirs (2 vols.) were published soon after his death.
SHERIFF, or SHIRE-REEVE (O. Eng. sclr-gerefa or scirman, 1
Latin, vice-comes), often called " high sheriff," the English and
Irish executive authority in a county, or other place, often
called his " bailiwick." The office also exists in about twenty
ancient cities and boroughs, among which may be named
London, Norwich, York, Bristol, Oxford, Lincoln, Chester and
Canterbury in England, and Dublin, Cork, Limerick and other
places in Ireland. In most of these the office is of an honorary
1 The word occurs as early as the laws of Ine (c. 8), about 690.
nature. The office is at present an annual one, though this
has not been always the case. Three names are put on the list
by the chancellor of the exchequer and the judges of king's
bench division on the morrow of St Martin (i2th of November),
and the first name is usually pricked by the king in council in
the February or March following. City and borough sheriffs are
usually appointed by the corporations on the gth of November.
London and Middlesex are specially provided for by the act of
1887, s. 33, and the sheriffs of the counties of Cornwall and
Lancaster are separately appointed, the act not applying to them.
The shrievalty was at one time a far more important office
than it is at present. " The whole history of English justice
and police," says Maitland (Justice and Police, 69), " might be
brought under this rubric, the decline and fall of the sheriff."
That the sheriff sometimes abused his power is obvious from
the grievances stated in the Inquest of Sheriffs of 1170. But
he was necessary to protect the interests of the crown and the
people against the powerful local baronage. Besides executing
the king's writs, he called out the posse comitalus on any
emergency needing an armed force. He had the ferm of the
shire 2 (the rent he paid being called " sheriff-geld ") and presided
in the county court and the hundred court. For more purely
judicial purposes he held as the king's deputy the sheriff's
tourn, 3 where his jurisdiction had not been ousted by franchise.
He might be a peer or a judge, Bracton being an instance of the
latter. The appointment seems to have been originally by
popular election, a right confirmed by 28 Edw. I. c. 8, but
ultimately vested in the crown unless where certain powerful
landowners had contrived to make the office hereditary. The
hereditary shrievalty of Westmorland was not abolished until
1850 by 13 & 14 Viet. c. so. 4 The tendency of the hereditary
office to become obsolete was no doubt helped by the creation
of Viscount Beaumont as an hereditary peer under the new
dignity of vice-comes in 1440. At one time contributions to the
expense of the office were made by the magistrates and others
of the county. " Sheriff-tooth " was a tenure on condition of
supplying entertainment to the sheriff at the county court.
Up to the i gth century " riding with the sheriff " was an incident
of the assizes, the riders being some of the principal men of the
shire who brought with them wine and victuals in order to assist
the sheriff in showing hospitality to the judges.
At the present day the expensive duties of the sheriff depend
on numerous statutes beginning with 2 Edw. III. c. 3 (1328).
The most important is the Sheriffs Act 1887, mainly a consolidat-
ing act applying to England only. The person nominated is
usually a magistrate for the county, but anyone is eligible
provided that he have land in the county sufficient to answer
the king. 6 Exempt are peers, clergy, officers in active service,
practising barristers and solicitors and others. Poverty is also
a ground of exemption. The sheriff appoints his undersheriff.
The duties of the office at the present day are both administrative
and judicial. Among the former the most important is attend-
ance on the judges at assizes and election petitions. A certain
amount of stately ceremony is required, and any lack of it is
punishable by fine either by the judge of assize or by the High
Court. Other administrative duties are execution of writs 6
and of the sentence of death, acting as returning officer at
parliamentary elections, preparing the panel of jurors for assizes,
the keeping prisoners in safe custody, he being liable for their
escape, and the now nominal duty of summoning the posse
comUatus. His judicial duties consist in himself or his deputy
sitting to assess damages under the Lands Clauses Act 1845,
and also in cases set down for trial where the defendant has
made default in appearance and the issue resolves itself into one
of damages. The expenses of the office are partly met by the
J The ferm is abolished by the act of 1887, s. 19.
3 Abolished by s. 18 of the same act.
4 Repealed and re-enacted by the act of 1887, a. 31.
6 The counties of Cambridge and Huntingdon are combined for
the purposes of the shrievalty. See the act of 1887, s. 32.
* Where a question arises as to the ownership of goods seized in
execution the sheriff may have to undergo the process known as
sheriff's interpleader.
SHERIFF
849
Treasury in accordance with the Treasury order of the 2nd
of August 1898. The order lays down with somewhat grim
humour that the sheriff is not limited to the allowances, but may
spend more if he likes. A sheriff cannot during his year of
office act as a magistrate for the county of which he is sheriff.
See the works on the history of law by Stubbs, Pollock and Mait-
land and Holdsworth. Also W. S. McKechnie, Magna (Carta (1905) ;
Sir M. Hale, A Short Treatise touching Sheriff's Accompts (1683);
Greenwood, Bouleuterion (1685); The Compleat Sheriff (1696);
Impey (1786); Atkinson (1878); Churchill and Bruce (1882); and
Mather (1903).
Scotland. As far as is known the sheriff did not exist in
Scotland before the beginning of the Norman period. In the
feudal system he became as in England the centre of the local
administration of justice, the representative of the crown in
executive as well as judicial business, and was always a royal
officer appointed by and directly responsible to the king. The
earliest sheriffs on record belong to the reigns of Alexander I.
and David I., and the office was common before the death of
Alexander III. In many cases it had become hereditary,
instances being those of De Sinton in Selkirk and Agnew in
Galloway. The ordinance of Edward I. in 1305 rejected the
hereditary character of the office, but an act of James II. shows
that the office had again become hereditary.
One of the consequences was that sheriffs ignorant of law
required deputes to discharge their judicial duties. In the course
of succeeding reigns, down to that of James VI., the jurisdiction
of the sheriffs came to be much limited by grants of baronies
and regalities which gave the grantees the right to hold both
civil and criminal courts of less or greater jurisdiction to the
exclusion of the sheriff.
The civil jurisdiction of the sheriff was originally of very
wide extent, and was deemed specially applicable to questions
relating to the land within the shire, but after the institution
of the court of session in 1532 it became restricted, and all
causes relating to property in land, as well as those requiring
the action called declarator for establishing ultimate right, and
most of those requiring equitable remedies, were withdrawn
from it. Nor did it possess any consistorial jurisdiction. Practi-
cally, therefore, the civil jurisdiction of the sheriff fell under the
head of actions concluding for payment of money and actions
to regulate the possession of land. The criminal jurisdiction of
the sheriff was in like manner in its origin of almost universal
extent. But this was first limited to cases where the offenders
were caught in or shortly after the act, afterwards to cases in
which the trial could be held within forty days, and subsequently
further restricted as the business of the justiciary court became
more organized. The punishment of death, having by long
disuse come to be held beyond the power of the sheriff, and the
statutory punishments of transportation or penal servitude never
having been entrusted to him, his jurisdiction as regards crimes
was usually said to be limited to those punishable arbitrarily,
that is, by imprisonment, fine or admonition.
As a consequence of the suppression of the Jacobite rising
of 1745, after the ist of March 1748 all heritable sheriffships
were extinguished by 20 Geo. II. c. 43. The act declared that
there should be but one sheriff-depute or Stewart-depute in
every shire or stewartry, who was to be an advocate of three
years' standing, appointed by the crown. Since 1769 the
sheriff-depute has held his office ad inlam aut culpam. Power was
given to him by 20 Geo. II. c. 43 to appoint one or more sheriffs-
substitute. In 1787 the sheriff -substitute was placed on the civil
establishment and paid by the crown; in 1825 a qualification
of three years' standing (now five years by the Sheriff Courts
(Scotland) Act 1877) as an advocate or procurator before a
sheriff court was required (6 Geo. IV. c. 23); in 1838 he was
made removable by the sheriff-depute only with the consent of
the lord president and lord justice clerk, and it was made com-
pulsory that he should reside in the sheriffdom, the provision
of 20 Geo. II. c. 43, which required the sheriff-depute so to reside
for four months of each year, being repealed (i & 2 Viet. c. 119).
In 1877 the right of appointment of the substitutes was trans-
ferred from the sheriff -depute to the crown by the act of 1877.
While the sheriff-depute has still power to hear cases in the
first instance, and is required to hold a certain number of sittings
in each place where the sheriff-substitute holds courts, and also
once a year a small-debt court in every place where a circuit
small -debt court is appointed to be held, the ordinary course
of civil procedure is that the sheriff-substitute acts as judge
of first instance, with an appeal under certain restrictions from
his decision to the sheriff-depute, and from him to the court
of session in all causes exceeding 25 in value. An appeal direct
from the sheriff-substitute to the court of session is competent,
but is not often resorted to. By the Interpretation Act 1889,
s. 28, the word " sheriff " in any act relating to Scotland is to
include a sheriff-substitute.
As regards criminal proceedings, summary trials are usually
conducted by the sheriff-substitute; trials with a jury either by
him or, in important cases, by the sheriff-depute. The sheriff-
substitute also has charge of the preliminary investigation
into crime, the evidence in which, called a precognition, is
laid before him, and if necessary taken before him on oath
at the instance of his procurator-fiscal, the local crown prose-
cutor.
The duties of the sheriff -depute are now divided into ministerial or
administrative and judicial. The ministerial are the supervision
of the accounts of the inferior officers of the sheriffdom; the super-
intendence of parliamentary elections; the holding by himself or his
substitutes of the courts for registration of electors; the preparation
of the list of persons liable to serve both on criminal and civil juries;
the appointment of sheriff officers and supervision of the execution of
judicial writs by them; and the striking of the " fiars." He has also
to attend the judges of justiciary at the circuit courts for the county
or counties over which his jurisdiction extends.
The judicial duties of the sheriff-depute are, as regards crimes,
the trial of all causes remitted by the counsel of the crown for the
trial by sheriff and jury, as well as summary trials if he chooses to
take them. This now means most crimes for which a maximum of
two years' imprisonment (in practice eighteen months is the longest
sentence imposed) is deemed sufficient, and which are not by statute
reserved for the justiciary court. His civil jurisdiction is regulated
by several statutes too technical for detail, but may be said generally
to extend to all suits which conclude for payment of money, whatever
may be the cause of action, with the exception of a few where the
payment depends on status, all actions with reference to the posses-
sion of land or right in land, and actions relative to the right of suc-
cession to movable property. In bankruptcy he has a cumulative
and alternative jurisdiction with the court of session, and in the
service of heirs with the sheriff of chancery.
The courts which the sheriff holds are (l) the criminal court;
(2) the ordinary civil court ; (3) the small-debt court for cases under
12 in value (6 Geo. IV. c. 48) ; (4) the debts recovery court for cases
above 12 and under 50 in value (Debts Recovery [Scotland] Act
1867) ; and (5) the registration court. His judgment in the criminal
court is subject to review by the court of justiciary, and in the
ordinary civil court and the debts recovery court by the court of
session. In the small-debt court it is final, except in certain cases
where an appeal lies to the next circuit court of justiciary. The
sheriff-substitute may competently exercise all the judicial jurisdiction
of the sheriff, subject to appeal in civil cases other than small debt
cases. As regards his administrative functions he assists the sheriff
generally;, and may act for him in the registration and fiars court, and
he superintends the preliminary stage of criminal inquiries, consult-
ing with the sheriff if necessary; but the other administrative duties
of the office are conducted by the sheriff-depute in person. The
executive functions of the sheriff are performed by messengers-at-
arms. The civil jurisdiction depends on numerous statutes known
as the Sheriff Courts and Small Debts Acts. The salaries of sheriffs-
depute vary from 2000 to 500 a year, those of sheriffs-substitute
from 1400 to 500.
There is a principal sheriff-clerk appointed by the crown for each
county, who has depute clerks under him in the principal towns,
and a procurator-fiscal for the conduct of criminal prosecutions for
each county and district of a county, who is appointed by the
sheriff with the sanction of the home secretary.
Besides the sheriffs of counties, there is a sheriff of chancery
appointed by the crown, whose duties are confined to the service of
heirs, with a salary of 500.
See the various works on sheriff court practice, such as those of
J. D. Wilson (1883) and J. M. Lees (1889), and Green, Encyc. of Scots.
Law, s.v. " Sheriff."
Ireland. The sheriff has much the same duties as in England.
His position is defined by numerous statutes, beginning with
53 Geo. III. c. 68 (1817). There is no consolidating act such as
that of 1887 in England.
United States. The office of sheriff is generally elective.
850
SHERIFFMUIR SHERMAN, J.
The sheriff has administrative and limited judicial authority.
He sometimes serves for combined counties, as in England for
Cambridge and Huntingdon. (J. W.)
SHERIFFMUIR, a battlefield situated on the verge of the
extreme north-western flank of the Ochils, Perthshire, Scotland,
watered by Wharry Burn, an affluent of the Allan. It lies
within the bounds of the parish of Dunblane, 2 m. E. by N.
of the town. It was 'the site of an indecisive battle (i3th of
November 1715) between the Jacobites, about 12,000 strong,
under John Erskine, 6th or nth earl of Mar, and 4000 Royalists
under Archibald Campbell, afterwards 3rd duke of Argyll.
Both sides, each of which lost 500 men, claimed the victory,
although in point of fact Mar deemed it prudent to retreat.
The " battle stone " enclosed by a railing marks the scene of
the encounter.
SHERIF PASHA (1818-1887), Egyptian statesman, was a
Circassian who filled numerous administrative posts under Said
and Ismail pashas. He was of better education than most of
his contemporaries, and had married a daughter of Colonel
Seves the French non-commissioned officer who became Soliman
Pasha under Mehemet Ah".. As minister of foreign affairs he
was useful to Ismail, who used Sherif's bluff bonhomie to veil
many of his most insidious proposals. Of singularly lazy
disposition, he yet possessed considerable tact he was in fact
an Egyptian Lord Melbourne, whose policy was to leave every-
thing alone. His favourite argument against any reform was
to appeal to the Pyramids as an immutable proof of the solidity
of Egypt financially and politically. His fatal optimism rendered
him largely responsible for the collapse of Egyptian credit which
brought about the fall of Ismail. Upon the military insurrection
of September 1881, Sherif was summoned by the khedive Tewfik
to form a new ministry. The impossibility of reconciling the
financial requirements of the national party with the demands
of the British and French controllers of the public debt, compelled
him to resign in the following February. After the suppression
of the Arabi rebellion he was again installed in office (September
1882) by Tewfik, but in January 1884 he resigned rather than
sanction the evacuation of the Sudan. As to the strength of the
mahdist movement he had then no conception. When urged by
Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer) early in 1883 to abandon some
of the more distant parts of the Sudan, he replied with charac-
teristic light-heartedness: " Nous en causerons plus tard;
d'abord nous allons donner une bonne raclee a ce monsieur "
(i.e. the mahdi). Hicks Pasha's expedition was at the time
preparing to march on El Obeid. (Vide Egypt No. i (1907),
p. 115). Sherif died at Gratz, on the 2oth of April 1887.
SHERLOCK, THOMAS (1678-1761), English divine, the son of
William Sherlock (<?..), was born at London in 1678. He was
educated at Eton and at St Catharine's Hall, Cambridge, and in
1704 succeeded his father as master of the Temple, where he
was very popular. In 1714 he became master of his old college
at Cambridge and vice-chancellor of the university, whose
privileges he defended against Richard Bentley. In 1715 he
was appointed dean of Chichester. He took a prominent part
in the Bangorian controversy against Benjamin Hoadly, whom
he succeeded as bishop of Bangor in 1728; he was afterwards
translated to Salisbury in 1734, and to London in 1748. Sherlock
was a capable administrator, and cultivated friendly relations
with dissenters. In parliament he was of good service to his
old schoolfellow Robert Walpole. He published against Anthony
Collins's dcistic Grounds of the Christian Religion a volume of
sermons entitled The Use and Interest of Prophecy in the Several
Ages of the World (1725); and in reply to Thomas Woolston's
Discourses on the Miracles he wrote a volume entitled The Tryal
of the Witnesses of the Resurrection of Jesus (1729), which soon
ran through fourteen editions. His Pastoral Letter (1750) on
" the late earthquakes " had a circulation of many thousands,
and four or five volumes of Sermons which he published in his
later years (1754-1758) were also at one time highly esteemed.
He died in July 1761.
A collected edition of his works, with a memoir, in 5 vols. 8vo, by
J. S. Hughes, appeared in 1830.
SHERLOCK, WILLIAM (c. 1641-1707), English divine, was
born at Southwark about 1641, and was educated at Eton and at
Peterhouse College, Cambridge. In 1669 he became rector of
St George's, Botolph Lane, London, and in 1681 he was appointed
a prebendary of St Paul's. In 1674 he showed his controversial
bent by an attack on the puritan John Owen, in The Knowledge
of Jesus Christ and Union with Him. In 1684 he published
The Case of Resistance of the Supreme Powers stated and resolved
according to the Doctrine of the Holy Scriptures, an ably written
treatise, in which he drew the distinction between active and
passive obedience which was at that time generally accepted
by the high church clergy; in the same year he was made master
of the Temple. In 1686 he was reproved for his anti-papal
preaching, and his pension stopped. After the Revolution he
was suspended for refusing the oaths to William and Mary, but
before his final deprivation he yielded, justifying his change
of attitude in The Case of the Allegiance due to Sovereign Powers
stated and resolved according to Scripture and Reason and the
Principles of the Church of England (1691). During the period
of his suspension he wrote a Practical Discourse concerning
Death, which became very popular. In 1690 and 1693 n e pub-
lished volumes on the doctrine of the Trinity which helped
rather than injured the Socinian cause, and involved him in a
warm controversy with Robert South and others. He became
dean of St Paul's in 1691, and died at Hampstead in June 1707.
His sermons were collected in 2 vols. 8vo (4th ed., 1755).
SHERMAN, JOHN (1823-1900), American financier and
statesman, a younger brother of General W. T. Sherman, was
born at Lancaster, Ohio, on the loth of May 1823. He began
the study of law at Mansfield, Ohio, and was admitted to the
bar in 1844. For ten years he practised his profession with
success, and with only casual interest in politics. His associa-
tions and predilections were with the Whigs, and he was a
delegate to the National Convention that nominated General
Zachary Taylor in 1848. Upon the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854, he joined the
great popular movement in Ohio against the policy represented
by this bill, and was elected to Congress in the autumn of that
year as an " Anti-Nebraska " man. In the summer of the next
year he took an active part in the formal organization of the
Republican party in the state, and at the opening of Congress
in December began a long career of public service. As a member
of the House (1855-1861), he quickly manifested the qualities
which characterized his whole political life. Though a thorough
and avowed partisan, he was within the party the counsellor
of moderate rather than extreme measures, and thus gained on
the whole a position of great influence. He was a member of
the committee sent by the House in 1856 to investigate the
troubles in Kansas, and drafted the report of the majority. In
1859 he was the Republican candidate for Speaker of the House,
but was obliged, after a contest that lasted two months, to
withdraw, largely because of the recommendation he had
inadvertently given to an anti-slavery book, The Impending
Crisis of the South (1857), by Hinton Rowan Helper (1820-1909).
He became, however, chairman of the Committee on Ways and
Means, and was instrumental in the enactment of the Morrill
Tariff Act of 1860. In March 1861 he took his seat in the Senate,
to which he had been elected to succeed Salmon P. Chase, when
the latter became secretary of the treasury. As senator he sat
continuously until he became secretary of the treasury in 1877.
His interest and efficiency in financial legislation in the House led
to his appointment on the Senate Committee of Finance, and
after 1867 he was chairman of this influential committee. He
thus became associated with the enactment of all the great
fiscal laws through which the strain of war and of reconstruction
was sustained. He gave earnest support to the Legal Tender
Act, and the substitution of the national for the state banking
system. When after the end of the war the question of financial
readjustment came up, he vigorously opposed Secretary Hugh
McCulloch's policy of retiring the legal tenders, and urged a
different plan for effecting the resumption of specie payments.
On the questions relating to political reconstruction and the
SHERMAN, R. SHERMAN, W. T.
851
policy of President Johnson, he supported his party, though
opposed to its Radical leaders. He warmly advocated the
insertion in the Reconstruction Acts of a provision ensuring the
early termination of military government; and he opposed the
impeachment of President Johnson, though he voted for convic-
tion on the trial. During the administrations of President Grant
his leadership in shaping financial policy became generally
recognized. The Resumption Act of 1875, which provided for
the return of specie payments four years later, was largely his
work both in inception and in formulation, and his appointment
to the head of the Treasury Department by President Hayes in
1877 enabled him to carry the policy embodied in the law to
successful execution. His administration of the department,
in circumstances of great difficulty arising out of the " greenback "
agitation and the adverse political complexion of Congress, won
him high distinction as a financier.
At the end of the Hayes administration he was again elected
to the Senate from Ohio and held his seat until 1897. During
this period he was largely concerned in the enactment of the
Anti-Trust Law of 1890, and of the so-called Sherman Act of
the same year, providing for the purchase of silver and the
issuing of Treasury notes based upon it. This latter Act he
approved only as a means of escaping the free coinage of silver,
and he supported its repeal in 1893. In 1880 and 1888 he
aspired actively to the Republican nomination for the presidency,
but failed to obtain the requisite support in the Convention.
During the last years of his senatorial career he was chairman
of the Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs. Upon the accession
of President McKinley in 1897, he resigned from the Senate and
became secretary of state; but under the tension of the war
with Spain the duties of the office became too exacting for his
strength at his age, and in April 1898 he resigned and withdrew
into private life. Infirmities multiplied upon him, until his
death at Washington on the 22nd of October 1900.
A selection from the correspondence of John Sherman and his
brother Gen. W. T. Sherman was published as The Sherman Letters in
1894. Sherman published Recollections of Forty Years in the House,
Senate and Cabinet: an Autobiography (Chicago and New York,
1895). A volame of Selected Speeches was published in 1879. See
Life, by T. E. Burton (1906). (W. A. D.)
SHERMAN, ROGER (1721-1793), American political leader,
a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was born at Newton,
Massachusetts, on the igth of April 1721 (O.S.). He removed
with his parents to Stoughton in 1723, attended the country
school there, and at an early age learned the cobbler's trade in
his father's shop. Removing to New Milford, Connecticut, in
1743, he worked as county surveyor, engaged in mercantile
pursuits, studied law, and in 1754 was admitted to the bar.
He represented New Milford in the Connecticut Assembly in
1755-1756 and again in 1758-1761. From 1761 until his death
New Haven was his home. He was once more a member of the
Connecticut Assembly in 1764-1766, was one of the governor's
assistants in 1766-1785, a judge of the Connecticut superior
court in 1766-1789, treasurer of Yale College in 1765-1776,
a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1774-1781 and again
in 1783-1784, a member of the Connecticut Committee of Safety
in 1777-1779 and in 1782, mayor of New Haven in 1784-1793,
a delegate to the Federal Constitutional Convention of 1787
and to the Connecticut Ratification Convention of the same year,
and a member of the Federal House of Representatives in 1789-
1791 and of the United States Senate in 1791-1793. He was on
the committee which drafted the Declaration of Independence,
and also on that which drafted the Articles of Confederation.
His greatest public service, however, was performed in the
Federal Constitutional Convention. In the bitter conflict
between the large state party and the small state party he and
his colleagues, Oliver Ellsworth and William Samuel Johnson,
acted as peacemakers. Their share in bringing about the final
settlement, which provided for equal representation in one house
and proportional representation in the other, was so important
that the settlement itself has come to be called the " Connecticut
Compromise." He helped to defeat the proposal to give Congress
a veto on state legislation, showing that it was illogical to confer
such a power, since the constitution itself is the law of the land
and no state act contravening it is legal. In the Federal Congress
(1789-1793) he favoured the assumption of the state debts, the
establishment of a national bank and the adoption of a protective
tariff policy. Although strongly opposed to slavery, he refused
to support the Parker resolution of 1789 providing for a duty
of ten dollars per head on negroes brought from Africa, on the
ground that it emphasized the property element in slavery.
He died in New Haven on the 23rd of July 1793. Sherman
was not a deep and original thinker like James Wilson, nor was
he a brilliant leader like Alexander Hamilton; but owing to
his conservative temperament, his sound judgment and his
wide experience he was well qualified to lead the compromise
cause in the convention of 1787.
Two of Sherman's grandsons, William M. Evarts and George
F. Hoar, were prominent in the later history of the country.
Lewis H. Boutell's Life of Roger Sherman (Chicago, 1896), based on
material collected by Senator Hoar, is a careful and accurate work.
SHERMAN, WILLIAM TECUMSEH (1820-1891), American
general, was born on the 8th of February 1820, at Lancaster,
Ohio. He was descended from Edmond Sherman, who emigrated
from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1634. His
father, Charles R. Sherman, a judge of the Supreme Court of
Ohio, died suddenly in 1829, leaving his widow with a family
of young children. William was adopted by the Hon. Thomas
Ewing, a close friend of the father, sometime a senator of the
United States and a member of the national cabinet. In 1836
he entered West Point, and on graduating near the head of his
class he was appointed second lieutenant in the 3rd artillery
regiment. His first field service was in Florida against the
Seminole Indians. The usual changes of station and detached
duty made him acquainted with the geography of all the Southern
states, and Sherman improved the opportunity by making
topographical studies which proved of no small value to him
later. He also employed much of his time in the study of law.
When the war with Mexico began in 1846 he asked for field
duty, and was ordered to join an expedition going to California
by sea. He was made adjutant-general to Colonel Mason,
military governor, and as such was executive officer in the
administration of local government till peace came in the
autumn of 1848 and the province was ceded to the United
States. In 1847 he served on the staff of the general commanding
the division of the Pacific. In 1850 he married Ellen Boyle,
daughter of Thomas Ewing, then secretary of the interior.
Transferred in the same year to the commissariat department
as a captain, he resigned three years later and went back to
California to conduct at San Francisco a branch of an important
St Louis banking-house. He continued successfully in the
management of this business through a financial crisis incident
to a wildly speculative time, until in the spring of 1857 the house,
by his advice, withdrew from Californian affairs. Afterwards
for a short time he was engaged in business at New York and in
1858 practised law at Leavenworth, Kansas. In 1859, the state
of Louisiana proposing to establish a' military college, Sherman
was appointed its superintendent. On the ist of January 1860
the " State Seminary of Learning and Military Academy "
was opened, and here Sherman remained until the spring of 1861 ,
when it was evident that Louisiana would join the states seceding
from the Union. He thereupon resigned the superintendency
and returned to St Louis, parting with the governor of the state
and his colleagues in the school with regret and mutual esteem.
Though his brother John Sherman was a leader in the party
which had elected Lincoln, William Sherman was very conserva-
tive on the slavery question, and his distress at what he thought
an unnecessary rupture between the states was extreme. Yet
his devotion to the national constitution was unbounded, and
he offered his services as soon as volunteers for the three years'
enlistments were called out. On the i4th of May 1861 he was
appointed colonel of the i^th U.S. Infantry, a new regiment,
and was soon assigned to command a brigade in General
McDowell's army in front of Washington. He served with it
in the first battle of Bull Run, on the 2ist of July. Promoted
852
SHERMAN 'S HERTOGENBOSCH
brigadier-general of volunteers, Sherman was in August sent
to Kentucky to serve under General Robert Anderson. In
October he succeeded to the command of the department. On
the 26th of October he reported that 200,000 men would be
required for the Kentucky campaign. He was relieved of his
post soon afterwards in consequence, but the event justified
Sherman's view. He was soon re-employed in a minor position,
and, at the head of a division of new troops, accompanied
Grant's army to Pittsburg Landing. At the battle of Shiloh
Sherman's gallant conduct gained him promotion to major-
general. His appreciation of Grant, and his- sympathy with
the chagrin he suffered after this battle, cemented the friendship
between the two. He took part in Halleck's advance on Corinth,
Mississippi, and at the close of 1862 led the Mississippi column
in the first Vicksburg campaign. He suffered defeat at Chickasaw
Bayou, but the capture of Fort Hindman, near Arkansas Post,
compensated to some extent for the Vicksburg failure. In
Grant's final Vicksburg campaign Sherman commanded the
XV. corps and the right of the investing line, and after the
surrender he was sent to oppose General Johnston in the country
about Jackson, Miss. In July he was made a brigadier-general
in the regular army. When, after Rosecrans's defeat at Chicka-
mauga, Grant was placed in supreme command in the west,
Sherman succeeded to the command of the Army of the Tennessee,
with which he took part in the great battle of Chattanooga (q.v.).
He had already prepared for a further advance by making an
expedition into the heart of Mississippi as far as Meridian,
destroying railways and making impracticable, for a season,
the transfer of military operations to that region; and on Grant
becoming general-in-chief (March 1864) he was made commander
of the military division of the Mississippi, including his Army of
the Tennessee, now under McPherson, the Army of the Cumber-
land, under Thomas, and the Army of the Ohio, under Schofield.
Making detachments for garrisons and minor operations in a
theatre of war over 500 m. wide, he assembled, near Chattanooga,
his three armies, aggregating 100,000 men, and began (May
1864) the invasion of Georgia. After a brilliant and famous
campaign of careful manoeuvre and heavy combats (see
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR), Sherman finally wrested Atlanta (q.v.)
from the Confederates on the ist of September. His able
opponent Johnston had been removed from his command, and
Hood, Johnston's successor, began early in October a vigorous
movement designed to carry the war back into Tennessee.
After a devious chase of a month Hood moved across Alabama
to northern Mississippi. Sherman thereupon, leaving behind
Thomas and Schofield to deal with Hood, made the celebrated
" March to the Sea " from Atlanta to Savannah with 60,000
picked men. After a march of 300 m. Savannah was reached in
December. Railways and material were destroyed, the country
cleared of supplies, and the Confederate government severed
from its western states. In January 1865 Sherman marched
northwards again, once more abandoning his base, towards
Petersburg, where Grant and Lee were waging a war of giants.
Every mile of his march northwards through the Carolinas
diminished the supply region of the enemy, and desperate efforts
were made to stop his advance. General Johnston was recalled
to active service, and showed his usual skill, but his forces were
inadequate. Sherman defeated him and reached Raleigh, the
capital of North Carolina, on the i3th of April, having marched
nearly 500 m. from Savannah. Lee's position in Virginia was
now desperate. Hood had been utterly defeated by Thomas
and Schofield, and Schofield (moved 2000 m. by land and sea)
rejoined Sherman in North Carolina. With 90,000 men Sherman
drove Johnston before him, and when Lee surrendered to Grant
Johnston also gave up the struggle. There was much friction
between Sherman and the war secretary, Stanton, before the
terms were ratified, but with their signature the Civil War came
to an end.
Sherman had the good fortune to learn the art of command
by degrees. At Bull Run his brigade was wasted in isolated
and disconnected regimental attacks, at Shiloh his division was
completely surprised owing to want of precaution; but his
bravery and energy were beyond question, and these qualities
carried him gradually to the frontal the same time as he acquired
skill and experience. When therefore he was entrusted with an
independent command he was in every way fitted to do himself
justice. At the head of a hundred thousand men he showed,
besides the large grasp of strategy which planned the Carolinas
march, besides the patient skill in manoeuvre which gained
ground day by day towards Atlanta, the strength of will which
sent his men to the hopeless assault of Kenesaw to teach them
that he was not a'fraid to fight, and cleared Atlanta of its civil
population in the face of a bitter popular outcry. Great as were
his responsibilities they never strained him beyond his powers.
He has every claim to be regarded as one of the greatest generals
of modern history.
When Grant became full general in 1866 Sherman was
promoted lieutenant-general, and in 1869, when Grant became
president, he succeeded to the full rank. General Sherman
retired, after being commanding general of the army for fifteen
years, in 1884. He died at New York on the i4th of January
1891. An equestrian statue, by Saint Gaudens, was unveiled at
New York in 1903, and another at Washington in the same year.
Sherman's Memoirs were published in 1875 (New York). See also
Rachel Sherman Thorndike, The Sherman Letters (New York, 1894) ;
Home Letters of Gen. Sherman (1909), edited by M. A. De Wolfe
Howe; S. M. Bowman and R. B. Irwin, Sherman and his Campaigns:
a Military Biography (New York, 1865); W. Fletcher Johnson, Life
of William Tecumseh Sherman (Philadelphia, 1891); Manning F.
Force, General Sherman (Great Commanders series) (New York, 1 899).
SHERMAN, a city and the county-seat of Grayson county,
Texas, U.S.A., 64 m. by rail N: by E. of Dallas and 9 m. S. of
Denison. Pop. (1890) 7335; (1900) 10,243, f whom 2131 were
negroes; (1910 census) 12,412. Sherman is served by the
St Louis & San Francisco (Frisco System), which has car shops
here, the St Louis & South- Western, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa
Fe, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Texas & Pacific, and the
Houston & Texas Central railways, and by electric lines connect-
ing with Denison and Dallas. In the city are Austin College
(Presbyterian, 1850; removed from Austin to Sherman in
1876) for men, Carr-Burdette College (Christian, 1894) for girls,
North- Texas Female College and Conservatory (Methodist
Episcopal, 1877) and Saint Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic)
for girls. Sherman is situated on a ridge 720 ft. above sea-level
between the Red river and the Trinity river, near a fertile part of
the Red River Valley, in which the principal industries are
the growing of cotton, Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes and
alfalfa, and stock raising. The city contains cotton gins and
compresses, and has various manufactures; in 1905 the value
of factory products was $2,841,066 (94-4% more than in 1900).
The 'municipality owns and operates the waterworks and the
electric lighting plant. Sherman was settled in 1848 and was
chartered as a city in 1895.
SHERRY, originally the name of wine coming from Xeres
(Jerez de la Frontera), near Cadiz, Spain, and now the general
name of the strong white wines, the lower grades excepted,
which are made in the south of Spain (see WINE). The early
form of the word in English was " sherris " (abbreviated from
" sherris-wine " or " sherris-sack "), which was taken to be a
plural, and " sherry " was formed as a singular by mistake.
'S HERTOGENBOSCH ('sBosch, or den Bosch, French Bois-le-
Duc), the capital of the province of North Brabant, Holland, at
the confluence of the rivers Dommel and Aa, which unite to
form the Dieze, and a junction station 29$ m. S.S.E. of Utrecht
and 27^ m. W.S.W. of Nijmwegen by rail. It is connected by
steam tramway with Helmond (21 m. S.E.) and by the Zuid-
Willem's canal with Maastricht (60 m. S. by E.). Pop. (1900)
32,345. 's Hertogenbosch is a well-built city and contains
several churches. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St John,
the Janskerk, with its interior in a state of preservation rare
in Holland, is one of the finest architecturally in the country.
Occupying the site of a much earlier building, of which there
are remains, the present church with its fine choir was built
in the middle of the isth century. The isth-century font,
the pulpit (1570), the organ (1617), and the early Gothic Lady
SHERWIN SHETLAND
853
chapel containing a much venerated 13th-century image of the
Virgin, which was annually carried in procession through the
town, are all noticeable. The choir-screen was sold to the South
Kensington Museum in London for 900, this sum being devoted
to the work of modern restoration. The town hall contains an
interesting series of decorative panels by a modern artist, A.
Derkinderen, describing the founding of the city. It also
includes a museum of local antiquities. In the Provincial
museum are interesting Roman, German and Prankish anti-
quities. The principal other buildings are the court house,
government buildings (formerly a Jesuit monastery), episcopal
palace, grammar school (once attended by Erasmus), a prison,
hospitals, arsenal and barracks, 's Hertogenbosch is the
market of the fertile Meiery district, and carries on a considerable
trade, chiefly by water, with Dordrecht and Rotterdam, Nijm-
wegen, Amhem, Maastricht and Liege. The chief industries
include distilleries, breweries, glass works, cigar factories and
the ancient linen and cutlery manufactures.
SHERWIN, JOHN KEYSE (1751-1790), English engraver and
history-painter, was born in 1751 at East Dean in Sussex. His
father was a wood-cutter employed in shaping bolts for ship-
builders, and the son followed the same occupation till his
seventeenth year, when, having shown an aptitude for art by
copying some miniatures with exceptional accuracy, he was
befriended by William Mitford, upon whose estate the elder
Sherwin worked, and was sent to study in London, first under
John Astley, and then for three years under Bartolozzi for
whom he is believed to have executed a large portion of the
plate of Clytie, after Annibal Caracci, published as the work of
his master. He was entered as a student of the Royal Academy,
and gained a silver medal, and in 1772 a gold medal for his paint-
ing of " Coriolanus taking Leave of his Family." From 1774
till 1780 he was an exhibitor of chalk drawings and of engravings
in the Royal Academy. Establishing himself in St James's
Street as a painter, designer and engraver, he speedily attained
popularity and began to mix in fashionable society. His
drawing of the " Finding of Moses," a work of but slight artistic
merit, which introduced portraits of the princess royal of England
and other leading ladies of the aristocracy, hit the public taste,
and, as reproduced by his burin, sold largely. In 1785 he suc-
ceeded Woollett as engraver to the king, and he also held the
appointment of engraver to the prince of Wales. His pro-
fessional income rose to about 12,000 a year; but he was
constantly in pecuniary difficulties, for he was shiftless, indolent,
and without method, open-handed and even prodigal in his
benefactions and prodigal, too, in less reputable directions,
for he became a reckless gambler, and habits of intemperance
grew upon him. He died in extreme penury on the 24th of
September 1790 according to Steevens, the editor of Shake-
speare, at " The Hog in the Pound," an obscure alehouse in
Swallow Street, or, as stated by his pupil J. T. Smith, in the
house of Robert Wilkinson, a printseller in Cornhill.
It is as an engraver that Sherwin is most esteemed; and it may
be noted that he was ambidexterous, working indifferently with
either hand upon his plates. His drawing is correct, his line ex-
cellent and his textures are varied and intelligent in expression.
Such of his plates as the " Holy Family " after Nicholas Poussin,
" Christ Bearing the Cross " after Murillo, the portrait of the marquis
of Buckingham after Gainsborough and that of Pitt occupy a high
place among the productions of the English school of line-engravers.
He also worked after Pine, Dance and Kauffman.
SHERWOOD, MARY MARTHA (1775-1851), English author,
was born at Stanford, Worcestershire, on the 6th of May 1775,
the daughter of the Rev. George Butt, D.D., then rector of
Stanford. In 1803 she married her cousin, Captain Henry
Sherwood, an officer in the British army, and subsequently
accompanied him to India, where she devoted herself to charitable
work and to writing. Her Indian story, Little Henry and his
Bearer, was translated into many languages. Her best-known
work, however, is The History of the Fairchild Family, written
after her return to England, of which the first part appeared in
1818, and the second and third parts in 1842 and 1847 respec-
tively. The sub-title of this tale is The Child's Manual, being a
series of stories calculated to show the importance and effects of a
religious education. The book had a very large sale among the
English middle-classes. Mrs Sherwood wrote nearly a hundred
stories of a religious type and tracts, mainly for the young.
She died on the 22nd of September 1851.
See The Life and Times of Mrs Sherwood. From the Diaries of
Captain and Mrs Sherwood, edited by F. J. H. Darton (1910).
SHERWOOD FOREST, one of the ancient English forests, in
Nottinghamshire. It extended from Nottingham northward to
Worksop, being over 20 m. long and from 5 to 9 m. broad. The
soil is sandy and poor, and although a considerable portion has
been brought under cultivation, the district preserves many
traces of, its ancient character, especially as a great part of it is
covered by the domains included under the modern name of the
Dukeries (q.v.). Sherwood was a crown forest from the time of
Henry II. and a favourite hunting-ground of several kings;
the land was divided between various lords of the manor, and its
disafforestation was carried out at various times. The forest is
traditionally noted as the retreat of Robin Hood, whose cave is
seen at Papplewick near Newstead.
SHETLAND, or ZETLAND, a group of islands constituting a
county of Scotland, and the most northerly British possession in
Europe. It consists of an archipelago of islands and islets,
over 100 in number, situated to the north-east of Orkney,
between 59 50' and 60 52' N. and o 55' and 2 14' W., and
bounded on the W. by the Atlantic and on the E. by the North
Sea. The distance from Dennis Head in North Ronaldshay of
the Orkneys to Sumburgh Head in Shetland is 50 m., but Fair
Isle, which belongs to Shetland, lies midway between the groups.
The islands occupy an area of 352,889 acres or 551-4 sq. m.
Besides Mainland, the principal member of the group, the more
important are Yell, Unst and Fetlar in the north, Whalsay and
Bressay in the east, Trondra, East and West Burra, Papa Stour,
Muckle Roe and Foula in the west, and Fair Isle in the south.
The islands present an irregular surface^ frequently rising into
hills of considerable elevation (an extreme of 1475 ft. is found in
the north-west of Mainland). Most of the inland scenery is
bleak and dreary, consisting of treeless and barren tracts of peat
and boulders. The coast scenery, especially on the west, is always
picturesque and often grand, the cliffs, sheer precipices of
brilliant colouring, reaching a height of over 1000 ft. at some
places. The shores are so extensively indented with voes, or
firths the result partly of denudation and partly caused by
glaciers that no spot in Shetland is more than 3 m. from the
sea. There are sheets of fresh water in the larger islands, the
most important being Strom Loch (2 m. long), Girlsta (i| m.
long) and Spiggie (i-| m.) in Mainland, and Loch of Cliff (2 m.)
in Unst, and numerous short streams. The principal capes are
Sumburgh Head, the most southerly point of Mainland, a bold
promontory 300 ft. high; Fitful Head, on the south-west of the
same island, a magnificent headland, 2 m. in length and nearly
i ooo ft. high, where Norna, the prophetess of Sir Walter Scott's
Pirate, was supposed to have her abode and which the Norsemen
called the White Mountain, in allusion to the colour of the clay
slate composing it; and the Noup and Herma Ness, two of the
most northerly points in Unst.
Geology. The geological characters of this group of islands re-
semble those of the northern part of Scotland. Old Red Sandstone,
red grits, sandstones and marls and conglomerate occur in a narrow
belt on the east side of Mainland from Sumburgh Head to Rova
Head, north of Lerwick; they also form the island of Bressay. In
the western portion of Mainland, in Northmavine, there is a con-
siderable tract of rocks of this age which are formed largely of in-
trusive diabase-porphyrite; similar volcanic rocks occur in Papa
Stour. These are penetrated by intrusions of granitic and felsitic
character; one of these masses in Papa Stour is a handsome pink
felsite. Practically all the remaining area in these islands is occupied
by metamorphic schists and gneisses which occur in great variety and
with which are associated numerous dikes and masses of intrusive
igneous rock. The southern part of Mainland, from Laxfirth Voe
to Fitful Head a series of dark schists and slates, is found with sub-
ordinate limestones. The metamorphic rocks of the rest of Mainland
are principally coarse gneisses, micaceous and chloride schists,
quartzites, &c. ; in these rocks at Tingwall and Wiesdate consider-
able beds of limestone occur, which may be followed across the island
in a northerly direction to Yell Sound, and to Dales Voe in Delting.
8 5 4
SHETLAND
Gabbro occurs in the peninsula of Fethland; diorite in Nprth-
mavine between Rinas Voe and Mavis Grind ; and epidote-syenite in
Dunrossness. Yell is formed of coarse gneiss and granitic rocks.
In Unst the high ground on the west coast consists of gneiss, which is
followed eastward by schists of various kinds, then by a belt of
serpentine, 2 m. to a quarter of a mile in breadth, which crosses the
island from S.W. to N.E. ; this is succeeded by a belt of gabbro, and
finally the eastern border is again occupied by micaceous and chloritic
schists. Similar rocks" occur in Fetlar. Whalsay is built of coarse
gneisses and schists. During the height of the glacial period the ice
must have crossed the islands from E. to W., for many of the rocks
belonging to the eastern side are found as boulders scattered over
the western districts. Important formations of chromite are found
at Hagdale and the Heog Hills; steatite occurs at Kleber Geo, and
many interesting minerals have been recorded from these islands.
Climate and Fauna. The average annual rainfall amounts to
46 in., and the mean temperature for the year is 45 3 F., for March
39 F. and for August 54 F. The winter, which is very stormy,
lasts from November to March ; spring begins in April, but it is the
middle of June before warmth becomes general, and by the end of
August summer is gone. The summer is almost nightless, print being
legible at midnight, but in winter the days are only six hours long,
though the nights are frequently illuminated with brilliant displays
of the aurora borealis. The well-known Shetland breed of shaggy
ponies are in steady demand for underground work in collieries.
The native cattle, also diminutive in size, with small horns and short
legs, furnish beef of remarkable tenderness and flavour; while the
cows, when well fed, yield a plentiful supply of rich milk. The native
sheep possess many of the characteristics of goats. Ewes as well as
rams generally have short horns, and the wool is long and very fine.
White, black, speckled grey and a peculiar russet brown, called
moorat, are the prevailing colours. It is customary to pluck the wool
by hand rather than shear it, as this is believed to ensure a finer
second crop. Black-faced and Cheviots are also found in some
places. Large numbers of geese and poultry are kept. The lochs and
tarns are well stocked with brown trout, and the voes and gios, or
narrow inlets of the sea with steep rocks on both sides, abound with
sea trout. Hares, for a long period extinct, were reintroduced about
1830, rabbits are very numerous, and the northern limit of the hedge-
hog is drawn at Lerwick. Whales of various species are frequently
captured in the bays and sounds ; the grampus, dolphin and porpoise
haunt the coasts, and seals occasionally bask on the more outlying
islets. Besides the commoner kinds of fishes, sharks, the torsk, opah
and sunfish occur. There is an immense variety of water-fowl, in-
cluding the phalarope, fulmar petrel, kittiwake, Manx shearwater,
black guillemot, whimbrel, puffin and white-tailed eagle.
Industries. There has been no agricultural advance corresponding
to that which has taken place in Orkney, mainly owing to the poverty
and insufficiency of the soil. Although there are some good arable
farms in favoured districts, the vast majority of holdings are small
crofts occupied mostly by peasants who combine fishing with farming.
Crofting agriculture is conducted on primitive methods, spade tillage
being almost universal, and seaweed the principal manure. The
cottages are generally grouped in small hamlets called " touns."
The size of the crofts varies greatly. There are several hundreds
under 5 acres, but the average holding runs from 5 to 20 acres. At
one time the land was held on the " runrig " system that is, different
tenants held alternate ridges but now as a rule each holding is
separate. About one-sixth of the total area is under cultivation, oats
and barley being the chief grain, and potatoes (introduced in 1730)
and turnips (1807) the chief green crops. Cabbage, said to have been
introduced by a detachment of Cromwellian soldiers, is also raised,
and among fruits black and red currants ripen in sheltered situations.
In spite of somewhat adverse climatic conditions, live stock is reared
with a fair amount of success.
The distinctive manufacture is knitted goods. The finest work is
said to come from Unst, though each parish has its own speciality.
The making of gloves was introduced about 1800, of shawls about
1840 and of veils about 1850. So delicate is the workmanship that
stockings have been knitted that could pass through a finger-ring.
Women do most of the farm work and spend their spare time in
knitting. Fishing is the occupation of the men, and the real main-
stay of the inhabitants. Formerly the fishery was in the hands of the
Dutch, whose supremacy was destroyed, however, by the imposition
of the salt tax in 1712. So complete was their control that they are
estimated to have derived from it more than 200 millions sterling
while it lasted. Then the fishery was neglected by the natives, who
were content to use the " sixerns," or six-oared fishing boats, till the
last quarter of the igth century, when boats of modern type were
introduced. Since 1 890 the herring fishery has advanced rapidly, and
the Shetland fishery district is the most important north of Aberdeen-
shire. The haaf or deep-sea catch principally consists of cod, ling,
torsk and saithe. Communication with the islands is maintained by
steamers from Leith and Aberdeen to Lerwick, the capital (twice a
week), and to Scalloway, the former capital, and other points (once
a week).
Population. In 1891 the population amounted to 28,711 and
in 1901 it was 28,166 or 51 persons to the sq. m. The females
numbered 15,753, or 127 to every 100 males, considerably the
largest proportion to any county in Scotland. In 1901 there
were 55 persons speaking Gaelic and English, none who spoke
Gaelic only, and 92 foreigners (almost all Scandinavians). Only
twenty-seven islands of the group are inhabited, but in the case
of some of them the population consists solely of a few lighthouse
attendants, shepherds and keepers.
The Inhabited Isles. The following is a list of the inhabited
isles, proceeding from south to north; but it will be understood
that they do not lie in a direct line, that several are practically
on the same latitude, that the bulk are situated off the east and
west coast of Mainland, and that two of them are distinctly
outlying members of the group. The figures within brackets
indicated the population in 1901. Fair Isle (147) lies 24 m.
S.W. of Sumburgh Head, and is 3 m. long by about 2 m. broad.
The name is derived from the Norse faar, a sheep (a derivation
better seen in the Faroe Isles). It is a hilly island, with rocky
cliffs; North Haven, on the east coast, being almost the only
place where landing can be safely effected. From the survivors
of a vessel of the Spanish Armada that went ashore in 1588 the
natives are said to have acquired the art of knitting the coloured
hosiery for which they are noted. The shipwrecked sailors
taught the people how to prepare dyes from the plants and
lichens, and many of the patterns still show signs of Moorish
origin. Mainland (19,676), the largest and principal island,
measures 54 m. from N. to S., and 21 m. from E. to W., though
the shores are indented to an extraordinary degree and the
bulk of the island is much narrower than the extreme width
would indicate. The parish of Walls, in the west, is said to
contain more voes, whence its name (an erroneous rendering
of the Norse iuaas), than all the rest of Shetland; while the
neck of land at Mavis Grind (Norse, maev, narrow; eid, isthmus;
grind, gate), forming the boundary between the parishes of
Northmavine and Belting, is only 60 yds. wide and about 20 ft.
above the sea, almost converting the north-western area of
Mainland into an island. In the promontory of Eshaness may
be seen some wonderful examples of sea sculpture. The Grind
of the Navir (" Gate of the Giants ") is a staircase carved by
the waves out of the porphyry cliffs. In the rock of Dore Holm
is a natural archway, 70 ft. wide, through which the tide con-
stantly surges, and to the south-east of it are the Drougs, stacks
of quaint shapes, suggesting a ship in full sail, a ruin, a cowled
monk and so forth. Besides Lerwick (q.v.) the county town,
one of the most interesting places in the island is Scalloway
(857), the ancient capital. According to Dr Jakob Jakob-
sen, the name means the voe (waa) of the skollas, or booths,
occupied by the men who came to attend the meeting of the
ting, or open-air law court, which assembled in former days on
an island in the Loch of Tingwall (hence its name), about 3 m.
farther north. Scalloway stands at the head of a bay and has
piers, quays, warehouses and cooperages in connexion with the
fishing industry. The ruins of the castle built in 1600 by
Patrick Stewart, earl of Orkney, stand at the east end of the
bay and are in good preservation. An iron ring on one of the
chimneys is said to be that on which he hung the victims of his
oppression. On the opposite side of the bay is Gallow Hill, the
old place of execution of witches and criminals. Off the south-
eastern coast of Mainland, separated by a sound i m. broad
and usually visited from Sandwick, lies the uninhabited island
of Mousa (correctly spelled Moosa, the moory isle, from the
Norse m6-r, moor), famous for the most perfect specimen of a
Pictish brock, or tower of defence, in the British Isles. The
broch, which stands on a rocky promontory at the south-west
of the isle, now measures about 45 ft. in height, but as some of
the top courses of masonry have fallen down it is supposed to
have been 50 ft. high originally. It was entire in 1154, and
was partially restored in 1861. It has a diameter, at the foot of
50 ft., and at the top of 38 ft. The interior court, open to the
sky, is 30 ft. in diameter, the enclosing wall having a thickness,
at the base, of 15 J ft. There are three separate beehive-shaped
rooms on the ground floor, which were entered from the court,
from which also there was an entrance to the stair leading to the
galleries, which were lighted by windows facing the court. Hevera
SHEVAROY HILLS
55
(25) lies off the west coast of Mainland, south of the two Burras.
East Burra (203), about 4 m. long by i m. broad, is separated
from Mainland by Clift Sound, a narrow arm of the sea, 8 m.
long. West Burra (612), 6 m. long by i m. broad, with a very
irregular coast-line, lies alongside of East Burra and contains
a church. It is said to be the Burgh Westra of Sir Walter
Scott's Pirate. Burra is a contraction of Borgar-oy, meaning
"Broch island." Trondra (151), "Trend's island," Trend
being an old Norse personal name, in the mouth of Scalloway
Bay. Oxna (36) lies about 4 m. S.W. of Scalloway, and Papa
(priest's isle, 16), to the E. of Oxna. Bressay (679) lies i m. E.
of Lerwick, from which it is separated by the Sound of Bressay,
in which Haakon V., king of Norway, anchored his galleys on
the expedition that ended so disastrously for him at Largs
(1263). The island is 6 m. long by 3 m. broad and has several
notable natural features. Ward Hill (742 ft.) is the sailors'
landmark for Lerwick harbour. Bard Head (264 ft.), the most
southerly point, is a haunt of eagles, at the foot of which is an
archway called the Giant's Leg. On the west side of the Bard
is the Orkney Man's Cave a great cavern with fine stalactites
and a remarkable echo. Noss (7), to the E. of Bressay, from
which it is separated by a channel 220 yds. wide. On the east
coast the rocks form a headland (592 ft.) called the Noup of Noss
(" the peak of the nose "), once the source from which falcons
were obtained for the royal mews. Off the south-east shore
lies the Holm (160 ft.), with which communication used to be
maintained by means of the Cradle of Noss swing or ropes. Both
Noss and Bressay are utilized in connexion with the rearing of
Shetland ponies. Holm of Papal, " isle of the priest " (2),
belonging to Bressay parish, and Linga, " heather isle " (8), to
the parish of Tingwall, lie S.E. of Hildasay. Foula, pronounced
Foola (Norse, fugl-oy, "bird island") (230), lies 27 m. W. of
Scalloway, and 16 m. W. of the nearest point of Mainland. It
measures 35 m. long by 2^ m. broad. The cliffs on the west
coast attain in the Sneug (Norse, Snjoog, " hill top ") a height
of 1272 ft. They are the home of myriads of sea-birds and one
of the nesting-places of the bonxie, or great skua (Lestris cata-
ractes), which used to be fostered by the islanders to keep down
the eagles, and the eggs of which are still strictly preserved.
The natives are daring cragsmen. The only landing-place is the
village of Ham, on the east coast. Vaila (21), in the mouth
of the Bay of Walls, affords good pasturage. Linga (4) lies
immediately to the north of Vaila. Papa Stour (272), properly
spelt Stoor, "the big [Norse star] island of the priests," lies in
the south-west of the great bay of St Magnus. It measures
2 m. in length by about 3 m. in breadth and has a coast-line of
20 m. Christie's Hole and Francie's Hole, two of the caves for
which it is noted, are reputed to be among the finest in the
United Kingdom. The sword dance described in the Pirate may
still be seen occasionally. Four miles N.W. are the islets known
as the Ve Skerries, where seals are sometimes found. Whalsay,
" whale island " (975), measuring 5 m. from N.E. to S.W. by
2\ m. wide, is an important fishing station. Muckle Roe,
"great red island " (202), roughly circular in shape and about
3 m. in diameter, lies in the E. of St Magnus Bay. Gruay, " green
isle" (10), Housay (68), Bruray (44), Bound (2) are members
of the group of Out Skerries, about 4 m. N.E. of Whalsay. There
is a lighthouse on Bound, and the rest are fishing stations. Yell
(2483), separated from the north-east coast of Mainland by Yell
Sound, is the second largest island of the group, having a length
of 17 m., and an extreme width of 65 m., though towards the
middle the voes of Mid Yell and Whale Firth almost divide it
into two. It contains several brocks and ruined chapels and is
an important fishing station. Fetlar (347) lies off the east coast
of Yell, from which it is divided by Colgrave Sound and the isle
of Hascosay and is 5 m. long by 65 m. broad. It ranks with the
most picturesque and most fertile members of the group and
< contains a breed of ponies, a cross between the native pony
and the horse. Uyea, " the isle," from the Old Norse oy (3),
to the south of Unst, from which it is divided by the narrow
sounds of Uyea and Skuda, yields a beautiful green serpentine.
Unst (1940), to the N.E. of Yell and separated from it by Blue-
mull Sound, is 12 m. long and 6 m. wide. It has been called the
"garden of Shetland," and offers inducements to sportsmen in
its trout and game. The male inhabitants are mostly employed
in the fisheries and the women are the most expert knitters of
hosiery in the islands. Unst contains several places of historic
interest. Near the south-eastern promontory stands Muness
Castle, now in ruins, built in 1598 according to an inscription
on a tablet above the door by Laurence Bruce, natural brother
to Lord Robert Stewart, ist earl of Orkney. Buness, near
Balta Sound, was the house of Dr Laurence Edmonston (1795-
1879), the naturalist. Near Balliasta are the remains of three
stone circles. It is supposed the Ting, or old Assembly, met at
this spot before it removed to Tingwall. Farther north, at the
head of a small bay, lies Haroldswick, where Harold Haarfager
is believed to have landed in 872, when he annexed the Orkney
and Shetland Islands to Norway. Burra Firth, in the north of
Unst, is flanked on both sides by magnificent cliffs, including
the Noup of Unst, the hill of Saxavord (934 ft.), the Gord and
Herma Ness. Muckle Flugga (3), about i m. N. of Unst, is the
most northerly point of Shetland, and the site of a lighthouse.
Administration. Shetland unites with Orkney to return a
member to parliament. The island is divided into Mainland
district (comprising the parishes of Northmavine, Celling,
Nesting, Sandsting, Walls, Tingwall, Bressay, Lerwick and
Dunrossness) and North Isles district (the parishes of Unst,
Fetlar and Yell). It forms a sheriff dom with Orkney and
Caithness, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Lerwick,
the county town. There are parish poorhouses in Dunrossness
and Unst, besides the Shetland combination poorhouse at
Lerwick. The county is under school board jurisdiction and
Lerwick has a secondary school, and a few of the other schools
earn grants for higher education. The " residue " grant is
expended on navigation and swimming classes.
History and Antiquities. The word Shetland is supposed
to be simply a modernized rendering of the Old Norse Hjallland,
of which the meaning is variously given as " high land,"
"Hjalti's land" after Hjalti, a man whose name occurs in
ancient Norse literature, but of whom little else is known and
" hilt land," in allusion to an imagined, though not too obvious,
resemblance in the configuration of the archipelago to the hilt
of a sword. Of the original Pictish inhabitants remains exist
in the form of stone circles (three in Unst and two in Fetlar)
and brocks (of which 75 examples survive). The islanders were
converted to Christianity in the 6th and 7th centuries by Irish
missionaries, in commemoration of whose zeal several isles
bear the name of .Papa or " priest." Four stones with Ogam
inscriptions have been found at different places. About the
end of the 8th century both the Shetlands and Orkneys suffered
from the depredations of Norse vikings, or pirates, until Harold
Haarfager annexed the islands to Norway in 875. Hence-
forward the history of Shetland is scarcely separable from that
of Orkney (q.v.). The people, more remote and less accessible
to external influences, retained their Scandinavian character-
istics longer than the Orcadians. The Norse language and
customs survived in Foula till the end of the i8th century,
and words and phrases of Norse origin still colour their speech.
George Low (1747-1795), the naturalist and historian of Orkney,
who made a tour through Shetland in 1774, described a -Runic
monument which he saw in the churchyard of Crosskirk, in
Northmavine parish (Mainland), and several fragments of Norse
swords, shield bosses and brooches have been dug up from time
to time.
See George Low, Tour through the Islands of Orkney and Shetland
in 1774 (published in 1879); A. Edmondston, Zetland Islands
(1809); Samuel Hibbert-Ware, Description of the Shetland Isles
(1822); C. Rampini, Shetland and the Islanders (1884); C. Sinclair,
Shetland and the Shetlanders (1840); R. S. Cowie, Shetland (1896);
Dr Jakob Jakobsen, The Dialect and Place Names of Shetland (1897).
SHEVAROY HILLS, a detached range in southern India,
in the Salem district of Madras, covering an area of 150 sq.
m., with plateaus from 4000 to 5000 ft. above sea-fcvel.
They include the sanatorium of Yercaud, and several coffee
plantations.
8 5 6
SHIBARGHAN SHIFNAL
SHIBARGHAN, a town and khanate of Afghan Turkestan.
The town lies some 60 m. W. of Balkh, and contains 12,000
inhabitants, Uzbegs and Parsiwans. It has a citadel, but is
not otherwise fortified, and is surrounded by good gardens and
excellent cultivation. The khanate is one of the " four domains,"
which were long in dispute between Bokhara and Kabul, but
were allotted to the Afghans by the Anglo-Russian boundary
agreement of 1873.
SHIBBOLETH, a Hebrew word, meaning an ear of corn or a
stream or river, from shdbal, to grow, increase, flow, used by
Jephthah, probably in the second sense with reference to the
river Jordan, as a test-word to distinguish the Ephraimites,
who were unable to pronounce the sh, from the men of Gilead
(see Judges xii. 6) at the passage of the Jordan. The word
ciceri was similarly used at the time of the massacre of the French
known as the Sicilian Vespers, for they betrayed their nationality
by their inability to pronounce it. The term has also come
generally to mean a watchword, catch-phrase or cry, to which
the members of a party adhere after any significance or meaning
which it may have imported has disappeared.
See ALPHABET, i. 725, for a discussion of the sibilant difficulty
involved in the test of Judges xii. 6.
SHIEL, LOCH, a lake near the Atlantic seaboard of Scotland,
lying between the district of Moidart in Inverness-shire and the
districts of Ardgour and Sunart in Argyllshire. The boundary
line between the two counties is drawn lengthwise down the
centre of the lake and is continued down the river Shiel to the
sea. The loch is 17^ m. long and varies in width from 200 yds.
to i m., and is only 115 ft. above the sea. The maximum depth
is 420 ft. with a mean depth of 815 ft. The lake has an area of
4840 acres or 73 sq. m., and drains directly a basin of 725 sq. m.,
and with an outflow from Loch Dilate, or Doilake, of 853 sq. m.
Loch Dilate lies 13 m. E. of Loch Shiel, into which it flows by
the Polloch. It is i a m. long at its maximum, with a maximum
depth of 55 ft., and covers an area of 142 acres. For fully
three-fourths of its length Loch Shiel has a south-westerly
direction, but at Eilean Fhianain (Finnan's Island) it strikes
towards the west. It receives the Finnan and other small
streams and discharges by the Shiel to the salt-water Loch
Moidart. On the north-west and south-east it is skirted by
lofty hills (Sgor Choileam (3164), Sgor nau Coireachan (3133)
and others of over 2000 ft.) ,but the land at the western extremity
in Ardnamurchan is low-lying.
SHIELD, WILLIAM (1748-1829), English musical composer,
was born at Swalwell, near Newcastle, in 1748. His father began
to teach him singing before he had completed his sixth year,
but died three years later, leaving him in charge of guardians,
who made no provision whatever for continuing his musical
education, for which he was thenceforward dependent entirely
upon his own aptitude for learning, aided by a few lessons in
thoroughbass which he received from Charles Avison. Notwith-
standing the difficulties inseparable from this imperfect training,
he obtained admission in 1772 to the orchestra at the Italian
Opera in London, at first as a second violin, and afterwards as
principal viola, and this engagement he retained for eighteen
years. In the meantime he turned his serious attention to
composition, and in 1778 produced his first English comic opera,
The Flitch oj Bacon, at the Little Theatre in the Haymarket,
with so great success that he was immediately engaged as
composer to Covent Garden Theatre, for which he continued to
produce English operas and other dramatic pieces in quick
succession until i7Q7,when he resigned his office, and devoted
himself to compositions of a different class, producing a great
number of very beautiful glees, some instrumental chamber
music, and other miscellaneous compositions. In 1817 he was
made master of the royal music. He died in London on the
25th of January 1829, and was buried in the south cloister at
Westminster Abbey.
Shield's most successful dramatic compositions were Rosina,
The Mysteries of the Castle, The Lock and Key and The Castle of
Andalusia. As a composer of songs he was in no degree inferior
to his great contemporary Charles Dibdin. Indeed The Arethusa,
The Heaving of the Lead and The Post Captain are as little likely
to be forgotten as Dibdin's Tom Bowling or Saturday Night at Sea.
His vein of melody was inexhaustible, thoroughly English in character
and always conceived in the purest and most delicate taste, and
hence it is that many of his airs are sti'l sung at concerts, though
the operas for which they were written have long been banished from
the stage. His Introduction to Harmony (1794 and 1800) contains a
great deal of valuable information; and he also published a useful
treatise, The Rudiments of Thoroughbass.
SHIELD (0. Eng. scild, cf. Du. and Ger. Schild, Dan. Skjold;
the origin is doubtful, but may be referred to the root seen in
" shell " or " scale "; another suggestion connects it with Icel.
skjalla, to clash, rattle; it is not connected with the Indo-Ger.
root skeu, seen in Gr. OWTOS, KVTOS Lat. culis, skin, scutum,
shield, O. Eng. hyd, hide, and in " sky "), a piece of defensive
armour borne upon the left arm or carried in the left hand as a
protection against missiles. Varying in shape and form, it was
the principal piece of defensive armour from the Bronze and
Iron Age to the introduction of fire-arms, and is still borne by
savage warriors throughout the world (see ARMS AND ARMOUR,
and for the heraldic shield HERALDRY).
In modern times the principle of the shield has been applied
to guns of all calibres from n and 10 in. calibre downwards.
Whereas the turret, barbette, cupola and other heavy-armoured
structures are intended to be proof against the heaviest pro-
jectiles, the shield is usually only designed to resist rifle and
shrapnel bullets or very light shells. For the application of
shields to field artillery, &c., see the articles ARTILLERY and
ORDNANCE.
SHIELDS, JAMES (1810-1879), American soldier, was born in
Dungannon, county Tyrone, Ireland, in 1810. He emigrated
to the United States in 1826, and in 1832 began to practice law
in Kaskaskia, Illinois. He was prominent in Democratic
politics, was a member of the Illinois House of Representatives
in 1836-1838, was state auditor in 1841-1843, was judge of the
supreme court of the state in 1843-1845, and was commissioner
of the U.S. General Land Office in 1845-1847. In the Mexican
War he served as a brigadier-general of volunteers under General
Zachary Taylor on the Rio Grande, under General John E. Wool
in Chihuahua, and under General Winfield Scott in the southern
campaign; he was breveted major-general for gallantry at
Cerro Gordo, where he was severely wounded, and he was again
wounded at Chapul tepee. In 1840-1855 he was a United States
senator from Illinois; and in 1858-1859 was a senator from
Minnesota. In 1860 he removed to California. In August 1861,
soon after the outbreak of the Civil War, he was commissioned
brigadier-general of volunteers; in March 1862 he succeeded to
the command of General Frederick W. Lander's division; he
was in command on the Federal side at Winchester (23 March
1862) and at Port Republic (9 June); and in March 1863 he
resigned his commission. He then settled in Carrollton, Mis-
souri, and in 1875 was a member of the State House of Repre-
sentatives; in 1879 he was United States senator from Missouri
for six weeks to fill an unexpired term. He died at Ottumwa,
Iowa, on the ist of June 1879.
SHIFNAL, or SHIFFNAL, a market town in the Newport (N.)
parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 154 m. N.W.
from London on the Wolverhampton-Shrewsbury line of the
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 3321. The church of St
Andrew is cruciform and full of fine details of late Norman, Early
English and Decorated work. Trade is mainly agricultural, and
cattle-fairs are held. There are large iron-works. The name of
the town was Idsall when in 1591 a fund was raised by royal
favour in Shropshire and neighbouring counties in order to
rebuild it after a serious fire.
Within 6 m. E. of Shifnal are Tong, Boscobel and the nunnery
of White Ladies. Tong Castle shares with the castle of the same
name in Kent the legend of the dealings of the Saxon Hengest
with the British chieftain Vortigern. The medieval building
was demolished late in the i8th century, and the present castle .
erected in mingled Gothic and Moorish styles. Tong church, of
fine early Perpendicular work, contains a remarkable series of
ornate tombs, mainly of the isth and i6th centuries, to members
of the Vernon and Stanley families, former owners of the castle.
SHIGATSE SHITTES
857
The Golden Chapel on the south side is rich late Perpendicular,
with a roof of fan-tracery, showing signs of the original decora-
tion in colours. The mansion of Boscobel is famous as the house
in which Charles II. was concealed in 1651 after an adventurous
journey from Worcester, where his arms had failed before those
of Cromwell. The secret chamber which hid him is preserved,
but he also found refuge in a tree of the forest which then sur-
rounded Boscobel. A tree close to the house still bears the name
of Charles's oak, but tradition goes no further than to assert that
it grew from an acorn of the original tree. White Ladies was a
Cistercian nunnery; and the slight remains are Norman. The
pleasant wooded district was formerly part of Brewood Forest,
which extended into Staffordshire.
SHIGATSE, one of the largest towns in Tibet, next in import-
ance to Lhasa, the capital. The town, which is at the confluence
of the Nyang chu with the Tsangpo, contains about 9000 in-
habitants (exclusive of priests), and is about f m. long by a i m.
broad. About i m. to the north-east is situated a monastery
called Konkaling, whilst to the south-west is the far-famed
Tashilhunpo monastery, the residence of one of the great high
priests of Tibet, co-equal with the Dalai-Lama of Lhasa. Be-
tween the Tashilhunpo monastery and the city is the Thorn or
open market, where all the business of the place is daily trans-
acted. A wall about i m. in circumference surrounds the
Tashilhunpo monastery, within which are numerous temples
and houses, four of the larger temples being decorated with
gilded spires. A great wealth of jewels and precious metal is
said to enrich the numerous idols of Tashilhunpo. The monastery
maintains 3300 priests. The city is protected by a fort which
stands on a low hill to the north-west, and a garrison of 1000
Tibetan soldiers is quartered here. The municipal government
is in the hands of two depen assisted by resident Jongpons. The
soil around Shigatse is rich and productive, the elevation being
between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. Shigatse lay to the west of the
British route of advance on Lhasa in 1904, but it was visited by
Captain Rawling on his way to open the market at Gartok.
SHIGNAN and ROSHAN, two small hill states E. of the
Badakshan province of Afghanistan. They extend eastwards
from the Panja, where it forms the eastern boundary of Badak-
shan to the Pamirs. The native rulers of Roshan and Shignan
claim descent from Alexander the Great, of whom legends are
still current in the country about the upper Oxus. The two
states were conquered by Abdur Rahman in 1882, but were
assigned to Russia by the Durand agreement of 1893. Since
that agreement Russia has retired from all districts previously
occupied by her on the left bank of the Panja, or upper
Oxus.
SHI'ITES (from Arab, shia, a party, and then a sect), the name
of one of the two great religious divisions of Islam. The Shiites
hold that the imamate and caliphate belong to the house of
Mahomet (Muhammad) alone, and so to 'AH, Mahomet's son-in-
law, and his successors. After the arbitration on the claims of
"All and Moawlya to the caliphate (A.D. 658), two great parties
emerged from the strife of feeling caused in the East by the
deposition of 'All. 1 Those who were known as the Kharijites,
being mainly country Arabs, were democratic, and claimed
that the office of caliph was elective, and that the caliph might
be chosen from any Arab Moslem family. In strong opposition
to these stood the party afterwards called the Shiites, who
regarded 'All and his descendants as the only rightful caliphs.
For them the caliphate was a God-given office, and not one to
be given by human appointment. Belief in this was an ordinance
of God, an article of the faith. He who did not accept it as such
was an unbeliever. Moreover, the party consisted largely of
Persians who on their conversion to Islam brought with them
many of the doctrines of their old faith, religious and political.
Among these was the belief in the divinity of the sovereign and
the duty of worshipping him. Gnostic elements, which may
have come from the old religion of Babylonia, were also intro-
duced. The idea of an absolute personal and hereditary monarchy
was thus developed among the subjects of 'AH. But in Islam
1 For these and following events see CALIPHATE.
there is no separation between politics and theology. The
theological position of the Shiites was that the superhuman
power of Mahomet descended to the members of his house ('All
and his children), so that they could interpret the will of God
and tell future events. The imam was infallible and a mahdi or
guide for life. What the imam gained the Koran lost, and many
of the Shiites held the Mu'tazilite or rationalistic opinion of the
created nature of the sacred book.
The growth of the Shiites was fostered by the great discontent
of the eastern half of the caliphate with Omayyad rule (see
CALIPHATE, and PERSIA: History). Before long an active
propaganda was started, and leaders (often adventurers) arose
who formed parties and founded sects of their own in the ranks
of the Shiites. One of the earliest of these was 'Abdallah ibn
Saba (founder of the Saba'Iyya), who in the caliphate of Othman
had preached the return of Mahomet (founded on Koran xxviii.
84), had been concerned in the assassination of Othman, and
had proclaimed the divinity of 'All, but had been disowned and
punished by him. On 'All's death he declared the thunder to
be the voice, and the lightning the scourge of the translated
caliph, and announced that his divine power had passed to his
successors, the imams.
Another sect, the Kaisaniyya, followed Kaisan, a freedman of
"AH, in believing in the superhuman knowledge of Mahommed
ibn Hanaflyya, a son of 'All but not by Fatima. Religion for
these was obedience not to law but to a person. When the
doctrine of a hidden imam arose, they differed from the Saba'Iyya
in expecting his return from his place of concealment on earth,
not from heaven. Among them an adventurer Mokhtar (Mukh-
tar) had a large following for a time. He taught the mutability
both of the knowledge and of the will of God a development of
Mahomet's own teaching. He claimed to fight to avenge the
death of Hosain (see HASAN AND HOSAIN) and to serve Mahommed
ibn Hanaflyya, who, however, disowned him. He was killed in
687. Some of the Shiite leaders, as Abu Moslim, when renounced
by the members of the house of 'All, transferred their allegiance
to the house of 'Abbas (see RAWENDIS). The success of the
Abbasids in supplanting the Omayyads was largely due to the
help of the Shiites, and the early Abbasid caliphs, to the time of
Motawakkil, were half-Shiites of a lax order. ShahrastanI (q.v.)
in his Book on the Sects (Kitdb Milal taan-Nihal, ed. Cureton,
pp. 109 ff.; Haarbriicker's translation, vol. i. pp. 164 ff.) divides
the Shiites into five main divisions: the Kaisaniyya, the Zaidfyva,
the Imamlyya, the Ghaliyya and the Isma'illyya. Of these the
Ghallyya are represented by the followers of Ibn Saba (see
above), and the Kaisaniyya have been already described.
These parties as such have now ceased to exist, the others still
remain. The Zaidites or Zaidlyya are the followers of Zaid, a
grandson of Hosain, and are the most moderate of the Shiites,
for though holding that the imamate belongs only to the descend-
ants of "All by Fatima, and that any of these might be imam
(even though two or three should be in existence at the same
time), they allow that circumstances might justify the appoint-
ment of another caliph for the time. Thus they acknowledge the
imamate of Abu Bekr and Omar, though 'All was more entitled
to the office. One branch of the Zaidites held Tabaristan from
864 until overturned by the Samanids in 928; another branch,
arising about 893 in Yemen, has remained there until the present
day. The Isma'ilites or Isma'illyya are the followers of Isma'Il,
the elder son of Ja'far us-Sadlq, the sixth imam (see table below).
He was rejected as successor by his father for drinking wine,
and his party might soon have disappeared if he had not served
as imam for the adventurous sceptic 'Abdallah ibn Maimun (for
his propaganda see CARMATHIANS). Owing to the success of this
man the Isma'ilites have given rise to the Carmathians (q.v.),
the Fatimites (q.v.), the Assassins (q.v.) and the Druses (q.v.).
At the present time the Isma'illyya still_ exist in small numbers,
chiefly about Surat and Bombay. The Imamlyya believe that each
imam has been definitely named by his predecessor. This party
broke up into numerous divisions, and imams manifest or hidden
secured each his own following. The most important of these parties
is that of the Twelve (the Ithna'ashariyya), who accept and follow
the twelve descendants of 'AH numbered in the accompanying table.
858
SHIKAR SHIKARPUR
I. 'AH (d. 661)
2. Hasan (d. 669) 3. Hosain (d. 680) Mahommed ibn ul-Hanafiyya
Zaid. 4. 'Ali called Zain ul-Abidin (d. c. 711)
5. Mabommed ul-Baqir (d. 736)
(Abu Ja'far ul-Baqir).
6. Ja'far us-$adiq (d. 765)
Isma'il 7. Musa Kazim (d. c. 799).
8. 'AH ul-Reza (Riza) (d. 818).
9. Mahommed ul-Jawad (d. 834).
10. 'AH ul-'Askari (d. 868).
II. Hasan ul-'Askari (d. 874).
12. Mahommed ul-Mahdi.
The twelfth imam Mahommed is said to have vanished and to be
in hiding, but will be restored by God to his people, when it pleases
Him. The creed of this party was introduced into Persia in 1502,
when the Safawids conquered the country, and still remains its
official creed. The shah is thus only the temporary substitute for
the hidden imam; and authoritative decisions in religious matters
are pronounced by Mujtahids, i.e. theologians who can form their
own opinions and require obedience to their decisions.
Other points in which Shiites differ from Sunnites depend on
their legitimistic opinions, or are accommodations of the rites of
Islam to the Persian nationality, or else are petty
matters affecting ceremonial. The rejection of all the
Sunnite books of tradition goes with the repudiation
of the caliphs under whose protection these were handed down.
The Shiites, however, have their own collections of traditions.
An allegorical and mystical interpretation reconciles the words
of the Koran with the inordinate respect paid to 'All; the Sunnite
doctrine of the uncreated Koran is denied. To the Mahom-
medan confession " There is no god but God and Mahomet is
His ambassador " they add " and 'All is the viceregent of God "
(wall, properly " confidant ") There are some modifications in
detail as to the four main religious duties of Islam the pre-
scriptions of ritual purity, in particular, being made the main
duty of the faithful. The prayers are almost exactly the same,
but to take part in public worship is not obligatory, as there is
at present no legitimate imam whose authority can direct the
prayer of the congregation. Pilgrimage to Mecca may be per-
formed by a hired substitute, or its place can be taken by a visit
to the tombs of Shiite saints, e.g. that of 'All at Nejef, of Hosain
at Kerbela, of Reza at Meshed, or of the " unstained Fatima "
at Kum (Fatima-i-ma'asum, daughter of Musa, the 7th imam).
The Shiites are much the most zealous of Moslems in the worship
of saints (real or supposed descendants of 'All) and in pilgrimages
to their graves, and they have a characteristic eagerness to be
buried in those holy places. The Persians have an hereditary
love for pomps and festivities, and so the Shiites have devised
many religious feasts. Of these the great sacrificial feast ('id-i-
Qurbdn; Turkish Qurbdn Bairdm) is also Sunnite; the first
ten days of the month Moharram are dedicated to the mourning
for the death of IJosain at Kerbela (q.v.), which is celebrated by
passion-plays (ta'ziya), while the universal joy of the Nauroz,
or the New Year of the Old Persian calendar, receives a Mahom-
medan sanction by the tradition that on this day the prophet
conferred the caliphate on 'AH.
While they naturally reject the four Sunnite schools of juris-
prudence, the Shiites also derive all law from the Koran, and
their trained clergy (mbllahs) are the only class that can give
legitimate legal responses. The training of the mollah resembles
that of the Sunnite 'dlim. The course at the madrasa (medresse)
embraces grammar, with some rhetoric and prosody, logic,
dogmatic Koran exegesis, tradition and jurisprudence, and
finally some arithmetic and algebra. The best madrasa is at
Kerbela. The scholar discharged from his studies becomes
first a simple mollah, i.e. local judge and notary. A small place
has one such judge, larger towns a college of judges under a
head called the sheikh ul-Isldm. The place of the Sunnite
muftis is filled by certain of the imdm-jum'a, i.e. presidents of
the chief mosques in the leading towns, who in respect of this
function bear the title of imam mtijtahid. This is a dignity con-
ferred by the tacit consent of people and clergy, and is held at
one time only by a very few distinguished men. In Persia, the
cadi (kd%i) is an inferior judge who acts for the sheikh u '1-Islam
in special cases, and a mufti is a solicitor acting under the judge
to prepare' cases for court.
Under the Safawids, when the clergy had great influence, they
had at their head the sadru 's-sodur, who administered all pious
foundations and was the highest judicial authority. But so
great a power was found dangerous; 'Abbas the Great (1586-
1628) abstained from filling up a vacancy which occurred in it,
and, though Shah Safi (1628-1641) restored the office, he placed
it in commission. Nadir Shah abolished it in his attempt to
get rid of the Shiite hierarchy (1736), and since then it has not
been restored. Yet the imam-jum'a of Isfahan, the old Safawi
capital, is tacitly regarded as representative of the invisible
imam of the house of 'AH, who is the true head of the church.
Various vain attempts were made in the ipth century to sub-
ordinate the authority of the clergy to the government. Outside
the clergy the greatest influence in religious matters is that
exercised by the dervishes (q.v.). As it was long necessary to
profess orthodoxy for fear of the Arabs, it came to be an estab-
lished Shiite doctrine that it is lawful to deny one's faith in case
of danger. This " caution " (taqiya) or " concealment " (ketman)
has become a second nature with the Persians. Another mis-
chievous thing is the permission of temporary marriages
marriages for a few hours on a money payment. This legitimized
harlotry (mot'a) is forbidden by the Sunna, but the Shiites allow
it, and the mollahs adjust the contract and share the women's
profits. There is still mental life and vigour among the Shiites,
as appears among the sects, which, allowance being made for
" taqiya," play no inconsiderable part. The Akh'baris (tradi-
tionalists), who adopt a semi philosophical way of explaining
away the plainest doctrines (such as the resurrection of the flesh)
on the authority of false traditions of "All, are not so much a
sect as a school of theology within the same pale as the orthodox
Shia or Mujtahids. A real dissenting sect, however, is the
Sheikhls, of whose doctrines we have but imperfect and discrepant
accounts. Representatives of the old extreme Shiites, who held
'AH for a divine incarnation, are found all over Persia in the
'Ali-Ilahi or 'AH-Allahl sect (" 'Ail deifiers "). Finally, in the
i gth century arose the remarkable attempt at reform known as
Babiism (q.v.).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The work of ShahrastanI (q.v.) on the Sects of
Islam; R. Dozy, Essai sur I'histoire de I'islamisme (Leiden and
Paris, 1879); G. van Vloten, Recherches sur la domination arabe,
le Chiitisme, &c. (Amsterdam, 1894) ; various works of A. von
Kremer and I. Goldziher; J. E. Polak, Persien. Das Land und
seine Bewohner (2 vols., Leipzig, 1865); E. G. Browne, A Year
among the Persians (London, 1893). (G. W. T.)
SHIKAR, the Hindostani term for sport, in the sense of shoot-
ing and hunting. The word is in universal use by Anglo-Indians
for the pursuit of large game, such as tiger-shooting and pig-
sticking. The shikari is either the native expert, who marks the
game for the sportsman, or else the European sportsman himself.
SHIKARPUR, a town of British India, in the Sukkur district
of Sind, Bombay. It is situated about 18 m. from the right bank
of the Indus, with a station on the North-Wcstern railway, 23 m.
N.W. of Sukkur. Pop. (1901) 49,491. Shikarpur has always
been an important place as commanding the trade route through
the Bolan Pass, and its merchants have dealings with many
towns in Central Asia. It has a large market and manufactures
of carpets, cotton cloth and pottery. Shikarpur was formerly the
headquarters of a district of the same name. In 1901 two sub-
divisions of this district were detached to form the new district
of Larkana, and the two other subdivisions were then constituted
the district of Sukkur.
SHILDON SHILOH, BATTLE OF
859
SHILDON, a market town in the Bishop Auckland parlia-
mentary division of Durham, England, 9 m. N.W. from Darling-
ton by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban
district of Shildon and East Thickley (1901) 11,759. At New
Shildon or East Thickley are extensive railway engine and wagon
works belonging to the railway company. A large coal traffic is
handled here, as there are collieries and foundries in the vicinity.
SHILLETO, RICHARD (1800-1876), English classical scholar,
was born at Ulleskelf in Yorkshire on the 2$th of November 1809.
He was educated at Repton and Shrewsbury schools, and Trinity
College, Cambridge, and in 1867 was elected a fellow of Peter-
house. His whole life was spent in Cambridge, where he died on
the 24th of September 1876. Shilleto was one of the greatest
Greek scholars that England has produced; in addition, he had
an intimate acquaintance with the Latin and English languages
and literature. He published little, being obliged to devote the
best years of his life to private tuition. He was the most famous
classical " coach " of his day, and almost all the best men passed
through his hands. His edition of the De falsa legatione of
Demosthenes will always remain a standard work, but his first two
books of Thucydides (an instalment of a long-contemplated
edition) hardly came up to expectation. His pamphlet Thucydides
or Grote ? excited a considerable amount of feeling. While it un-
doubtedly damaged Grote's reputation as a scholar, it was felt
that it showed a want of appreciation of the special greatness of
the historian. Shilleto's powers as a translator from English
into Greek (especially prose) and Latin were unrivalled; a
selection of his versions was published in 1901.
See B. H. Kennedy in Cambridge Journal of Philology (1877).
SHILLING, an English silver coin of the value of twelve pence.
The origin of the word is somewhat obscure. There was an Anglo-
Saxon coin termed settling, or scylling, worth about fivepence,
which is said to be derived from a Teutonic root, skil, to divide,
-\-ling on the analogy of farthing (q.v.). The silver shilling was
first struck in 1504, in the reign of Henry VII. In Charles II. 's
reign shillings were first issued with milled edges. In George IV.'s
reign were issued the so-called " lion shillings," bearing the
royal crest, a-crowned lion on a crown, a design reverted to in the
coinage of Edward VII. A shilling is token money merely, it is
nominally in value the one-twentieth of a pound, but one troy
pound of silver is coined into sixty-six shillings, the standard
weight of each shilling being 87-27 grains.
SHILLONG, a town of British India, in the Khasi Hills district
of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It is situated in 25 34' N. and
91 53' E., on a plateau 4978 ft. above the sea, 63 m. by cart-
road S. of Gauhati, on the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1901) 8384.
Shillong practically dates from 1864, when the district head-
quarters were transferred from Cherrapunji. It was chosen as the
seat of government in 1874, when the province of Assam was
constituted. Every one of the public buildings and houses that
quickly grew up was levelled to the ground by the great earth-
quake of the 1 2th of June 1897, but they have since been rebuilt.
Cantonments are provided for a battalion of Gurkhas with two
guns, and Shillong is the headquarters of the Assam brigade of
the 8th division of the Northern army. There are a government
high school and a training school for masters. The Welsh
Presbyterian mission i , active in promoting education. Since
1905, when Dacca became the capital of the new province of
Eastern Bengal and Assam, Shillong has declined in importance;
but it is still the summer residence of the government and the
headquarters of the district.
SHILLUH, or SHLUH (" vagabonds "), the name given by the
Arabized Moors to the Berber peoples of southern Morocco.
They occupy chiefly the province of Sus. The name is said to
be a corruption of ashluh (pi. ishldli), a camel-hair tent. They
are of fine physique, strong and wiry, and true Berbers in features
and fairness. They are as a rule shorter than the Berbers of
Algeria (see BERBERS and MOROCCO).
SHILLUK, a Negro race of the upper Nile valley, occupying
the lands west of the White Nile from the Sobat northward for
about 360 m., and stretching westward to the territory of the
Baggara tribes. They are the most numerous of the Negro tribes
of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and form one great family with
the Alur and Acholi (q.v.) and others in the south. Formerly
extending as far north as Khartum and constituting a powerful
Negro kingdom, they are now decadent. They are the only race
on the upper Nile recognizing one chief as ruler of all the tribes, the
chiefship passing invariably to the sister's child or some other
relative on the female side. The Shilluk towns on the Nile bank
are usually placed near to one another. They own large herds of
cattle. In physique the Shilluks are typical Negroes and jet black.
The men used to wear nothing, the women a calf-skin attached
to their girdle, but with the establishment of Anglo-Egyptian
control, c. 1900, they gradually adopted clothes. The poorer
people smear themselves with ashes. They ornament the hair
with grass and feathers in fantastic forms such as a halo, helmet,
or even a broad-brimmed hat. When they saw Schweinfurth
wearing a broad felt hat they thought him one of them, and were
amazed when he took it off. They are skilful as hunters, and
especially as fishermen, spearing fish while wading or from
ambach rafts. Their arms are spears, shields and clubs. Their
religion is a kind of ancestor and nature worship.
See G. A. Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (1874) ; W. Junker,
Travels in Africa, Eng. ed. (London, 1890-1892); The Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905).
SHILOH, BATTLE OF. This, the second great battle in the
American Civil War, also called the battle of Pittsburg Landing,
was fought on the 6th-7th of April 1862 between the Union forces
under Grant and Buell and the Confederates under A. S. Johnston
and Beauregard. In view of operations against Corinth, Missis-
sippi, Grant's army had ascended the Tennessee to Pittsburg
Landing and there disembarked, while the co-operating army
under Buell moved across country from Nashville to join it.
The Confederates concentrated above 40,000 men at Corinth
and advanced on Pittsburg Landing with a view to beating
Grant before Buell's arrival, but their concentration had left
them only a narrow margin of time, and the advance was further
delayed by the wretched condition of the roads. Beauregard
advised Johnston to give up the enterprise, but on account of
the bad effect a retreat would have on his raw troops Johnston
resolved to continue his advance. Grant meantime had disposed
his divisions in camps around the Landing rather with a view to
their comfort than in accordance with any tactical scheme. No
entrenchments were made; Halleck, the Union commanding
general in the West, was equally over-confident, and allowed Buell
to march in leisurely fashion. Even so, more by chance than
intentionally, Buell's leading division was opposite the Landing,
awaiting only a ferry, on the evening before the battle;
Grant, however, declined to allow it to cross, as he thought that
there would be no fighting for some days. At 6 A.M. on the 6th
of April, near Shiloh Church (2 m. from Pittsburg Landing), the
Confederate army deployed in line of battle, and advancing
directly on the Landing, surprised and broke up a brigade of the
most advanced Union division (Prentiss's) which had been sent
forward from camp to reconnoitre. The various Union divisions
hurriedly prepared to defend themselves, but they were dispersed
in several camps which were out of sight of one another, and thus
the Confederate army lapped round the flanks of each local
defence as it encountered it. The two advanced divisions were
swiftly driven in on the others, who were given a little time to
prepare themselves by the fact that in the woods the Confederate
leaders were unable to control or manoeuvre their excited troops.
But the rear Union divisions, though ready, were not connected,
and each in turn was isolated and forced back, fighting hard,
towards the Landing. The remnant of Prentiss's division was
cut off and forced to surrender. Another division had its com-
mander, W. H. L. Wallace, killed. But on the other side the
disorder became greater and greater, many regiments were used
up, and Johnston himself killed in vainly attacking on a point
of Wallace's line called the Hornet's Nest. The day passed in
confused and savage scuffles between the raw enthusiasts of
either side, but by 5-3 P.M. Grant had formed a last (and now a
connected) line of defence with Buell's leading division (Nelson's)
and all of his own infantry that he could rally. This line was
86o
SHILOH SHIP
hardly 600 yds. from the Landing, but it was in a naturally
strong position, and Beauregard suspended the attack at sunset.
There was a last fruitless assault, delivered by some of the
Confederate brigades on the right that had not received Beau-
regard's order against Nelson's intact troops, who were supported
by the fire of the gunboats on the Tennessee. During the night
Grant's detached division (Lew Wallace's) and Buell's army came
up, totalling 25,000 fresh troops, and at 5 A.M. on the yth Grant
took the offensive. Beauregard thereupon decided to extricate
his sorely-tried troops from the misadventure, and retired
fighting on Corinth. About Shiloh Church, a strong rearguard
under Bragg repulsed the attacks of Grant and Buell for six
hours before withdrawing, and all that Grant and Buell achieved
was the reoccupation of the abandoned camps. It was a Con-
federate failure, but not a Union victory, and, each side being
weakened by about 10,000 men, neither made any movements
for the next three weeks.
SHILOH, a town of Ephraim, where the sanctuary of the ark
was, under the priesthood of the house of Eli. According to
i Sam. iii. 3,15, this sanctuary was not a tabernacle but a temple,
with doors. But the priestly narrator of Josh, xviii. i has it
that the tabernacle was set up there by Joshua after the conquest.
In Judges xxi. 19 seq. the yearly feast at Shiloh appears as of
merely local character. The sanctuary at Shiloh seems to have
been destroyed, probably by the Philistines after the battle of
Ebenezer; cf. Jeremiah vii. 12 seq. The position described in
Judges, loc. cit., gives certainty to the identification with the
modern Seilun lying some 2 m. E.S.E. of Khan Labban (Lebonah) ,
on the road from Bethel to Shechem. Here there is a ruined
village, on an elevation protected by lofty hills on three sides, and
open only towards the south, offering a strong position, which
suggests that the place was a stronghold as well as a sanctuary.
Fertile land surrounds the hill. The name Seilun corresponds to
ZiXoOv in Josephus. LXX. has ZrjXo), i^Xcj/i. The forms
given in the Hebrew Bible (nS-r, iSv) have dropped the final
consonant, which reappears in the adjective 'ji^v.
SHIMOGA, or SHEEMOGA, a town and district in the state of
Mysore, southern India. The town is situated on the Tunga
river, and is the terminus of a branch railway. Pop. (1901)
6240. The area of the district is 4025 sq. m. Its river system
is twofold; in the east the Tunga, Bhadra and Varada unite to
form the Tungabhadra, which ultimately falls into the Kistna
and so into the Bay of Bengal, while in the west a few minor
streams flow to the Sharavati, which near the north-western
frontier bursts through the Western Ghats by the celebrated
Falls of Gersoppa (q.v.).
The western half of the district is mountainous and covered with
magnificent forest, and is known as the Malnad or hill country,
some of the peaks being 4000 ft. above sea-level. The general
elevation of Shimoga is about 2000 ft.; and towards the east it
opens out into the Maidan or plain country, which forms part of
the general plateau of Mysore. The Malnad region is very picturesque,
its scenery abounding with every charm of tropical forests and moun-
tain wilds; on the other hand, the features of the Maidan country
are for the most part comparatively tame. The mineral products
of the district include iron-ore and laterite. The soil is loose and
sandy in the valleys of the Malnad, and in the north-east the black
cotton soil prevails. Bison are common in the taluk of Saugor,
where also wild elephants are occasionally seen; while tigers,
leopards, bears, wild hog, sambhar and chital deer are numerous in
the wooded tracts of the west. Shimoga presents much variety of
climate. The south-west monsoon is felt in full force for about 25 m.
from the Ghats, bringing an annual rainfall of more than 150 in.,
but the rainfall gradually diminishes to 31 in. at Shimoga station
and to 25 in. or less at Chennagiri. The population in 1901 was
S3 1 . 736. Rice is the staple crop; next in importance is sugar-cane;
areca nuts are also extensively grown; and miscellaneous crops
include vegetables, fruits and pepper. The chief manufactures are
coarse cotton cloths, rough country blankets, iron implements,
brass and copper wares, pottery and jaggery. The district is noted
for its beautiful sandal-wood carving.
During the Mahommcdan usurpation of Mysore from 1761 to
1799, unceasing warfare kept the whole country in constant turmoil.
After the restoration of the Hindu dynasty Shimoga became the
scene of disturbances caused by the mal-administration of the
Deshast Brahmans, who had seized upon every office and made
themselves obnoxious. These disturbances culminated in the
insurrection of 1830, which led to the direct assumption of the
administration by the British.
SHINGLE, (i) A Middle English corruption of schindle, from
Lat. scindula or scandula, a wooden tile, from scandere, to cut
a kind of wooden tile, generally of oak, used in places where
timber is plentiful, for covering roofs, spires, &c. In England
they are generally plain, but on the continent of Europe the ends
are sometimes rounded, pointed or cut into ornamental form.
(2) Water- worn detritus, of larger and coarser form than gravel,
chiefly used of the pebbly detritus of a sea-beach. This word is
of Norwegian origin, from singl or singling, coarse gravel. It is
apparently derived from singla, to make a ringing sound, a form
of " to sing," with allusion to the peculiar noise made when
walking over shingle. (3) The word " shingles," the common
name of herpes zoster, a particular form of the inflammatory
eruption of the skin known as herpes (q.v.), is the plural of an
obsolete word for a girdle, sengle, taken through O. Fr. cengle
from Lat. cinguluni, cingere, to gird.
SHINWARI, a Durani Afghan tribe occupying the northern
slopes of the Safed Kob below Jalalabad. One clan, the Ali Sher
Khel, fall within the British sphere in the North-West Frontier
Province of India. They live on the Loargai border of Peshawar
district, and number some 3000 fighting men. The remaining
three clans are Afghan subjects.
SHIO-GHI, the Japanese game of chess. Like Go-bang, the
game of the middle classes, and Sugorochu (double-six), that of
the common people, it was introduced from China many centuries
ago and is still popular with the educated classes. It is played
on a board divided into 81 squares, nine on a side, with 20 pieces
on each side, arranged on the three outer rows. The pieces,
which are flat and punt-shaped with the smaller end towards the
front, represent, by means of different inscriptions, the O, or Sho,
King-General, with whose checkmate the game ends, his two
chief aids, the Kin and Chin, Gold and Silver Generals (two of
each), Ka-Ma, horse or knight (two), Yari, spearman (two), one
Hisha, or flying chariot (rook), one Kaku (bishop), and nine Hio
or Fu, soldiers or pawns. All these pieces, like those in chess,
possess different functions. The chief difference between chess
and Shio-ghi is that in the Japanese game a piece does not cease
to be a factor in the game when it is captured by the opponent,
but may be returned by him to the board at any time as a
reserve; and, secondly, all pieces, except the King and Gold
General, are promoted to higher powers upon entering the last
three rows of the enemy's territory. This possibility of utilizing
captured forces against their former masters and the altering
values of the different men render shio-ghi a very difficult and
complicated game.
See Games Ancient and Oriental, by E. Falke'ncr (London, 1892);
the Field (Sept. 1904).
SHIP, the generic name (O. Eng. scip, Ger. Schijf, Gr. <rK&<jxK.
from the root skap, cf. " scoop ") for the invention by which
man has contrived to convey himself and his goods upon water.
The derivation of the word points to the fundamental conception
by which, when realized, a means of flotation was obtained
superior to the raft, which we may consider the earliest and
most elementary form of vessel. The trunk of a tree hollowed
out, whether by fire, or by such primitive tools as are fashioned
and used with singular patience and dexterity by savage races,
represents the first effort to obtain flotation depending on some-
thing other than the mere buoyancy of the material. The poets,
with characteristic insight, have fastened upon these points.
Homer's hero Ulysses is instructed to make a raft with a raised
platform upon it, and selects trees " withered of old, exceeding
dry, that might float lightly for him " (Od. \. 240). Virgil,
glorifying the dawn and early progress of the arts, tells us,
" Rivers then first the hollowed alders felt " (Georg. i. 136, ii.
451). Alder is a heavy wood and not fit for rafts. But to make
for the first time a dug-out canoe of alder, and so to secure its
flotation, would be a triumph of primitive art, and thus the poet's
expression represents a great step in the history of the inven-
tion of the ship.
Primitive, efforts in this direction may be classified in the
EARLY HISTORY]
SHIP
861
following order: (i) rafts floating logs, or bundles of brush-
wood or reeds or rushes tied together; (2) dug-outs hollowed
trees; (3) canoes of bark, or of skin stretched on framework
or inflated skins (balsas) ; (4) canoes or boats of pieces of wood
stitched or fastened together with sinews or thongs or fibres
of vegetable growth; (5) vessels of planks, stitched or bolted
together with inserted ribs and decks or half decks; (6) vessels
of which the framework is first set up, and the planking of the
hull nailed on to them subsequently. All these in their primitive
forms have survived, in various parts of the world, with different
modifications marking progress in civilization. Climatic in-
fluences and racial peculiarities have imparted to them their
specific characteristics, and, combined with the available choice
of materials, have determined the particular type in use in each
locality. Thus on the north-west coast of Australia is found the
single log of buoyant wood, not hollowed out but pointed at
the ends. Rafts of reeds are also found on the Australian coast.
In New Guinea catamarans of three or more logs lashed together
with rattan are the commonest vessel, and similar forms appear
on the Madras coast and throughout the Asiatic islands. On
the coast of Peru rafts made of a very buoyant wood are in use,
some of them as much as 70 ft. long and 20 ft. broad; these are
navigated with a sail, and, by an ingenious system of centre
boards, let down either fore or aft between the lines of the timbers,
can be made to tack. The sea-going raft is often fitted with a
platform so as to protect the goods and persons carried from
the wash of the sea. Upright timbers fixed upon the logs
forming the raft support a kind of leck, which in turn is itself
fenced in and covered over. 1 Thus the idea of a deck, and that
of side planking to raise the freight above the level of the water
and to save it from getting wet, -are among the earliest typical
expedients which have found their development in the progress
of the art of shipbuilding.
I. HISTORY TO THE INVENTION OF STEAMSHIPS
Whether the observation of shells floating on the water, or
of split reeds, or, as some have fancied, the nautilus, first sug-
gested the idea of hollowing out the trunk of a tree, the practice
ascends to a very remote antiquity in the history of man. Dug-
out canoes of a single tree have been found associated with objects
of the Stone Age among the ancient Swiss lake dwellings; nor
are specimens of the same class wanting from the bogs of Ireland
and the estuaries of England and Scotland, some obtained from
the depth of 25 ft. below the surface of the soil. The hollowed
trunk itself may have suggested the use of the bark as a means of
flotation. But, whatever may have been the origin of the bark
canoe, its construction is a step onwards in the art of ship-
building. For the lightness and pliability of the material
necessitated the invention of some internal framework, so as
to keep the sides apart, and to give the stiffness required both for
purposes of propulsion and the carrying of its freight. Similarly,
in countries where suitable timber was not to be found, the use
of skins or other water-tight material, such as felt or canvas,
covered with pitch, giving flotation, demanded also a framework
to keep them distended and to bear the weight they had to carry.
In the framework we have the rudimentary ship, with longitudinal
bottom timbers, and ribs, and cross-pieces, imparting the
requisite stiffness to the covering material. Bark canoes are
found in Australia, but the American continent is their true
home. In northern regions skin or woven material made water-
tight supplies the place of bark.
The next step in the construction of vessels was the building
up of canoes or boats by fastening pieces of wood together in
a suitable form. Some of these canoes, and probably the earliest
in type, are tied or stitched together with thongs or cords.
The Madras surf boats are perhaps the most familiar example
of this type, which, however, is found in the Straits of Magellan
and in Central Africa (on the Victoria Nyanza), in the Malay
Archipelago and in many islands of the Pacific. Some of these
canoes show a great advance in the art of construction, being
1 The raft of Ulysses described in Homer (Od. v.) must have been
of this class.
built up of pieces fitted together with ridges on their inner sides,
through which the fastenings are passed. 2 These canoes have
the advantage of elasticity, which gives them ease in a seaway,
and a comparative immunity where ordinary boats would not
hold together. In these cases the body of the canoe is constructed
first and built to the shape intended, the ribs being inserted
afterwards, and attached to the sides, and having for their main
function the uniting of the deck and cross-pieces with the body
of the canoe. Vessels thus stitched together, and with an inserted
framework, have from a very early time been constructed in
the Eastern seas far exceeding in size anything that would be
called a canoe, and in some cases attaining to 200 tons burthen.
From the stitched form the next step onwards is to fasten
the materials out of which the hull is built up by pegs or treenails;
and of this system early types appear among the Polynesian
islands and in the Nile boats described by Herodotus (ii. 96),
the prototype of the modern " nuggur." The raft of Ulysses
described by Homer presents the same detail of construction.
It is remarkable that some of the early types of boats belonging
to the North Sea present an intermediate method, in which the
planks are fastened together with pins or treenails, but are
attached to the ribs by cords passing through holes in the ribs
and corresponding holes bored through ledges cut on the inner
side of each plank.
We thus arrive, in tracing primitive efforts in the art of ship
construction, at a stage from which the transition to the practice
of setting up the framework of ribs fastened to a timber keel
laid lengthwise, and subsequently attaching the planking of
the hull, was comparatively simple. The keel of the modern
vessel may be said to have its prototype in the single log which
was the parent of the dug-out. The side planking of the vessel,
which has an earlier parentage than the ribs, may be traced
to the attempt to fence in the platforms upon the sea-going
rafts, and to the planks fastened on to the sides of dug-out
canoes so as to give them a raised gunwale. 3 The ribs of the
modern vessel are the development of the framework originally
inserted after the completion of the hull of the canoe or built-up
boat, but with the difference that they are now prior in the order
of fabrication. In a word, the skeleton of the hull is now first
built up, and the skin, &c., adjusted to it; whereas in the earlier
types of wooden vessels the outside hull was first constructed,
and the ribs, &c., added afterwards. 4 It is noticeable that the
invention of the outrigger and weather platform, the use of
which is at the present time distributed from the Andaman
Islands eastward throughout the whole of the South Pacific,
has never made its way into the Western seas. It is strange that
Egyptian enterprise, which seems at a very early period to have
penetrated eastward down the Red Sea and round the coasts of
Arabia towards India, should not have brought it to the Nile,
and that the Phoenicians, who, if the legend of their migration
from the shores of the Persian Gulf to the coast of Canaan be
accepted, would in all probability, in their maritime expeditions,
have had opportunities of seeing it, did not introduce it to the
Mediterranean. That they did not do so, if they saw it at all,
would tend to prove that even in that remote antiquity both
nations possessed the art of constructing vessels of a type superior
to the outrigger canoes, both in speed and in carrying power.
The earliest representations that we have as yet of Egyptian
vessels carry us back, according to the best authorities, to a
period little short of 3000 years before Christ. Some of these
are of considerable size, as is shown by the number of rowers, and
by the cargo consisting in many cases of cattle. The earliest
of all presents us with the peculiar mast of two pieces, stepped
apart but joined at the top. In some the masts are shown lowered
* See Captain Cook's account of the Friendly Islands, La Perouse
on Easter Island, and Williams on the Fiji Islands.
3 Compare the planks upon the Egyptian war galleys, added so as
to protect the rowers from the missiles of the enemy.
4 It is curious that these two methods should still survive, and be
in use, in the construction of light racing 8-oared boats. Some of
these are built ribs first, and skin laid on afterwards; others, skin
laid on moulds and framework first, and ribs inserted in the shell
when turned over.
862
SHIP
[EARLY HISTORY
and laid along a high spar-deck. The larger vessels show on
one side as many as twenty-one or twenty-two and in one case
twenty-six oars, besides four or five steering. They show
considerable camber, the two ends rising in a curved line which
in some instances ends in a point, and in others is curved back
and over at the stern and terminates in an ornamentation,
very frequently of the familiar lotus pattern. At the bow the
stem is sometimes seen to rise perpendicularly, forming a kind
of forecastle, sometimes to curve backward and then forward
again like a neck, which is often finished into a figure-head
representing some bird or beast or Egyptian god. On the war
galleys there is frequently shown a projecting bow with a metal
head attached, but well above the water. This, though no doubt
used as a ram, is not identical with the beak afleur d'eau, which
we shall meet with in Phoenician and Greek galleys. It is
more on a level with the proembolion of the latter.
The impression as regards the build created by the drawings
of the larger galleys is that of a long and somewhat wall-sided
vessel with the stem and stern highly raised. The tendencies
of the vessel to " hog," or rise amidships, owing to the great
weight fore and aft unsupported by the water, is corrected by
a strong truss passing from stem to stern over crutches. The
double mast of the earlier period seems in time to have given
place to the single mast furnished with bars or rollers at the
upper part, for the purpose apparently of raising or lowering
the yard according to the amount of sail required. The sail
in some of the galleys is shown with a bottom as well as a top
yard. In the war galleys during action it is shown rolled up
like a curtain with loops to the upper yard. The steering was
effected by paddles, sometimes four or five in number, but
generally one or two fastened either at the end of the stern or
at the side, and above attached to an upright post in such a
way as to allow the paddle to be worked by a tiller.
There are many remarkable details to be observed in the
Egyptian vessels figured in Duemichen's Fleet of an Egyptian
Queen, and in Lepsius's Denkmdler. The Egyptian ship, as
represented from time to time in the period between 3000 and
1000 B.C., presents to us a ship proper as distinct from a large
canoe or boat. It is the earliest ship of which we have cognizance.
But there is a noticeable fact in connexion with Egypt which we
gather from the tomb paintings to which we owe our knowledge
of the Egyptian ship. It is evident from these records that
there were at that same early period, inhabiting the littoral
of the Mediterranean, nations who were possessed of sea-going
vessels which visited the coasts of Egypt for plunder as well as
for commerce, and that sea-fights were even then not uncommon.
Occasionally the combination of these peoples for the purpose
of attack assumed serious proportions, and we find the Pharaohs
recording naval victories over combined Dardanians, Teucrians
and Mysians, and, if we accept the explanations of Egypto-
logists, over Pclasgians, Daunians, Oscans and Sicilians. The
Greeks, as they became familiar with the sea, followed in the
same track. The legend of Helen in Egypt, as well as the
numerous references in the Odyssey, point not only to the
attraction that Egypt had for the maritime peoples, but also
to long-established habits of navigation and the possession of
an art of shipbuilding equal to the construction of sea-going
craft capable of carrying a large number of men and a considerable
cargo besides.
But the development of the ship and of the art of navigation
clearly belongs to the Phoenicians. It is tantalizing to find that
the earliest and almost the only evidence that we have of this
development is to be gathered from Assyrian representations.
The Assyrians were an inland people, and the navigation with
which they were familiar was that of the two great rivers, Tigris
and Euphrates. After the conquest of Phoenicia, they had
knowledge of Phoenician naval enterprise, and accordingly
we find the war galley of the Phoenicians represented on the
walls of the palaces unearthed by Layard and his followers in
Assyrian discovery. But the date does not carry us to an earlier
period than 700 B.C. The vessel represented is a bireme war
galley which is "aphract," that is to say, has the upper tier of
rowers unprotected and exposed to view. The apertures for
the lower oars are of the same character as those which appear
in Egyptian ships of a much earlier date, but without oars.
The artist has shown the characteristic details, though some-
what conventionally. The fish-like snout of the beak, the line
of the parodus or outside gangway, the wickerwork cancelli, 1
the shields ranged in order along the side of the bulwark, and the
heads of a typical crew on deck (the irptopeiis looking out in front
in the forecastle, an firifianjs, two chiefs by the mast, and, aft,
the xeXeuarifa and Ku/Sepy^njs) . The supporting timbers of
the deck are just indicated. The mast and yard and fore and
back stays, with the double steering paddle, complete the picture.
But, although there can be little doubt that the Phoenicians,
after the Egyptians, led the way in the development of the
shipwright's art, yet the information that we can gather concern-
ing them is so meagre that we must go to other sources for the
description of the ancient ship. The Phoenicians at an early
date constructed merchant vessels capable of carrying large
cargoes, and of traversing the length and breadth of the Mediter-
ranean, perhaps even of trading to the far Cassiterides and of
circumnavigating Africa. They in all probability (if not the
Egyptians) invented the bireme and trireme, solving the problem
by which increased oar-power and consequently speed could be
obtained without any great increase in the length of the vessel.
It is, however, to the Greeks that we must turn for any detailed
account of these inventions. The Homeric vessels were aphract
and not even decked throughout their entire length. They
carried crews averaging fr<jm fifty to a hundred and twenty
men, who, we are expressly told by Thucydides, all took part
in the labour of rowing, except perhaps the chiefs. The galleys
do not appear to have been armed as yet with the beak, though
later poets attribute this feature to the Homeric vessel. But
they had great poles used in fighting, and the term employed
to describe these (vavfiaxa) implies a knowledge of naval warfare.
The general characteristics are indicated by the epithets in use
throughout the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Homeric ship is
sharp (#017) and swift (uma); it is hollow (/coiX?;, yXaQvprj,
/je^a/o^TTjs), black, vermilion-cheeked (juiXroirappos) , dark-pro wed
(Kvavtnrpippos), curved ((copcovfj, d/i^teXicrcra), well-timbered
(eiWX;uos) , with many thwarts (iroXufiryos, eKorifiryos) .
The stems and sterns are high, upraised, and resemble the horns
of oxen (6p6oKpalpai) . They present in the history of the
shipping of the Mediterranean a type parallel with that of the
Vikings' vessels of the North Sea.
On the vases, the earliest of which may date between 700 and
600 B.C., we find the bireme with the bows finished off into a
beak shaped as the head of some sea monster, and an elevated
forecastle with a bulwark evidently as a means of defence.
The craft portrayed in some instances are evidently pirate vessels,
and exhibit a striking contrast to the trader, the broad ship
of burden (</>oprts eupela), which they are overhauling. The
trireme, which was developed from the bireme and became the
Greek ship of war (the long ship, wOs naKpa, navis longa, par
excellence), dates, so far as Greek use is concerned, from about
700 B.C. according to Thucydides, having been first built at
Corinth. The earliest sea-fight that the same author knew of
he places at a somewhat later date 664 B.C., more than ten
centuries later than some of those portrayed in the Egyptian
tomb paintings.
The trireme was the war ship of Athens during her prime,
and, though succeeded and in a measure superseded by the
larger rates, quadrireme, quinquereme, and so on, up to
vessels of sixteen banks of oars (inhabilis prope magnitudinis),
yet, as containing in itself the principle of which the larger rates
merely exhibited an expansion, a difference in degree and
not in kind, has, ever since the revival of letters, concentrated
upon itself the attention of the learned who were interested
in such matters. The literature connected with the question
of ancient ships, if collected, would fill a small library, and the
greater part of it turns upon the construction of the trireme and
the disposition of the rowers therein.
'See Rawlinson, Ancient Monarchies, vol. ii. p. 176.
EARLY HISTORY]
SHIP
863
During the ipth century a fresh light was thrown upon the
subject by the discovery (1834) at the Peiraeus of some records
of the Athenian dockyard superintendents, belonging to several
years between 373-324 B.C. These were published and admirably
elucidated by Boeckh. Further researches were carried out by
his pupil Dr Graser. Since the publication of Graser's notable
work, De re navali veterum, the subject has been copiously
treated by A. Cartauld, Breusing, C. Torr and others. The
references to ancient writers, and the illustrations from vases,
coins, &c., have been multiplied, and, though the vexed question
of the seating of the rowers cannot be regarded as settled, yet,
notwithstanding some objections raised, it seems probable that
something like Graser's solution, with modifications, will eventu-
ally hold the field, especially as practical experiment has shown
the possibility of a set of men, seated very nearly according to
his system, using their oars with effect, and without any inter-
ference of one bank with another.
On one point it is necessary to insist, because upon it depends the
right understanding of the problem. The ancients did not employ
more than one man to an oar. The method employed on medieval
galleys was alien to the ancient system. A. Jal, Admiral Fincati,
Admiral Jurien de la Graviere and a host of other writers on the
subject, some as recently as 1906, have been led to advocate errone-
ous, if ingenious, solutions of the problem, by neglect of, and in con-
tradiction to, the testimony of ancient texts and representations,
which overwhelmingly establish as an axiom of the ancient marine
the principle of " one oar, one man."
The distinction between " aphract " and " cataphract " vessels
must not be overlooked in a description of the ancient vessels. The
words, meaning " unfenced " and " fenced," refer to the bulwarks
which covered the upper tier of rowers from attack. In the aphract
vessels these side plankings were absent and the upper tier of rowers
was exposed to view from the side. Both classes of vessels had upper
and lower decks, but the aphract class carried their decks on a lower
level than the cataphract. The system of side planking with a view
to the protection of the rowers dates from a very early period, as
may be seen in some of the Egyptian representations, but among the
Greeks it does not seem to have been adopted till long after the
Homeric period. The Thasians are credited with the introduction of
the improvement.
In our account of the trireme, both as regards the disposition of
the rowers and the construction of the vessel, we have mainly, though
not entirely, followed Graser. Any such scheme must at the best be
hypothetical, based upon inference from the ancient texts, or upon
necessities of construction, and in every case plenty of room will be
left for the critic, along with the Horatian invitation, " si quid
novisti rectius istis, Candidus imperti."
In the ancient vessels the object of arranging the oars in banks
was to economize horizontal space, and to obtain an increase in the
number of oars without having to lengthen the vessel. It has been
reasonably inferred from a passage in Vitruvius l that the " inter-
scalmium," or space horizontally measured from oar to oar, was
2 cubits. This is exactly borne out by the proportions of an Attic
aphract trireme, as shown on a fragment of a bas-relief found in the
Acropolis. The rowers in all classes of banked vessels sat in the same
vertical plane, and seats ascending in a line obliquely towards the
stern of the vessel. Thus in a trireme the thranite, or oarsman of the
highest bank, was nearest the stern of the set of three to which he
belonged. Next behind him and somewhat below him sat his zygite,
or oarsman of the second bank; and next below and behind the
zygite sat the thalamite, or oarsman of the lowest bank. The vertical
distance between these seats was probably 2 ft., the horizontal
distance about I ft. The horizontal distance, it is well to repeat,
between each seat in the same bank was 3 ft. (the seat itself about 9 in.
broad). Each man had a resting place for his feet, somewhat wide
apart, fixed to the bench of the man on the row next below and in
front of him. In rowing, the upper hand, as is shown in most of the
representations which remain, was held with the palm turned inwards
towards the body. This is accounted for by the angle at which the
oar was worked. The lowest rank used the shortest oars, and the
difference of the length of the oars on board was caused by the
curvature of the ship's side. Thus, looked at from within, the rowers
amidship seemed to be using the longest oars, but outside the vessel,
as we are expressly told, all the oar-blades of the same bank took the
water in the same longitudinal line. The lowest or thalamite oar-
ports were 3 ft., the zygite 4! ft., the thranite sJ ft. above the water.
Each oar-port was protected by an ascoma or leather bag, which
fitted over the oar, closing the aperture against the wash of the sea
without impeding the action of the oar. The oar was attached by a
1 In Vitruvius i, 2, 4 the MSS. give DIPHECIACA (or DIFECIACA),
which is an unknown word. Many of the editions readAIIIHXAIKH, an
emendation which commends itself as consonant with probability,
though in itself conjectural. (We may suggest the reading AIIIHXIAKA,
by which the scribe's error would be reduced to EC for X.)
thong (TPOTTOS, Tpoiruriip) to a thowl (ovcaX^ios). The port-hole was
probably oval in shape (the Egyptian and Assyrian pictures show an
oblong). We know that it was large enough for a man's head to be
thrust through it.
The benches on which the rowers sat ran from the vessel's side to
timbers, which, inclined at an angle of about 64 towards the ship's
stern, reached from the lower to the upper deck. These timbers were,
according to Graser, called the diaphragmata. In the trireme each
diaphragma supported three, in the quinquereme five, in the octireme
eight, and in the famous tesseraconteres forty seats of rowers, who all
belonged to the same " complexus," though each to a different bank.
In effect, when once the principle of construction had been established
in the trireme, the increase to larger rates was effected, so far as the
motive power was concerned, by lengthening the diaphragmata
upwards, while the increase in the length of the vessel gave a greater
number of rowers to each bank. The upper tiers of oarsmen ex-
ceeded in number those below, as the contraction of the sides of the
vessel left less available space towards the bows.
Of the length of the oars in the trireme we have an indication in
the fact that the length of supernumerary oars (wtplvaf) rowed from
the gangway above the thranites, and, therefore, probably slightly
exceeding the thranitic oars in length, is given in the Attic tables
as 14 ft. 3 in. The thranites were probably about 14 ft. The zygite,
in proportion to the measurement, must have been loj, the thalamite
7j ft. long. Comparing modern oars with these, we find that the
longest oars used in the British navy are 18 ft. The university boat
race has been rowed with oars 12 ft. 6 in. The proportion of the loom
inboard was about one third, but the oars of the rowers amidship
must have been somewhat longer inboard. The size of the loom
inboard preserved the necessary equilibrium. The long oars of the
larger rates were weighted inboard with lead. Thus the topmost
oars of the tesseraconteres, of which the length is given as 53 ft.,
were exactly balanced at the rowlock. (See OAR.)
Let us now consider the construction of the vessel itself. In the
cataphract class the lower deck was I ft. above the water-line.
Below this deck was the hold, which contained a certain amount of
ballast, and through an aperture in this deck the buckets for baling
were worked, entailing a labour which was constant and severe on
board an ancient ship at sea. The keel (rpiiris) appears to have had
considerable camber. Under it was a strong false keel (xXw/ia),
very necessary for vessels that were constantly drawn up on the
shore. Above the keel was the kelson, under which the ribs were
fastened. These were so arranged as to give the necessary intervals
for the par-ports above. Above the kelson lay the upper false keel,
into which the mast was stepped. The stem (artipa) rose from the
keel at an angle of about 70 to the water. Within was an apron
(4>dX/<i7s), which was a strong piece of timber curved and fitting to the
end of the keel and beginning of the stern-post and firmly bolted into
both, thus giving solidity to the bows, which had to bear the beak
and sustain the shock of ramming. The stem was carried upwards
and curved generally backwards towards the forecastle and rising
above it, and then curving forwards again terminated in an ornament
which was called the acrostolion. The stern-post was carried up at a
similar angle to the bow, and, rising high over the poop, was curved
round into an ornament which was called " aplustre " (a^Xaarov).
But, inasmuch as the steering was effected by means of two rudders
(jrijSdXio), one on either side, there was no need to carry out the
stern into a rudder post as with modern ships, and the stern was left,
therefore, much more free, an advantage in respect of the manoeuv-
ring of the ancient Greek man-of-war, the weapon being the beak
or rostrum, and the power of turning quickly being of the highest
importance.
Behind the " aplustre," and curving backwards, was the " chenis-
cus " (\rivlaKos), or goose-head, symbolizing the floating powers of the
vessel. After the ribs had been set up and covered in on both sides
with planking, the sides of the vessel were further strengthened by
waling-pieces carried from stern to stem and meeting in front of the
stern-post. These were further strengthened with additional balks
of timber, the lower waling-pieces meeting about the water-level and
prolonged into a sharp three-toothed spur, of which the middle tooth
was the longest. This was covered with hard metal (generally
bronze) and formed the beak. The whole structure of the beak pro-
jected about 10 ft. beyond the stern-post. Above it, but projecting
much less beyond the stern-post, was the " proembolion " (irpotju^oXioj') ,
or second beak, in which the prolongation of the upper set of waling-
pieces met. This was generally fashioned into the figure of a ram's
head, also covered with metal; and sometimes again between this
and the beak the second line of waling-pieces met in another metal
boss called the 7rpotM/3oXs. These bosses, when a vessel was rammed,
completed the work of destruction begun by the sharp beak at the
water-level, giving a racking blow which caused it to heel over and so
eased it off the beak, and releasing the latter before the weight of the
sinking vessel could come upon it. At the point where the pro-
longation of the second and third waling-pieces began to converge
inwards towards the stem on either side of the vessel stout catheads
(irwr5fs) projected, which were of use, not only as supports fcr
the anchors, but also as a means of inflicting damage on the upper
part of an enemy's vessel, while protecting the side gangways of
its own and the banks of oars that worked under them. The catheads
were strengthened by strong balks of timber, which were firmly
SHIP
[EARLY HISTORY
bolted to them under either extremity and both within and without,
and ran to the ship's side. Above the curvature of the upper waling-
pieces into the irpoe/u/SAXcoy were the cheeks of the vessel, generally
painted red, and in the upper part of these the eyes (6^>floX/uo) , answer-
ing to our hawse holes, through which ran the cables for the anchors.
On either side the trireme, at about the level of the thranitic benches,
projected a gangway (x&foSos) resting against the ribs of the vessel.
This projection was of about 18 to 24 in., which gave a space, increased
to about 3 ft. by the inward curve of the prolongation of the ribs to
form supports for the deck, for a passage on either side of the vessel.
This gangway was planked in along its outer side so as to afford
protection to the seamen and marines, who could pass along its
whole length without impeding the rowers. Here, in action, the
sailors were posted as light-armed troops, and when needed could
use the long supernumerary oars (irtpivef) mentioned above. The
ribs, prolonged upwards upon an inward curve, supported on their
upper ends the cross beams (arpaT^pti) which tied the two sides of the
vessel together and carried the deck. In the cataphract class these
took the place of the thwarts (fvya) which in the earlier vessels, at a
lower level, yoked together the sides of the vessel, and formed also
benches for the rowers to sit on, from which the latter had their name
(firyiroi), having been the uppermost tier of oarsmen in the bireme;
while those who sat behind and below them in the hold of the vessel
were called OaXa^iroi or 0oX<iAiaK (from 0dXa/w). In the trireme the
additional upper tier was named from the elevated bench (Opdvos) on
which they were placed (BpamTai). On the deck were stationed the
marines (triffarcu), fighting men in heavy armour, few in number in
the Attic trireme in its palmy days, but many in the Roman quin-
quereme, when the ramming tactics were antiquated, and wherever,
as in the great battles in the harbour at Syracuse, land tactics took
the place of the maritime skill which gave victory to the ram in the
open sea. The space occupied by the rowers was termed tyKuirov.
Beyond this, fore and aft, were the -raptfapfaiai, or parts outside the
rowers. These occupied about 12 ft. of the bows and 15 ft. in the
stern. In the fore part was the forecastle, with its raised deck. In
the stern the decks (l/cpiu) rose in two or three gradations, upon which
was a kind of deck-house for the captain and a seat for the steerer
(nv^tpvifTri<t), who steered by means of ropes attached to the tillers
fixed in the upper part of the paddles, which, in later times at least,
ran over wheels (rpoxtXiot), giving him the power of changing his
vessel's course with great rapidity. Behind the deck-house rose the
flagstaff, on which was hoisted the pennant, and from which probably
signals were given in the case of an admiral's ship. On either side
of the deck ran a balustrade (cancelli), which was covered for pro-
tection during action with felt (cilicium, rapa.ppbiia.Ta. rpixu'A) or
canvas (*. Xcwd). Above was stretched a strong awning of hide
(iiaraft\ijita), as a protection against grappling irons and missiles of all
kinds. In Roman vessels towers were carried up fore and aft from
which darts could be showered on the enemy s deck; the heavy
corvus or boarding bridge swung suspended by a chain near the
bows; and the ponderous 5<X<#>(s hung at the ends of the yards ready
to fall on a vessel that came near enough alongside. But these were
later inventions and for larger ships. The Attic trireme was built
light for speed and for ramming purposes.
The dimensions of some dry docks discovered at Munychium and
Zea, " ship-houses " as the ancients called them, afford some indica-
tions as to limitations of length and breadth in the Attic ships that
used them. The measurements indicate for these houses about 1 50 f t.
in length and 20 ft. in breadth. We may infer, therefore, that the
ships housed in them did not exceed 150 by 20 ft. But there must
necessarily have been some spare room in the dock houses, on either
side and at both ends. Allowing 2 ft. on either side for passage room,
and 10 ft. at either end, we should have room for a vessel of about
130 ft. in length including the beak, and of about 16 ft. beam.
Adopting the 2 cubit " interscalmium," the rowing space in the
trireme (31 by 3) for the upper tier would equal 93 ft. Allowing
12 ft. for bows and 15 for stern and 10 ft. for beak, we have 130 ft. as
the aggregate length of the war vessel of three banks of oars. This
of course is conjectural, but we submit that it is a reasonable con-
jecture from the evidence which we possess. There was indeed every
reason for keeping the vessel as short as was compatible with the
necessary requirements, and it is to be remembered that it was
constantly being hauled up on shore for the night and launched again
in the morning. As to the " interscalmium, 1 it does not appear to
exceed 3 ft. even in the largest boats now used in the royal navy.
In the Chinese dragon boats, which are 73 ft. long and under 5 ft.
beam, and have each 54 rowers or paddlers, it docs not exceed 2 ft.
6 in. An oarsman whose feet are nearly on a level with his seat, as in
a modern racing eight, requires more room for the swing forward of
the handle of his oar in the recovery, than a man whose feet rest
on a level well below that of his seat. It is not likely that the ancient
oarsman swung forward more than blue-jackets do now-a-days in a
man-of-war's cutter. All the Attic triremes appear to have been
built upon_ the same model, and their gear was interchangeable.
The Athenians had a peculiar system of girding the ships with long
cables (uiro^na-ra), each trireme having two or more, which, pass-
ing through eyeholes in front of the stern-post, ran all round the
vessel lengthwise immediately under the waling-pieces. They were
fastened at the stern and tightened up with levers. These cables,
by shrinking as soon as they were wet, tightened the whole fabric of
the vessel, and in action, in all probability, relieved the hull from
part of the shock of ramming, the strain of which would be sustained
by the waling-pieces convergent in the beaks. These rope-girdles
are not to be confused with the process of undergirding or trapping,
such as is narrated of the vessel in which St Paul was being carried to
Italy. The trireme appears to have had two masts. In action the
Greeks did not use sails, and everything that could be lowered was
stowed below. The mainmasts and larger sails were often left ashore
if a conflict was expected.
The crew of the Attic trireme consisted of from 200 to 225 men in
all. Of these 170 were rowers 54 on the lower bank (thalamites),
54 on the middle bank (zygites), and 62 on the upper bank (thranitcs),
the upper oars being more numerous because of the contraction of
the space available for the lower tiers near the bow and stern.
Besides the rowers were about 10 marines (cirif36.Tai) and 20 seamen.
The officers were the trierarch and next to hinj'the helmsman
(xu/3fp>^T7)s), who was the navigating officer of the trireme. The
rowers descended into the seven-foot space between the diaphragmata
and took their places in regular order, beginning with the thalamites.
The economy of space was such that, as Cicero remarks, there was
not room for one man more.
The improvement made in the build of their vessels by the
Corinthian and Syracusan shipwrights, by which the bows were
so much strengthened that they were able to meet the Athenian
attack stem on (Trpoff/SoXi?), caused a change of tactics, and gave
an impetus to the building of larger vessels quadriremes and
quinqueremes in which increased oar-power was available
for the propulsion of the heavier weights.
In principle these vessels were only expansions of the trireme,
so far as the disposition of the rowers was concerned, but the
speed could not have increased in proportion to the weight, and
hence arose the variety of contrivances which superseded
the ramming tactics of the days of Phormio. In the century
that succeeded the close of the Peloponnesian War the fashion
of building big vessels became prevalent. We hear of various
numbers of banks of oars up to sixteen (iKKaiSfKriprp) the
big vessel of Demetrius Poliorcetes. The famous tesseraconteres
or forty-banked vessel of Ptolemy Philopator, if it ever existed
except in the imagination of Callixenus, was in reality nothing
more than a costly and ingenious toy, and never of any practical
use. The story, however, of its construction indicates the per-
fection to which the shipwright's art had been carried among
the ancients.
The Romans, who developed their naval power during the
First Punic War, though it is clear from the treaty with Carthage,
509 B.C., that they had had some maritime interests and adventur-
ings before that great struggle began, were deficient in the art
of naval construction. A Carthaginian quinquereme, which
had drifted ashore, served them for a model, and with crews
taught to row in a framework set up on dry land they manned a
fleet which was launched in sixty days from the time that the
trees were felled. Their first attempt was, as might have been
expected, a failure. But they persevered, and the invention
of the " corvus," by means of which boarding were opposed to
ramming tactics, gave them under Duilius (260 B.C.) victory at
Mylae,'and eventually the command of the sea. From that time
onwards they continued to build ships of many banks, and
seem to have maintained their predilection for fighting at close
quarters. The larger vessels with their " turres," or castles,
fore and aft, deserved Horace's description as " alta navium
propugnacula." The " corvus " and the " dolphin " were ready
in action to fall on the enemy's decks, and in Caesar's battle
with the Veneti off the coast of Gaul the " fakes," great spars
with curved steel heads like a sickle, mowed through the rigging
and let down the sails on which alone the foe depended for
movement.
But the fashion of building big ships received a severe shock
at the battle of Actium (31 B.C.), when the light Liburnian
" biremes," eluding the heavy missiles of the larger vessels,
swept away their banks of oars, leaving them crippled and
unable to move, till one by one they were burnt down to the
water's edge and sank. 1 After this experience the Romans
adopted the Liburnians as their principal model, and though
the building of vessels with many banks continued for some
centuries, yet the Liburnian type was so far dominant that
1 Merivale, Hist, of Romans under the Empire, c. 28.
EARLY HISTORY]
SHIP
865
the name was used generically, just as the name of trireme
had been used before, to signify a man-of-war, without reference
to the size of vessel or the number of banks of oars.
Meanwhile, with the peace of the Mediterranean ensured,
for piracy was kept in abeyance by the imperial power, and with
increased commercial activity, the building of large merchant
vessels naturally followed. These were propelled by sails and
not by oars, which, however, continued to furnish the principal
motive power for the ship of war until the necessity for increasing
its carrying power began to make it too unwieldy for propulsion
by rowing.
The great corn ships, which brought supplies from Egypt
to the capital, were, if we may take the vessel described by
Lucian as a typical instance, 120 cubits long by 30 broad and
29 deep. The ship in which St Paul and his companions were
wrecked carried 276 souls besides cargo. Even larger vessels
than these were constructed by the Romans for the transport
of marbles and great obelisks to Italy. These huge vessels
carried three masts, with square sails, and on the main mast a
topsail, which the corn ships from Alexandria alone were allowed
to keep set when coming into the Italian port. All other merchant
vessels were compelled to strike the supparum.
But while the construction of large vessels for commercial
purposes was thus developed, the policy of keeping the war-
vessel light and handy for manoeuvring purposes prevailed,
and, though vessels of three, four or even five banks were still
built, the great majority did not rise above two banks. In the
war with the Vandals (A.D. 440-470) we hear of ships of a
single bank, with decks above the rowers. These, we are told,
were of the type which at a later date were called Dromons
(Spbfuaves) in allusion to their speedy qualities, a name which
gradually superseded the Liburnian, as indicating a man-of-war.
During the following centuries the Mediterranean was the scene
of constant naval activity. The rise of the Mussulman power,
which by A.D. 825 had mastered Crete and Sicily, made the
maintenance of their fleet a matter of first importance to the
emperors of the East, and as the Arab inroads became more
threatening, and piracy more rife, so the necessity of improving
their galleys as regards speed and armament became more and
more pressing. It was during this period, and that very largely
by the Arabs, that a great advance was made in the employment
of what we should call artillery. The use of Greek fire and of
other detonating and combustible mixtures, launched by siphons
or in the form of bombs thrown by hand or machinery, led to
various devices by way of protective armour, such as leather
or felt casing, or woollen stuffs soaked in vinegar, and all such
contrivances tended gradually to alter the character as well
as the equipment of the war vessel.
During the same period the rise and growth of the Venetian
republic mark the entrance on the scene of a new seafaring
and shipbuilding power.
Meanwhile, the northern seas were breeding a new terror.
In the 5th century the Roman fleet which guarded the narrow
entrance into the British Channel had disappeared. The
Prankish power gradually established itself in Gaul. But
behind the Franks still fiercer races, born to the use of oar and
sail, were gathering for the invasion of the west and south.
For a while it seemed as if the empire consolidated by Charle-
magne would be able to withstand their inroads. Yet even in
the year of his coronation (A.D. 800) the piratical Northmen
had carried their ravages as far as Aquitaine. Charlemagne
organized a naval force at Boulogne and at Ghent. But, though
in alliance with the kings of Mercia and Wessex, he had not that
control of the Channel which the possession of both shores had
given to the Romans. The ships of the Vikings, propelled by oar
and sail, were seagoing vessels of an excellent type. They were
of various sizes, ranging from the skuta of about 30 oars to ask
or skeid with 64 oars and a crew of 240, and to the still larger
dreki or dragon boats, and the famous snekkjur or serpents,
said to be represented on the Bayeux tapestry. Of these vessels
we have fortunately, though of the smaller class, a typical
instance in the well-known Viking ship discovered in 1880 in a
. 28
tomb-mound at Gokstad near Christiania, of which the dimensions
are given as: length 78 ft., beam 16 ft. 7 in., depth 5 ft. 9 in.,
with high stem and stern; clinker-built of oak throughout,
with 16 oars on either side. Of this type were the vessels large
and small which had by the 9th century or even earlier found
their way into the Mediterranean. Such were the fleets which
continually infested the northern and western coasts of Gaul,
carrying swarms of the fierce Northmen who eventually came to
stay, and gave their name to the portion of Neustria which they
had wrested from the Prankish king (912). If, as is probable,
the Danes who invaded England used the same class of vessel,
Alfred the Great must, according to the Saxon Chronicle, be
credited with improvements in construction, which enabled
him to defeat them at sea (897). He built, we are told, vessels
twice as long as those of the Danes, swifter, steadier and higher,
some of them for 60 oars, and after his own design, not following
either the Danish or Frisian types.
While the northern seas were thus full of activity and conflict,
there was little repose in the Mediterranean. The emperors of
the West do not seem to have maintained their fleets or naval
stations as they had been of old. Ravenna and Misenum
were shorn of their ancient glories. But in the East things were
different. There, as we have said, it was fully perceived that
the maintenance of the empire depended upon sea power. The
Tactica of the Emperor Leo (886-911), followed by Constantine
Porphyrogenitus (911-959), give us full details as to the com-
position of a Byzantine fleet and its units. Dromons of two sizes
and of two banks of oars are described, and, besides these,
smaller Dromons of great speed are referred to as " galleys or
single-banked ships." In all these the rule was still " one oar,
one man," but the way was being prepared for improvements
by which the medieval galley, still preserving a comparatively
low freeboard, was enabled to equal or to surpass the many-
banked vessel in speed, while it was gradually adapted to carry
greater weight and more powerful means of offence.
The medieval man-of-war was essentially a one-banked vessel
(novbuporov) , but the use of longer oars or sweeps took the place
of the smaller paddling oars of the ancient vessel, and altered
greatly the angle at which the oars reached the water. It was
the increase in the length and weight of the oar, requiring for its
efficiency greater power than that of one man, which led to the
employment of more than one man to an oar. With the longer
oar the necessity arose of placing the weight at a greater distance
from the power applying the lever. This was gained by the
invention of the apostis, which was practically a framework
standing out on each side of the hull and running parallel to
it; a strong external timber, in which the thowls, against which
the oars were rowed, were set. By this means it became possible
not only to arrange the oars horizontally, in sets of three or
more of different lengths (alia zenzile), instead of in banks one
above the other obliquely, but still further to make an innovation,
unknown to the ancients, which, while greatly increasing the
length and substance of the oar, and its leverage, applied the
strength of three or four men (or even up to seven with the
larger galleys and galleasses) for the motive power of each
blade. As time went on oars of from 30 to 50 ft. came into vogue,
the inboard portion of which was about one-third of the length,
and furnished with handles (manettes) attached to the loom,
while the men for each oar were arranged in steps (alia scaloccio).
It must not be imagined that these developments took place
all at once, or that any improvements in building, or in the
method of propulsion, were generally adopted but by slow degrees.
Moreover, as commerce increased and merchant vessels gained
in size, the necessity of being able to defend themselves against
piratical attacks became more and more cogent, a necessity
which ultimately led the way to the supersession of the galley
by the sailing vessel. Yet the galley for centuries, especially
in the Mediterranean, maintained its place as the ship of war
par excellence, even when mixed fleets of galleys and sailing
vessels were not uncommon. In the Atlantic and northern
seas it was less en evidence, though even with the Spanish Armada
some galleys and galleasses were included in the invading fleet.
866
SHIP
[BEFORE STEAMSHIPS
The period of the Crusades was one of great activity in ship-
building, in which the Venetians and the Genoese were the
leaders in the Mediterranean, but the enterprise of England
under Richard Cceur de Lion (1180-1190) shows that in the
northern seas great efforts were being made in the same direction,
with the undoubted result that the English nation became more
familiarized with the sea, and more eager for maritime adventure.
Richard's fleet which sailed from Dartmouth consisted of no
vessels, and its total in the Mediterranean after reinforcement
amounted to 230 vessels. Among these were Busses, or Dromons
of large size, with masts and sails, ships of burden and triremes.
Nor were the Saracens without great vessels, if the story of
Richard's destruction of a three-masted vessel, carrying rein-
forcements to Acre, on board of which there were no less than
1 500 men, be true. The attack of a swarm of galleys upon the
great ship as she lay becalmed reads almost like the attack of
a swarm of torpedo boats upon a disabled battleship to-day.
The whole period of the Crusades was, as regards naval matters,
one of mixed fleets, in which the sailing vessels were mostly
merchant vessels armed for fighting purposes. The effect of
the Crusades upon the seafaring races of northern Europe was
that the revelation of the East and its traffic quickened their
desire for adventure in that and other directions. Hence
rivalries between them and the Mediterranean sea powers, and
consequent improvement in sea-going vessels and in seaman-
ship. The steering side-paddle gradually disappears, and the
rudder slung at the stern becomes the usual means of directing
the vessel's course. The merchant vessels when prepared for
war have fore-castles and stern-castles (compare the Roman
turrcs) erected on them, of which the one survives in name, and
the other in the quarter-deck of modern times. But a change
was at hand which was destined to affect all classes, from the
galley with its low freeboard to the alta propugnacula. of the
great sailing vessels.
The invention of gunpowder, and the consequent use of cannon
on board ship, was the cause of many new departures in building
and armaments. In the galleys we find guns mounted in the
bows, and broadside on the upper deck, en barbette, firing over
the bulwarks. Soon, however, the need of cover suggested
portholes cut for the guns, just as in the ancient galleys they had
been cut for the oars. The desire to carry many guns led to
many alterations in build, such as the tumble-home of the sides,
and the desire for speed to many improvements in rig, as well
as to an increase in the number of masts and consequently
larger spread of sail. About 1370-1380 French, Venetians and
Spaniards are using the new artillery in action, and the policy
of maintaining a navy composed of sailing vessels built for the
purposes of war, and not merely of armed merchant ships
impressed for the emergency, soon began to take effect.
In England Henry V. (1413) built large vessels for his fleet,
" great ships, cogs, carracks, ships, barges and ballingers,"
some of which were of nearly 1000 tons, but the generality from
420 to 520 tons. In the list of his fleet no galleys seem to be
included. Meanwhile in the south the type of vessel called
" caravel " was being developed, in which Portuguese and
Spaniards dared the Atlantic and made their great discoveries.
It was in a vessel of this kind that Columbus (1492) sought to
reach the Indies by a western route. 1 She was but little over
230 tons when fully laden. Her forecastle overhung the stem
by nearly 12 ft. Aft she had a half deck and a quarter deck.
Her total length was 128 ft., her beam nearly 26 ft. She had
three masts and a bowsprit. Her fore and main masts were
square-rigged, but the mizzen had a lateen sail. The vessels
in which Vasco da Gama first doubled the Cape of Good Hope
(1497) were of the same type but larger. The ship of John
Cabot (1497) in which he discovered Newfoundland must have
been much smaller, as he had a crew of only eighteen men.
Among the results of these world-famous voyages and dis-
coveries was naturally a great increase in maritime adventure.
'See Sir G. V. Holmes, Ancient and Modern Ships, i.' 87, to
which the writer is indebted for many of the details concerning
modern vessels.
In England during the Tudor times a great advance in ship-
building is observable. Henry VII. with his new ships, the
" Regent " and the " Sovereign," and Henry VIII. with his
" Henry Grace a Dieu," or " Great Harry," both came abreast
of their times, but it is worthy of notice that the French then,
as well as at a later period, were providing the best models for
naval architecture. These big ships were armed at first with
" serpentines," and later with cannon and culverins. The re-
presentations of them show several tiers of guns, four or even
five masts, and enormous structures by way of forecastles and
deck-houses aft. As regards merchant vessels, the Genoese
and the Venetians during the isth and i6th centuries carried
out great improvements. The " carracks " of the i6th century
often reached as much as 1600 tons burden. There is a record
of a Portuguese carrack captured by the English, of which the
dimensions reached 165 ft. in length and 47 ft. in beam. She
carried 32 pieces of brass ordnance and between 600 and 700
passengers. The Spanish Armada (1588) was composed of 132
vessels, of which the largest was about 1300 tons and 30 under
too tons. Four galleys and four galleasses accompanied the
fleet. The opposing fleet consisted of 197 vessels of which only
34 belonged to the royal navy. Of these the largest was the
" Triumph " of about 1000 tons. The " Ark," the flagship of
the English admiral, was of 800 tons, carrying 55 guns. Among
the armed merchant vessels employed with the fleet was the
" Buonaventure," the first English vessel that made a successful
voyage to the Cape and India. The result to England of the
defeat of the Spaniards was a great increase of mercantile
activity. Merchants, instead of hiring Genoese or Venetian
carracks, began to prefer building and owning home-built ships,
and though the foreign merchant vessels appear to have been on
a larger scale, yet, as sea-going craft, the English-built ships
certainly held their own. We hear also during this period of
many improvements in details, such as striking topmasts, the
use of chain pumps, the introduction of studding, topgallant,
sprit and top sails, also of the weighing of anchors by means
of the capstan, and the use of long cables. In the men-of-war
the lower tier of guns, which, as in the galleys, had been carried
dangerously near the water-line, began to be raised. This im-
provement, however, does not seem to have been adopted in the
English ships till after the Restoration. Meanwhile, in the
Mediterranean the galley was still in vogue, being only partially
superseded by the great galleasses, six of which are recorded
to have taken part in the battle of Lepanto (1571), in which the
Venetians and their allies employed no less than 208 galleys
with single banks and long sweeping oars. The contrast between
the conditions and the character of the vessels used in this battle
and those engaged in the case of the Spanish Armada is interesting
and instructive as typical of the different development of naval
power in the inland and the open seas.
During the I7th century the expansion of trade and the increase
of mercantile enterprise were incessant. The East India Company
organized its fleet of armed vessels of about 600 tons, and fought
its way through Portuguese obstruction to the Indian coast.
The Dutch were also competing for the trade of the East and
the West, and formed similar companies with this object in
view. Conflicts owing to commercial rivalry and international
jealousies were inevitable. Hence in the British navy the con-
struction of large vessels such as the " Prince Royal " and the
" Sovereign of the Seas " (see RIGGING), which may be con-
sidered as among the earliest types of the modern wooden man-
of-war. English oak afforded the best timber for shipbuilding,
and skilful naval architects, such as Phineas Pett, succeeded
in constructing the kind of sea-going war vessel which eventually
gave England the superiority in its struggle with other naval
powers in this and the following century. This, however, was
by no means easily gained. The Dutch and the French were not
slack in the building of merchant vessels and men-of-war. The
capture of vessels from time to time on either side served to
enlarge the area of improvement and to assist in the progress
of the art of construction. The French navy especially, under
the fostering care of Colbert, was greatly strengthened. During
STEAMSHIPS]
SHIP
867
the 1 8th century it was constantly found that the dimensions
of French ships exceeded those of British ships of the same
date, and that French vessels were superior in speed. This
led from time to time to an increase of the measurements
of the various classes of vessels in the British navy. These
were now rated according to the number of guns which they
were constructed to carry.
A go-gun ship of the line at the beginning of the i8th century
averaged 164 ft. in length of gun deck, 47 ft. beam, and about
1570 tons, while the frigates now ran to 120 ft. with 34 ft. beam
and from 600 to 700 tons. These dimensions, however, were
not always maintained, and towards the middle of the century
the Admiralty seem to have recognized the consequent inferiority
of their ships. The famous and ill-fated " Royal George,"
launched in 1756, was the result of an effort to improve the Line-
of-battle ship of the period. She was 178 ft. in length, 52 ft.
in beam, was of over 2000 tons, and carried 100 guns and a crew
of 750 men. The " Victory," Nelson's flagship, was built nearly
ten years later. Her dimensions were 186 ft., 52 ft., 2162 tons,
and she carried 100 guns. During the same period frigates,
which were cruisers carrying their armament on one deck,
were built to carry 32 or 36 guns, but in this class also the French
cruisers were superior in speed and of larger dimensions. The
remainder of the i8th century and the beginning of the igth
witnessed a continuous rivalry in naval architecture, the French
and Spanish models being constantly ahead of the British in
dimensions and armament. In the American war (1812) the
same disparity as regards dimensions became apparent, and the
English frigates, and sloops used as cruisers, were generally
outclassed, and in some instances captured, by American vessels
of their own rate. This as usual led to the construction of
larger vessels with greater speed, and though, after the con-
clusion of the long war, the activity of the royal dockyards
slackened, yet the great three-deckers of the last period,
before the adoption of steam power, had reached a length of
over 200 ft., with more than 55 ft. beam, and over 3000 tons.
Meanwhile the mercantile navies of the world, but more
especially of England, had largely increased. The East India-
man, as the armed vessels of the East India Company were called,
really performed the functions of merchant vessel, passenger
ship, and man-of-war. But, where there was no monopoly,
competition soon quickened the development of trading vessels.
The Americans with their fast-sailing " clippers " again taught
the English builders a lesson, showing that increased length in
proportion to beam gave greater speed, while admitting of
lighter rigging in proportion to tonnage, and of economy as
regards the number of men required to work the ship. The
English shipyards were for a long time unequal to the task of
producing vessels capable of competing with those of their
American rivals, and their trade suffered accordingly. But
after the repeal of the Navigation Laws in 1850 things improved,
and we find clippers from Aberdeen and from the Clyde beginning
to hold their own on the long voyages to China and elsewhere.
At this epoch steam power appears in use on the scene, and
the period of great wooden vessels closes with iron and steel
taking their place in the construction of the hulls, while the sail
gives way to the paddle and the screw.
LITERATURE. i. For Ancient Ships: Duemicher', Fleet of an
Egyptian Queen; Chabas, Etudes sur I'antiquite historique; Raw-
linson, Ancient Monarchies; Scheffer, De militia navali veterum;
Boeckh, Urkunden iiber das Seewesen des attischen Staates; B.
Graser, De re navali veterum; Idem, Das Model eines athenischen
Ftinfreihenschiffes (Pentere) aus der Zeit Alexanders des Grossen im
Koniglichen Museum zu Berlin; Idem, Die Gemmen des Koniglichen
Museums zu Berlin mil Darstellungen antiker Schiffe; Idem, Die
dltesten SchiffsdarstMungen auf antiken Milnzen; A. Cartauld, La
Triere athenienne ; Breusing, Die Nautik der Allen; Smith, Voyage
and Shipwreck of St Paul; C. Torr, Ancient Ships. 2. For medieval
and modern shipping: A. Jal, Archeologie navale and Glossaire
nautique; Jurien de la Graviere, Verniers Jours de la marine d rames
(Paris, 1885); Fincati, Le Triremi; C. de la Rondere, Histoire de la
marine franc,aise; Marquis de Folin, Bateaux u navires; W. Laird
Clowes, The Royal Navy; W. S. Lindsay, History of Merchant
Shipping and Ancient Commerce; Sir G. C. V. Holmes, Ancient and
Modern Ships. (E. WA.)
0/
II. HISTORY SINCE THE INTRODUCTION OF STEAMSHIPS
Before steam was applied to the propulsion of ships, the
voyage from Great Britain to America lasted for some weeks;
at the beginning of the 2oth century the time had been reduced
to about Six days, and in 1910 the fastest vessels could do it
in four and a half days. Similarly, the voyage to Australia,
which took about thirteen weeks, had been reduced to thirty
days or less. The fastest of the sailing tea-clippers required
about three months to bring the early teas from China to Great
Britain; in 1910 they were brought to London by the ordinary
P. & O. service in five weeks. Atlantic liners now run between
England and America which maintain speeds of 25 and 26 knots
over the whole course, as compared with about 12 knots before
the introduction of steam. The accommodation in the modern
passenger ships is palatial compared with that in the correspond-
ing wooden sailing ships of the middle of the igth century.
The changes from sail power to steam power for propulsion,
and from wood to iron and steel for constructional purposes,
proceeded together, though at first very slowly. The marine
steam engine was at first a very imperfect motor, and the
services upon which steamships could be used to advantage
were, in consequence, much restricted. There was, moreover,
a national prejudice against the substitution of iron for " the
Wooden Walls of Old England."
It is recorded that an iron boat, intended apparently for
passenger service, was built and launched on the river Foss,
in Yorkshire, in 1777, and shortly afterwards iron
was used for the shell plating of lighters for canal
service. One of these, having its shell constructed /,.
of plates five-sixteenths of an inch thick, was built
near Birmingham ^1787. About the same time parts of wooden
ships began to be replaced by iron, the first being beam knees.
Early in the igth century iron " diagonal riders " for providing
the longitudinal strength were introduced by Sir Robert Scppings,
and from this period down to the present day iron strengthenings
for resisting both transverse and longitudinal strains have been
generally used in wooden ships. The introduction of iron as
a recognized material for ship construction is often given as
dating from 1818, when the lighter " Vulcan " was built on the
Monkland canal, near Glasgow.
Among the early objections were: (i) from its weight iron
could not be expected to float, and was therefore unsuitable for
the construction of a floating body; (2) when a ship constructed
of this material grounded and was exposed to bumping on a shore,
the bottom would be easily perforated; (3) the bottom could
not be preserved from fouling by weeds and barnacles; and
(4) the iron affected the compass, making it untrustworthy,
if not useless. Gradually, however, the material made its way,
and the objections to it proved to be for the most part untenable.
Objection (i), although often repeated, was proved to involve
a fallacy. With regard to objection (2) it was found that iron
ships might ground and be subjected to a great deal of bumping
and rough usage without being destroyed, and that, on the whole,
they were better off i this respect than wooden ships. On more
than one occasion when iron and wooden ships were stranded
together by the same gale and in approximately the same circum-
stances, the iron ships were got off, and, apart from local injury,
were found to be little the worse for the grounding, while the
wooden ships were either totally wrecked, or, if got off, were
strained to such an extent as to be beyond repair. The power
of resistance of iron ships to the strains produced by grounding
received, in 1846-1847, a remarkable confirmation in connexion
with the grounding of the " Great Britain," the first large screw
steamer built of iron. This ship had been initiated by, and
built under the supervision of, Mr I. K. Brunei, who had bestowed
much attention upon the details of her construction. In 1846
she ran ashore in Dundrum Bay, in Ireland, and settled on two
detached rocks; and although she remained aground for eleven
months, including a whole winter, she was subsequently got off
and repaired, and afterwards did good service. As regards (3),
the fouling of the bottom, this evil, although not preventable,
868
SHIP
[STEAMSHIPS
ductlon
of steel.
can be lessened materially by frequent cleaning and repainting,
provided, of course, that docks are available. The fourth
objection, the effect of iron on the compass, was very serious.
After experimenting with the " Rainbow " at Deptford and the
" Ironsides " at Liverpool, Sir G. B. Airy in 1839 read a paper on
the subject before the Royal Society, and the rules which he gave
for the correction of the error caused by the iron at once became
the guide for future practice. Besides the above, a further
objection was raised which applied only to warships, namely,
the nature of the damage which would be done to an iron ship
by the enemy's shot: this also was found to be less serious,
when proper appliances were supplied, than the damage done
in the same circumstances to a wooden ship. Thus during the
Chinese War in 1842 the " Nemesis," an iron vessel, was able to
repair her damage from shot in twenty-four hours at the scene
of the fight, while some wooden ships had to go to Bombay,
the nearest port at which repairs could be carried out.
Steel, as a material for shipbuilding, was introduced under
modern conditions of manufacture during the years 1870-1875.
It is a homogeneous metal, stronger than iron, and of
lain- a more uniform and more trustworthy character.
Its quality is to a considerable extent independent of
the skill of those employed in its manufacture, whereas
iron is produced by a laborious and unhealthy process, and is
largely dependent for its quality on the skill of the workmen.
Among the advantages which experience has proved iron and
steel to possess over wood for the purposes of ship construction
are: (i) the structure of the ship has less weight; (2) it has
greater durability; (3) the requisite general and local strengths
are much more easily obtained.
The importance of the first of these advantages can scarcely be
overstated. The primary object of a particular ship is to carry cargo
or passengers, or both, from place to place, at a given speed (in the
case of a warship, the armament, ammunition, armour, &c., constitute
the weight to be carried); and since at the maximum draught at
which the vessel can properly and safely proceed on her passage the
total weight of vessel, cargo, &c. .complete, must be a definite quantity,
namely, the weight of the water displaced by the ship, it follows that
the less the weight required for the structure of the ship, the greater
is that available for the cargo, &c.
As to durability, in wooden ships the chief source of deterioration is
dry-rot, in iron or steel ships the wasting of the surfaces, especially
of such portions of the outer surfaces of the bottom plating as are
frequently left bare of paint and exposed to the sea, and of the inner
surfaces of the bottom in machinery spaces, &c. If dry-rot can be
prevented, the life of the wooden ship will be lengthened ; so also will
the life of the iron or steel ship if the surfaces can be kept covered with
paint, to prevent the corrosive action of air and water. With both
wood and iron or steel ships, if the parts which have become deterior-
ated can be removed and replaced, this is usually worth doing when
the deterioration is only local. At the end of the 1 8th century the
preservation of wood was not so well understood as it is at the present
day, and teak, one of the most durable of woods, was, in Great
Britain at least, little known. The ships for the Royal Navy as then
constructed were only expected to be available for service some
fifteen or twenty years. The ships built for the East India Com-
pany made, on an average, four voyages, which occupied eight
years. This at one time was considered the vessel's life, so far
as the Company's service was concerned; but subsequently, if
on examination at the expiration of that time they appeared
worth repairing, this was done, and they were allowed to
make two more voyages. It was unusual for one of these ships
to make more than six voyages; after this they were sold or
broken up.
In certain cases, however, ships lasted a considerable length of
time; a number of vessels built in the I7th century continued in the
service of the Royal Navy until the middle of the i8th century, though
with a reduced number of guns, and specimens of the old wooden
battleships which served in the fleet in the earlier part of the last
century are still to be found in the naval and other ports _as training
vessels, hospital ships, &c. The best-known example is Nelson's
"Victory" (fig. i.Pla'teXIII.). Laid down in 1759, she had been afloat
40 years before she took part in the battle of Trafalgar, and to-day
flies the flag of the commander-in-chief at Portsmouth. Of small
wooden merchant vessels there are instances of the attainment of very
remarkable ages. Lloyd's Register for 1909-1910 shows one sailing
vessel, the "Olivia " of 94 tons, as having been built as early as in
1819, two vessels built in the 'twenties, ana twelve built between 1830
and 1840. The collier brig " Brotherly Love," of South Shields, was
over one hundred years old when she was broken up; and the
schooner " Polly " built in 1805, was still sailing in 1902 ; as also was
the brig " Hvalfisken," built at Calmar in Sweden in 1801. The
dimensions of the last vessel are: length, 88 ft. 8 in.; breadth, 21 ft.
2 in.; depth of hold, 14 ft. 7 in.; and her gross tonnage, 211. The
oldest vessel afloat in 1 9 1 o was said tobetheDanish sloop ' ' Constance"
a small wooden sailing vessel built in 1723 and still employed in the
coasting trade of Denmark. This vessel is 52 ft. 6 in. long, 14 ft. 8 in.
beam, 6 ft. 8 in. depth in hold and of 35 tons gross.
In the cases of these very old wooden vessels it should be re-
membered that many portions of the original structures have been
replaced by continual repairs. We have less experience concerning
the life of iron and steel ships when taken care of , and in most instances
ships have been condemned and broken up only because they were
obsolete ; but after twenty or even forty years' service, those parts
which by accident or intention had remained properly covered and
protected were found very little the worse for wear. Thus the inner
surface of the outside plating of such vessels, coated with cement,
have been found to be in as good condition as when the ships were
first built. The hulls of many of the early iron vessels still afloat are
known to be in excellent condition. The " Himalaya," an iron vessel
of 3453 tons and 700 h.p., 6 guns, length 340 ft. 5 in., breadth 46 ft.
2 in., depth 24 ft., built by Mare of Blackwall in 1853 for the P. & O.
Steam Packet Co., and purchased by the Admiralty, was actively
employed, chiefly as a troop-ship, until 1896, when she was converted
into a coal depot, it being found that her plating and framing were
almost as good as new. Known as " C. 60," she seemed likely in 1910
to survive for many years in her new service. The " Warrior "
the first British iron battleship, built in 1861, was converted into a
floating workshop forty years later at Portsmouth, where in 1910
she was known as " Vernon III." The hull and framing of the vessel
were then practically as sound as when first put together. Experi-
ence up to 1910 with vessels built of mild steel indicates that this is
more liable to surface corrosion than iron, especially where exposed
to the action of bilge water and coal ashes in boiler rooms. Some
owners on this account require the plating for the tank tops under
the boilers to be of iron in vessels otherwise built of mild steel, al-
though the iron is inferior in strength and costs more than the mild
steel.
That general and local strength are more easily obtained in an iron
or steel ship than in a wooden one follows partly from the fact that
the weight required for the structure is less in the former than in the
latter, and also from the fact that iron and steel are more suitable
materials for the purpose. They can be obtained in almost any
desired shape, the parts can be readily united to one another with
comparatively little loss of strength, and great local strength can be
provided in very little space.
For some purposes, and in some markets, wood is still in favour. In
scientific expeditions to the Polar regions, it is of the highest import-
ance to avoid any disturbance of the compass, and this can be ensured
by constructing the vessel of wood, with metal fastenings. The
" Fram," built in 1892 for Nansen's Arctic expedition, was of wood,
her outside planking, in three thicknesses, amounting in the aggregate
to from 24 in. up to 28 in.; she was 117 ft. long, rigged as a three-
masted schooner, and provided with auxiliary machinery working a
screw propeller. The America," fitted out for the Ziegler expedi-
tion to the North Pole, was an old Dundee whaler (the " Esquimaux "),
and was reported to be still a " stout " ship with timbers as sound as
on the day they were put in thirty-six years before. She is 157 ft.
long, 29 J ft. beam, 19 J ft. deep, net tonnage 466; her engines have a
nominal horse-power of 100, and she has a lifting screw. In 1901 the
" Discovery," a wooden vessel, 172 ft. in length, was built at Dundee
for Antarctic exploration, under Captain Robert Scott, R.N., 1 and
a wooden vessel for similar service was constructed in Germany, and
in 1910 the" Terra Nova " (Plate I., fig. 2), a wooden Dundee whaler,
187 ft. long, barque-rigged and fitted with auxiliary steam power,
which had already seen service in the Far South, carried to the
Antarctic regions an expedition also led by Captain Scott. Some
wooden sailing vessels are still built in the United States and
employed in the coasting and other trades. One of these, the
" Wyoming," the largest wooden sailing vessel ever built, was
launched in December 1909 at Bath. She was a six-masted schooner
350 ft. long, 50 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep. Wood is also in favour
for most of the large and palatial river steamers of the Western
states of America.
Some progress had been made in the introduction of steam
propulsion before the end of the i8th century, but steam
the advance became more rapid in the igth. In propulsion.
the early steam vessels paddle-wheels only were used for
propulsion.
In 1801-1802 the " Charlotte Dundas," one of the earliest steam
vessels, was constructed by Symington in Scotland. She proved
her capability for towing purposes on the Forth and Clyde canal.
Fulton now made his experiments in France, and after visiting
Scotland and witnessing the success of the " Charlotte Dundas, '
constructed the " Clermont " on the Hudson river in America in
1807. The engines for this vessel were obtained from Boulton&Watt,
1 A very complete account of this vessel was given by her designer,
Mr W. E. Smith, C.B., in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval
Architects (1905).
STEAMSHIPS]
SHIP
869
of England. She ran as a passenger boat between New York and
Albany, and at the end of her second season proved too small
for the crowd that thronged to take passage in her. In 1809 the
" Phoenix " made the passage from Hoboken, in New Jersey, to
Philadelphia, and was thus the first steamer to make a sea voyage.
In 1812 Bell began running his steamer " Comet," with passengers,
between Glasgow, Greenock and Helensburgh : she was 42 ft. long,
1 1 ft. broad, 5 J ft. deep, and her engine had one cylinder 1 1 in. in
diameter, with a i6-in. stroke. Owing to the success achieved by
these and other vessels in America and Great Britain, steamers soon
began to make their appearance on many of the principal rivers of
the world. Early in 1814 there were five steamboats on the Thames,
and the steamboat " Margery," built on the Clyde, was brought
through the Forth and Clyde canal and round by the east coast to
the Thames. In the same year a writer in the Gentleman's Magazine
was able to say: " Most of the principal rivers in North America
are navigated by steamboats; one of them passes 2000 m. on the
great river Mississippi in twenty-one days, at the rate of 5 ni. an hour
against the descending current." In 1816 the first steam passenger-
boat ran across the English Channel from Brighton to Havre, and a
line of steamers was started to run between New York and New
London. All of these vessels were built of wood; but in 1820 the
first iron steamship, the " Aaron Manby," was constructed and
employed in a direct service between London and Paris. In 1822 a
return was made to the House of Commons showing the times
occupied by steamers as compared with sailing vessels on some thirty
coasting routes; the average speed given for steamers in the best of
these was from eight to nine knots, while the average time taken
varied from one-half to one-sixth (or even less) of the time taken by
the sailing vessels.
Steam vessels were employed at a very early date upon the mail
services, for besides being very much quicker than the sailing vessels,
they were practically independent of the direction of the wind, and
to a considerable extent of the weather; consequently the regularity
of their passages contrasted very favourably with the irregular times
kept by the sailing vessels. The mail service across the Irish Channel,
between Holyhead and Dublin, was especially uncertain in the days of
the sailing packets, frequently occupying three or four days, and
occasionally as much as seven and nine days. All this was altered
when in 1821 the steamers " Royal Sovereign " and " Meteor " were
placed on the service. The advantages were so apparent that steam
mail packets between Great Britain and the Continent, and on many
other services, were soon established. The mail boats had been for
many years owned by the crown, but in 1833 the carrying of the
mails to and from the Isle of Man, and between England and Holland
and Hamburg, was entrusted to private companies. Marked im-
provement in the services, and especially in the boats employed,
resulted from the competition to secure the distinction and other
advantages of carrying His Majesty's mails. An intermediate stage
followed, extending over a comparatively short period, during which
the crown still held many of the mail boats, while in a considerable
number of cases the mail services were let to private companies.
After this the British government abandoned altogether the policy
of being the owners of the boats, and the mail services have since
been competed for by private companies.
The " Savannah " was the first steamship to cross the Atlantic.
She ran from Savannah to Liverpool in 1819 in twenty-five days,
under steam, however, only for a portion of the time. She was built
at New York as a sailing ship, but before launching was fitted with
steam power, the paddle-wheels being arranged to be removed and
placed on deck when not required. She was 130 ft. long, 26 ft. broad,
l6J ft. deep and of about 380 tons. The success of the ' Enterprise,"
of 470 tons, which made the voyage from London to Calcutta by the
Cape of Good Hope in 1825 in 103 sailing days, is noteworthy. The
distance is 11,450 nautical miles, and the vessel was under steam for
64 days and under sail for 39 days. The steamer afterwards (1829-
1830) made the trip between Bombay and Suez in 54 days, in further-
ance of a scheme to reach the former place from London by the Red
Sea route. The year 1838 witnessed the successful transatlantic
voyages of the steamers " Sinus " and " Great Western." The latter
vessel, built under the advice of I. K. Brunei, the engineer of the
Great Western Railway Company, was the first steamer actually
constructed for the transatlantic service. She was built of wood, her
dimensions being length 212 ft., breadth 35^ ft., depth 231 ft. and
tonnage 1340 B.O.M.; and her total displacement on a draught of
16 ft. 8 in. was 2300 tons. Although not originally built for the
service, the " Sirius " was subsequently placed on it at the recom-
mendation of Mr M'Gregor Laird of Birkenhead. This vessel also
was built of wood, and was 178 ft. long, 25^ ft. broad, i8i ft. deep
and her tonnage was 703. Mr Laird's arguments in favour of placing
the vessel on the transatlantic service throw light on the steaming
capabilities of vessels of that day. He pointed to the steamers
" Dundee " and " Perth " making n m. per hour, " in all weathers,
winter and summer, fair and foul "; and to the other vessels making
from 10 to io| m. per hour. He based his estimate for the coal re-
quired on the voyage on a speed of 10 m. per hour and a coal consump-
tion of 30 tons per day, which gave 525 tons for the whole voyage.
Finally, he allowed 800 tons, corresponding to the difference of the
displacement at 15 ft. load draught and at n ft. light draught, so
that he had a margin of 275 tons for contingencies.
All the vessels just named were propelled by paddle-wheels.
The screw propeller had been advocated as a means of propulsion
by many inventors in England, France and America during the
latter half of the i8th and the early part of the igth century;
a number of experiments had been made, but these
had not been brought to a successful issue, as no
suitable steam engine was available for driving the
propeller. Benjamin Franklin, in 1775, drew attention to the in-
efficiency of side paddle wheels as a means of propulsion, and
proposed as an alternative to set the steam engine to pump
water in at the bow and force it out at the stern, the water passing
along a trunk. In 1782 a boat 80 ft. long, fitted with this means
of propulsion by James Rumsey, was driven at 4 m. an hour
on the river Potomac, and a number of other vessels similarly
fitted followed. In 1839 Dr Ruthven took out a patent for this
method of propulsion in which the piston pump was replaced
by a centrifugal pump; and in 1865 the " Nautilus," a vessel
of this type, so impressed the British Admiralty of the day
that an armoured gunboat the " Waterwitch " was provided
with this system of propulsion. She was built of iron, 162 ft.
long, 32 ft. broad, 13 ft. 9 in. deep, was double-ended and fitted
with bow and stern rudders, but was otherwise similar to the
armoured gunboat " Viper " built at the same time and fitted
with a screw propeller. Many trials were carried out with the
" Waterwitch " and " Viper," but the system adopted in the
former was not repeated because of the great advances made in
connexion with the screw propeller.
Many useful experiments appear to have been carried out by
Colonel John Stevens in the United States in the early years
of the i Qth century, but, although some beautiful
models of propellers made by him still remain, the
system was not generally adopted until its com-
mercial possibilities were more successfully demonstrated by
Captain John Ericsson formerly an officer in the Swedish army
and F. P. Smith of England. Smith took out his patent for
the propulsion of ships by means of a screw fitted in a recess
formed in the deadwood, in May 1836, and in July of the same
year Ericsson, then practising as a civil engineer in London,
took out his patent. Small vessels were built and fitted by both
inventors and both were tested in the Thames. In 1838 Captain
Robert F. Stockton, on behalf of the U.S. Navy, ordered two
iron boats of Messrs Lairds of Birkenhead, to be supplied with
steam engines and screw propellers of Ericsson's design. The
first boat was named the " Robert F. Stockton," and arrived
at New York under sail early in 1839, with her machinery on
board. The machinery was fitted in her at Bordentown, and
under the name of " New Jersey " the boat afterwards served
as a tow boat on the river Delaware. She was 70 ft. long, 10 ft.
beam and 6 ft. 9 in. draught, and could steam about 10 m. an
hour. Ericsson had the satisfaction of seeing his plans very
largely adopted in the American Navy, but the mercantile
marine adhered with great pertinacity to the paddle-wheel.
Fincham, writing in 1851, says that in England engineers
were reluctant to admit the success of the screw propeller, and
adds: " A striking instance of prevailing disinclination to the
screw propeller was shown on the issue of a new edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, in which the article on steam naviga-
tion contained no notice whatever of the subject."
Smith, however, persevered, and with the assistance of some
influential people of the day notably Messrs Rennie & Co.
formed the Ship Propeller Company, and in 1838 built the
" Archimedes," a vessel of 237 tons burthen, to illustrate the
value of the plan. The length of the vessel was 106 ft. 8 in.,
breadth 21 ft. 10 in., depth in hold 13 ft., draught of water
9 ft. 6 in., h.p. 80 nominal, but only 66 could be developed.
A speed of about 7^ knots could usually be maintained, but on
one run of 30 m. under very favourable circumstances a speed
of 10-9 m. was reported. In 1840 she was placed at the disposal
of the Admiralty for experiment, and the trials were favourably
reported on. She afterwards passed into the hands of Brunei,
who was so satisfied with the results of further trials that he
modified the design of the " Great Britain " steamship then
870
SHIP
[STEAMSHIPS
in hand (1843), and fitted her with a screw propeller instead of
paddle-wheels as originally intended. The success of this and
other vessels was sufficient to largely influence public opinion
in favour of the propeller, and the Admiralty took the important
step of building the " Rattler," a vessel of 888 tons and 200 H.P.,
to test the system. She was practically a repeat of the " Alecto,"
as far as her hull and the power of her machinery were concerned,
but she was propelled by a screw propeller, whereas the " Alecto "
was propelled by paddle-wheels. These vessels were tested
together at sea in March 1845, when the " Rattler " proved the
faster vessel; but the great test took place on Thursday, 3rd
April following, when the two vessels were secured stern to stern,
and it was found that with the engines of both ships working at
full power the " Rattler " towed the " Alecto " astern at a
speed of 2j knots. 1 In a few years the screw almost entirely
superseded the paddle-wheel for war vessels, and in 1854, during
the war with Russia, Great Britain possessed a screw steam
fleet, including all classes of ships, built of wood.
The performances of the Great Western and other vessels
had demonstrated that ships could traverse the oceans of the
world by steam power alone, but great advance had to be
made in the marine engine before the ordinary trade could be
carried on by its means with economy. In the early marine
engines only one cylinder was provided, and various
'meat's fa means were employed for transmitting the power to
machinery, the paddle shaft; later came the oscillating cylinder
engine and the diagonal engine, the latter being the type
of paddle engine now most frequently'adopted in Great Britain.
With the introduction of the screw propeller the arrangements
became much modified. At first the engines were run at com-
paratively low speeds, as in paddle-boats, gearing being supplied
to give the screw shaft the number of revolutions required, but
direct-acting two-cylinder engines gradually replaced the geared
engines. The compound engine was first adapted successfully
to marine work by John Elder in 1854, and in time direct-
acting vertical engines, with one high and one low pressure
cylinder, became the common type for all ships. The boiler
pressure, moreover, in 1854, had been raised to 42 Ib per sq. in.
The further change, accompanying still higher pressures of steam,
from compound to triple-expansion engines was, like many other
changes, foreseen and in some measure adopted by various
workers at about the same time, but the first successful applica-
tion of the principle was due to Dr A. C. Kirk. In 1874 he fitted
a three-crank triple-expansion engine in the Propontis. The
boiler used proved a failure, but in 1882 he fitted a similar set
of engines in the Aberdeen, with a boiler pressure of 125 Ib, and
the result was entirely successful.
Continuous improvements have enabled engineers to produce
machinery of less and less weight for the same power, and at
the same time to reduce the spaces required for its accommoda-
tion, the vibration due to the working of the engines, and the
consumption of fuel per horse power. For engines of high
power, quadruple expansion has sometimes been adopted,
while scientific methods of balancing have been employed,
improved qualities of steel and bronze have been introduced,
the rate of revolution has been increased, and forced lubrication
fitted. In the boilers higher steam pressures have been used,
superheating in some cases being resorted to; the rate of com-
bustion has been accelerated by supplying air under pressure
in the stokehold or in the furnaces, and in some cases by placing
fans in the exhaust to draw the air and products of combustion
more rapidly through the fires; the former being known as
forced draught and the latter as induced draught. In the Navy,
with the view of saving weight, water-tube boilers have been
adopted, but boilers of this type have not yet been generally
fitted in the mercantile marine. Steam pressures now in common
use vary from 100 to 180 Ib per sq. in. in cargo ships; from 140
to 220 Ib in passenger ships, including the large Atlantic liners;
from 210 to 300 Ib in large warships where water-tube boilers
are used; while in destroyers and other classes of warships in
1 The original propeller used by the " Rattler " is now to be seen
in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
which small tube water-tube boilers are used it varies from 180 to
250 Ib per sq. in.
A century ago the reciprocating steam engine was slowly
making its way as a means of propulsion as an auxiliary to,
or as a substitute for sail power the steam being obtained
by burning wood or coal. In 1815 nine small steam vessels,
having an aggregate tonnage of 786 tons, were built and registered
in the United Kingdom; in 1825 24 steam vessels were built,
having an aggregate of 3003 tons; in 1835 86 vessels were built,
having an aggregate of 10,924 tons. In 1910 the reciprocating
steam engine, after reaching a very high degree of perfection
and universal adoption, was being largely replaced by the
turbine, coal was being replaced to a considerable extent by oil
as a fuel for raising steam, and steam itself was being chal-
lenged as a motive agent by the development of the internal
combustion engine.
III. STATISTICS
For some years before 1870 the total tonnage of sailing ships
built each year in the United Kingdom had been about equal to
that of steam ships, but then a great change took place; necrea
541 sailing vessels, amounting to 123,910 tons, were . ...
added to the register of the United Kingdom, while 433 . * ag
steam ships, amounting to 364,860 tons, were added ; the
steam tonnage thus added being nearly three times that of sailing
vessels. A uniform rate of increase of production of steam vessels
was on the whole maintained after 1870, but, as will be seen by
referring to Table I. and fig. 3, considerable fluctuations have
occurred, the falling off in steam tonnage being simultaneous with
increases of sailing tonnage and vice versa down to 1895. The
dotted lines on fig. 3 show approximately the average output for
50 years of sailing and steam tonnage separately and combined.
Roughly speaking, it may be said that from 1860 to 1895 the output
of sailing tonnage fell from about 200,000 tons per annum to 100,000
tons; during the later 'nineties the falling off was more rapid, and
between 1900 and 1910 the output varied between 15,000 and 30,000
tons.
The average tonnage of the sailing vessels built in the United
Kingdom in 1860 was 206 tons; this increased with a fair
degree of regularity to 532 tons in 1890, 749 tons in 1891 Avera/^
and 963 tons in 1892, after which a rapid decrease took m
place, and by 1898 the average size had fallen to 75 tons; e ssei*
there were fluctuations after this date, but the average
never rose above 163 tons; and these vessels are practically
restricted to the coasting trade and pleasure purposes.
Although the building of large sailing vessels of wood and steel
has almost ceased in the United Kingdom, the sizes of the largest of
such vessels built abroad have continued to increase. Under the
influence of the shipbuilding bounties granted in France between
1895 and 1902 something like 150 sailing vessels of from 2000 to 3500
tons each were built, but few since. In Germany and in America
a few large sailing vessels continue to be built.
Lloyd's Register for 1841 gives a table of " the Steam Vessels
belonging to England, Scotland and Ireland in the years 1814 to
1839," which shows that in 1839 there were 720 vessels
of a total tonnage of 79,240 tons owned in the United ?!!!
Kingdom. Between 1839 and 1860 considerable numbers toaatae
of steam ships were built for various services, and the pro-
duction from 1860 is shown by fig. 3 and Table I. The tonnage
added to the Register in 1860 amounted to 93,590 tons, rising over
four years to 293,140 tons in 1865; after a gradual decline extending
over three years to 100,000 tons it again rose till 1872, when nearly
500,000 tons were added. In 1876 it had fallen to about 200,000
tons; then came the great rise extending to 1883, when it reached
a maximum of 885,495 tons. A rapid decrease followed, and in 1886
it had fallen practically to what it had been ten years before. In
another three years the figure was again what it had been in 1883;
and for a period of seventeen years, with much smaller fluctuations
than previously, great increases were maintained. In 1906 a maxi-
mum of 1,428,793 tons was reached, when another rapid fall occurred
over two years the minimum reached being 600,837 tons in 1908.
The fluctuations in output, shown by fig. 3, synchronize approxi-
mately with the improvements and depressions in trade.
The average tonnage of British steam vessels rose slowly from
80 tons in 1815 to 102 tons_ in 1830, and to 473 tons in 1860, reaching
a maximum of 1442 tons in 1882. During the next four
years it fell gradually to 896 tons, rising again to 1515 ,e
tons in 1890, and the average tonnage built since 1890 has s t ea
remained, with a certain amount of fluctuation, nearly S /MM.
1500 tons. These figures may be taken as roughly repre-
senting the average tonnage of the ships produced throughout the
world ; but as in these averages large numbers of comparatively small
vessels are included, the vast increase in the numbers of large-sized
vessels which have been built, especially during recent years, is not
adequately represented. Of the vessels built in 1890 only I % ex-
ceeded 8000 tons in displacement, whereas the vessels of over 8000
STATISTICS]
SHIP
871
TABLE I. Showing the Number, Tonnage (Gross and Average), and Description of all Vessels (excluding Warships) built in and
added to the Register of the United Kingdom during each year enumerated.
Year.
Mode
of
Propulsion.
Wood and Composkc.
Iron.
Steel.
Totals.
Average
Gross
Tonnage.
No.
Gross
Tonnage. 1
No.
Gross
Tonnage.
No.
Gross
Tonnage.
No.
Gross
Tonnage.
i860 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
786
49
154.130
7,050
32
149
14,290
86,540
818
198
168,420
93,590
206
473
1865 j
Sail . . .
Steam .
806
38
160,430
5-78o
116
344
88,970
287,360
922
382
249,400
293,140
270
767
1870 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
478
51
72,970
7,290
63
382
50,940
357,570
541
433
123,910
364,860
229
843
1875 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
373
66
46,060
8,740
193
291
206,110
281,390
566
357
252,170
290,130
446
813
1880 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
273
20
18,159
i,779
39
362
40,015
447,389
4
26
1,671
36,493
316
408
59,845
485,661
189
1190
1885 j
Sail . . .
Steam .
266
37
17,841
2,751
144
i?7
160,034
148,508
27
122
30,569
154,249
437
336
208,444
305,508
477
909
1890 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
142
26
7,704
1,326
6
no
5,9"
40,144
59
432
96,374
817,010
207
568
109,989
858,480
532
1515
1891 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
156
25
8,541
1,212
3
167
1,544
31,381
93
388
178,593
730,051
252
58o
188,678
762,644
749
1315
1892 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
151
19
8,372
I,O26
6
86
5,121
18,937
128
365
260,874
660,847
285
470
274,367
680,810
963
1449
1893 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
154
27
7,980
I.55I
4
64
418
12,458
66
328
"3,097
622,099
224
419
121,495
636,108
542
1518
1894 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
155
26
7,570
1,183
3
65
207
12,400
67
389
83,167
75L668
225
480
90,944
765,251
404
1594
1895 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
150
35
7,529
1,579
9
66
782
9,879
32
379
41,313
736,412
191
480
49,624
747,888
260
1558
1896 5
Sail . . .
Steam .
161
17
7,519
59i
5
79
792
n,593
36
398
37,709
750,106
202
494
46,020
762,290
228
1543
1897 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
183
33
8,317
i,58i
2
63
232
9,974
34
366
28,481
658,646
219
462
37,030
670,201
169
1451
1898 |
Sail . .
Steam .
196
20
8,813
765
6
80
798
13-654
40
546
8,456
996,814
242
646
18,067
1,011,233
75
1565
1899 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
165
29
7,342
1,497
2
6 4
182
12,184
60
534
",757
1,152,999
227
627
19,281
1,166,680
85
1861
1900 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
159
64
8,718
3,809
5
86
420
16,375
46
476
8,598
1,102,890
2IO
626
17.736
1,123,074
84
1794
1901 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
146
83
7,826
5,479
2
H
174
2,474
54
469
22,118
1,115,227
2O2
566
30,118
1,123,180
149
1984
1902 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
142
7i
7,479
4,098
32
5370
63
476
25,985
1.109,5"
205
579
33,464
i,"9,479
163
1933
1903 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
139
68
7, 6 37
4-034
3
537
60
538
15,077
943,333
199
609
22,714
947,904
"4
1556
1904 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
161
52
8,626
2,961
5
'827
5i
519
15,166
1,016324
212
576
23,792
1,020,112
112
1771
1905 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
130
45
7,962
1,840
2
147
36
567
7,125
1,204,293
1 66
614
15,087
1,206,280
91
1964
1906 \
Sail . . .
Steam .
104
no
5,731
6,242
2
I
330
79
42
660
8,810
1,422,472
148
771
14,871
1,428,793
IOO
1853
1907 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
121
196
7,oi7
15,069
45
629
8,228
1,182,566
1 66
825
15,245
1,197.635
92
1452
1908 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
108
142
4,931
9,056
!
97
483
58
415
18,468
591,298
167
558
23,496
600,837
141
1077
1909 |
Sail . . .
Steam .
75
92
3,362
3,88o
44
383
1 1 ,020
752,424
119
475
14,382
756,304
121
1592
The above table is based upon information supplied to Lloyd's Registry by the Registrar-General of Shipping.
1 As no actual returns are available for the gross tonnages for the years from 1860 to 1879 inclusive (only net tonnages having been
recorded), the gross for these years are only approximate, and are based on the relation of gross to net for the years 1883 and 1900
872
SHIP
[STATISTICS
ex
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1
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ri
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nd Total.
Tonnage.
(Net Ton-
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5
IP
5,058,678
^ M hT M M I-T
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5-
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Hi
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1,634,708
1
o
10 tO
DC
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15
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1
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33,093,992
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900,300
189,447
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320,929
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(United Sts
ilii [iiff i ill SiliB
STATISTICS]
SHIP
873
tons built in 1900 made up 12 % of the whole tonnage. In 1890
there were no vessels built whose displacement exceeded 9000 tons ;
in 1900 such vessels constituted n % of the whole, and about J %
of the whole were over 16,000 tons. The year 1908 was notable for
the number of large vessels launched; 10 British and 4 German
FIG. 3. Gross tonnage of all sailing and steam merchant vessels built in and
added to the register of the United Kingdom during each year from 1860 to 1910.
The dotted lines may be taken as representing the average production from
year to year.
vessels were launched whose tonnage averaged about 15,000 tons
each, their tons displacement being about 50 % greater. In 1910
there were afloat more than 80 vessels exceeding 12,000 tons, and
having an average tonnage of more than 15,500 tons each (see
Table XI. page 885). Six of these vessels were over 20,000 tons
and had an average gross tonnage of 25,640 tons each. The
tonnage of the largest vessels has almost continuously increased,
and vessels with a tonnage of 45,000 tons are now being built, the
fully loaded displacement of the vessels being more than 50,000 tons.
Fig. 4 shows the tonnage of wood, composite, iron and steel
vessels added to the Register year by year since 1860, and figures
_ for a number of the years are given in Table I. The
bat I tonna g e f wood and composite vessels added in 1860
'ood Iron was I6l ! l8 i increasing to 166,210 tons in 1865 and
sad steel tnen f a "' n S away at a fairly uniform rate until in 1880
only 19,938 tons were reported, and since that date
practically no increase in output of this class of tonnage has taken
place. The tonnage of iron ships produced in 1860 was about
63 % of that of wood ships; while wood shipbuilding fell off, iron
shipbuilding increased, and in 1870 the tonnage of iron ships was
more than five times that of wood and composite ships. The out-
put of iron ships increased until 1883, when a maximum of 856,990
tons was reached. Steel had now come into use, and iron shipbuild-
ing fell away rapidly, amounting only to 50,579 tons in 1888; this
figure fell to 10,679 tons in 1895, and since then very few vessels
have been built of iron. Steel, which had been used in shipbuilding
to a limited extent for special purposes for some eight years, came
into use for the hulls of merchant ships in the later 'seventies. In
1880 the tonnage built 38,164 tons was 4$ % of that of iron ships,
by 1885 the ratio was 60 %, and in 1890 the tonnage of steel ships,
913,484 tons, was just 20 times that of iron ships. From that date
the statistics of steel shipbuilding are practically those of steam
vessels above given.
From Table II., which gives the distribution of ownership of
existing merchant vessels and other vessels, excepting warships, it
appears that the total tonnage of the world's shipping,
excluding vessels under 100 tons and the wood vessels on
the Great Lakes of America, is about 42 millions. Of this
total, rather less than one-ninth is in sailing vessels, and
the remainder in steam vessels. Taking the number of
ships instead of their aggregate tonnage, the sailing
vessels are 27 % of the whole. Out of the 42 million tons,
Great Britain and her colonies own about 19 millions, or 45$ % of the
whole, 18 millions being steamers and I million sailing vessels.
The
world's
shipping:
tonnage
and distri-
bution of.
Denmark each with about I -8 %. The leading particulars as to the
distribution of ownership of the merchant shipping throughout the
world for 1873, 1890, 1900 and 1910 respectively are represented
graphically in the block diagrams given in fig. 5, which have been
constructed from particulars given in Table II. and similar tables
for the other years named. The total tonnage owned in
these years, excluding vessels under 100 tons and wood
vessels on the Great Lakes of America, is represented by
squares drawn to scale, in duplicate, and divided up
amongst the countries owning snipping in proportion to
their ownership. Parts of each holding are shaded in the
squares on the right so as to show what portion is
sailing tonnage and what steam tonnage, and in the
squares on the left so as to show the distribution of
the total as regards materials of construction in each
country. The total tonnage owned is given for each
year named, and the percentages owned by various
countries are tabulated between the pairs of squares.
The tonnage of the shipping of the world has advanced
at an increasing rate for many years; the character of
this advance may be gathered from the data given in fig. 5.
In 1873 Great Britain and her colonies owned 43-25%,
and in 1890 52-35%; but although the advance in the
shipping of Great Britain and her colonies has continued approxi-
mately at the same uniform rate, such has been the increasing
rate of the advance of the world's shipping that the percentage
owned by the British Empire fell to 49- 1 % in 1900 and to
45'36 in 1910. This increasing rate of advance of the tonnage of
the world's shipping is shown by Table III. The remarkable rate
at which the shipping of the United States and Germany has advanced
will also be seen.
TABLE III. Rate of Increase of the World's Shipping.
Year.
I873-
1890.
1900.
1910.
World's tonnage
(tons)
17-545,563
22,151,651
29,043,728
41,914,765
VVorld's tonnage
taking 1873 as
100 ....
IOO
126
165
240
Average rate of
increase per
annum from 1873
i-5 %
2-4 %
3-8 %
Proportion owned
by Britain .
43-25 %
52-35 %
49-1 %
45-36 %
Proportion owned
by United
States _ . . .
14-27 %
8-23 %
9-47 %
12-06 %
Proportion owned
by Germany
5-88 %
7-o8 %
9-13 %
to-34 %
FIG. 4. Gross tonnage of all wood, composite, iron and steel merchant
vessels built in and added to the register of the United Kingdom during each
year from 1860 to 1910.
Next to Great Britain, the largest shipowning country in the world
is the United States of America, with 5 million tons of shipping,
12 % of the total. Then come in order Germany, with nearly 45
millions, ioj% of the total; Norway, with 4-8%; France, with
4'5%; Italy, with 3-2%; Japan, with 2-7%; Holland, Sweden
and Russia with 2-4 to 2-1%; and Austria-Hungary, Spain and
Table IV. gives the output, for the year 1909, of merchant and
other vessels throughout the world, excluding warships, all ships
of less than 100 tons and the wood vessels of the Great , .
Lakes of North America. The block diagrams in fig. 6 are ouf uf
constructed in the same way as the diagrams in fig. 5, and " bias
are arranged to show the output of the principal ship-
building countries of the world in 1900 and in 1909, the reference
square for scale representing one-tenth the amount of that of fig. 5-
The total output for the year 1900 was 2,343,854 tons, of which
1,509,837 tons, or 65% of the whole, was built in the United
Kingdom; 303,339 tons or 13% was built by the United States of
America; 9-4% by Germany and 5'4% by France. In 1909 the
total output was 1,551,532 tons, of which 971,113 tons or 63-5%
was built in the United Kingdom; 178,402 or 11-5% was built in
the I'nited States of America; Germany built 8-1%; France only
3 % ; the output of Holland and Belgium has risen from
'38% in 1900 to 4-34% in 1909; and Japan appears
with 2-98% instead of about -6% in 1900.
American Shipping. Under the Registration Laws of
the United States vessels may be (a) registered; (b)
enrolled ; or (c) licensed. The proportion of vessels coming
under these three headings as given by the United States
Commissioner of Navigation, 3Oth June 1909, is shown
in Table V.
It will be seen that the Registered Tonnage includes
only vessels engaged in 'the Foreign Trade and in Whale
Fisheries, which amount in the total to 1633 vessels of
887,505 tons and include the smallest vessels crossing the
St Lawrence equally with ocean liners. Two hundred
and twenty-seven of the registered vessels are less than
loo tons, and only nine are over 10,000 tons, namely the
" Minnesota,"" Manchuria," " Mongolia," "Siberia "and
on the Pacific, and the " St Louis " and " St Paul,"
" New York " and. " Philadelphia " on the Atlantic routes. The
Enrolled Tonnage includes vessels engaged in the coasting trade and
local fisheries which are over 20 tons; and the Licensed Tonnage
vessels similarly engaged, but of a size not exceeding 20 tons. The
whole of the tonnage included is officially described as tonnage
Korea '
874
SHIP
[STATISTICS
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STATISTICS]
SHIP
SatLirtg
rs-39 %
References
Crea fBn &x* rttj Colonies 43 i?S
Germany ________ ...... 5HW
2-*
. ----------- -.23;
Russia.. ......
Greece. __________ ----- Z-<?6
Dcn.ma.rk. _ _________
Oifcer Countries ____
Steel Iron, VfoodbConfiosilc
02-5 47-4 '%
US. RmerUa. ________ S-2:
..... 47;
Italy --------- ....... - 3C9
3/la-t/l ---------------- 2-4
n/.
.tro-flu.nga.ry ____
-Tiirkey ---- ------- / o
Other Cou.n.C-ie. ___ 6
Woodfc
/ ro n, Comhos i fe
ica 49 t
UjS.Amcr-t.ca. 0-4V,
n. w O- /S (
/^Auatro-au.n,ga.ry / 43
" ce ^, -84
r Courvfric J_,.3 O8
f- Not I aw,dL e-42
ooo.oooTons
FIG. 5. Distribution of ownership of merchant shipping throughout the world. The tonnages are gross steam and net sailing as given m
ble II. for 1910. The tonnages for 1900 and 1890 are prepared on the same basis, while those for 1873 are gross steam and gros
Ta
sailing.
876
SHIP
TABLE V. Showing the Tonnage of the United States Shipping, yith June 1909.
[STATISTICS
Class.
Sailing.
Steam.
Canal.
Barge.
Total.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
(a) Registered:
Foreign trade ....
Whale fisheries ....
445
25
225,376
5,682
490
8
575-226
3-300
665
77,921
i, 600
33
878,523
8,982
Total .
(6) Enrolled:
Coasting trade ....
Cod and mackerel fisheries
470
231,058
498
578,526
665
77,921
1,633
887,505
3799
341
I-39I-965
33-232
6,327
91
4,099,087
7,979
745
80,951
2769
767,839
13,640
432
6,339,842
41,211
Total ....
(c) Licensed:
Coasting trade
Cod and mackerel fisheries
4140
1-425,197
6,418
4,107,066
745
80,951
2769
767,839
14,072
6,381,053
4672
430
50,986
3,835
4,241
484
58,470
5,162
156
1,744
9,069
914
111,200
8,997
Total ....
Grand Total ....
5102
54,821
4,725
63,632
156
1,744
9,983
120,197
9712
1,711,076
11,641
4,749,224
745
80,951
3590
847,504
25,688
7,388,755
documented in the United States, and the division is based on the
trade on which the vessels are employed, and not as in the United
Kingdom on the character of the vessels and their fitness to engage
in trade to distant countries or on more local service.
By the United States Navigation Laws all trade between
American ports no matter how far they are sepa/ated such
as New York to San Francisco, or from either of these ports
to Honolulu or Manila is declared to be coasting trade.
None but United States vessels are allowed to engage in this
trade, which in recent years has developed so rapidly as to
employ the main part of the American Mercantile Marine;
it demands large numbers of ocean-going vessels, and many
vessels have been transferred from the Foreign Trade to meet
the demand.
Lloyd's Register for 1909-1910 gives the following figures for
United States shipping, excluding all vessels under too tons and all
wooden vessels on the Great Lakes:
On Sea Coasts .
Northern Lakes .
Philippines .
Number.
Tons.
2899
583
1 08
2,791,282
2,118,276
44,254
3590
4,953,812
Large numbers of American vessels are not included in the American
Returns such as yachts, boats and lighters employed within the
Sfcc?
93.21
Iron Composite
O 6S-- fe 14
Sailing
11 Zt>%
147
Dtntrtarlf- , .79
fountrm t-so
Wood & C
\8< Colonies )
SAmtnca n-so
ermany 8-oe
"~~^Ol/i
Austria-Hungary
Countries 1
Scale
Steam
100,000 Tons.
FIG. 6. Merchant shipping built in each of the countries of the world in 1900 and in 1909. The tonnages are gross, and are based
on the figures given in Lloyd's Register; see notes appended to Table IV.
STATISTICS]
SHIP
877
limits of any harbour; canal boats and barges without sails or
motive power employed entirely within any State; barges and boats
on the rivers and lakes of the United States which do not carry
passengers and do not trade to any foreign territory. None of these
vessels are registered, enrolled or licensed. A census of shipping
taken in 1889 revealed the fact that at that date the tonnage of
these undocumented vessels amounted to just half the total shipping
of the United States; since then their numbers have greatly decreased
because of the improved means of transport by rail.
The distribution of the total documented shipping on the coasts
of the United States in 1909 is shown by Table VI. The Atlantic
TABLE VI. United States Shipping documented in /pop.
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts.
Porto Rico ....
Pacific
Hawaii
Northern Lakes .
Western Rivers .
Total . . .
No. of Ships.
Tons.
I7 ,203
3-378
43
3,199
1,782
3-500,394
8,740
915,357
10,120
2,782,481
162,663
25,688
7,388,755
Coasts employ 67% of the number and 47% of the tonnage; the
Great Lakes 12% of the number and nearly 38% of the tonnage.
The total includes a great number of wooden sailing vessels as shown
by Table VII., which also shows that the coasting trade employs over
1,000,000 tons of wooden steamships and over 3,000,000 tons of
steel steamships (Enrolled and Licensed vessels), while the steel
TABLE VII. Details of Ships documented in United States in /pop.
Steam.
Sailing.
Barges.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
No.
Tons.
Registered
Wood
349
149
9,431
1,712
71,474
307,052
i ,084 ,690
3,086,008
448
ll
9135
107
185,728
45,330
1,281,064
198,954
644
21
2804
121
72,277
5,644
687,924
8 1 ,659
Metal
Enrolled and Licensed
Wood
Metal
Total Documented Vessels .
Grand Total ....
11,641
4,749.224
9712
1.711,076
3590
847,504
. 25,688 Vessels. 7,388,755 Tons.
steamships in the Foreign Trade only reach a total of just over
500,000 tons (Registered Vessels).
Though the American Mercantile Marine has greatly varied in the
rate of its growth (see Table VIII.), very great increases have taken
place from time to time, and after 1880 the average rate of increase
was very considerable, the increase in thirty years amounting to
3,300,000 tons or over 80%. In the nine years 1900-1909 the
increase was 2,220,000 tons, which is more than 40% of the total in
TABLE VIII. Growth of United States Shipping.
Total Tons.
Increase in Ten Years.
Documented.
Tons.
Percentage.
1790
478,377
i8oo
972,492
+494,H5
+ 103-3
1810
1,424,783
+452,291
+46-5
1820
1,280,167
144,616
IO-I
1830
1,191,776
-88,391
-6-9
1840
2,180,764
+988,988
+82-9
1850
3,535,454
+ 1,354,690
+62-1
i860
5,353,868
+ 1,818,414
+5I-4
1870
4,246,507
1,107,361
2O-6
1880
4,068,034
-178,473
-4-2
1890
4,424,497
+356,463
+8-8
1900
5,164,839
+740,342
+ 16-8
Increase in Three Years.
Tons.
Percentage.
1903
6,087,345
+922,506
+ 17-9
1906
6,674,969
+587,624
+ 97
1909
7,388,755
+713,786
+ 10-7
1900. The increase of the general commerce of the United States in
these periods was, however, so vast that, notwithstanding the great
increases of tonnage, increasing proportions of the tonnage were
absorbed by the home or coastwise trade, and the percentage of
United States shipping carrying United States commerce to foreign
ports was steadily reduced, as shown by Table IX.
From 1895 to 1908 very great progress was made in the output of
ships in the United States; in 1901 a maximum of 483,489 tons was
reached; decreases occurred until 1905, when a minimum of 330,316
tons was reported, but a rapid recovery took place; and in 1908 the
unprecedented American total of 614,216 tons was made. In 1909
the output fell off. Out of a total of 1247 vessels of 238,090
tons, built and documented during the year ending June 30, 1909,
TABLE IX. Additions to and Employment of United States Shipping.
Period.
Average Tonnage
of Ships built per
Annum in the
United States.
Average percentage
of United States
Commerce carried in
United States Ships.
Average percentage
of United States
tonnage trading in
United States Ports.
1810
102,452
I8IO-I820
89,797
1820-1830
89,372
90-2
88-2
1830-1840
118,960
83-9
68-7
1840-1850
185,309
78-1
66-6
1850-1860
366,603
71-2
65-4
1860-1870
299,690
38-1
50-4
1870-1880
253,800
26-2
29-0
1880-1890
220,197
15-2
21-0
1890-1900
235,698
1 1 -2
22-5
1901-1903
462,824
8-7
22 -O
1904-1906
375,868
n-5
22-3
1907
47L332
10-6
22 -O
1908
614,216 '
9-8
22 -O
1909
238,090 2
9-5
22-O
1 Maximum recorded.
Lowest for ten years.
61,000 tons consisted of barges and canal boats, nearly 30,000
tons consisted of sailing vessels, 798 vessels of 47,353 tons are classed
as river steamers, 17 steamers of 84,428 tons were built in the Great
Lakes, and only 6 steam vessels of 16,427 tons were built for ocean
trade, while no vessel was registered as built for the foreign trade.
Canadian Shipping. A steamboat service between Montreal and
Quebec was commenced in November 1809, two years before the
" Comet " was set to work on the Clyde, and in 1816 the steamer
" Frontenac " commenced running on the Lakes and a number of
other vessels followed. During the middle of the igth century
Canada turned out large numbers of wooden ships, the output in
1874 being 487 ships of 183,010 tons. As wood shipbuilding dimin-
ished the output fell off. In 1900 only 29 steam and sailing ships
of over 100 tons were built, amounting in the aggregate to 7751
tons. Afterwards improvements took place, and in 1907 59 vessels
of 38,288 tons were launched. Among the largest ships built in
Canada are the passenger and freight vessel " Harmonic " of 5240
tons gross, and the " Midland Prince," a cargo vessel of 6636 tons
gross both built at Ontario. Smaller vessels are built to pass
through the canals from the lakes to the sea, such as the
" Haddington " of 1603 tons built at Toronto.
Japanese Shipping. Recent years have seen a considerable de-
velopment of shipbuilding in Japan. Several small vessels were
built previous to 1898, but in that year the " Hitachi Maru," a
steamer of 6000 tons;, was built by the Mitsu Bishi Works.
Lloyd's Register Reports show that in Jhe five-year period
1895-1899 there were launched 61 ships with a tonnage of 45,661 ; in
1900-1904, 279 ships (tonnage 138,052); and in 1905-1909, 414
(tonnage 252,512).
The figures quoted by various authorities for the amount of ship-
ping owned in Japan vary considerably, particularly as regards
sailing vessels. Large numbers of wood sailing vessels are, however,
passing away, their places are being taken by steel steamers of the
highest class in great variety and increasing tonnage, and the finest
and fastest vessels now on service in the Pacific Ocean are Japanese
liners built in Japan. Lloyd's Register shows that in 1900 Japan
possessed 503 steam vessels of 524,125 tons gross, while in 1908 she
possessed 86 1 steam vessels of no less than 1,150,858 tons an
increase of 120% in eight years.
German Shipping. For many years the mercantile marine of
Germany has progressed at a very great rate, large numbers of
vessels being built in Germany and in the United Kingdom for
German owners. The average output in Germany per annum from
1895 to 1899 was 84 ships of a total tonnage of 139,000 tons; from
1900 to 1904, 114 ships of 204,600 tons; and from 1905 to 1909, 149
ships of 241,000 tons. The total net tonnage owned in 1870 was
about 982.000 tons, and this was doubled by 1900, i.e. in thirty
years. The total tonnage of Germany in 1900 was 2,905,782 tons,
taking gross steam and net sailing tonnage; in 1910 the total on
the same basis was 4,333,186 tons, an increase of nearly 50% in the
ten years.*
IV. MERCHANT VESSELS
Sailing Ships. Generally speaking, so far as the distribu-
tion of sails is concerned, except as regards the abolition of
studding-sails, the sailing ships of to-day differ little from
those which existed in the middle of the igth century, and in
the case of many types at a much earlier period. The change
from wood to iron and steel resulted, of course, in some changes
878
SHIP
[MERCHANT VESSELS
in rig, to suit the longer and larger vessels; and steel masts,
with wire rope standing rigging and various labour-saving
appliances, have been introduced. The larger ships also carry
steam winches for various purposes, steam windlasses, and steam
steering gear, but the general appearance of the vessels has
changed very little.
Barges. Rivers and canals abound with barges of various types,
such as the Thames barge, the Tyne wherry or keel, and the Dutch
galliot or pink. The Thames barge, which may be taken as a repre-
sentative vessel of this class, has a length of from 70 to 80 ft., and a
carrying capacity of from 100 to 120 tons on about 6 ft. draught.
Like the Dutch galliot, she is provided with lee-boards, and is fore-
and-aft rigged with sprit-sail and jigger.
In recent years the use of barges or lighters has been extended
beyond river and canal service, and rapidly increasing numbers
are now used, in addition, for sea transport. For example, on the
east coast of England lighters of about 500 tons carrying capacity are
used in the coal trade. The system has been carried much farther
on the Great Lakes of North America, where cargo barges are in
use of over 350 ft. in length, and approaching 5000 tons displace-
ment when loaded. On the east coast of the United States barges,
built sometimes of wood and sometimes of steel, are employed,
carrying from 2000 to 4000 tons of coal, oil, grain, &c.
Smacks or Cutters. This type of rig is still largely adopted in
the merchant service for small vessels, usually called smacks, of
a length, say, from 60 to 90 ft., and a displacement from 150 to
200 tons. They are single-masted, sharp-built vessels, provided
with fore-and-aft sails only, and fitted with a running bowsprit ;
they have no standing jib stay. Such vessels were at one time
generally used for coasting passenger traffic. The term " cutter "
is also applied to an open sailing boat earned on board ship.
Schooners, Brigs and Brigantines. A schooner (fig. 7, Plate I.) is
usually a two-masted vessel, with yards only on the foremast and
fore-and-aft sails on the main. The foresail is not bent to the yard,
but is set flying. In some cases there are no yards at all and the
schooner is then called a fore-and-aft schooner, a schooner with
yards being sometimes called a square-rigged schooner. Before the
days of steam, two- and three-masted schooners, known as
" Fruiterers," were extensively employed in the fruit trade from the
Western Islands, Italy, Malta and other orange-growing countries to
London. In the 'fifties as many as three hundred were thus em-
ployed ; they kept their place till the 'eighties, and some even yet
survive the introduction of steam as a motive power. They were
beautifully modelled craft, and very fast under canvas. A brig is a
two-masted vessel having yards, or square-rigged on both masts. A
brigantine is a two-masted vessel having the foremast square-rigged,
as in a brig, the main mast being rigged as in a schooner. M uch of the
coasting trade of the world is carried on by schooners, brigs and
brigantmes. These vessels were formerly employed in the Baltic,
and to some extent in the West Indies and the Mediterranean.
Schooners such as the above are usually from 80 to 100 ft. long, 20 to
25 ft. broad, 10 to 15 ft. deep, and have a gross tonnage of 130 to
200 tons. Brigs are generally larger, varying in tonnage from 200 to
350 tons; they are from 90 to 115 ft. long, from 24 to 30 ft.
broad, and from 12 to 18 ft. in depth of hold. Brigantines usually
occupy, as to size, a position intermediate between schooners and
brigs.
Vessels somewhat larger than two-masted schooners and brigs,
but of a similar form, are often rigged as three-masted schooners and
as the so-called barquentines. The former is like a schooner with
a third or mizzen mast added, this being rigged fore and aft, as is
the main mast. The latter resembles a brigantine with a third
mast added, which is also fore-and-aft rigged. The two rigs thus
very nearly resemble each other: both types are square-riggea on the
foremast, and fore-and-aft rigged on the main and mizzen; but
while in the former the foresail is set flying, in the latter it is bent
to the yard.
Larger vessels than these are sometimes fitted with four, five, six
and even seven masts, as fore-and-aft schooners. A large number
of vessels fitted in this manner are much in favour for the coasting
trade of America. Fig. 8 (Plate I.) shows the " Helen W. Martin,
a five-masted wooden schooner, built in 1900 in the United States;
she is 280 ft. 6 in. long, 44 ft. 9 in. broad and 21 ft. depth of hold,
and her gross tonnage is 2265. Another vessel built at the same time,
also of wood, and named the " Eleanor A. Percy," is 323 ft. 5 in.
l n K. 5 ft- broad and 24 ft. 8 in. depth of hold, with a gross tonnage
of 3402; she is rigged as a six-masted schooner. An interesting
vessel of this class was the seven-masted schooner, " Thomas W.
Lawson," built in 1902 by the Fore River Ship and Engine Co.,
Quincy, Massachusetts, of steel, 368 ft. long, 50 ft. beam, 34$ ft.
depth of hold, and on adraughtof 26ft. 6 in. of 10,000 tons displace-
ment, thus being the largest vessel yet constructed for sailing only.
She was recently wrecked on the Scilly Isles.
Barques and Ships. Vessels intended to sail to all quarters of
the globe are usually rigged as barques or ships; but, as indicated
above, these rigs are very far from embracing all those in use; many
others are very common. A barque is a three-masted vessel, square-
rigged on the two foremost masts (the fore and main masts) and fore-
and-aft rigged on the mizzen mast. A ship (a ship-rigged vessel) has
three masts, each of which is square-rigged. These were the rigs
employed in types of vessels now fast passing away, if indeed they
must not be considered as already obsolete, in which great speed
was the quality chiefly aimed at, and carrying power was of secondary
importance. For instance, the "Phoenician, 1 built in 1852, had a
length of 150 ft. and a net tonnage of 478; the " Shannon," bui't in
1862, was 217 ft. long and her tonnage 1292. The former made the
quickest run on record, up to 1852, from Sydney to London, ac-
complishing the distance in 83 days; and the latter made a round
voyage from Melbourne to London and back from thence to Sand-
bridge Pier in 5 months and 27 days, handling two full cargoes in the
time. The American ship " Witch of the Wave." built in 1852, and
the British ship " Cairngorm," built in 1853, were engaged in the
keen competition carried on between Great Britain and the United
States for the rapid conveyance of early teas from China to London.
The American builders had for some years been more successful than
the British builders, and the "Cairngorm" was the first ship which
equalled the American ships in speed, and it was, moreover, claimed
for her that she delivered her cargo in better condition than the
American ships. She was 2 1 5 ft. long, and her tonnage was 1 250 old
measurement, or 938 new measurement. The " Witch of the Wave "
on her best voyage made the passage from Whampoa to Dungeness
in 90 days, the best day's run being 338 knots in 24 hours, a very re-
markable performance. Later, in 1856, the " Lord of the Isles " beat
the two fastest American clippers then existing in a race from China
to Great Britain, one of them only by a few minutes; her length was
183 ft., and her tonnage, new measurement, 630. It is noteworthy
that the competition in bringing the early teas home from China,
started between British and American ships, was carried on subse-
quently between British ships alone. In the memorable race of
1866 from Foo-Chow to London, five ships, the " Ariel," " Taeping,"
" Serica," "Fiery Cross" and "Taitsing" took part. The first
three left Foo-Chow the same day the Ariel " first, followed 20
minutes later by the " Taeping " and " Serica " together. The
vessels separated, and lost one another till they reached the English
Channel, when the " Ariel " and " Taeping " got abreast, and raced
to the Downs, the former arriving some ten minutes before the latter,
the " Serica " reaching the Downs a few hours later. These three
occupied 99 days on the voyage; the " Fiery Cross" and " Taitsing "
took two days longer, making the passage from Foo-Chow to the
Downs in 101 days. The best day's run on the passage for all these
ships differed but little, the " Fiery Cross " showing a slight superi-
ority in this respect, having run 328 knots in the 24 hours. The time
occupied in the above voyages was beaten in 1869 by the " Thermo-
pylae " and "Sir Lancelot," both British ships and of composite
build ; the times occupied by their passages were respectively 90
days from Foo-Chow to Dungeness for the former, and 88 days from
Foo-Chow to Deal for the latter, each taking one day more to get
into the docks. The dimensions of the " Thermopylae " were 212 ft.
by 36 ft. by 21 ft. depth of hold, and of the " Sir Lancelot " 197$ ft.
by 33i ft. by 21 ft. The best day's run of the " Sir Lancelot was
354 knots in 24 hours. Shortly before the above voyage the
' Thermopylae " made the passage from London to Melbourne in an
unprecedented ly short time, namely, 62 days from Gravesend to
Port Phillip harbour. With the opening of the Suez Canal and the
general introduction of steam, the demand for exceptionally fast
sailing vessels of these types has very considerably diminished, and,
indeed, almost ceased to exist. The type of cargo sailing ship usually
met with to-day is better illustrated by fig. 9 (Plate I.), which repre-
sents the " Victoria Regina," built of iron in 1881 at Southampton;
she is 270 ft. long and has a gross tonnage of 2006.
Ships with four and five masts were employed by several countries
during the igth century. Sometimes, in the case of four-masted ships,
these were square-rigged on the fourth or mizzen mast, and sometimes
fore-and-aft rigged ; in the latter case they were called four-masted
barques in Great Britain and shipentines in America. Five-masted
ships are sometimes square-rigged on the fourth mast and fore-and-aft
rigged on the fifth mast, and sometimes fore-and-aft rigged on both
of these masts. The Naval Chronicle, vol. vii. (1802), contains par-
ticulars of the French privateer " L'Invention," which was captured
by the British ship " Immortalite " ; she was rigged as a four-masted
ship, carried 26 guns, and had a complement of 220 men. It is re-
markable how little her rig differs from that of modern vessels.
A five-masted vessel is described in the same number of the Naval
Chronicle which was square-rigged on the foremast and fore-and-aft
rigged on_the other four masts; she was apparently a forerunner of
the American five-masted schooner of the present day. The shipen-
tine clipper " Great Republic," built in 1853, is noteworthy as being
the first ship fitted with double topsails, now so generally adopted^
She was 305 ft. long and her tonnage was 3400; she could spread
40,500 square ft. of canvas, excluding stay-sails; she had four decks
and was built of wood, though her framing was diagonally braced
with iron. The shipentine " Madeleine," built in France in 1896, is
almost identical in rig to the " Great Republic " ; her length is 321 It.
and her gross tonnage 2892. A five-masted barque " France, built
in Glasgow in 1890, is 361 ft. long and has a gross tonnage of 3942.
As further examples of the large sailing ships built in recent years
may be mentioned the " Astral and " Potosi." The " Astral " was
built byArthurScwall&Co.at Bath, Maine, in 1900, for the oil trade.
SHIP
PLATE I.
XXIV.8 7 8.
PLATE II.
SHIP
MERCHANT VESSELS]
SHIP
879
She is a full-rigged four-masted ship, 332 ft. long, 45i ft. beam, 26 ft.
moulded depth, gross tonnage 3292, and intended to carry 1,500,000
gallons of oil in cases of 10 gallons each from the United States to
Shanghai, returning with cargoes of sugar, hemp, &c. The masts
and yards of this vessel, as well as the hull, are of steel. The five-
masted German barque " Potosi," built in 1895, which is 366 ft. long,
has a gross tonnage of 4027 and a dead-weight capacity of 6200 tons;
she has a splendid record of quick passages, one reducing the record
from Portland Bill to Iquiquc to 62 days. In 1902 the five-masted
ship-rigged vessel " Preussen," of 5081 tons gross, was built in
Germany (wrecked at Dover in November 1910), followed in
1906 by the five-masted barque " R. C. Rickmers " of 5548 tons
gross, 441 ft. long over all, 53 ft. 8 in. beam, 30 ft. 5 in.
depth of hold; her displacement when loaded is about 11,400
tons, of which 8000 tons are cargo. She carries 50,000 sq. ft. of
canvas, and on her first voyage reached a speed of 15* knots for a
short time under sail alone, maintaining 13 knots for long periods.
Although fitted with auxiliary steam power the " R. C. Rickmers "
usually trusts wholly to canvas on her ocean voyages, and may thus
be considered the largest sailing vessel afloat in 1910.
As instances of the times occupied on the voyages of modern
sailing ships the following may be given: 66 days from Iquique
in Chile to the English Channel by the British ship " Maxwell," gross
tonnage 1856; 29 days from Newcastle, New South Wales, to
Valparaiso by the British four-masted ship " Wendur," 2046 gross
tonnage; 30 days from the Lizard to Rio de Janeiro by the British
ship " Salamanca," of gross tonnage 1233; and 78 days from Dover
to Sydney for the same ship; 153 sailing days for a voyage round
the world, made up of 50 days from Cardiff to Algoa Bay, 28 days
from Algoa Bay to Lyttleton, and 74 days from Lyttleton to the
Lizard, by the British ship " Talavera," gross tonnage 1796; 59 days
from Cape Town to Iquique by the British ship " Edenballymore,"
of gross tonnage 1726; 88 days from San Francisco to Queenstown
by the British four-masted barque " Falls of Garry," of gross tonnage
2102; and 69 days from Scilly to Calcutta by the " Coriolanus,"
gross tonnage 1074. Amongst the voyages recorded recently by
German ships the following may be enumerated: 58 days from
the English Channel to Valparaiso by the four-masted barque
" Placilla," gross tonnage 2845; 71 days from the English Channel
to Melbourne by the barque " Selene," gross tonnage 1319; and 69
days from the English Channel to Adelaide by the four-masted
barque " Hebe," of gross tonnage 2722.
Although alterations in the rigs of ships have not caused much
difference in their appearance over a very long period, a number
of changes have been made, mostly for the purpose of saving
labour. The mechanical reefing of topsails and top-gallant
sails was introduced about 1858, but only remained in favour
for a few years; double topsails, on the other hand, first used in
l he four-masted American shipentine clipper " Great Republic,"
have held their own, and double top-gallant sails have since been
adopted. Until about 1875 almost all ships carried studding-
sails, but since this date they have been gradually discontinued,
and at present are usually only to be found in training vessels,
and now and again in square-rigged yachts. As already stated,
wire rope has been adopted for standing rigging, and deadeyes
and lanyards have given place almost universally to rigging
screws. Masts and the heavier yards have been made of iron
for many years, and more recently of steel, and the lower masts
and top masts have in a number of cases been made in one length;
when constructed in this manner the mast is termed a pole mast.
This arrangement is very common in America, where the latest
steel sailing ships are so fitted. Most large sailing ships carry a
steam boiler or boilers, and engines are provided for all sorts
of purposes, for which hand labour used to be commonly em-
ployed. The result of this and other labour-saving arrangements
has been to effect a very considerable reduction in the number
of hands carried. As indicating the nature of the change which
has taken place, it may be mentioned that whereas a looo-ton
ship of the East India Company in the middle of last century
had a crew of 80 all told, a modern four-masted barque of 2500
tons has a total complement of 33 only.
As to the employment of sailing ships, there can at the present
day be seen at most large shipping ports a number of sailing
ships of various types and sizes. ' Some of the largest ships
are employed in the jute trade of India, the grain trade of
California, British Columbia, &c., the nickel ore trade from New
Caledonia and the nitrate trade of Chile. From Great Britain
they usually take out coal, which, however low freights may be,
may in nearly all cases be relied on.
Sailing ships are sometimes provided with auxiliary steam
propelling machinery of low power to save cost of tugs in getting
in and out of harbour, to make headway when becalmed,
and to increase the safety of the vessel. In the early days
of steam, all sea-going vessels retained their rig, and the
machinery fitted was only regarded as auxiliary. In sailing
the " Savannah " the first steam vessel to cross the ships wit ii
Atlantic the paddle wheels were portable; they were 'ixttiary
removed and packed up on board in case of bad weather po>
or when attempting a long voyage, but were replaced and used
for getting into port after crossing the Atlantic. The screw
propeller was found preferable in such cases, as it offered less
obstruction than paddle wheels when the sails were set and the
engines stationary; but the resistance offered by the screw
when not in use led to various devices for either lifting it com-
pletely out of the water, or for " feathering " the blades and
fixing them fore and aft, so as to offer less obstruction in going
through the water. Auxiliary power is of great advantage
to vessels engaged in seal or whale fishing as it enables them
to avoid ice floes, and to proceed through open channels in the
ice as opportunity offers. In 1902, six such vessels all barque
rigged, and one fitted with a lifting propeller hailed from Dundee,
and a few others hailed from Norway, from Newfoundland and
from New Bedford, U.S.A. Several navies have employed vessels
fitted with auxiliary steam power for training purposes, such as
the Chilean training ship " General Baquendo " built in 1899 of
steel, sheathed with teak and coppered; she is 240 ft. long,
45i ft. broad, and of 2500 tons displacement on a mean draught
of 18 ft.; she has a large spread of canvas, and under steam alone
is equal to a speed of 13 knots. In recent years the internal com-
bustion motor has been adopted in some cases in place of the
steam engine as a source of auxiliary power, especially in the
smaller classes of sailing ships, and in many cases it has made
the employment of such vessels remunerative once more. Should
the heavy oil engines introduced in 1910 prove sufficiently simple
and reliable for auxiliary power in the larger vessels, vessels
so fitted might compete successfully with tramp steamers in
certain trades.
Steamships. Of merchant steamships, vessels of all sizes are
to be met with, from a small launch to the stately Atlantic
liner of over 30,000 tons gross and 25 to 26 knots speed, and
the huge cargo ship of over 20,000 tons gross and 15
knots speed. They are employed on every service for which
sailing ships are used, and upon others for which sailing ships
are not employed, and they monopolize nearly the whole of the
passenger traffic of the world. The passenger vessel is provided
with airy and spacious accommodation for her living freight
above water, while the upper part of the cargo vessel is cut down
as much as possible consistent with due provision for safe naviga-
tion at sea. The passenger ship thus becomes a lofty vessel,
especially amidships, while the cargo ship appears long and
low lying. Apart from this broad difference, the various sizes
of merchant steamships have in general no bold characteristic
features like sailing ships; they possess different deck structures
and certain differences in form, but, to the ordinary eye, a
photograph of a vessel of, say, 1000 tons, apart from details of
known size that may serve to fix the scale, may often be taken
to represent a vessel of even ten or twenty times the size.
Types of Steamships. A steam vessel may be little more than an
open boat with the boiler and engines placed amidships if intended for
river use, and may be of any shape necessary to suit local conditions
and fulfil the services required. Vessels which proceed to sea must
be decked over to prevent them from being " swamped " and built of
a suitable form to make them otherwise seaworthy ; the height of the
deck above water, or the freeboard, will be increased, and the sides
carried up above the deck; these topsides meet at the extremity of
the vessel, and as the size of the vessel increases or larger seas have to
be encountered the topsides are covered in forward and aft to further
improve the sea-keeping qualities of the vessel. If only a short
portion is so covered in, the covering is often rounded off along its
sides and is then termed a turtle back, or monkey forecastle, when fitted
forward, and a turtle back, or hood, when fitted aft; if made larger
and of sufficient height above the upper deck to be serviceable for
accommodation forward it is called a top gallant forecastle, and aft a
poop. It is frequently desirable to build up cabins or other accommo-
dation across the middle of the ship beneath the bridge, forming
88o
SHIP
[MERCHANT VESSELS
what is called a bridge house. Instead of fitting a turtle back or hood
aft, a break is sometimes made in the upper deck and the after
portion is raised a step higher than the midship portion, the after
portion is then called a raised quarter deck. If a poop be extended
forward to join the bridge house it is called a long poop. In very
many cases when a top gallant forecastle is fitted, the gap which
occurs between this forecastle and the bridge house is partly shut in
at the sides by the ship's topside plating; the space so formed is then
called a well, and the ship a well-decked ship.
Vessels arranged as above described are illustrated by figs. 10, 13,
14, on Plate II.; they include most of the vessels in the coasting
trades of Europe, and many of the smaller and medium sized
ocean-going cargo vessels. In larger vessels the forecastle, bridge
and poop decks are frequently joined to form a light continuous
going vessels to or from warehouses, and are frequently fitted so
that they can tow one or more dumb barges.
Many sea-going vessels are built to carry a particular cargo on one
voyage and a general cargo on the return voyage. This usually
results in their having certain features which adapt them for the
special cargo, and do not interfere materially with their carrying a
general cargo at remunerative rates. Ordinary cargo ships, or
" Ocean Tramps " as they are called, do a very large portion of the
world's cargo-carrying. They are mostly built of steel, and their
usual speed is from 10 to 1 1 knots. In the early 'nineties well-decked
vessels formed a large proportion of the total number; but ten years
later comparatively few of this type were being built, and these were
principally intended for the coal trade, or were comparatively small
vessels for coasting purposes. Partial awning-decked steamers, again,
FIG. ii. General arrangement of ore-carrying steamer " Vollrath Tham."
i. -Hold.
2. Discharging trunk.
3. Electric crane.
4. Skip, or bucket.
5. Discharging doors.
6. Crew's space.
7. Officers' quarters.
8. Stores.
9. Engine and boiler room.
10. Coal'bunker.
11. Loading hatch.
12. Slopes to discharging doors.
structure. The vessel is then termed a shade-decked vessel if the
ship's sides up to this level are not completely closed in. In still
larger ships the sides are completely built in, the deck made stronger,
other decks or deck houses are fitted above it, and the ship is called
an awning decked, spar decked, shelter decked or three decked vessel
according to the details of her construction. Above these strong
steel decks light promenade decks, suji decks and boat decks are
built according to the requirements of the accommodation for
passengers, &c.
Barges. The simplest cargo steamer is the steam barge or lighter,
often merely a long narrow box of wood or steel made small enough
Cargo- m section to pass through locks and canals, with the ends
ships. fashioned_more or less abruptly, and spaces allotted aft for
the machinery and forward for the crew. For service on
rivers and estuaries they are made larger and wider as the circum-
stances of draught and dock or wharf accommodation permit, the
bottoms being generally flat in order that they may ground safely
in tidal waters; they are used for transferring cargoes of sea-
which were much in favour at the same period, gave place, a decade
later, to other types; and vessels having a raised fore-deck went
entirely out of fashion, the tendency being to revert to flush-deck
vessels, having short poop, bridge house and forecastle.
Modern Developments. The last few years have been remarkable
for great development in special types of cargo vessels. While
the vessels have frequently been specially designed to meet the
requirements of the particular trades on which they are to be
employed, certain general features apply to the lines of their develop-
ment :
1. In order to accommodate the maximum cargo possible in vessels
of convenient size, the lines of the vessels have been filled out, giving
block co-efficients which are frequently over 80 % and in some of the
Great Lake freighters have reached 88 %.
2. Such portions of the ship above the water as do not contri-
bute usefully to carrying cargo, but would be measured for registered
tonnage, are cut down to the smallest amount consistent with the
provision of sufficient reserve of buoyancy and stability.
MERCHANT VESSELS]
SHIP
881
3. To provide for a return journey without a cargo, in addition
to the double bottom and peak tanks, large water ballast tanks are
provided abreast of and above the cargo spaces, and arranged so
that when ballasted down the metacentric height of the vessel is
not excessive. Much of the ballast is carried in side or wing
tanks extending to the upper or main deck, or in triangular tanks
beneath the main deck, ballast discharge valves or pipes being
arranged so that the tanks may be emptied by gravity when
practicable.
4. The holds have been cleared of obstructions such as pillars,
hold beams and web frames so that the stowage space for the cargo
is unbroken, the necessary strength being given by a heavier system
of framing of the ship and by the construction of the wing or side
tank bulkheads.
5. To facilitate rapid handling of cargo, hatches have been
increased in size and number, and special appliances fitted for
rapidly loading and unloading the vessel particularly, large
numbers of derricks or cranes, with convenient steam or electric
winches.
Several well-known types of cargo vessels have thus been pro-
duced, such as the " Mancunia " built by Messrs W. Gray & Co. at
West Hartlepool in 1898, with side-ballast tanks on McGlashan's
patent ; cantilever-framed vessels by Messrs Raylton Dixon & Co. on
Harrowby and Dixon's patents; trunk-deck vessels by Messrs
Rayner & Co., and turret-deck vessels by Messrs Doxford & Co. of
Sunderland. Fig. 10 (Plate II.) is a photo of a turret-deck steamer.
Her dimensions are: length 439 ft. 8 in., beam 51 ft. 7 in., gross
tonnage 5995 and net tonnage 3794 tons. Many such vessels have
been built; they have the reputation of being good dead-weight
carriers, and the shelf on each side of the central trunking can very
conveniently be used for carrying timber and for other purposes.
The " Echunga," built by Sir Raylton Dixon & Co. in 1907, is an
example of a modern cantilever-framed flush-decked vessel, she is
404 ft. long over all, 56 ft. beam, 23 -6 ft. moulded depth. On a draught
of 23 ft. 9 in. her displacement is about 12,000 tons and dead-weight
capacity over 8000 tons, while as regards space she has a stowage
capacity of more than 400,000 cub. ft. These results are obtained on
the low net register tonnage of 2245 tons, the gross tonnage being
4590 tons. The vessel has continuous upper and main decks, and the
underside of the wing tanks carried by the cantilever frames is at such
a slope that coal will naturally stow close up on being dumped
into the hold. The triangular wing tanks take 1350 tons of water
ballast and the double bottoms and the fore- and after-peaks take
1850 tons.
The " Herman Frasch," a modern American cargo vessel of 3804
tons, gross, built in 1909 by the Fore River Shipbuilding Co., Quincy,
Massachusetts, for the sulphur trade, is a single-decked vessel, with
triangular side ballast tanks and fitted with a short forecastle which
carries the windlass gear, a bridge-house well forward to accom-
modate captain and navigating officers, a poop for firemen and crew,
and cabins above the poop for the engineer officers. Her dimensions
are: length 345 ft., breadth 48 ft. 3 in., depth of hold 27-1 ft. At a
draught of 23 ft. 6 in. her displacement is 8770 tons, of which 6125
tons may be dead-weight carried. Her engines are of 2100 I.H.P.,
are fitted right aft, and give her a speed of 10-5 knots.
An interesting cargo vessel of a different type is the " Vollrath
Tham," recently completed by Messrs Hawthorn, Leslie & Co. for the
Swedish ore trade. She is 387 ft. long, 56 ft. 6 in. beam, depth 30 -9 ft.,
tonnage 5826 tons, gross, and dead-weight capacity 8000 tons.
Instead of the usual open hold arrangement she has been divided into
a series of hoppers and automatic discharging holds, and fitted with
10 electric discharging cranes. Trunks are provided in each hold,
through which buckets or skips of two tons capacity can be lowered
into position beneath discharging doors under the cargo hold. (Fig.
11 shows the general arrangement of this vessel.)
Great Lake Freighters. The greatest development of cargo handling
the world has yet seen is, however, to be found in North America,
where the Great Lake freighters have been built to meet the rapidly
growing trade in iron ore, coal and grain. Some of these vessels
are 600 ft. or upwards in length, 60 ft. beam, and 32 ft. moulded depth,
and on a draught of 20 ft. can carry 12,500 tons of coal or ore or
450,000 bushels of grain. The hatches of these vessels are 12 ft.
apart, and are so wide that the holds are self-stowing. The holds are
quite unobstructed fore and aft, and built with flat bottoms and
vertical sides, so that practically the whole of the ore can be removed
by clam shell grabs. For loading, the vessels are brought alongside
huge stacks of ore stored on long lofty piers called ore docks; these
docks are provided with shoots from which the cargo is run into the
ships by gravity, thus loading large vessels in two hours. When unload-
ing at the Cleveland end of the voyage the cranes and transporters
fitted ashore can hoist out the cargo of 12,500 tons in ten hours, using
grabs of 5 to 15 tons capacity. The propelling machinery is placed
right aft and develops from 1800 to 2200 H.P., giving a speed of from
10 to 12 knots. They are well equipped with auxiliary machinery
including steam steering gear, steam winches and hoists, pumps and
electric light. The wheel-house and bridge are fitted at the after end
of a short forecastje ; the officers are accommodated forward and the
crew aft, both being provided with excellent quarters (see fig. 15,
Plate II., and fig. 16).
Colliers. In a number of cases vessels are built to carry special
xxiv. 28 a
cargoes; coal carrying vessels, colliers, are well-known examples of
this class. One of the first colliers to be fitted with steam-engines
was the sailing vessel " Q.E.D.," built at Wallsend in 1844, and fitted
by Messrs R. & W. Hawthorn with auxiliary machinery of 20 N.H.P
driving a screw propeller. She was constructed of iron, had an over-
all length of 150 ft. with a breadth of 27$ ft. In certain respects she
was a remarkable vessel, for she was fitted with a double bottom,
the space between the bottoms being divided into tanks and arranged
for water ballast, a system which has since been re-invented and is
now common in colliers and in most cargo ships. The advantage of
the arrangement in colliers is especially great, as they usually carry
a full cargo one way and return empty ; in their light condition
sufficient water ballast can be at once added to make them sea-
worthy, and this at the end of the voyage can be pumped out at a small
cost. It was not until about 1852 that steam alone began to be relied
on for propelling colliers; in that year the iron screw collier, " John
Bowes, ' was built by Messrs Palmer of Jarrow ; she was 152 ft. long,
26 ft. 4 in. beam, had a dead-weight capacity of about 540 tons, was
fitted with temporary tanks for water ballast; had machinery of
70 N.H.P. placed right aft; and she took her cargo to London
in 48 hours. The saving in time and cost, as compared with the
transport of coals to London by the sailing colliers then in vogue,
was very great, and this led to the building of many other such
vessels.
In 1880 the ordinary steam collier carried 600 or 700 tons of cargo ;
a steady increase in size has been in progress, and the popular collier
of to-day carries about 3000 tons, while for long voyages vessels of
from 8000 to 10,000 tons capacity are used. While improvements
have been made in hull and machinery, so also have improvements
been made to enable the colliers' cargoes to be handled more rapidly.
Appliances have been adopted for emptying truckloads of coal into
the vessels when loading, and many arrangements have been devised
for discharging rapidly, but derricks and winches supplemented in
some cases by Temperley transporters are still generally relied on.
An interesting vessel in which special appliances have been fitted to
reduce the amount of hand labour in discharging is the " Pallion,"
built by Messrs Doxford & Sons in 1909. She is of the following
dimensions: length 269 ft., breadth 445 ft., depth 22 ft.; tonnage
2474 tons gross, 1307 tons net, and can carry 3100 tons on a draught
of 17 ft. 10 in. She is a single screw ship fitted with three cylinder
compound engines of 217 N.H.P. and 1200 1. H. P. fitted aft. Systems
of conveyor-belts are fitted so that the cargo can be delivered direct
into trucks ashore or into barges or other vessels alongside by steam
power, and under trial conditions at Sunderland the rate of discharge
was found to be 1000 tons per hour.
Oil Tank Steamers. These form another class of vessels built for a
particular cargo, and their construction and the character of the
material carried are such that they cannot ordinarily be used for other
purposes. In 1863 two sailing tank vessels were built on the Tyne.
In 1872 Messrs Palmer built the " Vaderland," which appears to have
been the first oil tank steamer. The oil carrying steamer ' ' Zoroaster ' '
was built in 1877 in Sweden and in 1910 was still on service. She was
built of steel of length 184 ft., breadth 27 ft., draught 9 ft., and had a
loading capacity of 250 tons. The oil tanks in the " Zoroaster " were
separate from the hull, but after successful trials other vessels were
built for Messrs Nobel Bros, in which the skin plating itself formed
the tank. In 1886 Messrs Armstrong, Whitworth & Co. built the
" Baku," and since that date large numbers of steamers have been
built for this trade, the majority of them having been built by the
Armstrong firm. Many of these steamers are of large dimensions
while some are comparatively small. On the Caspian Sea, for instance,
numerous small steamers are employed conveying oil from the Baku
district to other ports, and to towns along the Volga; and in other
places small steamers are used for the local distribution of oil brought
across the ocean and stored in large depots. Such a small steamer is
the " Chira," built by Smith's Dock Company in 1900, ; in size and
appearance this vessel resembles a steam trawler, she is 95 ft. long,
19 ft. 3 in. beam, depth moulded 7 ft. 9 in., 108 tons gross, 46 tons net
tonnage. The fish hold is in this vessel replaced by a tank for carrying
oil in oulk and a hold for case oil. Vessels of 6000 to 12,000 tons
carrying capacity are now preferred by the large companies for trans-
porting oil over very great distances on account of their relatively
great economy. Fig. 12 shows the general arrangements of a typical
modern oil tank steamer. As an example of a large oil vessel, the
" Pinna," engaged in carrying petroleum from Russian ports to the
East, may also be mentioned. She is 420 ft. long, 52 ft. broad, and
32 ft. deep, and can carry 9000 tons of oil in her fully-laden condition.
The machinery is placed well aft, and the cargo space is divided up
into twelve large tanks, extending to the height of the main deck, by
seven transverse bulkheads and a longitudinal middle-line bulkhead.
The spaces between the transverse bulkheads are called Nos. I, 2, 3,
4, 5 and 6 holds respectively, and each hold has a port and a star-
board tank. Each tank is provided with an expansion trunk, in
order that the free surface of the oil may always be small, however
much the bulk of the latter may expand or contract with changes of
temperature.
Motor Tank Vessels. Several oil tank vessels have been fitted with
internal combustion engines instead of steam propelling machinery.
In 1903 the " Vandale and " Sarmat," capable of carrying 750 tons
of refined petroleum each, were built for Messrs Nobel Bros., and
5
882
SHIP
[MERCHANT VESSELS
fitted with Diesel motors of 360 H.P. More recently the " Emanuel
Nobel " and " Karl Hagelin " have been built for the same firm;
they are fitted with Diesel motors of 1200 H.P., are 380 ft. long,
combined, and is fitted with one deck, but has two tiers of beams.
B (fig. 14, Plate II.) is a vessel with a top-gallant forecastle, bridge-
house and poop, and a single deck. C is an awning-decked vessel
Hold.
FIG. 12. General Arrangement of a Modern Oil-Tank Steamer.
1, Crew space.
2, Cabins.
3, Engineers' cabins.
4, Store.
5, Chain locker.
6, Pump-room.
7, Water-ballast tank.
8, Fore-hold.
9, Coffer dam.
10, Oil-tank.
11, Boiler-room.
12, Engine-room.
13, Donkey boiler.
14, Galley.
15, Steering engine house.
1 6, Cargo hatch.
17, Oil and cargo hatch.
1 8, Coal shoot.
46 ft. beam, i6J ft. draught and carry 4600 tons of kerosene oil.
The large motor-driven vessels are arranged somewhat similarly to
the steam-driven oil-tank vessels, but with the machinery fitted in a
comparatively shorter space, no boiler room being then required.
Table X. gives the dimensions, carrying capacity and other
leading particulars of four cargo steamers of different types,
with two decks, but three tiers of beams. D is a shelter-decked vessel
of the highest class fitted with three decks and four tiers of beams and
having machinery of high power. E is an American lake steamer in
which the draught was limited to 20 ft., similar in many respects to
the smaller vessels shown in fig. 15 (Plate II.) and in fig. 16 below.
Besides the principal dimensions and light and load displacements,
TABLE X. Types of Cargo Carrying-Steamers.
When built . . . j
A.
Built in 1 88 1.
B.
Built in 1894.
C.
Built in 1897.
D.
Built in 1909.
E.
Built in 1909.
/
With Top-gallant
Type of Vessel .
Well-
decked.
Forecastle,
Bridge House
Awning-decked.
Shelter-decked.
American Lake
Steamer.
(
ana Poop.
Length ....
263' 6'
300' o*
470' o*
cie' o*
580' o'
Breadth .
IE' g
40' o*
470 u
CO O
6V o'
58' o*
Depth (moulded)
JO
20' 6'
23' 6'
J w
34' io"
*-*O u
38' o"
32' o'
Draught (without keel)
19' 3"
19' 2'
2/5*
28' o'
19' o'
Weight of steel or iron in hull ....
wood, outfit, &c
820 tons
166
3676 tons
59 ..
| 7650 tons I
4145 tons
300
propelling machinery ....
Total light displacement
184
1170 ,,
1620 tons
615
4800
2200 tons
9850
350
4795 ..
Load displacement . . ' . "V .
3740
553 ,.
16,710 ,,
18,350
15.795 ..
block coefficient
72
80
81
68
886
Ratio of light to load displacement
313
293
287
537
304
Dead-weight carried
Ratio of dead- weight carried to load displacement
2570 tons
687
3910 tons
707
11,910 tons
713
8500 tons
463
11,000 tons
696
Cargo capacity in cubic feet
115,000
170,000
680,000
650,000
Tonnage under deck ......
H36
2150
7038
8480
7100
gross
1816
2385
7296
I2.IOO
7268
net
1167
1500
4770
6780
5484
Water-ballast capacity
357 tons
500 tons
3346 tons
9464 tons
and one steamer carrying mails and passengers as well as a large
cargo. A is a well-decked vessel (fig. 13, Plate II.), having a top-
gallant forecastle with a long raised quarter-deck and bridge-house
the block " coefficients " corresponding to the load conditions are
given in Table IV., in order to show the fullness of form commonly
adopted in these vessels. The block coefficient is the ratio of the
MERCHANT VESSELS]
SHIP
883
volume of the immersed portion of the shio to the volume of the
parallelepiped, whose length, breadth and depth are the same as
the length, breadth and mean draught (without keel) of the vessel
itself; and it will be seen that in three cases out of the five given, the
immersed volume, i.e. the displacement, is 80, or upwards of 80%
of this circumscribing parallelepiped. The low speed, which is
I
their machinery of 500 I.H.P. is placed amidships and gives a speed
of 12 knots; two saloons are arranged forward and two aft with
access to a promenade deck from each, accommodation for 200
passengers' with luggage being provided. A light wooden awning
extends over all. These vessels are built of steel and divided into
eight water-tight compartments; they were built and put together
at Southampton, then taken to pieces, packed and shipped
abroad, re-erected and completed at Calcutta.
The largest ferry-boats are to be found in America, and
an interesting example is the " Hammonton " built in
1906 by the New York Shipbuilding Company. She is
1 68 ft. long overall, 38 ft. beam, 8 ft. 6 in. draught,
625 tons displacement. A feature of this vessel is that
TZH?:.:
"" -Jnlrj' I !j 7 , , A "' A I HI a " Details are arranged with the view to making the
!*....i..!.ir!-.....-......ji..~. [.....* i ...... I.... ../......ji 4--H/ vessel practically fireproof, wood fittings being reduced
^"^ to a minimum. The vessel is double-ended, carries over
a thousand passengers and a large number of horses and
8-8888888 B-5 K 8 8
FIG. 16. Plan of Great Lake Cargo Steamer.
A, Cargo hold.
B, Hatches.
C, Engine-room.
D, Boiler-room.
E, Coal-bunker.
F, Officers' Quarters.
G, Crew's space.
H, Water ballast.
K, Pilot-house.
found economical for the " ocean tramp," admits of this fullness, and
provides that capability for large stowage accommodation for cargo
which has brought it into existence. In vessels whose speed is of
great importance the block coefficient varies from -5 to -68, the lower
limit being reached on the smaller vessels on cross-channel services,
and the higher limit on very long vessels, such as Atlantic liners.
In the moderately fast vessel D shown in table the block coefficient is
68. The total weight of material in the hull, i.e. the iron or steel and
woodwork, outfit, &c. and the propelling machinery, is called the
vessel's light displacement. The load displacement is made up of the
light displacement, together with the weight of the cargo, &c., or
the dead-weight carried; this, it will be seen from Table X., varies
from two to two and a half times the amount of the light displace-
vehicles on one deck. As in many American river
vessels, the upper works extend to a considerable width
beyond the body of the hull beneath to give large deck
areas; the main deck being about 6 ft. above water and
55 ft. wide. Cart tracks are arranged along the midship
portions of the deck with passenger saloons, &c., at the
sides. A light shade deck extends forward and aft and
carries a pilot house near each end. Water-tube boilers
and three cylinder compound engines of 600 H.P. are fitted
beneath the deck amidships and drive a propeller at each end of the
boat. The " Oakland," " Berkeley " and " Newark " running at
San Francisco are much larger than the " Hammonton," and have a
seating capacity for 2000 people each, with a fine promenade deck
above the upper deck. The first two are fitted with beam engines
driving side paddle-wheels, while the third has a screw propeller at
each end of the vessel driven by vertical triple expansion engines.
Each of them burns oil fuel only.
River and Sound Steamers. For service on rivers, harbours and
estuaries where the traffic is considerable, paddle-wheel vessels of
limited speed are usually preferred, as possessing great manoeuvring
power, and therefore the capability of being brought alongside the
landing-places with rapidity and safety. The paddle- wheel steamer
FIG. 19. Great Lake Passenger Steamer " City of Cleveland," longitudinal section.
ment, except in case D in which the machinery and the passenger
accommodation absorb much weight. British vessels may not be
loaded deeper than a certain mark, known for many years as the
Plimsoll mark, which has to be placed on the sides of all merchant
vessels. The mode of measuring tonnage is based on the Act
of 1894, which embodies preceding legislation and subsequent Acts
(see TONNAGE).
The numerous varieties of passenger steamers may for convenience
be taken in the following order : Ferry ; River and Sound ;
Cross Channel; and Ocean Steamers; although it must
be understood that in many cases a hard and fast line
cannot be drawn between steamers for the several services.
Ferry Steamers. Ferry steamers are found on many rivers and
harbours in the United Kingdom; they perform important services
in transporting passengers and road traffic across sheltered waters
where bridges are not available ; and others are built in the United
Kingdom for service in all parts of che world. The " Guanabacoa,"
a double-ended steel vessel built by Messrs Cammell, Laird & Co., for
ferry service on Havana Bay, is 140 ft. long overall, breadth moulded
38 ft., depth moulded amidships 13 ft. 2\ in. Well-decorated saloons
12 ft. high extend along the sides of the vessel, and between them are
wood-paved tracks for 30 to 40 carts and horses. One thousand
passengers can be carried, and a fine promenade deck for them
extends over the saloons, &c. Above all a light sun deck extends
right fore and aft. Compound surface-condensing engines are
fitted with a screw propeller at each end of the vessel, which drive
her either way at from 10 to n knots. She made the passage to
Havana under her own steam. A number of ferry-boats have been
built by Messrs Thornycroft for service in India; they are 105 ft.
long overall, of 20 ft. beam, 10 ft. moulded depth and 5 ft. draught;
" City of Cleveland," midship section.
" La Marguerite," which formerly in the summer months made
trips from London to the coast of Kent and to France, now conducts
service between Liverpool and North Wales. She is 330 ft. long,
has accommodation for a large number of passengers, and ob-
tained 22 knots with 7500 I.H.P. on trial. Another well-known
Thames steamer is the " Royal Sovereign," of length 300 ft., breadth
33 ft., depth moulded 10 ft. 6 in., draught 6 ft. 6 in., tonnage 891 tons
gross, 190 tons net; carrying 2320 passengers at a speed of 21 knots.
SHIP
[MERCHANT VESSELS
Excursion steamers working round the coast are frequently of
similar type to this vessel, but of less length and less extensive open
promenade decks. A popular south coast pleasure steamer, built in
1909, is the paddle boat " Bournemouth Queen," shown in fig. 17
(Plate X.). She is 200 ft. long, 24 ft. breadth moulded and 48 ft. 6 in.
outside guards, 8 ft. moulded depth, tonnage 353 tons gross, 139 tons
net ; she can carry 610 passengers on a No. 3 certificate and 704 on a
No. 4 certificate. Her displacement at 5 ft. 2 in. load draught is 406
tons and her speed 15^ knots. The " King Edward," a steamer
which began to ply on the Clyde in 1901, is 250 ft. long, 30 ft. wide,
10 ft. 6 in. deep to the main deck, and 17 ft. 9 in. to the promenade
deck. She was the first passenger steamer to be driven by Parsons
steam turbine. Her speed is 20 knots. A second turbine steamer,
the " Queen Alexandra," began to run on the Clyde in 1902; she is
generally similar to the " King Edward," but larger and faster.
These vessels are popular because of their great speed and the
absence of vibration. They have been followed by others such as the
" Kingfisher " on the Thames and the " Atalanta " on the Clyde.
The latter being 227 ft. long, 27 ft. beam, depth 10 ft. 6 in., draught
5 ft. 6 in., displacement 520 tons and gross tonnage 400; the
machinery of 2500 H.P. gives a speed of 18 knots, and is of interest as
it was utilized for very extensive shop experiments to obtain data for
the construction of the turbines of the great Cunarders. Numerous
steamers of this class are to be found on the rivers and coasts of the
Continent, but the finest are employed on the rivers and harbours of
America, together with large numbers of a smaller class. Most of
the light-draught river steamers of the United States are built of
wood, but those employed elsewhere are usually built of steel. The
" Hendrick Hudson " (fig. 18, Plate III.), built of steel in 1906, one of
the most famous river boats of America, carries 5000 passengers, for
whom five decks, which have a breadth of 82 ft. the full width over
the paddle-boxes are set apart. She is 380 ft. long, 45 ft. breadth
moulded, 13 ft. 5 in. moulded depth, draught 8 ft., freeboard amid-
ships 6 ft. 3 in., tonnage gross 2847 tons. The old walking-beam
arrangement of engines, for many years a distinctive feature of
American river steamers, is in this vessel replaced by inclined, three-
cylinder, compound, direct acting engines; her feathering paddle
wheels are 24 ft. in diameter and 16 ft. 6 in. wide, and her speed is
22 knots.
Some of the boats of the Fall River Line are larger than the
" Hendrick Hudson " ; the " Puritan " is 420 ft. long, of 7500 I.H.P.
and 4650 tons gross; the " Priscilla," built in 1904, is very similar
to the " Puritan," but is 440 ft. long and 20$ ft. depth moulded ; her
moulded breadth is 52 J ft. and her decks extend to an extreme
breadth of 93 ft. ; her tonnage is 5292 tons gross ; the side wheels are
35 ft. in diameter and 14 ft. wide, driven by inclined engines of 8500
I.H.P., and running at about 24 revolutions per minute maintain a
speed of about 15 knots on service. A still larger vessel of the same
type is the " Commonwealth," which is 456 ft. overall; breadth of
hull 55 ft., breadth of decks outside guards 96 ft., horse power 1 1 ,000.
The Puritan," " Priscilla " and Commonwealth " run on night
service only to Fall River through Long Island Sound, and the
accommodation provided is very large; the " Priscilla," for instance,
can sleep 1500 persons besides her crew of over 200. In these vessels
the freeboard is carried to one deck higher than in the " Hendrick
Hudson," to enable them to accomplish the exposed ocean portion of
their passage with safety; and they form a link between the fast
river steamer and the fast cross-channel steamer. Similar passenger
vessels are employed on the Great Lakes, an example being the " _City
of Cleveland (fig. 19), built in 1908, of the following dimensions:
length overall 404 ft., breadth hull proper 54 ft., width over paddle-
boxes 92 ft. 6 in., depth 22 ft. ; tonnage 4568 tons gross, 2403 tons
net. She is built of mild steel, divided into 10 principal water-tight
compartments and fitted with a cellular double bottom, and has a
water chamber of 100 tons capacity to check rolling in a sea way.
The engines are compound, three-cylinder, inclined, connected
directly to cranks on the paddle-wheel shaft, the diameters' of the
cylinders being one of 54 in. and two of 82 in., and the stroke 8 ft. ;
eight single-ended cylindrical boilers fitted with Howden forced
draught supply steam at 160 ft, and on service the vessel can main-
tain 20 m. or 17-5 knots per hour without difficulty, developing about
6000 I.H.P. at 28 revolutions per minute.
Cross-Channel Steamers. Cross-channel steamers are of a heavier
type than those just considered and require higher freeboard and
better sea-keeping qualities to be able to make passages across more
exposed waters in all weathers. Over 200 such vessels are employed
carrying mails, passengers, luggage, cattle and merchandise between
Great Britain and Ireland, the Isle of Man, and continental ports.
The mail service between Holyhead and Kingstown has for many
years employed a number of splendid vessels of this class. The four
paddle-steamers, " Ulster," Munster," " Leinster " and " Con-
naught;" built in 1860, were 337 ft. long, 35 ft. broad and 19 ft.
deep; their speed was 18 knots with 6000 I.H.P. A vessel of the
same type, but larger, named the " Ireland," was added to the fleet
in 1885. In 1896 and 1897 four new twin-screw steamers were built,
and received the same names as the four vessels built in 1860, which
they have replaced. Their length is 360 ft., breadth 41 ft. 6 in.,
depth 29} ft., tonnage 2633 tons gross, 733 tons net, and displace-
ment 2230 tons at 14 ft. 6 in. load draught. Their engines are of
9000 I.H.P. and sea-going speed 23 knots, over 24 knots having been
reached on trial. They have sleeping-berths for 238 first-class and
124 second-class passengers, and large dining and other public rooms
for general accommodation.
In recent years large numbers of very fine vessels of the cross-
channel type have been built for other services. In 1903 the
" Queen," the first turbine vessel for the Dover-Calais service, was
built by Messrs Denny of Dumbarton; she is 310 ft. long and ob-
tained 2i| knots. In 1905 the " Invicta " was built of the same
dimensions and boiler power, and by means of improved turbines
the speed was increased to 23 knots. In the same year the Midland
Railway Company ordered three vessels each 330 ft. long, 42 ft. beam
and 25 ft. 6 in. moulded depth; and a fourth similar but a foot wider.
Two of these vessels, the " Antrim " and " Donegal," were fitted with
four-cylinder triple-expansion engines driving twin screws ; the third
and fourth, the " Londonderry " and " Manxman," were fitted with
turbines of 6000 and 8000 H.P. respectively. All had cylindrical
boilers of the same dimensions. The " Antrim " did better than the
" Donegal" and obtained a speed of 21-86 knots with very re-
markable economy; of the turbine vessels, the " Manxman " did
better than the " Londonderry," reaching 23-12 knots, and proving
more economical than the " Antrim " at all speeds above 14 knots.
Other successful vessels of this class are the " St George " and three
sister vessels, 350 ft. long, 2500 tons displacement, 11,000 H.P. and
22^ knots speed, built for the Great Western Railway Company for
service from Fisheuard to Rosslare; and the " Princesse Elisabeth,"
of 24 knots, employed on the Dover-Ostend service. But all these
vessels were surpassed by the " Ben-my-Chree," built at Barrow
Bmf Deck
Fromtnmde Dfck
Shtlrer Dtck-
Upper Deck
Nun Ore*
Lower Decft
Orlop Otc*
L or,tr Orlop Ofctf
FIG. 29. Section of " Mauretania."
for the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company. She is 375 ft. long,
46 ft. beam, 18 ft. 6 in. moulded depth, carries 2549 passengers on a
No. 2 certificate, and displaces 3353 tons at 13 ft. 5 in. draught. On
trial she attained 25J knots on the measured mile, and maintained
24 J knots for over 6 hours; on service she averages 24 knots at sea
and 23 knots between the Liverpool landing stage and Douglas pier.
Numbers of cross-channel steamers are owned by continental com-
panies, among which the " Prinses Juliana " (fig. 20, Plate III.) and
her two sister vessels, belonging to the Zeeland Steamship Company of
Holland, run on the night service between Queenboro' and Flushing.
They are 350 ft. long, 42 ft. 6 in. beam, 16 ft. 4 in. depth, gross tonnage
2885 tons; they have four-cylinder triple-expansion engines of 10,000
H.P., and attained 22! knots on the mile, and 22 knots on a six hours'
run ; they have excellent accommodation for 350 passengers.
For services on which relatively large cargoes and fewer passengers
are carried smaller vessels of less speed are built, such as the
" Rowan," built by Messrs D. & W. Henderson & Co. for the Laird
Line service between Glasgow and Dublin. She is 292 ft. long, 38 ft.
beam, 17 ft. 6 in. depth moulded, has sleeping accommodation for 200
passengers, triple-expansion engines, and a speed of 16 knots.
In America a number of vessels of the cross-channel type have
recently been built. One of these, the " Governor Cobb," 290 ft.
long, 54 ft. beam, 20 ft. 6 in. moulded depth, 14 ft. draught loaded,
was the first merchant vessel in America to be driven by turbines.
She was followed by the " Harvard " and " Yale '' of the same type,
407 ft. overall, 63 ft. extreme breadth, 16 ft. draught loaded; they
carry 800 passengers and 600 tons freight on a night service between
New York and Boston; turbines of 10,000 H.P. give them a speed of
20 knots, making them at the time the fastest sea-going vessels on
the American coast.
The " Prince Rupert," " Princess Charlotte," &c., recently built
for service on the western coast of Canada, also belong to this section.
The first-named (fig. 21, Plate III.) is 306 ft. long, 42 ft. beam, 24 ft.
moulded depth. At 15 ft. draught her displacement is 3150 tons, of
which i ooo tons is cargo; she is of 3379 tons gross, 6000 I.H.P. and her
speed 18} knots. The " Prince George " is similar to the " Prince
Rupert " and obtained 19-2 knots on trial at 13 ft. 3'in. draught and
2622 tons displacement ; both vessels can carry 220 first-class and a
SHIP
PLATE III.
FIG. 1 8. American River Steamer Ilendrick Hudson.
FIG. 20. Cross-Channel Steamer Prinses Juliana.
(Photos, Frank Sf Son.)
XXIV. 884.
FIG. 21. Canadian Coasting Steamer Prince Rupert.
PLATE IV.
SHIP
FIG. 22. Early Cunard Steamer Persia.
JL!,t
FIG. 23. Inman Liner City of Rome.
FIG. 24. Cunard Liner Campania.
MERCHANT VESSELS]
SHIP
885
The " Princess Charlotte "
large number of second-class passengers,
is of 3600 tons and 20 knots speed.
Japan has built and engined two cross-channel steamers, which
maintain a service between Japan and Korea. They are 335 ft. long,
43 ft. beam, gross tonnage 3200, displacement, at 17 ft. draught,
3880 tons. Parsons turbines of 8500 H.P., made in Japan, are fitted
and give a speed of 2 1 knots.
Ocean Liners. The article on STEAMSHIP LINES gives an account
of the rise of the great shipping companies. The steamships of 12,000
tons and upwards, referred to on page 873, are shown in Table XL :
TABLE XL Vessels of 12,000 Tons and upwards afloat June 1010.
Name.
Gross
Tonnage.
Name.
Gross
Tonnage
BritL
Mauretania
Lusitania
Adriatic
Baltic . .
Cedric .
Celtic . .
Caronia
Carmania .
Oceanic
Arabic
Laurentic
Megantic
Minnewaska
Saxonia
Empress of Irel
Empress of Brit
Ivernia
A. 1
31.938
31.550
24,541
. . 23,876
. . 21,035
. 20,904
. . 19,687
19.524
17,274
. . 15,801
14,892
. . 14,878
14,317
. 14,281
and 14,191
ain 14,189
. . 14,067
G
K
A
K
K
P
P
B
P
C
D
C
K
K
German.
eorge Washington_ . . 25,570
aiserin Auguste Victoria 24,581
merika 22,622
ronprinzessin Cecilie . 19,503
aiser Wilhelm II. . . 19,361
resident Lincoln . . 18,168
esident Grant . . . 18,072
:rlin 17,324
inz Friedrich Wilhelm 17,082
eveland 16.060
eutschland
ncinnati
ronprinz Wilhelm
aiser Wilhelm der
. . . 16,502
. . 16,339
. . 14.908
Grosse 14,349
8 other vessels of ]
14,000 tons
261,341
2,000-
. 103,435
25 other vessei
12,000-14,000
3 2 6,945
s of
tons 317,358
22 ships. Total
. 364,776
Li
F
K
V
Belgian.
ipland I7."wio
42 vessels. Total 644,303
nland
. . . 12,185
Date
Rotterdam
Niew Amsterda
Noordam
Rijndam
Potsdam
h.
24,149
m 16,967
. '. 12,531
. . 12,527
. . 12,522
roonland
iderland
. . . 12,185
12,018
4 ships. Total
53,928
Frenc
La Provence
Espagne
*
13,753
. 13,600
5 ships. Total . 78,696
2 ships. Total
27,353
American.
Minnesota 2 . . 20,718
Manchuria . . 13,639
Mongolia . . . 13,639
Japanese.
Tenyo Maru ' ... 13,454
Chiyo Maru .... 13,426
3 ships. Total . 47,996
2 ships. Total
. . 26,880
Summary.
Country.
Ships in No.
Gross 'Tonnage.
Average (Tons).
British
German .
Dutch
Belgian
American
French
Japanese
42
22
5
4
3
2
2
644,303
364,776
78,696
53,928
47,996
27,353
26,880
15-341
16,581
15,739
13,482
15,999
13-676
!3-440
Grand Total
80
1,243,932
15,549
Atlantic Liners. The Atlantic liners running between Europe and
the United States of America are the best known of all ocean liners ;
they exhibit the highest attainment of excellence in merchant-ship
building, and their great size and speed, and continuous rivalry,
excite universal interest.
Particulars of the famous liners which have had a share in the
development of the trans- Atlantic service from 1819 to 1900 are
given in Table XII., some of which is taken from The Atlantic Ferry
by A. J. Maginnis. The " Persia " (fig. 22, Plate IV.) was the first
iron steamer to be placed on the Atlantic service by the Cunard
Company (1856). She was followed two years later by the
" Great Eastern," 688 ft. long, 82-8 ft. broad, 48-2 ft. depth and
32,160 tons displacement with a gross tonnage of 18.915 tons and
11,000 H.P., giving her a speed of 13 knots by paddle-wheels and
screw. She was built from designs by I. K. Brunei, and remained the
" Titanic," launched October 10, 43,500 tons.
* Sister vessel " Dakota " was lost on Japan coast March 1907.
3 A third vessel of same size was being completed.
largest vessel afloat until the " Cedric " was built 45 years later.
Fig. 23 is the " City of Rome," built in 1881 at Barrow for the Inman
Line, one of the most graceful vessels placed on the Atlantic. The
" Campania " (fig. 24) and her sister-ship the " Lucania," each 600 ft.
long and built in 1893 for the Cunard Company by the Fairfield
Shipbuilding Company, held the record for fast passages across the
Atlantic for several years. With twin screws and triple-expansion
engines they attained a speed of 23$ knots on trial with 31,050 I.H.P.
On her best runs the " Lucania " crossed the Atlantic, 2823 nautical
miles, in 5 days 8 hours 38 minutes, the mean speed being 22 knots
for the run, maintained with a consumption of coal amounting to
2Oj tons an hour.
In the 'fifties the Collins Line took the record for speed to America,
but, apart from that, the competition was chiefly between British
companies until 1897, when the " Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse " made
a better record than the " Campania " or " Lucania," and for ten
years from that date the fastest vessels were in German hands. The
" Deutschland " (fig. 25, Plate V.), built at Stettin for the Hamburg-
American Line, took the record in 1900, traversing the Atlantic from
New York to the Eddystone in 5 days 17 hours 28 minutes, at a mean
speed of 23-36 knots. The North German Lloyd Co. added three
splendid vessels: the " Kronprinz Wilhelm " in 1901, the " Kaiser
Wilhelm II." in 1902, and the " Kronprinzessin Cecilie" in 1906,
the machinery being respectively of 35,000, 42,000 and 45,000 I.H.P.
and forming the finest series of reciprocating engines ever built for
ships. The " Kaiser Wilhelm II." raised the record on the home-
ward run to 23-71 knots, and made practically the same speed as the
" Deutschland " on the outward run, viz. 23-12 knots. The " Kron-
prinzessin Cecilie " (fig. 26, Plate VI.) raised the outward record to
23-21 knots, and homeward her best passage was at 23-58 knots.
In 1903 the British government made an agreement with the
Cunard Company under which two vessels of 24 to 25 knots speed
across the Atlantic were to be built for mail and passenger service,
and to be available for the use of the Admiralty in time of war. In
accordance with this agreement the " Mauretania " (fig. 27, Plate
VI.) was built by Swan, Hunter, Wigham Richardson & Co., and the
" Lusitania " by John Brown & Co., and both were supplied with
Parsons turbines of 70,000 H.P. driving four screws. The latter
vessel was the first on service in 1907, and at once regained for
Great Britain the Atlantic record, the " Mauretania " following a
little later and doing still better. Both vessels maintained very
high speeds, and steadily improved their records, until the
" Mauretania " averaged 26-06 knots and the " Lusitania " 25-85
knots on the passage. They are 790 ft. long overall, of 88 ft.
beam, 57 ft. moulded depth, 42,000 tons displacement on a draught
f 332 ft. and of 32,000 tons gross tonnage. They are thus 100 ft.
longer, 5 ft. widerj 6000 tons more displacement and of 70 % greater
gross tonnage than the " Great Eastern." Figure 28 is a section of
the " Mauretania," which shows clearly the great height of the
decks.
The French liner " La Provence " was built in 1905, of 13,753
tons gross, and 22 knots speed. On her displacement of 19,160 tons
she must carry about 3500 tons of coal for the| voyage, which leaves
a margin of about 900 tons for passengers and cargo. The " France,"
launched September 10, is of 23,000 tons, 45,000 ll. P. and 235 knots.
A notable tendency in recent years is to build vessels of great
size to run at more moderate speeds. The American liners " St
Louis " and " St Paul " (fig. 29, Plate VII.), built in 1895, are of
11,630 tons gross and 21 knots; while the " Finland " and< " Kroon-
land," built in America in 1902, are of 12,185 tons and only 16 knots.
The last-named vessels are now running under the Belgian flag (see
TableXIL). The " Caronia " and " Carmania," built by the Cunard
Company in 1905, furnished evidence of the advantage of the turbine
for Atlantic liners, and also illustrate the gain due to a lower speed.
Their dimensions are given in Table XII.; as compared with " La
Provence " it will be seen that they are of 12,000 tons greater dis-
placement, 2 knots less speed and 10,000 less H.P. Allowing for the
voyage two-thirds the quantity of coal carried by " La Provence,"
these vessels thus have a margin of about 10,000 tons compared
with the 900 tons of that vessel, so that a much larger quantity of
cargo may be taken when required. The" Rotterdam, "of 24, 170 tons
gross tonnage, can load to a displacement of 37,200 tons. Her speed
is 17 knots; the reduction of engine-power gives space and weight
for no less than 3585 passengers and nearly 13,000 tons of cargo after
allowing for accommodation of crew and for coal, water and stores for
the voyage. The second " Oceanic," of 17,274 tons (fig. 30, Plate
V.), built in 1899 for the White Star Company, was the largest
vessel then built and had 21-5 knots speed; she was followed
by the " Celtic," " Cedric," " Baltic " and " Adriatic " for the same
company, of 16 to 18 knots speed and size increasing up to nearly
25,000 tons gross. These vessels each carry about 3000 passengers as
well as a crew of 350 and upwards, and very large cargoes. The
" Adriatic " (fig. 31, Plate VII.) is of 24,541 tons gross, 30% greater
tonnage than the Great Eastern." The " Titanic " and " Olympic,"
which in 1910 were in course of building by Harland & Wolff for
the White Star Line, are not only much larger than the " Adriatic,"
but they are 90 ft. longer, of 13,000 tons greater tonnage and of 18,000
tons greater displacement than the " Mauretania "; a combination
of reciprocating and turbine machinery of 50,000 H.P. is provided
for driving the vessels at a speed of 21 knots.
886
SHIP [MERCHANT VESSELS
TABLE XII. Showing Dimensions, &c., of Famous Atlantic Liners, 1819-1910.
j
y
II
I
1
P
l{
Name of Ship.
Owners.
M
1
K
E
OS
Ii
"S
I
I
I
1
1
How Propelled.
si
*J O
P
1
5*
q
8
"K
Feet.
Feet.
Feet.
Tons.
Knts.
Lb.
Savannah ....
Colonel Stevens
1819
New York
Wood
130
26
16.5
1,850
320
6
Paddles
10
90
Royal William .
Sinus ....
City of Dublin Co. .
Brit. & Amer. St. Nav. Co.
1838
1838
Liverpool
Leith
MS
178
27
25.5
17.5
18.25
1,980
i,99S
720
703
1.1
"
5
IS
400
600
Great Western .
Great Western S. S. Co. .
1838
Bristol
212
35-3
23-25
2,300
1,340
8-5
,,
15
750
British Queen
Brit. & Amer. St. Nav. Co.
1839
London
275
37-5
27.0
2,970
1,863
8
,,
IS
700
Britannia ....
Cunard ....
1840
Greenock
207
34-5
22.5
2,050
1,150
8.5
M
12
740
Great Britain
Great Western
1843
Bristol
Iron
274
48.2
31-5
5,78o
3,270
ii
Single Screw
25
1,500
America ....
Cunard ....
1848
Greenock
Wood
251
38
25.3
4,250
1,825
10.25
Paddles
13
1,400
Asia
Cunard ....
18^0
n
268
45
24
3,620
2,227
12
,,
IS
2,000
Arctic
Collins ....
1850
New York
282
45
31-5
6,200
2,860
I2.S
,,
17
2,000
Persia
Cunard ....
1856
Glasgow
Iron
360
45
29.9
7,130
3,300
12.5
,,
20
3,600
Adriatic ....
Collins ....
1857
New York
Wood
355
SO
35-0
7,564
3,670
13-5
,,
25
4,000
Great Eastern .
Great Eastern S.S. Co. .
1858
Millwall
Iron
680
82.8
48.2
32,160
18,915
13
S. Screw and Paddles
30
11,000
Scotia
City of Paris
Cunard ....
Inman ....
1862
1866
Glasgow
'
379
346
47-8
40.4
30.5
26.2
7,600
6,411
3,871
2,651
13-5
13-5
Paddles
Single Screw
25
30
4,000
2,600
Russia
Cunard ....
1867
w
358
43
28.8
6,770
2,959
13.5
M tl
25
2,500
City of Brussels
Oceanic ....
Inman ....
White Star
1869
1871
Belfast
390
420
40.3
41
27.1
31
6,900
7,240
3,o8l
3,707
14-5
14.75
"
30
65
3,000
3,000
City of Richmond
Britannic ....
Inman ....
White Star
1874
1874
Glasgow
Belfast
441
455
43-5
45-2
34
33-7
9,320
9,600
4,623
5,000
;i
" "
70
73
4,000
5,100
City of Berlin .
Arizona ....
Inman ....
Guion ....
1875
1879
Greenock
Glasgow
488.5
450.2
44-2
45-4
35
35-7
10,100
9,900
5,491
5.147
16
16.25
1.
75
90
5,200
6,300
Servia
Cunard ....
1 88
Steel
515
52.1
37-9
12,300
7,392
16.5
II II
00
12,000
City of Rome .
Inman ....
1 88
Barrow
Iron
560.2
52.3
37
13,500
8,144
17-5
(1 f
90
11,500
Alaska
Guion
1 88
Glasgow
500
50
38
9,500
7,142
17-75
II
IOO
:i,ooo
Notting-HBl
Aurania .
Notting-Hfll S. S. Co.
Cunard . . . .
1 88
188
Steel
420
470
45-1
57-2
26.5
37-3
6.2IO
13,360
3,920
7,209
12
I?
Twin Screw
Single Screw
IOO
90
2,800
8,500
Oregon ....
Guion and Cunard .
1883
Iron
501
54-2
40
12,500
7,375
19
ii ii
no
13,000
America ....
National ....
1884
Steel
51-3
38.6
9,550
5,528
iS-75
ii ii
95
8,300
Etruria ....
Cunard
1885
M
501
573
38.2
13,300
8,120
19-5
ii ii
no
14,500
AUer
North German Lloyd
1886
438
48
34.6
10,460
5,400
16.5
ti ii
150
8,200
City of Paris (second of
name) ....
Inman
1889
527.6
63.2
39-2
17,650
10.670
21
Twin Screw
150
18,500
Teutonic ....
White Star
1889
Belfast
H
566
57-8
39-2
16,740
9.984
20
ii ii
180
17.500
Fiirst Bismarck
Hamburg-American
1890
Stettin
.-
502.6
57.6
38
15,200
8,874
19-5
I* ii
IOO
17,000
Campania ....
Cunard ....
1893
Glasgow
H
598
65
43
21,000
12,950
22
11 it
165
30,000
St Louis ....
American ....
1895
Philadelphia
535.7
63
42
16,000
1 1 ,630
21
M II
200
20,500
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse
North German Lloyd
1897
Stettin
M
625
66
43
23.760
14,350
23
II II
178
32,000
Kaiser Friedrich .
North German Lloyd
1898
Danzig
ff
584
64
41
20,100
12,000
21.5
,, ,,
226
27,000
Oceanic (second of name) .
White Star . . .
1899
Belfast
685
68
44-5
26,100
17,274
21.5
II II
192
29,000
Deutschland (second of
name) ....
Hamburg-American .
1899
Stettin
666
65-5
45-5
24,400
14,500
23-25
II M
225
36,000
Kronprinz Wilhelm .
North German Lloyd
1901
fl
637.3
66.3
39-3
22,300
14,908
23-47
II II
213
35.000
Celtic
White Star
1901
Belfast
.-
680.9
75-3
44-1
37,900
20,904
I7.O
II II
210
13,000
Kaiser Wilhelm II .
North German Lloyd
1902
Stettin
'
684.3
72.3
40.2
26,000
19,361
23JI
II
213
42,000
Finland ....
Red Star ....
1902
Philadelphia
((
560.0
60.2
38.4
12,185
16-0
II II
170
IO 000
Cedric
White Star
1903
Belfast
680.9
75-3
44.1
38,000
21,035
16.0
II II
2IO
13,000
Baltic
White Star
1904
M
M
709.2
75-6
52.6
40,700
23,876
16.0
II II
2IO
13,000
Kaiserin Auguste Victoria
Hamburg-American .
1905
Stettin
..
677-5
77-3
50.2
43,000
24,581
17-5
II II
213
16,700
La Provence
Cie (li'nerale Trans-
atlantique
1905
St Nazaire
602.3
65.0
38.3
19,160
13,753
22.O
II ii
198
30,000
Carmania ....
Cunard ....
1905
Glasgow
650.4
72.2
4
31,000
19,524
20.0
Parsons Turbines
3 Screws
I9S
21,000
Caronia ....
Cunard ....
1905
650.0
72.2
40.2
31,000
19.687
IQ.O
Twin Screw
2IO
21,000
Amerika ....
Hamburg-American .
1905
Belfast
f(
669.0
74-3
47.8
42,000
22,622
17.5
2IO
15,800
Kronprinzessin Cccuie
Nieuw Amsterdam .
North German Lloyd
Holland Amerika
1906
1906
Stettin
Belfast
"
685.4
600.3
72.2
68.9
40.5
35-6
27,000
31 ,000
19,503
16.967
23.58
1 6.0
M
213
215
45,000
IO.OOO
Adriatic ....
White Star . . .
1906
tt
n
709-2
75-5
52.6
40,800
24,541
18.0
I ii
2IO
16,000
Mauretania
Cunard ....
1907
Newcastle
762.2
88.0
57-1
42,000
31,938
26.06
> Parsons Turbines (
95
70,000
Lusitania ....
Cunard ....
1907
Glasgow
762.2
87.8
56.6
42,000
31,550
25-85
) 4 Screws
'95
70,000
Rotterdam ....
Holland Amerika
1908
Belfast
p
650.5
77-4
43-5
37,200
24,149
17.0
Twin Screw
215
15,000
Lapland ....
Red Star ....
1908
-
605.8
70.4
37-4
30,500
17.540
17-5
,,
13,000
George Washington
North German Lloyd
1908
Stettin
(
699.1
78.3
50.1
J7.000
25,570
19.0
t
213
20,000
Minnewaska
Atlantic Transport Co. .
1909
Belfast
600.3
65.4
39-6
26,530
14,317
16.0
] Combination of Par- f
214
11,000
Titanic ....
White Star
1910
850.0
92.5
64.5
52,300
43.500
21.0
I sons Turbines and !
21$
50,000
Olympic ....
White Star
850.0
92 i
64.5
5,300
43,500
2I.O
f Reciprocating En- ~\
215
50,000
J gines, 3 Screws |
The Hamburg-American Company followed a similar course to
the White Star Line and added two large vessels of 17 J knots speed
the " Amerika " of 22,622 tons gross, built by Messrs Harland &
Wolff, and the " Kaiserin Auguste Victoria " (fig. 32, Plate VII.), of
24,581 tons gross, built at Stettin. The largest German vessel
afloat in 1910 was the " George Washington," built in 1908 at
Stettin for the North German Lloyd.
The Hamburg-American Company ordered in 1910 two vessels,
iiot only much larger than the " George Washington," but exceed-
ing even the " Olympic " in dimensions. They were said to be over
900 ft. long over all, 94 to 95 ft. beam, 20,000 tons gross greater
tonnage than the " George Washington," 13,000 tons more than
" Mauretania " and 2000 tons more than " Titanic " and " Olympic " ;
turbines of 60,000 to 70,000 H.P. being provided to maintain a
speed of 22 knots across the Atlantic. The Cunard Company
ordered in Dec. 1910 a 5o,ooo-ton turbine-driven ship from John
Brown & Co., to steam at 23 knots on service.
The " Minnewaska " of the Atlantic Transport Company is typical
of vessels on the Atlantic route carrying a large cargo together with
a limited number of passengers of one class. Three hundred and
twenty-six first-class passengers are carried and provided with ex-
cellent accommodation. When fully loaded the displacement is over
26,000 tons and the speed 16 knots; the horse-power required being
only a sixth that of the fast Cunarders. To large numbers of pas-
sengers the additional period on the voyage is no disadvantage,
while the transport of a large cargo at the relatively high speed
of 1 6 knots is a great advantage.
Canadian Liners. With the increasing trade between Europe and
Canada the direct Canadian liners increased in numbers and im-
portance, and now bear favourable comparison with the great liners
running between Europe and the United States. The " Victorian "
and " Virginian " of the Allan line, built in 1904 and 1905 and plying
between Liverpool and Montreal, were the first ocean liners to be
fitted with Parsons turbines; they are 520 ft. long, 60 ft. 5 in.
beam, 38 ft. moulded depth and 10,629 tons gross; and they can
carry 1500 passengers and a large cargo at a speed of 17 knots. They
were followed in 1906 by the " Empress of Britain " and " Empress
of Ireland," built by the Fairfield Company for the Canadian Pacific
Railway Company; they are 570 ft. long over all, 549 ft. between
perpendiculars, 65 ft. 6 in. beam, 36 ft. 8 in. depth moulded, tonnage
14,189 gross tons, displacement 20,000 tons at 28 ft. draught;
quadruple-expansion engines of 18,000 I.H.P. are fitted and a speed
of over 20 knots was obtained on trial. Excellent accommoda-
tion is provided for I58o_ passengers; and a considerable quantity
of meat can be carried in insulated holds provided with refrigerating
arrangements, besides a large general cargo, a total of 6500 tons
SHIP
PLATE V.
FIG. 25. Hamburg-American Liner Deutschland.
XXIV. 886.
FlG. 30. White Star Liner Ocear
PLATE VI.
SHIP
FIG. 26. North German Lloyd Liner Kronprinzessin Cecilie.
(Stuart, Southampton.)
FIG. 27. Cunard Liner Mauretania, with Turbinia alongside.
MERCHANT VESSELS]
SHIP
887
of cargo being carried in addition to the coals, water and stores
required for the passage across the Atlantic.
in 1908 the " Laurentic " and " Megantic " were built by Messrs
Harland & Wolff for the White Star Canadian Service; they are
550 ft. long, 67 ft. 4 in. beam, 41 ft. 2 in. depth moulded and 14,890
tons gross; they can carry 1660 passengers and a very large cargo.
The Laurentic " is provided with reciprocating engines of 6500
I.H.P. in combination with Parsons turbines of 3500 H.P., while the
" Megantic " is fitted with reciprocating engines only. On trial the
" Laurentic " developed 12,000 H.P. with a speed of 17? knots, and
on service her coal consumption is 12 to 15% less than that of the
" Megantic." A service from Bristol to Quebec and Montreal was
opened in 1910 by the " Royal George " and the " Royal Edward,"
which ran for some time in a fast mail service from Marseilles to Alex-
andria under the names of " Heliopolis " and " Cairo " respectively.
They were built in 1908 and are 545 ft. long, breadth 60 ft., depth
38 ft., tonnage 11,150 tons gross, displacement 15,000 tons at 22 ft.
6 in. draught. Parsons turbines of 18,000 H.P. are fitted, driving three
screws at 370 revolutions per minute and giving a maximum speed
of 2of knots, while 19-1 knots has been maintained by the " Royal
Edward " from Bristol to Quebec. Accommodation is provided for
over looo passengers. Still larger and faster vessels were being
arranged for in 1910.
Emigrant Vessels. Many vessels on the Atlantic Service are fitted
up for carrying emigrants either with or without other passengers;
they are always arranged to carry as much cargo as possible. Ships
built for such services inclu4e the " Gerania," built by the
Northumberland Shipbuilding Company in 1909 for Austrian owners.
Her dimensions are: length 402 ft., beam 52 ft. 6 in., moulded depth
27 ft. I in., 4900 tons gross. She can carry 8000 tons dead-weight on
24 ft. draught at a speed of II knots, but her 'tween decks are
arranged so that they can be used to carry cattle, troops or emigrants
as required. The ' Tortona," built in 1909 by Messrs Swan &
Hunter for the Italian emigrant trade to Canada, is 464 ft. long over
all, beam 54 ft., depth 29 ft., she is 7900 tons gross and can carry
8600 tons dead-weight as well as over looo emigrants. The "Ancona,"
built in 1908 by Messrs Workman, Clark& Co. for the Italian emigrant
trade to the United States, is 500 ft. long, 8188 tons gross, 7500 I.H.P. ;
she can carry 2500 emigrants and a large cargo, and in addition 60
first-class passengers in spacious cabins on a promenade deck amid-
ships. Some of the finest vessels carrying emigrants are the ships
of the " Cleveland " type belonging to the Hamburg- American
Company. The " Cleveland " is 587 ft. long, 65 ft. breadth moulded,
46-7 ft. depth, 27,000 tons displacement on a draught of 32 ft. 8 in.,
13,000 tons dead- weight capacity, about 17,000 tons gross and 10,000
tons net, with machinery of 9300 I.H.P. and 16 knots speed. She can
carry 250 first-class, 392 second-class, 494 third-class and 2064 fourth-
class or emigrant passengers, making with a crew of 360 a total of
3560 persons, and has cold storage spaces of 10,000 cub. ft. for
provisions, and 30 ooo cub. ft. for cargo.
Liners on other Routes. Only a few typical vessels engaged on
other routes can be mentioned here. The Royal Mail Company's
" Avon " (fig. 33, Plate VIII.), trading to the West Indies and
round South America to the Pacific coasts, is 520 ft. long, 62 ft.
4 in. beam, 31 ft. 9 in. depth moulded and 11,073 tons gross
tonnage. The" Kenilworth Castle " (fig. 34, Plate VIII.), in 1910 one
of the latest additions to the Union-Castle Line Fleet trading to South
Africa, is 570 ft. long, 64 ft. 8 in. beam, 38 ft. 8 in. moulded depth,
I2 i975 tons gross tonnage, 12,500 I.H.P. and 175 knots speed.
The Osterley" (fig. 35, Plate VIII.) is typical of the splendid
ships running via the Suez Canal to the Eastern ports, Australia
and New Zealand; she was built in 1909 by the Ixmdon &
Glasgow Shipbuilding Company for the new fleet of the Orient
Line. She is 535 ft. long, 63 ft. beam, 38 ft. depth to upper deck,
18,360 tons displacement at 28 ft; draught, 12,129 tons gross,
and obtained 18-76 knots on trial with 13,790 I.H.P.; 1150
passengers can be carried as well as some 7000 tons of cargo.
The " Maloja," which in 1910 was being built for the P. & O.
Company, is a little larger than the " Osterley," being 550 ft.
long, 62i ft. broad, 12,500 tons gross, of 15,000 I.H.P. and 19 knots
speed.
Many vessels carrying very large cargoes and comparatively few
passengers are engaged in the meat and fruit trades, and are
fitted up with refrigerating machinery, insulated holds and cooling
appliances so as to keep the fruit, vegetables or meat at the required
temperature, and at the same time maintain a proper degree of
humidity or of dryness of the atmosphere. The number and
size of vessels engaged in these trades continue to increase, and the
enormous volume of the trade may be indicated by the fact that
thirteen million carcases of mutton would be required to fill the holds
of the vessels fitted for that particular trade. A typical vessel
is the " Highland Laddie," built for the Argentine trade in 1909,
420 ft. long, 56 ft. beam, 37 ft. 6 in. moulded depth to shelter deck,
7500 tons gross, 4600 H.P. and speed 15! knots on trial. She can
carry over 500 passengers in well-fitted and comfortable apartments
amidsh-ps, and has insulated cargo-holds of 343,000 cub. ft. capacity.
To control the temperature of the chilled beef or frozen mutton in
these holds she is fitted with powerful refrigerating machinery, and
cooled brine is circulated through tubes lining the sides and ceilings
of the holds, some 20 miles of brine pipes being so used. The
" Ruahine," built in 1909 for the New Zealand trade, is similarly
fitted; she is 480 ft. long, 60 ft. broad, 44 ft. depth moulded, speed
on trial 15-9 knots. The " Port Royal " of the Elder Dempster Line
has insulated holds capable of transporting 3,000,000 bananas,
besides pineapples, oranges and other tropical and semi-tropical
fruits. The fruit is kept at the desired temperature by means of
large volumes of cold dry air circulated through the holds, and the
air is cooled by contact with nests of pipes through which brine of a
low temperature is circulated. The Tortuguero," a vessel 390 ft.
long, 48 ft. beam, 29 ft. 6 in. depth, 4200 tons gross, built for
Messrs Elders & Fyffes, has a storage capacity of 2\ times that
of the " Port Royal."
Pacific Liners. The " Empress " vessels of the Canadian Pacific
Railway Company were the first liners built specially for the trans-
pacific ocean service. The railway reached the Pacific seaboard in
1885, and in 1891 these vessels began running. They reached a
maximum speed of 19-75 knots on trial, and in 1910 could still
maintain 17 knots across the Pacific. In 1901 the " Korea " and
" Siberia " were built for the service; they were in their day the
largest American-built vessels, each being 552 ft. long, 63 ft. beam
and 41 ft. depth, of tonnage 11,276" gross, and displacement 18,600
tons when loaded to 27 ft. draught. Quadruple-expansion engines of
18,000 I.H.P. gave them a speed of 20 knots on trial and 18 knots
sea-going speed. Two hundred and twenty first-class passengers
are carried in cabins and saloons above the upper deck, and pro-
vision is made for 60 third-class, and for 1200 Chinese steerage
passengers. In 1904 these were joined by the American-built vessels
the " Manchuria " and " Mongolia," of 2000 tons greater tonnage.
They are 616 ft. long, 65 ft. beam, depth 31 ft. I in., 13,639 tons gross,
27,000 tons displacement and 20 knots maximum speed, and can
each carry 1920 passengers and a large cargo. These were again
outstripped in size by the " Minnesota " and " Dakota," which
arrived shortly afterwards. They were 622 ft. long, of 20,718 tons
gross, 33,000 tons displacement, 14 knots speed, and had capacity
for 2850 passengers and 20,000 tons of cargo. The " Dakota " was
lost off the coast of Japan in March 1907, but the " Minnesota " was
in 1910 still on service, and was the largest merchant vessel
yet built in the United States. These American vessels carry
on the transpacific service from San Francisco and Seattle, and
replace the older vessels with which the American Pacific Mail
Company carried on the service for many years. The American and
British vessels were all outstripped by the Japanese vessels " Tenyo
Maru " and " Chiyo Maru " of the Toyo Kaisen Kaisha (Japanese
Oriental S.S. Co.). They were built in Japan, of the following
dimensions: length over all 575 ft., between perpendiculars 558 ft.,
breadth 63 ft., depth to shelter deck 46 ft. 6 in., to upper deck 38 ft.
6 in., gross tonnage 14,700 tons; displacement 21,500 tons at 31 ft.
8 in. draught. They are driven by three sets of Parsons turbines of a
total H.P. of 17,000 at 270 revolutions per minute, and have attained
21-6 knots on trial and 20 knots on ocean service. Steam is supplied
by 13 cylindrical boilers, working at 1 80 Ib pressure and fired by
oil fuel only. They have accommodation for 275 first-class, 54
second-class and 800 steerage passengers, and over 8000 tons of
cargo.
Special Vessels. Many vessels are built for special and excep-
tional purposes, and cannot be classed with either ordinary cargo or
passenger vessels. Amongst these may be included dredgers, train-
carrying ferry-boats, ice-breakers, surveying vessels, lightships, fish-
ing vessels, coastguard and fishery cruisers, salvage and fire vessels,
lifeboats and tugs. To DREDGERS a special article is devoted (see
DREDGE).
Train Ferries. In 1869 Mr Scott Russell described (Trans. Inst.
Nav. Arch.) a train ferry-boat of special construction in use on the
Lake of Constance, having a length of 220 ft., a breadth over the
paddle-boxes of 60 ft., and a displacement of 1600 tons; the horse-
power of her machinery was 200, divided between two paddle-
wheels, each of which was driven by a pair of independent oscillating
engines. The object of this steamer was to convey trains between
Romanshorn, on the one side of the lake, and Friednchshafen, on the
other ; she was built of iron, and was designed to have great strength
combined with light draught.
In 1872 train ferry-boats were introduced into Denmark to carry
trains between the mainland and the islands and, later, between
Denmark and Sweden. The first was a single track iron paddle
vessel, the " Lille Baelt," built by Richardson of Newcastle for the
service from Fredericia to Strib (2 m.) ; her dimension; were : length
139 ft., breadth moulded 26 ft., extreme 44 ft. 6 in., draught 8 ft.,
tonnage 306, I.H.P. 280, and speed 8 knots. A similar boat, the
" Fredericia," was afterwards built by Schichau of Elbing for the
same service; in 1883 this firm built two very similar .but longer
vessels for ferries of 2-2 1 m. across, which proved very successful;
and others of various types followed for femes of 16, 18$ and 48 m.
across. The Danish government in 1910 employed 22 vessels of a
total of about 16,000 tons on eight ferries for railroad cars, as well
as separate vessels for other traffic. These services have to be main-
tained all the year round, and several of the vessels are specially
strengthened for passage through ice ; in addition, four other vessels
of 497 to 553 tons gross and 600 to 800 I.H.P. are employed
wholly as ice-breakers. The latest of these vessels in 1910 was
the " Christian IX." employed on the ferry across the Great Belt,
888
SHIP
[MERCHANT VESSELS
a distance of 16 m. Fig. 36 shows the profile and deck plans of
this vessel, for which, with other particulars of the Danish ferries,
we are indebted to International' Marine Engineering. Particulars
ferry service between Sweden and Germany from Trelleborg to
Sassnitz, a distance of 65 m. For this service the " Drottning-
Victoria " (fig. 37, Plate IX.) was built by Messrs Swan, Hunter,
-fU riyj-z; ' ft' ' '
Tn* !r..4 u tur Trite Ttu W TMI iwfc IS TMM .1 I a
LOWER DECK
FIG. 36. Profile and Deck Plans of Twin-Screw Ferry " Christian IX."
of the most important Danish train-carrying vessels are given in
Table XIII.
The longest ferry, from Gjedser to Warnemunde, traverses a
distance of 48 m. across the lower part of the Baltic Sea, and on
this ferry the " Prinsesse Alexandrine " and " Prins Christian '\are
Wigham Richardson & Co. Her dimensions are : length 370 ft. over
all, 350 ft. between perpendiculars, breadth extreme 53 ft. 6 in., 3050
tons gross, displacement 4270 tons dead-weight capacity, 600 tons
at a draught of 16 ft. 6 in., 5400 l.H.P. and speed 16$ knots. Two
rail tracks are provided, the trains are shipped at the stern and are
TABLE XIII.
Name oi Ferry.
Type.
Lengths.
Breadth.
Depth.
Draught.
Dis-
place-
ment.
Tons.
Tonnage.
Speed.
Knots.
Revolu-
ti^ns per
minute.
Overall.
On
L. W. L.
Moulded.
Over
Guards.
Gross.
Net.
Christian IX.
Twin screw, double track
293' 9'
290' o'
48' 6"
58' o"
l8'7'
12' 6"
2600
I5<>4
598
13-0
Prinsesse
Alexandrine
Paddle wheel, double
track ....
333' 6"
333' 6*
36' o'
6i'6"
i8' 9 '
12' 6'
2425
'733-4
676-6
13-8
36
Prins Christian
Twin screw, double track
284' 9"
281' o*
41' 6*
57' 9*
22' 6'
14' 5'
2065
1824-0
686-0
13-75
124
Korsoer
Paddle wheel, double
track
252' 6'
250' o'
34' o"
58' o'
i6'o*
9' 6'
1267
971-0
436-0
12-25
33
Kjoebenhavn
Paddle wheel, double
track
278' o"
272*0*
34' o'
58' o'
i6' 9 '
10' 0'
1455
I091-0
425-0
12-5
36
Helsingborg
Single forward and aft
screw, single track
iSo'o"
177' o'
32' o'
43' o'
14' 6'
io'3'
720
530-0
187-0
IO-O
138
Marie .
Two screws aft, one
screw forward, single
!r*I
track
204' 6"
199' 3'
31' 6'
43' o"
13' 0'
9'o
950
500-0
250-0
10-0
'25
150
Valdemar
Single screw, single
track, ice-breaker
144' o'
140' o*
31' 6'
43' o'
13' o'
9'o
550
36I-0
129-0
1O-O
'34
Lille Baelt
Paddle wheel, single
track
140' 6'
I39'o*
26' o'
44' 6'
ii' 6'
8'o*
399
306-0
125-0
8-0
34
Ingeborg . .
Paddle wheel, single
track
i68'9"
167' o'
26' o'
44' o'
12' 0'
7 'o'
440
343-o
136-0
10-25
37
employed. Two other vessels belonging to the Prussian govern- I completely protected from the weather when on board, the bow
ment also work on this ferry, and the great success of the service of the ship being completed as usual for a sea-going vessel; ten
led to the Swedish and German governments undertaking a direct I full-sized passenger or sleeping carriages can be taken, or eighteen
SHIP
PLATE VII.
FIG. 29. American Liner St. Pav.l.
FIG. 31. White Star Liner Adriatic.
XXIV. 888.
(Sluart, Southampton.)
FIG. 32. Hamburg-American Liner Kaiserin Auguste Victoria.
PLATE VIII.
SHIP
FIG. 33. Royal Mail Steamer Avon.
(Stuart.)
FIG. 34- Union-Castle Liner Kenilworth Castle.
FIG. 35. Orient Liner Osterley.
MERCHANT VESSELS]
SHIP
goods wagons. Ballast tanks are provided, and powerful centrifugal
pumps fitted, so that the trim of the vessel can be adjusted as
necessary while embarking and disembarking the trains; she is
built specially strong so that she can be driven through ice during
the winter months.
In 1883 the " Solano," a large train ferry 406 ft. long, was built
by Messrs Harlan & Hollingswprth of Wilmington, Delaware, to run
between Bernicia and Porto Casta in connexion with the Central
Pacific railway. In 1899 the American railways employed nearly 200
ferries, with an aggregate capacity of over 2000 large wagons, and
by 1909 the numbers and capacity had increased to about three times
those amounts, on Lake Michigan alone nine such ferries being at
work.
Two other interesting examples of train ferries were built on the
Tyne by Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth & Co., Ltd., in 1895 and
1896, the former for service on the river Volga, and the latter for
service on Lake Baikal in Siberia. The Volga has a rise and fall of
no less than 45 ft. between spring and midsummer, and the ice
upon it in winter is usually 2 ft., and sometimes 3 ft., thick; thus
the problem presented considerable difficulties, which were increased
by the fact that the locks of the Marinsky canal system, through which
all vessels bound for the Volga must pass, are of such dimensions
that it was impossible for vessels of sufficient size to be got through
in one piece. It was decided to use two vessels to do the work, the
first to act only as an ice-breaker, and the other to act only as
a train-carrier. The ice-breaker was built in two pieces, the parting
being at the longitudinal middle-line plane of the vessel. This was
satisfactorily carried out by means of a double longitudinal middle-
line bulkhead extending the whole length of the vessel. On arrival
at the canal she was divided into halves, and was joined up again
after passing through the last of the locks. Her dimensions were:
length 147 ft., breadth 37 ft. 6 in. and depth 16 ft. 6 in., and she was
fitted with compound engines and twin screws. The ferry steamer
itself (fig. 38, Plate IX.) was 252 ft. long, of 55 ft. 6 in. beam, and
of 14 ft. 6 in. depth. Four lines of rails were laid upon her deck,
sufficient space being provided for 24
trucks or carriages, which are shown in
position in the figure. The difficulty
presented by the great difference in the
river level was got over by an arrange-
ment of hydraulic hoists, placed at the
bow, by which two trucks could be lifted
at once to a height of 25 ft., and by hav-
ing lines of rails at the landing-stages at
two levels. The vessel was fitted with
twin screws and compound engines,
which gave her a speed of 9 knots. It
was found necessary to divide her into
four parts for the passage through the
canal locks; the divisions were made
at the longitudinal middle-line plane and
athwartships at her middle. Each
quarter, when apart, formed a water-
tight hull, and reunion was effected while
the parts were afloat.
The Lake Baikal Ferry was built for carrying trains across the
lake in connexion with the Siberian railway. For more than half
the year the lake is frozen over to a considerable thickness, and in
this case the vessel must of necessity be herself a powerful ice-
breaker as well as a ferry steamer. Her dimensions are: length
290 ft., beam 57 ft., draught under ordinary conditions 18 ft. 6 in.,
and displacement 4200 tons. The hull is closely subdivided for
additional safety in case of perforation. She has three sets of triple-
expansion engines, working three independent screw propellers, two
placed aft, as in ordinary twin-screw ships, and one placed at the
forward extremity for the purpose of disturbing the water under the
ice, thus assisting the heavy cast-steel stem and armoured bow to
break up the solid field-ice which the vessel has to encounter. The
complete structure was first erected on the Tyne, then taken to
pieces and shipped to St Petersburg; from thence its numerous
parts were carried to what was at that time the terminus of
the Siberian railway, whence they were taken to their destination
on sledges, and there the ship was re-erected and launched.
The boilers constituted the heaviest individual pieces thus trans-
ported, as the weight of each could not be reduced below 20
tons.
An interesting example of a modern river train ferry is the
" Fabius," built by Messrs G. Rennie & Co., Greenwich, in 1909,
for service in southern Nigeria, where the river is 2 m. across. She
is a double-ended paddle-wheel vessel; length 160 ft., beam 33 ft.
6 in., depth 10 ft., draught 5 ft. 6 in., speed 7 knots. She can carry
six railway carriages and freight and passengers up to a total of
200 tons.
Ice-Bre&kers. Steamboats for breaking a passage through
frozen waters date from an early period; one is spoken of as
early as 1851. The " Ermack " (fig. 39, Plate IX.), built in
1898, is one of the largest and most effective vessels of this type.
Her dimensions are: length 320 ft., breadth 71 ft., depth to
the upper deck 42 ft. 6 . in., and displacement 8000- tons; her
engines develop 8000 I.H.P., giving her a speed of 15 knots.
Her general outline is shown in fig. 40, from which it will be seen
that her bow slopes upwards from below, so as to enable her to
run up on to the ice and bring her weight to bear in breaking
it. The " Ermack " made her maiden voyage ih the winter of
1898-1899, when she steamed through the Baltic to Kronstadt.
crushing the ice with comparative ease.
Surveying Vessels. Special vessels are employed by various
governments, and occasionally by institutions or individuals, to
survey the oceans and ocean beds, and pursue scientific inquiries of
a general nature regarding the sea. The British Admiralty employs
the " Egena," " Fantome " and " Mutine," sloops of about 1000
tons displacement, modified and fitted up for the purpose, as well
as two yachts purchased and suitably modified, and two vessels
built especially for the purpose. The yachts are the " Waterwitch,"
150 ft. long, 640 tons displacement and 10 knots speed, purchased
in 1893; and the composite built vessel " Sealark," 180 ft. long.
1034 tons displacement and II knots speed, purchased in 1903:
both are employed in Eastern waters. The vessels built for the
purpose are the " Triton," 145 ft long, 415 tons displacement, 10
knots speed, built in 1882; and the " Research," 155 ft. long, 545
tons displacement, loj knots speed, built in 1888; both these
vessels are propelled by paddle wheels, and both are of composite
build. The " Dart," a steel yacht 130 ft. long, 500 tons displacement,
7i knots speed, purchased by the Admiralty in 1882, was in 1910
employed by the New South Wales government. The Canadian
government has provided vessels such as the " Carder," a twin-
screw steel vessel, built in 1909, 164 ft. long, 29 ft. beam, 648 tons
gross and II J knots speed, for survey work on the coast of British
Columbia. The Indian government had the steel single-screw vessel
" Investigator " built by Messrs Vickers, Sons & Maxim for survey of
Indian waters; she is 204 ft long, 33 ft. beam, 15 ft. 3 in. moulded
depth, has a displacement of 1170 tons and a speed of 13^ knots.
The United States government built a surveying vessel, the
" Pathfinder," in 1899. She is a steel single-screw vessel rigged as
a brigantine, length over all 193 ft., on water-line 165 ft., beam 33 ft.
iEffiEjfflfffl'h
W BfE^Mv^A^j-.-i-.-it-Aj...:!.-*-.-;!--...;
FIG. 40. Section of " Ermack."
6 in., depth moulded 19 ft. 8 in., displacement 875 tons at 10 ft.
draught, I.H.P. 1170 and speed 13! knots. She has bunkers for 230
tons of coal, and is fitted up with very complete auxiliary machinery
arrangements, electric lighting and ventilation, steam heating, and
accommodation for a large staff. The outfit for hydrography and
research is perhaps the most complete ever provided. The Carnegie
Institution of Washington has fitted out the special non-magnetic
vessel " Carnegie," 128 ft. long, 35 ft. beam, 12 ft. 7 in. draught, 568
tons displacement.
Lightships. In many places round the coast the safe navigation
of ships is assisted by vessels called lightships, moored in positions
where lighthouses cannot well be built. Around the southern
portion of Great Britain these vessels are maintained by the
Trinity Corporation (see LIGHTHOUSE).
Fishing Vessels. It is not many years since a few old paddle tugs
were fitted up with fishing appliances. They proved very profit-
able, and the experiment led to the building and fitting out of steam
vessels specially designed for such employment. Screw steam
trawlers (see TRAWL) or other fishing-boats are among the vessels
most frequently met with round the British coasts. In 1910 some
3000 such steam vessels of an average net tonnage of 50 tons were
on the British register, as well as 23,000 sailing boats of an
aggregate net register tonnage exceeding 200,000 tons. Fig. 41
(Plate X.) is the steam herring drifter " Three," and gives a
general idea of the type, but there is considerable variety in the
methods of fishing, and the fittings of the vessels vary accordingly.
Coastguard and Fishery Cruisers. The lightships give warning of
danger, and can also send signals ashore for the benefit of vessels in
distress, but cannot themselves render help. The principal organiza-
tions for giving assistance to vessels in distress and for saving life
around the British coasts are:
1. The coastguard service maintained by the Admiralty.
2. The signal services, stations and agents maintained by Lloyd's.
3. The lifeboat services maintained by the Royal National Life-
boat Institution.
8 9 o
SHIP
[MERCHANT VESSELS
The coastguard cruisers not only watch the coast but proceed to
the fishery grounds to act as international marine police. They are
controlled by an admiral, with headquarters at 66 Queen Victoria
Street, London, who in 1910 had at his services the torpedo gunboats
" Halcyon," " Leda," " Skipjack " and " Spanker " ; the old
composite gunboats "Ringdove" and "Thrush"; the vessels
" Colleen," " Julia " and " Fanny," purchased and fitted up for
the work; and the " Squirrel " and " Argus," two yacht-like vessels
specially built for the service. The " Colleen," a wooden vessel built
in 1869 and propelled by horizontal trunk engines of 250 I.H.P.,
is 145 ft. long and 415 tons displacement, and at one time the engines
gave her a speed oi 8J knots; the "Argus" is a steel vessel built in
1904, 130 ft. long, 380 tons displacement, 23 ft. beam, 8 ft. 10 in.
draught; she has a light fore and aft rig, and vertical triple ex-
pansion engines of 500 l.H.P. give her a speed of 1 2 knots. TheFishery
Board of Scotland has provided itself with some small cruisers, such as
the" Freya," built in igo4,of length I38ft.,beam 24ft., moulded depth
12 ft., and gross tonnage 280 tons; and the " Norma," built in 1909,
which is 159 ft. long, 25 ft. beam, 14 ft. moulded depth, 457 tons gross
tonnage and 950 l.H.P. In 1908 the Irish Fisheries Board procured
the small cruiser " Helga," built by the Dublin Dockyard Co., 155 ft.
long, 24 ft. 6 in. beam, 13 ft. 3 in. moulded depth; she obtained a
speed of 14^ knots on trial with a total deadweight of 140 tons carried.
Salvage and Fire Vessels. Several private companies maintain
special vessels which are available for assistance of vessels in distress,
salvage, wreck-raising, &c. Many of these vessels are powerful tugs
fitted with derricks and winches for hoisting out cargo and ships'
fittings, and provided with powerful steam or electrically driven
pumps and special hoses for pumping out flooded compartments of
the vessels in distress. Some have been specially built and fitted up
for salvage and wreck-raising; others have been built and fitted for
salvage and fireboats.
A fife and salvage boat at Elswick is 45 ft. long, 1 1 ft. beam and
3 ft. draught; she is fitted with a Merryweather quick-steaming
boiler, and engines arranged to drive the boat at 8^ knots, or as an
alternative to pump out vessels on either side, or to pump from the
river for fire purposes and deliver up to 1500 gallons a minute. Many
small vessels of this character are provided for harbours, docks and
shipbuilding works. One of the most powerful in England is that
built for the Manchester Ship Canal. This boat is 90 ft. long, and is
fitted with salvage pumps capable of clearing 5000 gallons a minute,
as well as independent fire service pumps capable of delivering 4000
gallons per minute at a pressure of 150 Ib per square inch. Fire and
salvage boats of much greater capacity have been provided at San
Francisco, New York and Chicago. Two fireboats of special
design were built in 1908 for Chicago. They are 120 ft. long over
all, 28 ft. beam, 15 ft. moulded depth, and 9^ ft. draught. Power-
ful turbine pumps are driven by two Curtis steam turbines on the
same shafts, which also carry 275-volt 2OO-kilowatt electric motors
for operating the propeller motors. The pumps can be worked so as
to deliver 4500 gallons per minute at 300 Ib per sq. in., 9000 gallons
at 150 Ib or larger volumes at lower pressures; the maximum speed
of the turbines and pumps is 1700 revolutions per minute. Twin
screws are fitted and each is driven by a motor arranged to develop
250 H.P. at 200 revolutions per minute. The boats are fitted with
electric light, search-light, and steam steering gear. New York has
ten powerful fireboats, several of which can throw over 10,000 gallons
of water per minute. The " Beta " of the London Fire Brigade is
loo ft. long, II knots speed, and can deliver 4000 gallons per minute
at a pressure of 140 Ib per sq. in., engines and pumps being driven by
vertical steam engines.
Lifeboats and Vessels. The lifeboat services around the British
shores are maintained almost entirely by the Royal National Life-
boat Institution. In March 1910 there were 281 lifeboats in service,
varying in length from 30 ft. to 56 ft. All are fitted with air-casing
or watertight air-cases of sufficient capacity to keep them afloat if
completely filled by the sea, and all are arranged so as automatically
to relieve themselves of any sea breaking into the boat. The type
of boat varies according to the service intended and the views of
the men who use them 182 are self-righting if capsized and
99 not self-righting. The conditions of service are such that the
application of steam or other motive power to assist the crews
presents many difficulties; these difficulties have, however, been
successfully overcome by the institution and its advisers, and details
of the power-driven boats are given in a paper read by Mr J. R.
Barnett at the Institute of Naval Architects, March 1910. Four
steam lifeboats have been tried and found very useful under the
conditions in which they are employed, while three petrol-driven
lifeboats, 40 to 43 ft. in length, 13 to 16 tons weight, 24 to 40 H.P.
and about 7 knots speed, have been supplied as an experimental
measure, and on their voyages to their stations proved to be very
seaworthy and reliable boats. The institution employs one steam-
ship, the steel twin-screw tug " Helen Peel " of 230 tons displacement,
which is stationed at Falmouth and used to tow lifeboats to sea and
assist them in their work, and also to render aid to vessels in distress
which have no chance of getting private tugs. The United States
government has, however, taken the lead in this direction, in building
and equipping a special vessel, the " Snohomish," for life-saving
services on the North Pacific coast. This vessel is officially termed a
revenue cruiser, and is 152 ft. long over all, 29 ft. beam, 17 ft. 6 in.
moulded depth, and displaces 795 tons at a draught of 12 ft. 4 J in. ;
a single screw driven by triple-expansion engines of 1370 l.H.P.
gave a speed of 13$ knots on trial. (See LIFEBOAT.)
Tugs or Tow-Boats. On canals and rivers steam barges are often
employed for towing, and small tugs are also built for this purpose,
but on swift, large rivers the tugs are often of considerable power.
The tug " Little John," built by Messrs Yarrow for service on the
Trent canals, is 80 ft. long, 14 ft. 6 in. beam, draught with steam up
22 in., displacement about 40 tons. Twin screws are fitted working
in tunnels, and this little vessel has towed five barges, weighing
with their loads 247 tons, at a speed of 5! knots. A river tug
recently built by Messrs Thornycroft & Co. for service on the swift
waters of the Upper Yangtse, and named the " Shutung," is 150 ft.
long, 15 ft. beam, with a depth of 6 ft. 6 in., fitted with compound
surface-condensing engines of 550 I.H.P., driving twin screws working
in tunnels (as the draught of the vessel is very limited) and giving a
speed of about II knots. After trial at Southampton the tug was
taken to pieces, the sections shipped to China, with sections of a
barge of corresponding dimensions, and both were put together and
completed at Kiangnan. This was the first steamer to attempt regular
passages in these troubled waters, and steamer and consort per-
formed their first voyage with success. The American river tow-boat
" Sprague " is 318 ft. long over all, 64 ft. 8 in. wide, depth amidships
7 ft., displacement 2200 tons, registered tonnage 1479. She is fitted
with a stern wheel 40 ft. in diameter and 40 ft. in width, driven by
two tandem compound engines of 12-ft. stroke, the cylinders being
28 in. and 63 in. in diameter; and at 95 revolutions per minute her
horse-power is estimated at 1500 H.P. In 1907 she towed on one
occasion 56 coal boats, each 180 ft. long and 26 ft. wide, loaded with
over 67,000 tons of coal and covering a water area of nearly 7 acres.
On the American rivers the superiority of the screw propeller
is, however, now realized, and shallow-draught tow-boats with
propellers working in tunnels have been adopted. Interesting tugs
have been built by Messrs Cox & Co. of Falmouth for work in the
North-Eastern Railway Docks on the Tyne. Great power in small
length was required, and engines of 1000 l.H.P. are installed in vessels
75 ft. long, 26 ft. beam, 12 ft. 6 in. deep, having a mean draught of
lo ft. ; twin screws set widely apart being provided to give manoeuv-
ring power. Tugs in common use in harbour and coasting services
are often 90 ft. to 120 ft. in length, 20 to 23 ft. beam, 10 to 12 ft.
depth, 9 to 12 ft. draught, 400 to 600 l.H.P. and 1 1 to 12 knots speed ;
tugs fitted with independent acting paddle-wheels are popular for
some services on account of their great handiness, but the great
majority of new vessels are fitted with single or twin screws. For
ocean service larger vessels are built. A steel tug built by the Bath
Iron Works for the American coal trade is 165 ft. over all and 1045
tons displacement, with triple-expansion engines of 900 H.P. The
" Cornell " is one of the largest American sea-going tugs; when
towing she has developed 1390 l.H.P. at 97 revolutions, and when
running light loooI.H.P.at 135 revolutions and a speed of 15$ knots.
The " Hearty, built to go out under her own steam to work in the
Hooghly, is 212 ft. long, 30 ft. beam, 12 ft. 6 in. draught, 1300 tons
displacement, vertical compound engines of 2100 l.H.P. drive,
twin screws, and the vessel can steam at 14$ knots. Recent screw
tugs of the " Rover " type, built for the British Admiralty, are 154 ft.
long, 27 ft. 4j in. beam, n ft. draught, 615 tons displacement,
1400 I.H.P., giving 13^ knots with twin screws. The latest paddle
tugs of the " Grappler " type are 152 ft. long, 28 ft. beam moulded,
53 ft. 3 in. over guards, II ft. 4^ in. draught and 690 tons displace-
ment. Inclined compound engines are fitted with means to work
the wheels independently or together as desired. 1250 l.H.P. gives
a speed of 12 knots. In these tugs the towing hook is carried well
forward to permit the tugs to manoeuvre freely, and good beam is
given so that in case of a heavy side pull the tug will not capsize.
Each year from 20 to 30 tugs are built in the United Kingdom,
and many of them are fitted with powerful pumps and heavy derricks
and winches, so that they are of service in case of fire or salvage.
The North-Eastern railway tugs referred to are able to pump 500
gallons a minute, i.e. about 140 tons an hour, while the " Lady
Crundall," belonging to Dover, can pump 700 tons an hour.
Yachts. Vessels built for pleasure purposes and for racing have
for many years been known as Yachts. (See YACHTING.)
In 1825 Mr Assheton Smith built a steam yacht, and although
the building of such yachts was discouraged by the clubs, he con-
tinued to build, and produced between 1825 and 1851 nine steam
yachts of various sizes; one built in 1844 " ac ^ a screw propeller,
the others were fitted with paddle wheels. In 1856 the ban on steam
yachts was withdrawn by the clubs, and others began to build ;
but as late as 1864 there were only 30 steam yachts afloat. In 1876,
however, Lloyd's Register Committee issued Rules for the Building
and Classification of Yachts, and from about that date great improve-
ments were made in the design and construction of yachts of all
classes, as well as in their propelling machinery, and steam yachts
were built in much greater numbers.
As with trading vessels, the machinery at first fitted in yachts was
only regarded as auxiliary; a well-known example of a successful
auxiliary steam yacht is Lord Brassey's " Sunbeam " (fig. 42,
Plate XL), built in 1874, ^ *^ e following dimensions: length over all
170 ft., beam 27 ft. 6 in., depth of hold 13 ft. 9 in., displacement
576 tons, registered tonnage 334 tons gross, 227 tons net, and Thames
SHIP
PLATE IX.
FIG. 38. River Volga Train Ferry.
FIG. 37. Sea-going Train Ferry Steamer Drottning Victoria.
(Prank & Sons.)
J
-
FIG. 39. Ice-breaking Steamer Ermack.
XXIV. 850.
PLATE X.
SHIP
WAR VESSELS]
yacht measurement 532 tons; she is rigged as a three-masted
schooner; her original sail area, 9200 sq. ft., has recently been re-
duced to 7950 sq. ft. ; her hull is composite, the frames being of iron
and the planking of teak; her engines are compound of 7 N.H.P.
Very much larger yachts have been built in recent years, such as
the " Lysistrata," 286 ft. long, 40 ft. beam, 13 ft. 9 in. depth of hold,
1943 tons gross tonnage and 2089 tons Thames Y.M., built in 1900;
and the " Liberty," 268 ft. long, 35 ft. 6 in. beam, 17 ft. 9 in. depth
of hold, 1607 tons gross tonnage and 1571 tons Thames Y.M., built
in 1908. These two vessels and many others of similar types are
American-owned. The yacht " Emerald," of 750 tons yacht measure-
ment and 1400 H.P., built on the Clyde in 1902, crossed the Atlantic
in May 1903, and was the first turbine steamer to be classed in any
registry. The " Atalanta " (ex " Lorena "), of 1398 tons Y.M.,
built in 1903, fitted with turbines of 3800 H.P., was the finest turbine-
driven private yacht afloat in 1910. The " Tarantula," built in
1902, of 122 tons Y.M. and fitted with turbines of 2200 H.P., is a
high-speed vessel resembling a torpedo-boat destroyer. The " Win-
chester," built in 1909, is ofa similar type; she is 165 ft. long, 15 ft.
6 in. beam, 188 tons Y.M., and has turbines of 2500 H.P., which
give her a speed of 263 knots.
The royal yachts of European sovereigns are the largest yachts
yet built. They include the imperial Russian yacht " Pole Star,"
of 3270 tons and 5600 I.H.P., built in 1888; the imperial German
yacht " Hohenzollern " (fig. 43, Plate XL), of 3773 tons Y.M. and
9500 H.P., built in 1893; the Spanish royal yacht " Giralda," of
1664 tons Y.M., built in 1894; the imperial Russian yacht " Stand-
art," of 4334 tons Y.M. and n,ooo H. P., built in 1895; and the
British royal yachts, " Victoria and Albert," of 5005 tons Y.M. and
ii,oooI.H.P.,builtini899,andthe" Alexandra ' (fig.44, PlateXI.),
of 2157 tons Y.M. and 4500 H.P., built in 1907.
Propulsion by Electricity. In 1883 Messrs Siemens & Co. fitted up
a launch, 40 ft. long and 6 ft. beam, with an electric motor driving a
single propeller and operated by a battery of secondary cells, and
at a displacement of 5 tons a speed of 7 knots was obtained. A
launch 25 ft. long, provided with an electric motor capable of giving
a speed of 7 knots, also was supplied to H.M. yacht " Victoria and
Albert " in 1903. A number of other electric launches similarly
fitted have been built chiefly for river service, the batteries being
recharged from shore stations from time to time; but the method
has not been extensively adopted, except in submarines. In some
cases the submarine's secondary battery has been used for propulsion
on the surface as well as when submerged, being recharged from
shore or from a parent vessel as required ; but in nearly all recent
vessels they are used only for propulsion when submerged, the engines
fitted for propulsion on the surface being arranged to drive dynamos
for recharging the cells. In a number of small vessels and oil-tank
steamers electric motors are fitted for driving the propeller and
supplied with current from dynamos driven by steam turbines or
internal combustion engines.
Propulsion by Naphtha Engines. In 1888 several launches were
built on the Thames in which petroleum spirit was used for fuel in
place of coal, and also as an expanding agent for driving the propelling
machinery in place of steam. A number of these boats were after-
wards built in England and America, and known as zephyr or naphtha
Ixiats. Further particulars of these boats will be founu in a paper
read by Mr Yarrow before the Institute of Naval Architects in
1888.
Propulsion by Internal Combustion Engines. Experiments have
been made at various times with machinery in which the fuel is burnt
or exploded in the engine itself without having recourse to the
transfer of energy by means of an expanding and condensing agent
such as steam or naphtha, and by these experiments the modern
internal combustion engine has been slowly evolved and adapted
for marine propulsion. In 1680 an engine was patented in which
gunpowder was exploded, and the engine was operated by the vacuum
produced by the cooling of the gases; in 1794 an engine was patented
in which the explosion of turpentine spirit drove the pistons forward,
and about 1823 a gas-driven vessel was run on the river Thames. In
the later years of the igth century gas engines were highly developed
for use in factories, &c., on shore, and petrol engines for driving
motor cars, &c., and since the beginning of the present century
similar engines adapted for marine propulsion have been greatly
improved and produced in considerable numbers, especially in the
United States, some of the vessels being as large as 800 tons gross.
Such vessels may be considered in three groups, (i) High-speed
racing boats, pleasure boats of various sizes for service on rivers
and in harbours, fircboats, patrol boats and launches for river
work, yachts' tenders and sea-going yachts of light scantlings, in
which highly volatile and readily exploded fuels such as gasolene,
petrol and naphtha are used. (2) Vessels of low speed, in which the
weight of the engine is not of great importance, such as barges for
use on rivers and canals, ferry-boats, small tug-boats, slow-speed
cargo vessels and slow-speed oil-tank vessels, which have been fitted
with engines using kerosene or paraffin, as well as oil fuels of greater
specific gravity, and of higher flash-point and requiring a higher
temperature for evaporation; in some cases these low-speed
vessels have been fitted with engines using gas produced from
anthracite coal, prepared charcoal and heavy oil. (3) Vessels in
which auxiliary propelling machinery of low power is fitted; they
SHIP 891
include a large number of fishing vessels, smaller numbers of coasting
schooners, lifeboats and a few large vessels; in these both light and
heavy oils and gas have been employed.
As examples of class (i) may be mentioned the racing boats
" Ursula," built at Cowes in 1908, 49 ft. 6 in. long, 5 tons total
weight, fitted with petrol engines of 800 H.P., driving twin screws
at about 950 revolutions, and giving a speed of 38 J knots; and
" Columbine," built on the so-called hydroplane principle in 1910,
26 ft. long, 65 H.P. and over 30 knots speed; the American yacht
" Kalmia," 83 ft. long, 14. ft. 3 in. beam, 3 ft. 9 in. draught;
and the yacht " Swiftsure, 70 ft. long, II ft. beam, 38 tons gross,
3 ft. draught, 160 H.P. and 16 knots speed, built at Cowes in 1909
and navigated under her own power to St Petersburg.
Examples of class (2) are the double-ended ferry-boat " Miss
Vandenburg," employed on the St Lawrence, 100 ft. long, 20 ft. 9 in.
beam, 9 ft. depth, 5 ft. draught, 150 tons displacement, fitted with
two paraffin engines each of 75 H.P. ; the yacht " Bronzewing "
(fig. 45, Plate X.), built at Sydney in 1908, no ft. long, fitted with
three paraffin engines each of 105 H.P. ; the " Lochinvar," a West
of Scotland passenger vessel of 12 knots speed, 145 ft. long, 200 tons
gross, fitted with three paraffin engines each of 100 H.P. ; and the
" Manatee " (fig. 46, Plate X.), 93 ft. long, 16 ft. beam, 5 ft. 6 in.
draught, fitted with two paraffin motors of 75 H.P., giving her 10$
knots speed, built at Cowes in 1909 for service as a mail and passenger
boat in Southern Nigeria, which was navigated to Forcados, a
distance of 4000 m., under her own power and without escort.
Amongst examples of class (3) may be mentioned the three-masted
topsail schooner San Antonio " of Rotterdam, 165 ft. long, 27 ft.
3 in. beam, 9 ft. 2 in. depth and 410 tons gross, fitted with engines
of 160 H.P., using crude heavy oil and driving a single screw; the
" Modwena " of Glasgow, a barque-rigged sailing yacht of 400 tons,
fitted with paraffin engines of 200 H.P., giving a speed of gj knots,
the " Carnegie," already referred to under surveying vessels, which
is fitted with gas engines of 150 H.P., driving twin screws; and the
yacht " Lady Evelyn," of 366 tons Y.M., fitted in 1910 with heavy
oil engines of 500 H.P.
The power of individual internal combustion engines completed
up to 1910 was somewhat limited, and great difficulties had been
encountered in the use of heavy oil fuels; but great advances and
improvements had been made which were opening up the way for
the more extensive adoption of motors of large power using heavy
oil fuels. An ocean-going motor-driven cargo vessel of 9000 tons
and 12 knots speed, was in 1910 being built in Germany for the
Hamburg-American line, and fitted \yith heavy oil engines of 3000
H.P. driving twin screws, while engines of 10,000 H.P. were also
being manufactured.
V. WAR VESSELS
The adoption of iron and steel as the material for shipbuilding,
and the development of the steam engine, have influenced warship
construction in the same manner as they have influenced the
construction of ships for the mercantile marine; but, in addition,
the introduction of armour for the protection of ships, the great
advances made in its manufacture, and, above all, the marvellous
improvements in explosives and in the design and manufacture
of guns and torpedoes, have changed the conditions of naval
warfare, and called for corresponding changes in the design of
warships. Those who are concerned in such questions may refer
with advantage to an interesting comparison between the old
" Victory " (fig. i, Plate XIII.) and a modern battleship instituted
by Sir Andrew Noble in his address to the Mechanical Science
Section of the British Association in 1890. Sir Andrew Noble's
remarks in this connexion are the more weighty, coming as they
did from the director of the great arsenal of Sir W. G. Armstrong,
Whitworth & Co., and from one whose scientific research has
incalculably advanced our knowledge of artillery and explosives.
Sir Andrew follows up this comparison by the following refer-
ence to the condition of things just before the Crimean War:
" The most improved battleships of the period just anterior to the
Crimean War differed from the type I have just described mainly
by the addition of steam power, and for the construction of these
engines the country was indebted to the great pioneers of marine
engineering, such as J. Penn & Sons, Maudslay, Sons & Field,
Ravenhill, Miller & Co., Rennie Bros., &c., not forgetting Messrs
Humphreys & Tennant, whose reputation and achievements now
are even more brilliant than in those earlier days. Taking the
' Duke of Wellington,' completed in 1853, as the type of a first-rate
just before the Crimean War, her length was 240 ft., her breadth
60 ft., her displacement 5830 tons, her indicated horse-power 1999,
and her speed on the measured mile 9-89 knots. Her armament
consisted of 131 guns, of which thirty-six 8-in. and 32-pdrs. were
mounted on the lower deck, a similar number on the middle deck,
thirty-eight 32-pdrs. on the main deck, and twenty short 32-pdrs.
and one 68-pdr. pivot gun on the upper deck. Taking the ' Caesar '
and the ' Hogue ' as types of second- and third-rate line-of-battle
892
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
ships, the former, which had nearly the displacement of the ' Vic-
tory,' had a length of 207 ft., a breadth of 56 ft., and a mean draught
of 21. She had 1420 indicated horse-power, and her speed on the
measured mile was 10-3 knots. Her armament consisted of twenty-
eight 8-in. guns and sixty-two 32-pdrs., carried on her lower, main
and upper decks. The ' Hogue ' had a length of 184 ft., a breadth
of 48 ft. 4 in., a mean draught of 22 ft. 6 in. ; she had 797 indicated
horse-power and a speed of 8$ knots. Her armament consisted of
two 68-pdrs. of 95 cwt., four lo-in. guns, twenty-six 8-in. guns,
and twenty-eight 32-pdrs. of 50 cwt. sixty guns in all.
" Vessels of lower rates (I refer to the screw steam frigates of the
period just anterior to the Crimean War) were, both in construction
and armament, so closely analogous to the line-of-battle ships that I
will not fatigue you by describing them, and will only allude to
one other class, that of the paddle-wheel steam frigate, of which I
may take the ' Terrible ' as a type. This vessel had a length of 226
ft., a breadth of 43 ft., a displacement of about 3000 tons, and an
indicated horse-power of 1950. Her armament consisted of seven
68-pdrs. of 95 cwt., four lo-in. guns, ten 8-in. guns and four light
32-pdrs."
The warships which existed at the beginning of the latter half
of the igth century were, with the exception of special vessels,
divided roughly into three classes
ships of the line, frigates and gun- .
vessels. For many years the corre- , I!
spending types of iron and steel vessels
were known as battleships, cruisers and
gunboats, but recently we have seen
the power of the cruiser increased to
that of the battleship, and new types
have been produced such as the torpedo
boat, the torpedo boat destroyer and
the scout, the latter developing into
the fast cruiser of continually increas-
ing size; while the submarine torpedo
boat has become a recognized sea-going
vessel, and is becoming comparable in
size with the gun-vessel or the small
cruiser. It is proposed to refer to these
in the order named. (See also NAVY.)
Battleships. The destruction of the
Turkish fleet at Sinope Qoth November
1853) by the Russian fleet, the latter
alone being armed with shell guns, and
the combined experience of the British
and French fleets before Sevastopol
when engaging Fort Constantine, de-
monstrated conclusively that for ships
of the line armour protection had be-
come essential. The French
ment immediately began to build five
armour-plated vessels, or batteries, as
they were called, for service
Black Sea; and eight similar
were begun shortly afterwards by the
British government for the
service. 1 The British vessels did not
arrive in time to take any part in the war; but three of
the French batteries did, and were very favourably reported
on by Admiral Bruat after an engagement with the Kinburn
Forts on the i7th of October 1855. With the exception of
these three French batteries, the whole of the fleets employed
in the operations were composed of unarmoured wooden ships,
and a large number of them were sailing line-of-battle ships.
As the result of the engagement with the Kinburn Forts,
the French began to armourplate sea-going vessels, and the
first step in this direction was taken by the celebrated French
naval architect M. Dupuy de L6me, who razeed the " Napoleon,"
a wooden two-decker, and fitted her with a complete belt of s-in.
armour on a backing of 26 in. of wood. This work was completed
in 1859, and the ship, renamed " La Gloire," became the first
sea-going armour-clad. Two other vessels of the same design,
the " Invincible " and " Normandie," were also laid down,
and with the " Magenta," " Solferino " and the " Couronne,"
1 See letters of the earl of Rosse on this subject, Transactions of
Inst. of Naval Architects for 1908.
a few years later, formed the first fleet of French armour-
clads.
In June 1859 the armour-plated iron frigate " Warrior " was
commenced by the British government. Others quickly followed,
including the " Black Prince," which was a sister ship to the
" Warrior," and four other vessels, the " Achilles," the sister
ships " Minotaur " and " Agincourt," and the " Northumberland."
The distribution of the armour and other features of these vessels
are shown in fig. 47. The " Warrior " and " Black Prince "
were 380 ft. long and of 8830 tons displacement, had engines of
6000 I.H.P. and a speed of 144- knots; they were designed to
carry thirty-six 68-pdr. loo-cwt. guns, but during construction
the 7-in. 6j-ton gun was introduced into H.M.. Service, and
the ships when completed for sea carried an armament of 28
of these 7-in. guns. They had a central citadel 213 ft. long,
protected with 4j-in. iron armour extending from a few feet
below the water-line to the height of the upper deck. Their
outline was similar to the outline of the wooden frigates of the
WARRIOR & BLACK PRINCE
- 38Oft
ACHILLES
380 ff.
MINOTAUR & AGINCOURT.
4OOft
NORTHUMBERLAND.
i be- t_
. zp;
n
>fi 1
"' *\ $ '% '
vern- . ^13tei
mu --JL , ^m.ii.^mfc^j j L ji^pf 1
,,,;,..., ,,,,..,,j r ,.,. ,^.....rt.. ...<.... .... : ....-U T ,.^e
fe^
I five /
:s, as LL
. M , ; i, s \
C B B M '
4Mfe
i the 40oft
FIG. 47. "Warrior" and " Black Prince," " Achilles," " Minotaur " and ''Agincourt," and
y the "Northumberland." E, Engine-room; B, boiler-room; C, coal bunkers; M, magazines; S,
same shell-rooms.
day, and their rudder-heads and steering-gear were above water
and unprotected against injury by shot and shell. In the four
vessels which immediately followed, which were from 500 to
1500 tons more displacement, the overhanging bow, as will be
seen from fig. 51, was given up, bows adapted for ramming were
introduced, and some protection was afforded to the steering-
gear by water-line belts of armour which extended the whole
length of the vessel. In 1861 the British government began the
construction of eleven armour-clads, six of which, including
the " Hector " and " Valiant," sister ships of 6700 tons displace-
ment and 3500 I.H.P., were iron vessels, and five, the " Cale-
donia," " Royal Oak," " Ocean," " Prince Consort," and " Royal
Alfred," were wooden vessels of rather over 4000 tons.
The reconstruction of the British fleet was taken in hand in
earnest in 1863, when Mr (afterwards Sir) Edward J. Reed was
placed at the head of the Construction Department at
the Admiralty, with Messrs Barnaby, Barnes, Cross-
land, Morgan and Wright the last-named (afterwards
Sir James Wright) holding the position of engineer-in-chief as
SlrB.J.
Reed.
SHIP
PLATE XL
FIG. 42. Sailing Yacht, with Auxiliary Steam Power, Sunbeam.
FIG. 43. Imperial German Steam Yacht Hohenzollern.
(Plata, West.)
XXIV. 892.
FIG. 44. The Royal Steam Yacht Alexandra.
(Hopkins.)
PLATE XII.
SHIP
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
893
his immediate assistants. Various types of vessels were devised,
with arrangements of armour and dispositions of guns, to provide
for the new conditions which had been introduced; and, in
addition, great advance was made in the structural arrange-
ments of ships, which up to this period had been considerably
influenced by the old systems of construction in use in wooden
ships. In investigating the qualities of ships, Sir Edward Reed
had the good fortune to secure the co-operation and assistance
of Mr William Froude, F.R.S., who had been the first to demon-
strate accurately the theory upon which the behaviour of ships
in a seaway depends. Mr Froude's experimental investigations
on the forms of ships and kindred matters, begun in 1870 on behalf
of the Admiralty and continued till his death in May 1879, had
a most important bearing on the improvement of ships and on
the science of naval construction generally. It is not too much
to say that nearly the whole of the accurate information as to
the best forms of ships and their resistance at various speeds,
in the possession of naval architects to-day, is the direct result
of Mr Froude's work, and that of his son, Mr R. E. Froude,
F.R.S., who continued the work after his father's death.
Among the considerations which Reed had in view in the
reconstruction of the navy may be enumerated the following:
(i) Steadiness of ship as a gun platform, with ample stability
experience in the Crimean War; and in June 1860 he embodied his
ideas in a paper read before the United Service Institution. When
the American Civil War broke out, Congress ordered a number of
armoured vessels to be built, and one of the first to be completed
was the turret vessel " Monitor " designed by Ericsson. She was
170 ft. in length, 41 J ft. beam, 1200 tons displacement, of low speed
and low freeboard, the sides being protected by 3- to 5-in. armour,
built up of i-in. plates on 27 in. of wood backing, and the single
revolving turret which carried two Il-in. smooth-bore guns pro-
tected by 8-in. armour built up of i-in. plates and placed amidships
as shown in fig. 48. Her defeat of the " Merrimac " belongs to
history. Several other similar low-freeboard turret vessels were
built in America, and one of them, the " Miantonomoh," 250 ft.
long, 55i ft. beam, 14 ft. draught, 3850 tons displacement, 1800
I.H.P., 12 knots speed, with twin screws and two turrets carrying
four lO-in. B.L. guns, of only 2 to 3 ft. freeboard, succeeded in cross-
ing the Atlantic, returning again in safety; but the " Monitor " her-
self was caught in a gale and foundered off Cape Hatteras in 1862.
The first turret ships in the British navy were the " Royal Sove-
reign " and " Prince Albert." The former, a wooden ship, launched
in 1857 as a I2i-gun three-decked line-of-battle ship, of a tonnage
of 3760 tons, was in 1864 cut down to 7 ft. above water and fitted
with 5|-in. side-armour bedded on a 36-in. wood side, and with four
turrets on Captain Cowper Coles' plan; and the latter, an iron vessel,
240 ft. long, 48 ft. beam, launched in 1864, with 4^-in. side-armour
with l8-in. backing fitted on I-in. skin plating, also carried four
turrets, two fitted with pairs and two with single 12-ton guns; both
were low-freeboard vessels and were reserved for coast defence. The
Pilot House
i Officers 4 Crews' Accommodation
Two ft"
Dahlgren Guns
(9)
(10)
in all conditions of lading to enable her to keep the
sea in all weathers, and sufficient stability in a par-
tially riddled condition to enable her to reach port
in safety. (2) Protection by armour of the vitals of
the ship, and of the heavy-gun positions, especially
against shell fire. (3) The carrying of guns of power
sufficient to penetrate the armour of any possible
enemy. (4) Mounting the guns sufficiently high above
the water-line to enable them to be fought in bad
weather. (5) Simultaneous all-round fire, with con-
centration of as many guns as possible on any given
point of the compass. (6) Speed to overtake or get
away from an enemy. (7) Manoeuvring power to
maintain, as far as possible, any desired position
with regard to an enemy. (8) Large radius of action.
Proper provision for the berthing of officers and crew.
Limitation of size and cost.
Objections were raised to the early armour-plated ships on the
score of their unhandiness, heavy rig, exposed position of guns, &c.
To meet these, Reed designed a number of vessels. The " Bellero-
phon," launched in 1865, was a vessel of 7550 tons displacement,
6500 I.H.P., 14 knots speed, and was 300 ft. long. Her armament
consisted of ten 9-in. 14-ton and five 7-in. 6j-ton guns. Her
water-line was wholly protected by 6-in. armour, and she was
provided with a central battery 98 ft. long, protected with armour
of the same thickness. She carried a considerable spread of canvas,
and she was fitted with a balanced rudder. The " Hercules," com-
pleted in 1868, was a much more important ship, her dimensions
being: length 325 ft., breadth 59 ft., draught 265 ft., displacement
8680 tons. Her engines of 8500 I.H.P. gave her a speed of about
14 J knots. She had two g-in. guns, mounted one forward and one
aft on the main deck behind 6-in. armour, and eight lo-in. guns,
mounted in a central battery on the main deck. Her water-line
was protected by armour 9 in. thick amidships, reduced to 6 in.
at her ends, and her battery was protected by 6-in. armour. The
" Sultan," completed in 1871, was in many respects a similar ship
but larger, having a displacement of 9300 tons, 2 ft. more beam
and i ft. more draught; she attained a speed of upwards of
14 knots. Her main-deck battery carried the same guns as the
main-deck battery of the " Hercules," but the g-in. guns at the
extremities of the vessel on this deck were dispensed with, and she
earned, in addition, an upper-deck battery, placed over the after-end
of the main-deck battery, in which four g-in. guns were carried.
Both batteries were protected with 6-in. armour; elsewhere the
armour followed that of the " Hercules."
Turret Ships. The system of mounting heavy guns in revolving
turrets was advocated in England by Captain Cowper Coles after
fZThickncsses of% "each
FIG. 48. Diagram of U.S.A. " Monitor."
" Monarch," of 8300 tons displacement, was laid down in June 1866
as[a sea-going turret ship. She was launched in May 1868, her dimen-
sions being: length 330 ft., breadth 57 ft. 6 in. and draught 26 'ft. ;
her I.H.P. was 8000, giving her a speed of about 15 knots, and she
carried a large spread of canvas. She had a complete armour belt
9 ft. 9 in. wide and 7 in. thick, reduced to 6 in. at the extremities.
Above this armour belt amidships, for a length of 84 ft., she was
provided with a citadel, also of 7-in. armour, which protected the
bases of two revolving turrets, each protected with lo-in. armour
and carrying two 12-in. guns. She also carried two 9-in. guns
forward on the upper deck and one 7-in. gun aft on the main deck,
all protected by armour.
The design of the " Monarch " did not satisfy Captain Coles, and
he induced the Admiralty to build a turret ship of much lower free-
board, in accordance with his views. This vessel was the " Captain,"
built at Birkenhead and launched in March 1869. By an unfortunate
error her freeboard was even less than Captain Coles had contem-
plated. She was fully rigged, with tripod masts and large sail-
spread ; this spread of canvas, with her low freeboard and deficient
stability, resulted in her capsizing in the Bay of Biscay on 6th
September 1870, amongst those drowned being her designer.
A number of low-freeboard turret vessels of the " Monitor " class,
without masts and sails, were built for the British navy at this
time, mostly for coast defence. Amongst these, the " Cerberus "
for Australia and the " Abyssinia " and " Magdala " for India were
completed in 1870. The " Abyssinia " had a displacement of 2900
tons and a speed of about 95 knots; her dimensions were: length
225 ft., beam 42 ft., draught 141 ft., and her armament consisted
of four ro-in. i8-ton guns. The other two vessels had the same
armament, but were somewhat larger, being of 3340 tons displace-
ment; and the thickness of their side-armour was 8 to 6 in., against
7 to 6 in. in the " Abyssinia." Several vessels of this type were also
built for home service, including the single-turret vessels " Glatton "
of 4910 tons and " Hotspur " of 4010 tons, each carrying two
8 94
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
i8-in. 25-ton guns, and the " Cyclops," " Gorgon," " Hecate " and
" Hydra," each of 3560 tons and provided with two turrets carrying
two lo-in. l8-ton guns. They were protected with armour from 8 to
12 in. thick, and their speed was from 10 to 12 knots.
The " Devastation," commenced in 1869, represented Reed's
views of what a sea-going turret ship should be. Low sides were
adopted, but not in combination with rigging and sails. She was the
first sea-going battleship in the British navy which depended wholly
on steam power for propulsion. She was 285 ft. long, 62 ft. 3 in.
broad, 27 ft. mean draught and 9330 tons displacement. Her sides,
which, except right forward, rose only to a height of 4 ft. 6 in. above
water, were protected with armour 12 in. thick. Her armament con-
sisted of four 35-ton guns, mounted in pairs in two turrets, one at
each end of a raised breastwork or redoubt which extended about
150 ft. along the middle of the upper deck. The guns were thus
elevated to the height of some 14 ft. above the surface of the water.
The turrets were protected by armour 12 in. and 14 in. thick, and
the breastwork or redoubt by armour 10 in. and 12 in. thick. A
forecastle extended forward from the fore-end of the breastwork at a
height of 9 ft. 3 in. above the water-line; but in wake of this fore-
castle the side armour dropped to a height of only 4 in. above the
surface of the water, at which level there was an armoured deck.
She was provided with twin-screw
machinery of 7000 I.H.P., which gave
her a speed of 14-2 knots, and she
carried a large coal supply. After the
loss of the " Captain,' a special com-
mittee, including many of the highest
professional and scientific authorities in
the United Kingdom, was appointed to
examine into the design of such vessels.
Of the " Devastation " they reported
that " ships of this class have stability
amply sufficient to make them safe
against the rolling and heaving action
of the sea "; they agreed, however, in
recommending a plan which the con-
structors of the Admiralty had pro-
posed, with the view of increasing her
range of stability and the accommoda-
tion of the crew. This consisted in the
addition of side superstructures, formed
by continuing up the ship's side with
light framing and plating as high as
the level of the top of the breastwork,
and carrying the breastwork deck over
to the sides. The structures were con-
tinued aft on each side some distance
beyond the breastwork, providing two
spacious wings, which added largely to
the cabin accommodation. A good idea
of her general appearance may be ob-
tained from fig. 49 (Plate XII.). The
" Devastation ' was followed by the
" Thunderer " of the same dimensions,
and the " Dreadnought " of 10,820
tons displacement, 8000 I.H.P. and 14
knots speed; a vessel of higher free-
board, plated with 14 in. of armour
and carrying four 38- ton guns; she
was the most powerful and best pro-
tected vessel of her day.
Sir Edward Reed retired from the
and Sir N. Barnaby was placed at the head of the Construction
Department.
The sea-going qualities of the " Devastation " had successfully
demonstrated that the battleship of the future might, depend
wholly on steam propulsion; and although many
naval officers and others continued to hold the view
that sea-going ironclads must of necessity be rigged
ships, in the designs which immediately followed sail
power was omitted. In the " Inflexible " (fig. 50, Plate XII.),
and the sister ships " Ajax " and " Agamemnon," the offensive
power was concentrated mainly in two pairs of heavy guns,
as it was in the " Devastation " and other turret ships which
preceded them; but in them the armour defence also was
concentrated over a comparatively small space amidships, the
unprotected ends being formed into what was called raft bodies
by belts of cork, within which was placed a portion of the ship's
coal, &c. Thus the buoyancy was secured by a citadel amidships
which could not be penetrated, and by ends which might be
AJAX and AGAMEMNON (of 1876)
Plan
CaOins
o
Plan of under irater Protective Deck
Coffer-dam.
Coffer dam
Coffer cLam,
Coffer-dam
FIG. 51. Arrangement of " Ajax " and " Agamemnon."
Admiralty a short time before the " Captain " foundered at sea.
During his seven years' term of office some forty iron armour-
clads of various sizes and types, besides iron cruisers and numer-
ous other vessels, had been added to the British navy, the adoption
of armour for the protection of the vital parts of ships had become
established, and especially had the importance of utilizing armour
in such a manner as to exclude projectiles from the region of
the water-line become recognized. The change from the widely-
distributed armament of the first broadside armour-clads to the
highly concentrated armament of the turrets, and from the high
freeboard ship with sail-power to the low freeboard turret ship
without sails, had also been effected; so that when Sir Edward
Reed retired in 1870, the latest type of battleship was entirely
different from that which existed when he took office; and
although the construction of broadside ironclads had not been
discontinued, " the wooden walls " had practically ceased to
exist. Sir Edward Reed was succeeded by a Council of
Construction composed of his immediate assistants, with
Mr Barnaby (afterwards Sir Nathaniel Barnaby) as its
president; but three years later this council was dissolved,
riddled but (it was contended) not be destroyed. The arrange-
ment shown in fig. 51 represents the " Ajax " and " Agamem-
non." The " Inflexible " was similar but larger. Sir N.
Barnaby described the design of the " Inflexible " in 1874
before the Institution of Naval Architects thus:
" Imagine a floating castle 1 10 ft. long and 75 ft. wide, rising 10 ft.
out of the water, and having above that again two round turrets
planted diagonally at its opposite corners. Imagine this castle
and its turrets to be heavily plated with armour, and that each
turret has within it two guns of about 80 tons each perhaps in
the course of a few years guns of twice 80 tons each. Conceive
these guns to be capable of firing, all four together, at an enemy
ahead or on either beam, and in pairs towards every point of the
compass.
" Attached to this rectangular armoured castle, but completely
submerged, every part being 6 ft. to 7 ft. under water, there is a
hull of the ordinary form, with a powerful ram bow, with twin
screws and a submerged rudder and helm. This compound structure
is the fighting part of the ship. Seaworthiness, speed and shapeliness
would be wanting in such a structure if it had no additions to it;
there is therefore an unarmoured structure lying above the sub-
merged ship and connected with it, both before and abaft the
armoured castle; and as this structure rises 20 ft. out of the water,
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
895
from stem to stern, without depriving the guns of that command
ot the horizon already described, and as it moreover renders a
flying deck unnecessary, it gets over the objections which have
been raised against the low freeboard and other features in the
' Devastation, Thunderer' and ' Fury.' 1 These structures furnish
also most luxurious accommodation for officers and seamen. The
step in advance has therefore been from 14 in. of armour to 24
in., from 35-ton guns to 8o-ton guns, from two guns ahead to four
guns ahead, from a height of 10 ft. for working anchors to 20 ft.,
and this is done without an increase in cost, and with a reduction of
nearly 3 ft. in draught of water, &c."
The dimensions of the " Inflexible" were: length 320 ft., beam
75 ft., mean draught 26 ft. 4 in., and displacement 1 1, 880 tons,
and her speed was 14 knots. The dimensions of the "Ajax" and
" Agamemnon," begun in 1876, were: length 280 ft., beam 66 ft.,
mean draught 24 ft. 9 in., and displacement 8660 tons. They carried
four J2j-in. guns; their citadels were 104 ft. long, protected with
i8-in. armour, their turrets being protected by l6-in. armour;
and their speed was 12 knots. The " Edinburgh ' and " Colossus,"
begun three years later, were of the same type, but were built of
steel and were of 9480 tons displacement. Their citadels were
longer, and their speed was 14^ knots. Compound armour, adopted
general appearance is obtained from fig. 53 (Plate XII.), which repre-
sents the ' Camperdown." The " Victoria " J and the " Sans Pareil,"
built a few years later, were, with the " Benbow," the only ships of
the British navy built to carry I lo-ton guns, the former having them
in pairs in a turret heavily armoured, and the latter singly in
barbettes.
Among the last of the battleship designs undertaken by Sir N.
Barnaby was that of the " Trafalgar and " Nile,'' which was
completed by Messrs. F. K. Barnes and H. Morgan after his retire-
ment. These vessels, laid down in January and April 1886, were the
largest ships then built for the British navy. They were 11,940
tons displacement, 345 ft. long, 73 ft. beam, and 28 ft. 10 in. mean
draught; had engines of 12,000 I.H.P. and a speed of i6J knots.
Their armour-protection consisted of a belt 230 ft. long and 20 in.
thick, with bulkheads 18 in. and 14 in. thick. Above the belt was
an armoured redoubt of i8-in. compound armour which enclosed
the turret bases. The turrets themselves had i8-in. armour, and
between the turrets was an octagonal battery of 3 in. to 5 in. of
steel containing the 4~7-in. Q.F. guns. The thickness of the pro-
tective deck was 3 in. The disposition of armament originated in
the " Collingwood" was adopted in these vessels, but the heavy
guns were placed in turrets instead of in barbettes. The armament
63 Ton. t LK
S3 Ton.e.1. K
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7
Plan ofVpprrDeck.
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_/?*":Jggfgr..-/!^y?.ffr^ )<c * over Belt
Plan of Protective.
~*ecH. at end
FIG. 52
~'{{T-f'***j{l?%frftftfrf&fff/jr*ffFff((*- t i;,,\ft
. The "Collingwood." A, communicating tubes; B, boiler-rooms; D, water-chambers; E, engine-room;
M, magazines and shell-rooms; P, patent fuel packing; W, water-ballast tanks.
in these two ships for the first time, gave them a great advantage
in defensive power.
The " Collingwood," begun in 1880, was the first of the battleships
of a new type known as the " Admiral " class. In these vessels the
main armament consisted of four heavy guns mounted in pairs on
the middle line of the ship, in fixed heavily protected gun-positions
called barbettes, one at each end of the ship; this main armament
was supplemented by a secondary armament of lighter and more
rapid-firing guns mounted on the broadsides between the barbettes.
This arrangement of the armament, which is illustrated in fig. 52,
continued, with small modification, to be adopted in the battleships
of the British navy down to 1903.
The principal features of the " Collingwood " were: length 325 ft.,
beam 68 ft., mean draught 27 ft., displacement 9500 tons. She
carried i8-in. armour on her sides, l6-in. on bulkheads, nj-in. on
barbettes and 12-in. conning towers. Her armament consisted of
four 12-in. 45-ton guns, six 6-in. guns, and a number of smaller guns.
Her speed was 16 J knots, and she carried 900 tons of coal, with
capacity for 1200. She was followed two years later by the
" Rodney," " Howe," " Benbow," " Camperdown " and " Anson,"
which were of the same type, but larger. These six ships con-
stitute what is known as the ""Admiral " class. A good idea of their
1 The " Fury " was modified and renamed " Dreadnought " before
being launched.
consisted of four 13'5-in. 67-ton B.L. guns, six 4'7-in. Q.F., eight
6-pdrs. Q.F., twelve 3-pdrs. Q.F., besides boat guns and six torpedo
tubes. They carried 900 tons of coal at normal displacement, and
had stowage for noo tons.
Sir Nathaniel Barnaby retired from office in 1885. During
his term of office there were built for the British navy upwards
of twenty armoured battleships of various classes, in addition
to a much larger number of cruisers of all sizes. The fight for
supremacy between the gun and the armour plate had begun in
earnest when Sir N. Barnaby took office, the increased weight of
projectile and penetrative power obtained by the concentration
of the armament into a few heavy guns being followed by the
concentration of the armour into a short belt. The con-
centration of guns and armour reached a limit in the
" Inflexible " and her immediate successors; the later ships of
Sir N. Barnaby's design carried a secondary battery of lighter
guns in addition to the heavy main armament, and had much
longer water-line belts. These changes, combined with the
2 The " Victoria " was accidentally rammed and sunk by the
" Camperdown " during the Mediterranean manoeuvres of 1893.
8 9 6
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
introduction of compound armour and the adoption of steel
instead of iron for the building material, both of which date from
his time, allowed of greater armour protection and of other
advantages, including increased speed, &c.
Sir Nathaniel Barnaby was succeeded in October 1885 by
Mr W. H. White (afterwards Sir W. H. White, F.R.S.). The
battleships then building were of four different types
vv/ifte H ' an< * included two of the " Colossus " class, six of
the " Admiral " class, two " Trafalgars," and the
" Victoria " and " Sans Pareil." Their completion proceeded
very slowly, and no new battleships were laid down till 1889,
when the Naval Defence Act resulted in a reconsideration of
the subject by the Board of Admiralty.
Before coming to a decision various designs were discussed,
and the First Lord convened a meeting, not only of the members
of the Board, but of a number of distinguished and experienced
naval officers as well as the Director of Naval Ordnance and
the Director of Naval Construction. Subsequently the Board
issued instructions for the preparation of detailed designs em-
bodying the features which were agreed upon as being most
desirable; and on these designs the seven barbette battleships
casemates of 5-in. armour; the armour belt was 12 in. thick, the
protective decks 2 in., and the side armour between belt and
main decks 3 in. thick. They were re-armed and improved in
1902-1903.
The " Renown " (fig. 55, Plate XII.), laid down in 1893, was
380 ft. long, 72 ft. beam, 25 ft. 6 in. mean draught, 12,000 I.H.P.,
and 18 knots speed, armed with four io-in., ten 6-in., fourteen
12-pdr. and eight 3-pdr. guns, and five torpedo tubes. She was
the first vessel in the British navy to be protected by Harveyized
armour; the belt armour had a maximum thickness of 8 in.,
the barbettes were of io-in. armour, the casemates 6 in., and
the decks 2 in. to 3 in. thick. An innovation was made in the
form of the protective deck, the sides being bent down to the
level of the lower edge on the side armour, while the . midship por-
tion was kept flat at the level of the upper edge of the side armour.
This method of construction was followed in all succeeding British
battleships.
The " Majestic," laid down about the same time, was an un-
sheathed first-class battleship, 390 ft. long, 75 ft. beam, 27 j ft. mean
draught, 14,900 tons displacement, 12,000 I. H. P., and 1 7 knots speed ;
her bunkers held 2000 tons of coal, of which 900 tons are included
in the displacement named. Her armament consisted of four i2-in.
wire-wound guns, which were more powerful than the heavier 13^-in.
guns of the " Royal Sovereign," twelve 6-in. Q.F., eighteen 12-pdr.,
twelve 3-pdr. and smaller guns, and five torpedo tubes, four of them
submerged. Her protective deck was 2j in. thick on the flat part
of the " Royal Sovereign " class and the
turret ship " Hood " were built.
The general arrangement of guns and armour
in the vessels of the " Royal Sovereign " class is
shown in fig. 54. They were 380 ft. in length,
75 ft. beam, 27} ft. draught, 14,150 tons dis-
placement, 13,000 I.H.P., and 17$ knots speed.
The coal bunkers can hold 1450 tons, of which 900
tons is included on the above displacement. For
three-fifths of the length amidships the side is
protected by an l8-in. belt of armour, a horizontal
3-in. protective deck being worked across the
ship at the middle or belt deck; between the belt deck and main
deck 4-in. side armour is worked. Before and abaft the belt curved
protective decks 2j in. thick were worked, extending down to the
ram forward and covering the steering gear aft. Four I3j-in. B.L.
67-ton guns were fitted in pairs in pear-shaped barbettes forward
and aft, protected by 17-in. armoured barbettes extending down to
the belt deck; ten 6-in. Q.F. guns were fitted, four being on the
main deck in 6-in. armoured casemates, which were adopted in these
vessels for the first time; sixteen 6-pdr. and twelve 3-pdr. Q.F.
guns were fitted, and seven torpedo tubes. The " Royal Sovereign "
was laid down at Portsmouth in September 1889, floated in
February 1891, and completed in May 1892. (The six upper-
deck 6-in. guns were protected by 5-in. casemates added 1901 to
1904.)
The " Hood " was similar in displacement, armament, armour,
horse-power, speed and general dimensions, but was of less freeboard,
the heavy guns being fitted in turrets revolving on armoured redoubts
of reduced heights.
The " Centurion " and " Barfleur," laid down in 1890, were
designed as sheathed second-class battleships for service in distant
waters; they were 360 ft. in length, 70 ft. beam, 25 ft. 6 in. mean
draught, 10,500 tons displacement, 13,000 1. H. P., and iSJknots speed.
They were armed with four io-in. B.L. guns in circular barbettes of
9-in. armour, ten 47-in. and twenty-two small Q.F. guns, and five
torpedo-tubes, four of the 47-in. guns being on the main deck in
FIG. 54. The " Royal Sovereign."
amidships and 4 in." thick on" the sloping sides;
above the deck a broad belt of 9-in. Harveyized
armour was fitted, rising to the main deck. i n <j
barbettes were protected by 14-in. armour, and
all the 6-in. guns were protected by 6-in. case-
mates. The Majestic was laid down at Ports-
mouth on the 5th of February 1894, floated on
the 3ist of January 1895, and completed in
December 1895.
Nine vessels of the same class were built,
the last being the " Hannibal " (fig. 56, Plate
XIV.), completed in April 1898. In two of the
vessels, " Caesar " and " Illustrious," the bar-
bettes were made circular, central revolving hoists being fitted and
the guns arranged to load at any angle of training, a system which
was adopted in the heavy gun mountings of all the later British
battleships.
The " Formidable " and " London " classes, laid down from 1898
to 1901, differ very slightly from each other, and for all practical pur-
poses may be taken as identical, the main difference being in a re-
arrangement of the armour protection to the bow in the later ships.
The former class consists of the thre> battleships " Formidable,"
" Irresistible " and " Implacable," and the latter of the five battle-
ships " London," " Bulwark " (fig. 57, Plate XV.), " Venerable,"
" Queen " and " Prince of Wales. These classes represent a de-
velopment of the " Majestic " class, being 400 ft. long, 75 ft. beam,
26 ft. 9 in. draught, and 15,000 tons displacement, the bel^being of
the same general thickness and extent as in the " Majestic," but of
Krupp steel, protection being given to the bow by 2-in. side-plating.
In the " Formidable " the protective deck proper was formed as in
the " Majestic," but thinner, being 2 in. to 3 in. thick, and a
second protective deck, I in. thick, was formed at the main deck,
giving a flat top to the citadel formed by the side belt and the
bulkheads. In the " London " class the lower protective deck
was thinner and the upper one thicker than in the "Formidable 1
class, the protection being extended forward by thinner material,
tapering to 2 in. at the bow, and the forward transverse armour
bulkhead being omitted. The 1 2-in. guns in both classes were
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
897
longer and heavier than in the ships of the " Majestic " class, and
were in barbettes 12 in. thick; in addition, there were twelve
6-in. Q.F. guns all in casemates-^-sixteen 12-pdrs. and four
torpedo tubes. These eight battleships were each provided with
20 Belleville boilers, developed 15,000 H.P., and had a speed of 18
knots. They carried 900 tons of coal at their normal displacement,
FIG. 59. Arrangement of Guns and Armour, H.M.S. " King Edward VII."
and had bunker space for 2200 tons ; they were afterwards fitted to
burn oil as well as coal in their boilers, the double bottom com-
partments having been adapted for the stowage of oil in bulk.
The line of development, as traced above, may be taken to
begin with the " Collingwood " and to run through the " Admiral "
class, the " Nile " and " Trafalgar," the " Royal Sovereign "
class, the " Majestic " class, and the " Formidable " class
to the " London " class, the most powerful type of warship
constructed for the British navy up to the end of the igth
century. Branching off from this line, at a time when
boilers; 'they had 20 Bellevilles, developed 13,500 H.P., and
had a speed of l8i knots. They carried 1000 tons of coal at
normal load, and had bunkers for 2300 tons. The ships of the
" Duncan " class were longer and larger than those of the " Canopus "
class. They were begun in July 1899, were of 14,000 tons dis-
placement, 405 ft. long, 75 ft. 6 in. beam, 26 ft. 6 in. draught. They
had a belt of Krupp steel, 7 in. thick
amidships, tapering to 3 in. at bow,
and two protective decks, as in the
" Canopus " ; they had two barbettes,
ii in. thick, for four i2-in. guns,
and carried twelve 6-in. Q.F. guns
in 6-in. casemates on trie main
and upper decks; also a number of
smaller guns and four submerged
torpedo tubes. They were provided
with 24 Belleville boilers, would de-
velop 18,000 H.P., and attain a speed
of 19 knots. Their normal coal
supply was 900 tons, and they had
bunker capacity for 2000 tons. Six
of these ships were built, one of
them, the " Montagu," being lost on
Lundy Island in 1906. Vessels of
similar type had been built abroad,
but there was a tendency to provide
in them a more powerful secondary
armament. In 1901 France built the
" Republique " with eighteen 6-5-in.
funs as her secondary armament;
taly laid down the " Regina Elena,"
carrying twelve 8-in. guns as her
secondary armament; and Germany
the " Braunschweig," carrying four-
teen 6-7-in. and twelve 3'4-in. guns
as her secondary armament. In
1902 the United States followed
with the " Georgia," carrying a
secondary armament of eight 8-in.
and twelve 6-in. guns, while two English vessels, the " Libertad "
and " Independencia," laid down for Chile, carried no less than
fourteen 7'5-in. guns as their secondary armament. 1 In 1902 the
" King Edward VII." (fig. 58, Plate XIV.), the last battleship
for which Sir William White was responsible, was laid down,
carrying four 12-in. guns, with a secondary armament of four
9-2-in. and ten 6-in. guns. She may be considered as an enlarged
" Duncan," with the main-deck guns increased from eight to ten
in number and enclosed in a battery having sides and ends pro-
tected by 7-in. armour, with the backs of the casemates replaced
by splinter bulkheads I to 2 in. in thickness, and with the four
6-in. guns in casemates on the upper deck replaced by four 4-calibre
battleships became much heavier (the " Royal Sovereign " class 9-2-in. guns, protected by enclosed revolving armour shields. The
were of 2200 tons more
' displacement than the
.'" Nile " and " Trafalgar "),
ia series of smaller, faster,
and more lightly armed and
armoured battleships than
the series terminating with
the " London " class was
also built. These began
with the " Barfleur " and
'"Centurion," which,
though contemporary with
the " Royal Sovereign "
class, were of 1440 tons
less displacement; they
were followed by the
" Renown, "the "Canopus"
and the " Duncan " class.
The six ships of the "Can-
opus " class may be regarded
as a development of the
" Renown." Begun in 1896,
. they were 12,950 tons in dis-
placement, 390 ft. long, 74 ft.
beam, and 26 ft. draught.
FlG.6i. Arrangement of Guns and Armour, H.M.S. " Lord Nelson."
They had a 6-in. Harveyized belt, 14 ft. broad and 195 ft. long;
two protective decks (anticipating the " Formidable " in this
respect); and two 12-in. barbettes, each carrying two wire-wound
12-in. guns, against the " Renown's " lo-in. They also carried twelve
6-in. guns in 5-in. casemates, ten 12-pdrs., a number of smaller and
machine guns, and four submerged torpedo tubes. They were the
first battleships of the British navy to be fitted with water-tube
xxiv. 29
general arrangements of the guns and armour are shown in fig. 59.*
1 These two vessels were afterwards purchased by the British
government and became the " Swiftsure " and " Triumph " (fig. 69,
Plate XVIII.).
2 The gun and armour diagrams and many particulars of modern
vessels' are taken by permission from Brassey's Naval Annual.
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
Sir
Philip
WatU.
The displacement of the " King Edward VII." was 16,350 tons,
the length 425 ft., beam 78 ft., draught 26} ft.; the H.P. 18,000,
while the designed speed was i8J knots. Eight vessels of this class
were built, five being ordered in 1902 and three in 1903.
The principal changes to be noted in the development of the
battleship type from 1885 to 1902 are: (i) The successive
improvements in armour by the introduction of the Harvey
and Krupp processes, which enabled either a saving of weight
to be effected for the same degree of protection, or a greater
degree of protection to be provided for the same weight. (2)
The belt armour was extended longitudinally and upward,
shielding a greater portion of the hull and giving increased
protection to the stability and to the secondary armament
of the vessel. (3) Improvements in guns and explosives, by
which more effective gun-fire was obtained with guns of
smaller calibre and less weight than those previously in use.
(4) The growth in importance of the secondary armament. (5)
Improvements in machinery the adoption of higher steam
pressures, lighter and faster-running engines, and of water-tube
boilers which effected great savings in weight for a given power,
and enabled increased speed to be obtained in successive ships.
Sir William White held office for nearly seventeen years, and
during that period a very large number of vessels of
various classes were added to the British navy. He
retired in February 1002, and was succeeded by Mr
Philip Watts, F.R.S. (b. 1850), who was knighted
in 1905.
In 1903 the design of the vessel which afterwards became the
" Lord Kelson " was approved, her armament then including four
12-in. and twelve 9-2-in. guns, all of 50 calibre and all mounted in
pairs in gun-houses above the upper deck. It was, however, decided
to build the three additional King Edwards" above referred to,
in order to complete the squadron of eight vessels of the same type.
In the " Lord Nelson," as afterwards laid down in 1905, the con-
dition that the vessels of this class should be capable of being docked
in existing docks at Chatham and Devonport led to the reduction
of the secondary armament to ten o-2-in. guns, instead of twelve
9'2-in. guns. Only two vessels of the class were built, the " Lord
Nelson ' by Palmers Co. and the " Agamemnon " (fig. 60, Plate
XIV.) by Beardmore & Co. They are 410 ft. long, 79! ft. beam,
27 ft. draught, 16,500 tons displacement, 17,500 I. H.P. and i8J
knots speeo. The general arrangements of the guns and armour
are shown in fig. 61 ; the 12-in. guns are carried in pairs at each end
of the ship in gun-houses upon barbettes protected by 12-in. armour,
and the ten 9-2-in. guns are carried in gun-houses on the broadside,
the midship gun-houses having single and the others pairs of guns
instead of each having a pair of guns as originally contemplated.
The gun-houses carry 8-in. and /-in. armour, and the bases of the gun
mountings are protected by a citadel of 8-in. armour rising to the
upper deck and un perforated for doors or ports. There are also
twenty-four 12-pdr. anti-torpedo-boat guns carried upon super-
structures and a hurricane deck. The water-line is protected by
12-in. armour amidships, tapering to 6 in. forward and 4 in. aft,
associated with protective decks. (See SHIPBUILDING.)
Admiral Sir John Fisher (Baron Fisher of Kilverstone) became
First Sea Lord of the Admiralty on the zoth of October 1004,
and very shortly after he took office Lord Selbome, First Lord
of the Admiralty, announced that the Board had appointed
" a Special Committee on Designs to assist them and the Director
of Naval Construction in the consideration of certain questions
to be submitted to it by the Board in connexion with the features
of the future designs of different types of fighting ships." The
Committee began to sit in December 1904. Their
nought" re c mme ndations were approved in 1905 by the Board
type. and embodied in the designs of the " Dreadnought "
type of battleships, and the " Invincible " type of
cruiser, as well as in new types of torpedo-boat destroyers.
The principal features of the " Dreadnought " design were as
follows (Parl. Paper Cd. 3048 of 1906):
Armament. " Ten 12-in. guns and twenty-four 12-pdr. Q.F. anti-
torpedo-boat guns and five submerged torpedo tubes.
' In arranging for a uniform armament cf 12-in. guns it became
at once apparent that a limitation to the number of guns that could
be usefully carried was imposed by considerations of the blast effect
of the guns on the crews of those guns adjacent to them. It is ob-
viously uneconomical to place the guns in such relative positions
that the blast of any single gun on any permissible training should
very seriously hamper the use of one or more of the remaining
guns.
" While it is recognized that broadside fire is held to be the most
important in a battleship, all-round fire is also considered of great
importance, since it lies in the power of an enemy to force an op-
ponent, who is anxious to engage, to fight an end-on action.
" In the arrangement of armament adopted, six of the guns are
mounted in pairs on the centre line of the ship; the remaining four
guns are mounted in pairs on the broadside. Thus eight 12-in. guns
(80 % of the main armament) can be fired on either broadside, and
four, or possibly six, 12-in. guns (or 60% of the main armament)
can be fired simultaneously ahead or astern.
" In view of the potentialities of modern torpedo craft, and
considering especially the chances of torpedo attack towards the
end of an action, it is considered necessary to separate the anti-
torpedo-boat guns as widely as possible from one another, so that
the whole of them shall not be disabled by one or two heavy shells.
This consideration led the Committee to recommend a numerous
and widely distributed armament of 12-pdr. Q.F. guns of a new
design ana greater power than those hitherto carried for use against
torpedo craft."
Freeboard. " In order to give the ship good sea-going qualities
and to increase the command of the forward guns, a forecastle is
provided giving the ship a freeboard forward of 28 ft. a higher
freeboard than has been given to any modern battleship."
Armour. " The main armour belt has a maximum thickness
of II in., tapering to 6 in. at the forward and 4 in. at the after
extremity of the vessel; the redoubt armour varies in thickness
from ii in. to 8 in.; the turrets and fore conning tower are 1 1 in.
thick, and the after conning tower is 8 in. thick; the protective
deck varies from if in. to 2} in. in thickness.
" Special attention has been given to safeguarding the ship from
destruction by under-water explosion. All the main transverse
bulkheads below the main deck (which will be 9 ft. above the water-
line) are unpierced except for the purpose of leading pipes or wires
conveying power. Lifts and other special arrangements are pro-
vided to give access to the various compartments.
Speed. " Mobility of forces is a prime necessity in war. The
greater the mobility the greater the chance of obtaining a strategic
advantage. This mobility is represented by speed and fuel en-
durance. Superior speed also gives the power of choosing the range.
To gain this advantage the speed designed for the ' Dreadnought '
is 21 knots."
Type of Machinery. " The question of the best type of propelling
machinery to be fitted was also most thoroughly considered. While
recognizing that the steam-turbine system of propulsion has at
present some disadvantages, yet it was determined to adopt it
because of the saving in weight and reduction in number of working
parts, and reduced liability to breakdown; its smooth working,
ease of manipulation, saving in coal consumption at high powers
and hence boiler-room space, and saving in engine-room complement ;
and also because of the increased protection which is provided for
with this system, due to the engines being lower in the ship; ad-
vantages which more than counterbalance the disadvantages.
There was no difficulty in arriving at a decision to adopt turbine
propulsion from the point of view of tea-going speed only. The
point that chiefly occupied the Committee was the question of pro-
viding sufficient stopping and turning power for purposes of quick
and easy manoeuvring. Trials were carried out between the
sister vessels ' Eden ' and ' Waveney ' and the ' Amethyst ' and
' Sapphire," one of each class fitted with reciprocating and the
other with turbine engines; experiments were also carried out at
the Admiralty Experimental Works at Haslar, and it was considered
that all requirements promise to be fully met by the adoption of
suitable, turbine machinery, and that the manoeuvring capabilities
of the snip, when in company with a fleet or when working in narrow
waters, will be quite satisfactory.
" The necessary stopping and astern power will be obtained by
astern turbines on each of the four shafts. These astern turbines
will be arranged in series, one high and one low pressure astern
turbine on each side of the ship, and in this way the steam will be
more economically used when going astern, and a proportionally
greater astern power obtained than in the ' Eden ' and ' Amethyst.' '
Radius of Action. " The ship has a total coal-bunker capacity of
2700 tons, and with this amount of coal she will be able to steam
about 5800 sea miles at economical speed, and about 3500 sea miles
at i8J knots after allowance has been made for bad weather and for
a small amount of coal being left in the bunkers. Stowage for oil
fuel has been arranged for, but oil fuel has not been taken into
account in estimating the radius of action, which, of course, will be
greatly increased thereby. "^
Accommodation. " Considerable attention has been devoted to
the arrangements for the accommodation of the officers and men.
In view of the increasing length and greater power of modern ships
the usual position of the admiral's and captain's quarters right aft
is becoming more and more open to objection. Up to the present
the principal officers have been berthed at the farthest possible
distance from the fore bridge and conning tower, where their most
important duties are performed. It has oeen decided that in this
ship the admiral's and captain's quarters shall be placed on the
mam deck forward, near the connine tower; also that the
officers' quarters shall be placed forward, both on the main deck and
on the upper deck, in the fore part of the ship. Ample accommodation
SHIP
rlG- I. H-JI-ix. Vtftarr.
xx r M
FIG. 64. H-M-S. Dreadmmfhi.
PLATE XIV.
SHIP
FIG. 56. H.M.S. Hannibal (Majestic Class).
FIG. 58. H.M.S. King Edward VII.
"?*
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
for the remainder of the crew is available on the main and lower
decks aft."
The tabulated particulars given in Parl. Paper Cd. 3048 for
the designs approved are shown in Table XIV.
It is interesting to note that the distribution of armament
finally adopted in the " Dreadnought " was nearly that of a
design considered by Sir Nathaniel Barnaby at the Admiralty
in 1874, which was a combination of the " Devastation " and
" Inflexible " designs. The armament was an all-one-calibre big
gun armament of i6-in. 8o-ton guns carried in pairs in turrets
above the upper deck, one pair being placed at each extremity
on the middle line, and two pairs on the broadside en (chelon,
having training on each broadside as well as ahead and astern,
thus giving a fire of six guns ahead, six astern and eight on each
broadside. The scheme was considered inadmissible on account
of the great displacement involved, 16,000 tons. The arrange-
ment of eight heavy guns then contemplated was actually
adopted in the " Invincible " design, but it was not considered
that four pairs of i2-in. guns was a sufficiently heavy armament
for the battleships of the " Dreadnought " class; a proposal
to place a fifth pair of guns on the middle line between the broad-
side guns and the aftermost pair of guns was finally adopted,
the turrets on the broadside being placed abreast of each other
instead of en (chelon on account of the great increase of length
and displacement involved.
The main features in which the " Dreadnought " differed
from the " Lord Nelson " are: (i) The all-one-calibre big gun
armament in place of the mixed armament of i2-in. and 9-2-in.
guns. (2) The increase of 3 knots in speed. (3) The height of
freeboard provided forward to enable the vessel to fight her
bow guns at high speed in a sea way. (4) Great increase in
manoeuvring power due to fitting twin rudders behind propellers.
The weight of the armament of the " Dreadnought " is the
same as that of the " Lord Nelson "; it is 30% greater than
that of the " King Edward VII.," the 1400 tons increase of dis-
placement (about 8% of the displacement of the " Lord Nelson "
and " King Edward VII.") being used in obtaining the increase
of 3 knots of speed.
The general arrangements of guns and armour of the " Dread-
nought " are shown in fig. 63, and on Plate XIII., fig. 64, a
photograph of the vessel is given. She was built and tested as
rapidly as possible, her keel was laid on the 2nd of October 1903,
she was launched on the loth of February 1906, King Edward
VII. himself performing the christening ceremony and starting the
vessel down the ways; and she went to sea, for steam, gunnery
and torpedo trials, on the ist of October 1906, one year after
the laying of the keel. The whole of the trials were com-
pleted without hitch of any kind, the machinery realized
the expectations as to power and smoothness of running,
and a speed of 21-6 knots was obtained on the measured
mile, with an expenditure of power well within the capacity
of the boilers. She left England for a long experimental cruise
on the 5th of December 1906.
Immediately after the trials of the " Dreadnought," three
other vessels, the " Bellerophon," " Temeraire " and " Superb "
of 18,600 tons were begun, the additional 700 tons in displace-
ment being absorbed in additional armour protection and an
improved anti-torpedo-boat armament consisting of sixteen
4-in. guns. In 1907 and 1908 the " St Vincent," " Collingwood "
and " Vanguard " of 19,250 tons displacement were begun,
in which further additions to the armour protection were made.
These were followed by the " Neptune," " Hercules " and
" Colossus," of about 20,000 tons displacement, laid down in
1909, the additional 800 tons lengthening the ships and enabling
the i2-in. guns on the broadside to be placed en echelon and
the second pair of guns from aft to be lifted high enough to fire
over the aftermost pairs of guns; the whole of the main arma-
ment being thus able to fire on either broadside and eight guns
to fire astern. Each of these vessels was completed in two years
from the date of laying the keel. See Table XV.
On the 29th of November 1909 the " Orion," the lead-
ing vessel of what in 1910 was the most recent group of
899
*
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I
.
=50
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900
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
" Dreadnoughts," was laid down at Portsmouth, 1 and the
following vessels of the group (the " Thunderer," " Monarch "
and " Conqueror ") were ordered to be built in the private
yards of the Thames Iron Works, Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co.
on the Tyne, and Beardmore & Co. on the Clyde a few weeks
broadside. Their displacement had been reached by five
steps from that of the " King Edward VII." and " Lord
Nelson," the first of 1400 tons, 8%; the next three each of
about 700 tons, say 4%; and the last of 2500 tons, or iz|%.
The first of these increases, though not without precedent in
FIG. 63. Arrangement of Guns ana Armour. H.M.S. " Dreadnought."
later. In these vessels there is a considerable increase in displace-
ment, amounting to 2500 tons or 12$% beyond that reached in
the preceding group, their displacement being 22,500 tons on
a length of 545 ft. between perpendiculars. The additional
displacement has allowed the whole of the turrets to be placed
on the middle line, the side armour to be raised to the upper
deck, and heavier guns to be carried.
Great Britain thus had in 1910 fourteen " Dreadnoughts "
built and building, not including the " Dreadnought " cruisers
described later on under cruisers.
In the first seven vessels " Dreadnought," " Bellerophon,"
" Temeraire," " Superb," " St Vincent," " Collingwood " and
" Vanguard " six i2-in. guns could fire directly ahead and six
the British navy, 2 elicited some hostile criticism. Its justifica-
tion lay in the fact that all the world followed the lead. The
22,500 tons of the " Orion " was not acceptable in 1904, but her
design was practically that advocated by Lord Fisher when he
took office as First Sea Lord in October 1904 after certain modi-
fications had been made as the result of investigations at the
Admiralty.
The general growth of the fleets of British and foreign powers
is dealt with in the article NAVY. Some details may be given
here of foreign battleships.
United Stales. In 1889 the " Texas," designed by the late Mr
William John, was laid down. On a displacement of 6315 tons she
carried an armament of two 12-in. and six 6-in. guns at a speed
of 17 knots the 12-in. guns being mounted in two turrets placed
TABLE XV. Particulars of British Battleships of Dreadnought Type.
Hull.
Machinery.
^
Vessel.
1
3
J
CJ3
O |
1
li
-j
Armament.
Jjl
1
it
5 '
|
f
1
1!
Is
<&
i
in
Engines.
Boilers.
EBB
I J
|
8.1
O"O
1
1
M
a
S|
a
I
X
P
1
Feet.
Feet.
Feet.
Tons.
Knots.
Dreadnought
1906
Steel.
490.0
82.0
36J
17,900
1.6
23,OOO
4
Parsons Turbines.
Babcock & Wilcox
xo 12 24 izpr.
Barbettes.
I
,699,900
Bellerophon
1907
490.0
82.0
27.0
18.600
1.8
23,000
4
, ,
xo 12 16 4'
I
,649,043
Temeraire
1907
490.0
82.0
27.0
18,600
2.07
23.OOO
4
Yarrow large tube
xo 12 16 4*
I
,627,655
Superb
1907
490.0
82.0
27.0
18,600
1.6
23,OOO
4
Babcock & Wilcox
xo 12 1 6 4'
I
,544.146
St. Vincent
1908
500.0
84.0
27.0
19.250
i-7
24,500
4
t M
O 2 2O 4*
O
,612,810
Collingwood
1908
500.0
84.0
37.0
19.250
i-S
24,500
4
Yarrow large tube
O 2 2O 4'
o
,589.240
Vanguard
1909
500.0
84.0
37.0
19.250
2.1
24-500
4
Babcock ftlVilcox
2 20 4'
o
,465.381
Neptune .
Colossus .
1909
1910
510.0
510.0
85.0
85.0
27.0
37.0
20,000
20,000
I.O'
25,OOO
25,000
4
4
Yarrow large tube
Babcock & Wilcox
O 2 l6 4*
o 2 16 4*
o
o
,589,340
Hercules .
1910
510.0
85.0
37.0
20,000
I.O 1
25,OOO
1
Yarrow large tube
O 2 l6 4*
o
1 Estimated.
directly astern, and eight could fire on the broadsides. In the
next three " Neptune," " Colossus " and " Hercules " six
12-in. guns could fire ahead, eight could fire astern, and the
whole ten could fire on either broadside. In the last four
" Orion," " Thunderer," " Monarch " and " Conqueror "four
guns could fire ahead, four astern and the whole ten on either
1 She was launched on the zoth of August 1910.
diagonally in a central citadel and protected by 12-in. armour. She
was followed by the " Maine," which was sunk in Havana Harbour.
In 1891 the " Indiana," " Massachusetts " and " Oregon " were laid
down, of 10,288 tons displacement and 16 knots speed, protected
by i8-in. belt armour and armed with four i3-in. and eight 8-in.
1 From the " Trafalgar " to the " Royal Sovereign," and from
the " Duncan " to the " King Edward VII.," increases in each case
of 17 % were accepted.
SHIP
PLATE XV.
FIG. 57. H.M.S. Bulwark.
FIG. 81. Norwegian Norge.
XXIV. 900.
FIG. 98. Chilean Chacabuco.
PLATE XVI.
SHIP
FIG. 66. U.S.A. Illinois.
FIG. 70. German Kaiser Frederick HI.
WAR VESSELS-
SHIP
901
guns, the ij-in. guns being mounted in pairs in turrets on the upper
deck, and the four 8-in. guns singly in turrets at the corners of the
superstructure deck. They were followed by the " Iowa " of 11,346
tons, laid down in 1893; and in 1896 by the " Kearsarge " and
" Kentucky," whose principal dimensions were: length 368 ft.,
beam 72 ft., mean draught 23 ft. 6 in., displacement 11,525 tons,
I.H.P. 10,500 and speed 16 knots as designed, 12,000 I.H.P. and
i6J knots being reached on trial. They carried four 13-10. guns in
turrets 15 in. thick, four 8-in. guns in turrets 9 in. thick, fourteen
5-in. Q.F. guns, twenty-seven smaller guns, and four torpedo tubes;
and at the above displacement they carried 410 tons of coal, but
could stow 1590 tons. They had a novelty in the shape of two
double-storeyed turrets, one forward and one aft. In this arrange-
ment a second turret is superposed or built on the first, the structure
so formed turning as a whole; a pair of 8-in. guns is mounted in
the upper turret, and a pair of 13-in. guns in the lower. A later
example of American design is furnished by the five first-class
battleships of the " Georgia " class (fig. 65), laid down in 1902,
which haye a displacement of 15,320 tons, length 435 ft., beam
76 ft. 10 in., and a mean draught of 24 ft.; they have a complete
water-line belt of Krupp armour, from n in. to 8 in. thick,
tapering to 4 in. at the bow; above this belt there is a belt of
lighter armour, 6 in. thick and 245 ft. long, forming a battery for
the 6-in. Q.F. guns, which extends to the upper deck; there are also
four turrets two large double-storeyed turrets, as in the " Ken-
FIG. 65. Gun and Armour Plan " Georgia
" Rhode Island
class (" Georgia,"
and " Virginia ").
tucky," placed one forward and one aft, and two smaller turrets,
one placed on each side forward. The larger turrets carry each a
pair of 12-in. guns and a pair of 8-in. guns, and are protected by a
maximum thickness of n-in. armour, and the smaller carry each a
pair of 8-in. guns and are protected by 6J-in. armour. In addition
to the four 12-in. and eight 8-in. guns thus disposed, there are also
twelve 6-in. guns on the main deck and some forty-two smaller
guns.
Machinery of 19,000 I.H.P. was provided for a speed of 19 knots,
and both were exceeded on the trials of the vessels. They carry
900 tons coal on the trial draught, and when fully loaded with 1900
tons of coal have a draught of 26 ft. This comparatively shallow
draught is a distinctive feature of all the early United States battle-
ships, but in later years a notable increase of draught was
accepted. Between the " Kearsarge " and the " Georgia " were built
in 1896-1898 the " Alabama," " Illinois " (fig. 66, Plate XVI.), and
" Wisconsin," somewhat similar to the " Kearsarge," carrying four
13-in. guns and fourteen 6-in. guns, and in 1899-1901 the second
" Maine," the" Missouri "and" Ohio," which more nearly resembled
the " Georgia," as they carried 12-in. guns for their main armament.
The " Georgia " class was followed by two much larger vessels
the "Connecticut" and "Louisiana," laid down in 1903; they
were 450 ft. long, 76 ft. 10 in. beam, 17,600 tons displacement and
24 ft. 6 in. draught when loaded with 900 tons coal, and 26 ft. 9 in.
draught when loaded with full complement of ammunition and stores
and 2200 tons coal; and they marked a great advance in fighting
power. While retaining four 12-in. guns for the main armament,
they carried eight 8-in. and twelve 7-m. guns as a secondary arma-
ment, and they were well protected, guns and armour being arranged
as shown in fig. 67. Engines of 16,500 I.H.P. were provided for a
speed of 1 8 knots, and both were considerably exceeded on trial.
In these and later American vessels tall towers of open lattice-work,
somewhat resembling the Eiffel Tower, were fitted instead of hollow
steel masts for supporting signal and fire-control arrangements.
While the vessels of the " Connecticut " class were building in 1904,
twopthervery similar but smaller vessels, the " Idaho"and" Missis-
sippi," were also laid down, of 13,000 tons with reduced armament
and armour and less speed.
The first two American " Dreadnoughts," the " Michigan " and
" South Carolina," were laid down in 1906; they are 450 ft. long,
80 ft. 3 in beam, displacement 16,000 tons and draught 24 ft. 6 in.
when carrying 900 tons of coal, increasing to 17,1620 tons and 27 ft.
draught when fully loaded. Engines of 16,500 I.H.P. are provided
for 18-5 knots, and the armament consists of eight 12-in. guns
mounted in four pairs, two pairs forward and two pairs aft, all on
the middle line and arranged so that the guns of the second pair
sweep over the turrets of the adjacent pair nearer the extremities of
the vessel; an anti-torpedo boat armament of twenty-two 14-pdr.
guns is provided, but no secondary armament. The sides and
barbettes are protected by 8 in. to 12 in. of armour, the belt
armour tapering to 4 in. at the bow and stern. In 1907 the
" Delaware" and "North Dakota" were laid dowo; the size of
the vessels was increased to 2O,ooo tons in order to carry 12-in.
and 14-111. guns behind armour from 12 in. to 8 in. in thickness
and obtain a speed of 21 knots, and they are 510 ft. long, 85 ft.
beam, 26 ft. 10 in. mean draught. Ten 5-in. guns are carried on
the main deck behind 5-in. armour, two are carried on the main deck
forward and two aft, in casemates. Curtis turbines are fitted in
the " North Dakota " and reciprocating engines of the latest type
in the " Delaware"; the boilers pro-
vided on each ship are for 25,000
I.H.P.; on trial the "Delaware"
developed 28,578 I.H.P. and recorded
a speed of 21-56 knots, while the
" North Dakota '' reached 31,826 H.P.
and 22-25 knots.
Parsons turbines were adopted for
the four battleships next laid down.
The first two, the " Florida " and
" Utah," commenced in 1909, are very
similar to the " Delaware," but of
21,825 tons displacement and 28 ft.
6 in. mean draught. The second pair,
the " Arkansas " and " Wyoming,
begun in 1910, are of much
greater displacement, viz., 26,000
tons; 8100 tons greater than the
Dreadnought " and 3500 tons greater
than the " Orion." They are 554 ft.
long, while a beam of 93 ft. and the
same mean draught of 28 ft. 6 in. have
been accepted. Turbines of 33,000
H.P. are provided for a speed of 20-5
knots, four propellers being fitted as
in H.M.S. " Dreadnought." The coal
to be carried on trial has been in-
creased to 1650 tons, in place of the
i oop tons in preceding vessels. Twelve
12-in. and twenty-one 5-in. guns are
carried and vanadium steel armour
of 8-in. to ii-in. thickness is fitted on sides and barbettes,
associated with protective decks of increased thickness. Six
pairs of 12-in. guns are carried, all on the middle line; the
foremost pair is 34 ft. above the designed load-line, the second
pair 40 ft., and the third pair 32 ft.; the aftermost guns are 25 ft.
above water, the next forward 32 ft. and the third pair from stern
again at a height of 25 ft. Twenty-one 5-in. anti-torpedo-boat guns
are carried, and the complement of officers and men has reached the
high total of 1 100. The main armament of the later vessels, " New
York " and " Texas," is composed of ten 14-in. instead of twelve
12-in. guns, and the displacement is increased to 27,000 tons and
the H.P. to 35,000.
Germany. In 1885 Germany had one first-class battleship, the
" Konig Wilhelm," of 9567 tons displacement, and four smaller
vessels, the " Baden," " Bayern," "Sachsen" and " Wurttemberg,"
of 7400 tons each. The " Kaiser " and " Deutschland," central-
battery ships designed by Sir Edward Reed, and two turret ships,
the " Preussen " and " F. der Grosse," followed shortly afterwards.
The " Kaiser " and " Deutschland " were 285 ft. in length, had a
displacement of 7600 tons, 8000 I.H.P. and 14! knots speed; were
armed with eight 22-ton guns and one i8-ton gun, and had side
armour of a maximum thickness of 10 in. The vessels of the
" Preussen " class were sea-going ships of the " Monarch " type*
308 ft. in length and of 6750 tons displacement and 14 knots speed,
with belt armour of a maximum thickness of gl in. and turret armour
8J in. thick.
In 1891 an advance was_ made by laying down the " Brandenburg
class of 9901 tons, carrying six n-in. guns in three barbettes, one
forward and one aft, and one on the middle line amidships. They
were followed by the five first-class battleships of the " Kaiser ' class,
the last of which, the " Kaiser Friedrich III." (fig. 70, Plate XVI.),
was finished in 1900. They are of 10,900 tons displacement, length
377 ft., beam 66 ft. 10 in., draught 25 ft. 9 in., 13,000 I.H.P. and 18
knots speed. They have belts of Krupp steel extending from the after
1 Nebraska," " New Jersey,"
902
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
barbette to the stem, with a maximum thickness of 12 in., tapering
to 6 in. at the bow; there is no side armour above this belt. The
main armament consists of four 9-4-in. guns, placed in pairs in
barbettes, one forward and one aft, protected by lo-in. armour.
On the main deck they have four 5-9-in. Q.F. guns in 6-in. armoured
casemates, two on each side ; and on the upper deck they have eight
similar guns, protected in like manner, and six others in turrets
three each side; in all, eighteen 5-9-in. guns, besides twelve 3-5-in.
and smaller guns. There are five vessels of the " Wittelsbach 1!
class, a development of the "Kaiser Friedrich III."; they are
700 tons more displacement, 15 ft. longer and ij ft. more beam,
but are of shallower draught. They have engines of 15,000 H.P.
and a speed of 19 knots, or a knot more than their predecessors.
Their armament is the same, but the 9-4-in. guns are better protected.
The main armour belt is somewhat longer, but in other respects the
thicknesses and general disposition of the protection are similar to
the " Kaiser Friedrich III." class.
In the next five vessels, the " Braunschweig " class, laid down in
1901-1902, the 9-4-in. guns were replaced by u-in. guns for the
main armament; and the eighteen 5-9-in. guns were replaced by
fourteen 6-7-in. guns for the secondary armament. The displace-
ment was increased to 12,988 tons, the speed of 18 knots was main-
tained, and the armour protection practically as in the preceding
t+t- T
FIG. 67. Arrangement of Guns and Armour of U.S. " Connecticut."
vessels. Five vessels of the new " Deutschland " class which followed
in 1903-1905 were very similar to the " Braunschweig " class.
The " Nassau," the first of the German " Dreadnoughts " laid
down in 1907, was 455 ft. in length and of 18,200 tons displace-
ment, and carried an armament of twelve n-in., twelve 5'9-in.
and sixteen 3-4-in. guns, had an armour belt of Krupp steel n in.
to 4 in. in thickness, I. H.P. 22,000 for 19 knots and speed on trial
20-7 knots. The " Posen " (fig. 71, Plate XVII.), " Rheinland " and
" Westfalen " of the same type were also laid down in 1907 and were
built and completed for sea with extraordinary rapidity. The
" Westfalen " attained 20-25 knots on trial with 26,792 H.P. The
next three vessels, " Thiiringen," " Helgoland " and " Ostfriesland,"
laid down in 1908, are provided with twelve 12-in. guns arranged
as in H.M.S. " Neptune ; they are of 22,150 tons displacement and
25,000 1. H.P. for 19-5 knots speed (probably at continuous sea speed ;
a measured-mile speed of about 2 knots more would doubtless be
expected) ; they are protected by 12-in. Krupp steel armour; their
dimensions are: length 489 ft., beam 98 ft., draught 27 ft. 6 in.
The vessels laid down in 1910 were said to be still larger.
France. For many years the French designers favoured the
placing of the four heavy guns of their battleships in separate
barbettes a 12-in. gun at each end and a io-8-in. gun on each side
of the vessel amidships, intermediate positions being arranged for
the smaller guns. Such vessels as the " Carnot," " Charles Martel,"
" Jaureguiberry," " Massena," " Bouvet_" approximating to 12,000
tons displacement, and built in the 'nineties, were so arranged.
These were followed by a series of vessels in which the 12-in. gun
alone was accepted for the main armament, and two pairs were fitted,
one forward and one aft as in British vessels; the " Gaulois,"
" Charlemagne," " St Louis " and " Suffren " were so arranged.
The " Suffren," commenced in 1899 (displacement 12,728 tons,
length 410 ft., beam 70 ft. and draught 27 ft. 6 in.), had a com-
plete water-line belt of Harveyized steel armour of 1 1 J in. maximum
thickness, and above this, up to the main deck, similar armour, 5 in.
thick, extending from the after turret to the bow; she had also a
short armoured battery on the main deck which enclosed the funnel
uptakes. There were eight turrets on her upper deck one forward
and one aft, each carrying two 12-in. guns, and six arranged three
on each broadside, each carrying a 6-4-in. gun. The armour of the
larget turrets was of the same thickness as the armour belt, namely,
ii J in., and that of the smaller turrets 5 in. She mounted eight
3-9-in. guns on the superstructure, and also had twenty-two smaller
guns and four torpedo tubes, of which two were submerged. She
had triple screws, engines of 16,000 I. H.P. and a speed of 18 knots.
The " Republique," laid down in 1901, and the " Patrie," laid down
in 1902, were superior in speed and armament to any British battle-
ships then building. They had a displacement of 14,865 tons, and
were of 439 ft. length, 79 ft. 6 in. beam and 27 ft. 6 in. extreme
draught. They had three screws, and a nominal I. H.P. of 17,500
for a speed of 18 knots; but on trial these were considerably ex-
ceeded, the " Patrie " reporting 19,000 1. H.P. and 19-47 knots. They
carried four 12-in. B.L. guns in pairs in turrets on the middle line,
as in the British ships, twelve 6-4-in. Q.F. guns in pairs in turrets
on the upper deck, six additional 6-4-in. Q.F. guns in casemates on
the main deck, twenty-six 3-pdrs., three above- water and two sub-
merged torpedo tubes. There was a complete water-line belt of a
maximum thickness of 12 in., the bow was protected by -}-in. armour
and there was a partial 4-in. belt
above the 12-in. belt. The pro-
tective deck was 4 in. thick on
the slopes, and the armour of the
main turrets I2j in., the whole
armour being of Harvey quality.
Four later vessels of the class,
"Justice," "D6mocratie,"
" Libertd " and " Verite," were
given a still more powerful second-
ary armament of 7-6-in. guns
six placed in well-protected
turrets at a great heignt above
water, and four jn casemates be-
tween decks. Six vessels, the
" Condorcet," "Danton" (fig.72),
" Diderot," " Mirabeau," Ver-
gniaud" and "Voltaire/'werelaid
down in 1907. All had Parsons
turbines of 22,500 H.P. for a
speed of 19-25 knots, and their
main armament consisted of four
12-in. and twelve 9-4-in. guns,
as shown in fig. 72. The later
French ships " Courbet " and
" Jean Bart " cany twelve 12-
in. guns in six pairs, two for-
ward and two aft on the middle
line, one pair training over the
other, and one pair on each side
amidships as in Dreadnought."
They are of 23,000 tons displace-
ment and 20 knots speed, and
have an anti-torpedo boat armament of twenty-two 5'5-in. guns, all
in casemates of ^-in. armour.
Japan. Previous to the Russo-Japanese War Japan had provided
herself with a number of excellent battleships built in Great Britain,
such as the " Fuji " of 12,450 tons, laid down at the Thames
Ironworks in 1894, the " Hatsuse," built at Elswick, the " Asahi,"
built at Clydebank, and the " Shikishima," built at the Thames
Ironworks, all of about 15,000 tons displacement and laid down in
1897-1898. The dimensions of these vessels were: length 400 ft.,
beam 75 ft. 6 in., mean draught 27 ft. The I. H.P. was 157000, giving
a speed of 18 knots. The armour-belt extended the full length of the
ship at the water-line, and had a maximum thickness of 9 in. ; be-
tween the top of this belt and the main deck, for a length of some
220 ft., was an upper belt 6 in. thick, which was continued by
oblique bulkheads to the sides of the heavy-gun barbettes. The
barbettes themselves, which were two in number, one forward and
one aft, had armour 14 in. thick, and the conning-tower also was
14 in. thick. The armament consisted of four 12-in. 49-ton B.L.
guns, two mounted in each barbette and loading in any position
of training; fourteen 6-in. Q.F. guns, all in 6-in. casemates, eight
on the main deck and six on the upper deck; and twenty 12-
pdrs., besides smaller guns and four submerged torpedo tubes.
The " Mikasa," laid down at Barrow in 1899, was a slight
modification of the " Hatsuse " class design, being 200 tons
heavier and 6 in. more in draught. The principal difference was
that the eight 6-in. Q.F. guns on the mam deck were increased
to ten in number, and instead of being in separate casemates were
in a 6-in. armoured central battery, with 2-in. divisional screen
bulkheads.
The " Hatsuse " was destroyed in the war by a mine explosion;
and the " Mikasa " was seriously damaged by mines. After
the war she was accidentally sunk on the loth of September
1905; she was, however, refloated on the 8th of August 1906, re-
paired and recommissioned. The Japanese fleet in 1910 contained
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
903
several vessels which were captured from Russia during the
war, such as the " Iwami " of 13.51$ tons (late " Orel ' ), the
" Hizen " of 12,275 tons (late " Retvizan "), the " Segami " of
12,790 tons (late " Peresviet "), the " Suwo " of 12,997 tons (late
" Pobyeda "), the " Tango " of 10,960 tons (late " Poltava "), and
the" Ud" of 9700 tons (late" Imperator Nicolai I.")- The "Suwo"
J- If J'
FIG. 72. Arrangement of Guns and Armour of the French
and " Hizen " may be taken as typical examples of these captured
vessels. The former is of the following dimensions: length 436 ft.,
beam 71 J ft., draught 27$ ft., and displacement 12,670 tons; she has
engines of 15,000 H.P. and a nominal speed of 19! knots, carried an
armament of four lo-in. guns, mounted in pairs in turrets on the
middle line forward and aft; eleven 6-in. guns, distributed five on
each broadside and one in the extreme bow of the vessel ; twenty
3-in. guns and twenty-six smaller pieces; and six torpedo tubes.
She is protected by a complete water-line belt of armour, 9 in.
thick amidships, tapering to 4 in. at the ends, reinforced by a pro-
tective deck 2j in. thick. Above the belt, for a length of 185 ft.
amidships, is a lighter belt of 5-in. Krupp armour, protecting the
bases of the 6-in. guns, and terminated by transverse bulkheads.
The lo-in. gun turrets are 10 in. thick, and the 6-in. guns are pro-
tected by casemates 5 in. thick. This vessel carries 30 Belleville
boilers, and has storage for 2000 tons of coal. The " Hizen " (" Ret-
vizan ") was built at Cramp's, U.S.A. She is of 12,700 tons dis-
placement, 376 ft. long, 72j ft. beam, and 26 ft. draught. She has
four 12-in. B.L. guns in pairs in turrets, twelve 6-in. Q.F. guns
in 5-in. casemates,
twenty 12-pdrs. and
twenty-eight smaller
guns, besides four
submerged and two
above-water torpedo
tubes. She is pro-
tected by a water-line
belt extending from
the after-turret to the
stem, and tapering in
thickness from 9 in.
to 2 in. Above this
is a complete belt of
6 in. maximum thick-
ness, and the main
armament is pro-
tected by turrets 10
in. thick. She has
16,000 H.P. and a
speed of 18 knots,
and has stowage for
2000 tons of coal.
The " Kashima "
(fig. 73, Plate XVII.)
was laid down at
Elswick in 1904 and
the " Katori," at
Barrow in the same year; they were not delivered until the
war was over. Also during the war Japan laid down two very
much larger vessels, the " Aki " and " Satsuma." The " Aki
is the larger of the two, being 492 ft. long, 83^ ft. beam, 27^ ft.
draught, and 19,800 tons displacement; she carries four 12-in.,
twelve io-in., eight 6-in. and twelve 12-pdr. guns and five torpedo
tubes, and is protected by g-in. to 5-in. armour. Curtis turbines of
24,000 H.P. are provided for a speed of 20 knots. It is note-
worthy that this vessel was laid down on the I5th of March 1905,
while the " Lord Nelson " of 16,500 tons was not laid down until
the i8th of May 1905 and the " Dreadnought " of 17,900 tons not
until the 2nd of October 1905. The " Aki " also exceeds in dis-
placement the " St Vincent, laid down in 1907-1908, and her
tonnage was not reached
inGreat Britain until 1909,
when the" Neptune "was
laid down. The " Aki "
was followed by still larger
vessels, the " Kawachi "
and " Settsu," both of
20,800 tons. The " Ka-
wachi " is thus 900 tons
greater than the " Nep-
tune," and she was laid
down one day before
that vessel. The general
arrangement of armour
and guns of these large
vessels is shown in fig. 74 ;
they are protected by
armour of 1 2 in. to 5 in. in
thickness, and in addition
to twelve 12-in. guns they
carry ten 6-in., twelve 4-7
in. and four 12-pdrs.
Russia maintained in
1910 two fleets, one being
in the Black Sea, pre-
vented by treaty from
passing through the
Dardanelles, and the
other, the main Russian
Fleet, in the Baltic.
Danton."
In 1882 three remarkable vessels were laid down for the Black
Sea Fleet, the "Catherine II.," " Tchesme " and " Sinope." They were
barbette ships of 10,180 tons displacement, with a compound armour
belt of a maximum thickness of 16 in., armed with six 12-in. B.L.
guns mounted in pairs on the upper deck in a large pear-shaped
barbette, and seven 6-in. guns on the main deck; and having a
speed of 1 6 knots. Other vessels built for this fleet were the
" Twelve Apostles " of 8709 tons, " George the Victorious," 11,032
tons, the " Three Prelates, 13,318 tons, the " Rostislav," of 8880
tons laid down in 1895 and the " Panteleimon " of 12,582 tons
laid down in 1897. The latest vessels built on the Black Sea are
the " loann Zlatoust " and " Eystafi," of 12,840 tons and 16
knots, carrying four 12-in., four 8-in., twelve 6-in., fourteen 12-pdr.
and six 3-pdr. guns; both were laid down in 1903.
Of the main Russian Fleet outside the Black Sea only a few
battleships survived the Russo-Japanese War; these included the
" Tzesarevich " of 13,000 tons, built in France in 1899, carrying four
12-in. guns in two barbettes, and twelve 6-in. guns in pairs in turrets ;
also the " Slava," laid down on the Neva in 1902, 370 ft. long, of
FIG. 74. Arrangement of Guns and Armour of " Kawachi."
13,516 tons displacement, 16,000 I.H.P. and 18 knots speed, her
hull protected by armour of 9 in. to 4 in. in thickness. The " Slava "
carried four 12-in. guns in barbettes having io-in. armour, and twelve
6-in. guns in turrets having 6-in. armour.
In January 1903 Russia laid down the " Imperator Pavel I.," a
larger and more powerful vessel than any then building by any
other power, being of 17,400 tons displacement almost that of the
94
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
" Dreadnought," but laid down 2i years earlier ; she carries four 12-in.
and fourteen 8-in. guns as well as twelve 4-7-01. guns arranged as shown
in fig. 75, from which it will be seen that an attempt was made
to protect almost the whole of the vessel above water with armour
varying from 8i in. to 3 in. in thickness. Engines of 17,600 I.H.P.
are provided for 18 knots speed. A sister vessel, " Andrei Pervoz-
,.4;7'4 ; 7'4-7-4-7'
FIG. 75. Arrangement of- Guns and Armour of " Imperator Pavel."
vanni," was also laid down in 1903, but neither vessel was com-
pleted in time to take part in the war. In 1909 four vessels were
laid down, which were again larger than any then building for any
other power, viz. the " Sevastopol," " Petropavlovsk," " Gangut '
and " Poltava," of 23,000 tons displacement, with Parsons turbines
of 42,000 H.P. for 23 knots speed, 600 ft. long, 89 ft. beam, 27 ft.
3 in. draught, protected by n-in. armour, armed with twelve 12-in.
and sixteen 4-7-in. guns, the 12-in. guns being carried in four three-
gun turrets placed at considerable distances apart on the middle line.
Italy. The Italian navy has always contained interesting vessels
embodying the independent thought and skill of her own designers.
The " Duilio," launched in 1876, and the " Dandolo," launched in
1878, were 340 ft. in length, 10,400 tons displacement, and carried
four loo-ton M.L. rifled guns, mounted in two turrets and capable
of penetrating 22-7 in. of iron at looo yds. They had a central
citadel 107 ft. in length, pro-
tected by 21 J in. of steel
armour, with l8-in. armour
on the turrets. Their engines
were of 7900 I.H.P., giving
a speed of 15 knots. In the
" Italia " and " Lepanto,"
launched in 1880 and 1883
respectively, side armour was
dispensed with, a curved 3-in.
armour deck, with its sides
5i ft. below the water-line,
being fitted from stem to
stern, with armour glacis pro-
tection to the funnel open-
ings, &c., in this deck; they
carried four loo-ton breech-
loading guns mounted in two
barbettes arranged so as to
permit all four guns to fire
ahead, astern or on either
broadside as in " Inflexible ";
their displacement was
13.500 tons, their length
400 ft., and they had engines
of 18,000 I.H.P. designed to
've a speed of 18 knots,
hey were followed by three
of the " Andrea Doria " class
of 11,000 tons, launched in
1884 and 1885, armed with
four los-ton breech-loaders,
and protected by an i8-in.
belt of compound armour; and by the " Re Umberto," " Sicilia "
and " Sardegna " of 13,250 tons, launched 1888 to 1891, and armed
with four 67-ton B.L. guns having a penetration of 27 in. of iron at
looo yds. In 1897 Italy launched the second-class battleships
" Ammiraglio di Saint Bon " and the " Emanuelc Filiberto " of 9800
tons and 18 knots speed, carrying four io-in., eight 6-in. and eight
4'7-in. guns and armoured with io-in. to 4-in. armour. These were
followed by the " Regina Margherita," laid down in 1898, and the
" Benedetto Brin," laid down in 1899, two vessels of 13,426 tons dis-
placement and 20 knots speed, of good freeboard, carrying an arma-
ment similar to that of the " Duncan "and in addition four 8-in. guns;
the 12-in. guns are protected by io-in. armour, the 6-in. guns and the
ship's sides by 6-in. armour
with 3-in. side plating for-
ward and aft. Four very
notable vessels were next
laid down the " Regina
Elena" (fig. 76, Plate
XVII.) and "Vittorio
Emanuele III." in 1901,
and the " Napoli " and
" Roma " in 1903, each
on a displacement of
12,625 tons, carrying two
12-in. and twelve 8-in.
guns in turrets, as well as
a large number of small
quick-firing guns; their
machinery of 20,000 I.H.P.
is provided for a speed of
22 knots; their hulls are
cut down, giving reduced
freeboard as compared with
" Benedetto Brin," and the
hulls and machinery are
built as lightly as possible.
For several years no new
design was adopted, but
in 1999 the "Dante
Alighieri ' was laid down,
of 18,700 tons displace-
ment, an increase of 50%
over that of the preceding vessels. She was reported to be 492;
ft. long, 79 ft. beam, carrying twelve 12-in., eighteen 4'7-in. and
sixteen 3-in. guns, turbines of 30,000 H.P. being provided for a
speed of 23 knots, and side armour fitted 9 in. thick amidships
tapering to 6 in. forward and 4$ in. aft. Three later vessels,
the " Conte di Cavour," " Giulio Cesare " and " Leonardo da Vinci,"
are of 22,000 tons, 35,000 H.P., 23 knots, and carry thirteen
12-inch guns.
Austria. Until quite recently Austria has made no attempt
to maintain battleships of the first class. Three small battleships,
the " Monarch," " Budapest " and " Wien," were laid down in
1893-1894, of 5550 tons displacement and 17$ knots speed, carry-
ing four 9'4-in., six 6-in. and twelve 3-pdr. guns, with armour
loj in. to 4 in. in thickness. In 1899 three larger vessels, the
" Habsburg '', (fig. 77, Plate XVII.), " Arpad " and " Baben-
FIG. 78. Arrangement of Guns and Armour of Austrian " Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand."
berg," were begun, of 8340 tons displacement and 18 knots speed,
carrying three 9'4-in., twelve 6-in. and several smaller Q.F.
guns and well armoured. In 1901 it was decided to build the
Erzherzog Karl Friedrich " and " Ferdinand Max," of 10,600 tons
and 19 knots, carrying four 9'4-in. and small Q.F. guns as in the
" Monarch," but with the secondary armament increased to twelve
SHIP
PLATE XVII.
u
3
I
.0
XXIV. go 4 .
PLATE XVIII.
SHIP
FIG. 79. Brazilian Minos Geraes.
FIG. 69. H.M.S. Triumph.
FIG. 68. U.S. A. Michigan.
WAR VESSELS] SHIP
TABLE XVI. Development of some of the Leading Features of Notable Armoured Battleships from 1860 to IQIO.
95
Vessel.
Date of
Launch.
Hull.
u
1
c/3
I.H.P
Propulsive Machinery.
Armament
(including Machine
Guns).
Heavy
Guns
where
mounted.
Thickest
Armour.
Cost (ex-
cluding
Guns).
|
Material.
J
i
$
Breadth.
Mean
Draught.
lii
3.x a
"51
o S
K&
Engines.
Boilers.
Warrior . .
1860
Iron
Ft.
380
Ft. In
58 o
Ft. In
26 7
Tons
8,830
Knots
14-25
6,000
i
Horizontal, trunk, jet
condensing
i expansion
i set of 2 cylinders
ii2*X48*
10 rectangular
22 Ib pressure
28 7*6i ton guns
Broadside
Inches
41
356,693
Agincourt
1865
"
400
59 3
28 2
10,690
14-8
5,ooo
i
Horizontal, jet
condensing
i expansion
i set of 2 cylinders
ioi'X54*
10 rectangular
17 12 ton M.L.R.
Broadside
Si
496,069
Bellerophon .
1865
"
30
56 I
26 o
7,550
14-2
6,500
i
Horizontal , trunk,
surface-condensing
i expansion
i set of 2 cylinders;
I04*X48*
Rectangular
26 Ib pressure
10 14 ton and
5 6* ton guns
Central
battery
6
447,6i8
Monarch .
1868
"
330
ST 6
26 o
8,300
15-0
7,850
i
Horizontal
i expansion
i set of 2 cylinders;
i2o*X54*
Rectangular
31$ Ib pressure
4 12* 25 ton,
2 9* 12 ton,
i 7* 6 ton and
20 small guns
Turrets
Turrets, 10
Sides, 7
478,971
Sultan . . .
1870
"
32S
61 o
26 I
9.300
14-1
7,700
i
Horizontal, trunk,
su rf ace-condensi ng
i expansion
i set of 2 cylinders;
ii8'X 5 4'
Rectangular
30 Ib pressure
8 1 8 ton and
4 12 ton guns
Central
battery
9
485,155
Devastation .
1871
"
285
62 4
27 o
9,330
14-2
7,000
2
Horizontal, trunk,
surf ace -condensing
i expansion
2 sets of 2 cylinders;
88"X39*
8 rectangular
30 Ib pressure
4 12" 35 ton and
10 smaller guns
2 torpedo tubes
Turrets
Turrets, 14
Sides, 12
430,746
Inflexible . .
1876
"
320
75 o
26 4
1 1, 880
14-0
8,000
2
Vertical
2 expansions
2 sets of 3 cylinders;
7o'+2@oo'X48*
8 single-ended, oval
4 double ,, ,,
60 tb pressure
4 16* 80 ton and
8 4* 22 cwt. guns
4 14* torpedo
tubes
Turrets
24
951,406
Benbow . .
1885
Steel
330
68 6
28 o
10,600
16-9
11,500
|
Vertical
2 expansions
2 sets of 3 cylinders;
52*+2@74 F X45*
12 oval
2 i6J*iioton,
10 6* and
13 smaller guns
S torpedo tubes
Barbettes
18
774,791
Royal Sove-
reign
l8gl
"
380
75 o
27 6
14,150
17-5
13,000
2
Vertical
3 expansions
2 sets of 3 cylinders;
4o'+59*+88'X 5 i'
8 single-ended
return tube
148 Ib pressure
4 137* 67 ton,
10 6 and
38 smaller guns
7 torpedo tubes
Barbettes
18
839,136
Majestic . .
1896
390
75 o
27 6
14,900
17-5
12,000
2
Vertical
3 expansions
2 sets of 3 cylinders;
40*+59'+88'X43'
8 single-ended
return tube
boilers
4 12* 46 ton,
12 6* and
38 smaller guns
S iS'torpedo tubes
Barbettes,
hooded
Barbettes,
14
Sides, 9
Harveyized
872,458
Formidable .
1898
"
400
7S o
26 9
15,000
18-0
15,000
2
Vertical
3 expansions
2 sets of 3 cylinders;
250 Ib pressure
3ir+5i*'+84*X5i*
20 Belleville, with
economizers
300 Ib pressure
4 12*46 ton,
12 6* and
32 smaller guns
4 iS'torpedo tubes
Barbettes,
hooded
Barbettes,
12
Sides, 9
Krupp
1,022,745
Duncan . .
1001
"
405
75 6
26 6
14,000
19-0
18,000
2
Vertical
3 expansions
2 sets of 4 cylinders;
33*'+54i"+2@63'X
48'
24 Belleville, with
economizers
4 12*.
12 6* and
26 smaller guns
4 torpedo tubes
Barbettes,
hooded
Barbettes
14
Sides, 7
1,023,147
Swiftsure .
1003
"
436
71 o
24 7
11,800
2O-O
12,500
2
Vertical triple ex-
pansion
2 sets of 4 cylinders;
29*+47"+2@54*X
39*
Yarrow large tube
4 10*. 14 7-5',
14 14 pr., 2 12
pr., and 8 6 pr.
and machine guns
Barbettes
10
849,474
King
Edward
VII.
1003
"
425
78 o
26 9
16,350
18-5
18,000
2
Vertical triple ex-
pansion
2 sets of 4 cylinders;
38*+6o'+2@67*X
48'
Babcock and Wil-
cox and cylindrical
4 12', 4 9-2%
10 6 , 14 12 pr.,
17 3 pr. and
machine guns
4 torpedo tubes
Barbettes
12
1,383,845
Lord Nelson
1906
"
410
79 6
27 o
16,500
18-5
16,750
2
Vertical triple ex-
pansion
2 sets of 4 cylinders;
33||-r-53'+26o'X
48*
15 Yarrow large
tube
4 12*, 10 9-2",
and 24 12 pr. and
5 machine guns
5 torpedo tuoes
Barbettes
12
1,540,889
Dreadnought
1906
49
82 o
26 6
17,000
21-6
23,000
4
Parsons turbines
Babcock and WU-
cox
10 12", 24 12 pr.
and 5 machine guns
S torpedo tubes
Barbettes
II
1,699,900
Imperator
Pavel I.
(Russian)
1907
"
429' 9'
79 9
28 6
17,400
18-0
17,600
2
Vertical triple ex-
pansion
Belleville
4 12*. 14 8*.
12 4-7*, and 14
smaller, light and
machine guns
5 torpedo tubes
Barbettes
12
1,170,000
Posen . . .
(German)
1908
"
4SS
88 6
26 6
18,200
20-5
20,000
3
3 sets 4-cylinder
vertical triple ex-
pansion
Schultz-Thorny-
croft
12 ii*, 12 5-9",
aosmaller, light and
machine guns
6 torpedo tubes
Barbettes
12
1,800,000
g 6 SHIP [WAR VESSELS
TABLE XVI. (Continued). Development of some of the Leading Features of Notable Armoured Battleships from 1860 to 1910.
Hull.
Propulsive Machinery.
Vessel.
"s-g
V B
15 3
"(5
1
1
A
If
?.?.
Ml
p
I
I.H.P.
11
Engines.
Boilers.
Armament
(including Machine
Guns).
Guns
where
mounted.
Thickest
Armour.
Cost
(excluding
Guns).
7.
""
m
Q
Q
' "^
Ft.
Ft. In.
Ft. In
Tons.
Knots
Inches
Erzherzog
1908
Steel.
45o' 9'
So 6
26 6
14,226
20-5
20,000
2
2 sets 4-cylinder
Yarrow
4 12*. 8 9-4",
Barbettes
10
Franz
vertical triple ex-
ao 3'9*, 6'I2 pr.
Ferdinand
pansion
and 2 machine
(Austrian)
guns
3 torpedo tubes
Minas Geraes
(Brazilian)
1908
500
2
Vertical triple ex-
pansion
Babcock and Wil-
cox
12 12*, 22 4'7*.
and 8 3 pr. guns
"
12
1,821,400
Delaware .
(United
States)
1909
Sio
8S 3
27 o
20,000
21-5
28,578
2
Vertical triple ex-
pansion
Babcock and Wil-
cox
10 12", 14 5',
and 10 smaller,
light and machine
>
II
guns
2 torpedo tubes
Danton .
(French)
1009
476
84
27 o
18,028
l9'5
22,500
4
Parsons turbines
4 "', 120-4*,
and 26 smaller,
light and machine
"
12
2 O68,OOO
guns
2 torpedo tubes
Kawachi. .
Bd(f.
520
84
27 o
20,800
2O'O
26,500
4
Curtis turbines
Miyabara small
12 12*, IO 6*,
_
12
(Japanese)
in
igio
tube
and 12 4- 7 'guns
5 torpedo tubes
Alfonso
43 S
78 9
25 6
15,460
i'S
15,300
4
Parsons turbines
Yarrow
8 12*, 20 4*,
IO
XIII.
23 pr., a light,
(Spaniih)
and a machine
guns
3 torpedo tubes
Moreno
578
95 9
27 6
28,000
21
39.500
Curtis turbines
Babcock and Wil-
1212% 12 0*.
if
12
2,200,000
(Argentine)
cox
16 4*, and 10
smaller guns
2 21* torp. tubes
yj-in. guns all well protected, while the next step was to vessels of a
type very similar to the " King Edward VII." class, but of greater
gun-power and higher speed, with somewhat thinner armour and
smaller coal capacity. These vessels, " Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand,"
" Radetsky " and " Zrinigi," were being completed in 1910. Their
arrangements of guns and armour are shown in fig. 78. Battle-
ships of far greater fighting value were in 1910 laid down by
Austria; of 20,000 tons displacement, 25,000 H.P., and 22 knots
speed, mounting ten 12-in. guns, protected by ll-in. armour, and
costing about 2\ millions sterling each.
Brazil. For several years by mutual arrangement no battleships
were added to the South American navies, but in 1906 Brazil ordered
three vessels of 19,281 tons, 1380 tons heavier than the " Dread-
nought," which was not then finished; the first two of these
carry twelve 12-in. guns in place of the ten of the " Dreadnought,"
and can fire ten guns on either broadside, eight ahead and
eight astern; they also carry fourteen 4-7-in. guns behind 9-in.
armour on the main deck, and eight behind thinner armour on the
upper deck. The ship's side, barbettes and gun mountings are pro-
tected by Q-in. armour, the belt armour tapering to 4-in. forward
and aft. The vessels are 500 ft. long, 83 ft. beam and 25 ft. draught ;
engines of 23,500 I. H.P. being provided for 21 knots. The lead-
ing vessel, the " Minas Geraes (fig. 79, Plate XVIII.), was built at
Elswick; she obtained about 21 J knots on trial, and passed
through all her severe gun trials with great success. Fig. 80 shows
the general arrangements of guns and armour. The second vessel,
the Sao Paulo, was built at Barrow, and was also completed
to the same design. The third vessel, the " Rio de Janeiro,"
which in 1910 was being built by the Elswick firm, has been
redesigned to be 655 ft. in length over all, 92 ft. beam and
32,000 tons displacement on a draught of 26 ft. Her armament was
to be twelve j4-in. guns, with a secondary armament of fourteen 6-in.
guns, an anti-torpedo armament of fourteen 4-in. guns, as well as a
number of smaller guns, and three submerged torpedo tubes. She
was fitted with four screws and turbines of 45,000 H.P. to drive her at
22j knots. Her cost was reported to be almost 3,000,000, and in
1910 she was by far the largest vessel on the stocks.
Argentine Republic. Early in 1910 the Argentine Republic
ordered two vessels, the " Moreno " and " Riyadavia," of 28,000
tons, armed with twelve 12-in. guns, twelve 6-in. and sixteen 4-in.
guns, to be built by the New York Shipbuilding Co. and the Fore
River Shipbuilding Co. respectively. Their displacement is much
greater than that of the largest battleships building at the time
they were ordered, although they are 4000 tons smaller than the
" Rio de Janeiro." They are 578 ft. long, 96 ft. beam, 27$ ft.
draught, and turbines of 40,000 H.P. are provided for a speed
of 22\ knots. The armament is arranged somewhat as in " Minas
Geraes," but with the midship barbettes arranged so that the guns
can fire on either broadside, giving a fire of twelve guns on either
broadside, eight ahead and eight astern. The ship's side and the
heavy guns are protected by 12-in. armour, and the 6-in. guns by
6-in. armour; 1600 tons of coal are carried on the load draught out
of a possible 4000 tons, and there is also a large stowage for oil fuel.
Spain. For some years battleship building was suspended in
Spain, but, after considerable negotiation with British firms, designs
were approved for three vessels of 15,130 tons and igj knots,
to carry eight 12-in. and twenty 4-in. guns, with lo-in. armour
on the barbettes, 9 in. on side tapering to 3 in. at bow and
4 in. at stern, and fore and aft internal bulkheads iJ in. thick
for protection against torpedoes. These vessels were named
" Espana," laid down in 1909, " Alfonso XIII." and " Jaime I.,"
in 1910.
Smaller Battleships. At various times several of the naval powers
have laid down smaller battleships than those already referred to,
such as the British " Conqueror " and " Hero," of 6200 tons, launched
in 1882 and 1888 respectively; the armoured Coast Defence ships of
France, of which the " Admiral Trehouart," launched in 1893, f
6534 tons, 17 knots, carrying two 12-in. and eight 3'9-in. guns with
good armour protection, is a good example; the monitors of the
United States named " Little Rock," &c., launched in 1900, of
3235 tons and 12 knots, carrying two 12-in. and four 4-in. guns;
and the principal battleships of the lesser European powers. A
good example of the last is the Norwegian armour-clad " Norge "
(fig. 81, Plate XV.). This vessel and her sister the " Eidsvold,''
with their predecessors " Harald Haarfagre " and " Tordenskjold,"
were built at Elswick for the royal Norwegian navy, and completed
in 1900. They had a displacement of 5850 tons, length 290 ft., beam
50 ft. 6 in., draught 16 ft. 6 in., and with twin-screw engines of 4500
horse-power attained i6i knots speed. They were heavily armed
with two 8-in. B.L. guns in armoured gun-houses, one at each end
of the vessel ; six 6-in. Q.F. guns, four mounted in 5-in. nickel steel
casemates, and two in the open, with strong shields; eight 12-pdrs.
and six 3-pdrs. ; and two submerged torpedo tubes. The water-line
was protected with 6-in. Krupp armour over a length of 170 ft., and
bulkheads of the same thickness were provided at each end of the
belt. These ships form a class of vessels of small size which
would prove formidable opponents to many larger armoured ships,
and are especially useful for coast-defence purposes.
Table XVI. shows the development of the leading features of
notable armoured battleships from the time of the " Warrior."
Cruisers. The cruiser type was primarily intended to co-
operate with armour-clad fleets, in the same manner as sailing
frigates did with fleets of sailing line-of-battle ships, and the
earliest cruisers were modelled directly upon the frigates which
preceded them, the differences between the two being those
incidental to the use of steam power and to the substitution
of iron for wood as the building material. As steam propulsion
grew in favour engines of greater power were provided, and
the rig and sail-spread were reduced till at the present day they
SHIP
PLATE XIX
I
CO
XXIV. go6.
PLATE XX.
SHIP
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
907
have entirely disappeared. When the final adoption of iron
led to the remodelling of the details of construction by Sir
E. J. Reed, the new system of construction was applied to the
cruisers of the day, but no attempt was made till much later to
give these cruisers any protection, nor was the question of their
armament given the importance which it afterwards came to have.
Lord Armstrong was one of the first to recognize the import-
ance of developing this class of vessel. He considered the essential
features of a cruiser to be high speed, protection without the use
of side armour, a powerful armament and minimum size and
cost; and his views were adopted by the Elswick firm in a large
number of cruisers built for foreign Powers down to the intro-
duction of high explosives, when side armour was advocated in
place of, or in addition to, the armour deck. The cruisers built
for the British navy prior to 1880 of which the principal types
were such vessels as the "Inconstant," of 5780 tons (1866);
the "Active," of 3080 tons (1867); the "Raleigh," of 5200
tons (1871); and the faster despatch vessels "Iris" and
" Mercury," of 3730 tons (1875) had been almost entirely
unprotected; and although the " Comus " and " Leander "
enabled more efficient protection to be provided with a much
thinner belt than had previously been possible. The Elswick
cruiser " Esmeralda " (second), built for Chile in 1895, was one
of the first in which the use of side armour was revived. She
was followed by other vessels of the armoured type built by the
same firm for the Chilean and Japanese navies. In 1898 the
" Cressy " class (fig. 83, Plate XXI.) was begun for the British
navy, and since this date all cruisers of 9000 tons and
above for the British navy have been provided with side
armour.
In the United States the adoption of armour belts of the new
material for cruisers came somewhat earlier than it did in the
British navy, the " Brooklyn " (fig. 84, Plate XXII.), built in
1895, being so protected ; and the development of the type has
been very marked in recent years, the tendency being to go to
larger displacements, in order to provide greater protection and
heavier armaments, with each new class of vessel. Indeed, the
first-class armoured cruiser of 1910 might be very well described
as a high-speed battleship.
In the British navy, as might be expected, the demand
for vessels to
meet the varied
and diverse re-
quirements that
necessarily arise
in a fleet of such
magnitude has led
to the production
of a number of
types, each ad-
apted to its own
special duties.
They may be
classified as (i)
unprotected
cruisers; (2) pro-
tected cruisers of
first, second and
third classes; and
(3) armoured
cruisers. Unpro-
tected cruisers
have neither
side armour nor
other protection
against loss of
buoyancy from
classes had been given a partial protective deck, the Elswick- injury by shot and shell. Protected cruisers have no side or vertical
4-7
4-f
I
4-7"
1
47"
1
4f
I
4-1
i r ~i r
FIG. 80. Arrangements of Guns and Armour of
Minas Geraes.'
built "Esmeralda" (1883) (fig. 82, Plate XXIII.) may be
quoted as the first vessel in which the important features of a
complete protective deck and good protection to the guns were
combined with high speed and a powerful armament. On the
other hand, the " Imperieuse " and " Warspite," completed
in 1881, of much greater displacement than the " Esmeralda,"
were provided with a partial belt of lo-in. compound armour
in combination with a protective deck. Thus the necessity for
protecting cruisers led to the introduction of two types the
" protected " cruiser, of which the " Esmeralda " may be taken
as the pioneer, and the " armoured " cruiser, of which the
" Impdrieuse " and "Warspite" are early representatives;
but while in the British navy the " protected " cruiser type
was repeated and developed, the " armoured " type was dis-
continued, and with the exception of the " Orlando " class, built
shortly afterwards, the whole of the cruisers built for the British
navy for another fifteen years were of the " protected " type.
In France and Russia, however, the armoured cruiser continued
in favour, the " Dupuy de L6me " of 1890, for the former, and
the " Rurik " of 1892, for the latter, being vessels of this
type.
The reintroduction of side armour in British-built cruisers
came about when the improvement of armour by the develop-
ment of the Harvey and Krupp processes of manufacture
armour, but they have horizontal armour decks with strong
sloping sides in the vicinity of the water-line, upon which coal
is carried in minutely divided bunker compartments. Armoured
cruisers have side or vertical armour in addition to protective
decks. Each of these classes includes a number of groups of
sister ships, but we shall confine ourselves to describing the
main features of a representative ship in a few of the most
important groups.
The protected cruiser of medium displacement affords a convenient
starting-point, as the latest vessels of this type in 1910 were
of about the same displacement as the largest first- Second-
class cruisers of thirty years before, and a comparison of class
representative ships of these classes illustrates the great crvlsen.
advances made in thirty vears in ships of approximately
the same size ; while a further comparison of these second-class
cruisers (as the vessels of medium displacement are styled)
with the first-class protected cruisers and the armoured cruisers
of the present day shows the growth in size and power of the
largest units of the cruiser type during the same period. It
should, however, be noted that while some second-class cruisers
reached such a displacement (5600 tons) as to allow of this
comparison being made, the great bulk of the vessels of this
class were smaller. The " Mersey " is an early example of a
vessel of this class which has seen considerable service. Begun
in 1883, her principal dimensions are: length 300 ft., beam
46 ft., mean draught about 20 ft., and displacement 4050 tons.
Protection to the vitals of the ship is provided for by means of_a
protective deck a little above the level of the water-line, 2 to 3 in. in
908
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
thickness, in combination with a system of coal-stowage in bunkers
along the water-line. She carried two 8-in. and ten 6-m. B.L. guns
and four torpedo tubes. Her horse-power was 6000 (forced draught)
and speed 17-3 knots, and she carried 750 tons of coal abnormal
draught, with capacity for 900 tons. The " Astraea," begun in 1890,
may be taken as representing the second-class cruisers of that
date. She is built of steel, sheathed and coppered, is 320 ft. long,
49 ft. 6 in. beam, 2 1 ft. 6 in. mean draught and 4360 tons displace-
ment, and carries two 6-in. Q.F. guns and eight 4-7-in. Q.F. guns,
all on the upper deck and protected by shields, together with four
torpedo tubes. She is protected by a steel deck I in. to 2 in. thick,
and the engine cylinders, which project through this deck, are shielded
by 5-in. sloping coamings. The coal bunkers in the neighbourhood
of the water-line are minutely subdivided, and the stowage is
arranged so as to make full use of the coal protection. Her engines
develop 9000 H.P. (under forced draught) and her speed is 19-5 knots.
Her coal stowage is 1000 tons.
The " Hermes " (fig. 85, Plate XX.) is one of the largest second-
class cruisers added to the Royal Navy. She is 350 ft. long, 54 ft.
beam, 20 ft. 6 in. mean draught and 5600 tons displacement. She
presents a striking contrast compared with the " Inconstant,"
built in 1866, of almost the same displacement. The " Inconstant "
was fully rigged, and sailed almost as fast as she steamed; while
the " Hermes " has no sail, and steams 20 knots, or 6 knots faster
than did the older vessel. The " Inconstant " was entirely un-
protected, and carried her guns on the broadside, with very limited
arcs of training; whilst the " Hermes " has all-round fire, the fire
ahead and astern is a very large percentage of that on the broadside,
and her guns all train through large arcs (120 and above) and are
well protected by enveloping shields, and the ship herself is protected
by a steel deck ij to 3 in. thick, besides having coal protection.
The " Inconstant's " main armament consisted of ten 9-in. and six
7-in. M.L. guns; the " Hermes'," of eleven 6-in. Q.F. guns, each
firing probably ten rounds to one of the " Inconstant's " 9-in., and
with a perforation of wrought iron of about one-third as much again.
The " Hermes " is built of steel, sheathed with wood and coppered.
She carries also eight 12-pdrs. and six 3-pdrs., and two submerged
torpedo tubes. She has Belleville boilers, developing 10,000 H.P.
ana giving her a speed of 20 knots.
Somewhat similar to the " Hermes " in external appearance, the
four vessels of the " Arrogant " class (fig. 86, Plate XX.) possess
certain features of special interest which distinguish them from all
other second-class cruisers, in which class they are usually included.
They are of 150 tons greater displacement than the "Hermes," are
30 ft. shorter, but have 3 ft. 6 in. more beam and 6 in. more draught.
They are built of steel and are unsheathed, have Belleville boilers,
and engines giving 10,000 H.P. and a speed of 19 knots. They
have an armament of four 6-in. Q.F. guns, three of which fire right
ahead and one right astern; six 4-7-in. Q.F. guns, three on each
broadside; eight 12-pdrs. ; nine smaller guns; and two submerged
torpedo tubes. All the guns are mounted on the upper deck in
shields. The protective deck varies from I J in. to 3 in. in thickness.
The bow is protected by a belt of 2-in. nickel steel extending to about
40 ft. back from the ram, the top of this belt being level with the
main deck, and the bottom edge sloping downwards to strengthen
the ram, and a cofferdam formed by two water-tight transverse
bulkheads about 3 ft. apart, and extending from keel to main deck,
separates the bow from the rest of the vessel. The "Arrogants "
are fitted with tandem, rudders, and the deadwood at the after end
of the ship is cut away.
The " Gladiator," which was sunk in the Solent in 1908 after
collision with the " St Paul," was one of the " Arrogant " class. The
Canadian cruiser " Rainbow," one of the " Apollo " class, very
similar to but smaller than the " Astraea " class, is of 34^00 tons,
9000 I.H.P., 20 knots, and carries two 6-in. Q.F., six 4'7-in. Q.F.,
eight 6-pdrs., and four torpedo tubes.
The protected cruisers of greater displacement, or first-class
cruisers, as they were called, may be divided into four well-marked
classes: " Blake " and " Blenheim " class, " Edgar " class (fig. 87,
Plate XIX.), " Powerful " and " Terrible " class (fig. 88, Plate XIX.)
and the " Diadem " class. The " Blake " and " Blenheim," begun in
1 888, were amongst the earliest cruisers designed by Sir William White
at the Admiralty; they are of 9000 tons displacement,
375 ft- long, 65 ft. beam and 27 ft. draught. They carry
cruiser*. ^ WQ o-2-in. B.L. guns, one firing directly ahead and
the other directly astern, protected by open shields 6 in. thick; ten
6-in. Q.F. guns, of which four are on the main deck, protected
by casemates of 6-in. compound armour, and six on the upper
deck in shields ; sixteen 3-pdrs. ; two submerged and two above-
water torpedo tubes. Their protection consists of a complete armour
deck of steel 3 in. to 6 in. thick, with a dome or coaming over the
tops of the cylinders 4 in. to 8 in. thick. Their machinery consists
of four independent sets of vertical triple-expansion engines, two on
each shaft, for which steam is provided from six double-ended
cylindrical boilers giving 20,000, H.P. under forced draught,
and a speed of 21 knots; with open stokeholds their power is
13,000 H.P., which gives them a speed of ig\ knots. They carry
1500 tons of coal. The " Edgar " class, begun in 1889, are vessels
of 7350 tons displacement, 360 ft. long, 60 ft. beam and 23 ft. 9 in.
mean draught. Their armaments consist of two g-2-in. B.L. guns
and ten 6-in. Q.F., disposed and protected in the same way as the
corresponding guns of the " Blake," with twenty-four smaller
and machine guns, two submerged and two above-water torpedo
tubes. The protective deck has a maximum thickness of 5 in.,
and the cylinders are protected by a raised coaming on this deck,
with sloping sides 6 in. thick. They have six double-ended cylin-
drical boilers and two sets of vertical triple-expansion engines,
developing with forced draught 12,000 I.H.P. and giving a speed
of 20 knots. They carry 850 tons of coal at normal draught, with
storage for 1250 tons. Nine vessels of this class have been built,
four of them being sheathed with wood and coppered, the remaining
five, including the " Edgar," being unsheathed. The " Powerful "
and her sister the " Terrible " are the largest protected cruisers
which have been built. They were begun in 1894. They are of
steel, sheathed with wood and coppered, are of 14,200 tons dis-
placement, 500 ft. length, 71 ft. beam and 27 ft. mean draught,
armed with bow and stern 9-2-in. B.L. chasers, and twelve 6-in. Q.F.
guns, of which eight are in 6-in. Harveyized casemates on the main
deck and four in similar casemates on the upper deck. They have
also eighteen 12-pdr. Q.F. guns, twelve 3-pdrs., nine machine guns
and four submerged torpedo tubes. The 9-2-in. guns are protected
by a shallow ring of 6-in. Harveyized steel, surmounted by a 6-in.
shield enveloping the gun and crew. The ship herself is protected
by a complete deck at the water-line level of Harveyized steel plates
3 in. to 6 in. in thickness, and by a double line of coal bunkers above
it. The machinery arrangements constitute the striking feature of
these ships. They have no less than forty^eight Belleville boilers in
eight boiler-rooms, with two sets of triple-expansion 4-cylinder
engines, developing 25,000 H.P. with open stokeholds and giving
the ships a speed of 22 knots. They carry as a normal supply
1500 tons of coal, and their bunkers will hold 3000 tons. Four
6-inch guns were added on the upper deck of these ships in
1902.
The " Diadem " class, launched in 1897 and 1898, were the last
first-class protected cruisers added to the British navy. There are
eight vessels of this class, but in the four last-built vessels, of which
the " Spartiate " was one, some changes were made. The first vessel
of the Diadem " class was begun in 1895, is of 1 1 ,000 tons displace-
ment, 435 ft. length, 69 ft. beam, 25 ft. 3 in. mean draught, and is
built of steel, sheathed and coppered. Her principal armament
consists entirely of 6-in. Q.F. guns, of which there are sixteen,
twelve being protected by 5-in. casemates of Harveyized steel, and
the others disposed, two on the forecastle as bow chasers, and two
on the quarter-deck as stern chasers, all in separate shields. She
also carries thirteen 12-pdrs., eleven smaller guns, including machine
guns, and two submerged torpedo tubes. The protection consists
of a steel deck, whose slopes are 4 in. thick and horizontal port lent-
2\ in. thick, upon which is stowed the 1000 tons of coal which the
vessel ordinarily carries, the full coal capacity being 2000 tons.
She is provided with 30 water-tube boilers of the Belleville type,
and her machinery develops 16,500 H.P., giving her a speed of
20-5 knots. The Canadian cruiser " Niobe " is one of the first four;
in the last four ships the casemates are 6 in. thick and the machinery
is of greater power, viz. 18,000 I.H.P., giving a speed of a quarter
of a knot higher.
Third-class protected cruisers included vessels varying in displace-
ment from 1500 to 3000 tons. With a reduction of displacement
come reduction of initial cost and cost of upkeep, a smaller
crew, a shorter time for building, and the many advantages
attendant upon reduced size and draught of water. It has
been found possible to embody in a ship of about 2OOotons
displacement many of the most important requirements of a modern
cruiser, and a large number of vessels of this class have been added
to the fleet. Among these may be mentioned the " Barham," a
typical small cruiser, which was built in 1889 of steel, of 1830 tons
displacement; she is 280 ft. long between perpendiculars, 35 ft.
broad and of 12 ft. 8 in. draught of water. As originally completed,
this vessel had cylindrical boilers and a H.P. of 4700, giving a
speed of 19 knots. In 1898 she and her sister, the " Bellona,"
were reboilered with water-tube boilers of the Thornycroft
type, and with these a H.P. of 6000 is obtained, and the
vessel reaches a speed of nearly 20 knots. The protection
afforded is in the usual form of a protective deck, I in. thick
on the flat, and sloping sharply downwards near the water-
line, where the thickness is increased to 2 in.; and above this
deck the coal stowage is arranged in subdivided bunkers. She
carries an armament of six 4-7-in. Q.F. guns in shields on the upper
deck, four 3-pdrs., two machine guns and two above-water torpedo
tubes. She carries 140 tons of coal in her normal condition, end
her bunkers will take 250 tons. She has a light fore-and-aft rig.
The " Barham " was followed by several vessels of the " Tauranga "
class, built for service in Australian waters, and the "Pearl" class
for service in other waters, all of 2575 tons displacement, 19 knots
speed and carrying eight 4-7-in. and eight 3-pdr. Q.F. guns. In
1896-1898 nine smaller and faster cruisers were laid down, known
as the " Pioneer " class, which might be taken to include the
" Pelorus " class, the differences between them being small. Of the
two classes eleven vessels have been built. The " Pioneer " is 305 ft.
long, 36 ft. 9 in. broad, 13 ft. 6 in. mean draught and of 2200 tons
displacement. She has water-tube boilers of the small-tube type,
Tblra-
class
cruisers.
SHIP
PLATE XXI.
tS)
o
"3
S
ad
I
XXIV.goS.
PLATE XXII.
SHIP
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
909
and engines of 7000 H.P., giving her a speed of 20 knots. She
carries 250 tons of coal at the above displacement, and has stowage
for 550 tons. She has eight 4-in. Q.F. guns, eight 3-pdrs., and two
above-water torpedo tubes, and a 2-in. protective deck.
This type of cruiser reached its final development in the four vessels
of the " Diamond " class, of 3000 tons, laid down in 1902-1903,
which were the last third-class cruisers designed by Sir William White.
Three of the vessels, " Diamond," " Sapphire " and " Topaze," were
fitted with reciprocating engines of 9800 I.H.P. for 22 knots, and
in the fourth, the " Amethyst," Parsons turbines were fitted. All
were 360 ft. long., 40 ft. beam, 14 ft. 6 in. draught, and carried twelve
4-in. and eight 3-pdr. Q.F. guns. On trial the " Topaze " reached
a maximum speed of 22-25 knots, while the " Amethyst " obtained
23-63 knots, an advantage of 1-38 knots per hour for the turbine
with practically the same coal consumption, and with a distinctly
less rate of coal consumption at equal speeds for all speeds above
14 knots. The experiment was regarded as a great success for
Parsons turbines, and materially influenced the question of their
adoption in succeeding vessels at home and abroad.
In 1903 four vessels classed as scouts were laid down, viz., the
" Pathfinder," " Patrol," "Sentinel " and " Skirmisher," of about
2900 tons displacement, and 25 knots speed ; 370 ft. long, with
engines of 17,000 I.H.P., and carrying ten 12-pdr. and eight 3-pdr.
Q.F. guns as well as two torpedo tubes. Two others laid down in
1903 were named " Forward " and " Foresight," and carried fourteen
12-pdrs. and two 3-pdrs., and obtained the 25 knots with 15,000
I .H.P.The last two of the
series " Adventure "
and "Attentive " (fig. 89,
Plate XIX.) of 16,000
I.H.P. and 26 knots,
were laid down at Els-
wick in 1904; they were
374 ft. long, 38 ft. 3 in.
beam, 1 2 ft. 6 in. draught,
2670 tons displacement,
16,000 I.H.P., carried
ten 12-pdrs. and eight
3-pdrs.
Four vessels, named
" Boadicea," " Bel-
lona," " Blanche " and
" Blonde," were laid
down in 1907-1909, of
slightly larger dimen-
sions, the " Blonde
being 385 ft. long,
ft. 6 in. beam, 13
6 in. draught, 3360 tons
displacement, 18,000
I.H.P., 25 knots, and
armed with ten 4-in.
Q.F. guns and two tor-
pedo tubes.
In 1909 five vessels of
4800 tons displacement,
22,000 I.H.P., 25 knots speed, carrying two 6-in. and ten 4-in. Q.F.
guns, with two torpedo tubes, were laid down and known as second-
class protected cruisers of the " Bristol " class. They are 430 ft.
,long, 47 ft. beam, 15 ft. 3 in. draught and protected by a l-in. steel
deck with 2-in. slopes. Fig. 90, Plate XIX., shows the " Newcastle,"
'a vessel ot this class built at Elswick. Four other vessels, the
" Dartmouth " class, laid down six months later, were very sjmilar,
but slightly larger to give one knot more speed. The navy estimates
" Imperieuse," being only 5600 tons displacement, 300 ft. long
and 56 ft. beam, and 22 ft. 6 in. draught. They had a water-line
belt of compound armour, 10 in. thick and nearly 200 ft. long;
extending over the top of this, and sloping down forward and aft
to the ends of the ship, was a deck 2 in. to 3 in. thick. Their arma-
ment consisted of two 9-2 in. B.L. guns one forward and one aft
instead of the four carried in the " Imperieuse " and " Warspite,"
but in other respects the same armament as the latter ships.
They had engines of 8500 H.P. and a speed of over 18 knots. These
vessels were all built from the designs of Sir N. Barnaby.
As already stated, between 1885 and 1898 no armoured cruisers
were laid down for the British navy. The " Cressy " (fig. 83, Plate
XXI.) class, commenced in 1898, consists of six vessels of 12,000
tons displacement, 440 ft. length, 69 ft. 6 in. beam, and 26 ft. 3 in.
mean draught. They are built of steel, sheathed and coppered,
have a belt of Harveyized steel II ft. 6 in. wide, 230 ft. long, and
6 in. thick, with bulkheads 5 in. thick and 2 in. protective plating on
the sides from the forward bulkhead to the stem. They carry two
9-2-in. B.L. guns in barbettes and gun-houses 6-in. thick, mounted
on the middle line forward and aft, twelve 6-in. Q.F. guns in 6-in.
casemates, and twenty-five 12-pdrs. and smaller guns, with two
submerged torpedo tubes. Their H.P. is 21 ,000 with natural draught,
steam being supplied by 30 Belleville boilers, and their speed is 21
knots. They carry 800 tons of coal at normal draught, with capacity
for 1600 tons.
The four vessels of the " Drake " class (see fig. 91, Plate XXIV.),
ft!
for 1910-1911 provided for laying down five larger vessels of this
type. The Australian cruisers " Melbourne " and " Sydney " are of
the " Dartmouth " class, while the new Canadian cruisers are of
the later type.
Between 1870 and 1881, several armoured cruisers were laid down
in England and abroad, those in England being the
Armoured < Shannon, "of 5390 tons and 12^ knots, laid down in 1873,
cruisers. ^ N e i son " an d " Northampton," of 7630 tons and
13 knots, laid down in 1874, and the " Imperieuse " and " Warspite,"
laid down in 1881. The two last-named ships were provided with
masts and a good spread of sails, and were the last large vessels to
be so fitted for the British navy. The sails were not found to be of
much service and were removed. These vessels were of 8400 tons
displacement, 315 ft. long, and were protected by a partial belt
amidships of lo-in. compound armour over a length of about 140
ft., with a protective deck above it ij in. thick and transverse
bulkheads at the ends of the belt 9 in. thick, the protective deck
from these bulkheads to the ends of the ship being 3 in. thick.
They had machinery of 10,000 H.P. and a speed of i6f knots. They
carried four 9-2-in. B.L. guns in separate barbettes one forward,
one aft, and one on each beam besides ten 6-in. guns, twenty-six
smaller and machine guns, and six torpedo tubes. They were
sheathed with wood and coppered, in order to be able to keep the
sea for a long period without docking. The next vessels of the type
were the " Orlando " class, begun in 1885. Seven of these were
launched in 1886 and 1887. They were much smaller than the
FIG. 92. Arrangement of Guns and Armour of H.M.S. " Drake."
laid down in 1899, were for several years the largest and fastest
armoured cruisers afloat. They are of 14,100 tons displacement,
are 500 ft. long, 71 ft. beam, and 26 ft. mean draught. They are
unsheathed, are protected by a Krupp steel 6-in. belt extending from
barbette to barbette, and from 6 ft. below water to the height of the
main deck, completed at the after end by a 5-in. bulkhead, and
carried forward to the bow by 2-in. plating extending right up to the
upper deck. There are two protective decks, the lower, being 3 in.
to 2 in. in thickness, and the main deck, which is I in. thick. Their
armament consists of two 9-2-in. B.L. guns in barbettes and gun-
houses 6 in. thick on the middle line forward and aft as shown in
fig. 92, sixteen 6-in. Q.F. guns in 6-in. casemates, fourteen 12-pdrs.,
twelve smaller and machine guns and two submerged torpedo tubes.
Their speed was 23 knots as designed, and all the vessels of the class
have attained over 24 knots on service. They have engines of
30,000 H.P., the boilers being of the Belleville type. They carry
1250 tons of coal, with bunker capacity for 2500 tons.
A consideration of the above features will illustrate the difficulties
of the classification of modern ships. The " Drake " is called an
armoured cruiser, but she is superior to the battleships " Renown,"
" Barfleur," and " Canopus " in armour protection and in her
secondary quick-firing armament, as well as in speed and coal
endurance, and is somewhat inferior to them only in the number,
weight, and protection of primary armament. If lo-in. guns had
been given to this vessel in lieu of her 9-2-in., she would probably
have been called a first-class battleship, and would have been a
23-knot battleship at that. Each successive increase of size has
given the battleship more speed and the armoured cruiser heavier
guns and armour, thus tending to merge the two types in one.
The next series of armoured cruisers was composed of ships of
much less power produced in reply to the fast lightly armed cruisers
being built abroad as commerce destroyers, and a considerable
number of such vessels so built, although weak compared with the
" Drake," were much less costly and at the same time endowed with
910
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
great sea-keeping power and were superior in all respects to the vessels
which caused them to be built. The first set comprised ten vessels
of the " Monmouth " class, laid down in 1900 and 1901. Fig. 93
(Plate XXI.) gives a view of the " Cornwall," which may be taken as
typical of the class. They are of 9800 tons displacement, length
440 ft., beam 66 ft., mean draught 24 ft. 6 in. They are armoured
with a belt of 6 in. of Krupp steel over the main part of the length,
diminishing in thickness towards the extremities; they carry four-
teen 6-in. Q.F. guns, of which ten are in 4-in. casemates, and the
others mounted in pairs in turrets and gun-houses 4 in. thick, forward
and aft; they also carry ten iz-pdr., eleven small and machine guns
and two submerged torpedo tubes. Their horse-power is 22,000,
giving them a speed of 23 knots.
They were followed by six vessels of the " Devonshire " class,
laid down in 1002, which were given greater gun power and better
armour protection to meet the corresponding advances in foreign
vessels. They were of 10,850 tons displacement, 21,000 I.H.P. and
23} knots speed ; were armed with four 7'5-in. and six 6-in. Q.F.
guns protected by 6-in. armour, and the armour belt was increased
from 4 in. to 6 in. in thickness. These were the last armoured
cruisers designed by Sir William White.
pairs in four barbette turrets placed as already stated in de-
scribing the development of the " Dreadnought " design (see
Table XIV. and fig. 96). Thus three pairs of guns can fire
directly ahead, three directly astern, and the whole armament
can fire on either broadside. In the " Invincible," built at
Elswick, all the heavy guns are worked by electric power; in
the other vessels they are worked by hydraulic power as usual
in H.M. Navy. An anti-torpedo boat armament of sixteen 4-in.
guns is provided. The 1 2-in. guns are protected by 8-in. armour,
and a broad belt of side armour is fitted 7 in. thick amidships,
and 4 in. forward and aft, associated with thick protective decks.
All are fitted with Parsons turbines of 41,000 H.P. and obtained
over 27 knots on trial without pressing the boilers. The high
steaming power of these ships was shown by the "Indomitable,"
which conveyed King George V. and Queen Mary (then prince
and princess of Wales) to Canada and back in 1908, and steamed
on her return journey across the Atlantic from Belleislc to the
FIG. 96. Arrangement of Guns and Armour of H.M.S. " Invincible."
The next armoured cruisers built for the British navy, the six
vessels of the " Duke of Edinburgh " type, laid down in 1903-
1904, were of much greater power, of 13,550 tons displacement,
23,500 I.H.P. and 23 knots speed, and have a main armament of
six 9- z-in. guns, mounted singly in barbettes. The secondary
armament consists of ten 6-in. Q.F. guns in the first two vessels
of the class, but in the remaining four vessels the ten 6-in. guns
are replaced by four 7'5-in. guns. They also carry from twenty-
five to twenty-nine 3-pdrs. and machine guns and three torpedo
tubes. The guns and ship's side are protected by 6-in. arrnour.
In 1905 the " Minotaur " class (fig. 94, Plate XXI.) was laid down,
consisting of three vessels of 14,600 tons displacement, 27,000
I.H.P. and 23 knots speed, carrying an armament of four 9- 2-in.
guns mounted in pairs in 7-in. barbettes forward and aft, and ten
7-5-in. guns all on the upper deck in shallow barbettes of 6-in.
armour, with 6 in. enclosed shields. The belt armour is 6 in.
thick amidships, tapering to 4 in. forward and 3 in. aft. These
vessels are 400 ft. long, 74! and 75! ft. beam, 25 to 26 ft. mean
draught, and are the last large cruisers to be propelled by re-
ciprocating engines, or to be armed with 9- 2-in. guns. They
carry 1000 tons of coal on the load draught, and can stow 2000
tons of coal besides 700 tons of oil fuel.
The next cruisers to be built were the " Invintibles," which
might have been classed as battleships on account of their heavy
armament and substantial armour protection; the
former greatly exceeding in power the armament of
any battleship before the " Lord Nelson," and the
latter exceeding that provided in any armoured
Their most striking feature, however, is their great
speed, previously only reached by torpedo boats and torpedo
boat destroyers, in which everything was sacrificed to obtain the
highest possible speed. They were named " Invincible " (fig. 95,
Plate XXL), " Indomitable " and " Inflexible," and were laid
down in 1906 at the yards of the Elswick, Fairfield and Clyde-
bank Companies respectively. Their dimensions were: length
530 ft., breadth 78 ft. 6 in., draught 26 ft., displacement 17,250
tons. They were armed with eight i2-in. guns mounted in
Dread-
nought
cruisers.
cruisers.
Fastnet^at an average speed of 25-13 knots, a record speed at
the time for a transatlantic voyage.
It is interesting to compare the " Indomitable's " performance
on the voyage referred to above with that of the " Hero " a
screw line-of-battle ship of 91 guns and 600 nominal horse-power,
when employed on a similar errand. This ship was considered a
crack ship of her class in 1860, and in that year was selected to
convey King Edward VII. (then prince of Wales) on a visit to
Canada; she made the passage from Plymouth to St John's in
13 days under steam and sail, and this was considered an
exceedingly good performance for a line-of-battle ship in those
days.
In 1909 the " Indefatigable " of 18,750 tons displacement was
laid down at Devonport; she is very similar to the " Invincible,"
with the same armament and certain minor improvements. She
was followed in 1910 by the " Lion " at Devonport and " Princess
Royal " at Barrow, each 660 ft. long, 88 ft. 6 in. beam, and of
26,350 tons displacement on a draught of 28 ft. Parsons turbines
of 70,000 H.P. are provided to give a sea speed of 28 knots.
Table XVII. contains further particulars of the British " In-
vincibles," from which it may be seen that the Australian cruisers
" Australia " and " New Zealand " are similar to the " Indc
fatigable."
With regard to cruisers of other navies than the British, it may
be said that the vessels constructed at Elswick exercised considerable
influence in their development as well as of those of the British navy.
The"Esmeralda" (fig. 82, Plate XXIII.) of 1883, built for the Chilean
government, but bought by Japan in 1895 and re-named " Idzumi,"
was of 2950 tons displacement, had 6000 H.P. and 18-3 knots speed,
was protected by a complete i-in. steel deck, and carried the very
heavy armament of two lo-in. B.L. guns, six 6-in. Q.F., two 6-pdrs..
seven smaller guns and three torpedo tubes. The " Piemonte "
(fig. 97, Plate XXIV.), built for the Italian navy in 1888, had a.
displacement of only 2640 tons, but was of 13,000 H.P. and had a
speed of nearly 22 J knots. She was protected by a steel deck of
3 in. maximum thickness, and carried six 6-in. Q.F., six 4'7-in.
Q.F., ten 6-pdrs., eleven smaller guns and three torpedo tubes, an
armament which, as pointed out by Lord Armstrong, was capable
of discharging in a given time twice the weight of shot and shell that
could be fired by the largest war vessel then afloat. The " Buenos
SHIP
PLATE XXIII.
i
u.
o
XXIV. 910.
PLATE XXIV.
SHIP
FIG. 91. H.M.S. Drake.
FIG. 97. Italian Piemonte.
FlG. 105. French Jules Michelet.
(A. Borgault, Toulon.)
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
TABLE XVII. Particulars of British Dreadnought Cruisers.
JS
Hul
Mach
inery.
f>
|
j
c
' *J
u
Armament
'S
H
u =
^ S,
Vessel.
a
3
.a
3
*s
- s
1
s.
a
(including
>J=!
5
o
's
I
I
sf
JB
B
C/J
%
Engines.
Boflers.
machine
guns).
T s
8
31
i
1
J3
B
S
a
&
i
X
S
~
Ft.
Ft.
Ft.
Tons.
Knots.
Invincible
1007
Steel.
530-0
78'5
26*0
17,250
20'S
41,000
4
Turbines.
Yarrow
812' 164' sm.
Barbettes
7'
1,678,995
Inflexible
Indomitable
1907
1007
530-0
530'o
78-5
78-5
26*0
26*0
17,250
17,250
25-0
25'0
41,000
41,000
4
4
;;
Babcock'Ji Wilcox
8 ' 164' sm.
8 ' 164* sm.
I-
1,638,229
1,671,880
Indefatigable
1009
SSS'O
8o'o
26-5
18,750
2S'O
43,000
1
,,
,, ,,
8 ' 164' sm.
7'
1,449,826
Australia .
1909
SSS'O
8o'o
26-5
18,750
25-0
43,000
4
,,
, ,,
8 ' 164" sm.
7'
1,449,826
New Zealand
1909
SSS'O
8o'o
26-5
18,750
25'O
43,ooo
4
,,
8 ' 164" sm.
7'
1,449,826
Lion . .
zgio
660-0
88-5
28-0
26,350
28'0
70.000
4
,,
Yarrow
Princess Royal
660-0
88'S
28-0
26,350
28-0
70,000
4
"
-
Aires," built in 1895 for the Argentine Republic, is 396 ft. in length
and of 4800 tons displacement, her machinery developing 13,300
H.P. with open stokeholds, and giving her a speed of 23-2
knots. She is protected by a complete deck ij in. to 3 in. thick,
and carries a powerful armament of quick-firing guns, consisting of
two 8-in., four 6-in., six 4'7-in., twenty-two smaller guns and five
torpedo tubes. Her normal coal supply is 350 tons, anal she can stow
1000 tons in her bunkers. Rather smaller than the " Buenos Aires,"
but of still later build (1901), is the Chilean cruiser " Chacabuco "
(fig. 98, Plate XV.). She is a characteristic Elswick cruiser in
design and general appearance, being heavily armed, fast and of
moderate displacement. Her dimensions are: displacement 4500
tons, length 360 ft., breadth 46 ft. and draught 18 ft. She carries
an armament of two 8-in. Q.F. guns, mounted on the middle line
forward and aft, and protected by well-armoured gun-houses, ten
4'7-in. Q.F. guns in shields on the broadsides and nineteen smaller
guns, including machine-guns. She is protected by a strong armoured
deck I J in. thick on the flat to 4^ in. on the slopes, and by the 1000
tons of coal which forms her normal supply. Her engines develop
nearly 16,000 H.P., and her speed is 23 knots.
In the matter of armoured cruisers also Elswick has taken a
leading place among the cruisers built by this firm being the
" Esmeralda " (second), of 7000 tons, in 1895 for Chile; the
" O'Higgins," of 8500 tons, in 1896 for the same state; the " Asama "
and " Tokiw'a," of 9700 tons, in 1897 for Japan; and the " Idzumo "
and " Iwate," in 1899, also for Japan. The " Idzumo " (fig. 99,
Plate XXIII.) is 9750 tons displacement, 400 ft. long, 68 ft. 6 in.
beam, 24 ft. 3 in. draught. She has 16,000 H.P. and a speed of 22
knots; is protected by a complete belt of Krupp steel 7 in. thick,
tapering to 3i in. at the ends, a zj-in. steel deck with a citadel
above it 5 in. thick, and carries an armament of four 8-in. Q.F.,
fourteen 6-in. Q.F., twelve 12-pdrs., seven smaller guns and four
torpedo tubes. The 8-in. guns are in pairs in 6-in. barbettes and
hoods, while of the 6-in. guns ten are in 6-in. casemates and four
in shields. She carries, with bunkers full, 1300 tons of coal.
United States. In the United States navy the proportion of
" protected " cruisers is smaller than in the British navy, as the
" armoured " type established itself at an earlier date. The " Phila-
delphia," begun in 1888, may be taken as an example of the U.S.
protected cruiser. She is 4345 tons in displacement and 327 ft. long,
has twin screws and a horse-power of 8800, giving her a speed of
19-6 knots. She is protected by a steel deck 2! in. to 4 in. thick,
and carries twelve 6-in. B.L. guns (later converted to Q.F.), seven-
teen smaller guns and five torpedo tubes.
The " Columbia " and " Minneapolis " are very fast armoured
cruisers laid down in 1891. On a displacement of 7350 tons they
carry one 8-in., two 6-in., eight 4-in. and twelve 6-pdr. and a
number of smaller guns. They are protected by heavy steel decks
and thin side armour. The " Columbia " developed 18,500 I. H.P.
and 22-8 knots on trial, while the " Minneapolis " reached 20,860
I. H.P. and 23 knots; these powers and speeds were at that date the
highest recorded for such vessels. The " Columbia " crossed the
Atlantic at 18-4 knots in 1895, but the type has not been repeated in
America although followed for a little while by France. The
" Brooklyn " (fig. 84, Plate XXII.), begun in 1893, is of the
" armoured " type. She is of 9215 tons displacement and 400 ft.
long, has twin screws and develops 16,000 horse-power with forced
draught, giving a speed of 21 knots. She is protected by a steel belt
for two-thirds of her length 8 ft. broad and 8 in. to 3 in. thick, and
a complete steel deck 6 in. to 3 in. thick. She carries eight 8-in.
B.L. guns in pairs in 15-in. barbettes disposed one forward, one
aft and one on each beam: twelve 5-in. Q.F. guns in 4-in. shields,
twenty smaller guns and five torpedo tubes. Her normal coal
stowage is 900 tons, and she can stow 1650 tons in her coal
spaces.
In 1903-1904 there were launched six armoured cruisers of the
" California " class, of 13,700 tons, and in 1904-1905 three of the
" St Louis " class, of 9700 tons. The former are vessels 502 ft. in
length, 70 ft. beam and 26 ft. 6 in. draught, have machinery de-
veloping 23,000 indicated horse-power, and a speed of 22 knots.
The latter are 424 ft. in length, 66 ft. beam and 23 ft. 6 in. draught,
with engines of 21,000 indicated horse-power, and the same estimated
speed, namely, 22 knots. Both classes have fourteen 6-in. Q.F.
guns, but the larger vessels have in addition four 8-in. guns in two
6J-in. turrets, besides a heavier battery of smaller Q.F. guns. The
" California " class are completely belted with armour having a
thickness of 6 in. over half the length amidships and 3^ in. to the
ends, and a battery of 5-in. armour enclosing the 6-in. Q.F. guns,
and extending to the upper deck. The " St Louis " class have only
a water-line belt for about one-half the vessel's length, with a similar
battery above it, the whole of the armour being 4 in. thick of Krupp
quality. The " California " class comes between the English
' Cressy " and " Drake " classes. The " St Louis " class is practi-
cally the English " Monmouth," with about a knot less speedj bow-
plating omitted and a 4-in. battery added.
In 1903 two larger armoured cruisers, the " Tennessee " and
" Washington," were laid down. The speed of 22 knots was re-
tained, but the armament consisted of four io-in., sixteen 6-in.,
twenty-two 14-pdrs., twelve 3-pdrs., &c., with four 2l-in. submerged
torpedo tubes. The side armour was slightly reduced in thickness,
but spread over a greater area, giving 5 in. uniformly on the belt
and 3 in. forward and aft; the citadel and casemates remain 5 in.
thick, but the protection of the heavy guns is increased to 9 in.;
in addition, the 14-pdr. battery on the upper deck is protected by
2-in. plating. The displacement is 14,500 tons. Two similar vessels,
" North Carolina " and " Montana, were laid down in 1905, but up
to 1910 the United States had not proposed to lay down any cruisers
corresponding in power and speed to the " Invincible."
Germany. Germany for many years built a number of small
cruisers of moderate speed for service on distant stations, &c. F and
subsequently a series of very successful third-class and second-class
cruisers of increasing power and speed. Seven vessels of the " Gaz-
elle " class were launched in 1898-1900. The " Gazelle " was of
2558 tons, 6370 I.H.P. and 19$ knots speed; the " Niobe," a sister
vessel, was of the same displacement, and the five later vessels were
of 2608 tons; several developed nearly 9000 I.H.P. and obtained
21 J to 22 J knots speed. The " Undine," "Arcona " and " Frauen-
lob," laid down in 1001, were of 2656 tons displacement; these
were all sheathed with wood and coppered. Seven vessels of the
" Hamburg " class were laid down in 1902-1904, of 3200 tons dis-
placement, having the same protection as the preceding vessels and
carrying the same armament at a higher speed, machinery of 10,000
I.H.P. being provided for 22 knots. The highest speed reached
was 22-6 knots by the " Lubeck," which was fitted with Parsons
turbines of 13,500 H.P. and driven by eight screws on four shafts.
Four vessels of the " Konigsberg " class, laid down in 1905, are of
3350 to 3500 tons displacement. They retain the same protection
a deck -8 in. to 2 in. in thickness and the same armament ten 4- 1 -in.,
fourteen smaller guns and two submerged torpedo tubes; but their
machinery has been varied to admit of trial of various types of
turbines and reciprocating engines. The " Konigsberg," " Stutt-
gart " and " Nurnberg " are fitted with engines of 13,200 I.H.P. for
23-5 knots; while the " Stettin " is fitted with Parsons turbines of
15,500 H.P., and attained 24-0 knots on trial. The next two vessels,
" Dresden " and " Emden," of 3592 tons, laid down in 1906, have the
same protection as before, but twelve 4-i-in. guns are carried instead
of ten, and a still higher speed is aimed at. The " Dresden " is fitted
with Parsons turbines of 16,000 H.P., and the " Emden," with
reciprocating engines of 15,000 I.H.P., to give a speed of 25 knots.
Four later vessels are of 4230 to 4280 tons displacement, and are
fitted with machinery of about 25,000 H.P. for a speed of 25 knots,
as follows: the " Kolberg " with Schichau turbines, the " Mainz "
with A.E.G. (modified Curtis) turbines, the " Coin " with Zoelly
turbines and the " Augsburg " with Parsons turbines. Two vessels
of the same type were in 1910 under construction, in which a
further increase of speed was contemplated; the displacement is
increased to 4800 tons and the H.P. to 30,000; one of these, the
vessel to replace " Bussard," was to have Schulz turbines. Thus in
these second-class cruisers Germany was carrying out the greatest
series of experiments on turbines which had been attempted, no less
than five different types of large power being tested in comparison
with reciprocating engines.
Besides the foregoing very fast vessels, in 1897-1898 Germany
built five larger second-class cruisers of the " Hertha " class. They
9 I2
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
were lofty vessels, and carried a good armament of two 8-2-in., eight
5'9-in. and ten 3'4-in. guns, as well as other smaller guns and three
submerged torpedo tubes ; they were 344 ft. long, 56 ft. to 58 ft. beam,
21 to 22 ft. mean draught, 5575 to 5790 tons displacement; they
had a protective deck 1-6 to 3-9 in. in thickness, and 3-9 in. gun
houses. Fig. 100 (Plate XXII.) shows the " Victoria Luise," the
second vessel of the class.
The older German cruisers, " Furst Bismarck " and " Prinz
Heinrich," laid down in 1896-1898, were armed with 9'4-in. and
5-9-in.guns, and had speeds of 19-20 knots. The " Prinz Adalbert "
and " Fnedrich Karl," laid down in 1901, and " Yorck " and " Roon,"
laid down in 1902-1903, were of 8850 to 9350 tons displacement and
21 knots speed, carrying four 8-2-in., ten 5'9-in., twelve 3'4-in. guns
and four submerged torpedo tubes. The 8-2-in. guns were carried in
enclosed 6-in. shields forward and aft ; and the other guns were mostly
in a very short citadel amidships, protected by 4-in. armour; the
water-line being completely protected by 4-in. to 3-in. armour.
The latest vessels of this type, the " Gneisenau "and" Scharnhorst,"
were laid down in 1905-1906 of 11,420 tons displacement and 22j
knots speed.
In 1907 Germany commenced a new series of large and powerful
cruisers, the " Bliicher " (fig. 101, Plate XXII.), the first of the
series, being of 15,550 tons displacement, an increase of more than
4000 tons beyond that of the preceding German vessels. She carries
twelve 8-2-in., eight 5'9-in., sixteen smaller guns and four submerged
torpedo tubes, and is protected by y-in. armour. Engines of 32,000
I.H.P. were provided, and the maximum speed on trial exceeded
25 knots. In the second vessel, the " Von der Tann " (fig. 102, Plate
XXII.), the main armament was increased to eight il-in. guns;
she is 560 ft. in length, 85 ft. beam, 27 ft. draught and 18,700 tons
displacement; Parsons turbines of 45,000 H.P. were provided for
25 knots speed, and both power and speed were exceeded on trial.
The third vessel, the " Moltke," is 0^23,000 tons displacement, of
26 knots speed, and is armed with 1 2-inch in place of n-inch guns,
and cost 2,200,000.
France. In France the line of development of the cruiser has been
similar to that in Great Britain. In 1887 four third-class cruisers
were built, of which the " Forbin " may be taken as a type; she
was 312 ft. long, 30^ ft. beam, 16 ft. draught, 1935 tons displacement,
5800 I.H.P. and 20 knots speed, protected by a ij-in. deck and a
belt ef cellulose, and armed with four si-in. and eight 3-pdr. guns
and five torpedo tubes. These were followed by " Linois," " Galilee,"
" Lavoisier," of about 2300 tons in 1893, and the " d'Estrees " and
" Internet " in 1897. The latter were 312 ft. long, 39 ft. beam, 17 ft.
9 in. draught and 2420 tons displacement, sheathed and coppered,
protected by a ij-in. deck and armed with two 5-5-in., four 3-9-in.
and eight 3-pdr. guns and three torpedo tubes; 8500 I.H.P. was
provided for 21 knots speed.
The French second-class cruisers may be said to have commenced
with the " Davout," of 3027 tons, 9000 I.H.P. and 2oJ knots, and the
" Alger " and " Isly," of 4350 tons, 8000 I.H.P. and 19 knots, in
1887. They were followed by two of the " Friant " class in 1891,
two of the " Pascal " class and three of the " Cassard " class in
1893, and the sheathed vessels, " Catinat " and " ProtSt," in 1894
and 1895. These vessels were from 3700 to 4050 tons displacement,
and 19^ to 20 knots speed, protected by decks i\ in. to 3 in. in
thickness, and armed with four to six 6-5-m. guns, four to ten 3-g-in.
guns, as well as smaller guns and torpedo tubes. The last of this
series, the " Protlt," was laid down in 1895.
In 1894 France laid down a first-class protected cruiser, the
" d'Entrecasteaux," of 8000 tons, carrying two 9-4-in., twelve 5'5-in.,
twelve 3-pdr. guns and six torpedo tubes, with a speed of 19^ knots,
and then by three very remarkable vessels lightly built and armed,
but of very high speed, viz. the " Jurien de la Graviere," of 5600
tons and 23 knots, the " Guichen," of 8150 tons and 23 knots and
the " Chateaurenault," of 7900 tons and 24 knots.
A new departure was made in 1890 in laying down the armoured
cruiser " Dupuy de Lome," of 6300 tons, 14,000 I.H.P. and 20 knots
speed," carrying two j-6-in., six 6-4-in. and several smaller guns;
a protective deck I J in. thick was fitted, and the whole side of the
ship was armoured, the thickness at the water-line amidships being
4-7 in., tapering gradually towards the extremities. This type has,
however, not been repeated.
The " Jeanne d'Arc," launched in 1899 at Toulon, is 11,100 tons
displacement, 477 ft. in length, 63 ft. 8 in. beam and 24 ft. 8 in.
mean draught, has engines of 33,000 indicated horse-power and a
speed of 21-8 knots. She has a complete water-line armour belt of
Harveyized steel, having a maximum thickness of 6 in., and the bow
is also protected as far aft as the bow guns with i$ in. steel to the
upper deck. Her armament consists of two 7-6-in. guns, fourteen
5-5-in. Q.F., twenty-two smaller guns and two submerged torpedo
tubes. Of more recent date than the " Jeanne d'Arc," but smaller
in size, is the " Montcalm " (fig. 103, Plate XXIII.), an armoured
cruiser launched in loco, of 9367 tons displacement, 453 ft.
length, 63 ft. 8 in. beam and 24 ft. 6 in. draught. She carries an
armament of two 7-6-in. guns in separate turrets of Harveyized
steel 6 in. thick forward and aft, eight 6-s-in. Q.F. guns in casemates
on the broadsides, four 3-9-in. Q.F. guns in shields on the broadsides,
twenty-two smaller guns and two submerged torpedo tubes. She
is protected by a water-line belt 6J ft. deep, which extends from
the bow to within 30 ft. of the stern, where it is terminated by a
transverse bulkhead 4 in. thick; amidship this belt is 6 in. thick
at its upper edge, diminishing to 2 in. at its lower edge, where
it meets the 2-m. protective deck, but the maximum thickness
tapers to 3 in. at the forward and after ends. Above this main belt
is a thinner one extending over the same length, but only 3$ in.
maximum thickness and of about 4 ft. depth. The " Montcalm " has
20 water-tube boilers of the Normand-Sigaudy type, and engines of
19,600 H.P., giving her a speed of 21 knots. She carries 1000 tons
of coal and some oil fuel. Her engine-rooms are placed between
the two sets of boiler-rooms, instead of abaft them, as is usual in
British vessels, the peculiar appearance of many French vessels,
with two pairs of funnels widely separated, being thus accounted
for.
Three vessels of the " Montcalm " class were ordered, and then
three smaller vessels of " Kleber " type, of 7578 tons only, and four
larger vessels of improved " Montcalm " type. The latter were very
similar to " Montcalm," with improved armour protection and of
500 tons greater displacement. They were followed by three larger
vessels, the " L6on Gambetta " (fig. 104, Plate XXIII.), " Jules
Ferry " and " Victor Hugo." These vessels are armoured cruisers
of about 12,400 tons displacement, length 480 ft., beam 70 ft.
3 in., draught 26 ft. 3 in., with an indicated horse-power of 28,500
and speeds of 22j to 23 knots.
In 1904 the " Jules Michelet " (fig. 105, Plate XXIV.), of 12,370
tons, was laid down, of 30,000 I.H.P. and 23 knots speed. The
" Ernest Renan " followed in 1903, the I.H.P. being 36,000 for
23$ knots.
The most powerful French cruisers built or building in 1910 were
the " Edgar Quinet," laid down in 1905, and " Waldeck Rousseau,"
laid down in 1906, of 13,780 tons displacement, armed with four-
teen 7-6-in. guns, eight being fitted in pairs in turrets and four in
separate casemates, together with fourteen 6-pdr. and eight 3-pdr.
guns and two submerged torpedo tubes; 36,000 I.H.P. is provided
for a designed speed of 24 knots.
Japan. Japan possesses a great variety of cruisers, many of which
were built at Elswick, others were captured during the war with
Russia, and refitted or reconstructed; the latter including the
" Aso " (ex-" Bayan "),the" Tsugaru " (ex-" Pallada"),the" Soya"
(ex-" Varyag ") and " Sudzua " (ex-" Novik "). In addition, large
and small cruisers were built in America, Germany and France,
but the finest were built in Japan.
As examples of the Japanese cruisers laid down towards the end
of the igth century may be mentioned the second-class cruisers
" Kasagi " and " Chitose," of 4800 and 4900 tons displacement,
15,500 I.H.P. and 22| knots speed, built in America and armed
with two 8-in. and ten 4-7-in. guns, and the third-class cruisers
" Suma " and " Akashi," of 2657 tons displacement and 19$ knots
speed, built in Japan and armed with two 6-in., six 4'7-in. and ten
3-pdr. Q.F. guns.
In 1902 Japan launched the protected cruisers " Tsushima " and
" Niitaka,' of 3365 tons displacement, 9400 I.H.P. and 20 knots
speed, armed with six 6-in. and fourteen smaller guns; in 1903 the
" Otowa," of 3082 tons, 10,000 I.H.P. and 21 knots carrying two
6-in., six 4-7-in. and six smaller guns; and in 1907 the " Tone," of
4100 tons displacement, 15,000 I.H.P. and 23 knots speed, armed
with two 6 in., ten 4-7 in. and three smaller guns and three torpedo
tubes. All of these vessels are fitted with reciprocating machinery.
The " Yahagi," " Chikuma " and " Hirato," laid down later, have
turbine machinery of 22,500 H.P. to give 26 knots speed, two 6-in.
and ten 4-7-in. guns and two torpedo tubes. They are 440 ft. long,
52 ft. beam and 5000 tons displacement.
Of first-class protected cruisers Japan possessed in 1910 only
two, the " Tsugaru " (ex-" Pallada ") and " Soya " (ex-" Varyag ").
The " Tsugaru " was built at St Petersburg in 1899, is of 6630 tons,
11,600 I.H.P., 20 knots speed, armed with eight 6-in., twenty-two
12-pdr. and several smaller guns, and protected by an armour deck
ij to 2j in. in thickness. The " Soya " was built at Philadelphia
in 1899, is of 6500 tons, 20,000 I.H.P., 23 knots speed, armed with
twelve 6-in., twelve 12-pdr. and smaller guns, and protected by
a i J to 3-in. deck. The " Sudzua " (ex-" Novik ") is a lighter and
faster vessel, of 3000 tons displacement, 25 knots speed, armed with
two 6-in., four 4'7-in. and several smaller guns, and protected by a
1-2 to 2-in. deck.
Of armoured cruisers she possessed in 1910 a relatively large
number. In 1897 Japan ordered the " Yakumo," of 9850 tons
displacement, from Germany, and in 1899 the " Adzuma," of 9436
tonsdisplacement, from France; both vessels have a speed of 21 knots,
and carry an armament of four 8-in. guns mounted in pairs in two
turrets, and twelve 6-in. guns in 6-in. casemates, and are protected
by a complete belt of Krupp steel 7 in. to 3J in. in thickness.
They are somewhat similar to the " Iwate " and " Idzumo " (fig. 99,
Plate XXIII.), built at Elswick, but with slightly less $un power
and speed. The " Aso " (ex-" Bayan "), built in France in 1900, is
7700 tons displacement, 17,000 I.H.P., 21 knots, carrying two 8-in.,
eight 6-in. and a number of smaller guns, and protected by 8-in.
armour.
In 1905 a very important advance was made. Early in_that year
Japan laid down the " Ikoma " and " Tskuba," 440 ft. in length,
13.75 tons displacement, 23,000 I.H.P. and of 21 knots speed.
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
These were the first cruisers laid down to carry the guns of a first-class
battleship. Their armament includes four 12-in. guns mounted in
pairs in two barbettes, one forward and one aft, twelve 6-in. guns in
casemates and twelve 4-7-in. guns, and they have a complete armour
belt 7 to 5 in. in thickness and 7 in. of armour on the barbettes (fig. 106) .
They were followed by the 22-knot cruisers " Kurama," laid down in
1905, and the " Ibuki," laid down in 1906, which are 10 ft. longer,
of about 900 tons greater displacement, and 4500 more I.H.P.
I' 1 I ' I
FIG. 106. Arrangement of Guns and Armour, Japanese
than in the " Tsukuba " type. The armament is also more powerful,
twelve 6-in. guns being replaced by eight 8-in. guns mounted in
pairs in barbettes, while the 4-7-in. guns are increased to fourteen in
number. The " Ibuki " is fitted with turbines of 27,000 H.P., the
" Kurama " with reciprocating engines of 22,500 I.H.P. The
disposition of guns and armour are as shown in fig. 106. In 1910
Japan ordered of Vickers Co. an armoured cruiser of 27,000 tons
and 72,000 H.P.
/?assza. Before the Russo-Japanese War, Russia had pro-
vided herself with a great variety of fast, well-armed cruisers
of various sizes, including some very notable vessels. Of those
which remained in 1910 may be mentioned the protected
cruiser " Zhemchug," of 3100 tons, 17,000 I.H.P., 24 knots, carry-
ing eight 4'7-in. guns; the " Askold," built at Kiel in 1900,
6500 tons displacement, 20,000 I.H.P. and 23 knots speed,
armed with twelve 6-in., twelve 12-pdr. and other smaller
guns; the "Diana" and "Aurora," of 6630 tons and 20
knots; the " Bogatyr " and similar vessels launched 1901-
1903, of 6675 tons displacement, 20,000 I.H.P., 24 knots
speed, armed with twelve 6-in., twelve 12-pdr. and several
smaller guns, and having a protective deck ij to 2 in. in
thickness. The armoured cruisers, " Rossia," of 12,200 tons
and 20 knots, and " Gromoboi," of 13,220 tons, 15,500
I.H.P. and 20 knots speed, carry four 8-in., twenty-two
6-in. and other smaller guns, and are protected by 6-in.
armour. Since the war several vessels of this type have
been built, including three of a new " Bayan " class, 7900
tons displacement, 19,000 I.H.P., 22 knots, armed with
two 8-in., eight 6-in., twenty 12-pdr. and other smaller
guns, and protected by 6-in. armour; and the " Rurik,"
built at Barrow in 1906, 490 ft. in length, 15,190 tons
displacement, 19,100 I.H.P. and 2l| knots speed, armed
with four lo-in. guns mounted in pairs in barbettes forward
and aft, eight 8-in. and twenty 4'7-in. guns, and protected
by a complete belt of armour 12 ft. deep, 6 in. thick
amidships, tapering to 4 in. forward and 3 in. aft.
Italy. Italy possesses several protected cruisers of the
" Piemonte " type already described as well as a number of
smaller^ vessels. She was in 1910 building scouts of the
" Quarto " type of about 3500 tons displacement and 27
knots, armed with 4-7-in. and 12-pdr. guns. The most
notable Italian cruisers are, however, those of the " Garibaldi "
class, which are heavily armed, well armoured and of moderate
speed. They have been developed from the " Marco Polo "
type, which comprises three vessels; the " Marco Polo,"
launched in 1892, of 4500 tons, 19 knots, armed with six
6-in., ten 4-7-in. and several smaller guns, and protected by a
4-in. armour belt as well as a steel deck; the " Vettor Pisani "
and the " Carlo Alberto," which are of 6400 tons, carry twelve
6-in., six 4-7-in., fourteen 6-pdr. and other smaller guns. The
" Giuseppe Garibaldi," " Varese " and " Francesco Ferrucio,"
xxiv. 29 a
launched in 1899, are of 7400 tpns displacement, _ 1 3,500 I.H.P.,
20 knots speed; they are armed with one io-in., two 8-in.,
fourteen 6-in. and a number of smaller guns, and are protected
by armour disposed as shown in fig. 107; the belt, battery and
gun protection are all 6 in., the belt tapering to 4$ in. in thickness
at the bow and stern.
In 1905 Italy commenced a series of enlarged " Garibaldis " of
9830 tons and 22| knots, carrying four io-in. guns in barbettes
forward and aft with a
secondary armament of
eight 7^-in. guns in turrets
on the upper deck amid-
ships, the bases being en-
closed in an armoured
citadel as shown in fig.
1 08, which gives the
general arrangement of
guns and armour in the
" Amalfi " and " Pisa."
Gunboats and Torpedo
Craft. Gunboats in-
clude numerous small
vessels which, even in
times of general peace
amongst the great mari-
time nations, have im-
portant duties allotted
to them. For the pa-
trolling of rivers and
islands, protection of
fisheries, &c., a battle-
ship or a cruiser, from
its size, would be un-
suitable, and for the
performance of these
and other duties special vessels have been built. These
types, and those included in the torpedo-craft division, may
be conveniently grouped under three headings, as follows:
I. Sloops.
II. Gun-vessels and Gunboats.
III. Torpedo-boats, Torpedo Gunboats and Torpedo-boat
Destroyers.
The " Wild Swan " class, the first of which was launched in 1876
for the British navy, represents one of the earliest of the sloop type.
She was a single-screw composite-built vessel of 1130 tons dis-
placement and 170 ft. length, with a speed under steam of iOj
Ibuki " and " Kurama."
FIG. 107. Arrangement of Guns and Armour, Italian
" Giuseppe Garibaldi."
knots and an armament of two 6-in., six 5-in. B.L. guns, and four
smaller guns. This proved a very useful class of ships, and .
in all sixteen of them were built. The " Beagle " class,
commenced in 1889, represented an advance on the " Wild Swan."
They were built of steel, sheathed with wood and coppered, and
had twin-screws. Their displacement was 1170 tons, and they were
195 ft. long, steamed at 13 knots, and carried eight 5-in. B.L. guns
and eight machine-guns. They were followed, at an interval of
five years, by the " Torch " and " Alert," which were of 960 tons
5
9H
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
displacement, 180 ft. long, steamed at 13! knots and carried an arma-
ment of six 4-in. Q.F. guns, four 3-pdrs. and two machine-guns.
They were single-screw vessels, built of steel, sheathed and coppered.
The " Condor " class, which comprises six vessels built between
1898 and 1901, are very slightly modified " Torches," having 20
tons more displacement and 6 in. more beam, with the same length,
FIG. 108. Arrangement of Guns and Armour, Italian " Amalfi "
and " Pisa."
speed and armament. They are able, however, to maintain a higher
continuous speed, being fitted with water-tube boilers. In 1901 to
1902 there were laid down four sloops of the " Fant6me " class,
which are larger vessels than the " Condors," being 1075 tons dis-
placement and 185 ft. long. They are twin-screw vessels, built of
steel, sheathed and coppered. They have water-tube boilers, giving
1400 H.P., and a speed of 13} knots. Their armament is similar to
that of the " Condor." All the foregoing vessels are fitted as sailing
vessels as well as steam. The " Beagle " is schooner-rigged, the
others all barque-rigged.
Of the gun-vessel or gunboat type, one of the earliest built for
the British navy is represented by the " Staunch," a twin-screw
vessel designed by Mr G. W. Rendel, and built at Elswick
OuaooatM. ; n igg^ -fhe guiding principle in the design of this vessel
was that she should simply be a floating gun-carriage, propelled by
steam and provided with plenty of manoeuvring power. The 9-in.
13-ton gun which constituted her armament was arranged to sink
into and be raised from a well by means of hydraulic power. She
was only 180 tons in displacement and 75 ft. long, and had a speed
of 6J knots. The " Medina " class, consisting of twelve gunboats
built about 1876, were twin-screw vessels of 363 tons displacement
and no ft. length, and had a speed of 8} knots. Their arma-
ment was light, consisting only of three 64-pdrs. and three
machine guns. They were fitted with bow rudders in addition to
those at the stern, in order to increase their manoeuvring power.
The " Paluma " and " Gayundah " were built at Elswick in 1884 for
the Queensland government. They had a displacement of 360 tons
and were 115 ft. in length, were schooner-rigged,
but had twin-screws and a speed under steam of
10 knots. They carried one 8-in. B.L. gun forward,
which was mounted behind a breastwork and had
a considerable arc of training; one 6-in. gun,
which was mounted aft; and three machine-guns.
The " Protector " was a more important craft.
Built for the government of South Australia in
1884, she was 920 tons in displacement and I So
ft. long, had twin screws and a speed of 14 knots f]
under steam. She carried one 8-in. B.L. gun
forward, mounted as in the " Paluma," five 6-in.
4-ton guns, and five Catlings. The " Cock-
chafer class (1881) and the "Thrush" class
(1889) are sea-going cruising vessels of a different
type, carrying much lighter guns than in the
Staunch class. The former, of which four were
built, were composite-built, single-screw ships of
465 tons displacement and 125 ft. length, with
a fore-and-aft rig and a speed under steam of
9i knots; the jatter, of which there were nine,
were schooner-rigged composite vessels of 805 tons
displacement and 165 ft. length, with a single
screw and a speed of 13! knots. The armament
of the " Cockchafers " consisted of two 64-pdrs.
R.M.L. guns, two 2O-pdrs. R.B.L. guns, and two
machine-guns; that of the "Thrush" (fig. 109,
Plate XXVI.) was of six 4-in. B.L. guns and
four smaller guns (she was commanded by H.M. King George V.
when he was on active service in the navy). The Bramble,"
launched in 1898, is a representative of what in 1910 was the most
recent type of first-class gunboat. Her displacement is 710 tons, or
100 less than the " Thrush." She is 180 ft. long and has a speed of
13} knots, is built of steel, sheathed and coppered, and carries two
4-in. Q.F. guns, four 12-pdrs. and ten machine-guns. She has
water-tube boilers, twin screws and machinery of 1300 I.H.P.
Four of these vessels have been built, named the " Bramble,"
" Britomart," "Dwarf" (fig. no, Plate XXVI.) and "Thistle."
They were designed specially for service on rivers in hot climates;
their draught is limited to 8 ft.; their sails are reduced to a very
light fore-and-aft rig, and they are fitted with a complete shade deck
of teak and felt. They were still on active service in 1910, but
no new vessels had been laid down since 1897.
A number of gun-vessels have been designed for special
services, among which may be mentioned the " Mosquito (fig
in, Plate XX.) and " Herald," two stern-wheel steamers for
the Zambezi built by Messrs Yarrow in 1890. They are of
80 tons displacement and 77 ft. long, having a speed of io|
knots and carrying an armament of four 3-pdrs. and eight
machine-guns. They are built in sections, each of which forms a
separate pontoon, so that the whole vessel can be readily taken to
pieces for transport and easily put together in the water. These
two gun- vessels were handed over to the Colonial authorities on the
river Zambezi. Built for somewhat similar service, but of different
design, are the four shallow-draught river gunboats of the " Sand-
piper " class. They are steel twin-screw boats, built in 1897, also
by Messrs Yarrow. They are 88 tons in displacement, 100 ft. long
and 20 ft. broad, and carry an armament of two 6-pdrs. and four
machine-guns. Their speed is 9 knots, and they draw only 2 ft.
of water, their screws working in arched tunnels, the summits of
which are above the water-level outside. These arches always
remain full of water, and serve the double purpose of enabling
sufficiently large screws to be fitted for the economical propulsion
of the vessel without increasing the draught, and of protecting them
from damage. The " Woodcock " and " Woodlark " are larger
vessels of the same type, designed for service on the rapid and
shallow rivers of China. They were built by Messrs Thornycroft in
1897, are 120 tons in displacement, 145 ft. long, 23 ft. beam and
2 ft. draught of water. They have twin screws, also carried in arched
tunnels, and their speed is 15 knots. They carry the same armament
as the " Sandpiper " class. In 1901 the " Teal " and " Moorhen,"
designed for service in China, were also constructed in sections,
but are considerably larger than either the " Mosquito " or the
" Woodcock," being about 180 tons displacement. They are twin-
screw vessels, the propellers being in tunnels, as in the " Woodcock,"
and their speed is over 13 knots. Their furnaces will burn wood.
They carry two 6-pdrs. and four machine-guns. The latest vessel
of this type in 1910 was the " Widgeon," of similar construction,
built by Messrs Yarrow in 1904 and carrying the same armament.
She is 160 ft. long, 24 ft. 6 in. beam, 2 ft. 5 in. draught, 195 tons
displacement, 800 I.H.P. and 13 knots speed.
Fig. 112 (Plate XX.) and fig. 113 show a light-draught gunboat
of the " Sultan " class, of which several have been built for service
on the Nile. She has a displacement of 140 tons, a length of
143 ft., a beam of 24 ft. 6 in., a draught of only 2 ft. and a speed of
12 knots. Her armament consists of one 12-pdr., one howitzer, and
four Maxims, and she is protected by a J-in. bullet-proof breastwork.
The gunboats of other navies are generally similar to those
described above. The Brazilian twin-screw gunboat " Tiradentes,"
built in 1892, of steel, sheathed with teak and coppered, was
ci
D :
i
D
jFfs
-.
IS
1
a a
r-ft
D
______ ^
FIG. 113. Plan of Nile Gunboat " Sultan."
165 ft. long and 800 tons displacement, and attained a speed
of 14-5 knots. She had an armament of four 47-in. guns, three
6-pdrs. and four machine-guns, and carried a considerable spread
of canvas.
In torpedo gunboats and torpedo craft generally, possibly the last
thirty years of the igth century showed more development and
greater diversity than in any other type of war vessel then exist-
ing. The first small high-speed boat we have any record of is the
SHIP
PLATE XXV.
FIG. 117. Turbinia.
FIG. 120. U.S.A. Bainbridge.
XXIV. 914.
FIG. 121. Japanese Niji.
PLATE XXVI.
SHIP
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
" Miranda," built by Messrs Thornycroft in 1871. She was built
of light steel, was 45 ft. in length, 6J ft. beam and 2i ft. draught,
Torpedo an< ^ att f l ' ne d a speed of 16-4 knots with a single screw,
the engine running at 355 revolutions per minute and indi-
cating 58 H.P. The results obtained with her attracted
much attention, and in 1873 Thornycroft launched for the Norwegian
government a somewhat larger boat, armed with a spar torpedo,
which attained a speed of 15 knots. Owing to the introduction of
machine-guns in warships as a defence against torpedo-boat attack,
it was recognized that there was a very slight chance of a boat
Table XVIII. gives particulars of many of the most notable torpedo-
boats built between 1871 and 1010.
The torpedo-boat thus established was primarily a weapon of
offence, the only two elements of a protective nature in its design
being those of small size and high speed; but even these were also
necessary for purposes of offence. The deadly nature of their attack,
and the difficulty of meeting it in the ship attacked, led to the
construction of special vessels intended, among other duties, to
meet and destroy them. The French " Bombe " (1885) was one of
the earliest of these; and the " Rattlesnake " and three sister
TABLE XVIII. Particulars of Torpedo-boats.
Principal Dimensions, &c.
J
Vessel's Name.
Country.
Where Built.
Date of
Launch.
J
B
S
m
Draught.
ji ^
I 1
Number
of Screws.
1
&
Speed.
Armament, &c.
Toipedo-boats
Miranda
Great Britain
Messrs Thornycroft, London.
1871
Ft. In.
45 o
Ft. In.
6 6
Ft. In.
a 6
Tons.
i
58
Knots.
16.4
Hit. Experimental boat.
zst torpedo-boat
built. . . .
Norway
Messrs Thornycroft, London.
1873
57 o
7 6
3
I
15.0
x spar torpedo.
Lightning (after-
wards No.x T.B.)
Great Britain
Messrs Thomycroft, London.
1877
75 o
10 10
5 o
34
477
18.5
Single torpedo tube.
No. 10 T.B. . .
tt
Messrs Thornycroft, London.
1880
90 6
10 10
4
28
450
*x.7
i torpedo tube.
Swift (afterwards
No. 81 T.B.) .
Messrs J. S. White & Co., Cowes.
1885
150 o
17 6
S xi
xas
1300
ao.s
6 3 pdrs., 3 tubes.
Falke. . . .
Austria .
Messrs Yarrow, London.
1886
135 o
13 9
S 8
95
900
aa.4
a mach.-guns, 2 tubes.
1st class T.B.
China .
Elbing.
1886
144 4
6 S
7 6
128
1400
24.2
4 x pdrs., a tubes.
Forban .
France .
Messrs Normand.
1895
144 a
IS a
10 o
135
2
3200
31-2
a x pdrs., a tubes.
No. 109 T.B.
Great Britain
Messrs Thornycroft. London.
1902
166 o
17 4
8 5
194
X
2OOO
2S-0
33 pdrs., 3 tubes.
No. 1 1 T.B. .
Messrs Yarrow, London.
1906
172 o
18 o
S 9
263
3
3750
26.O
a 12 pdrs., 3 tubes.
Goyaz . .
Brazil .
Messrs Yarrow, London.
1007
152 6
IS 4
130
3
26.5
2 3 pdrs., a tubes.
Gabbiano
Italy .
Spezzia
1007
164 o
17 5
7 o
200
a
3000
26.0
3 3 pdrs., 3 tubes.
No. 29 T.B. .
Great Britain
Messrs Denny, Dumbarton.
1908
180 o
18 o
S 9
278
3
4000
26.0
a 12 pdrs., 3 tubes.
approaching sufficiently near to a vessel to successfully attack her
by means of a towing or a spar torpedo, and the Whitehead torpedo
fired from a revolving tube on the deck was accordingly adopted as
the armament of future torpedo-boats. This rendered it unnecessary
for the torpedo-boat to approach nearer than say 400 yds., and also
enabled the torpedo to be fired without stopping the boat, a point
of great importance. The first torpedo-boat for the British navy
was built by Messrs Thornycroft four years later; she was called the
" Lightning," was 75 ft. in length and 34 tons displacement, had
engines giving nearly 500 H.P., and obtained a speed of 19 knots.
She was armed with a single torpedo tube. The boats which
followed varied somewhat as regards size and speed, but on the
whole pursued the usual course of growing larger and more powerful
with each new design. By 1885 the length had gone up to 150 ft.,
the displacement to 125 tons and the speed to 20 knots. This
last was not the highest that had been obtained, some of the
earlier and smaller boats having reached 21 J knots; but the boats
of 1885 carried a heavier armament, consisting of six 3-pdrs.
and three torpedo tubes, and were more serviceable and seaworthy
craft. A very notable boat of this date was the " Swift," after-
wards known as No. 81, built by J. S. White of Cowes; she marked
a great advance in seaworthiness and fighting power in combina-
tion with high speed.
Messrs Yarrow built for the Austrian navy in 1886 the " Falke,"
135 ft. in length and 95 tons displacement, which obtained a speed of
22-4 knots on trial, and a similar boat for the British navy of 105
tons displacement, armed with 5 torpedo tubes and three 3-pdr. guns,
which attained a speed of 23 knots on trial. About the same time
Messrs Thornycroft built the " Ariete " and " Royo " for the Spanish
navy. These vessels had twin screws and water-tube boilers. The
former attained a speed of 26 knots on the measured mile and 24-9
knots on a 2 hours' run, and the latter 25-5 knots on the measured
mile and 24-6 knots on the 2 hours' run. In 1895 M. Normand built
the torpedo-boat " Forban " for the French navy, which attained
a speed of 31-2 knots on trial, and the boats of the Normand type
which followed her attained equally remarkable speeds. The
maximum speeds for the British torpedo-boats up to the end of the
igth century were from 23 to 23^ knots. From 1901 to 1904 larger
and faster types of torpedo-boats were constructed. These boats
were 160 ft. to 165 ft. in length, 17 ft. to 18 ft. beam, 8J ft. draught,
180 to 200 tons displacement, 2900 I.H.P., attained a speed of 25
knots and were armed with 3 torpedo tubes. In 1906 to 1909
boats of a new and still faster type were built with turbine
machinery and burning oil fuel instead of coal. These boats, 36
in number, vary from 166 to 185 ft. in length. 17! to 19 ft. beam,
5} to 6} ft. draught and 243 to 308 tons in displacement. They
have engines of 3600 to 4000 H.P. giving speeds of 26 and 27
knots, and are armed with two 12-pdr. guns and three torpedo
tubes. The first twelve ordered in 1905 were at first known as
Coastal Torpedo-boat Destroyers, and given names such as the
" Cricket," " Gadfly " and " Mayfly.'" They are now numbered
throughout, i.e. from I to 36. The prefix O has been added to the
numbers of such of the boats originally bearing these numbers as
are still in existence, to distinguish them from the new type boats.
vessels, the first of the English torpedo gunboats, came closely after
her. The " Rattlesnake was launched in 1886, was of 525 tons
displacement, and had a speed of 19! knots. She carried a more
powerful armament than the torpedo-boats, namely, one 4-in. gun,
six 3-pdrs. and 4 torpedo tubes. She was followed in 1888 by the
" Sharpshooter, with ten sister vessels, still larger and more heavily
armed. They were 230 ft. long and 735 tons displacement, had
engines developing 3500 H.P., giving a speed of 19 knots, and carried
two 4'7-in. Q.F. guns, four 3-pdrs. and two torpedo tubes.
France built six vessels of the " Bombe " class, and the " Leger "
(a slightly larger vessel), and in 1891 to 1896 built five other torpedo
gunboats of about 900 tons and 21 knots. The last was named
La Hire," and was 241 ft. long, 27 ft. 6 in. beam, 12 ft. 9 in. draught,
890 tons displacement; was armed with six 9-pdr. and six 3-pdr.
Q.F guns and was provided with engines of 6400 I. H.P. for 23
knots. These vessels have no torpedo tubes. The torpedo cruiser
" Fleurus," laid down in 1891, was armed with four torpedo tubes
as well as five 3-9-in. and six 3-pdr. guns. She was also protected
by a i J-in. protective deck and fitted with a belt of cellulose 3 ft.
thick in the vicinity of the water-line. Her dimensions were:
length 230 ft., beam 29$ ft., draught aft 15 ft., displacement 1300
tons, I. H.P. 4000, and speed 18 knots.
The " Niger " class of 1892, which included eleven vessels (fig.
114, Plate XX.), were repeats of the " Sharpshooters," except that
they carried an additional torpedo tube and three machine-guns,
with certain hull additions and more durable machinery, the dis-
placement being increased by these causes to 810 tons, and the
speed being reduced by a quarter of a knot. In 1893 a fourth series
of this class of vessel was begun, known as the " Dryad " class, and
considerably larger than the " Nigers," being 250 ft. long and of
1070 tons displacement. They are of 3500 I.H.P., have a speed of
i8J knots, and carry an armament of two 4-7-in. Q.F. guns, four
6-pdrs., and three torpedo tubes. Five vessels of this class were
built, the difference between their general appearance and that of the
preceding classes being illustrated by fig. 115 (Plate XX.), which
shows the " Hazard,' which in 1910 was employed on special
service in connexion with the reception and trials of British sub-
marines. In these thirty-one British vessels of the torpedo gunboat
class the elements of strength and seaworthiness are developed at
| the expense of speed, and they combine in themselves some of the
functions of the torpedo-boat with many of the most important
features of the small cruiser. The successive increases of displace-
ment are very largely due to additions to the hull, giving greater
habitability and trustworthiness for continuous work at sea. It
will be noticed that the speed shows a continuous falling off; but
the " Sharpshooter " class and subsequent vessels have been refitted
with water-tube boilers in lieu of the locomotive boilers originally
i fitted, and some of them are in addition re-engined, with the result
' that a speed of 21 knots was obtained; this, in the ordinary-
weather met with at sea, would probably enable them to overtake
craft of lighter types possessed of considerably greater smooth-water
speeds. These vessels have not been repeated, many of them have
been sold, but all those remaining are actively employed on a variety
of subsidiary but important services.
916
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
Torpedo-boat Destroyers were primarily, as their name implies,
intended to meet and destroy torpedo-boats, their larger size, greater
coal capacity, heavier armament, and higher speed enabling them to
overtake such boats before they could complete their attack; but
it soon became evident that these additional powers also enabled the
destroyer to perform the duties of the torpedo-boat more efficiently
than the boat herself, and with the advent of the destroyer the
production of the smaller boat declined.
The pioneers of this type of vessel were the "Daring," "Decoy,"
" Havock " and " Hornet," the construction of which was entered
upon in July 1892, the two first-named at Messrs Thornycroft's and
the other two at Messrs Yarrow's. They were thus contemporary
with the " Dryads," the last of the torpedo gunboats. The success
of these four vessels was followed with great interest, and in the
following year (1893) six others were begun. One of these, the
" Boxer," built by Thornycroft, attained a speed of 29-2 knots. A
much greater number of destroyers (32 in all), nearly the whole of
which were of 27 knots speed, were laid down in 1894. The suc-
ceeding year (1895) saw a great advance in size, power and speed,
thirteen destroyers being laid down, for each of which the contract
speed was 30 knots. Similar vessels were constructed by various
firms in England for foreign powers, and abroad by Messrs Schichau
in Germany and M. Normand in France; the " Sokol " being con-
structed by Messrs Yarrow for the Russian navy. Over sixty
destroyers of the 3O-knot type were built for the British navy be-
tween 1895 and 1905, and in only three vessels with reciprocating
engines the " Albatross," the "Express," and the " Arab " were
speeds exceeding 30 knots contracted for. In 1896 an attempt was
made to realize greater speeds, but it was found that the power
and cost necessary for the addition of a few knots were dispro-
portionate to the value of the results obtained, and the attempt
was not followed by any general increase of speed above 30 to 31
knots in destroyers fitted with reciprocating engines. The general
appearance of a typical destroyer of this period is shown by
fig. 116 (Plate XXVI.), which represents the " Albatross" at full
speed. ,. . .
Particulars of destroyers will be found in Table XIX.
Experience with the marine steam turbine, the invention of the
Hon. C. A. Parsons, dates only from the time of the " Turbinia "
(fig. 117, Plate XXV.), which made her successful trials in 1898 after
much investigation on the part of the inventor. The turbine
machinery consisted of three separate turbines directly coupled to
three screw shafts and working in series, one turbine being high
engines approaching 1200 and the power being estimated at about
12,000 H.P. At the time of their completion these were the fastest
vessels of any type afloat, but both were unfortunately lost at sea,
the " Viper " after a very short period of service being run upon
the Renouquet Rock in the Channel Islands, and the " Cobra "
being lost at sea on her first voyage after leaving the contractor's
works.
The results attained by these vessels led the British Admiralty to
make further experiments with this type of machinery. The
" Velox," which had been launched in 1902, was purchased from
the Parsons Company, and two experimental vessels were ordered
from Messrs Hawthorn, Leslie & Co., both 220 ft. long, about 590
tons displacement" and with similar boilers. Both vessels were
launched in 1903. One, the " Eden," was fitted with Parsons
turbines, and reached 26 -i knots on trial ; the other, the " Waveney,"
with reciprocating engines, reached 25-6 knots on trial; the
" Waveney " had twin screws; the " Eden " had six screws, two
on each of three shafts, and at high speed showed a great saving in
coal consumption.
Experience with the 3O-knot boats led to a decision to order boats
of stouter build and better sea-keeping qualities. In them the
turtleback forward was replaced by a lofty forecastle, and it was laid
down that the trials should be run with the boats more heavily
loaded and more closely approaching their ordinary loaded condition
on service. These changes were embodied in the " River " class,
in which a trial speed of 25! knots under the modified conditions
was provided for.
In 1902-1904 thirty-four destroyers of the " River " class were
ordered, of the following dimensions, &c. : length 220 to 230 ft.,
breadth 23^ to 24 ft., mean load draught 8 ft. 2 in. to 8 ft. 8 in.,
displacement 540 to 590 tons, I. H.P. 7000 to 7500, speed 25$ knots.
The 1904 Committee on Designs recommended two new types
of destroyers called " ocean-going " and " coastal " respectively,
and also one experimental vessel of the highest speed obtainable, all
to be fitted with Parsons turbines, and to use oil only for fuel.
The ocean-going destroyers include five of 33 knots and the special
destroyer of 35 knots named the " Swift " (fig. 1 18), built by Messfs
Laird & Co. She was the largest destroyer afloat in 1910. Fig.
119 (Plate XXVI.) gives a view of this vessel.
From 1906 to 1908 eight ocean-going destroyers of 33 knots of the
" Tribal ' class were ordered, ranging from 970 to 1045 tons displace-
ment and armed with two 4-in. guns and two i8-in. torpedo tubes.
In 1908-1909 sixteen ocean-going destroyers of the " Beagle " class
TABLE XIX. Particulars of Torpedo-boat Destroyers.
Principal Dimensions, &c.
^
I
Vessel's Name.
Country.
Where Built.
51
A
B
f
a
1 -
J5
I
Speed.
Armament, &c.
II
J
1
I
a. **
.' S
a
||
&
Ft. In.
Ft. In.
Ft. In.
Tons.
Knots.
Daring .
Great Britain
Messrs Thornycroft, London.
1893
185 o
19 o
6 6
'IS
2
4.2OO
27.0
12 pdr., 36 pdrs., 3 tubes.
Swordfish
M
Armstrong, Whitworth, Elswick.
i8s
200 o
19 O
6 6
33
2
4,500
27.6
12 pdr., 5 6 pdrs., 2 tubes.
Sokol
Russia .
Messrs Yarrow, London.
1895
190 o
18 6
7 o
240
2
4,400
29.7
12 pdr., 8 others, 2 tubes.
Corricntes
Argentina .
Messrs Yarrow, London.
1896
190 o
19 6
7 4
280
2
4,000
27.4
14 pdr., 2 tubes.
Chamois
Express
Great Britain
Messrs Palmer.
Messrs Laird Bros.
1896
1897
215 o
235 o
20 Q
22 O
7 3
9
360
465
2
2
6,200
9.250
30.0
31.0
12 pdr., 56 pdrs., 2 tubes.
12 pdr., 56 pdrs., 2 tubes.
Gipsy .
Turbmia
Messrs Fairfield.
Hon. C. A. Parsons.
1897
1897
227 6
100 O
22 O
9 o
9 o
3
38o
44)
2
3
6,300
2,100
30.0
32.75
I2j>dr., 56 pdrs., 2 tubes.
Nil. Experimental boat.
Albatross
Cobra .
Bailey .
United" States
Messrs Thornycroft, London.
Armstrong. Whitworth, Elswick.
Morris Heights.
1898
1899
1899
227 6
2IO O
205 o
ai 3
21 O
ig o
8 6
5 9
6 o
430
280
2
8
2
7,500
12,000
5,6oo
31-5
34-0
30.0
12 par., 5 6 pdrs., 2 tubes.
12 pdr., 56 pdrs., 2 Hotchkiss, 2 tubes.
6 pdrs., 2 tubes.
Lawrence
Derwcnt
Great Britain
Weymouth, Mass.
Messrs Hawthorn, Leslie.
1900
1904
242 3
220 o
22 3
23 6
6 2
8 6
400
555
2
2
8,400
7,000
30.0
25.5
14 pdrs., 5 6 pdrs., 2 tubes.
12 pdrs., 2 tubes.
Swift
lt
Messrs Cammell, Laird.
1907
345 o
34 2
12
1800
4
30,000
35.0
, 4", 2 tubes.
Tartar
tt
Messrs Thornycroft, London.
1907
270 o
26 o
9 I
870
3
14,500
33 -o
; 12 pdrs., 2 tubes.
Para
Zulu
Brazil . .
Great Britain
Messrs Yarrow, London.
Messrs Hawthorn, Leslie.
1908
1909
240 o
280 o
23 7
27 o
IO O
8 10
550
1000
2
3
8,000
15,500
27-S
33.0
4*1 4 3 pdrs., 2 tubes.
4", 2 tubes.
Beagle
((
Messrs I. Brown.
1909
269 o
26 7
8 3
860
3
12,500
27.0
4", 3 12 pdrs., 2 tubes.
8167
Smith
Mameluck
San Luis
Germany
United States
France .
Argentina
Elbing.
Philadelphia.
Nantes.
Messrs Cammell, Laird.
1909
1909
1909
1910
289 o
210 7
285 o
26 o
21 9
28 o
8"o
IO 4
9 o
607
700
405
960
3
3
2
12,000
10,000
7,750
20,000
30.0
28.35
28.0
32.0
24 pdrs., 2 machine, 3 tubes.
5 14 pdrs., 2 machine, 3 tubes.
6 Q pdrs., 3 tubes.
44^ 4 tubes.
pressure, one intermediate and one low pressure. Each screw shaft
at first carried three propellers, the total number of propellers thus
being nine; the weight of main engines was approximately 3 tons
13 cwt., and the total weight of machinery and boiler, screws and
shafting, tanks, &c., 22 tons. The boilers were of the water-tube
type, with a working pressure of 225 Ib per square inch.
The " Turbinia " was followed by the " Cobra " and " Viper "
torpedo-boat destroyers. The machinery of these boats consisted
of two sets, one on each side of the ship; each set comprised two
turbines, had two expansions, and drove two shafts (making four
shafts in all). The outer shaft on each side was driven by a
high-pressure turbine, from which the steam passed to a low-
pressure turbine on the inner shaft and thence to the condenser;
on the inner shaft also was a small turbine, added for going astern,
the Parsons steam turbine not being adapted for reversal.
Steam was supplied by water-tube boilers of the express type. These
vessels attained a speed of upwards of 34 knots, the revolutions of the
were ordered, of 27 knots speed, coal being used as the fuel instead
of oil as in the preceding classes. In 1909-1910 twenty more
ocean-going destroyers of the " Acorn " class, designed by Sir
Philip Watts, were laid down; in these oil was again adopted for
fuel and a speed of 29 knots obtained. These vessels are of 780
tons displacement, 240 ft. long, 2^J ft. beam, 7! ft. draught,
13,500 turbine H.P., and carry two 4-in., four 12-pdr. guns and two
2 1 -in. torpedo tubes. The " Acorn," " Alarm " and " Brisk " are
provided with Brown-Curtis turbines, all the others with Parsons
turbines. The navy estimates for 1910 provided for laying down
twenty-three destroyers. The three Australian destroyers of the
" Paramatta " class were designed by Professor Biles, and are of 700
tons displacement and 28 knots speed.
While the idea of the torpedo-boat destroyer originated in Great
Britain, and the first boats of the type were built for the British
navy, foreign powers were not slow in availing themselves of the
results obtained, and large numbers of torpedo-boat destroyers have
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
917
been added to the fleets of foreign navies, the boats built by Messrs
Schichau of Germany and Normand of France having especially
achieved success in the attainment of high speeds on trial. The
" Bainbridge " class (fig. 120, Plate XXV.), built for the U.S. navy
in 1901, are 245 ft. long, 23 ;ft. 7 in. wide, draw 6ft. 6 in. of
water, and have a displacement of 420 tons. Their sea-going speed
is 29 knots, and their armament consists of two l8-in. torpedo tubes,
two 3-pdr. Q.F. guns, and five 6-pdrs. The destroyers building in
1910 are of 742 tons with a speed of 29! knots.
German destroyers are numbered consecutively, the numbers
being prefixed by letters indicating the yard where built.
Thus, S for Schichau works, Elbing; G, Germania works, Kiel;
V, Vulcan works, Stettin. Numbers below 90 are appropriated for
torpedo-boats. Two destroyers only have names, viz. S. 97, which
also bears the name " Sleipner," and is fitted to serve as the emperor's
yacht; and one without a number named "Taku," late " Hai-
jing," taken from China in 1900, but built at the Schichau works in
1898. (The British navy list also contains the name of a destroyer
" Taku," built at the same works in 1898, and also taken from China
in 1900.) The German torpedo-boat flotilla is divided up into
sections, each section led by a division boat of much larger size
than the others. These division boats increased in size, from 226 tons
displacement, 1800 I.H.P. and 21 knots speed in 1887, to 374 tons,
5500 I.H.P. and 28 knots speed in 1898. Division boats are numbered
D i to D 10, and of these two bear names, D I that of " Carmen,"
armed with two 3'9-in. and four 9-pdr. guns and four torpedo tubes;
Russia was building vessels of about 1000 tons and of 35 knots
speed.
Submarine Boats. About 1880 much attention began to be
paid by several of the naval powers to the development of the
submarine boat, the United States and France in particular.
The history of the subject goes back at least 300 years,
but the first undoubted success with a submarine vessel was
achieved by David Bushnell in America in 1775. It was worked
by one man, for whom it provided just sufficient room; its
general appearance, according to Bushnell's own description,
bore some resemblance to two upper tortoise shells of equal
size joined together, the entrance to the vessel being represented
by the openings in the swellings of the shells at the animal's
head; the body of the vessel was constructed of wood. The
operations on board were entirely manual. By an oar in form
of a screw with its spindle passing through the top the boat was
sunk or raised, by another oar at the after end it was propelled;
a rudder was used for guidance, and in some cases for propulsion;
valves admitted water when submergence was required, and
FIG. 118. Torpedo-boat Destroyer " Swift."
6, Chain locker. 10, Boiler-room. 14, Ward-room.
7, Fresh-water tank. 11, Engine-room. 15, Magazine.
8, Naval store. 12, Dynamo-room. 16, Spirit-room.
9, Magazine and shell- 13, Cabin. 17, Store.
1, Fore peak.
2, Crew space.
3, Oil-fuel tank.
4, W.T. compartment.
5, Paint-room. iuu> u .
and D 2 " Alice Roosevelt." Since 1898 torpedo-boat destroyers
have been built in place of division boats. The first 46, built be-
tween 1898 and 1906, are of very similar type, the length gradually
increasing from 207 to 216 ft., the displacement from 394 to 480
tons, engine-power from 5400 to 6500 I.H.P., speed from 265 to 28
knots, while the breadth remained at 23 ft., and the draught at
7j ft. G 137, built at Kiel in 1906, is 235 ft. long, 560 tons dis-
placement, 11,000 I.H.P., and obtained 33-9 knots speed. The
nominal speed of the 48 vessels which followed is 30 knots, but several
have exceeded this speed on trial. Recent destroyers are about
620 tons displacement, 12,000 H.P., and speeds of 34 to 36 knots have
been reported. They are armed with two 24-pdr. Q.F., two machine-
guns and three torpedo tubes, while two of 950 tons and 18,000
H.P. were launched in 1910.
In 1902-1903 Japan built in her own yards three destroyers of
375 tons, 6000 I.H.P. and 29 knots, armed with two 12-pdr. and four
6-pdr. guns and two torpedo tubes. She had previously obtained a
number of boats from Messrs Thornycroft & Yarrow. The " Niji"
(fig. 121, Plate XXV.) was one of the " Ikadzuchi " class built by
Messrs Yarrow; of 340 tons displacement, 6000 I.H.P. and 31 knots
speed, armed with two 12-pdr. and four 6-pdr. guns and two torpedo
tubes, and may be taken as typical of all of the Foreign built Japanese
destroyers. Between 1904 and 1908 Japan built 35 destroyers of
375 tons, 6000 I.H.P. and 29 knots, carrying six 12-pdr. guns and 2
torpedo tubes; and in 1910 was building two ocean-going destroyers,
the " Umikaze " and " Yamakaze," 011150 tons, 20,500 H.P. and
35 knots, armed with two 4-in. and five 12-pdr. guns and three
i8-in. torpedo tubes.
The largest torpedo-boat destroyers building by France in 1910
were of 750 tons displacement, 14,000 H.P., 31 knots speed and
1 8, 4-in. Q.F. gun.
19, i8-in. torpedo tube.
20, Boat stowed.
21, Ventilator.
hand pumps discharged this water when it was desired to come
to the surface, and a detachable weight of 200 Ib was also supplied
for emergency use. The air in the boat was capable of supporting
the operator for thirty minutes; and as soon as he brought
the boat to the surface, two air pipes, for discharge of foul and
supply of fresh air, opened automatically. A compass, a pressure-
gauge, and a sounding-line and lead were among the fittings.
Behind the vessel was a large magazine containing 150 Ib of
powder, and a time-control for exploding it. From the magazine
was led a rope to a wood screw at the fore part of the crown of
the boat, and this screw, being worked from within, could be
driven into the object to be destroyed in such a manner as to
keep the magazine required for the explosion in position after
it had been detached from the boat. During the War of Inde-
pendence the boat was submerged beneath the British warship
" Eagle," and the operator attempted to attach the wood screw
to her bottom planking: in this he failed, apparently simply
because he did not let go his detachable weight and so get enough
upward pressure to' drive the screw into the plank. The magazine
was released and exploded an hour afterwards, but at some
distance from its intended position.
The problem of submarine navigation received the practical
attention of Fulton during the time that he was making his
experiments upon steam propulsion, and even at an earlier
918
SHIP
IWAR VESSELS
period. He constructed two submarine boats in France, and
one in America. One of the former, the " Nautilus," was built
with the direct encouragement of Napoleon in 1801. It was
supplied with compressed air for respiration, and with it Fulton
conducted a series of experiments under the direction of a com-
mission of naval officers. He descended to a depth of 25 ft.,
and remained under water for fully four hours, placing below
a vessel provided for the purpose a torpedo by which it was
blown into fragments. As with his steam engine, so too with his
submarine boats, the report of the commission charged with
investigation- was so unfavourable that Fulton was much
discouraged, and though he afterwards continued his labours
in this direction, the results achieved by him were practically
lost. Fulton's boat, like Bushnell's, was propelled by manual
power, two horizontal screws being employed for propulsion,
and two vertical screws for descending and ascending: it was
built of wood with iron ribs, and was sheathed with copper.
The substitution of mechanical for hand power came later, and
one of the first mechanically driven boats was the " Plongeur,"
built in France in 1863 from the designs of Charles Brun. This
boat had a length of 146 ft. and a diameter of 12 ft., and was
propelled by an So-horse-power compressed-air engine. During
the American Civil War the Confederates built a number of
iron cigar-shaped boats; some were propelled by steam engines
and some by hand. Each was armed with a torpedo containing
50 to 70 H> of powder carried at the end of a spar. These boats
were known as " Davids," from their diminutive size as com-
pared with the size of the ships attacked, and in 1864 one of the
hand-worked boats, 50 ft. long, manned by a crew of nine men,
successfully attacked the Federal ship " Housatonic," and
sank her by means of a spar torpedo, but in so doing was herself
sunk. It is claimed that the loss of the boat was due to faulty
handling and not to inherent defect. Against the protest of
her builder, she was immersed only to the hatch coaming; and
the cover being left open, she was swamped and sunk by the
wave thrown up by the explosion.
About the same time another hand-worked submarine, called
the " Intelligent Whale, " 26 ft. in length and 9 ft. in diameter,
attracted some attention in America. An officer with two
other persons dived with her in water about 16 ft. deep; the
officer, in diver's dress, left the boat through a manhole in the
bottom, placed a torpedo under a scow and blew the latter
to pieces.
In 1875 Mr. J. P. Holland produced his first plan for a sub-
marine vessel, and in 1877 he constructed a small experimental
boat, which embodied features now accepted as
1 essentials in American design. His plan ensured that
when, for the purpose of diving, water was admitted
into compartments of limited size, the total weight of the boat
and its contents should still be a little less than the total buoyancy.
Immersion was maintained by the action of horizontal rudders,
which gave a downward tendency so long as the boat had any
forward motion, and there always remained enough surplus
buoyancy to bring the boat to the surface on the stoppage of
her propelling machinery. Any weight consumed on board was
automatically compensated for by admission of water, so that
the total weight remained fixed and constant; while the con-
finement of the water to small compartments further secured a
fixed centre of gravity. The securing of these qualities of
fixed weight and fixed centre of gravity is essential, and the
want of them has been the cause of failure in many other designs.
With the necessarily slight longitudinal stability possessed by
a submarine boat, any change of centre of gravity in the fore-
and-aft direction has a no' able effect on the angle of trim;
and such a change may readily occur, for instance, from the
surging of water in a large ballast-tank not completely full.
An unintentional alteration of trim when the submarine boat
is being propelled involves several possible dangers: in extreme
cases the crew or some of the fittings may be thrown out of
position, but in any case the path of the submarine is altered,
and may tend either to too great immersion on the one hand,
or to breaking the surface of the water on the other. From the
risk of these dangers it is claimed by Mr Holland that his design
is free. The first of his boats now under discussion was steered
down and up inclines by her horizontal rudders, and motive-
power was obtained from a petroleum engine. The tests to
which she was subjected showed that inefficiency of the engine,
difficulty of vision and trouble with the compass tended to
destroy the boat's usefulness.
In 1883 Mr Nordenfeldt, famous as an inventor in many
directions, built a submarine boat at Stockholm. She had a
length of 64 ft., a main diameter of 9 ft. and a displacement of
60 tons; she was propelled by a compound surface-condensing
engine indicating 100 H.P., and on a measured-mile trial, not
being submerged, attained a speed of 9 knots. Steam was
supplied by an ordinary marine return-tube boiler, worked
under forced draught, which could be fired as long as
the boat was at the surface. Storage of steam was
effected at the surface, and the steam thus stored was boat.
used to drive the engine in the submerged condition. To
store sufficient steam two large tank reservoirs or cisterns were
connected with the boiler, and the contents of boiler and tanks
(8 tons of water in all) were raised to a temperature corresponding
to 150 Ib pressure. In preparing for submergence the firing of
the boiler was stopped, and the steam given off by the heated
water in boiler and tanks sufficed to propel the boat for a period.
The smoke was driven out through two channels, which passed
round the hull and pointed astern. The material of the hull
was mild steel, the frames being 3 in. by 3 in. by | in., and the
plating f in. to f in. in thickness; the depth to which she could
safely descend was about 50 ft. When ballasted ready for a
submerged trip, this boat showed only a very small dome for
observation above the level of the water, the reserve buoyancy
represented by this dome being but i cwt. To overcome this
reserve two propellers working on vertical shafts were fitted in
sponsons, one on each side of the boat, nearly amidships. These
propellers were driven by a 6-horse-power engine, and drew the
boat under water to the desired depth; an automatic contrivance,
set in motion by the water pressure outside the boat, closing
the throttle-valve when the safety limit of depth was approached.
On coming to rest, the reserve buoyancy brought the boat again
to the surface. When propelled by the main engines in the
submerged condition, the boat was kept horizontal by means of
two bow rudders operated by a plumb weight. The crew
consisted of three men only, this small number rendering un-
necessary the employment of artificial means of maintaining
a pure atmosphere. The scheme of attack was to approach
the hostile ship running at the surface until the danger of
discovery was imminent, then to descend to the " awash "
condition with only the dome above water, and finally to go
below the surface and advance to striking distance entirely
submerged, rising if necessary once or twice to allow the direction
to be adjusted by observations made from the dome " awash."
The weapon of offence employed was a Whitehead torpedo,
carried outside on the bow and discharged mechanically. Several
larger boats were subsequently built from Mr Nordenfeldt's
designs; they all involved the same principles, but were
in some details made more efficient both for attack and
defence.
The three main points insisted upon by Nordenfeldt were:
(i) that his method of storing energy gave him a reservoir which
was not liable to get out of order, could readily be repaired if
necessary, and required for its manipulation no knowledge
beyond that possessed by an ordinary engineer ; (2) that for
submergence he relied on mechanical means easily controlled,
adding, as a criticism upon the alternative method of descending
by steering downwards, " I need only point out the great risk
of allowing an object 100 ft. long and of great weight to proceed
in the downward direction even at a small angle, as the impetus
gained would very easily carry it beyond a safe depth so quickly
that they might not have time to check it "; (3) that the bow
rudders always secured a horizontal position when the boat was
running submerged, which position he had found to be a sine
qua non for a submarine boat.
SHIP
PLATE XXVII.
FIG. 122. Holland Submarine.
FIG. 123. Holland Submarine.
FIG. 124. Holland Submarine.
FIG. 125. Holland Submarine.
XXIV. 918.
FIG. 128. French Submersible Vendcmiaire.
(Photo, Cribb.)
PLATE XXVIII.
SHIP
FIG. 129. British Submarine C 32.
FIG. 130. British Submarine D I.
(Cribb.)
FIG. 131. British Submarine Flotilla at Portsmouth.
(Cribb.)
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
919
In response to an invitation for proposals for submarines,
made by the U.S. government in 1887, designs by Holland and
Nordenfeldt were submitted After much consideration the
proposals of the former designer were accepted, and formed
the basis of the designs for the " Plunger," the " Holland "
and the six vessels of the " Adder " class. From what has been
already stated, the criticism of Admiral Hichborn (chief con-
structor of the U.S. navy) will be understood when he char-
acterizes Holland's method as a " steering-under " or "diving "
device, and Nordenfeldt's as a " down-haul " or " sinking "
design. The great majority of modern boats are worked by
the Holland method. The " Plunger " was authorized in 1903;
she has a length of 85 ft., diameter nj ft., light displacement
154 tons and load displacement 168 tons; she is of sufficient
strength for a submergence of 75 ft., and when wholly submerged
has a margin of buoyancy of j ton. In addition to her horizontal
rudders for diving, she has two down-haul screws, fitted in
opposition to Mr Holland's recommendations; she may there-
fore be said to be a combination, for diving purposes, of both
the Holland and the Nordenfeldt designs. The " Plunger's "
main engines are used for propulsion when she is navigated at
the surface of the water. As originally designed they were
triple-expansion steam engines, driving triple screws, but have
since been altered to gasolene internal-combustion engines
driving a single screw. These engines are also used for
control in the vertical plane that she may be kept whilst moving
within a few inches of any desired depth, and that she may be
brought to the surface and submerged again in a very short
time." A good idea of the general form of the " Holland " may
be obtained from figs. 122, 123, 124 and 125 (Plate XXVII.),
the last three of which represent this vessel when undergoing
trials to test her driving qualities.
The design of the six submersibles of the " Adder " class is shown
in fig. 126. They are of the following dimensions: length 63 ft.
4 in., diameter n ft. 9 in.; displacement for surface running 104
tons; submerged displacement 120 tons. The main features of
this class are the same as for the " Plunger." The shell-plating is
j 7 , in. in thickness, and the frames 3^ in. by 3 in., with a spacing of
1 8 in. The main machinery is a four-cylinder single-acting balanced
Otto gasolene engine, which at 360 revolutions will develop 160 H.P.
and give the boat a speed of about 8 knots. For propulsion in the
submerged condition an electric motor is used, working at 800 revolu-
tions, and giving a speed of 7 knots, a single left-handed propeller
being employed. The current for the motor is provided by storage
batteries capable of supplying 70 H.P. for four hours; and these
batteries are charged by the main engine. The requisite air supply is
obtained when the vessel is at the surface, and is stored under a
pressure of 2000 ft by a pump driven by gearing off the main engine
or main motor. Air at a pressure of 50 n> is used for the expulsion
of torpedoes, and_the same agent, at various degrees of pressure,
works the trimming and ballast tanks and some parts of the
machinery; while the exhaust air from the latter subserves the
purpose of ventilation. The vessel is fitted with power and hand-
steering gear, and there are automatic devices for securing a con-
FIG. 126. Plan of the U.S. "Adder" (reproduced by permission of Admiral Hichborn). A, storage batteries; B, gas-engine;
C, dynamo and motor; D, water-tight compartments; E, main ballast tanks; F, air-flasks; G, gasolene tank; H, expulsion tube.
charging electric accumulators, from which alone motive-power
can be obtained when the boat is submerged. The current for
charging the accumulators is obtained from a dynamo of 70 H.P.,
which can always be run in the awash condition to keep the
accumulators fully charged. In the awash condition, when the
boat is otherwise air- and water-tight, communication is kept
up with the outer air by means of ducts and a smoke-pipe,
the former bringing in air for combustion and respiration,
and the latter carrying off deleterious products of all kinds.
For submergence special fittings are used to close these ducts
and pipes, and to stop the gasolene generator. The main engine
is then no longer available, and for propulsion power is drawn
from the accumulators, the dynamo thus becoming a motor
which derives current from the accumulators and itself drives
the screw-shaft. As was the case with Mr Holland's earlier
boats, great attention is given to automatic control of weights,
and water-ballast is admitted to compensate for any change,
such as would be produced by the discharge of a torpedo. With
her original machinery the " Plunger " was to have had a surface
speed of 15 knots; her anticipated speed awash or submerged
is now 8 knots. To assist in determining the boat's direction a
camera lucida is ordinarily provided, but for correcting this
Mr Holland prefers trusting to observations made during
occasional rises to the surface; for this purpose the boat is
provided with a conning tower 4 ft. high, protected with 4-in.
steel. The " Plunger " is armed with Whitehead torpedoes,
and has two tubes for discharging them. After many trials
it was at last decided to build a repeat of the " Adder " to take
her place, and this second " Plunger " was completed in 1903.
The " Holland " is a smaller boat, having a length of about
54 ft., and was purchased in 1900. The official report on this
vessel is that " she has shown herself capable of such perfect
stant depth during submergence. Five Whitehead torpedoes, 45 cm.
(about 18 in.) in diameter and 1 1 ft. 8 in. long, are provided, and there
is one expulsion tube placed forward about 2 ft. below the light
water-line.
The French submarine boat " Plongeur " has already been
mentioned. A further advance in this direction was made in France
in 1 88 1, when a small submarine was completed by M. .^ . .
Goubet at Paris. An inspection of this vessel led to an
order for the mechanism of a number of boats from this
engineer for the Russian government, and several sets were built
and delivered early in 1883. The length of a boat constructed by
M. Goubet in 1885 was 16 ft. 5 in.; it had an oval section 5 ft. 9 in.
in depth and 3 ft. 3 in. in breadth, and tapered to a point at each end.
A longitudinal section of the boat is represented by fig. 127. The
main portion of the hull was of bronze, cast in one piece, and at the
centre of its length it was rurmounted by a large dome having seven
glazed openings. There was just sufficient room for an officer and a
man seated back to back within it, their eyes in this position being
level with the glass windows of the dome. All valves and other
mechanism requiring regulation were brought within reach of these
occupants, so that no movement on their part was required which
might affect the trim; a reservoir of compressed air supplied the
means of respiration, and an air-pump removed the vitiated atmo-
sphere. The motive-power was furnished by accumulators, the
electric energy stored therein driving a screw propeller by means
of a motor. No means of recharging these accumulators when ex-
hausted was provided on board. Submersion was effected by ad-
mitting water into tanks divided by transverse bulkheads at sufficient
intervals to prevent the surging of the water in the fore and aft
direction. A pump expelled this water again when desired, and a
safety weight attached to the bottom of the boat was ready for
detachment in the presence of danger. A pressure gauge indicated
the depth of water reached, and the officer could regulate the opening
of the inlet valves or the action of the pumps to maintain or vary
this depth as desired. For controlling the boat in a horizontal direc-
tion a specially devised pendulum was employed, by means of which
a clutch was moved, and a constantly running shaft was thrown
into gear with a pump as soon as the boat departed appreciably
from the horizontal plane. The action of the pump was reversible,
920
SHIP
[WAR VESSELS
and the clutch engaged it always in such a way that it drew water
from a tank at the low end of the boat, and delivered it to a
tank at the high end. Several other devices of great ingenuity were
employed in the boat; notably a special form of universal joint
introduced into the line of shafting. At the after end, close to the
propeller, this universal joint was fitted in such a way that the
screw could be set at an angle to the line of motion, and steering
effected without the aid of a vertical rudder. A torpedo containing
100 ft of dynamite or other explosive was carried outside the hull,
and secured by a catch joint. This torpedo, on the submarine boat
being manoeuvred into position, could be thrown off and allowed to
rise and attach itself, by means of spikes, to some vulnerable part
Water line with
empty
Resenoir
FIG. 127. Section of Goubet Submarine Torpedo-boat.
of the ship doomed to destruction. Retiring then to a safe distance,
the submarine boat could explode the torpedo by the agency of an
electric current.
Working in the light of his now considerable experience, M.
Goubet built several other boats. These were of larger dimensions,
having a length of 27 ft.; their material was also bronze, and
they were cast in three pieces, the centre one having a thickness
of i in., while the others were reduced to a little more than J in.
at the ends. Possessing to a large extent the same contrivances
as their predecessor, these improved boats were fitted also with an
automatic apparatus for regulating the depth of submersion. In
this regulator a piston is moved along a cylinder by the rotation
of a rod with a screw thread cut in it, and so increases or diminishes
the amount of water in the cylinder. The movement of the piston
is effected by a small motor, and the direction of action of the motor
is regulated by a commutator placed in juxtaposition to a pressure
gauge. When the depth of submersion is too small, current is
supplied to move the piston so as to admit more water; when the
depth is too great, current is supplied in the opposite direction, and
water is expelled. The speed attained by this boat was from 5 to
6 knots. Smaller boats of this type have been built for propulsion
by manual power, but, however perfect the mechanism, the range of
action of a submarine dependent on man-cower for propulsion is
very limited. Recent Goubet boats are being built, with motive-
power, which it is proposed to carry on board ship and lower from
davits when required.
The " Gymnote " was constructed at Toulon in 1888. She is a
steel vessel, with a length of 59 ft. and a displacement of 30 tons;
being of an experimental character only, she has no weapon of
attack. The maximum speed obtainable is 8 knots. The designs
of the " Gustave Zede " and of the " Morse " were both based
on those of the " Gymnote," the former having a length of 148
ft. and a displacement of 263 tons. In both of these the hull is
of bronze; one great advantage of this metal being that, like
the bronze of the Goubet boats, it is non-magnetic in character,
and cannot therefore disturb the equilibrium of the compass.
With their large dimensions they were intended to be formidable
engines of war, and were furnished for attack with Whitehead
torpedoes; of these latter they each carry three of 45 cm.
(nearly 1 8 in.) diameter, discharging them by means of a torpedo
and is furnished with a triple-expansion steam engine, obtaining its
steam from a water-tube boiler of special form and heated by
petroleum. As in the American submarines, this engine propels
the boat when at the surface, and also drives a dynamo which
recharges accumulators, the latter giving the reserve power for use
in the submerged condition. A speed of n knots is obtained at
the surface, and 8 knots when submerged. A new departure in the
" Narval " is her double hull, the inner shell of which is of steel
plate of sufficient thickness to resist any water-pressure to which the
boat may be subjected, and the outer shell, placed at varying
distances from the inner, forms a protection to the inner against
attack. An armoured dome surmounts the boat, cutting through
the external shell and carrying a short
.... gtgjr*i and narrow telescopic funnel, which, as in
the case of the American boats, must be
withdrawn preparatory to diving. Control
in the vertical direction is obtained, when
diving, by the use of two pairs of horizontal
rudders, placed symmetrically one pair
forward, the other aft. By the above
arrangement it is claimed that the
horizontal direction of the boat is ensured,
the American course of inclining the axis
of the boat when diving being considered
open to such grave objections that it is
desirable to avoid it.
The early American boats of the " Hol-
land " type, and the French boats built
in the last decade of the igth century,
were the earliest really practical submarine
boats, in the sense that unlike the boats
which preceded them they were instru-
ments of war which could be used by
ordinary trained crews with the average
chances of success and failure which
attend all warlike operations. They owe
their practicability not to any discovery
of the method of controlling the move-
ments of a boat beneath the surface
of the water, as has teen sometimes
supposed, since the ordinary method of
steering by means of a rudder or a com-
perfectfy analogous to that used for
the horizontal plane was well known
in
bination of
rudders
manoeuvring a ship
and had been applied to steering submarines in the vertical
plane before; \but principally to the perfection of the accumu-
lator cell as a means of storing energy for propulsion without
the expenditure of air or other weight contained in the boat,
and to the introduction of the optical tube. This latter instru-
ment is a telescope with the optical axis twice bent through a right
angle by totally reflecting prisms or mirrors; and under diverse
forms and various_ names, such as periscope, cleptoscope,
hyphydroscope, omniscope, &c., it affords the only practical means
by which objects on the surface of the water can be seen at a
distance from the interior of a submerged vessel. The problem
of providing means for seeing at a distance through the water
still awaits solution, and when solved, if it ever should be,
will enormously add to the power of submarine boats as weapons
of war.
By far the greater number of submarine boats in existence in 1910
were developments through a process of continuous experiment and
improvement of the " Gymnote " and of the early Holland boats,
although the process of evolution had been so rapid and extensive
that the parentage of these modern boats is barely recognizable.
There are, however, a considerable number of submarines built by
the Lake Submarine Boat Co. of Bridgeport, U.S.A., in the service
of various naval powers. These boats are designed by Mr Simon
Lake, who was also a pioneer in submarine boat construction, con-
temporary with Mr J. P. Holland in the United States of America.
His earliest boat, the " Argonaut," was intended rather for running
along the bottom in shallow water than for ordinary navigation;
and for sending out divers rather than for discharging torpedoes.
For this purpose it was fitted with wheels for running along the
bottom and with an air-tight chamber having a hatch at the bottom
which could be opened when the air pressure in the chamber was
made equal to that of the water outside. These features are still
retained in many of the modern Lake boats, though these boats
are now constructed like all other submarines, primarily for the
purpose of submarine navigation.
Other boats which should be mentioned as laying claims to dis-
tinctive features in matters of detail are those built by the Fiat
San Giorgio Company of Spezia, designed by Colonel Laurenti,
tube. The " Morse " and the " Gustave Z6d6," like the I and those built by the Germania Werft of Kiel, which are under-
" Gymnote," possess only electric means of propulsion, the power
being derived from batteries of accumulators. No power is provided
in the vessels by which the accumulators can be recharged, so that
the radius of action of these boats is necessarily very limited.
The " Narval," designed by M. Laubeuf, and the outcome of a
general competition in 1897, has a length of 112 ft. and a total
displacement of 200 tons. She was built at Cherbourg in 1898,
stood to embody' the patents of M. d'Equevilley. The Russian
government also possesses several boats generally regarded as of a
distinctive type designed by M. Drzwiecki.
Perhaps the most outstanding distinction between different
submarine boats is the amount of their submerged displacement
which is devoted to carrying water ballast. This, of course, measures
their reserve of buoyancy in the surface condition, which in different
WAR VESSELS]
SHIP
921
examples of boats varies from as little as 5% to as much as 60%
of their surface displacement. It is obyious that, the more water
ballast carried, the less of some other weight of machinery or equip-
ment can be carried on a given submerged displacement, and the
whole problem resolves itself into making the compromise which
will best meet the requirements of the service for which the boat is
intended. This fact has sometimes been lost sight of in discussions
on this subject, which have tended sometimes to proceed on the
assumption of a radical difference in character between boats of
high reserve of buoyancy and those of low reserve, even to the
extent of giving them the different names of " submersible " and
" submarine." Another technical point in the design of submarines
which has frequently been the subject of non-technical discussion
is the desirability or otherwise of " bow-rudders " or " hydroplanes."
This question depends on the form of the boat, and the manner in
which it is proposed to handle her. and is unsuitable for discussion
except in relation to the ascertained tendencies of a particular form
under the vertical hydrodynamical forces which are set up by its
propulsion through the water.
Similar considerations apply to the questions whether a submarine
boat should have a separate means of propulsion for surface-running
distinct from that fitted for submerged propulsion, and if so, whether
it should consist of steam or internal-combustion engines. On
account of the very limited capacity of even the best modern electric
accumulator, any submarine which is intended to have a con-
siderable radius of action must necessarily have heat engines
of some description for surface propulsion and for charging bat-
teries.
As to the type of heat engine, France was the only country which
in 1910 had fitted steam engines in recently built submarines; and
the general tendency was undoubtedly to use internal-combustion
engines, of which those burning heavy oil are much less expensive in
working than those using gasolene.
The general tendency m 1910 was to increase the size of submarine
boats. Improvements in the design, apart from increase in size,
depend principally on the improvements which may be made in the
internal-combustion engines required for their surface propulsion, and
in the improvement or possible elimination of the electric accumu-
lators and motors for submerged propulsion, the weight of which
is exceedingly great for the power obtained when compared with
that which is obtained from heat engines.
It is the practice of all countries to keep secret the really important
details of their submarine boats, to an even
greater extent than those of ordinary warships.
Some particulars, however, of the newer sub-
marinesof differentcountriesare given below, prin-
cipally to illustrate the progress in size and power.
In France, in 1901, M. Romazzotti, already re-
ferred to as the designer of the " Morse " and
" Gustave Z6deV' produced two other boats, the
" Francais " and " Algerien," similar to the
" Morse." Four vessels) the" Sirene,"" Triton,"
" Silure " and " Espadon," of a modified " Narval"
type, were built from M. Laubeuf's designs in
1901 ; two others of a similar type, the "Aigrette"
and " Cigogne," but of 170 tons surface displace-
ment, were built in 1904, and two other still larger
boats, the " Circ6 " and Calypso," in 1905. These
two boats are (155 ft. long, 16 ft. beam, 10 ft. draught) of
350 tons displacement on the surface, 480 tons submerged. Two
Diesel heavy oil engines are fitted to give nf knots speed on the
surface and two electric motors for use when submerged. Four
boats of the " Gn6me " type, of 200 tons and 280 H.P. and 135 ft.
in length, designed by M. Maugas, were commenced in 1899. In
1901 twenty small submarines of the " Nai'ade " type were com-
menced to M . Romazzotti's design ; they are 76 ft. inlength and of 68
tons displacement, and have a surface speed of 8 knots and a speed
of 4-5 knots when submerged. Their motive-power is electrical both
for surface and submerged propulsion, except in the case of two
boats which are provided with benzol motors for surface work.
From 1905 to 1909, 34 boats of the " Pluvi&se " type of twin-screw
submersibles designed by M. Laubeuf were laid down; they have a
displacement on the surface of 392 tons, and have engines of
700 H.P. and a speed of 12 knots on the surface, and 440 H.P. and
a speed of 7! knots when submerged. Eighteen boats of the class
have triple-expansion engines, and each of the remainder has two
Diesel heavy oil motors for surface propulsion, while all have electric
motors for use when submerged. Some of the steam-driven boats
have traversed 730 m. in 82 hours, while the " Papin " with oil
motors ran 1200 m. from Rochefort to Oran in six days without
calling at any intermediate port. In fig. 128 (Plate XXVII.) is
shown the " Vendemiaire," one of the boats of this class. The twin-
screw submarines of the " Emeraude " class, six in number, de-
signed by M. Maugas and laid down in 1906, are of approximately
the same displacement as the " Pluvi6se " class and of about the
same speed; their motive-power consists of two Diesel heavy oil
engines on surface and electric motors when submerged. A con-
siderable advance in length and displacement was made in 1907,
when the " Mariotte," 216 ft. in length, 522 tons displacement on
the surface, and 615 tons submerged, the " Archim&de," 199 ft. in
length and 568 tons displacement on the surface and 797 tons
submerged, and the " Admiral Bourgois," 181 ft. in length and
555 tons surface displacement, were laid down. The H.P.s of these
three submersibles are 1400, 1700 and 1500 respectively at the
surface, giving a speed of 15 knots (submerged speed 10 knots).
After the completion of the last boat of the " Adder " class already
referred to, a period of about three years elapsed before the acquisi-
tion for the United States navy of any additional submarine boats.
The " Octopus," which underwent extended trials in 1907, was
designed by the Electric Boat Company, the successors of the Holland
Boat Company, and marked a great advance in all respects over the
earlier boats. She is a twin-screw boat, having two torpedo tubes
instead of one, as in the previous boats; she is of about 273 tons
displacement submerged and 255 tons on the surface, and is credited
with maximum trial speeds of 1 1 knots on the surface and 10 knots
submerged. Three other boats, the " Cuttlefish," " Tarantula " and
" Viper," generally similar to but somewhat smaller and less power-
ful than the " Octopus," were also completed during 1907 and 1908;
and the " Snapper," " Bonita," " Stingray " and " Tarpon," of the
same size as the " Octopus," in 1909. The " Salmon," a boat
similar to the " Octopus," but of 278 tons displacement on the
surface, 360 tons submerged and carrying four torpedo tubes, was
completed in IQIO, and is credited with trial speeds of 13 knots on
the surface and 9! knots submerged. In July 1910 this boat made
the ocean passage of about 700 to 800 m. from Quincy, Mass.,
to Kingston, Bermuda, in four days, and returned in about the same
time, proving herself remarkably seaworthy for so comparatively
small a boat in the rough weather encountered. Several similar
boats were in 1910 under construction.
In 1900 Great Britain ordered five submarine boats from Messrs
Vickers, Sons & Maxim, at Barrow, who, by arrangement with the
Electric Boat Company of New York, were enabled to embody in
their designs all the features of the Holland boats of the " Adder "
class, which these first British submarines resembled in size and
most other respects, the length being about 63 ft. and submerged
displacement 120 tons. Subsequent British submarines of the A,
B and C classes were designed by Messrs Vickers, Sons & Maxim
under instructions from the Admiralty. The progress in size and
power has been continuous, and the departure from the original
" Holland " type more and more marked with each successive new
design. Table XX. indicates the various steps. All the boats there
mentioned, except Ai3, which has heavy oil engines, are fitted with
TABLE XX.
Name or
Class of
Boat.
Year of
Completion.
Length.
Breadth.
Submerged
Displacement.
Horse-
Power of
Engines.
Speed on
Surface.
Al . .
A2-A4 .
As-Ai2. .
Ai3 . .
Bi-Bn. .
Ci-Ci7. .
CI9-C38 .
1903
1904-1905
1905-1906
1906-1907
1905-1907
1907-1909
1908-1910
Feet.
IOO
99
99
99
135
135
'35
11' 9'
12' 8'
12' 8'
12' S
13' 6"
13' 6'
13' 6'
Tons.
206
205
205
205
3H
3H
320
350
450
600
500
600
600
600
Knots.
&
iii
ill
I2j
I2j
I2i
gasolene engines for surface propulsion. Di, which also has heavy
oil engines, was completed in September 1909, and was the first of
a new series of boats for the design of which Sir Philip Watts was
personally responsible. She passed through her trials, and seven
similar boats were in 1910 under construction. Fig. 129 (Plate
XXVI 1 1.) gives a view of C32, while fig. 130 shows Di under weigh
on the surface, and fig. 131 a flotilla in Portsmouth Harbour.
Rttssia purchased the Lake demonstration boat " Protector " in
1904. This boat is 65 ft. long, 115 tons displacement on the surface
and 170 tons submerged. The surface speed is stated to be 9 knots
and the submerged 6 knots. A larger boat, of 135 tons displace-
ment the " Simon Lake " was also purchased, and four others of
the same size built in 1904-1905. In 1907 another small " Lake " boat
of no tons was obtained, and in 1908 and 1909 seven larger vessels,
125 ft. long, 14 ft. beam, 450 tons on surface, 500 tons submerged,
1 6 knots speed on surface with petrol engines, and 6J knots sub-
merged, with electric motors. Of the " Holland " type Russia has
obtained a considerable number; fifteen of these are from 106 to
175 tons on the surface, and one is 184 ft. Jong, 12 ft. beam. II ft.
deep and 360 tons on the surface. She has also obtained three
boats of the " Germania " type, 131 ft. long, 197 tons on the surface,
as well as a specimen of a small submarine of 1 7 tons hoisting weight
driven by electric accumulators only, giving 8 knots on the surface
and 6 knots submerged, and armed with one torpedo tube. The
large boats of the " Lake " type are driven by engines of 1200 H.P.,
and are stated to carry an armament of two 3-pdr. and two machine
guns in addition to their four torpedo tubes. Three of the Russian
submarines under construction in 1910 were sqo tons displacement
on the surface.
Germany did not build submarines until 1906, when Ui was
launched at the Germania Works, Kiel. She is 139 ft. long, n ft.
9 in. beam, 7 ft. 9 in. draught and 240 tons on the surface, being
922
SHIPBUILDING
slightly larger than the Russian boats built by the same firm. She
is fitted with twin-screws driven by petroleum motors of 450 H.P.,
giving a speed of II knots on the surface, and electric motors of
200 H.P., giving a speed of 9 knots when submerged. Three i8-in.
torpedoes are carried, one bow tube only being provided. In
1908-1909 three larger boats were built at Dantzig, and in 1909-
1910 three of 600 tons displacement at the Germania works._ The
boats were reported to have made very long sea passages without
escort.
Japan commenced building " Holland " boats in 1905. The first
five were 87 ft. in length and 125 tons displacement. Two smaller
boats of 86 tons were also built. In 1908 two boats of 320 tons were
built at Barrow, and despatched by steamer to Japan; and three
similar boats were in 1910 being built in Japan.
In 1894 Italy launched the " Delfino," a single-screw boat of 105
tons and 150 H.P. The type has not been repeated, but in 1905
a fresh start was made with three boats of the " Glauco " type,
twin-screw boats of 150 tons on the surface, 175 tons submerged,
H.P. on surface 600 to 700, speed 14 knots on surface and 8 knots
submerged. In 1908 three similar but larger boats followed, the
largest being the " Foca," 137 ft. 9 in. long, 14 ft. beam, displace-
ment 175 tons, 900 H.P. and 15 knots speed in surface condition,
225 tons displacement, 200 H.P. and 9 knots when submerged,
fitted with two l8-in. torpedo tubes. In 1910 six similar but larger
boats were laid down at Spezia.
The increased interest in naval matters in Austria is shown by the
expenditure on submarines as well as on battleships. In 1907 two
boats of the " Lake " type 100 ft. long, 250 tons submerged, were
laid down at the government dockyard at Pola ; between that date
and 1910 two boats of modified " Holland " type, 138 ft. long, 300
tons submerged and 12 knots surface speed, were built at Fiume,
and two of the " Germania " type ordered from Kiel.
The Swedish government began by building a submarine boat,
the " Hoien," which is understood to have resembled the early
" Holland " designs. In 1910 the " Hvalen," a boat similar to the
latest Italian submarines, was built for the Swedish government
by the Fiat San Giorgio Company at Spezia, and acquired some
notoriety by making the voyage from Spezia to Stockholm without
escort, including a longest run of about 700 m. from Spezia to
Cartagena.
The " Dykkeren," a submarine of the " Laurenti " type, but
entirely electrically propelled both at the surface and submerged,
was built by the Fiat San Giorgio Company at Spezia for the Danish
government in 1909. She is credited with a maximum speed of 12
knots on the surface and 8 knots submerged, but, depending entirely
on the energy stored in electric accumulators, her radius of action is
necessarily restricted.
Fleet Auxiliaries. Various types of auxiliaries are provided in
the principal navies to perform services of a supplementary, though
frequently important character. In many cases fighting vessels
of the older classes have been converted and adapted as well as is
practicable for these services, but in other cases new vessels have
been built or arrangements made with ovners of suitable merchant
ships for the adaptation and use of those ships when required by
the navies. Amongst such auxiliaries the following are found in
the British navy: Mine-laying vessels second-class cruisers of
the Apollo class modified for the purpose ; fleet-repair ships the
modified merchant-built vessels " Assistance " of 9600 tons dis-
placement and the "Cyclops" of 11,300 tons; distilling vessel
Aquarius " of 3660 tons, a modified merchant vessel, and a large
number of tank vessels such as the " Provider " of 395 tons, specially
built for distributing fresh water; depot and repair ships for
destroyers the modified cruisers " Blake, " Blenheim," " Leander "
and " St George," "and the modified merchant vessels " Hecla "
and " Tyne " ; depot ships for submarines the modified cruisers
" Bonaventure," Thames," &c., and the repair ship " Vulcan,"
as well as a new vessel the " Maidstone," of 3600 tons, laid down
at Scott's Yard, Greenock, in 1910; oil tank vessels the merchant
built vessels " Petroleum," of 9900 tons and " Kharki " of 1430
tons, and a new vessel, the " Burma " of 3870 tons, laid down at
the Greenock Dockyard Co.'s Yard in 1910. The hospital ship
" Maine " of 4540 tons was fitted up for service of the United States
in the Spanish-American War, and was presented to the British
government in 1901 by the Atlantic Transport Co.
Besides the foregoing, arrangements are made for fitting up fast
vessels such as the ' Mauretania " and " Lusitania " with a number
of 6-in. or other Q.F. guns for service as merchant cruisers in time
of war, when they would be used as ocean-going scouts, or for
the protection of trade routes. Corresponding arrangements
are made by several other countries, while in Russia and Japan
special mercantile cruisers have been built under the title of
Volunteer steamers. A full account of the Russian Volunteer Fleet
is to be found in a paper read by Mr H. Rowell at the Institute of
Naval Architects 1905, later vessels being described in Engineering,
nth March 1910, and an account of the Japanese Volunteer
vessels will be found in International Marine Engineering, June
1909.
The writer is indebted to Mr J. H. Narbeth, M.V.O., for valuable
assistance in preparing this article. (P. WA.)
SHIPBUILDING. When ships were built of wood and propelled
by sails their possible size and proportions were limited by the
nature of the structural material, while the type of structure had
been evolved by long experience and was incapable of any radical
modification. Speed depended so much on circumstances inde-
pendent of the design of the vessel, such as the state of the wind and
sea, that it was impossible to include a definite speed over a voyage
or measured distance as one of the essential requirements of a
design; and the speed actually obtainable was low even under
the most favourable conditions when judged by modern standards.
Stability depended principally on the amount of ballast carried,
and this was determined experimentally after the completion of
the vessel. Under these conditions there was no room for any
striking originality of design. One vessel followed so closely on
the lines of another, that the qualities of the new ship could be
determined for all practical purposes by the performance of an
almost identical vessel in the past. The theoretical science of
shipbuilding, the object of which is to establish quantitative
relations between the behaviour and performance of the ship
and the variations in design causing them, was generally
neglected.
With the introduction of iron, and later of steel, as a struc-
tural material for the hulls of ships, and of heat engines for
their propulsion, the possible variation of size, proportions and
propelling power of ships was enormously increased. In order to
make the fullest use of these new possibilities, and to adapt each
ship, as closely as may be, to the special purpose for which it is
intended, theoretic knowledge has become of paramount im-
portance to the designer. He has been forced to investigate
closely those branches of the abstract physical sciences that
bear specially on ships and their behaviour, and these mathe-
matical and experimental investigations constitute the study
of Theoretical Shipbuilding. It embraces the consideration of
problems and questions upon which the qualities of a ship depend
and which determine the various features of the design, having
regard to the particular services that the ship will be required to
perform; i.e. the requirements that must be fulfilled in order that
she may make her various passages economically and with safety
in all conditions of wind and sea, the best form for the hull with
regard to the resistance offered by the water and the engine power
requisite in order to attain the speed desired, the nature of
waves and their action upon the ship, and the structural
arrangements necessary in order that she may be sufficiently
strong to withstand the various stresses to which she will be
subjected. The determination of the most suitable dimensions
to fulfil certain conditions involves the consideration of a
different set of circumstances for almost every service; and here
the experience gained in vessels of similar type, together with the
known effect of modifications made to fulfil new conditions of
each particular design, can be used as a guide. The requirements
of economical working, safety, &c., determine the length,
breadth, depth and form. The length has a most important
bearing on the economy of power with which the speed is obtained ;
and on the breadth, depth and height of side, or freeboard, depend
to an important degree the stability and seaworthiness of the
vessel.
While, however, the importance to the ship designer of mathe-
matical theories based on first principles and experiment can
hardly be overrated, it should be observed that the circumstances
and conditions postulated are invariably much less complex than
those which surround actual ships. The applicability of the
theories depends on the closeness with which the assumed
circumstances are realized in practice. The ultimate guide
in the design of new ships must, therefore, still remain practical
experience. To this experience theory is a powerful assistance,
but can by no means replace it.
THEORETICAL SHIPBUILDING
Stability.
When a ship floats at rest in still water, the forces acting upon
her must be in equilibrium. These consist of the weight of the
THEORETICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
923
liqui-
llbrium.
ship acting vertically downwards through its centre of gravity
and the resultant pressure of the water on the immersed hull.
If the ship be supposed removed and the cavity thus
formed filled with water, then, since this volume of water
is in equilibrium under the same system of fluid pres-
sures, the resultant of these pressures must be equal and opposite
to the weight of the water in the cavity and will therefore act
vertically upwards through the centre of gravity of this portion of
water. Defining the weight of water displaced by the ship as the
displacement, and its centre of gravity as the centre of buoyancy,
it is seen that the fundamental conditions for the equilibrium
of a ship in still water are (a) that the weight of the ship must be
equal to the displacement, and (6) that its centres of gravity and
buoyancy must be in the same vertical line.
A floating ship is always subject to various external forces
disturbing it from its position of equilibrium, and it is necessary
to investigate the stability of such a position, i.e. to
stability determine whether the ship, after receiving a small
"nbrium. disturbance, will tend to return to its former position, in
which case its equilibrium is termed stable, or whether,
on the other hand, it will tend to move still farther from the
original position, when the equilibrium is termed unsta ble. The
intermediate case, when the ship tends to remain in its new posi-
tion, is a third state of equilibrium, which is termed neutral.
Of the modes of disturbance possible, it is evident that a bodily
movement of the ship in a horizontal direction or a rotation about
a vertical axis will not affect the conditions of equilibrium; the
equilibrium is also stable for vertical displacements of a ship. The
remaining movements, viz. rotations about a horizontal axis, can
be resolved into rotations in which the displacement is unaltered,
and vertical displacements, the effect of the latter being considered
separately. Of the various horizontal axes about which a ship
can rotate two are of particular importance, viz. (i) an axis
parallel to the longitudinal plane of symmetry, (2) an axis at right
angles to this plane, both axes being so chosen that the displace-
ment remains constant; the stability of a ship with reference to
rotations about these axes is known as the transverse stability
and the longitudinal stability respectively. In the following
account the consideration of stability is confined at first to these
two cases; the general case of rotation about any horizontal axis
whatever being dealt with later.
Let fig. i represent a transverse section of a ship, WL
being its water line when upright, and W'L' its water
line when inclined to a small angle 9 as shown.
Assuming that the displacement is unaltered, if G be the position
of the ship's centre of gravity and B, B' the positions of its centre of
buoyancy in the upright
and inclined positions
respectively, the forces
acting on the ship con-
sist of its weight W
vertically downwards
through G and the re-
sultant water pressure
equal to W acting verti-
cally upwards through
B'. These constitute a
coupleofmomentWxGZ
where Z is the foot of the
perpendicular from G on
to the vertical througn
B'; the direction of
the couple as drawn in
the figure is such as
would cause the ship
to return to its original
position, i.e. the equi-
librium is stable for the
inclination shown.
If M be the intersection of the vertical through B' with the original
vertical, the moment of the restoring couple is equal to W XGM sin 6,
and GM sin 9 is termed the righting lever.
If, by moving weights on board, G be moved to a different position
on the original vertical through B, the original position of the ship
will remain one of equilibrium, but the moment of stability at the
angle of inclination 6 will vary with GM. If G be brought to the
position G' above M the moment WXG'Z' will tend to turn the ship
away from the original position. It follows that the condition that
the original position of equilibrium shall be stable for the given in-
clination is that the centre of gravity shall be below the intersection
Transverse
stability
of the verticals through the upright and inclined centre of buoyancy ;
and the moment of stability is proportional to the distance between
these two points.
When the inclination 6 is made smaller the point M approaches a
definite position, which, in the limit when is indefinitely small, is
termed the metocentre.
In ships of ordinary form it is found that for 10 to 15 degrees of
inclination, the intersection of the verticals through the ...
centres of buoyancy B and B' remains sensibly at the c /,_l <to ""
metacentre M; and therefore within these limits the
moment of stability is approximately equal to WXGM sin 6.
Since the angle on either side of the vertical within which a ship
rolls in calm or moderate weather does not usually exceed the limit
above stated, the stability and to a great extent the behaviour of a
vessel in these circumstances are governed by the distance GM
which is known as the metocentric height. The position of G can be
calculated when the
weights and positions
of the component parts
of the ship are known.
This calculation is
made for a new ship
when the design is
sufficiently advanced
to enable these com-
ponent weights and
their positions to be de-
termined with reason- / ~~i ^" | /I'
able accuracy; in the
initial stages of the
design ah approxima-
tion to the vertical
position of G is made
by comparison with
previous vessels.
The position of the
centre of gravity of a
ship is entirely inde-
pendent of the form or
draught of water, except so far as they affect the amount and
distribution of the component weights of the ship. The position of
the metacentre, on the other hand, depends only on the geometrical
properties of the immersed part of the ship; and it is determined
as follows:
Let WL, W'L' (fig. 2) be the traces of the upright and inclined
water planes of a ship on the transverse plane; B, B' the corre-
sponding position of the centre of buoyancy ; 6 the angle of in-
clination supposed indefinitely small in the limit, and S the
intersection of WL and W'L'; join BB'.
By supposition the displacement is unchanged, and the volumes
WAL, W'AL' are equal ; on subtracting W'AL it is seen that the two
wedges WSW, LSL' are also equal. If dx represent an element of
length at right angles to the plane of the figure, y,, y it the half-
breadths one on each side at any point in the original water line, so
that WS = y,, SL = y 2 , the areas WSW', LSL' differ from iy, l .,
\yj.6 by indefinitely small amounts, neglecting which the volumes
of WSW', LSL' are equal tofty&dx and /iy 2 *9dx.
Since these are equal we have
FIG. 2.
i f
yfdx =
-
i.e. the moments of the two portions of the water plane about
their line of intersection passing through S are equal. This
line is also the axis of rotation, which therefore passes through the
centre of gravity of the water plane. For vessels of the usual shape,
having 'a middle line plane of symmetry and floating initially up-
right, for small inclinations consecutive water planes intersect on the
middle line.
Again if g,, gi are the centres of gravity of the wedges WSW ,
LSL 7 , and v the volume of either wedge, the moment of transference
of the wedges rXgigi is equal to the moment of transference of the
whole immersed volume VXBB' where V is the volume of displace-
ment.
But rXgiS = moment of wedge WSW' about S = \fyi*.9.dx, and
t)XSg, = moment of wedge LSL' about S = $Jyi l .6.dx. Adding,
J/(yi 3 +y2 3 )9.(i* = 'Xgig2 = VXBB'. But BB' = BM.9 to the same
order of accuracy, and i/(yi' +yi*) dx is the moment of inertia of the
water plane about the axis of rotation; denoting the latter by I, it
follows that BM = I/V; i.e. the height of the metacentre above the
centre of buoyancy is equal to the moment of inertia of the water
plane about the axis of rotation divided by the volume of displace-
ment. These quantities, and also the position of the centre of
buoyancy can be obtained by the approximate methods of quad-
rature usual in ship calculations, and from them the position of the
metacentre can be found.
If the ship is wholly immersed, or if the inertia of the water plane
is negligible as in a submarine when diving, BM =O, and the condi-
tion for stability is that G should be below B ; the righting lever at
any angle of inclination is then equal to BG sin B.
During the process of design the position of the centre of gravity
924
SHIPBUILDING
[THEORETICAL
is determined by the disposition of hull material and fittings,
machinery, coal and all other movable weights, the position of which
is necessarily fixed by other considerations than those of stability;
but the height of the metacentre above the centre of buoyancy
varies approximately as the cube of the breadth, and any desired
value of GM is readily obtained by a suitable modification in
the beam.
The metacentric height in various typical classes of ships at
" normal load " is as follows:
Class of Ship.
Approximate
GM in Ft.
First class battleship and cruiser .
Second and third class cruiser and scout
Torpedo boat destroyer
First class torpedo boat
Steam picket boat or launch
River gunboat (shallow draught) .
Large mail and passenger steamer
Cargo steamer . .
Sailing ship .....
Tug
3ito5
2 to 3
ii to 2^
i to ii
8 to ij
8 to 20
5 to 2
I to 2
2 tO 6
Ijt02j-
The metacentric height adopted in steamships is governed princi-
pally by the following considerations :
(a) It should be sufficiently large to provide such a position of G
as will give ample stability at considerable angles of inclination and
sufficient range.
(6) Where ample stability at large angles is obtained by other
means, the stability at small angles, which is entirely due to the
metacentric height, should be sufficient to prevent forces due to
\
Line
V
c
<
-i
V.
X
o
B
i
4
1
fc
4
. L.
s-
?(
t 1
j
6 Ml. S 07
/"**- Cond^ion
n
j
O.
MtAN
MM
m TONS
SO' 6"
49' Ti
2OTJO
beep C
ndil-.on
'
26 6"
161 JO
L W.L. HO
rna\ Co
idition
1
1
1
x
25 e"
iroio
Liqhr C
ondiMo
,
/
/
W 6"
7i 5
2 w i_
/
IB-*'
/
^
AWL
/
/
I
1
1
1
^>
'
10- fe"
X
A/
B,
s"^
fleMS
^
SL
bCAlt OT^TOMi PtMl*CM
O, oi C* Oj O c
ol ol o ol o X
II II S ?| S 8
1
FIG. 3. Metacentric Diagram of a Battleship.
wind on upper works, movement of weights athwartships, turning,
&c., causing large and uncomfortable angles of heel.
(c) It should DC sufficient to allow one or more compartments to
become opened to the sea, through accidental damage, without risk of
capsizing.
(d) It should, if possible, be sufficiently large in the normal con-
dition of the ship to permit the greatest possible freedom in the
stowage of a miscellaneous cargo without producing instability.
(e) On the other hand an excessive value causes, rapid and un-
comfortable rolling among waves.
A ship having small initial stability is said to be " crank," while
one possessed of a large or excessive amount is termed " stiff." The
former type is generally found to be steadier and easier in rolling
among waves; and for this reason when other circumstances permit,
the metacentric height is usually chosen as small as possible con-
sistent with safety and comfort.
The metacentnc height is affected by an alteration in displace-
ment or in position of the centre of gravity caused by loading
or unloading cargo, fuel and stores. In consequence the stability
has to be investigated for a variety of conditions, particularly
that in which the metacentric height is a minimum. The
change in the position of the centre of gravity can be readily
determined from an account of the weights removed, added or
shifted; and the height of the metacentre is obtained by calculat-
ing its position at a number of water lines, and drawing a curve of
heights of metacentre above keel on a base of the draught of water.
The results are conveniently embodied in the form of a metacentric
diagram; the curves of height of metacentres and vertical positions
MEAN
URAFT
TONS
PERINCH
DISPLT:
IN TONS
GM (LIGHT), 2-99.
GM(DEEP), l'-67.
.A.
26' 3"
50-4
15600
ft* '3"
49-8
13190
'B
1
l
/,
21'- 2"
11346
^\
-r"^
/
ZO'-3"
-9 2
IO8OO
/
16' 3"
4-85
8450
/
t
/
i5'-r
7780
/
A /
i
i
iB
<
I2'~3"
4-7-5
6140
/
i
^
*
FIG. 4. Metacentric Diagram of a Merchant Vessel.
of centres of buoyancy being set up from a line intersecting the
water lines at 45.
Figs. 3, 4 and 5 are the metacentric diagrams for a battleship, a
vessel sharply curved at the bilge typical of a large number of
merchant steamers, and a sailing ship of " Symondite ' (or peg top)
section ; it will be observed that in the first and second the M curve
is slightly concave upwards, and in the third sharply convex.
The buoyancy curve in all cases is nearly a straight line whose
inclination at a particular water plane to the horizontal is equal to
tan-'AA/V ; where A is the water plane area, and h the depth of the
centre of buoyancy below the surface. The position of the meta-
centre at an intermediate water line is obtained from the diagram
by drawing a horizontal line at the draught required, and squaring
MEAN
DRAFT
17 5V*
16
13' 7
TONS
PEBINCH
10 49
8 56
5 74
DISPLT:
IN TONS
1077
9O6
631
295
FIG. 5. Metacentric Diagram of a Sailing Ship of " Symondite "
section.
up from its intersection with the 45 line to meet the curve of meta-
centres.
With these curves are associated (though usually drawn separately)
two others known as the curves of Displacement and of Tons per inch
and expressed by AA and BB respectively in the above figures.
These have the mean draught of water as abscissa (vertical), and
THEORETICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
925
the displacement in tons and the number of tons required to increase
the mean draught by I in., respectively, as ordinates (horizontal).
The ordinate of the curve of displacement at any water line is clearly
proportional to the area of the curve of tons per inch up to that
water line.
The properties of the metacentric stability at small angles are
used when determining the vertical position of the centre of gravity
.... of a ship by an " inclining experiment "; this gives a
' check on the calculations for this position made in the
initial stages of the design, and enables the stability of
the completed ship in any condition to be ascertained
with great accuracy.
The experiment is made in the following manner:
Let fig. 6 represent the transverse section of a ship; let w, w be
two weights on deck at the positions P, Q, chosen as far apart trans-
versely as convenient ; and let G be the combined centre of gravity
of ship and weights.
When the weight at P
is moved across the deck
to Q', the centre of
gravity of the whole
moves from G to some
point G' so that GG' is
parallel to PQ' (assumed
horizontal) and equal to
fat'/W where h is the dis-
tance moved through by
P, and W is the total dis-
placement. The ship in
consequence heels to a
small angle 6, the new
vertical through G pass-
ing through the meta-
centre M ; also GM =
GG' cot e = hw/\V cot e,
the metacentric height
being thereby determined
and the position of G then
found from the meta-
centric diagram. In prac-
tice 9 is observed by means of plumb bobs or a short period pen-
dulum recording angles on a cylinder; ' the weight iv at P, which is
chosen so as to give a heel of from 3 to 5, is divided into several
portions moved separately to Q'. The weight at Q' is replaced at
P, the angle heeled through again observed; and the weight at Q
similarly moved to P' where P'Q=h = PQ', and the angle observed;
GM is then taken as the mean of the various evaluations.
In the case of small transverse inclinations it has been assumed
that the vertical through the upright and the inclined positions of the
, , centre of buoyancy intersect, or, which is the same thing,
.Tltf. ', that the centre of buoyancy remains in the same trans-
ciutoltoos. , . . J , J . ...,,_*.. .
verse plane when the vessel is inclined. This assumption
is not generally correct for large transverse inclinations, but is
nevertheless usually made in practice, being sufficiently accurate
for the purpose of esti-
mating the righting
moments and ranges of
stability of different
ships, calculated under
the same conventional
system; this is all
that is necessary for
practical purposes.
With this assump-
tion, there will always
be a point of inter-
section (M' in fig. 7) of
the verticals through
the upright and in-
clined centres of buoy-
ancy; and the righting
lever is, as before,
FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.
GZ=GM' sin e. In this case, however, there is no simple formula
for BM as there is for BM in the limiting case where is infini-
tesimal ; and other methods of calculation are necessary.
The development of this part of the subject was due originally to
Atwood, who in the Philosophical Transactions of 1796 and 1798
advanced reasons for differing from the metacentric method which
was published by Bouguer in his Traite du navire in 1746
Atwood's treatment of stability (which was the foundation of the
modes of calculation adopted in England until about twenty years
ago) was as follows :
Let \VL, W'L' (fig. 7) be respectively the water lines of a ship when
1 Such an instrument is described by Froude for recording the
" relative " inclination of a ship amongst waves, Transactions of
Institution of Naval Architects, 1873, p. 179. The pendulum
should have sufficient weight and the arm carrying the pen may
be about 4 ft. long. If the cylinder be fitted with a clock recording
the time the natural period of the ship will also be obtained.
upright and inclined at an angle 6, S their point of intersection;
B and B' the centres of buoyancy, gi and g 2 the centres of gravity of
the equal wedges WSW', L'SL, and hi, hi the feet of the perpendicu-
lars from gi, g 2 on the inclined water line. Draw GZ, BR parallel
to W'L', meeting the vertical through B' in Z and R.
The righting lever is GZ as before ; if V be the volume of displace-
ment, and v that of either wedge, then
also
GZ = BR-BGsin0;
whence the righting moment or
WXGZ = w| ^^- 2 -BG sin 9 \ .
This is termed Atwood's formula. Since BG, V and W are usually
known, its application to the computation of stability at various
angles and draughts involves only the determination of XAife. A
convenient method of obtaining this moment was introduced by
F. K. Barnes and published in Trans. Inst. N.A. (1861). The
steps in this method were as follows: (a) assume a series of trial
water lines at equal angular intervals radiating from S' the inter-
section of the upright water line with the middle line plane; (b)
calculate the volumes of the various immersed and emerged trial
wedges by radial integration, using the formula
where r, <t> are the polar co-ordinates of the ship's side, measured
from S' as origin, and dx an element of length; (c) estimate the
moment of transference of the same wedges parallel to the particular
trial water line by the formula
= I C 9 cos(e -<t>)d4>fr>dx,
adding together the moments for both sides of the ship; and (d) add
or subtract a parallel layer at the desired inclination to bring the result
to the correct displacement. The true water line at any angle is
obtained by dividing the difference of volume of the two wedges by
the area of the water plane (equal tofrdx, for both sides) and setting
off the quotient as a distance above or below the assumed water line
according as the emerged wedge is greater or less than the immersed
wedge. The effect of this " layer correction " on the moment of
transference is then allowed.
The righting moment and the value of GZ are thus determined
for the displacement under consideration at any required angle of
heel.
A different method of obtaining the righting moments of ships at
large angles of inclination has prevailed in France, the standard
investigation on the subject being that of M. Reech first published in
his memoir on the " Construction of Metacentric Evolutes for a Vessel
under different Condi-
tions of Lading" (1864).
The principle of his
method is dependent
on the following geo-
metrical properties :
Let B', B" (fig. 8) be
the centres of buoy-
ancy corresponding to
two water lines W'L',
W'L' inclined at angles
6, 0+dO, to the original
upright water line WL,
dB being small ; and let
gt. 2 be the centres of
gravity of the equal
wedges W'TW'.LTL".
The moment of either
wedge about the line
gigz is zero, and the
moments of W'L'A and FIG. 8.
of W'L'A about gig 2
are therefore equal; since these volumes are also equal, the per-
pendicular distances of B' and B' from gig 2 are equal, or B'B' is
parallel to gigs.
The projection on the plane of inclination of the locus of the centre
of buoyancy for varying inclinations with constant displacement is
termed the curve of buoyancy, a portion BB'B' of which is shown in
the figure. On diminishing the angle dB indefinitely so that B*
approaches B' to coincidence, the line B'B' becomes, in the limit,
the tangent to the curve BB'B", and gig 2 coincides with the water
line W'L'; hence the tangent to the curve of buoyancy is parallel
to the water line.
Again, if the normals to the curve at B', B" (which are the verticals
corresponding to these positions of the centre of buoyancy) intersect
at M', and those at B', B" (adjacent to B') at M', and so on, a curve
may be passed through M', M , . . . , commencing at M, the meta-
centre. This curve, which is the evolute of the curve of buoyancy,
is known as the metacentric curve, and its properties were first
926
SHIPBUILDING
[THEORETICAL
investigated by Bouguer in his Traite du Navire. The points
M'M", ... on the curve are now termed pro-metacenlres.
If p represent the length of the normal B'M' or the radius of
curvature of the curve of buoyancy at an angle 6, then p.d6 = ds the
length of an element of arc of the B curve. In the limit when dd is
indefinitely small, 33 = P- Using Cartesian co-ordinates with B as
origin and By, Bz, as horizontal and vertical axes,
we have
dy ds , ,
- = Cos0 = p cos 9, .... (l)
dz ds
(2)
whence
C /
p.cosS.dti; 2= L p. sin 6.49,
and the righting lever GZ=y cos \8 + (z BG) sin 0.
The radius p is (as for the upright position) equal to the moment
of inertia of the corresponding water-plane about a longitudinal
axis through its centre of gravity divided by the volume of dis-
placement; the integration may be directly performed in the
case of bodies of simple geometrical form, while a convenient
method of approximation such as Simpson's Rules is employed
with vessels of the usual ship-shaped type. As an example in the
case of a box, or a ship with upright sides in the neighbourhood of the
water-line, if BG=o and BM =A>, then p=p<> sec' 8;
whence
and
rt
= \ p cos . <W
./o
= J p sin B.dO
GZ = (po o) sin
po tan 6,
Jpo tan* 8,
tan s 8. sin 6;
which relations will also hold for a prismatic vessel of parabolic
section. It is interesting to note that in these cases if the stability
for infinitely small inclinations is neutral, i.e. if po = a, the vessel is
stable for small finite inclinations, the righting lever varying ap-
proximately as the cube of the angle of heel.
The application of the preceding formulae to actual ships is trouble-
some and laborious on account of the necessity for finding by trial
the positions of the inclined water-lines which cut off a constant
volume of displacement. To avoid this difficulty the process was
modified by Reech and Risbec in the following manner: Multiply
equations (i) and (2) by V.d0, V being the volume of displacement;
we then have
= I cos6.de,
d(Vz) -I sin e.de.
(3)
(4)
where I is the moment of inertia of the inclined water-line about a
longitudinal axis passing through its centre of gravity. These
formulae have been obtained on the supposition that the volume V
is constant while B is varying; but by regarding the above equa-
tions as representing the moments of transference horizontally and
vertically due to the wedges, it is evident that V may be allowed
to vary in any manner provided that the moment of inertia I is
taken about the longitudinal axis passing through the intersection
of consecutive water-lines. In particular the water-lines may all be
drawn through the point of intersection of the upright water-line
with the middle line, and the moments of inertia are then equal to
\}r*dx for both sides of the ship, r being the half-breadth along the
inclined water-line; the increase in volume is the difference between
the quantity Jdeflr'dx for the two sides of the ship.
If Va, Vo be the volumes of displacement at angles a and re-
spectively,
/- f" S* 1 _*-!.. -I
... (5)
and substituting in (3) and (4) and integrating,
... (6)
... (7)
On eliminating V. in (5), (6) and (7), y and z can be found.
1 his is repeated at different draughts, and thus Va, y and z are
determined at a number of draughts at the same angle, enabling
curves of y and z to be drawn at various constant angles with V for
an abscissa; from these, curves may be obtained for y and z with the
angle a as abscissa for various constant displacements; GZ beine
equal to
y cos o+(z a) sin a.
From the foregoing it is evident that the elements of transverse
stability, including the co-ordinates of the centre of buoyancy, position
of pro-metacentre, values of righting lever and righting moment,
depend on two variable quantities the displacement and the angle
of heel. The righting lever GZ is in England selected
as the most useful criterion of the stability, and, after Curv * of
being evaluated for the various conditions, is plotted sta *'"0'.
in a form of curves (a) for various constant displacements on
an abscissa of angle of inclination, (6) for a number of constant
FIG. 9. Cross Curves of Stability of a Battleship.
angles on an abscissa of displacement. These are known as curves of
stability and cross curves of stability respectively ; either of these can
be readily constructed when the other has been obtained; which
process is utilized in the method now almost universally adopted for
obtaining GZ at large angles of inclination, a full description being
given in papers by Merrifield and Amsler in Trans. I.N.A. (1880
and 1884). The procedure is as follows:
1. The substitution of calculations at constant angle for those at
constant volume. A number of water-lines at inclinations having a
constant angular interval (generally 15) are drawn passing through
the intersection S' of the load water-line with the middle line on the
body plan. Other water-lines are set off parallel to these at fixed
distances above or below the original water-line passing through S'.
2. The volumes of displacement and the moments about an axis
through S' perpendicular to the water-line are determined for each
draught and inclination by means of the Amsler-Laffon integrator,
40.0OO
50,000
30- 45"
ANGLE. OF INCLINATION
20.0OO
DEEP CONDITION SHEWN
NORMAL
FIG. io. Curves of Stability of a Battleship.
the pointer of this instrument being taken in turn round the im-
mersed part of each section.
3. On dividing the moments by the corresponding volumes, the
perpendicular distance of the centre of buoyancy from the vertical
through S' is obtained, i.e. the value of GZ, assuming G and S' to
coincide.
4. For each angle in turn " cross curves " of GZ are drawn on a
base of displacement.
THEORETICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
927
5. From the cross curves, curves of stability on a base of angle of
inclination can be constructed for any required displacement,
allowance being made for the position of G by adding to, or sub-
tracting from, each ordinate, the quantity GS' sin a according as G is
below or above S'.
A typical set of cross curves of stability for a battleship of about
18,000 tons displacement is shown in fig. 9. It will be observed that
the righting levers decrease with an increase of displacement; and
this is a general characteristic of the cross curves for ships of ordinary
45 ST>
ANGLE, or INCLINATION
DEEP CONDITION SHEWN
NORMAL
LIGHT -
FIG. II. Curves of Stability of a Merchant Vessel.
form. The additional weights that constitute the difference between
light and deep load (i.e. cargo, coal, stores and water) are generally
placed low down, and thus the position of the centre of gravity is
usually lower when loaded than when light, causing an increase of
stability which frequently more than compensates for the loss of
stability indicated by the cross curves.
The stability curves for the same vessel are reproduced in fig. 10.
It is customary in warships to draw separate curves for three con-
ditions: (a) normal load, i.e. fully equipped with bunkers about half
full, and reserve feed tanks empty; (6) deep load with all bunkers
and tanks full; (c) light with all coal, water (except in boilers),
ammunition, provisions and consumable stores removed.
The curves for a cargo or passenger ship are generally drawn for
the condition when light, when fully laden with passengers or with a
---__ p L--
ANGLE or INCLINATION
FIG. 12. Curves of Stability of a Box-shaped Vessel showing
the influence of beam and freeboard.
homogeneous cargo, and sometimes for an intermediate condition;
typical curves are given in fig. 1 1 .
Stability curves are obtained on the assumptions
1. That all openings in the upper deck, forecastle and poop (if
any) are covered in and made watertight ; and the buoyancy of any
erections above these decks is generally neglected.
2. That the side of the ship is intact up to the upper deck, all
side scuttles, ports or other openings being closed.
3. That all weights in the ship are absolutely fixed.
4. That no changes of trim occur during the inclination.
In some cases curves are drawn (a) with forecastle and poop
intact, (b) with these thrown open to the sea, the latter condition
being more commonly considered.
The slope of the stability curve for small angles, the maximum
righting lever with the angle at which it occurs, and the range or
the inclination at which the stability vanishes are of particular
interest, inasmuch as the curve depends principally on these features;
and the effect on them, particulars of variation of freeboard, breadth
and position of centre of gravity, is considered below.
The stability curve AA (fig. 12) is drawn for a box-shaped vessel
of draught 10 ft., freeboard 10 ft. and beam 30 ft. ; with C.G. in the
water-plane. The curves EE, FF, GG are drawn for the
same vessel, but with freeboard altered to 12\, -j\ and 5 ft.
respectively; it will be observed that freeboard has no
influence on the stability at small angles, but has a marked effect on
the range and maximum righting lever. An increase of freeboard is
generally accompanied by a rise in the position of the centre of
gravity ; this is not included in the curves, but would actually reduce
or INCLINATION
, FIG. 13. Curves of Stability of " Monarch " and " Captain."
the stability to some extent. The effect of freeboard on the range and
on the safety of ships is also illustrated by a comparison between the
curves of stability (fig. 13) of the armoured turret ships " Monarch "
and " Captain," the latter of which was lost at sea in 1870. These
vessels were similar in construction and dimensions except that the
freeboard of the " Monarch " was 14' o" a/id that of the Captain "
6' 6"; the smaller freeboard of the " Captain " was associated
with a slightly lower position of the centre of gravity and a greater
metacentric height. The stability curve of the " Captain " in
consequence rises rather more steeply than that of the " Monarch "
up to about 14 when the deck edge is immersed; the righting lever
then rapidly declines, and vanishes at 54$, in contrast to the
" Monarch's," where the maximum righting lever is doubled and
range augmented 1-3 times by the additional freeboard. For the
influence of the range in enabling a ship to withstand a suddenly
applied force see " Dynamical Stability.'
Again, for the box-shaped vessel previously considered, if the
breadth is modified successively from 30 ft. to 35, 25 and 20 ft., other
features remaining unaltered, the curves of stability then BM^* t
obtained are represented by BB, CC and DD in fig. 12. It is f"*
seen that alteration in beam affects principally the stability
levers at moderate angles of inclination, while at 90 inclination the
curves all intersect. Since at small angles GZ = GM.fl (in circular
rs-o
o' ~ - is' so* 45"
Angle of Inclination
FIG. 14. Curves of Stability of a Steam Yacht showing effect
of variation in height of centre of gravity.
measure) approximately, the initial slope of the curve is proportional
to GM, and the tangent to this curve at the origin can be drawn by
setting by the value of GM as an ordinate to an angle of one radian
(57-3 ) as abscissa, and joining the point to the origin. (See figs.
10 and n.) The height of the metacentre above the centre of
buoyancy will, caeteris paribus, vary with the cube of the breadth,
and an increase of beam will result in a large increase of stability at
moderate angles.
Finally the effect of an alteration in the vertical position of the
centre of gravity is illustrated by the three stability curves of a
steam yacht in fig. 14, where the centre of gravity is
successively raised I ft. In the condition corresponding
to the fourth and lowest curve, the GM is negative ( "2 ft.)
and so also are the righting levers up to 15 when the curve
crosses the axis; from 15 to about 52 the GZ is positive, but above
928
SHIPBUILDING
[THEORETICAL
that value it again becomes negative. In this case the stability is
unstable at the upright position, and the ship will roll to an angle of
15 on either side where the equilibrium is stable. This peculiarity is
not uncommon in merchant steamers at light draught. Ample
stability at large angles and good range is provided in such cases by
high freeboard; but, apart from any considerations of safety,
water ballast is used to lower the centre of gravity to a sufficient
extent to avoid excessive tenderness.
The properties of the loci of centres of buoyancy and of pro-
metacentres were fully investigated by Dupin in 1822, including also
Oeo _ the surfaces into which these curves develop when admit-
metricat t ' n S ' nc 'i nat i ons about transverse and " skew " axes. It
properties has ' )een shown that the tangent to the curve of buoyancy
at any point is parallel to the corresponding water-line;
and assuming that the ship is only free to turn in a plane perpen-
dicular to the axis of inclination, the positions of equilibrium are
found by drawing from the centre of gravity all possible normals
to the buoyancy curve, or equally, all possible tangents to its evolute,
the metacentric curve, since the condition to be satisfied is, that the
centres of gravity and buoyancy shall lie in the same vertical. Again,
FIG. 15. Metacentric, Buoyancy and Flotation Curves of " Serapis."
when the curve of statical stability crosses the axis, making an acute
positive angle as at P in fig. 14, the values of GZ on either side of
P are such as to tend to move the ship towards the position at P,
and the equilibrium at P is stable. Similarly, when the curve
crosses the axis " negatively," as at the origin and Q, the equi-
librium is unstable. Since the angle of intersection cannot be either
positive or negative twice in succession, on considering rotation in
one direction only, it follows that positions of stable and unstable
equilibrium occur alternately and the total number of positions of
equilibrium is even.
The radius of curvature of the curve of buoyancy is equal to I/V,
and is always positive. The curve, therefore, has no re-entrant parts
or cusps, is continuous and has no sudden changes in direction;
parallel tangents (or normals) can be drawn through two points only
(corresponding to inclinations separated by 180), which property is
shared by its evolute, the metacentric curve. On the other hand,
the moment of inertia I varies continuously with the inclination,
attaining maximum and minimum values alternately; and the
metacentric curve, therefore, contains a series of cusps correspond-
ing to the values of I when dl=o, which will generally occur at
positions of symmetry (e.g. at o and 180), near the angles at
which the deck edge is immersed or emerged, and at about 90"
and 270.
The curves of buoyancy and flotation and the metacentric curve
for H.M. troopship " Serapis " are shown with reference to the
section of the ship in fig. 15, and on an enlarged scale for greater
clearness in fig. I6. 1 It will be seen that the metacentric curve
contains eight cusps, Mi, Mj, . . . Ms. Assuming the ship to heel
to starboard, Mi corresponds to the upright position, Mj to the
immersion of the starboard topsides and emersion of the port bilge;
M 8 corresponds to 90 of heel, M to the complete immersion of the
deck and the emersion of the starboard bilge. M 6 corresponds to the
bottom-up position and similarly for M 6 , M 7 and M 8 . There are also
6 nodes, of which P and Q are on the middle line. By means of
those curves, the effect of a rise or fall in the position of the ship's
centre of gravity can readily be traced. The positions of equilibrium
correspond to the normals that can be drawn from G to the buoy-
ancy curve, or equally to the tangents drawn to its evolute the meta-
centric curve. For stable equilibrium G lies below M, i.e. generally
between B and M ; and for unstable equilibrium, similarly, B is
between G and M. In the ship under consideration, Gi was the actual
centre of gravity, and GiMi corresponds to the upright position of
stable equilibrium. As the vessel heels over, equilibrium (this time un-
stable) is again reached at about 90, and a third position (stable) is
obtained when the vessel is bottom up, GiM 6 being then the meta-
centric height. A fourth (unstable) position is obtained at about
270 , after which the original
position GiMi is reached, 'the
vessel having turned completely
round. For this position of Gi
therefore, there are four positions
of equilibrium, two of which are
stable and two unstable; and
this is also true for all positions
of G between MI and M 6 .
If G lies at G 4 between M 6 and
the point P, there are six positions
of equilibrium, alternately stable
and unstable. If G is below P as
at Gt, there are two positions of
equilibrium of which the upright
only is stable. A self-righting
life-boat exactly corresponds to
this condition, the vessel being
capable of resting only in the
original upright position. If G is
above Q, on the other hand, as at
G 3 , there are again only two
positions of equilibrium, the vessel
being unstable when upright. If
G is at Gj there are again six
positions of equilibrium; the up-
right position is unstable, but a
stable position is reached at a
certain angle on either side. This
phase is often realised in merchant
ships when light, as already stated
(vide fig. 14). When G is exactly
upon one of the branches of the
metacentric curve, the equilibrium
is neutral ; if it is at Mi the ship is
stable for finite inclinations, and
if at Q unstable; similarly for M s
(except that the neutral state
is then reached at 180) and
for P.
In all the above cases it will be
observed that the positions of
stable and unstable equilibrium
are equal in number and occur
alternately. There are two exceptions :
1 . When the moment of inertia of the water plane changes abruptly
so that the B curve receives a sudden change of curvature. This is
possible with bodies of peculiar geometrical forms, and two positions
of M then correspond to one position of the body; if G lies between
them, the equilibrium is stable for inclinations in one direction and
unstable for those in the opposite direction, and is then termed
" mixed."
2. When the equilibrium is neutral, this condition may be re-
garded as the coincidence of two or more positions of equilibrium
alternately stable and unstable. The ship may then be either
stable, unstable or neutral for finite inclinations; in exceptional
cases she may be stable in one direction and unstable in the other,
resembling to some extent the condition of " mixed equilibrium."
Another curve whose properties were originally investigated by
Dupin is the curve of flotation FiFjF 3 . . . (fig. i$), which is the
envelope of all the possible water-lines for the ship when inclined
transversely at constant displacement. Since, as previously shown,
consecutive water-planes intersect on a line passing through their
'The curves of buoyancy and flotation and the metacentric
curve for various forms, including that of H.M.S. " Serapis,"
were obtained by practical investigation by the writer in 1871. The
results showed that Dupin's investigations, which were apparently
purely theoretical, had not fully disclosed certain features of the
curves, such as the cusps, &c.
THEORETICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
929
centre of gravity, or, as it is termed, the centre of flotation, the curve
of flotation will be the locus of the projections of the centres of
flotation on the plane of the figure, which curve touches each water-
line.
From consideration of the slope of a ship's side around the peri-
phery % of a water-line, Dupin obtained the following expression for
p', the radius of curvature of the curve of flotation,
/V tan a. ds , . , ..
" = area of water-plane for both sldes '
where ds is an element of the perimeter, o the inclination of the shipjs
side to the vertical, and y its distance from the longitudinal axis
giving Leclert's first expression ; also, since p = y,
dl ,,<ip
which is Leclert's second expression for p'.
The value of p' at the upright can be obtained from the
metacentric diagram by the following simple construction. Let
M and B be the metacentre and the centre of buoyancy for a
water-line WL on the metacentric diagram (fig. 18) ; draw the
tangent to the B curve meeting WL at Q, and through Q draw OR
to meet MB and parallel to the tangent to the M curve at M.
Let BP = ft, and area of water-line be A. Then
, V V
also
MR = BM-(BP+PR)=p- (tan 9+tan ,
If D be the draught,
dp . dp
tan 9+tan <j>=
whence
the curve of flota-
tion being concave
upwards if R is
below M.
For moderate in-
clinations from the
upright, the buoy-
ancy of the added
layer due to a small
additional submer-
sion will act through
the centre of curva-
ture of the curve
of flotation ; this
FIG. 18.
through the centre of flotation. M. Emile Leclert, in a paper read
at the Institution of Naval Architects, 1870, proved the equivalence
of the above formula to the two following, which are known as
Leclert's Theorem :
where I and V are respectively the moment of inertia of the water-
plane and the volume of displacement, and p is the radius of the
curve of buoyancy or B'M'. Independent analytical proofs of the
formulae were given in the paper referred to; and (Trans. I.N.A.,
i894)_a number of elegant geometrical theorems in connexion with
stability, given by Sir A. G. Greenhill, include a demonstration of
Leclert s Theorem as follows (in abbreviated form) :
Let B, BI (fig. 17) be the centres of buoyancy of a ship in two
consecutive inclined positions, and F, Fi the corresponding centres
of flotation. Draw normals BM, BiM,
meeting at the pro- metacentre M, and
FC, FiC, meeting at the centre of curva-
ture C. Produce FB, FiB, to meet at O;
join OM, MC.
Then BM, CF and BiM, CFi are re-
spectively parallel, and ultimately also
BB,, FFi; hence the triangles MBB,,
CFFi are similar and
BM BB, OB
FIG. 17.
point may be regarded as that at which any
additional weight will, on being placed on a
ship, cause no difference to the values of the
^ righting moment at moderate angles of inclina-
tion. The curve of flotation, therefore, and its
evolute bear similar relations to the increase or
decrease of the stability of a ship due to altera-
tion of draught, as the curves of buoyancy and
of pro-metacentres do to the actual amount of
the stability.
| The curve of flotation resembles the curve of buoyancy in that not
more than two tangents can be drawn to it in any given direction, but
it differs in that its radius of curvature can become
infinite or change sign. It contains a number of
cusps determined by p' = -ry = O. These occur in an
ordinary ship-shape body at positions: (i) at or near
the angles at which the deck is immersed or emerged
(four in number); and (2) at or near the angles 90
and 270. There are, therefore, six cusps in the curve
of flotation of an ordinary ship; they are shown in
figs. 15 and 16 by the points F 2 , F 3 , F 4 , Fe, FT, Fs.
The following relations between the curves of buoy-
ancy and of pro-metacentres and the curve of statical
stability are of interest, and enable the former
curves to be constructed when the latter have been
obtained. If GZ', GZ* (fig. 19) are the righting levers
corresponding to inclinations 6, 8 + dS, where dO
vanishes in the limit; B', B*, the centres of buoyancy, M' the pro-
metacentre; produce GZ' to meet B"M' in U.
Then, neglecting squares of small quantities,
so that O,_M and C are collinear.
If the displacement V be now increased
by dV, changing B to B', and M to M',
then since the added displacement dV may
be supposed concentrated at F, B' will lie on OBF, and it may be
shown similarly as before that M' lies on OC. Further, considering
the transference of moments, BB'XV = BFXrfV
Draw MED parallel to BF, then
dV_BB_'_ME_M'E
~\T~ BF ~MD
. dp p' p
ZV = orp
dp
dp
FIG. 19.
d(GZ')=Z'U = M'Z'.d6,
Jff "7f\
or vertical distance of M' above G= '^ .
AlsoM'B'
hence
M'B
GZ =
a(B'Z')
~3e~'
i.e. the vertical distance (B'Z') of G over B is equal tofGZ.dS.
It follows that by differentiating the levers of statical stability and
finding the slope at each ordinate the vertical distance of M' over G is
obtained, and M' may be plotted by setting up this value from Z'
above GZ' drawn at the correct inclination ; also that by integrating
the curve of statical stability and finding its area up to any angle, the
vertical separation of G and B' is obtained, and B' may be plotted by
setting down this value increased by BG below Z'.
xxiv. 30
930
SHIPBUILDING
[THEORETICAL
The work done in inclining a ship slowly so as to maintain a
constant displacement (and avoid communicating any unnecessary
. movement or disturbance to the water) is given by the
Dynamical /-
stability. expression ( M.d6 where M is the moment resisting the
J
inclination. This may be written
WX C GZ.d6;
Jo
and it has been shown above that this is equal to the weight
multiplied by the vertical separation of the centres of gravity and
buoyancy. This is otherwise evident since the work is the sum of
that done against the forces acting on the ship, viz. the weight and
the buoyancy; these are respectively equal to WXrise of G, and
WXfall of B, giving the value W.(Z'B'-BG) as before.
The dynamical stability of a ship at any angle is denned as the work
done in inclining the ship from the upright position; and its value
is conveniently obtained by integrating the curve of statical stability
as stated above. The dynamical stability can thus be calculated at
various angles and a curve obtained, whose ordinates represent work
done in foot-tons. The curve of dynamical stability is drawn for a
battleship (normal condition) in fig. 10, and is there shown in
relation to the curve of statical stability; it will be seen that
the dynamical stability increases continuously until the righting
moment vanishes, when it becomes a maximum.
A formula for the dynamical stability of a ship at any angle was
given by Canon Moseley in a paper read before the Royal Society in
1850. Experiments on models made under his direction at Ports-
mouth Dockyard showed that the actual work in quickly inclining
to a moderate angle agreed closely with that calculated in the case
of a model of circular section; but considerable divergence was
obtained with a model of triangular section owing to the motion of
the water set up, and also, probably, to the variation in displacement
during the roll.
The existence of large righting couples at moderate angles of
heel is of greater importance in a sailing ship than in a steamship,
since in the former it determines the amount of sail that
Sailing
ships.
can be safely carried under known weather conditions and
thereby influences the speed. A sailing ship in motion
is subjected to the wind-pressures on the sails and the upper works
of the ship, and to the water-pressures on the hull. When the ship is
in steady motion, these forces are equal and opposite; and, so far
as the stability is concerned, it is sufficient to determine the trans-
verse resultant of the wind-pressure on the sails, and its moment,
the water-pressure on the hull affecting only the speed and leeway
of the ship.
The pressure on the sails depends on their form and area, their
position, and the apparent velocity of the wind, i.e. the velocity
relative to the ship. The pressure of the wind on the hull is obtain-
able similarly to that on the sails, but is usually neglected as the
heeling moment is small. Experiments have been made to determine
the wind-pressure on plates by Dines, Langley, Eiffel, Stanton
and others ; and the results of the experiments are briefly as follows
The normal pressure R in pounds on a plate of area A square feet
exposed to face normally a wind of velocity V feet per second is
given by the formula R = KAV 8 , where K is a coefficient depending
on the form and area of the plate. For a square or circular plate
of about I sq. ft. in area K is about -0014, corresponding to a pressure
of i ft per sq. ft. at about 16 knots. The coefficient increases slightly
for larger dimensions of the plate. It has also been found that a
departure from the square or circular form involving an increase
in perimeter for the same area causes an increase in the mean pressure.
An alteration from the plane to the concave, analogous to the
" bellying " of sails, is accompanied by a slight increase in the
pressure per square foot of projected area; but for any large amount
of concavity the increase is more than counterbalanced by the
decrease in the projected area.
No simple law exists connecting the normal pressure on a plate
exposed obliquely to the wind with the angle of incidence; it is
found that the results for air exhibit a close agreement with those
for water after allowing for the difference of density between the two
fluids. At small angles of incidence up to about 20, or even 40
(varying with the shape of the plate), the pressure varies directly
as the angle; beyond this limit it is slightly diminished, afterwards
increasing or decreasing to a value which is almost constant for the
remaining angles up to and including 90. The centre of pressure
for oblique impact lies between the leading edge and the centre of
gravity of the area. In a plate I ft. square, it lies o-;j ft. from the
leading edge at IO inclination and 0^4 ft. at 30 inclination, gradually
approaching the centre of the plate as the angle of inclination is
increased. A slight curving or concavity of the plate does not appear
to have much influence on the normal component of the wind-
pressure.
The wind-pressure on the sails of a ship cannot be calculated with
any degree of precision because existing information is insufficient
to take account of (a) the variety in area and shape of the sails used ;
(6) the different positions in which the sails may be placed relative to
the wind and to each other; and (c) the interference of adjacent
sails with each other. On the other hand, conclusions based on
these experiments are of value both in assisting in an intelligent
appreciation of the effects of changes in the sail areas, sail positions,
and in the form of rig, and in forming a comparison between the
various qualities of speed, stability and general behaviour of vessels
with which experience has been obtained.
The stability of a sailing vessel is usually estimated by assuming
all plain sail to be placed in a fore and aft direction and to be subject
to a normal pressure of I ft per sq. ft., corresponding to a wind of
about 1 6 knots. The resultant pressure of the wind is supposed to
act through the centre of gravity of the total sail area (termed the
centre of effort). The resultant pressure of the water on the hull,
which is equal and opposite to the wind-pressure, is assumed to pass
through the centre of gravity of the area of the immersed middle line
plane (termed the centre oj lateral resistance). If A be the vertical
distance between these points in feet, A the sail area in square feet,
and a the angle of heel, the moment causing the heel is (on these
assumptions)
Ah .
- 24 -toot-tons
and the righting moment is approximately
WXGM sin a.
Hence
Ah
= 2240.W X GM'
The reciprocal of this quantity or
2240. WXGM
Ah
is a measure of the capability of the ship to stand up under her canvas
and is termed the power to carry sail. Its value varies with different
sizes and classes of ships and boats. It is relatively small in small
boats and small yachts owing to the practicability of reducing the
angle of heel by movable ballast ; and a low value is also permissible
in large yachts on account of their great range of stability. In boats
and yachts it varies from 3 to 4 and in full-rigged sailing ships from
15 to 20.
The stability of sailing vessels at large angles of inclination varies
considerably with the class of vessel. In racing yachts and other
completely decked sailing boats whose ratios of beam to depth and
draught are comparatively small, initial stability is obtained by
lowering the centre of gravity with ballast fitted on the keel, and the
range then extends to considerably over 90; on the other hand, a
number of half-decked or open sailing boats immerse their gunwales
when inclined to a moderate angle. With reference to this, Mr Dixon
Kemp in his Yacht Architecture remarks that the deck edge should
not be immersed at an angle of heel less than 20; some small
centre-board boats whose gunwales are awash at 12 or 15 cause
anxiety. With full-rigged sailing ships this angle is commonly 20
to 25.
The effect of a sudden gust of wind on a sailing ship is obtained
by equating the work done on the ship by the gust to her dynamical
stability; and the angle at which this equality holds will be the
extreme angle of heel, assuming the ship to be originally upright and
at rest. Since the dynamical stability is represented by the area of
the statical stability curve it is convenient to represent this angle
in relation to this latter curve. The effects of the resistance and
inertia of the water and any change of displacement are neglected ;
the wind-pressure is assumed constant during the roll, in accordance
with the results of experiments on oblique plates (the maximum
angle of roll being supposed less than 50 ) ; the modification of the
pressure due to the motion of the sail is also neglected.
Let OPQ (fig. 20) be the curve of statical stability, the ordinates
representing righting moments, and let the heeling couple due to the
gust be represented by OS. If N be the extreme angle of heel, draw
SPUR parallel to the base, cutting the curve at P, R; and PM, NQ
perpendicular. The work done by the wind is the area OSUN and is
equal to the dynamical stability of the ship or the area OPQN.
Hence the areas OPS, PQU are equal,
and the extreme angle of heel is deter-
mined by this equality. If P and Q
lie on the initial and; approximately
straight portion of the curve, the ex-
treme angle of heel ON is about twice
that of the steady angle OM corre-
sponding to the strength of the gust.
The area QUR represents the reserve
dynamical stability when the wind is
blowing with strength corresponding
the ordinates below SPUR doing
FIG. 2O.
to OS; the intercepts of
work against the force of
the wind, leaving the segments above SPR available for absorb-
ing the kinetic energy possessed by the vessel at the position of
steady heel PM. As the strength of the gust is increased the points
P and Q travel farther along the curve until P', Q' are reached, such
that the areas P'Q'Q, OTP' are equal ; the vessel will then come
momentarily to rest at Q' and will be in unstable equilibrium, any
increase in the wind-pressure causing her to capsize. It follows that
a ship sailing in a wind of sufficient strength to cause a moderate
angle of heel equal to OM' will be on the point of capsizing if the
wind should happen to drop and afterwards return suddenly with its
THEORETICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
93 1
former force. A more dangerous, though improbable, case in which
a gust of wind strikes the ship just as she has completed a roll to
windward can similarly be investigated; it is found that the safe
angle of steady heel under this condition is considerably less than that
represented by OM'. It thus appears that it is of the greatest im-
portance that sailing vessels should possess large dynamical stability
in order to provide against the risk of capsizing due to fluctuations
in the wind-pressure. Although the neglect of the wind and water
resistances in the above investigation materially modifies the
quantitative results, the general conclusions point to the necessity
for sufficient range and freeboard however large the righting levers
may be at small inclinations.
The centres of effort and of lateral resistance have not the same
longitudinal position, consequently a horizontal couple is produced
which turns the vessel either into the wind or away from it. In the
former condition the vessel is said to be " ardent," and in the latter
to be " slack." In order that a vessel may be quick in going about
and yet not require too large a helm angle on a straight course, she
should be slightly " ardent," i.e. the true centre of effort should be
slightly abaft the true centre of lateral resistance. The assumed and
true positions of these centres differ to some extent, and on making
allowance for this it is found that in the majority of vessels possessing
slight ardency the assumed C.E. lies slightly before instead of abaft
the assumed C.L.R. In small sailing boats the points are usually
very near together; but in a large number of sailing ships, including
H.M. sloops, their distance apart is about -05 L, and in yachts about
02 L, where L is the length.
It may be noted in this connexion that the area of sail spread and
^
the size of the ship are often connected by the coefficient VTTJ known
as the Driving Power. The value for small sailing boats and for
yachts is about 200, and for full-rigged sailing ships from 80 to 100
(including plain sail only).
The method of estimating the righting moment of a ship when
. inclined from a position of equilibrium through a small
angle in the longitudinal plane is exactly analogous to that
used in the case of small transverse inclination, and
similar propositions are true in both cases, viz. :
1. Consecutive water-lines intersect about an axis passing -through
the centre of flotation.
2. The height of the longitudinal metacentre M above the centre
of buoyancy is equal to the moment of inertia about this axis divided
by the volume of displacement of the ship.
3. The righting moment at any small angle of inclination (circular
measure) is equal to
W.GM.S.
In fig. 21 let WL be the water-line corresponding to the positions
G and B, and conceive a longitudinal movement of a portion of
tudin.il
stability.
FlG. 21.
the weights in the ship causing G to move horizontally to G'.
If G' be abaft G the ship will alter trim by the stern until B
moves to B' vertically beneath G' and the water-line changes
to W'L', intersecting WL at the centre of flotation F.
If L be the length of the ship between the draught marks, the
change of trim (WW'+LL') is equal to L.0, and the moment changing
trim is W.GG' or W.GM.0; the change of trim in inches (other
linear dimensions being in feet) is therefore
WXGM
WXGG'n-
The change of trim due to any horizontal movement of weights is
therefore equal to the moment of the shift of weight divided by the
quantity
WXGM
I2XL
which is the moment required to change trim one inch. Since the longi-
tudinal moment of inertia of the water-plane includes the cube of the
length as a factor, the longitudinal BM is usually large compared
with BG, and the moment to change trim I in. in foot-tons is nearly
equal to
WXBM^ WXI I
I2XL I2XLXV 420L'
which is approximately constant for moderate variations of draught.
If a weight of moderate amount w tons be placed at a distance of o
feet abaft the centre of flotation F, the bodily sinkage in inches is
n, the moment changing trim by the stern is wa foot-tons, and the
change of trim is therefore -^ where T is the " tons per inch " and
M the moment to change trim I in. If b be the distance of F abaft the
middle of length, the draughts forward and aft are increased respec-
and
2L
inches.
when
damaged.
A ship provided with water-tight compartments is liable to have
water admitted into any of them on account of damage
received, or may require to carry water or other fluid in '
bulk as ballast or cargo. The effect of this addition on the
draught and the stability is therefore of interest. There
are three cases :
1. When the water completely fills a compartment;
2. When the water partially fills a compartment up to the level of
the water-line, remaining in free communication with the sea ; and
3. When a compartment is partially filled with water without any
communication with the sea.
In the first case the water is regarded as a weight added to the ship ;
the mean sinkage is obtained from the displacement curve, the
change of trim from the " moment to change trim," and the angle of
heel from the metacentric diagram, or (for large angles) the cross
curves. In general, if the compartment filled is low in the ship, the
stability is increased ; if high, it is diminished.
In the second case, assume in the first place the compartment to be
amidships, so that no heel or change of trim occurs, and to be
moderate in size, so that the sinkage is moderate in amount.
Let ABCD (fig. 22) be such a compartment bounded by water-
tight bulkheads sufficiently high to prevent water reaching adjoining
W
B
FIG. 22.
compartments. Let the water-lines be WEFL, W'GHL', before and
after bilging; let A, a be the area of the whole water-plane WEFL
and of the portion EF within the compartment respectively, in square
feet; and let be the volume contained in EBCF diminished by the
volume of any solid cargo in the compartment. The buoyancy is
reduced by an amount v by bilging, and the amount added through
sinking must be equal to the amount so lost. If x be the sinkage in
feet, then
v=x(A a),
so that the mean sinkage is equal to the buoyancy lost divided by
the area of the intact water-plane. In the event of the com-
partment being so situated as to cause heel and change of trim,
the mean sinkage is first determined as above, and the effect of
heel and change of trim superposed.
To obtain the heel produced, the position of the centre of flotation
for the intact portion of the water-plane is found, and thence the
vertical and horizontal positions of the new centre of buoyancy are
deduced by taking account of the buoyancy lost through bilging, and
then regained by the layer between the two water-planes. The
moment of inertia of the intact water-plane is found about an axis
through the new centre of flotation and thence the height of the new
metacentre M' determined. The heel 8 (assumed small) is found by
equating the horizontal shift of B to sin 0X the vertical distance of
M' above G, both being equal to the moment causing heel divided
by the displacement. In a similar manner the change of trim is
obtained. If the compartment bilged is large so that considerable
changes in its area and that of the ship at the water-line result,
the sinkage and alteration in stability are found by a tentative
process, closer approximations to the final water-line being succes-
sively made.
An investigation of the stability when bilged at or near the water*
line is of special importance in warships owing to their liability to
damage by gunfire m action, with the consequent opening up of a
large number of compartments to the sea. Calculations are made of
the sinkage and stability when the unarmoured or lightly armoured
parts of the ship are completely riddled; the stability should be
sufficient to provide for this contingency.
The third case, where the ship is intact but has compartments
partially filled with water or other liquid, is of frequent occurrence.
Practical illustrations occur in connexion with the filling and
932
SHIPBUILDING
[THEORETICAL
emptying of water-ballast and oil-fuel tanks, and particularly in the
case of ships fitted to carry large quantities of oil in bulk.
Let fig. 23 represent the section of a vessel fitted with a tank
PQRS partly full of water. Let WL, wl be the upright water-lines
of the vessel and tank, G the centre of gravity of the vessel and
water combined, B the centre of buoyancy of the vessel, and b the
centre of gravity of the water.
As the ship is inclined successively through angles 81, 8t, . .
the centre of buoyancy B moves along the curve of buoyancy to BI,
B tl ... the normals at which are tangential to the metacentnc curve
MI M,, . . . those at small angles passing through themetacentre M. If
the water in the tank could be kept from moving as the inclination
proceeded, G would be fixed in the ship, and the righting levers would
be GZi, GZj, ... those at small angles being equal to GM sin 8.
Actually, if the inclination be slowly performed, the water-level in
the tank changes successively to viJi, iejt,. .. maintaining a level
surface at all times; its centre of gravity moves to bi,bi,... thereby
causing a corresponding alteration in the combined centre of gravity
G. Drawing br,, bri, ... perpendicular to the verticals through
fci, 6, . ; . and calling w, W the weights of the water and of the water
and ship combined, then at the angle 02 the line of action of the
weight of the water w has moved through a distance br? and the
righting moment of the ship is diminished by an amount wXbri.
It is evident that the movement of the centre of gravity of the water
in_the tank is the same as would be the movement of the C.B. of a
ship having the same form as the tank and water-lines correspond-
ing to wl, wilt, wJt, &c. The values of the levers bri, bri. . .can
therefore be obtained by a process similar to that used for
obtaining the righting levers of the ship ; cross curves and thence
ordinary stability curves being drawn for various heights of water
and inclinations. If 8, be a small angle of inclination, the line of
action of the weight bim will be such as to pass through the meta-
centre m corresponding to the water-line wl, and determined by the
formula bm = where i is the moment of inertia of the water-plane wl
about a longitudinal axis through its centre of gravity and v the
volume of water contained. The moving weight w at b may there-
fore be replaced by an equal weight fixed at m, which is the virtual
centre of gravity of the water ; and the centre of gravity G of ship
and water is likewise raised to a virtual position G' where
If the tank contain a fluid of specific gravity p the virtual rise of the
centre of gravity is y. The loss of stability at small angles due to
the mobility of the water is thus independent of the quantity in the
tank, but is proportional to the moment of inertia of its free surface.
It is possible for a small quantity of water with an extensive free
surface to render a ship unstable in the upright condition; the angle
to which this large loss of stability extends depends, however, on
the quantity of water in the tank, for the extent of the sideways
movement of the centre of gravity G of ship and water is minute if
the tank be either nearly empty or nearly full, and the loss of stability
at all angles above a small amount will then be inappreciable; the
loss at moderate angles is usually a maximum when the tanks are
about half full.
The assumption made above, viz. that the ship is inclined so
gradually as to maintain a level water surface in the tank, is by no
means in accordance with the actual circumstances during rolling;
waves are then set up in the water, causing it to wash from side to
side, so that the loss of stability may be either more or less than the
amount calculated. To avoid danger of capsizing in still water,
large tanks in a ship are filled or emptied in succession as far as
possible, so that not more than one or two are partly full at the same
time. Water-tight longitudinal partitions are also fitted in wide
tanks in order to reduce the moment of inertia of the free surface.
On the other hand tanks, partly filled with water, have been fitted
and found effective in certain ships in order to reduce the rolling
oscillations among waves. (See Rolling.)
Hitherto the stability of a ship has been considered only with
reference to inclinations about either a longitudinal or transverse
axis. These are the only cases which it is necessary to
deal with in practice for the purpose of ascertaining the
probable qualities as regards stability of a vessel by j, l
comparing the elements of its stability m the design stage alrectloa -
with those of existing ships whose qualities have been tested by
experience. For the exact theoretical consideration of the stability
of a ship or any floating body, however, it is necessary to take
account of the true line of the action of the buoyancy and not merely
of its projection on the plane of inclination. The development of this
part of the subject has largely been due to M. Dupin in his Memoire
de la stabilite des corps flottants and to M. Guyou in his Theorie du
navire. If a ship is inclined in all possible positions, keeping the
displacement constant, the locus of the centre of buoyancy is a
closed surface which is known as the surface of buoyancy ; the curve
of buoyancy for two-dimensional inclinations being the projection
on the plane of rotation of the corresponding points on the surface of
buoyancy. Similarly the envelope of all the water-planes is defined
as the surface of flotation. The stability of a ship in all positions is
known when (a) the forms and dimensions of the surface of buoyancy,
and (b) the position of the centre of gravity relative to it, have been
obtained; the former depends entirely on the geometrical form
of the ship and on the constant volume of displacement assumed,
and the latter has reference only to the arrangement and magni-
tude of the component weights of the structure and lading. For an
infinitesimal inclination the line joining the centres of buoyancy when
upright and inclined is parallel to the water-plane, and the tangent
plane to the surface of buoyancy is therefore parallel to the water-
plane, i.e. it is horizontal, and the normal to the surface is vertical.
If the initial position is one of equilibrium, the centre of gravity must
lie on the normal. To determine the effect of a small disturbance
from the position of equilibrium, it is necessary, as in the particular
inclinations already considered, to find the line of action of the
buoyancy for adjacent positions, i.e. to trace the normals to the sur-
face of buoyancy. Consecutive normals to this surface will not, in
general, intersect; but, from the properties of curvature of surfaces,
there are two particular directions of inclination for which adjacent
normals to the surface will
intersect the original nor- '
mal, these directions being
perpendicular to one
another and parallel to the
principal axes of the indi-
catrix of the surface of buoy-
ancy.
It fig. 24 be a plan of the
water-plane, Ox 1 the axis of
inclination passing through
FIG. 24.
the centre of flotation, Oy' and Oz perpendicular axes in and at
right angles to the plane of flotation, then, from a consideration of
the wedges of immersion and emersion for a small inclination 0, the
travel of the centre of buoyancy B becomes :
9 f C *
yj J y .dx'.dy' (or BB, in fig. 24) parallel to Oy
and
f fx'y.dx'.dy 1 (or-B^s) parallel to Ox'
<**'<*/ (or B,B') parallel to Oz.
These may be written :
ft
y P; andjylx' respectively
where I,' is the moment of inertia of the water-plane about Ox', and
P the product of inertia about Ox', Oy'. If the principal axes of
inertia of the water-plane Ox, Oy make an angle <t> with Ox', Oy',
and if, from B as origin, axes Bx, By, Bz.are drawn parallel to Ox, Oy,
Oz, then the co-ordinates of B' are as follows:
x= BiB z cos <t>
y=
i cos <t> B]B 2 sin
cos <t> I/ sin <t>);
sin <t>);
Also
I*' =
P =(!- I,)
sin 2 <t>;
sin <f cos <t>;
THEORETICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
933
where I*, I, are the principal moments of inertia of the water-plane.
Hence
y= -
Eliminating and <t>, the locus of the centre of buoyancy for small
inclinations of the ship becomes the elliptic paraboloid
The equation to the indicatrix referred to axes parallel to Ex, By is
therefore
i7v+i;7v =constant:
unaltered. The resultant couple can be readily found, but in this
case it bears no simple relation to the indicatrix, as before ; it may be
shown, however, that the plane of the couple is conjugate to the axis
of inclination with respect to the confocal ellipse
= constant.
' In the case when GM =O, the ship being in neutral equilibrium for
that direction of inclination, the resultant couple is parallel to the
axis Ox', i.e. perpendicular to the plane of the indicatrix.
Numerical values of the metacentric height GM, the angle of
obliquity a or QOM (equal to tan" 1 . > _ a \r) and the angle ^ are given
in the following table for a ship whose transverse GM is 4 ft., longi-
tudinal GM 400 ft., and BG 10 ft.:
<t>
o
i
5
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
GM
4'
4-1
7'
16
50-4'
103'
1 68'
237
300
354
3 88
400'
a
60
78-5
76-8
68-5
59
49-3
39-5
29-7
19-8
9-9
*
90
29-0
6-5
3-2
i-5
1-0
o-7
o-5
o-3
0-2
0-1
o
and the indicatrix is therefore similar and similarly situated to the
momental ellipse of the water-plane, and the surface of buoyancy is
everywhere synclastic and concave to all points within it. The
quantities I V /V and I/V are evidently equal to BM ? and BM,, (refer-
ring to inclinations about Oy and One respectively); and the
indicatrix and momental ellipse become
The angle ^ that BB 2 (the projection of BB' on the plane of the
indicatrix) makes with xO is given by
y I*
tan $= *-=T- cot <t>'<
X ly
hence the direction is conjugate to that of the axis of rotation with
respect to the indicatrix.
, This is illustrated in fig. 25, where
* the ellipse shown is the indicatrix; OPx'
the axis of inclination, OQ the con-
jugate radius, and ORMy' the per-
pendicular on the tangent. Draw QN
parallel to OM to meet OP. The tri-
angle OMQ is similar to BBiB 2 ; and
they can be made equal by giving a
suitable value to the constant in the
indicatrix equation. In that case
QN is the projection on the plane of
the figure of the normal to the surface at B 1 , and the shortest
distance between the normals at B and B 1 is equal to ON=MQ =
Pfl
BiBj = TT, since ON or the axis of inclination is perpendicular to
them both. Also, the length B'M of the normal at B' intercepted
between B* and the foot of the common perpendicular is equal to
=4- since is the angle between the normals at B and B'; it follows
tf
FIG. 25.
that
B'M'
BB,
--
an expression analogous to that obtained before for the case of small
inclinations in the direction of the principal axes of the water-
plane. It is worthy of note that the radius of curvature p of the
normal section of the surface of buoyancy through Oy' is, in general,
OM 2
less than BM; the latter being equal to --, and p being equal
OR 2
to T ; p is also obtainable by Euler's equation
22
becoming equal to BM for inclinations about the principal axes.
Similarly the radius of curvature of the normal section through Q is,
in general, greater than BM.
If the centre of gravity G of the ship is coincident with B, the arm
j /
of the righting couple is OM or -y--9; and there is also a couple of
p
lever ON or y-0 in a perpendicular vertical plane. The resultant
couple lies in a plane containing OQ, having a lever equal to
OQ or y-.Jlz' 2 +P 2 or y JlS cos 2 0+V sin >.
In the general case when G is situated at a distance a above B, the
/I*' \
righting lever becomes (y~~ a )"> and the perpendicular couple is
The greatest angle of obliquity (a) occurs in this case when </> is
about 5i and the plane of the couple is nearly coincident with
the middle line plane for all angles of <t> greater than about 30. It
follows that if a weight is moved obliquely across the ship the
axis of rotation is approximately longitudinal, except when the
line of movement is nearly fore and aft; and in the latter case a
small deviation from a fore and aft direction produces a large change
in the position of the axis of rotation.
The direction of the axis of rotation is above expressed with
reference to the position of the inclining couple in relation to the
indicatrix of the surface of buoyancy; as, however, the couple is
assumed small, the direction of the axis and the amount of inclina-
tion may equally be obtained by resolving the couple in planes
perpendicular to the principal axes and superposing the separate
inclinations produced by its components.
It has been shown above that the positions of equilibrium are found
by drawing all possible normals to the surface of the buoyancy, and
the condition for stability for an inclination in any direction is that
the centre of gravity shall lie below the corresponding metacentre.
The height of the metacentre varies with the moment of inertia of the
water-plane about the axis of inclination, and the maximum and
minimum heights are associated with the maximum and minimum
moments of inertia, which again correspond to inclinations about the
least and greatest axes of inertia respectively. If the centre of
gravity lies below the lowest position of the metacentre (the
transverse metacentre in the case of a ship when upright) the
equilibrium is stable for all inclinations, and the condition is referred
to as one of absolute stability; if it lies above the highest meta-
centre, the condition is one of absolute instability; if it lies between
the highest and lowest metacentres, the condition is one of relative
stability, the ship being stable for inclinations about a certain set of
axes, and unstable otherwise.
The foregoing remarks apply to a vessel whose axis of inclination
is fixed so that the component couple perpendicular to the plane of
inclination is resisted. If, on the other hand, the vessel is free to
move in all directions the resultant couple does not in general tend
to restore the original position of equilibrium, although the com-
ponent in the plane of inclination complies with the conditions above
stated for absolute stability. If m\ and fK 2 be the greatest and least
values of GM, the ratio of the component couples perpendicular to
and in the plane of inclination, or tan a (fig. 25), is greatest when
tan <t> = \l-d; and then tan a = r4 -. If ntt/nti be small, this
\rn ^^t m\m^
ratio is large, being equal to 4-95 in the numerical example above. In
such cases the extent of the movement that can result from a small
initial disturbance cannot be readily determined by a statical method,
but the investigation of the work done in moving the vessel from
one position to another appears to meet this difficulty.
This process is employed by M. Guyon in his Theorie du navire,
the stability of a ship in any condition being treated throughout from
the dynamical standpoint. He proved that :
1. For changes of displacement, without change in inclination, the
potential energy of a system consisting of a floating body and the
water surrounding is a minimum when the weight of the body is
equal to its displacement.
2. For changes of direction, without change of displacement, the
potential energy of the system is equal to the weight of the body,
multiplied by the vertical resolute of BG; when this distance is
a minimum or a maximum the stability is respectively stable
or unstable. A statical proof of this has been given in the two-
dimensional case.
The potential energy is thus equal to the dynamical stability
934
SHIPBUILDING
[ROLLING OF SHIPS
increased by an arbitrary constant. If from any point Bi' of the
surface of buoyancy (fig. 26) a tangent plane be drawn, the perpen-
dicular upon it, GN, is proportional to
the potential energy, and the stability
of the body is thus the same as that of
the surface of buoyancy regarded as
a solid capable of rolling on a hori-
zontal plane. The locus of the foot
of the perpendicular N is called the
" podaire (shown dotted in the
figure); this surface resembles the
surface of buoyancy in its general
shape, and touches it when GB is
normal, i.e. at positions of equi-
librium Bi, B 2 , B 3 , B 4 , ; it has the
property that a radius GN drawn
when the body is in the position
has a length proportional to the
FIG. 26.
from G is always vertical
corresponding to N, and
potential energy.
If the ship or body be supposed to move under no external forces,
and the effect of any change in the displacement be neglected, the
kinetic energy of the system can be expressed by SjnV 2 g> an d the
total energy by (WXGN)-f Jg. 'Zmif; the latter is constant when
there are no resistances, and steadily decreases if resistances are in
operation. Neglecting resistance, when the body is momentarily at
rest, WXGN becomes W./, where I is a linear quantity ; and through-
out the motion GN is less than / by rjrZmti 1 . The effect of re-
sistance is gradually to decrease / or the maximum value of GN ; and it
may be exhibited graphically by the following conception. Imagine a
sphere of water, with centre at G, to be originally entirely within the
podaire and then to be capable of expanding until the whole surface is
submerged. It will first touch the podaire at the minimum normal,
and will then form a small lake round it; similar lakes will form
later at all other positions of absolute stability. Positions of absolute
instability will be touched externally by the sphere, and if the water
recede a little, will form small islands. At positions of relative
stability the water will in general divide the surface into two
parts meeting at an angle (fig. 27), and become one or the other of
the branches XX', YY' according as
the size of the sphere is slightly in-
creased or diminished. Let the
radius GN to the podaire along the
edge of the water be represented by
/; from the energy equation the
radius for any other position of the
body moving without external forces
is less than /, and the position lies within the lake so bounded.
The diminution of / due to resistances has the effect of gradually
drying the lake. If the body is originally placed near a position of
absolute stability, the small lake on drying will leave the body in or
very near that position. On the other hand, if the body is placed at
rest near a position of absolute instability, the water in drying will
necessarily cause the body to move farther and farther from that
position. Finally, if moving near a position of relative stability, the
body will move freely from side to side until the drying has proceeded
so far that separate branches XX' or YY' are obtained ; when this
occurs, the body will be fenced, as it were, on one side or the other,
and will oscillate until a position of absolute stability is finally
attained.
With regard to the surface of flotation it has been shown that in
order that the displacement shall remain constant, consecutive water-
lines must intersect on a line passing through the centre of gravity of
the waterline or the centre of flotation. If the inclination take place
from a given position in all possible directions, the lines of intersection
with the original water-plane will all meet at the centre of flotation,
which must, therefore, he in the envelope of the water-planes, or the
surface of flotation. The surface is therefore the locus of the centre
of flotation for all possible inclinations. Since the curvature of the
curve of flotation, which is the projection of the centre of flotation
for inclinations about an axis perpendicular to the plane of projection,
may change sign, the surface can also undergo similar changes in
curvature and may be synclastic in certain parts and anti-clastic or
saddle-shaped in others.
The relation between the surface of flotation and the stability of the
ship is similar to that established in the two dimensional cases, i.e.
the projection on the plane of inclination of the curve corresponding
to the inclination has a centre of curvature whose height is a measure
of the increase or decrease of stability caused by an alteration
in displacement; the investigation, however, of the general case
and the extension of Leclert's theorem to oblique inclinations
contain no features of special interest or importance.
Rolling of Ships.
The action of the waves upon a ship at sea is such as to produce
rolling or angular oscillations about a horizontal longitudinal
axis, pitching or angular oscillations about a horizontal transverse
axis, and heaving or translational oscillations in a vertical
direction; also horizontal translations and rotations about a
vertical axis which are not generally of an oscillatory character
and will not materially affect the rolling. It is
convenient when considering rolling to neglect the t/ "" !S ' s ' e< *
influence of the other accompanying oscillations,
whose effect in most cases is slight in magnitude although
complex in character.
The ship is in the first place conceived to be rolling in still water
without any resistances operating to diminish the motion. The
equation of motion for moderate angles of inclination within which
the arm of the righting couple is approximately proportional to the
angle of heel (i.e. GZ = mX0), is
where e is the radius of gyration of the ship about the axis of rota-
tion, m the metacentric height, 9 the angle of inclination and g the
acceleration produced by gravity. From this the time deduced for
a single oscillation, from port to starboard, or vice versa, is
showing that the time of oscillation varies directly as the radiUs of
gyration, and inversely as the square root of the metacentric height.
The value of T is generally about 10 seconds in a large Atlantic
liner, 7 to 8 seconds in a battleship, and 5 to 6 seconds in second-
class cruisers and skips of similar type. In a large modern warship
t is about one-third the breadth of the ship.
For unresisted rolling of ships among waves the theory gener-
ally accepted is that due to Froude (see Trans. Inst. Nav.
Arch., 1861 and 1862). Before his work, many eminent mathe-
maticians had attempted to arrive at a solution of this most
difficult problem, but for the most part their attempts met with
scanty success; wave-motion and wave-structure were imperfectly
understood, and the forces impressed on a ship by waves could not
be even approximated to. Froude's theory is based on the pro-
position that, when a ship is among waves, the impressed forces on
her tend to place her normal to a wave sub-surface, which is as-
sumed to be the surface passing through the ship's centre of buoy-
ancy, and which is regarded as the effective wave surface, as far
as the rolling is concerned. As in water at rest the ship is in
equilibrium when her masts are normal to the surface of the water,
so in waves she is in equilibrium when her masts are normal, instant
by instant, to the effective surface of the wave that is passing her.
When she at any instant deviates from this position, the effort by
which she endeavours to return to the normal depends on the angle
of deviation, in the same manner as the effort to assume an upright
position, when forcibly inclined in still water, depends on the
angle of inclination. Hence her stability (i.e. her effort to become
vertical) in still water measures her effort to become normal to the
wave at any instant on a wave. Froude made the assumptions that
the profile of the wave was a curve of sines, and that the ship was
rolling broadside on in a regular series of similar waves of given
dimensions and of given period of recurrence. He was aware that
the profile of the wave would be better represented by a trochoid,
but in his first paper he gave several reasons why he preferred the
curve of sines. He also assumed that the ship's rolling in still water
was isochronous, and that the period of the rolling was given
by T = T^jjp , as obtained theoretically. On these assumptions
the equation of motion is obtained by substituting, for the
angle of inclination in still water, the instantaneous angle between
the ship and the normal to the wave-slope, and thus becomes
*_!**_(,_,,) _-(_,), ... (3)
where = angle of ship's masts to the vertical, and 0i=angle of
normal to wave-slope to the vertical at the instant considered.
has to be expressed in terms of time, and is given by ft =0i sin
where 0i is the maximum wave-slope, Ti is the half period of the
wave, i.e. half the time the wave takes to travel a distance equal to
its length, and t is the time dating from the mid-trough of the wave.
Equation (3) can therefore be written
g- -(-,..!*), .' (4)
which is the general differential equation of the unresisted motion of
a ship in regular waves of constant period. The solution of this
equation is
(5)
I
IV
where Ci and C 2 are constants depending on the initial movement
and attitude of the ship.
The last term of this expression,
ROLLING OF SHIPS]
represents the forced oscillations imposed on the ship by the passage
of the series of waves during the time t; and the first and second
SHIPBUILDING
935
terms,
. cos
are the same as the free oscillations of the ship in still water.
Equation (5) indicates, therefore, that the ship performs osci a-
tions as in still water, but has superposed on these a series of oscilla-
tions, governed by the wave-slope and the relation existing between
the period of the ship and that of the wave. The equation shows
that there will be innumerable phases, and of these three are
worthy of notice.
(a) In the case in which the ship's period T is equal to the semi-
period Ti of the wave, equation (5) becomes indeterminate. The
correct solution to equation (4) is then
= C 1 sin^t+C 1 co^tJY&tcos^t, . . (6)
It is seen that at each successive wave crest and hollow the range of
the oscillation is increased, so that the ship under these conditions
would inevitably capsize but for the effect of the resistances and the
departure from synchronism at large angles of roll.
(i) When 5r=O, in which case the ship is assumed to be quick
in her movements, or the period of the wave is infinitely long as
compared with that of the ship, the equation (5) becomes
9 = &i sin Tf^t,
li
that is to say, the ship will behave very much as a thin flat board
does on the surface of a wave, her marts being always perpendicular
to the surface.
(c) If we choose the initial conditions in equation (5) so that the
coefficients Ci and C 2 are zero, then the equation will become
I IT ,
0=0. - Sm T*"'-
1 1
'"T?
Since 9\, the slope of the wave, is equal to i sin ^-t, the ratio of
the ship's angle to the vertical to the angle that the normal to the
wave-slope makes with the vertical, or 9/0i,
= - ~5 = constant.
That is to say, the ship forsakes her own period and takes up "forced"
oscillations in the period of the wave. Under these conditions the
ship's masts will lean towards the wave-crest if T is greater than Ti,
and from the wave-crest if T is less than Ti.
Froude in his first paper further showed how the successive angles
of a ship's rolling may be exhibited graphically, ^and he touched
on the influence of resistance in reducing rolling. The following
is the summary he gave in 1862 of the conclusions he had reached:
" (i.) All ships having the same ' periodic time,' or period of
natural roll, when artificially put in motion in still water, will go
through the same series of movements when subjected to the same
series of waves, whether this stability in still water (one of the
conditions which govern the periodic time) be due to breadth of
beam, or to deeply stowed ballast, or to any such peculiarity of
form as is in practical use.
" This statement would be almost rigorously true if the oscilla-
tions were performed in a non-resisting medium, or if the surface-
friction and keel-resistance, by which the medium operates to
destroy motion, were of the same equivalent value for all the ships
thus compared. It requires, however, to be modified in reference
to the circumstance that of two ships having the same periodic
time in still water, the comparative forms may be such that the
one shall experience such resistance in a higher proportionate
degree than the other, and the necessary modification may be ex-
pressed in terms of their relative behaviour when set in motion in
still water. The vessel which is the more rapidly brought to rest
by resistance in still water will in the greater degree resist the accu-
mulations of angle imposed on her by consecutive wave-impulses,
and will the more fall short of the maximum angle which both would
alike attain if oscillating in a non-resisting medium.
" (ii.) The condition which develops the largest angles of rolling
is equality in the periodic times of the ship and of the waves: and
this is true alike for all ships, whether their scale of resistance, as
above referred to, be large or small.
" (iii.) That ship will fare the best which, caeteris paribus, has the
slowest periodic time.
" (a) The waves which have a periodic time as slow as hers will
have a greater length from crest to crest than those of quicker period ;
and, on the whole, long waves are relatively less steep than short
ones. Now it is the steepness of the waves in a wave-series, not
their height simply, which governs the rate at which angles of
rolling will accumulate in a given ship when exposed to it.
" (6) Of two ships one of which has periodic time rather slower
than the waves in a given ratio, the quicker ship will accumulate
the larger angles.
" (c) It will require a heavier or a more continued gale to rear
waves which have the lengthened period.
" (d) When the gale has continued so long that the largest waves
have outgrown the period of the ship, she will not thereby have been
released from the operation of waves having her own period, since
the larger waves carry on their surface smaller waves of every inter-
mediate period (this, at least, I believe to be the case).
" (e) When the gale has ceased and the sea is going down, the
slower the period of the ship the sooner she will be released from
waves of as slow a period.
" (iv.) There are two, and only two, methods of giving a slow
period to a ship :
" (a) By increasing her ' moment of inertia,' as by removing her
weights as far as possible from her centre of gravity; an arrangement
which for the most part can only be accomplished to a limited extent.
"(6) By diminishing her stability under canvas. This can always
be accomplished in the construction of a ship, and generally in her
stowage, to any degree consistent with her performance of her regular
duties, by simply raising her weights. Were we to raise these so
high as to render her incapable of standing up against the action of
the wind on her sails, the steepest waves would pass under her with-
out putting her in motion.
"Thus the enormous weights carried by the armour-plated ships,
extended laterally to the greatest possible distance from the centre
of gravity, and raised high above it, serve in both respects to
moderate, not to enhance, this tendency to roll; and when it is
said that with the weights thus placed, and once put in motion, a
ship ' must roll deep (deep, though easy),' it should be remembered
that those very relations of force and momentum, which show how
difficult it must be to check her motion when once it has been
impressed on her, show also that it must be equally difficult to
impart that motion to her in the first instance. The difficulty of
starting her has a priority in point of time over the difficulty of
stopping her, and prevents it from being felt by limiting the motion
which would have called it into play.
" (v.) The conditions which govern pitching may be noticed here,
though they have not been discussed in the paper.
" Were it possible, by concentrating her weights or by extending
her plane of flotation, to give to the ship a period indefinitely quick
for both longitudinal and transverse oscillations, as compared with
that of such waves as are large enough to put her in motion, she
would acquire no cumulative oscillation, but would float always
conformably to the mean surface of the wave which passes
under her.
" But this condition, which is so unapproachable in practice in
reference to transverse oscillations that the attempt to approach it
will but develop the evils pointed out in (iii.), is of necessity so
closely approached in practice in reference to longitudinal oscilla-
tions, that those evils can only be escaped by approaching it as
closely as is possible. The plunging of a ship whose weights are
extended far fore and aft is but an incipient development of those
phases of oscillation which have their proper development in trans-
verse motion only. The best that can be desired in reference to
longitudinal motion is that the ship's period, for longitudinal oscilla-
tion, shall be as quick as possible, and her position always as con-
formable as possible to the mean surface of the passing waves.
" I have insisted here, more prominently than in the body of the
paper, on the circumstance that a total loss of stability, using that
word in the ordinary sense of power of carrying sail, implies the
possession of absolute stability, as regards rolling motion due to
wave-impulse, because it has been pointed out to me that the
attention of readers should be more strongly directed to it, not
indeed as representing a practically available possibility, but as
serving best to force the mind, by contact with an extreme conclusion
immediately deducible from the theory, to appreciate its funda-
mental principles. And the proposition thus certainly furnishes a
crucial test of whether the principles have been appreciated or not,
and it supplies also a ready means of testing the theory by a crucial
experiment. I must, in addition, express my own confident belief
that any one who will try the experiment fairly will find the pro-
position so fully verified that he will feel obliged to admit that the
theory which leads to so paradoxical yet true a conclusion deserves
at least a careful study. But the more practically useful aspect of
the theory is that which presents to view the varying phases of
cumulative oscillation which a ship tends to undergo when exposed
to various types of wave-series ; the phases depending on the relation
which her natural period of rolling, when set in motion in still water,
bears to the period of wave-recurrence, and on the maximum steep-
ness of each individual wave of the series phases, in fact, which
she would actually undergo but for the effect of surface-friction and
keel-resistance; the nature and value of which conditions, as well
as the nature and necessity of experiments for their determination,
have been pretty fully dealt with in the body of the paper.
" I will here only add a synoptical statement of the principal
features of those phases, given in a rather more complete form than
in that part of the paper which referred to them, though they are
pretty fully exhibited by the diagrams.
" By a ' complete phase ' is meant that series of oscillations which
the ship undergoes counting from the time when, for a moment,
she is stationary and upright in a similar position, and is about to
93 6
SHIPBUILDING
[ROLLING OF SHIPS
recommence an identical repetition of the movements she has just
completed.
" For the benefit of those who may glance at the appendix before
they read the paper, I will mention that T is the number of seconds
occupied by the ship in performing a single oscillation in still water,
starboard to port, or vice versa. Ti is the number of seconds occupied
by the wave in passing from hollow to crest, or crest to hollow. 61
is the number of degrees in slope of the steepest part of the wave ;
and p/q is the ratio T/Ti, with the numerator and denominator con-
verted into the lowest whole numbers that will express the ratio,
where, however, it must be noticed that for T/Ti = l, p/q must be
taken as the limit of such a form as AVsVA- Then
" (i.) The ship will complete the phase in the time=2oT.
" (ii.) In completing the phase the ship will pass through the
vertical position 2 p times, or 2 q times, according as p or q is the
smaller number.
" (iii.) The ship will pass through the vertical position at the
middle of the phase.
" (iv.) On either side of the middle of the phase there must occur,
as equal maximum oscillation, the maximum in the phase, say 8,
which will approximately (but never in excess) = 61 _ ^
" (v.) From these propositions it appears that if we compare two
cases, in one of which the value of T/Ti is the reciprocal of its value
in the other, the phase will in each case consist of the same number
of oscillations similarly placed ; but in that one in which the period
of the wave is slower than the period of the ship, the angles of
oscillation will be the larger in the ratio p/q or q/p, whichever is the
greater. The following table expresses the results of the above
propositions, as exhibited in the diagrams, based on the assumption
that the period of the ship is in every case T = 5*, and that the
maximum slope of the wave 61 =9 degrees:
H
S
8
H
8.*
11*
tj
E ?
4* y
*J qi g> hj
*w G--
Sfi*!
"C
PH M
c 1 5| v
V
JH W'C
Kg'S^
|JJ*<
en
1
ga
p*
111
BP
1!
5'
5'
I
iWWVo
Infinite.
Infinite.
Infinite.
5;
6-25'
0-8
50'
8
45deg.
5'
4'
1-25
1
40'
8
36
5'
10"
o-S
I
20*
2
18
5'
2-5'
2
I
10*
2
9
5'
9'
o-55
J
90'
10
20
5'
2-77'
1-8
1
50'
IO
ii
The assumption made in equation (l) that
Gz = m.0
is true if the sections of the ship in the vicinity of the water-line are
concentric circular arcs; and is approximately true generally for
small angles of inclination as long as m is not small. If m be small,
the relation does not generally hold.
In a wall-sided ship,
GZ=sin B(m + \a tan 1 0),
where the BM is denoted by a; whence the equation for rolling
through small angles becomes
where 9 and higher powers of 6 are neglected.
Sections of other forms lead to a similar equation, but with
different coefficients of 0'; the above equation is therefore typical
of all others. This condition has been worked out fully by Professor
Scribanti, 1 who obtained a solution in the following form :
where 0* is the maximum angle of roll. J is defined as the moment
of inertia of the water-plane expressed in foot-ton units, i.e. is
equal to W.a, where W is the displacement in tons. I is the mass
moment of inertia of the ship about its axis of oscillation, and
0*
P- - . Some numerical results for -*?, where T m is the period
found by the usual " metacentric " formula and 6 is 12, are:
a
16 ft.
I6ft.
1 6 ft.
m
3ft.
4 in.
I in.
T m
1-04
i-3i
2-98
1 Trans. Inst. Naval Arch., 1904.
When the metacentric height is zero, the formula becomes
T = i-
It has been assumed in the foregoing that the rolling in still water
and among waves is unresisted ; it remains to take into account the
resistances which always operate during rolling. In still p este< d
water these cause a degradation of the amplitude until the mttia
ship finally comes to a position of rest ; and when a vessel
is rolling among waves they cause a similar degradation of amplitude.
The earliest investigations of resisted rolling in still water were
made by Froude in England, and by Bertin, Dunil de Benaz6, Risbec
and Antoine in France. The method adopted was actually to roll
the ship in still water and observe how the amplitude decreased roll
by roll. Men were caused to run from side to side of the ship, their
runs being so timed as to add to the angle of roll on each successive
swing until the maximum angle obtainable was reached, when all
movement on board was stopped, and the ship allowed to roll freely
of herself until she came to rest. During this free movement a
complete record of her angular motion was registered by means of a
short-period pendulum and an electric timer, and from this a curve
of " declining angles " was constructed, in which abscissae repre-
sented number of rolls and ordinates extreme angles of roll to one
side of the vertical. From this curve another curve was constructed,
which was termed a " curve of extinction," in which the abscissae
represented angles of roll and the ordinates the angle lost per swinfj.
Figs. 28 and 29 give examples of these curves obtained from experi-
ments with H.M.S. "Revenge." 2 Having obtained such curves,
Froude proceeded to investigate the relation between the degradation
of the amplitude and the resistances which cause it. He assumed
that the resistance to rolling varied partly as the angular velocity,
and partly as the square of the angular velocity, thus obtaining the
following equation for the angular motion of the ship :
If Kt is zero, a. complete solution is
(7)
where A and B are arbitrary, and the period Tr of resisted rolling
is given by
T
It appears, therefore, that the period is slightly increased and the
amplitude progressively diminished by the resistance. In actual
cases where Kz is necessarily included in the differential equation,
the complete solution cannot be conveniently expressed analytically,
but it can be determined in effect either by any method of approxi-
mate quadrature or by a process of " graphic integration." The
diminution of amplitude can also be approximately obtained by
-D-
Jl..
Count of successive swings:
FIG. 28. Curves of declining angles. C, light, and D, deep draught,
no bilge keels; E, light, and F, deep draught, with bilge keels.
assuming the motion to be simple harmonic with amplitude and
by equating the work done by the resistances during the roll to the
loss of dynamical stability W. m. Xdecrement. The differential
equation for the curve of extinction is thus obtained, and :s
where 9 = extreme angle (in degrees) reached at any particular
oscillation, n the number of oscillations, and a and 6 are coefficients
K,,' 4 , K^
Given by Sir W. H. White, F.R.S., in a paper read before the
Institution of Naval Architects in 1895.
ROLLING OF SHIPS]
SHIPBUILDING
937
respectively. Froude gave his reasons for expecting the resistance to
vary partly as the first and partly as the second power of the angular
velocity. The latter part he considered would be due to surface-
friction and the head resistance of keels and deadwood, and the
s
C\
B
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
Ii\
\
*
\
,\
X
\
\ t 1
x
\
-
V
\\
\
\
\
_\
--.
"v,
\\
-^
^
\ C
""-
^
5
if M- a- 10- e
' ' 4
1
FIG.
Angle of roll () from vertical.
29. Curves of extinction. A, light, and B, deep draught, no
bilge keels; C, light, and D, deep draught, with bilge keels.
former to the resistance caused by the creation of a small wave at
each roll, which, by travelling away from the ship, would cause
dissipation of energy. Froude's views have been confirmed by the
accuracy with which the expression T = a.Q + i.6 ! may be
made to fit the curve of extinction of practically any ship by the
judicious selection of the coefficients a and b. M. Berlin has, however,
preferred an expression equivalent to -j- =6.9 2 , while other
French investigators have preferred an expression equivalent to
On substituting the value of a in equation (7) it becomes
a simplified form of the equation for resisted rolling when the
coefficient b is neglected.
For the " Revenge " the following equations represent the curves
of extinction given in fig. 29 :
For deep draught :
without bilge keels -j =-01230 + -OO250 2
d&
065
-OI7 s
with
For light draught :
without bilge keels -T- = -015 + -OO280 2
d
with
+ 019
(0 in all cases being measured in degrees and not in circular measure).
The large increase in the 6 coefficient after bilge keels had been
fitted has given rise to considerable discussion. Mr R. E. Froude had
experimented with a deeply submerged plane oscillating in water,
and he found that at a speed of I foot per second the resistance per
square foot was l-6lb. Using this figure to calculate the work per
swing from an extreme angle of 6, the head-resistance of the bilge
keels is found to account for about one-fourth the energy lost in a
single swing due to the increased value of the b coefficient in the above
formula. The energy abstracted in this particular case is thus about
four times greater than the theoretical head-resistance of the bilge
keels. This discrepancy has been observed in many cases, and it
appears that when bilge keels are added to a ship they become effective,
not merely as flat surfaces moving with the ship and experiencing
direct resistances, but also by indirectly influencing the stream-line
motions which would exist about the oscillating ship, if there were no
bilge keels. Another cause of the difference is that the bilge keels
during the early portion of the swing set into motion a large mass of
water, only a small proportion of whose energy is returned totheship
towards the end of the roll. This condition is accentuated when the
vessel is in motion ahead, and owing also to the increase of other
resistances at high speeds, a more rapid extinction is then obtained.
It appears from experiments made on H.M.S. " Revenge " and
on a torpedo boat destroyer that the extinction at a given angle
of roll is given by a linear formula M = o+/9V, where a and ft are
coefficients independent of the speed V. 1
Froude attacked the problem of resisted rolling in an inverse
manner, endeavouring to ascertain " what wave-series is required to
keep the given ship at a given range of steady rolling with any
assigned period, including the effect of resistance." Subsequently
he treated the problem in a direct manner by the process of " graphic
integration," an exact method of determining the motion of a ship,
the elements of the ship's rolling in still water and the wave-series
acting upon her being given. 2 Some interesting developments of the
process were made by Sir William White in a. paper read before the
Inst. Nav. Arch, in 1881 on the " Rolling of Sailing Ships," in which
the action of the wind on the sails and the variation of the virtual
weight of the ship on the wave are included. The effect of wind-
pressure in heeling a ship is very much greater when she is at the crest
of a wave than when she is at the trough, because her virtual weight
is less. This must be taken into account when dealing with sailing
vessels; the reduction of virtual weight, and therefore of righting
moment, at the crest of a wave being very considerable, although
the heeling moments due to the wind suffer no such reduction.
The differential equation for rolling among waves including the
effect of resistances varying as the first power of the angular velocity
ls ~~ Wc'tPfl _ _
fe li* Ui> \ 1 1 t
which becomes on substitution (J{ being expressed in terms of a)
The general solution is
-at
TT-A), (9)
TV
2oTT,
2 and ft = tan
where
*-(T7^Pj
and A and ft are arbitrary.
The first term represents a free oscillation of the ship, which in time
dies out, leaving a forced oscillation in the period of the waves.
From observations on rolling, however, it is found that, owing to
the departure from exact uniformity in the waves encountered, a
ship seldom, if ever, completely forsakes her own natural period of
rolls; for each slight alteration in the wave period Ti introduces
afresh terms involving the free oscillations of the ship. In the
synchronizing conditions where T=Ti, the forced oscillation is
represented by .
the amplitude being limited entirely by the resistance; the phase
is - before that of the wave slope. The vessel is then upright
in mid-height, and inclined to its maximum angle on the crest
and in the hollow of the wave. The maximum amplitude is given
by --6i=a.9. Since the right-hand term represents the decrement
of roll due to resistance, the left-hand side must represent the
increment of roll due to the wave in this synchronizing steady
motion. If this latter relation be assumed to hold when the resist-
ance to motion is represented by the more general decremental
equation, then the maximum amplitude is given by
|0j=a.0+6.0'.
In 1894 and 1895 M. Bertin, at the Institution of Naval Architects,
extended this relation to cases in which TI is not equal to T, obtaining
at the same time not simply the angles of steady rolling for these,
cases, but the maximum angles passed through on the way to the
steady condition; to these maximum angles he gave the name of
" apogee " rolls.
In 1896, at the Institution of Naval Architects, Mr R. E. Froude
investigated the probable maximum amplitude of roll under the'
influence of a non-synchronous and non-harmonic swell. He imagined
three identical ships, A, B and C, the first rolling in still water,
and the two others placed in the same swell assumed recurrent in
period 2Ti, but not necessarily harmonic. Assuming resistance to
vary as -37, then denoting the vessels by suffixes, the effective wave
slope by 0i, and constants by K, K' and K",
1 See papers on this subject read before the Institution of Naval
Architects in 1900 by Professor Bryan and in 1905 and 1909 by Mr
A. W. Johns. 2 See Trans. Inst. Naval Arch., 1875.
938
SHIPBUILDING
[ROLLING OF SHIPS
If at any instant
it follows that
whence the above three relations hold at the successive instants and
consequently for all time. Hence the rolling of C differs from that
of B in having the free oscillations of A in still water superposed
upon it. If, therefore, it is possible to obtain any one motion in
the swell, any other motion due to a different phase relation between
ship and wave slope can be at once determined. A convenient
motion in the swell to form a basis for obtaining other motions is
the forced oscillation proper to the swell, i.e. the particular oscillation
that is recurrent in the period of the swell. The amplitude of roll
at any instant is therefore the sum of the amplitudes due to the
forced oscillation and to an arbitrary free oscillation in still water.
If the latter component be regarded as perfectly arbitrary there is
no limit to the angle of roll obtained by postulating suitable initial
conditions; to determine the practical limitation of rolling, however,
it may reasonably be assumed that at or near the commencement
of the motion there will be a brief period of no roll, and that the
maximum angle of roll obtained will occur at no great interval
of time after this period. At the instant when there is no roll, the
forced and free oscillations are equal in magnitude and opposite in
phase, and the period of maximum (termed the " criterion ") ampli-
tude 0,, will occur as soon as the two components are in phase;
T
the time interval between thetwoconditions isT, where n = =fcj_'.^.
It is assumed also that during the above interval (i) the effect of
the swell was sensibly the same as that of a simple harmonic wave,
A being the amplitude of the forced oscillation (and of the initial
free oscillation) ; (2) the extinction equation of the free oscillation
T =o6+&9 J can be replaced by the simple form -r^ = E9,
where E, a+bQ c approximately; this has been implied by the
absence of terms containing [-T-. ) in the differential equation above.
The amplitude of the free oscillation during the maximum roll is,
from equation (8) Ae~" ; whence
8 c =A(l+e-).
Also, from equation (9), the forced oscillation is given by
From these equations 61 can be determined if T, TI, a, b and C arc
given ; conversely if 0c is known, 0i can be tentatively obtained.
The following table gives the criterion angle (0c) and the angle of
steady roll (A) for the Revenge," both without and with bilge keels,
obtained on the above-mentioned assumptions:
Maximum Wave-Slope, 3 Degrees.
T I3
T
T ,
T
Ti '
tr 1 *
Ti~
n-f it.
n-s.
n 10.
n oo .
=
a
d
a
J
a
_j
if
5^
ij
5
1
gJi
1*
1!
Ji
P
t|
"Revenge" (deep
draught), with
deg.
dcg.
deg.
dcg.
deg.
deg.
deg.
dcg.
no bilge keels
"Revenge" (deep
draught), with
8-2 5
4-35
12-25
6-8
21-2
>3'9
4I-I
4,..
bilge keels
6-6
4-24
8-6
6-4
i '-55
io-8
14-85
14-85
Among the conclusions reached by Mr R. E. Froude in the case of a
ship rolling in a uniform swell were :
However non-uniform initially, the rolling ultimately falls into the
uniform forced oscillation; it does so the sooner, caeteris
paribus, the higher the resistance, and with the fewer " cycles "
or alterations of amplitude of rolling, the more nearly syn-
chronous the swell with the ship. The amplitude of the
ultimate uniform rolling is an approximate mean of the
alternate maxima and minima of the precedent non-uniform
rolling. If the rolling starts from zero, the maximum ampli-
tude falls short of twice the ultimate uniform amplitude, the
more so the higher the resistance and the more synchronous
the swell; and in a synchronous swell the maximum ampli-
tude cannot exceed the ultimate uniform amplitude, unless it docs
so initially.
In two papers by Captain and Professor Kriloff of St Petersburg,
read before the I.N.A. in 1896 and 1898, the whole motion of the
ship, including pitching and rolling, is dealt with; every variation
which can reasonably be conceived is taken into account in these
papers.
Of the various appliances adopted to reduce rolling, the most
important and successful are bilge keels. Some reference has already
been made to the influence they exert on the rolling of ships, as
illustrated by H.M.S. " Revenge," in which there was one bilge
keel on each side, 200 ft. in length and 3 ft. in depth, tapered
at the extreme ends. The great value of bilge keels in diminishing
rolling was pointed out by Froude and demonstrated by him in 1872
by experiment with the " Perseus" and the " Greyhound," .
which were alike in every essential respect, except that the *'
former was not provided with bilge keels and the latter
was. The general conclusion was that the rolling of the
" Greyhound," was only about one-half that of the " Perseus."
Bilge keels were usual in warships until, in the design of the
" Royal Sovereign " class, it was decided not to fit them, owing to
the large dimensions of the vessels and the difficulties in certain
circumstances of docking them if provided with bilge keels. Ulti-
mately one of the class, the " Repulse," had them fitted for purposes
of comparison, and the effect on her rolling was so marked that it
was resolved to fit them to all the ships of the class. Before fitting
them on the " Revenge," a careful programme was drawn up of
experiments to be made before and after the bilge keels were fitted ;
and on carrying out this programme some valuable results were
obtained. The experiments were made at Spithead in smooth
water, the general effect of the bilge keels was to reduce the
rolling to one-third of its former amount. When, instead of having
no motion in the line ahead, the ship had a speed of 12 knots,
an even greater reduction in the rolling was observed. Their effect
on other qualities of ships is on the whole beneficial, and in general
little, if any, reduction in speed has resulted from their. use. The
experience of Great Britain with regard to bilge keels has been
repeated in America. Bilge keels were omitted for the same reasons
as they were in the " Royal Sovereign " class; they were afterwards
fitted in the U.S.S. " Oregon," experimental investigation being
made both without and with them, and the general conclusion
arrived at was that the rolling was diminished by two-thirds by the
adoption of the bilge keels.
A method for reducing rolling of ships in a sea-way by the
use of water-chambers was devised by the writer in 1874 in
connexion with the design of the " Inflexible," which was expected
to be a bad roller. It consists in fitting one or more tanks
across the ship of such shape that when filled to a suitable
height with water the motion of the water from side to side as the
vessel rolls is such as to retard the rolling. Let fig. 30 represent a
series of transverse sections of a ship fitted with a water-chamber,
in various positions in rolling from port to starboard; and suppose
the water to move so as to be most effective in quelling rolling.
Let G represent the centre of gravity of the ship including the
water in the chamber, g the centre of gravity of the water in the
chamber, and B the centre of buoyancy of the ship; and let the
arrows over the sections indicate the direction in which the ship is
rolling at the instant considered. In position No. I suppose the
ship to have reached the extreme heel to port and to be on
the point of commencing the return roll, then g should have
reached the middle line on its way down towards the port
side and the righting couple will be that due to the angle of
heel, supposing the water to be a fixed weight amidships. In
the position No. 2 the ship has performed part of the roll back
towards the upright; the water will have moved farther down
the incline, so that g will be some distance from the middle line
on the port side as shown, and therefore G will also have moved
out from the middle line on the port side; hence the righting
couple will be less than what would correspond to the angle of heel if
the water were a fixed weight amidships. In position No. 3 the ship
has just reached the upright and will be moving with the maximum
angular velocity; the water will have moved still farther down the
incline, and g will be at a greater distance from the middle line on
the port side, and therefore G will have moved farther out from the
middle line, whereas B will have returned to the middle line; so
that the weight of the ship and the upward pressure of the water
will form a couple tending to retard the ship's rotation, although she
is for the moment in the upright position. In the position No. 4 the
ship is heeling over to starboard and the centre of gravity of the water
is returning towards the middle line ; but it and G are still on the
FIG. 30.
j port side, and the righting couple is therefore greater than that
corresponding to the angle of heel of the ship and a fixed centre of
gravity amidships. In the position No. 5 the ship has momentarily
RESISTANCE]
SHIPBUILDING
939
come to rest at the end of the starboard roll, the centre of gravity
of the water should have again reached the middle line, and the
righting couple should be neither increased nor diminished by the
water-chamber, except in so far as it affects the displacement and
the vertical position of the centre of gravity. The same process is
repeated on the ship's roll back from starboard to port. Thus the
water-chamber reduces the angle of roll of the ship chiefly by modify-
ing the righting couple acting upon her throughout the rolling; it
increases the righting couple which opposes the motion as the ship
heels over, thereby reducing the amount of the heel, and on the return
roll it lessens the righting couple and causes the ship to move more
slowly than she otherwise would, so that she acquires less angular
momentum on reaching the upright, and therefore tends to roll less
deeply the other way.
Two water-chambers were originally contemplated in the old
Inflexible, but the space occupied by one of these was required for
other purposes, and only one, the smaller of the two, which was 51 ft.
long (across the ship), and 14 ft. wide (fore and aft), was finally
fitted. This was shown to reduce the rolling by about 25 %.
Several ships have since been fitted with this device. 1
In addition to trials at sea to ascertain the diminution of roll by
this means, still-water rolling experiments were carried out in the
" Edinburgh " and compared with the results obtained with a model
water-chamber on a linear scale of loaded so that its period and
stability corresponded to those of the ship. A close agreement was
observed between the behaviour of the model and the ship; and
this enabled the experiments to be carried out over a larger range
of conditions than would have been practicable with the ship alone.
The model was supported on knife edges and connected to a paddle
partially immersed in the water of a tank; this was adjusted to
represent to scale the natural extinction of roll in the ship without
Jo 15 10
Angle oF Roll in degrees
FIG. 31.
the water-chamber. The length of the chamber (in the ship) was
16 ft. ; and widths of 43 ft., 513 ft. and 67 ft. were successively given
to it. The displacement of the ship was about 7500 tons; the
period 10 seconds; and the metacentric height 7-52 ft. On experi-
menting with different depths of water, it was found that the maxi-
mum extinctive effect at all angles of roll was obtained with the depth
at which the period of motion of the water from side to side of the
tank is equal to the period of the ship. The best depths were found
to be 2-3 ft. and 3-35 ft. with breadths of 43 ft. and 51^ ft. respectively,
thus agreeing closely with the theoretical formula, v = \lgh, for the
speed of a solitary wave across the water-chamber. In these circum-
stances the water rushed across the tank in a breaking wave or bore,
and consumed energy in its passage and through its violent impact
with the sides of the tank. With other depths, the motion of the
water, at moderate angles, took the form of a slope gently alternating
from side to side at small angles of roll ; and the effect was practically
non-extinctive. With the critical depth the growth of the resistance
to rolling commenced almost at zero angle ; but, with other depths,
the extinction was nearly nil, until a certain angle of roll was attained,
whose amount increased with the departure from the critical depth.
At the larger angles of roll, the disadvantage of the departure from
the critical depth was not marked. The resistance of the chamber
increased considerably with the breadth; the value of the 5iJ-ft.
chamber was roughly twice and that of the 67-ft. chamber three
times that of the 43-ft. chamber.
In order to compare the effect of water-chambers with that of other
methods of extinction, it is observed that the resistance due to the
former increases slowly at large angles of roll. The effectiveness of
bilge keels, on the other hand, increases rapidly as the angle of roll
increases. It was found that, with I2roll, the resistance of thewater-
chamber was equivalent to that of 2 ft. of additional bilge keel ; but
at 17! the water-chamber was relatively about half as effective.
With 3 of roll, however, the water-chamber was about 9 times as
1 See paper on " A Method of Reducing the Rolling of Ships at
Sea " in Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs. 1883.
effective as the additional bilge keel. Fig. 31 shows the comparative
rates of extinction under the various conditions. 2
Water-chambers have been successfully employed to limit the
rolling motions at sea in ships of the old " Inflexible," " Edinburgh "
and " Admiral " classes, and in other warships and merchant vessels.
Sir John Thornycroft devised an arrangement for overcoming the
rolling motion of a ship amongst waves, consisting of a weight
carried from side to side so as always to oppose the heeling couple
caused by the wave slope. The weight was automatically worked
by apparatus controlled by two pendulums (or their equivalent), one
of which a long period pendulum remained vertical, and the other
a short-period pendulum placed itself perpendicular to the
effective wave slope. The gear was fitted on a yacht of about 230
tons displacement, the moving weight being 8 tons; and the net
effect in this case was to reduce the rolling by about one-half. (See
Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs. 1892.)
An interesting application of the gyroscope to the diminution of
rolling was devised by Dr O. Schlick, and fitted by him to the S.S.
" See-bar." The principle of its action, the details of the gear, and a
description of the trials are given in papers read before the Inst. Nav.
Archs. in 1904 and 1907. Particulars of the " See-bar " were: length
1 16 ft., breadth 11-7 ft., draught 3-4 ft., displacement 56 tons, meta-
centric height 1-64 ft., and period of double roll (gyroscope at rest)
4-14 seconds. The fly-wheel of the gyroscope was one metre in external
diameter, weighed noo ft, and it was run at 1600 revolutions per
minute ; its axis was initially vertical, and the casing containing the
wheel was capable of revolving about a horizontal athwartship axis,
the centre of gravity of the apparatus lying slightly below this axis. A
brake was fitted to control the longitudinal oscillations of the casing.
When the wheel was revolving and the axis held by the brake, no effect
was produced upon the- motion of the ship ; but when the axis was
allowed to oscillate freely in the middle-line plane the period of roll was
lengthened to 6 seconds, but no other extinctive effect was obtained.
By suitably damping the longitudinal oscillations of the gyroscope,
however, by means of the brake, a large extinctive effect upon the
rolling was experienced ; and during the trials made, the apparatus
stopped practically all rolling motion.
The equations for the pitching motions of a vessel are identical in
form with those for rolling ; and the preceding remarks are, in general,
equally applicable to pitching. In a large number of ships ., . .
the period for pitching is approximately one-half of that ga ^ *
for rolling ; but the angles attained are considerably less. ,eavlar
Where control over the longitudinal positions of weights
is possible, e.g. in small sailing vessels, weights are removed as far as
possible from v he ends in order to shorten the period, the safety of
short ships and boats being secured when the deck is maintained as
nearly as possible parallel to the wave slope (v. remarks by Froude
ante).
The single period for heaving and dipping oscillations is equal to
-v/
when W is the displacement in tons, and T* the tons per inch
immersion. When proceeding across waves of apparent semi-
rr. J
period TI, forced heaving oscillations of semi-amplitude a^ ^_j. t
are obtained, where T is the single period of dip, and 20 is the
vertical distance between the statical positions of the ship on crest
and in trough of wave. These oscillations combine with the free
dipping oscillations due to the circumstances of the initial motion,
the resultant motion being of interest in connexion with the longi-
tudinal bending moments in the ship caused by the waves. (See
section Strength.)
Pitching or rolling is frequently the cause of dipping oscillations,
and the motion is then termed uneasy; this action may be of im-
portance in ships whose sides near the water-line have a considerable
slope to the vertical, since any rolling motion is then accompanied by
vertical oscillations of the centre of gravity. It may also be shown
that forced dipping oscillations of considerable amplitude are ob-
tained when the period of roll (or pitch) in such cases approximates
to twice the dipping period; the complex nature of the resistances
attending the motion of the ship has, however, prevented a complete
investigation being made.
Interference also occurs between the rolling and pitching move-
ments of a ship, when the centres of gravity of the wedges of im-
mersion and emersion for moderate angles of heel are separated by a
considerable distance longitudinally; and occasionally uneasy rolling
of a peculiar character is caused thereby.
Resistance.
The resistance of a ship in steady motion, or the force exerted
by the surrounding water on the hull, opposing its progress, is
equal and opposite to the thrust of the propellers. The ship is
subjected to a system of balanced forces, each of which is in some
degree affected by the others. It is convenient, however, first
to confine attention to the resistance of the hull, assuming the
2 See paper entitled " The Use of Water-Chambers for Reducing
the Rolling of Ships at Sea," Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs. 1885.
940
SHIPBUILDING
[RESISTANCE
propeller to be removed, and the ship to be towed through
undisturbed water. Under these conditions the power expended
in towing the vessel is termed the effective horse power, and is
considerably less than the indicated horse power exerted by the
propelling engines at the same speed. The relation between the
effective and indicated horse powers, and the effect of the
propellers on the resistance of the ship will be discussed under
Propulsion, below.
If a body of " fair " form, i.e. without abruptness or discontinuity
in its surface, moves uniformly at a considerable depth below the
surface of an incompressible and perfect fluid, it can be shown that no
resistance is experienced, and the uniform motion will, caeterisparibus,
continue indefinitely. The motion of the fluid is extremely small,
except in the close vicinity of the body. A clearer conception of
the interaction of fluid and body is obtained by impressing upon
the whole system a velocity equal and opposite to that of the body,
which then becomes motionless and is situated in a uniform stream
of the fluid. The particles of fluid move in a series of lines termed
"stream lines"; and the surface formed by all the stream lines
passing through a small closed contour is termed a " stream tube."
If o denote the area of a stream tube, assumed sufficiently small for
the velocity at a point within it to be sensibly uniform across a
section, then, since no fluid is leaving or entering the tube,
o.t = constant
throughout its length. The motion of the fluid is also subject to
Bernoulli's energy quotation
{) i'~
H \- h = constant,
w 2g
p, IP and k being respectively the fluid pressure, the density and the
height above a fixed datum.
The remaining conditions affecting the flow and determining the
forms of the stream lines are purely geometrical, and depend on the
form of the body.
The motion in a perfect fluid flowing past bodies of a few simple
mathematical forms has been investigated with success, but in the
general case the forms of the stream lines can only be obtained by
approximate methods. It is evident that the flow is in all cases
reversible since the equations are unaltered when the sign of v is
changed; on the other hand any resistance must always oppose
the motion, and therefore, as stated above, there can be no resistance
under these conditions.
The circumstances attending the motion of a ship on the surface
of the sea (or that of a stream of water
flowing past a stationary vessel)
'" differ from those hitherto as-
sumed; and resistance is experi-
*" enced through various causes.
Frictional resistance results from the rubbing
of the water past the surface of the hull;
eddy resistances are caused by local discon-
tinuities, such as shaft brackets; and
resistance due to wind is experienced on
the hull and upper works. Moreover, the
stream-line motion, as will be shown later,
causes a diminution in the relative velocity
of the water at the ends of the ship; from
the energy equation above, it is evident that
the pressure is increased, resulting in an elevation of the surface
of the water at those places. A wave is thus formed at the bow and
stern, requiring an expenditure of energy for its maintenance and
entailing additional resistance.
Of thsse components of resistance, that due to eddy making is
usually small; eddying is caused by blunt beginnings or endings,
particularly the latter, in the water-lines and underwater fittings.
Air resistance also is generally of small importance; in the " Grey-
hound " (unrigged) it constituted 1-4% of the total resistance at
10 knots in calm weather, and in a large Atlantic liner at 25 knots
it absorbs about 4% of the total power. In the case of average
ships, unrigged or with moderate top-hamper, the proportion of air
resistance is probably less than the latter value. Tne effect of wind
and rough weather on the speed of ships is also largely due to the
action of the waves and other motion of the sea, the additional
effect of which is indeterminate.
The difference between the total resistance and that due to skin
friction is termed the residuary resistance ; f rom the foregoing remarks
it appears that it consists principally of the resistance due to wave-
making. Since the action of the waves is such as to distort the
stream lines near the hull, and the form of the waves is in turn affected
by the f rictional wake, the f rictional and wave-making resistances of a
ship are to some extent mutually dependent. It is convenient, how-
ever, to neglect the interaction of these constituents, and to assume
that the whole resistance is obtained by simple summation of its
component parts as calculated independently. Considerable justi-
fication for this assumption is furnished by the close agreement
between the results of experiments on models and on ships,
where the proportion of fnctional to total resistance is greatly
different.
Since the action and the reaction of the water pressure on the
hull of a ship are equal and opposite, forward momentum is generated
in the water at such a rate that the increase of momentum .
per second is equal to the total resistance. The water
participating in the forward movement is termed the wake ; the portion
of the wake in the vicinity of the propellers is found to have consider-
able effect upon the propulsion of the ship. Experiments were made
by Mr Calvert (Trans. Inst. N.A. 1893) to determine the wake velocity
with a model of length 28^ ft. and displacement 2-9 tons. The
extent of the wake was measured at various positions in the length,
and its maximum velocity was observed to be 0-67 times the speed
of the ship. Abreast the screw the mean velocity ratio over an area
of the same breadth (3-66 ft.) as the ship and of depth equal to the
draught (1-55 ft.) was 0-19, of which about 0-05 was ascribed to
factional resistance. In Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1874 is contained an
investigation by Froude of the extent of the f rictional wake and its
velocity distribution based on the equality of the resistance to the
momentum added per second. It may be here observed that for
any ship propelled in the ordinary manner at uniform speed the
momentum generated in the sternward race from the propeller is
equal and opposite to that of the forward wake due to the hull.
The motion of the water as a whole thus consists of a circulatory
disturbance advancing with the ship, and having no linear
momentum.
The whole of the resistance at low speeds, and a considerable
proportion of it at higher speeds, is due to surface friction, i.e. to the
eddying belt surrounding the hull which is caused by the p,^,,. -i
tangential f rictional action between the water and the out-
side skin. It is nearly independent of the form of the vessel; r
and is conveniently estimated from the results of experiments made
by towing in a tank planks coated with various surfaces. The most
important of such experiments were those made by Froude in the
experimental tank at Chelston Cross, Torquay. The object was to
obtain the laws of variation of resistance with the speed, the length,
and the quality of the surface. A dynamometnc apparatus by
which the planks were towed was used to register the resistance;
the planks were given a fine edge at each end to avoid eddy making,
and were fully immersed in order that no waves should be formed.
The results are given in the Reports of the British Association,
1872 and 1874. In the following extract n is the index of the speed
at which the resistance varies, A the mean resistance per square foot
of surface over the length stated, and B the resistance per square foot
at the after end of the plank; both A and B refer to a velocity of
10 ft. per second in fresh water.
Length of Surface in Feet.
2ft.
8ft.
20 ft.
50ft.
n.
A.
B.
n.
A.
B.
n.
A.
B.
n.
A.
B.
Tinfoil .
2-16
30
295
1-99
2 7 8
263
1-90
262
244
1-83
246
232
Paraffin
1-95
38
37
1-94
314
260
1-93
271
237
Varnish
2-00
41
39
1-85
325
264
1-85
2 7 8
240
1-83
250
226
Fine sand .
2-OO
81
690
2-00
583
450
2-OO
480
384
2-06
405
337
Calico . . .
1-93
' -87
725
1-92
626
504
I-89
531
447
1-87
474
423
Medium sand .
2-OO
90
730
2-OO
625
488
2-OO
534
46.S
2-OO
488
456
Coarse sand
2-OO
I-IO
880
2-OO
714
520
2-OO
588
490
These results are in accordance with the formula
R being the frictional resistance, S the area of surface, V the speed,
w the density of the water, / a coefficient depending on the nature
and length of the surface, and n the index of the speed ; the values
of / ana n can be readily obtained from the above table. It is seen
that the resistance varies as the density of the water, but is inde-
pendent of its pressure; it diminishes as the length of the surface
increases, on account of the frictional wake, which reduces the
velocity of rubbing between the water and the surface towards the
after end. The index n is 1-83 for a varnished surface equivalent
to the freshly painted hull of a ship. The results of Froude's ex-
periments are closely corroborated by similar experiments under-
taken by the late Dr Tideman.
When applying the data to ships of length greater than 50 ft.,
the coefficient B, denoting the resistance 50 ft. from the bow, is
assumed to remain unaltered at all greater distances astern. The
velocity of rubbing is assumed equal to the speed of the ship, any
slight variation due to stream-line action being neglected. The
wetted surface S, when not directly calculated, can be estimated
with sufficient accuracy by the formula
where V is the volume of displacement, L the length, and D the
mean draught.
The resistance due to wave making, although inconsiderable at
low speeds, is of importance at moderate and at high Wgve
speeds; it constitutes the greater portion ot the total
resistance in fast ships.
RESISTANCE]
SHIPBUILDING
941
By impressing, as above, a suitable velocity on the whole system
of ship and water, the problem is reduced to one of steady motion
in a stream flowing past a stationary ship. The stream tubes,
originally of uniform width, become broader on approaching the
bow of the ship, and attain their greatest breadth close to the
stem. Proceeding aft, the tubes contract, and near amidships they
become smaller than they were originally; an enlargement in the
tubes again takes place near the stern. The changes in size and
velocity in the stream tubes lead to corresponding alterations of
pressure in accordance with the energy equation, which alterations
appear as elevations and depressions of the surface forming what is
termed the statical wave system. If this were a permanent system,
no resistance to the motion of the ship would be caused thereby.
The surface disturbance, however, is subject to the dynamical
laws underlying the propagation of waves; in consequence the
wave formation differs from the " statical wave," the crest
lagging astern of the " statical " wave crest, and the ship being
followed by a train of waves whose lengths are appropriate to
the speed attained. The energy within the wave system travels
backward relative to the ship at one-half its speed; the resistance
experienced by the ship is due to the sternward drain of the wave
energy which requires work to be done on the ship to replace that
absorbed by the waves.
The form of the wave system is not susceptible of complete
mathematical investigation; but the circumstances are approxi-
mately realized and the conditions considerably simplified when the
actions of the bow and stern of the vessel are each replaced by the
mathematical conception of a " pressure point." This consists of
an infinitely large pressure applied over an indefinitely small region
of the water surface; it is assumed to move forward in place of the
ship through still water, or, equally, to be stationary in a uniform
stream. The resulting wave system has been investigated by Lord
Kelvin and others. It is found to consist of a local disturbance
surrounding the pressure point and depending on the pressure
distribution combined with a series of waves which are confined
within two straight lines drawn backwards through the pressure
point and making angles of about 20
= with the line of
motion. The waves within this region extend indefinitely astern
with crests crossing the line of motion perpendicularly. The crest
lines are slightly curved, convex to the pressure point, and at the
bounding lines form cusps whose tangents are inclined to the line of
flow at an angle of about 36 (tan" 1 ^- j . The crest lines afterwards
curve forward towards the pressure point. The distance apart of
the transverse wave crests is equal to the length / of wave appro-
priate to the speed v, as expressed in the formula t>* = g//2ir. These
results are of interest since they are in agreement in many respects
with those of actual observation for ships and models. In fig. 32,
FIG. 32.
reproduced from a paper in the I.N.A. 1877, read by Froude, is shown
the bow-wave system obtained from a model, which is also illustra-
tive of that produced by ships of all types. It appears therefore
that two types of waves accompany a ship (i) diverging waves
having sharply defined crests placed in echelon, the foremost wave
alone extending to the ship; (2) transverse waves limited in breadth
by the diverging crests and reaching the sides of the vessel through-
out its length. These compare with the crest lines obtained in the
above hydrodynamical investigation; the transverse and diverging
waves correspond to the different portions of the crest lines which
are separated by the cusps.
Since the bow diverging waves are not in contact with the ship
except at the bow, the energy spent in their maintenance travels
away from the ship and is lost. A diverging wave system of similar
form but of smaller dimensions attends the passage of the stern;
and the resistance due to the diverging systems of waves is therefore
the sum of its components at the bow and stern, following a regular
although unknown law, increasing with the speed, and depending
considerably on the shape of the bow and stern.
On the other hand the interference between the transverse bow
and stern wave systems produces a stern wave in contact with the
ship; the resistance due to the resultant transverse wave system
depends therefore on the phase relation between the waves of the
component systems. The effect of interference on the wave resistance
was investigated by Froude (Trans. I.N.A. 1877) by means of
experiments on a series of models having the same entrance and run,
but in which the length of parallel middle body was varied. At
constant speed curves of residuary resistance on a length base con-
sisted of humps and hollows, whose spacing was constant and
approximately equal to the wave length appropriate to the speed ; the
amplitude of the fluctuation diminished as the length increased.
For a given length the residuary resistance in general increased at a
high power of the speed ; but it was also subject to a series of fluctua-
tions whose magnitude and spacing increased with the speed. The
results of these experiments were fully analysed in 1881 by Mr R. E.
Froude, who showed that a reduction in the resistance occurred when
the trough of the bow wave coincided with the crest of the component
stern wave, the resultant wave system being of relatively small dimen-
sions. Conversely, the resistance was abnormally increased when
the crests of the bow and stern systems coincided. The fluctuation in
the resistance thereby obtained was smaller when the length of
middle body became greater, owing to the greater degradation of the
bow wave system at the stern through viscosity and lateral spreading.
For very considerable lengths of middle body, the height of the bow
wave system at the stern was insufficient to produce interference or
affect the resistance.
The speed in knots (V) of a wave is related to the length in feet (I)
by the formula V 2 =i-8J. If L' be the distance apart of the com-
ponent bow and stern waves (which is generally rather greater than
the length of the ship), relatively small resistance would be antici-
pated when V 2 is approximately equal to 3-6 L' or any odd sub-
multiple of 3-6 L'; on the other hand when V 2 was not greatly
different from 1-8 L', or any submultiple of 1-8 L', abnormal wave
resistance would be developed. This result is to a great extent con-
firmed by experience with ships of all classes; for economical pro-
pulsion at a speed V, the length L of a ship should be generally
equal to or slightly less than V s , corresponding to the " favourable
V 1
value of about 1-2 of the ratio -7-7 ; torpedo-boat destroyers and
similar vessels of extremely high speed constitute an exception, the
V*
value of the ratio -r- being then frequently as great as 4, which ap-
V 1
proximately coincides with the highest "favourable" value of -p .
The foregoing description of the resistance experienced by ships
through wave making makes it evident that the conditions under-
lying wave resistance are too complex to enable its amount
to be directly estimated as is possible in the case of
f rictional resistance. Experiments also show that there is ""
no simple law connecting wave resistance with size, form prison.
or speed. The effect of size alone, i.e. the scale of the experiment,
can, however, be eliminated by means of the " principle of
similitude " enunciated by Newton, which is applicable with certain
limitations to all dynamical systems. The extension of this
principle forms the foundation of all methods employed practically
for estimating the residuary resistance and horse power of ships.
The principle states that in two geometrically and mechanically
similar systems, whose linear dimensions vary as the squares of the
velocities of the corresponding particles, and whose forces vary as
their masses, the motions of the two systems will be similar. A proof
of this theorem follows at once from the equations of motion for any
particle. The law of comparison, which is the application (origin-
ally made by Froude) of the principle of similitude to the resistance
of ships, is enunciated as follows:
." If the linear dimensions of a ship be n times those of its model,
and the resistances of the latter be RI, R 2l R 3 , ... at speeds
Vi, Vj, Vs, . . . , then the_ resistances of the ship at the 'correspond-
ing speeds ' V, VM, V 2 Vn, Va Vn, . . . will be Rin 3 , R 2 n s , R s n 3 , . . .
and therefore the effective horse powers at corresponding speeds are
increased in the ratio n': I."
It is necessary to ensure that the conditions underlying the principle
of similitude are satisfied by all the components of resistance, when
the law of comparison is employed for the purpose of obtaining the
ratio between the total resistances of two ships at corresponding
speeds. Residuary resistance, consisting of that caused by wave
making, eddies, and air resistance, is attributable to normal pressures
on various surfaces caused by changes of velocity in the water or air.
It appears from Bernoulli's energy equation that the pressures per
unit area are proportional to the square of the velocity, i.e. at corre-
sponding speeds, to the linear dimensions. The total pressures are
therefore proportional to the cube of the linear dimensions, i.e. to the
masses, thus complying with the primary condition regarding the
force ratios. Frictional resistance, which varies with the length of
surface and as the 1-83 power of the speed, does not satisfy this
condition. In the application of the law of comparison to ships and
942
SHIPBUILDING
[RESISTANCE
models where the linear ratio is considerable, the residuary resistance
alone should be compared by that means, the frictional resistance
being independently calculated for ship and model from the results
of Froude's experiments. The law may, however, be extended with-
out appreciable error to total resistance when the correspond-
ing linear dimensions of the ships compared are not greatly
different.
If it be assumed that the residuary resistance of a ship is capable of
being expressed as the sum of a number of terms of the form W m V",
where W is the displacement, it appears from the law of comparison
that 6m+n=6 for each term of the expression; and in the con-
struction of approximate formulae of this type for residuary resist-
ance, the indices m and n must satisfy this equation. The values of
the indices are found to vary irregularly with the speed and type of
ship; at uneconomical speeds n may be equal to or greater than 5,
and at " favourable " speeds its value may be as low as 1-5, 4 being
an approximate mean value for n at moderate speeds. A fact
pointed out by Professor Biles in a paper read before the Institution
of Naval Architects in 1881 is interesting in this connexion. When
the resistance of a ship varies as the 6th power of the speed, an
increase in the displacement by a proportionate enlargement of
dimension will not cause an increase in the resistance for the same
speed ; and if the resistance varied as a higher power of the speed
than the 6th, the resistance would actually be reduced by increasing
the displacement.
The accuracy of the law of comparison was verified by the " Grey-
hound " resistance experiments carried out by Froude on behalf of
the Admiralty (Trans. I.N.A., 1874).
The " Greyhound " was a twin-screw sloop lyoft. long and of about
1 1 60 tons displacement; the trials were made over a range of speeds
extending from 3 to I2j knots, and with varying draught and trim.
She was towed from the end of a spar 48ft. in length projecting over
the side of the towing vessel, H.M.S. " Active " ; this ensured that the
wave system and wake of the " Active " were prevented from reach-
ing the " Greyhound " and influencing her resistance. A dynamo-
metric apparatus was placed in the bow of the " Greyhound, " and
arranged so as to record the horizontal component of the tension in
the tow rope; by this means the ship's resistance was measured under
various conditions and her effective horse-power obtained. A " log
ship" or small board, ballasted to sink a few feet and remain normal
to the direction of the pull, was attached to the end of a log line
which was allowed to run freely out over the end of a spar during the
trials. The slip of the " log ship " having been obtained during inde-
pendent trials, the speed of the " Greyhound " was estimated from
the log-line readings with fair accuracy. From these results curves of
resistance on a base of speed were constructed for various conditions
of draught and trim ; the frictional resistance was estimated from
the experiments on planks, and curves of residuary resistance were
obtained. A model of the " Greyhound," on a scale of -fa full size,
was also towed inlthe experimental tank under conditions correspond-
ing to those of the ship; as with the ship, the total resistance was
measured, that due to friction was calculated, and the residuary
resistance of the model was obtained. It was found, by assuming
a particular value for the unknown frictional coefficient of the
" Greyhound," that a close agreement occurred between the residuary
resistances of ship and model. This coefficient corresponded to that
for a mixture of i calico and f varnish, which was probably equivalent
to the condition of the ship's bottom during the trials.
Similar experiments were carried out by Mr Yarrow (Trans.
I.N.A., 1883) on a torpedo boat 100 ft. long; it was found that
the residuary resistance of the boat was then about 3% in excess
of that deduced by the law of comparison from experiments on a
model.
As a result of the " Greyhound " trials, the accepted method of
estimating the horse-power required for a new ship is by running a
Model scale model under corresponding conditions in an ex-
expert- perimental tank fitted and equipped for the purpose.
meats . ' aw ^ comparison isapplied to the residuary resistance,
or, if used for the total resistance, a " frictional correction "
is made (see below). In 1871 Froude constructed a tank and suitable
apparatus at Torquay on behalf of the British Admiralty. In 1885,
six years after his death, the ground occupied by the Torquay tank
was required for building purposes, and a new tank was constructed
at Haslar, near Portsmouth, from the designs and under the super-
vision of Mr R. E. Froude, such improvements being added as
experience at Torquay had shown to be desirable. At both these
tanks models of propellers as well as of ships were experimented
upon, besides a variety of matters connected with the general
subject.
Similar establishments have now been instituted by several foreign
governments and by two private firms in Great Britain, Messrs Denny
at Dumbarton and Messrs John Brown at Clydebank. The ex-
perimental tank now under construction at Teddington should prove
an important and useful addition to the numberof such installations
in this country. It is intended to be used for general research and to
be available also for undertaking such private work as may be re-
quired by shipbuilding firms. Its inception is due to a committee
composed largely of members of the Institution of Naval Architects,
and the cost of installation is being defrayed by Mr A. F. Yarrow.
The tank will form a part of the National Physical Laboratory,
and its general control will be in the hands of officers of the
laboratory.
The Admiralty experimental tank at Haslar is nearly 400 ft. long,
20 ft. wide and 9 ft. deep. The main experimental carriage spans
the whole width of the tank, and carries a secondary railway on
which the subsidiary carriages, which carry the experimental
apparatus of different kinds, are adjusted in position. The main
carriage runs on rails on the side walls, and can travel the whole
length of the tank; it is driven at various speeds by a wire rope
from a stationary engine of ample power. Ordinary speeds range
from 100 to 800 ft. per minute, while an extreme speed of 1200 ft.
per minute can be obtained; the speeds are regulated by a highly
sensitive governor. The models, generally from 10 to 14 ft. long,
are made of hard paraffin wax, somewhat over I in. in thickness;
they are cast in a mould, with an allowance of about J in. for finishing.
The model is shaped accurately by being placed bottom up on the
bed of a machine in which a pair of revolving cutters, one on each
side of the model, cuts out on its surface a series of level lines, whose
contours are precisely similar to those on the drawing of the ship
whose model is under treatment. When all the level lines have been
cut in, the model presents the appearance of a series of steps, the
bottom angles of which correctly represent the true form the model
should possess. The paraffin ridges between these level lines are
trimmed off by the use of suitable tools and the outside surface
made quite smooth with flexible steel scrapers. The model is
ballasted to its required displacement and saddled with a frame,
which carries the guiding attachment and also the towing-rod, and
is then placed below the dynamometer. The towing-rod at its for-
ward end is then in a position to impart horizontal forces by a hard
steel surface to a knife-edge on the dynamometer lever within the
model at about the level of the water surface. There are various
delicate arrangements with knife-edge adjustments, which result
in the horizontal forces being transmitted through a spiral spring,
the extensions of which are multiplied by a lever and recorded by
a pen on a paper-covered cylinder, distance and time being simul-
taneously recorded. The speed and resistance corresponding to
each experiment are deduced from these elements, a most necessary
condition being that the speed shall be uniform throughout each
experiment. By somewhat similar arrangements on a subsidiary
carriage, the action of model screw propellers is tested either in
undisturbed water or behind a model, the speed, rate of rotation,
rotary resistance and thrust being measured.
An interesting account by Dr Glazebrook of some experimental
tanks in various countries, together with particulars of some im-
provements in their equipment, appears in Trans. I.N.A., 1909.
Of the very large number of experimental results that have now
been obtained from the trials of snips' models in the tanks referred
to above, comparatively few have been made public.
In connexion with the Torquay and Haslar tanks some
few of the reports by the elder Froude and Mr R. E.
Froude have been published by order or permission of the
Board of Admiralty, chiefly through the Institution of Naval
Architects. Amongst these may be mentioned the " Greyhound "
experiments recorded in 1874; the " Merkara " results in 1876;
experiments on the effect produced on the wave-making resistance
of ships by varying the length of parallel middle body, in 1877;
results obtained from models of three merchant liners in 1881;
papers in 1888 and 1892 on the " constant " system of notation of
results of model experiments, used at the Admiralty Experimental
Works; and some results of a systematic series of model experiments
by Mr R. E. Froude appeared in 1904. Some records of the
experiments made at private and foreign experiment establishments
have also appeared.
Some of the most important of these experiments are described in
these notes; it remains to show how they are applied in practice to
obtain an estimate of the indicated horse-power required to drive a
ship at any speed. If the resistance has been obtained from a model
experiment, or inferred by the law of comparison from data obtained
with a vessel of similar type, the effective horse-power is known;
and by assuming a suitable value for the propulsive coefficient
(vide Propulsion) the indicated horse-power is determined.
If model experiments or data for exactly similar ships are un-
available, the method of estimating the power which is probably
most commonly used is one involving a relation between I.H.P.,
displacement, and speed, which is expressed by the formula
(Speed) 3 X (Displacement)? _ r
I.H.P. .'
C being called the Admiralty coefficient. The value of C varies
considerably at different speeds even for the same ship. For it to
be constant, the I.H.P. must vary as the cube of the speed ; if
resistance varied as the square of the speed and I.H.P. as resistance
and speed, the condition of constancy would be fulfilled. Actually,
owing to variations in the index of the speed to which the resistance
is proportional, in the length and form of the ship and in
the machinery and propellers, this method of estimating I.H.P can
only be used with great caution, care being taken that the values of
C selected for comparison are taken from ships of fairly similar type,
and of corresponding lengths and speeds.
Another means of obtaining approximate estimates of the power
RESISTANCE]
SHIPBUILDING
943
required for ships of ordinary types is from curves of resistance
drawn on a base of simple functions of the speed, length and dis-
placement, the curves being faired through the spots obtained from
a large number of results of model experiments with different classes
of ships. Curves of this character have been constructed by Mr
D. W. Taylor and Mr A. W. Johns (Trans. I.N.A., 1907) ; the former
series expresses the residuary resistance per ton of displacement in
V 2 W
terms of jj and jj 3 ; the latter gives the residuary horse-power
V 2
divided by W in terms of -,- and
Volume of Displacement
the prismatic coefficient
the frictional resist-
Area of Immersed Midship Section X Length'
ance is calculated independently by Froude's or Tideman's tables.
To furnish data for estimating the I.H.P. of vessels covering a
considerable range of type, a series of experiments on systematically
varied forms of hull were made by Mr R. E. Froude. The results
were published by him in the Trans. I.N.A., 1904; and are given
in figs. 40 to 51.
The forms of hull dealt with may be primarily divided into two
groups, A and B, differing in Beam and Draught ratio; r) ^"ht
being equal to 2-59 and 3-48 for A and B respectively. Each group
is further divided into 6 types, differing in block coefficients, and the
table following gives particulars of the coefficients for the models
tried :
Stern snubbed,
forward body
as Type I.
Bow snubbed,
after body
as Type 3.
Type.
I.
2.
3-
4-
5-
6.
Block coefficients 1
or
Volume of Displacement
495
55
516
522
529
542
Length X Breadth X Draught J
Largest section coefficient "1
or
Area of immersed midship section f
951
Breadth X Draught J
The hull characteristics for A are shown in figs. 33 and 34,' and the
mode of presenting these indicates the way in which the several
types were formed, each being obtained from the type i model by
successively cutting back its stern and bow. This cutting back is
termed snubbing. A curve of areas of transverse sections is given (fig.
35, Plate I .) as well as the sheer draught. The lines of group B can be
derived from A, by altering beam and draught scales in the ratio of
57 an( * 20^4 res P ect i v ely- Each of the 12 forms which embodied
these lines was the generator of a series, differing only in length
proportion.
The curve of areas is an important item in the hull characteristics.
Experiment shows that the resistance of a hull of given curve of
areas, beam and water-line entrance, is practically unaltered how-
ever the lines are varied (so long as they are kept ship-shape, and no
unfair features are introduced). It follows, therefore, that although
the data correspond to a given type of lines, yet (consistently with
the preceding conditions) they are capable of application over a
wider field than at first sight seems likely, covering variations of
draught, form of profile and transverse sections.
Regarding the foregoing statement of permissible variations of
lines, alteration in p ra .,{. ratio has some effect. Comparison of
the two groups A and B gives the effect of the variation in the
Beam
Draught ratl tne d; and it is found that (caeteris paribus) in-
creasing Fought by 34% (i.e. from 2-59 to 3-48) increases the
E.H.P. by about 4%. A brief and approximate statement of the
results of some experiments with models of varying eai " ratio,
by Lieut.-Colonel G. Rota, R.I.N. (see Trans. I.N.A., 1905), is that
beyond a value of
an increase of 10% in
1 These lines differ from those tried in the models which are given
in Trans. I.N.A., 1904 (q.v.). Those now given have the same
curve of areas and beam, but are modified in respect of draught, profile
and shape of transverse sections, these latter being filled out so as
more closely to represent modern forms. However, a model has been
tried recently, embodying the modifications, and the results found
to be practically identical with those obtained for the original lines.
causes about l% to 2-5% increase in resistance (the lower
value being appropriate to the higher speeds, and vice versa).
This result accords with that deduced from the A- and B
groups.
By the aid of the law of comparison (and a correction for skin
friction), the information provided can be used to obtain the E.H.P.
for any size of ship of form included in the experiments (or covered
by the possible extensions, vide supra). The I.H.P. follows by using
a suitable propulsive coefficient. An example is given below as an
illustration. In practical application it is important to notice that
the lengths used in reckoning the proportions must be the total
length of immersed form (i.e. of the curve of areas) and not the
distance between perpendiculars arbitrarily placed.
The data are here given (figs. 40-51, Plates III. -VI.) in the form of
curves of E.H.P. for ships of 1000 tons displacement, plotted for a
given speed on a base of immersed length. The range in abscissae
shows the amount of variation in length proportion tried in the
experiments ; and as regards speed range the group B is for gener-
ally higher speeds than group A. The curves may be termed
standard E.H.P. curves.
The block coefficients of the forms dealt with are lower than those
of the greater proportion of merchant ships, and hence the data are
not directly applicable to these. At higher speeds, however, the
E.H.P. might be approximately estimated from these curves, by
assuming a further degree of snubbing appropriate to the required
block coefficient; but at speeds which correspond to those of
ordinary merchant ships (which are the lower speeds given in the
diagrams) the effect of snubbing is variable, and depends really upon
the actual speed-length ratio ('"*,?) of the ship we are dealing
with.
In this connexion it may be noted that the diagrams not only afford
a means of determining the I.H.P. of a giver, ship, but they may also
be used in designing, and so enable the best form to be chosen, to
fulfil the given conditions of displacement and speed, &c. For
example, suppose a ship of given displacement is required to obtain
a given speed, with a given maximum E.H.P. (or I.H.P. assuming an
appropriate propulsive coefficient). First bring the given particulars
to the proper scale for looo tons displacement (n, the ratio of the
linear dimensions, is equal to
and speed
and hence E.H.P. becomes
times the given values )- An E.H.P.
curve for the given speed is easily interpolated on the diagrams, and
we can at once obtain for the given E.H.P. (i) the length for each
type, (2) the type which gives the most suitable length, (3) the
economy resulting from any additional length, (4) the type for a given
fixedlength which gives the speed with least E.H.P., and (5) by inspec-
tion at lower speeds, how alternative forms compare at these speeds.
The following points may commend themselves, from consideration of
an instructive comparison shown in fig. 4, wheie for the B group,
E.H.P. curves for types i, 3 and 6 are drawn together. In draw-
ing conclusions, it must be clearly remembered that the E.H.P.'s,
speeds and lengths are for a standard displacement, viz. 1000 tons;
and so in applications for different displacements, these quantities
all undergo a numerical change, dependent upon the change in dis-
placement. The first point is the effect of length on E.H.P. ; this is
most marked at high speeds; and even at low speeds, for the shorter
lengths the E.H.P. begins to increase rapidly with decrease in
length. At these low speeds if, on the other hand, the length be
increased beyond a certain point, no economy at all results, but the
reverse. The reason for this is clear. At the low speed-length ratio
we are considering, the wave-making resistance is practically nil,
the resistance being almost entirely due to skin friction and eddy
making, &c. It is obvious that by continually reducing the transverse
dimensions of a ship of constant displacement, we increase the wetted
skin (in the limit when the transverse scale is zero the surface is
infinite) ; hence the resistance due to skin friction increases, and so
therefore does the total resistance. This point would be more evident
if the diagrams had been continued to a greater length and lower
speed. A second point is the effect of alteration in block coefficient.
At all speeds above 20 knots, snubbing within the limits shown is
beneficial as regards performance. At lower speeds the effect de-
pends on the length. Since it is at these lower speeds the ordinary
type of merchant ship works, we may say that the effect of snubbing
is doubtful for these, and depends upon the speed-length ratio. A
better result might be obtained in such cases if the method of increas-
ing the block coefficient were by the insertion of parallel middle body
and not by an extension of snubbing. (For fuller information on this
point see Mr R. E. Froude's 1904 I.N.A. paper.) A third point is the
effect of change in speed. For a given length, the rate of increase of
E.H.P. with speed grows with the speed, but increases least for the
more snubbed type. As an instance consider group B, types I and 6
at a length of 300 ft. (see fig. 36, Plate I.). The following table gives
the increase in E.H.P. for the corresponding changes in speed, and the
index of the speed, representing the variation of E.H.P. with speed.
The figures in columns (4) and (5) are the means obtained from the
individual pairs of speeds; at intermediate speeds these may have
different and constantly changing values :
944
SHIPBUILDING
[RESISTANCE
RESISTANCE!
SHIPBUILDING
945
94 6
SHIPBUILDING
[RESISTANCE
Change of Speed.
Corresponding Change
in E.H.P.
Corresponding Index
of Speed.
Types(l)and(6).
Type (I).
Type (6).
Type (i).
Type (6).
14-16 knots
22-23
25-26
245 E.H.P.
760
890
273 E.H.P.
650
820
3-i
5-3
4-0
3-o
4'9
4-1
The variation of the rate of growth of I.H.P. (or E.H.P.) with the
speed is a result of the interference of the bow and stern wave
systems, and is dependent upon the speed-length ratio (vide " Wave
Resistance," above). A good illustration is afforded by taking the case
of a vessel such as a torpedo-boat destroyer, which is run over a con-
siderable range of speed. Fig. 37, Plate 1 1 . shows, for such a vessel ,three
curves plotted to a base of speed, the ordinates being respectively
I.H.P., . ' ee( j-). / ' eec js 3 . The second of these is of course a curve of
resistance, and the rapid rise and fall of the rate of growth of resist-
ance manifests itself in this resistance-curve by a very marked hump
I H P
between 15 and 25 knots speed. The third curve, that of r- 1 'r^t
is interesting as affording, by its slope at different points, a very good
indication of this rate of growth. Up to about 13 knots this curve is
not far from being horizontal, indicating that till then the resistance
is varying about as the square of the speed. The rate of growth
increases from this point till it reaches a maximum of 15 knots, and
then falls off till at about 20 knots the resistance once more varies
as the square of the speed. From this ppint onward the resistance
increases at a less rate than the square of the speed.
It has been previously noted that the skin friction part of the
E.H.P. does not obey the law of comparison; this is on account
of variation of / with length, and the index of the speed being
different from 2. The coefficient / varies much more rapidly at
the smaller lengths, and hence for these the skin friction correction is
more important for a given change in length. For such lengths as
are dealt with in ships, e.g. 100 ft. and upwards, and such lengths as
we should deal with in applying the data that are now given, it has
been found possible to express the correction for skin friction very
accurately by the curves in fig. 38, Plate II. These indicate the absolute
correction that must be applied to the E.H.P. deduced for the given
displacement from the standard curves when interpreted by the law
of comparison, and are drawn for a series of displacements on a base
of speed; the correction for any odd displacement can be easily
interpolated. An addition must be made for displacements under, and
a deduction for displacements over, the standard 1000 tons.
The following example illustrates this point and the method of
using the standard curves:
A vessel 32o'X35i'Xi3'X2i35 tons is being designed; to
construct an E.H.P. curve, for speeds 11-22$ knots. The proportions
^ Draught rat ' ant ^ block coefficient) of the design are most closely
approximated to by type 2, group A (320' being the immersed length).
First find the length / for a similar vessel of 1000 tons displace-
ment; ^ = ( 2 .i \j~ 2 4 8 '5 ft., and then from fig. 41 read off
ordinates representing E.H.P. for the given speeds of the looo-ton
standard ship. These figures are converted into those appropriate
for the design, by the law of comparison. If and e are the speed and
E.H.P. for the looo-ton ship, and V and E corresponding quantities
for the design, then - = (2-135)5 = 1-135; and - = (2'- 135)* = 2-424;
using these ratios we get a table thus:
In the results hitherto recorded the depth of water has been sup-
posed sufficient to prevent the disturbance attending the motion of a
vessel on the surface from extending to the bottom ; in these
circumstances the resistance is unaffected by a moderate shall ^
change in the depth. Conditions, however, frequently ****
arise in which vessels are run at high speeds in comparatively shallow
water; and a marked alteration is then observed in the resistance and
power corresponding to a particular speed. An investigation of the
effect of shallow water on resistance is therefore of importance and
interest; and a brief account of this part of the subject is here
appended.
The change from deep to shallow water modifies the shape of the
stream lines, many of which in deep water are approximately in
planes normal to the surface of the hull; those in shoal water tend
to lie more nearly in horizontal planes, owing to the reduced space
under the bottom of the ship. In consequence, the velocity in the
stream tubes in the vicinity of the ship is increased, and the changes
of pressure and the " statical " wave heights are exaggerated. This
causes an increase in the frictional resistance as the depth of water
becomes less; but the effect on the residuary resistance is more
complicated.
Firstly, the length I of the waves corresponding to a speed t> is
increased from that expressed by
to be in accordance with the formula
^=j tanh T
which applies to shallow-water waves for a depth h. When the
depth h is equal to -, the length of wave is infinite, and the wave
becomes of the type investigated by Scott Russell in canals, and
termed a " solitary wave " or a " wave of translation." When the
depth of water is less than no perjnanent wave system of speed
v can exist. These changes in the wave length considerably affect
the wave pattern and alter the speeds at which interference between
the bow and stern systems has a favourable or unfavourable effect
on the efficiency of propulsion.
In the second place the amount by which the speed of travel of the
energy of the wave falls short of the speed of the ship is expressed by
As read from
the Standard
Curves at a
Length =
248-5 Ft.
As converted by
Law of Compari-
son for 2135-Tons
Design.
Correction to
Col.4 for Skin
Friction :
read from
Figure.
Col.4-Col.s
= E.H.P.
Corrected.
Col. ixd-us-y)
Col. 3X(J'4S4-f)
Knots.
IO
12
14
16
\l
19
20
E.H.P.
150
275
475
740
940
1285
1825
2590
Knots.
"35
13-62
15-89
18-16
19-30
20-43
21-56
22-70
E.H.P.
364
667
1151
1794
2278
3115
4423
6278
E.H.P.
16
29
42
55
61
67
74
80
E.H.P.
348
638
1109
1739
2217
3048
4349
6198
The curve shown in fig. 39, Plate II. results from plotting col. (6) toa
base of speed given by col. (3). Since the propulsive coefficient varies
with the speed, it is preferable to take the E.H.P. from the curve
and convert to I.H.P., using an appropriate coefficient, than to use
a common coefficient by plotting a curve of I.H.P.
In deep water this difference of speed is |; in shallow water it
diminishes, becoming zero at the critical depth producing a wave of
translation.
Thirdly, the local disturbance immediately surrounding the ship
is increased in shallow water, theoretical investigation snowing that,
at the critical depth above referred to, it becomes indefinite or is
only limited by its own viscosity and eddying resistance. In still
shallower water, the amount of disturbance is reduced as the depar-
ture from the critical depth becomes greater.
Finally, the increase of the frictional resistance due to the
higher velocity of rubbing is further modified by the large dimen-
sions of the wave accompanying the ship; the particles of a
wave in very shallow water are moving appreciably in the
direction of travel, which might lead to a reduction in the
frictional resistance.
From these considerations it appears impossible to obtain, a
priori, the net effect of shallow water on the resistance, owing to
the divergent character of the component effects producing the final
result. This difficulty is confirmed by the inconsistency of the
readings frequently obtained during experiments in shallow
water, pointing to instability in the conditions then existing.
A number of experiments have been carried out in
shallow water with both ships and models; the most
important are those by Constructor Paulus (Schleswig-
Holstein District Club, 1904), Captain Rasmussen, Mr Yarrow,
Herr Popper and Major Rota, many of which are recorded
in the J.N.A. Transactions. A summary of the conclusions
drawn from them is appended :
1. The minimum depth of water that has no appreciable
influence on the resistance increases with the speeu and, in
some degree, with the dimensions of the ship.
2. At constant speed the resistance is, in general, greatest
(I! 2 \
) . It is concluded, there-
fere, that the increase of resistance due to the enhanced
dimensions of the wave then accompanying the ship is more
than sufficient to counteract the gain resulting from the
diminished drain of energy from the wave system astern.
3. At high speeds, when a considerable portion of the resistance
is due to wave-making, the total resistance diminishes at depths
lower than the critical depth, and is frequently less in very shallow
water than in deep water.
4. The " humps " in the curves of resistance on a base of
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE I.
FIG. 35. If length for i,ooo-ton Ship be assumed 240 feet, then maximum ordinate of above curves represents
2 79'9 square feet for Type i'
2747 2
269-0
265-5
262-1
255'4
and for other lengths, the number of square
feet varies inversely as the length.
t HP
TOOO
V
v
V
200 2*0 280 120
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 36. Group B. Comparison of Types.
Type i.
.. 3
, 6-
XXIV. 946
PLATE II.
SHIPBUILDING
SCALE OF SPEED IN KNOTS
FIG. 37.
Z+ 26 26 3O
V
E.H P
IOOO
2OOO
SCALE. OF SPE.ED IN KNOTS
FIG. 38. Curves of Surface Friction Correction.
SCALE or SPIED IN KNOTS
EM P.
roop
FIG. 39. Estimated Curve of E.H.P. for Vessel
320' x 355' X 13' X 2,135 Tons.
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE in.
E.H.P.
ZbOO
.60 200 24-0
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 40. Curves of E.H.P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group "A."
Type I. Block Coefficient '495.
10
E.H P.
3OOO
160 2OO 2*0 280
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 42. Curves of E.H.P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group "A."
Type 3. Block Coefficient -516.
E.H.P.
1500
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 41. Curves of E.H.P. for l,ooo-ton Ship.
Group ' A."
Type 2. Block Coefficient -505.
\
E.H.P.
2500
ISOO
500
i*O IBO 220 26
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 43. Curves of E.H.P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group "A."
Type 4. Block Coefficient -522.
PLATE IV.
SHIPBUILDING
12
160 ZOO 24O
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 44. Curves of E. H. P. for i.ooo-ton Ship.
Group "A." Types. Block Coefficient -529.
E.M.P
2500
E.H.R
2500
2OOO
I5OO
IOOO
5OO
2 SO
\
\
\
\
t.M.P
-1600O
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 46. Curves of E. H. P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group "B."_Type I. Block Coefficient -495.
\
eooo
1 500
500
ZOO 24-O 2&O
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 45. Curves of E. H. P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group "A." Type 6. Block Coefficient -542.
\
E H.P.
TOOO
2000
2OO 2 A O 28O 32O
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 47. Curves of E.H. P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group " B." Type 2. Block Coefficient -505.
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE V.
a u
3 -b<!
O CJ
"o O 3
3
3
.S 8:
60 .
g K
- U
I S
u
o.
I
PLATE VI.
SHIPBUILDING
\
\
14-
E.H.P.
7OOO
6000
5000
3000
2000
\
\
C.H.P
7000
6000
9009
Immersed length in feet.
mmerse eng n ee.
FIG. 50. Curves of E. H. P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group " B." Type 5. Block Coefficient -529.
Immersed length in feet.
FIG. 51. Curves of E. H.P. for i,ooo-ton Ship.
Group " B." Type 6. Block Coefficient -542.
J.
'
-' a* m J
wwr-t-
> I j
FIG. 52. Speed trials of H.M. Torpedo Boat Destroyer "Cossack." At Maplin and Skelmorlie. Displacement 836 tons.
PROPULSION]
SHIPBUILDING
947
are more
speed occur at lower speeds in shallow water, and
pronounced ; the resistance is occasionally reduced when the speed is
increased.
5. The changes of resistance produced by shallowness are accom-
panied by corresponding changes in the speed of revolution of the
engines and in the trim of the vessel. These are illustrated by the
curves in fig. 52, Plate VI., which are taken from a paper read before
the I.N.A. by the writer in 1909, giving the results of some trials on
H.M. torpedo-boat destroyer " Cossack."
The data obtained from the various shallow water experiments
are capable of extension to ships of similar types by the applica-
tion of the law of comparison at corresponding depths (pro-
portional to the linear dimensions) and at corresponding speeds.
The influence of shallow water on the speed of a large number of
ships can be thus obtained; but the data at present available
are insufficient to enable a general law, if any exists, to be
determined.
A further modification in the conditions arises when a ship proceeds
along a channel of limited breadth and depth. Some interesting
experiments were made in this connexion by Scott Russell on the
resistance of barges towed in a narrow canal. He obtained (by
measuring the pull in the tow rope) the resistance of a barge of about
6 tons displacement, for a mean depth of the canal of about 4^ ft.,
as follows:
Speed in miles per hour .
. 6-19
7-57
8-52
9-04
Resistance in pounds .
250
500
400
280
At the critical speed (8-2 m. per hour) corresponding to the depth,
the resistance was in this case reduced ; and at a higher speed a
further reduction of resistance was observed. It is stated that the
boat was then situated on a wave of translation extending to the
sides of the canal, and which was capable of travelling unchanged
for a considerable distance; the resistance of the boat was then
almost entirely due to skin friction.
When the speed of a ship is not uniform, the resistance is altered
by an amount depending on the acceleration, the inertia of the ship
and the motion of the surrounding water. In the ideal
^ cee ' conditions of a vessel wholly submerged in a perfect fluid,
the force producing acceleration is the product of the
acceleration with the " virtual mass," which is the mass of the vessel
increased by a proportion of the displacement; e.g. for a sphere,
one half the displacement added to the mass is equal to the virtual
mass. The effect of acceleration on a ship under actual conditions
is less simple; and the virtual mass, defined as the increase of re-
sistance divided by the acceleration of the ship, varies considerably
with the circumstances of the previous motion. The mean value
of the virtual mass of the " Greyhound," obtained by Froude from
the resistance experiments, was about 20% in excess of the displace-
ment. This value is probably approximately correct for all ships of
ordinary form, and is of use in estimating the time and distance
required to make a moderate alteration in speed; the conditions
during the stopping, starting and reversing of ships are generally,
however, such as to make this method inapplicable.
Propulsion.
The action of a marine propeller consists fundamentally of the
stcrnward projection of a column of water termed the propeller
race; the change of momentum per unit time of this water is
equal to the thrust of the propeller, which during steady motion
is balanced by the resistance of the ship.
Assuming in the first place that the passage of the ship does not
affect and is uninfluenced by the working of the propeller, let V be
the speed of the ship, v that of the propeller race relative to the
ship, and m the mass of water added to the propeller race per
second. The thrust T is then equal to m (v V), and the rate at
which useful work is done is TV or mV (o-V). Loss of energy
is caused by (a) shock or disturbance at the propeller, (b) friction at
the propeller surface, (c) rotational motions of the water in the
race, and (d) the astern motion of the race. Of these (a), (6)
and (c) are capable of variation and reduction by suitable pro-
peller design; though unavoidable in practice, they may be dis-
regarded for the purpose of obtaining the theoretical maximum
efficiency of a perfect propeller. The remaining loss, due to the
sternward race, is equal to ym(v-V) 2 ; whence the whole energy
supplied to the propeller in unit time is expressed by %m(v L - V 2 )
and the efficiency by y i The quantity v-V is commonly termed
v-V
the slip, and the slip ratio ; the latter expression being denoted
by s, the theoretical maximum efficiency obtained on this basis
becomes , _ i It appears, therefore, that the maximum efficiency
should be obtained with minimum slip; actually, however, with screw
propellers the losses here disregarded entirely modify this result,
which is true only to the extent that very large slip is accompanied by
(or properly the apparent slip ratio) .
a low efficiency. The foregoing considerations show that, with a given
thrust, the larger m the quantity of water acted upon (and the smaller,
therefore, the slip), the higher is the efficiency generally obtained.
The type of propeller most nearly conforming to the fundamental
assumption is the jet propeller in which water is drawn into the ship
through a pipe, accelerated by a pump, and discharged aft. The
" Waterwitch " and a few other vessels have been propelled in this
manner; since, however, the quantity of water dealt with is limited
for practical reasons, a considerable sternward velocity in the jet is
required to produce the thrust, and the slip being necessarily large,
only a very low efficiency is obtained. A second type of propeller is
the paddle, or stern-wheel which operates by means of floats mounted
radially on a circular frame, and which project a race similar to that
of the jet propeller. Certain practical difficulties inherent to this
form of propulsion render it unsuitable or inefficient for general use,
although it is of service in some ships of moderate speed which require
large manoeuvring powers, e.g. tugs and pleasure steamers, or in
vessels that have to run in very shallow water. The screw, which is the
staple form of steamship propeller, has an action similar in effect to
the propellers already considered. Before proceeding to discuss the
action of screw propellers, it is desirable to define some of the terms
employed. The product of the revolutions and pitch is often called
the speed of the propeller ; it represents what the speed would be in
the absence of slip. Speed of advance, on the other hand, is applied
to the forward movement of the propeller without reference to its
rotation ; and is equal to the speed of the ship or body carrying the
propeller. The difference between the speed of the propeller and the
speed of advance is termed the slip ; and if the two former speeds be
denoted by v and V respectively, the slip is p-V and the slip ratio
This notation corresponds
to that previously used, v-V being then defined as the absolute
velocity of the race; it is found with propellers of the usual type,
that zero thrust is obtained when v = V, provided that the " con-
ventional " pitch, which for large screws is approximately 1-02 times
the pitch of the driving surface, is used in estimating v. The pitch
divided by the diameter is termed the pitch ratio.
The theories formulated to explain the action of the screw pro-
peller are divisible into two classes (i.) those in which the action of
the screw as a whole is considered with reference to the change of
motion produced in the water which it encounters, the blade friction
being, however, deduced from experiments on planes; and (ii.) those
in which the action of each elementary portion of the blade surface is
separately estimated from the known forces on planes moved through
water with various speeds and at different angles of obliquity; the
force on any element being assumed uninfluenced by the surrounding
elements, and being resolved axially and circumferentially, the thrust,
turning moment, and efficiency are given by summation. Professor
Rankine in Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs., 1865, assumed that the pro-
peller impressed change of motion upon the water without change of
pressure except such as is caused by the rotation of the race. In Sir
George Greenhill's investigation (Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs., 1888) it is
assumed conversely that the thrust is obtained by change of pressure,
the only changes of motion being the necessary circumferential
velocity due to the rotation of the screw, and a sufficient sternward
momentum to equalize the radial and axial pressures. These two
theories are both illustrative of class (i.) ; and this idea was further
developed by Mr R. E. Froude in 1889, who concluded that the
screw probably obtained its thrust by momentarily impressing an
increase of pressure on the water which eventually resulted in an
increase of velocity about one-half of which was obtained before and
one-half abaft the screw. A lateral contraction of the race necessarily
accompanies each process of acceleration. These general conclusions
have been in some degree confirmed by experiments carried out
by Mr D. W. Taylor, Proceedings of the (American) Society of Naval
Architects, &c., 1906, and by Professor Flamm, who obtained photo-
graphs of a screw race in a glass tank, air being drawn in to show the
spiral path of the wake.
In Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs., 1878, Froude propounded a theory of
the screw propeller illustrative of the second class above mentioned,
the normal and tangential pressures on an elementary area being
deduced from the results of his own previous experiments on obliquely
moving planes. He was led to the following conclusions regarding
maximum efficiency: (i) The slip angle (obliquity of surface to the
direction of its motion) should have a particular value (proportional to
the square root of the coefficient of friction) ; and (2) when this is so,
the pitch angle should be 45. The maximum efficiency obtained from
this investigation was 77%. This theoretical investigation, though
of importance and interest, does not exactly represent the actual
conditions, inasmuch as the deductions from a small element are
applied to the whole blade, and, further, the considerable disturbance
of the water when a blade reaches it, owing to the passage of the
preceding blade, is ignored.
The most complete information respecting the properties of screw
Cropellers has been obtained from model experiments, the
LW of comparison which has been shown to hold for
ship resistance being assumed to apply equally to screw
propellers. No frictional correction is made in obtain-
ing the values for large screws from the model ones; as stated by
SHIPBUILDING
[PROPULSION
Mr R. E. Froude in 1908, it is probable that the effect of friction
would be in the direction of giving higher efficiencies for large screws
than for small. The results obtained with ships' propellers are in
general accordance with those deduced from model propellers,
although the difficulties inherent to carrying out experiments with
full-sized screws have hitherto prevented as exact a comparison being
made as was done with resistance in the trials of the " Greyhound "
and her model. Results of model experiments have been given by
Mr R. E. Froude, Mr, D. W. Taylor, Sir John Thornycroft and
others; of these a very complete series was made by Mr R. E.
Froude, an account of which appears in Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs.,
1908. Propellers of three and four blades, of pitch ratios varying
from O-8 to !, and with blades of various widths and forms were
successively tried, the slip ratio varying from zero to about 0-45.
In each case the screw advanced through undisturbed water; the
diameter was uniformly 0-8 ft., the immersion to centre of shaft 0-64
ft., and the speed of advance 300 ft. per minute. Curves are given in
the paper which express the results in a form convenient for applica-
tion. Assuming as in Froude's theory that the normal pressure on a
blade element varies with the area, the angle of incidence, and the
square of the speed, the thrust T would be given by a formula such as
T=a R'-JR
where R is the number of revolutions per unit time.
On rationalising the dimensions, and substituting for R in terms of
the slip ratio s, the " conventional " pitch ratio p, the diameter D,
and the speed of advance V, this relation becomes :
T = .? lyy* _*
From the experiments the coefficient a was determined, and the
final empirical formula below was obtained
[ - -085)
DV S XB
-oo32i6DV'XB
where H is the thrust horse-power, R the revolutions in hundreds per
minute, V is in knots, and D in feet. The " blade factor " B depends
only on the type and number of blades; its value for various " disk
area ratios," i.e. ratio of total blade area (assuming the blade to
extend to the centre of shaft) to the area of a circle of diameter D :s
given in the following table :
Disk area ratio
3
40
5
60
70
80
B for 3 blades elliptical
0978
1050
1085
III2
"35
"57
B for 3 blades, wide tip
1045
1126
1166
1195
1218
1242
B for 4 blades, elliptical
1040
"59
1227
1268
1294
1318
The ratio of the ordinates of the wide tip blades to those of the
elliptical blades varies as i-r-rr> where r is the radius from centre of
shaft.
Curves of propeller efficiency on a base of slip ratio are drawn in
fig. 53 ; these are correct for a 3-bladed elliptical screw of disk area
ratio 0-45 ; a uniform
deduction from the
efficiency obtained
by the curves of -02
for a 3-bladed wide
tip and -012 for a
4-bladed elliptical
scrdW must be made.
Efficiency correc-
tions for different
disk area ratios have
also to be applied ;
for a disk ratio of
0-70 the deductions
are -06, -035, -02 and
01 with pitch ratios
of 0-8, i-o, 1-2 and
1-4. respectively; for
other ofisk ratios, the
deduction is roughly
proportional to (disk
ratio-o-45), a slight
increase in efficiency
^"^lue^o? t'hc
disk ratio. A skew-
was found to make no material
FIG. 53. Curves of Screw Propeller Efficiency.
back ol the blade to an angle of 15
difference to the results
Hitherto, the theoretical and experimental .considerations of
the screw have been made under the convention that the pro-
peller is advanced into undisturbed or " open " water,
which conditions are very different from those existing Inter-
behind. the ship. The vessel is followed by a body of action
water in complex motion and the assumption usually ' between
made is that the " wake," as it is termed, can be con- \solpantl
sidered to have a uniform forward velocity V over the screw.
propeller disk.
If V be the speed of the ship, the velocity of the propeller relative
to the water in which it works, i.e. the speed of advance of the pro-
peller is V-V. The value of the wake velocity is given by the ratio
V
/ = ?f, which is termed the wake value.
The propeller behaves generally the same as a screw advancing
into " open " water at speed V V instead of at speed V and the
real slip is v (V V')=P I , w - The real slip is greater than the
apparent slip r-V, since in general w is a positive fraction ; and the
real slip must be taken into account in the design of propeller
dimensions.
On the other hand the influence of the screw extends sufficiently
far forward to cause a diminution of pressure on the after part
of the ship, thereby causing an increase in resistance. The thrust T,
given by the screw working behind the ship, must be sufficient
to balance the tow-rope resistance R and the resistance caused
by the diminution in pressure. If this diminution of pressure
be expressed as a fraction / of the thrust exerted by the screw then
T(i-0 = R.
The power exerted by the propeller or the thrust horse-power is
proportional to TX(V-V'); the effective or tow rope horse-power is
RV
RXV, and the ratio of these two powers -rvw V'1 = (' "OC 1 +") ' s
termed the hull efficiency.
It_ is evident that the first factor (i+ai) represents the power
regained from the wake, which is itself due to the resistance of
the ship. As the wake velocity is usually a maximum close to
the stern, the increase of w obtained through placing the screw in
a favourable position is generally accompanied by an increase
in /; for this reason the hull efficiency does not differ greatly from
unity with different positions of the screw. Model screw experi-
ments with and without a ship are frequently made to determine
the values of w, t, and the hull efficiency for new designs; a
number of results for different ships, together with an account
of some interesting experiments on the effect of varying the
speed, position of screw, pitch ratio, direction of rotation, &c.,
are given in a paper read at the Institution of Naval Architects in
1910 by Mr W. J. Luke.
The total propelling efficiency or propulsive coefficient (p) is the
ratio of the effective horse-power (RV) to the indicated horse-power,
or in turbine-driven ships to the shaft horse-power as determined
from the torque on the shaft. In addition to the factor " hull
efficiency," it includes the losses due to engine friction, shaft friction,
and the propeller. Its value is generally about 0-5, the efficiencies of
the propeller and of the engine and shafting being about 65 and 80 %
respectively. The engine losses are eliminated in the propulsive
coefficient as measured in a ship with steam turbines; but the
higher rate of revolutions there adopted causes a reduction in the
propeller efficiency usually sufficient to keep the value of the pro-
pulsive coefficient about the same as in ships with reciprocating
engines.
The table on the following page gives approximate values of w, t,
and p in some ships of various types.
The action of a screw propeller is believed to involve the accelera-
tion of the water in the race before reaching the screw, which is
necessarily accompanied by a diminution of pressure; ca\Uatloa
and it is quite conceivable that the pressure may be
reduced below the amount which would preserve the natural flow of
water to the screw. This would occur at small depths of immersion
where the original pressure is low, and with relatively small blade-
areas in relation to the thrust, when the acceleration is rapid; and
it is in conjunction with these circumstances that so-called cavita-
tipn " is generally experienced. It is accompanied by excessive
slip, and a reduction in thrust; experiments on the torpedo-boat
destroyer " Daring," made by Mr S. W. Barnaby in 1894,* showed
that cavitation occurred when the thrust per square inch of pro-
jected blade area exceeded a certain amount (ni ft). Further
trials have shown that the conditions under which cavitation
is produced depend upon the depth of immersion and other
factors, the critical pressure causing cavitation varying to some
extent with the type of ship and with the details of the
propeller; the phenomenon, however, provides a lower limit to
the area of the screw below which irregularity in thrust may be
expected, and the data for other screws (whether model or
full-size) become inapplicable.
1 Trans. I.N.A. 1897 (vol. xxxix.).
STRENGTH]
SHIPBUILDING
949
Type of Ship.
Number of
Screws.
Propulsive
Coefficient,
P-
Wake Value,
w.
Thrust
Deduction,
t.
, Hull
Efficiency.
Remarks.
Battleship (turbine driven)
Battleship (older types)
First-class cruiser
4
2
2
47 l
' "47
53
$-15
I -20
14
IO
12
16
I?
IO
I -01
I-OI
95
Inner screws
Outer screws
Second ...
2
48
06
10
95
Third
2
48
05
08
Torpedo-boat destroyer
Mail steamer (turbine) )
Cargo vessel
2
4
2
62
46
OI
J -30
\-22
2O
02
17
20
14
97
i -08
98
I 'O^
Inner screws
Outer screws
Sloop
I
45
21
17
I*OO
Submarine (on surface)
2
16
IO
I -04.
(diving) .
2
2O
12
1-05
The above figures refer to full speed and are affected by alteration of speed.
1 Higher values have been obtained for the propulsive coefficients of the most recent turbine-driven ships.
Strength.
The forces tending to strain a ship's structure include (i) the
static forces arising from the distribution of the weight and
buoyancy when afloat, and the weight and supporting forces
when in dock or ashore; (2) the dynamic forces arising from the
inertia of the ship and its lading under the accelerations experi-
enced in the various motions to which the ship is liable, such as
rolling and pitching in a sea way; and (3) local forces and water
pressures incidental to (a) propulsion and steering, and (6) the
operation of the various mechanical contrivances which it
carries.
The straining actions of the forces, due to the distribution of
the weight and buoyancy of the ship at rest and to the inertia
of the ship in motion, constitute the only part of the problem
of the strength of the structure which can be considered
theoretically with any generality; the character of the internal
reactions arising in the structure is so complex, that simplifying
assumptions have always to be made in order to enable them
to be calculated.
The results of theoretical calculations as to the general structural
strength of ships are therefore of value for comparative purposes
and to some extent for the approximate estimation of stresses
actually liable to occur in the structure. The comparison of the
theoretical calculations with the results of experience forms an
invaluable guide to the proper distribution of material. In
making such a comparison the necessity of providing sufficient
strength, on the one hand, and of keeping down the weight, on
the other hand, has to be borne in mind; the latter point being
especially important in a ship, since its economical performance
is roughly dependent on the difference between the weight, of the
structure and the total available displacement.
The greatest straining actions, to which vessels of ordinary forms
and proportions are subject, are due to inequalities in the longitudinal
Long)- distribution of the weight and the buoyancy. Let WWW
tudinal (fig- 54) represent the weight, and BBB. . .the buoyancy
bending. P er f ot run of a ship plotted along the length AC ; over
the lengths Ac, be, de.fC the weight is in excess of the buoy-
ancy ; while from a to b, c to d, e to/, it is in defect. Acurve LLL, whose
ordinates are equal to the differences between those of WWW and
BBB, is termed a curve
of loads, and represents
the net load of the ship
regarded as a beam
subject to longitudinal
bending. Shearing forces
are produced whose
resultant at any trans-
verse section is equal to
the total net load on
either side of the section ;
they are represented by
the " shearing force "
curve FFF . . . , whose
ordinate at any trans-
verse section is pro-
FIG. 54. portional to the area
T , T of the " loads " curve
LLL ... up to that section. Similarly, on plotting the areas of the
sheanng force curve as ordinates, a " bending moment " curve
M M M isobtained which
gives the bending
moment at any sec-
tion. Symbolically, if
w, F, M represent the
load, shearing force,
and bending moment,
and x the co-ordinate
of length,
dF , _, <fM
The conditions of equi-
librium, viz. (a) that
the . total weight and
buoyancy are equal,
and (6) that the centre
of gravity and the
centre of buoyancy are
in the same vertical
transverse section, en-
sure that the end ordinates of the shearing force and bending
moment curves are zero.
These curves are usually constructed for three standard conditions
of a ship, viz. (i.) in still water; (ii.) on a trochoidal wave of length
equal to that of the ship
and height ^th of the
length,_ with the crest
amidships; and (iii.) on
a similar wave with the
trough amidships. The
curve of weight is ob-
tained by distributing
each item of weight over
the length of the ship
occupied by it and sum-
ming for the whole ship.
Such a condition of the
ship as regards stores,
coal, cargo, &c., is select-
ed, which will produce
the greatest bending
FIG. 55. Cruiser of 14,000 Tons on
Wave Crest.
moment in each case. The ordinates of the curve of buoyancy are
calculated fronvthe areas of the immersed sections, the ship being
balanced longitudinally on the wave in the second and third con-
ditions. The shearing force and bending moment curves are then
drawn by successive in-
tegration of the curve of
loads. Typical curves
are shown in figs. 55 to
59 for a first-class cruiser "/
on wave crest, a torpedo-
boat destroyer on wave
crest (bunkers empty)
and in trough (bunkers
full), and a cargo vessel
on wave crest (hold and
bunkers empty) and in
trough (hold and bunkers
full). From these curves
it is seen that the maxi-
mum bending moment
FIG. 56. Torpedo Boat Destroyer on
Wave Crest.
\
occurs near amidships; its effect in figs. 55, 56 and 58 is to cause
the ends to fall relatively to the middle, such a moment being termed
" hogging "; the reverse or a " sagging " moment is illustrated in
figs. 57 and 59. Curves of a similar character are obtained in the
still-water condition, but the bending moments and shearing forces
are then generally reduced in amount.
The maximum bending moment is frequently expressed as a ratio
of the product of the ship's length and the displacement; average
values for various types of ships are tabulated below :
Class of Ship.
WXL
Whether Hogging
(on Wave Crest)
or Sagging
(in Wave Hollow).
Maximum B.M.
Mail steamer ....
Cargo vessel
Battleship (modern)
Battleship (older types)
First-class cruiser
Second-class cruiser
Scout
Torpedo-boat destroyer
Torpedo boat ....
From 25 to 30
From 30 to 35
About 30
About 40
About 32
About 25
About 22
5 About 22
( From 17 to 25
i About 23
/ About 23
H
H
H
H
H
S
H
H
S
H
S
95
SHIPBUILDING
[STRENGTH
The stresses at a transverse section due to bending are obtained
from the usual formula T* where M is the bending moment, I
the moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis, y the
distance from the neutral axis of the point at which the stress is
required, and p the intensity of stress. In calculating I, a deduction
from the area of plating in tension is made for rivet holes, and only
the continuous longitudinal portions of the structure are assumed
effective in resisting bending.
The stresses obtained by this method undergo considerable
variation with class and size of ship. As regards the former, it is
evident that the actual straining actions upon a ship necessarily
vary with the type; and the stresses allowable, as calculated
on a uniform basis of applied forces, must vary accordingly.
The variation due to size is less obvious, but it is clear that the
larger the ship, the less is the probability of encountering waves
as long as herself; and, moreover, the proportion of height to length
of the largest waves is generally less than that assumed. For these
reasons greater calculated stresses are allowable in large ships than
in small ships or in those of moderate size. The limiting stress
frequently adopted for small ships is 6 tons per sq. in., which
may be increased for portions in tension to 8 tons with high tensile
steel; on the other hand, the calculated stresses in the largest
vessels frequently exceed 8 tons compressive and 10 tons tensile.
The above method is that now universally adopted for comparing
the stresses in ships caused by longitudinal bending; although
imperfect, it affords a reasonable basis of comparison between the
longitudinal strengths of vessels, especially when, as is generally
on Torpedo-Boat Destroyers (see Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs., 1905).
The principal dimensions of the " Wolf " are length 210 ft., breadth
217 ft., draught 5-3 ft., and displacement 360 tons, with a coal
capacity of 80 tons. Two sets of experiments were made (i.) under
a hogging moment when supported in dock on two cradles 10 ft.
wide, spaced 26 ft. apart centre to centre, and equidistant from the
ship's centre of gravity, bunkers empty; (ii.) under a sagging
moment when supported by similar blocks 120 ft. apart, bunkers
full. The distribution of weight and buoyancy had previously been
determined for each case so that the pressures on the blocks and the
bending moments caused thereby could be accurately obtained.
When thus supported the water-level in the dock was gradually
lowered; and for successive water-levels spaced 6 in. apart the
extension or compression of the plating was measured at various
points of the structure by Stromeyer's strain indicators ; the vertical
deflections at various points of the length were also recorded. The
observations were repeated several times, and the following are the
general results:
(a) In the sagging condition the neutral axis was actually situated
7-55 ft. above the keel; the calculated distance was 7-8 ft. de-
ducting rivet holes in parts in tension, and 7-7 ft. without such
deduction. In the hogging condition the observed height was 7 -2 ft.,
those calculated as before being 75 ft. and 76 ft. All shell and
deck plating, gunwale and keelson angles, and the side girders and
angles were included in the calculation for the moment ofj inertia.
The calculated and observed positions of the neutral axis are thus
in fairly close agreement.
(b) The actual vertical distribution of strain over a transverse
/
/
FIG. 57. Torpedo-Boat Destroyer in
Wave Trough.
FIGI 58. Cargo Vessel of 12,000 Tons on
Wave Crest.
FIG. 59. Cargo Vessel of !2,oooTons
in Wave Trough.
the case, the comparison is made between two ships of similar type.
The relation between stress and strain has therefore to be
investigated, which involves the experimental determination of
the modulus of elasticity of the structure.
The assumptions on which the theory of bending is based are :
(a) At any transverse section the material lying on the neutral
surface, which passes through the C.G. of the effective sectional
material, is neither extended nor compressed.
(b) The material is homogeneous; and the layers comprised
between adjacent surfaces parallel to the neutral surface act inde-
pendently. (This is probably more nearly the case in a ship than
in a beam of solid section.)
(c) The material situated at a distance y from the neutral surface
is compressed (or extended) longitudinally by an amount * of its
original length; where l/p is the curvature of the neutral surface if
originally straight, or the alteration of curvature if originally curved.
(a") The stress is proportional to the strain and equal to
Ey
being Young's modulus for the material. It follows that the resultant
jongitudinal force across a section is zero, and the moment of the
internal forces about the neutral axis (i.e. about the trace of the
El
neutral surface in the section) is , which is equal and opposite
to the external bending moment M.
(e) Taking axes Ox longitudinal, Oz vertical, since p is large,
- may be replaced by -r-j, and
E-J-, = -J- or Ez =
giving the deflection z at any point.
The validity of the theory as applied to a ship was tested and
confirmed in 1903 at Portsmouth Dockyard when experiments were
made on H.M.S. Wolf " by Professor J. H. Biles for the Committee
section was approximately in accordance with the linear law assumed
in the theory of bending.
(c) The modulus of elasticity E was obtained by equating the
sum of the moments about the neutral axis of the stresses deduced
from the observed strains to the bending moment.
(d) The value of E was also deduced from the deflections by means
of the formula /"/"M
Ez=J J -j dx dx;
and its value under a sagging moment is in agreement with that
found by (c). Under a hogging moment the mean value obtained
from the deflection is less than that from the strain, showing that
the curvature obtained from the deflections is greater than that to
which the structure is actually bent.
The table at the top of the following page shows the values
obtained for E, the modulus of elasticity.
By observing the deflections of two vessels when loaded with
ballast, the following values for E were obtained by T. C. Read and
G. Stanbury (Trans. Inst. Nav. Arch., 1894), and are given for pur-
poses of comparison :.
Principal Dimensions
of Vessel.
Load in
Tons.
Deflection
in Inches.
Value of E
deduced.
347'X45'-6"X2 7 '-2
30o'X4l'-6"X2l'-2*
5000
1800
2-31
62
11,000
9,000
After the experiments the " Wolf " was sent to sea in rough
weather with the object of comparing the stresses then observed
with those calculated under the standard conditions on trough or
crest. The strains at various portions of the structure were again
measured with Stromeyer's indicators, and the stresses deduced from
STRENGTH]
SHIPBUILDING
appears, therefore, that in the
majority of ships whose departure
from longitudinal symmetry is slight,
pitching has little effect on the
amount of the maximum longitudinal
bending moment; nevertheless it
considerably increases the bending
moments near the ends.
The effect of heaving is investi-
gated by obtaining the positions of
equilibrium of the C.G. of the ship
when on wave crest and in wave
trough; intermediate positions of
equilibrium are assumed to be
Note. The maximum stresses above are approximate, and are recorded in order that the given by y = a sin irt where Ti is the
variation of E with the stress in the material may be seen. Tons per square-inch units are I 7 "
Sagging.
Hogging.
Draught
of Water.
Maximum
Compressive
Stress.
Maximum
Tensile
Stress.
E by Strain
Indicator.
E by Deflec-
tion over the
whole length.
Maximum
Compressive
Stress.
Maximum
Tensile
Stress.
E by Strain
Indicator.
E by Deflec-
tion over the
whole length.
Feet.
6
1-7
2-3
I2.IOO
1 1, 800
I-O
9
5
2-9
Z'7
I2.IOO
I2.OOO
27
2-6
l6,OOO
1 1, 8OO
4
4-1
5'4
11,400
11,400
4'2
4-0
15,100
10,800
3
5'2
6-6
II,4OO
11,500
5-3
5'0
13,000
10,400
2
6-0
7'7
IO,8OO
11,100
6-1
5-8
I2,7OO
9,6OO
I
6-5
8-4
10,700
IO,6OO
6-6
6-4
I2,7OO
9,900
Dry
6-7
8-6
IO.2OO
IO,3OO
6-8
66
1 1, 8OO
9,800
employed.
the values for E found from the dock experiments. The maximum
stresses were as follows :
Condition.
Stress -Tons per Square Inch.
Maximum observed
when hogging .
Maximum observed
when sagging .
Calculated stress (sagg
in a wave hollow
j'ijth length
stresses
stresses
ing) when
of height
Keel.
Deck.
2 9 C.
5'4T.
7-1 T.
2-oT.
2- 5 C.
5-3 C.
C. = Compressive. T. = Tensile.
It appears from these experiments that (at least in ships of similar
character to H.M.S. "Wolf") the stresses corresponding to any
particular external conditions closely agree with those calculated
from the usual theory of bending; on the other hand the waves
encountered during the sea trials were such that the maximum
stress then obtained was considerably less than that in the
condition assumed for the standard calculations. Finally, the
material of the ship was subjected in dock to a tensile stress of
nearly 9 tons and a Compressive stress of nearly 7 tons per sq.
in. without distress.
While dealing with longitudinal bending, some of the refinements
suggested fof calculating stresses among waves may be cited,
although the additional labour involved in their application has
prevented their introduction in general practice.
Since the distribution of pressure in the water of a wave system
differs from that in still water, the buoyancy of a vessel or the re-
sultant vertical thrust of the water is then not equal to the weight
of the water displaced; and the position of the ship when in equili-
brium and the stresses upon it are changed in consequence. By
assuming the pressure at any point of the water to be in accordance
with the trochoidal theory of wave motion, and undisturbed by the
intrusion of the ship, the equilibrium position can be obtained and
the modified stresses evaluated. This process was first applied to
ships by Mr W. E. Smith (Trans. I.N.A., 1883), who obtained the
arithmetical sum of the sagging and hogging moments on vessels
placed in the trough and on the crest of a wave, thereby eliminating
the effect of the distribution of weight; and compared it with the
sum of the moments as ordinarily obtained. The correction for the
ships considered involved a reduction of the bending moment to
about | of the value calculated in the ordinary manner, and in a
torpedo-boat destroyer a reduction of about 10 % has been obtained.
This reduction increases as the draught and fullness of the ships are
increased, and the bending moment on a square-bilged ship deeply
immersed is almost uninfluenced by wave motion, since the re-
duction in orbital motion at considerable depths below the surface
ensures the bottom of a fairly deep ship being in comparatively
undisturbed water.
In the foregoing the vessel is assumed to occupy at every instant
a horizontal position on the wave with the correct displacement;
a ship proceeding perpendicularly to the crests of a wave system
will, however, undergo heaving and pitching oscillations which
lead to a further modification in the bending moment obtained
(see paper by T. C. Read, Trans. I.N.A., 1896). Considering first
the effect of pitching only, imagine the ship at her proper displacement
(allowance being made for the altered buoyancy of the wave system
as before), but momentarily out of her correct trim; the longitudinal
restoring couple, due to the wedges of immersion and emersion, is
balanced by the moment of the reversed mass-accelerations of the
component parts. If the ship is longitudinally symmetrical about
her midship section, one half of the moment of the restoring forces
and one half of the moment of the reversed mass-accelerations about
amidships are due to the forward end, and one half to the after end.
These moments are therefore equal and opposite for each half of the
ship and have no influence on the midship bending moment. It
apparent semi-period of the wave. On
taking into account the mass of the
ship, assumed originally stationary, the height of the C.G. above
its mean position becomes
_TV( . rf T...*fi
a A 'T' 2_ r T2 } Sln??r TrT SinTrT > ,
where T = TT'^-T = period of dip in still water;
W is the displacement, and p the tons per foot immersion; the re-
sistance to vertical motion being neglected. When T and T! are
nearly equal, allowance has to be made for the resistance by using
a process of graphic integration. On applying the correction to two
vessels, and comparing the bending moments in their positions of
the wave, given- by the formula, with those in the equilibrium
position, the effect on the maximum hogging moment was found
small; but the sagging moment of a moderately fine vessel was
increased by over 20%, and that of a full vessel by about 10%.
Allowance has also been made for the effect of the superposed
heaving, pitching and rolling oscillations undergone by a ship moving
obliquely across the crests of a wave system (see papers by Captain
Kriloff, Trans. I.N.A., 1896 and 1898).
The maximum calculated stress on vessels inclined to considerable
angles of heel has been found in some instances to be slightly greater
than that for the upright condition; and the stress on the material
towards the ends is then usually more nearly equal to that amidships.
In addition to the direct stresses on keel, bottom, and upper works
resulting from longitudinal bending, shearing stresses are experi-
enced which in some cases are of appreciable magnitude. The in-
FAz
tensity of shear stress in the side plating is equal to TJ- ', where F
is the shearing force over the transverse section, Az the moment
about the neutral axis of the sectional area above or below a hori-
zontal line through the point considered, and t the thickness of side
plating. This stress is usually greatest at or near a quarter of the
length from either end and at the height of the neutral axis, since
here F and AZ respectively attain their maximum values. In some
cases the thickness of plating and arrangement of riveting have to be
specially considered in relation to these shearing stresses.
The stresses due to transverse bending are not, in general, capable
of definite determination; as, however, they are frequently severe
when the ship is in dry dock, and may also attain consider-
able magnitude during heavy rolling, a means of com- Trans-
paring the transverse strength of vessels is of some ' rs ^
interest. A transverse bulkhead forms a region of almost <> eaa ' n S-
infinite transverse stiffness, and it is therefore difficult in ships in-
ternally subdivided by numerous bulkheads, to determine how far
the stresses at intermediate sections are influenced by the neighbour-
ing bulkheads. In many ,
vessels carrying cargo,
however, in which trans-
verse bulkheads are
widely spaced, a section
midway along a hold may
be so far removed from
all bulkheads as to be
uninfluenced by their
local support; and the
following method has
been proposed for com-
paring the transverse
strengths of such
ships:
A frame and a strip
of plating one frame
space in width are re-
FIG. 60.
garded as a stiff inextensible bar subjected to the known external
forces and to the unknown tension, shearing force, and bending
moment, at any fixed point.
Let OP (fig. 60) be a portion of the framing under consideration,
O being the keel, and Ox, Oy, horizontal and vertical axes.
On consideration of the forces on the arc OQ, which are in
952
SHIPBUILDING
[STRENGTH
equilibrium, the tension T, shearing force F, and bending moment M,
at Q can be algebraically expressed in terms of its coordinates (x, y,),
the water or other external pressures on OQ, and the values of T, F
and M at O (T , F , M 0l ).
Neglecting the effects of T and F on the element QR, it follows
from the equations of bending that
W d\
ds ds)
Local
stresses.
M=EI
where <f> and $' are the respective inclinations of the element QR to
O* before and after the strain caused by bending, and ds is the length
of QR. Due to the effect of M on QR, the bar at the point P (xi, yd
is rotated through an angle d<j>'d(j>a.nd moved through distances
in directions parallel to Ox and Oy respectively. On integrating
along OP the total movement of P due to the bending of all such
elements as QR in OP is obtained ; when P is moved round the com-
plete section so as to return to O, where the total movement is zero,
it follows, on subtraction and reduction, that
fM, fM*-, CMy,
J T *-o;J- r .*-o;JY*-<>:
the integrations being taken completely round the section. It is
assumed in the foregoing that rigid connexions are made at dis-
continuities, such as deck edges, in order to prevent any alteration
in the angle due to strain.
, M M* My , . . ,
The values of -p p, -p can be calculated at varying points and
expressed in terms of To, FO, Mo; by using a method of approxi-
mate quadrature, To, Fo, Mo are found by solving the 3 equations
obtained, and M is deduced giving the corresponding stress at
any point. In applying this method to the determination of the
stresses caused by rolling, the centrifugal forces on each element
are included in the external forces when estimating M.
This method of estimating the transverse strength of ships is due
to Dr Bruhn, who in Trans. I.N.A., 1901, 1904 and 1905, gives
illustrations of its application.
In addition to the stresses due to longitudinal and transverse
bending, which are distributed over the whole or a considerable part
of the structure, local stresses are experienced including those caused
by water-pressure; forces on sails, masts and rigging; reactions
of moving parts of machinery; heavy blows from the
sea on side, deck and upper works; anchor, cable and
mooring gear, and blast from gun-fire. General methods
are usually inapplicable to such cases; the support provided is
determined by experience and by the particular requirements. The
stresses in bottom plating due to water-pressure are of small amount
where the curvature is appreciable, since the plating, by compression,
directly resists any tendency towards change of curvature; in a deep
flat-bottomed ship, on the other hand, resistance to water-pressure is
chiefly due to the bending of the plating, the slight extension having
little influence. The plating is supported at the transverse and
longitudinal frames, and, to some extent, at the edges. The close
spacing of transverse frames usually adopted in merchant ships
reduces the stress to a small amount ; but in large warships, whose
frame spacing varies from 3 to 4 ft., it is probable that the flat plating
near the keel amidships is subjected to considerable stress, although,
as experience shows, not beyond the limits of safety. In fine ships
special provision is frequently made to prevent the side plating near
the bow from panting due to the great and rapid fluctuation of water-
pressure when pitching.
The material of the structure is arranged so that the distribution of
stress over any localized section of material is maintained as uniform
Uniform- as P ss ' D ' e m order that the ratio of maximum to mean
stress may not be unduly large. For this reason abrupt
stress. discontinuities and sudden changes of section are avoided,
and " compensation " is introduced where large openings
are cut in plating. The corners of hatchways in ships whose upper
decks are subjected to considerable tension are frequently rounded,
since failure of the material near the square corners of such hatch-
ways has been known to take place, pointing to the existence of
abnormal stress intensities, which are also evident from theoretical
considerations. Similarly, local stiffening required for the support
of a heavy weight or for resisting the blast of gun-fire is reduced in
sectional area at the ends, or continued for a length greater than
absolutely necessary, to ensure an even distribution of stress.
Among the stresses to which a ship is subjected are those caused
by its mode of propulsion. The stresses due to the reactions of
vibration t ' le movm S> parts of the machinery are, in general, of
small amount, but owing to their periodic character
vibrations are induced in the structure which are frequently of
sufficient magnitude to cause considerable inconvenience and even
damage.
It is known that when a periodic force of frequency n is applied
to a structure capable of vibrating naturally with frequency p, the
amplitude of the forced vibrations assumed by the structure is
inversely proportional to
where K is a coefficient depending on the resistance to vibration.
If the period of the force synchronizes or nearly synchronizes with
the natural period of the structure, the amplitude is considerable,
but otherwise it is of relatively small amount. If, therefore, the
natural period of vibration has been found for a ship, the causes of
vibration at various speeds can be readily traced, since marked
vibration is usually attributable to a synchronizing source.
Vibration in a steamship is due to various causes, the principal of
which are :
1. The reciprocating parts of the engines, if unbalanced, cause
vibrating forces and couples in a vertical plane and of two frequencies,
one equal to, and the other twice, the speed of revolution, the
latter being due to the secondary action introduced by the connecting
rod. In twin-screw ships torsional oscillations in transverse planes
may also result when the engines are working in opposite phase.
2. The rotating parts of the engines cause vertical and horizontal
oscillations of frequency equal to the speed of revolution.
3. The variation in the crank effort tends to cause torsional
oscillation of the same frequency, particularly in single or two-
cylinder engines.
4. Vibrations, principally at the stern, may result from an un-
balanced screw; these are similar to those caused by the rotating
parts of the machinery.
5. A screw propeller which experiences uneven resistance during
its revolution is the cause of vibrations, whose frequency is the
product of the revolution and the number of blades. Such resist-
ances occur when (i) the blades pass too close to the hull; (2) when
the screw breaks the surface of the water; and (3) when the supply
of water to the propeller is imperfect, due either to " cavitation
or to the screening effect of shaft and propeller supports.
The natural vibration of a ship's structure (irrespective of local
vibrations) is analogous to that of an unsupported rod of suitable
dimensions, the principal difference being that the vibrations in
the rod are undamped and those in the ship are damped rapidly
through the communication of the motion at the hull surface
to the surrounding water. A thin uniform rod vibrating laterally
fET
has a minimum frequency (per minute) equal to 12101
in this mode of vibration there are two nodes situated
at a distance -224 L from either end. Vibrations of a higher
order having three, four or more nodes are also possible, the fre-
quencies increasing approximately in the ratio i : 2-8 : 5-4, &c.
The complex variation of the weight, inertia and modulus in a ship
prevent a corresponding result being obtained by direct mathematical
investigation; recourse is therefore made either to direct experi-
ments on ships, or to a " dynamic model." The instrument used for
measuring and recording vibrations consists of a weight suspended,
and held laterally in position, by springs, so as to have a long period
of oscillation; pens or pencils attached to the weight record the
vibrations upon revolving cylinders fixed to the vessel and fitted with
time records. The formula (of the same form as that for a rod)
[W
N=c \WD'
where N is the frequency per minute, was used by Dr Schlick for the
vibration of ships; the value of c found by him for vertical vibrations
varied from 1600 in very fine vessels to 1300 in those having moder-
ately full lines. The nodes were found to be at about a third of the
length from the stem and about a quarter of the length from the
after perpendicular. The frequency with three nodes was slightly
more than twice that of the primary vibrations. Horizontal and
torsional vibrations were also observed; their minimum frequency
is, however, generally considerably more than that of the vertical
vibrations, and they are therefore generally of much smaller ampli-
tude. (See papers in Trans. Inst. Nav. Archs. from 1884 to 1901, by
Dr O. Schlick, and in 1895 by Mr A. Mallock.) The " dynamic
model," suggested by Mr Mallock, forms a convenient means of
approximately investigating the positions of the nodes and the
frequencies of vibration of a ship. The formula given above suggests
that by making a model of material whose modulus E and density p
are known, and on a linear scale of , then if N,, N m refer to ship
N^~\E^ ' "p".'
This relation is unaffected if the lateral distribution of material is
changed in the model, provided that I m and the weight of the model
per foot run are unaltered at each point in the length; the model is
therefore made solid and of rectangular or other convenient section,
so that
the weight being also similarly distributed in a longitudinal direction
to that in the ship. The model is supported at points, whose positions
are obtained by trial, giving the highest frequency for the mode of
vibration considered; these points are the nodes corresponding to
the free vibrations when the model is unsupported, and the influence
of the supports is thus eliminated. On comparison with the results
obtained in a ship, the reliability of such model experiments has
and model,
STEERING!
SHIPBUILDING
953
12-M,
12-39.
.1240
THUNDERER.- SURVEY OFTRACK TRAVERSED BYSHiPUNoeRTHEACTiONOF3loFHELM
CORRESPONDING TO THE INITIAL. SPEED OF 10-5 KNOTS.
MM}
ft 12.32 5E
I ,
V
12-32
1 '
100 200 300
1 1 J
SCALE
400
OF FEET
500 600 700 800
900 1000
FIG. 61.
The curve given is that described by the pivoting point. The first time
round is shown in a drawn line, the second time round in a dotted line.
h. m. s.
A, Position of ship's centre of gravity when helm is half over . 12 32 52
B, Position of ship's centre of gravity after she had turned through
the first 180 12 35 23-4
C, Position of ship's centre of gravity sfter she had turned through
the second 180 12 38 4
D, Position of ship's centre of gravity after she had turned through
the third 180 12 40 46
E, Position of ship's centre of gravity after she had turned through
the fourth 180 12 43 28
Speed on final circle, 7-14 knots.
Diameter of final circle, 1240 ft.
Tactical diameter, 1315 ft.
Time of turning through 180, 2 min. 31 sec.
954
SHIPBUILDING
[STEERING
been verified in a few cases, the value adopted for E, being that for
a riveted structure or about 10,000 tons per square inch. In some
model experiments made in air and in water, the frequency in the
latter case was found to be reduced, and owing to the rapid damping
of the free vibrations and to a virtual increase in the mass-inertia
caused by the concomitant motion of the surrounding water, which
occurs in the ship and not in the model when vibrated in air, there
must be a difference in the results. A second difference is due to
the ratio of depth to length in a ship being sufficient to make the
term for rotational inertia appreciable, which factor is neglected in
the formulae for a thin bar and the dynamic model. The extent
to which such results require modification cannot be determined
until further experiments have been made.
Finally it appears that vibration in a ship can generally be avoided
only by removing its cause; the addition of further stiffening to
the structure with the object of reducing vibration has not infre-
quently had the opposite effect, the natural frequency being brought
more nearly into synchronism with that of the disturbing force.
The adoption of the steam turbine obviates many of the causes pro-
ducing vibration referred to above, leaving only those due to the
forces resulting from inequalities in the working or position of the
propellers.
Steering.
The information available on the steering and manoeuvring
qualities of ships is largely due to the results of the methodic
trials made with H.M. ships. These include observations of the
paths when turning under different angles of helm, at various
speeds, with and without assistance from the propellers, and
with variation in certain features of the hull which influence the
steering, such as the addition of bilge keels, change of draught
or trim, and the omission of the after deadwood.
' One of the first attempts at plotting the curve traversed by a ship
under the action of her rudder, and the position of the ship at any
instant with reference to that curve, was made by the writer in
1877 with H.M.S. " Thunderer " (see Appendix XIII. to Report of
" Infiexible's " Committee). 1 The position of the ship was fixed at
numerous intervals with reference to the line of advance by observing
simultaneously (a) the direction of her head and (b) the angles of the
base of a triangle, whose apex was a floating object within the
approximate circle in which she turned, and whose base was the line
between two observers at fixed points on the deck, one forward and
the other aft; these angles in conjunction with the base fixing the
distance of the middle line plane of the ship from the floating object.
The data were observed for different speeds and with different
angles of rudder, and with and without the turning effect of the
screws.
Fig. 61 gives the plotted positions of the ship continued for two
complete turns wkh 31 of helm when going ahead initially at 10-5
knots. The straight line which becomes curved at the point A is
the initial course of the ship. The short lines give the positions of
the ship when turning at intervals of a minute; and the curve drawn
touches the positions successively occupied by the middle line of
the ship. It will be seen that the bow of the ship is nearer the
centre of the circle, or curve in which she turns, than the stern. The
vessel may be regarded as going ahead and turning or pivoting about
a point well forward in her middle line; this is termed the " pivoting
point," the middle line being, at this point, a tangent to the curve
concentric with and similar to that described by her centre of gravity.
In the " Thunderer " the pivoting point was situated about 50 ft.
abaft the stem.
Similar information for a more modern ship is given in fig. 62 for
the Japanese battleship " Yashima " when turning under 32 of
helm with an initial speed of 17-5 knots. 2 AAA is the locus of the
pivoting point O, and BBB that of the ship's centre of gravity.
The bow of the ship is directed inwards with reference to the latter
curve; the angle between the middle line plane and the tangent to
the curve BBB is termed the " drift angle."
The distance between the pivoting point and the ship's centre of
gravity is equal to p sin <t>, where p is radius of curvature of BBB and
<t> is the drift angle. The value of <t> is about 23 in the " Yashima,"
and about IO in the " Thunderer "; and the pivoting point O of
the former ship is situated very near the fore end of the vessel.
CCC is the path of the outer edge of the stern and represents the
clear space required when turning.
In both ships the path is spiral in form until about 16 points
(180) have been turned through, and it then becomes approximately
a circle. The maximum distance that the ship's centre of gravity
travels in her original direction after the helm is put over is termed
the "advance," and the " tactical diameter" is the perpendicular
distance between the original line of advance and the ship's position
after turning through 1 6 points.
1 Similar experiments had been made by M. Risbec on the " Elorn "
(Revue maritime el coloniale, 1876).
s See "The Steering Qualities of the 'Yashima,' " Trans. Inst.
Nav. Archs., 1898.
Nature of
forces
when
turning.
For an approximate investigation of the forces in operation during
the turning of a ship, the motion may be divided into three stages :
(a) when the rudder is first put over and the pressures
on the hull are those necessary to produce angular accelera-
tion; (b) when the accelerative forces are combined with
those caused by the resistance of the ship to rotation; and
(c) when finally turning uniformly in a circular path. The
characters of the forces acting during the states (a) and (c) can be
ascertained, and the type of motion under the complex conditions
represented by (b) will consist of a gradual replacement of the
motion at (a) by that at (c).
Initially, on putting the helm over, the change in the stream line
motion at the stern produces a pressure upon the rudder normal to
its plane. If the rudder is unbalanced, there is generally an additional
pressure upon the after deadwood caused by the widening of the
stream lines approaching the rudder. The resultant of these pres-
sures on rudder and deadwood is a force P at the stern which may be
resolved longitudinally and transversely into R and Q, where R
tends to reduce the speed
of the ship and Q to
move the stern outwards
(fig. 63). The proportion
of the force P due to the
deadwood is unknown,
but it is small in
recent warships in which
the after deadwood is
considerably cut away ;
the portion due to the
rudder pressure can be
calculated from the re-
sults of experiments on
plates moving obliquely
through water. If A is
the area of the rudder in
square feet, 8 the angle
of helm and V the relative
Fio. 63.
velocity in knots with which the water impinges on the rudder
(assumed equal to the speed of the ship increased by the slip of the
screw), tnen p (; n t ons )=. AVsinS, approximately
where the mean value of k for small inclinations is 2 i|s for a square
rudder and about s^ 5 for a rectangular rudder of breadth twice its
depth (k also varies with the angle of incidence; when the latter is
greater than about 35, the above formula becomes inapplicable).
The convergence of the stream lines at the stern due to the angle of
run, and the oblique and variable motion of the water caused by the
screw propellers, modify the value of k, as applied to the determina-
tion of the rudder pressure; but it is evident that with ships of fairly
similar types the force causing initial turning varies with the shape
of the rudder and approximately as its area, the angle of helm and
the square of the speed.
The initial angular motion of the ship is due to the action of the
component Q of the pressure on the rudder and deadwood, which is
equivalent to a force Q at the centre of gravity tending to produce
a lateral translation of the ship as a whole and a couple Q.BG tending
to rotate the ship about the centre of gravity. Both the lateral and
angular movements of the ship are accompanied by the motion of a
mass of water, which may be regarded as virtually increasing the mass
and moment of inertia of the ship. Denoting these quantities, thus
increased, by W and I respectively, the initial lateral acceleration of
the ship is equal to fs, and its lateral speed at the end of a short
interval of time A/, during which Q and VV may be supposed to have
remained constant, is If, . A/. At the same instant and under similar
hypotheses the angular velocity about the centre of gravity is
^ ' j . A/. Hence a point O forward in the middle line of the ship
taken so that GO. 2. A/ =. A/ or GO = - is, at the in-
stant considered, at rest except for the motion of the ship ahead, which
is due to the original speed of the ship before putting the rudder over,
somewhat reduced by the action of the component R of the rudder
pressure during the time A/. The instantaneous centre of the motion
of the ship must therefore be somewhere in the perpendicular at O to
the middle line of the ship, the point O thus corresponding to the
" pivoting point " as previously defined for the steady motion of
the ship in a circle.
The actual position of O cannot be calculated, as it depends on
the values of I and W, which are different from, and not expressible
in terms of, the moment of inertia I' and mass W' of the ship itself;
but from the method by which it is determined it is clearly forward of
the centre of gravity; and so far the investigation is confirmed by
observation, which shows that the first effect of putting the rudder
over is to cause the stern of the ship to swing towards the side to
which the helm is moved to a much greater extent than the bow
moves towards the opposite side.
If the time A/ be supposed to become infinitesimal, and the effect
SHIPBUILDING
c
PLATE VII.
/ // YASHIMA - SURVEYOF TRACK TRAVERSED BYSHIP UNDER THE \ \
ACTION or 32OF HELM, CORRESPONDING TO THE
INITIAL SPEED OF 17-5 KNOTS.
SCALE OF FEET.
100 200 300 400 500 600
1 1 I I I I I I
70O
ego
900
1000
XXIV. QS4 .
FIG. 62.
A, A, A, Curve described by pivoting point.
B, B, B, Curve described by centre of gravity.
C, C, C, Curve described by outer edge of stern.
D, Position of ship's centre of gravity when helm commenced to
move over.
E, Position of ship's centre of gravity when helm had reached 32.
F, Position of ship's centre of gravity when vessel had turned
through 90. Time from D, 49! sec.
G, Position of ship's centre of gravity when vessel had turned
through 180. Time from D, I min. 20 sec.
STEERING]
SHIPBUILDING
955
of putting over the rudder be regarded as an impulse (measured by
the finite product P. dt), delivered at the stern of the ship normal to
the rudder, the resistance of the water to the rotation of the ship
may be neglected, and the instantaneous centre of the turning
motion (as distinguished from the motion ahead) is the point O on
a straight line GB perpendicular to the direction of the impulse,
and such that GO._GB =^man expression for the position of O of the
same form as obtained before.
j<
In this case rrr, = k 1 , where k is the radius of gyration of the ship
about a vertical axis through the centre of gravity, and the point O
is obtained by the geometrical construction shown in fig. 64, given
by Professor W. M. Rankine, where
GL = and is perpendicular to GB,
and the angle BLO is a right angle.
The value of I is dependent on
(l) the distribution of weight in '
the ship, being large when heavy
weights are situated near bow and
stern, (2) the length of the ship, p, G g
and (3) the underwater form near
the ends, being relatively large in fine ended vessels with large areas
of deadwood, W is also dependent on the shape of the ship under-
water.
The handiness of a ship or her readiness to respond to slight
alterations in helm is mainly dependent on the relation between
Q X BG the moment of rudder pressure for a given angle, and I the
virtual moment of inertia. If I is comparatively large, the vessel
will turn slowly under helm until, gathering way, the rapidity of
its angular motion becomes so large that reverse helm may be re-
quired to limit the change of course to that desired. Unhandiness is
usually experienced at low speeds (Q being then small) and also in
shallow water when I is increased by the restriction in the flow of
water from one side of the ship to the other. Improvement in the
handiness in these circumstances has been obtained in certain
ships with unbalanced rudders by filling in the after deadwood,
the loss from the increased inertia being more than compensated by
the greater turning moment due to the pressure on the after dead-
wood.
When the ship is turning steadily in a circle, if C (fig. 63) is the
centre of rotation, and CO perpendicular to the middle line of ship,
the motion is equivalent to a progression ahead with speed V (which
is considerably less than the initial speed), combined with a rotation
about the " pivoting point " O, which is generally situated slightly
abaft the bow ; the drift angle <j> is given by the relation
OG = OC tan*.
The time of turning through 180 is -,-? where r is the radius OC.
The forces acting upon the ship are now the pressure P on
rudder and deadwood (if any), the centrifugal force ^ s , the
thrust of the propellers, and the pressures on the hull. The last
named consist of forces Pi outwards before O, and P 2 inwards abaft
O; of these PI is usually negligible in amount; P2 cannot be
directly estimated, but since work is done against it by the trans-
verse motion of the after part of the ship, a reduction of speed
results whose amount is largely dependent on the obliquity of
motion at the centre of gravity, that is on the drift angle 4>. Under
full helm the ratio of the steady speed when turning to the initial
speed is often about 60 or 70%; but in some quickly turning ships
it is less than 50%. Of the remaining forces, the transverse com-
WV ! cos 2 d>
ponent of the centrifugal force is known since the final
diameter of turning 2r is approximately the same as the tactical
diameter. To obtain P, it is to be observed that the water im-
pinges on the rudder in a direction BF intermediate between
BE (perpendicular to BC) due to the ship's motion and BD due
to the form at the stern; if BF is assumed to bisect the angle DBE,
the effective rudder angle is approximately 9-<j>. The pressure
on the rudder is therefore less than when helm is first put over
and is further reduced on account of the diminution in the speed of
the ship.
From experiments made with the object of measuring P when
turning steadily, it is found that the pressure recorded was about
one-fourth of the value calculated on the assumption of the ship
retaining her original speed and effective rudder angle; when helm
had just been put hard over, from one-half to one-third of the
theoretical pressure was obtained. (See Bulletin de I' Association
Technique Maritime, 1897; American Institution of Naval Archs.
and Mar. Eng., 1893.) The transverse forces calculated on this
basis for a battleship of 15,000 tons displacement when turning
steadily under full helm are approximately centrifugal force 200
tons, pressure on rudder 40 tons, and Q 2 , the transverse component
of P 2 , 240 tons passing through a point on the middle line about
40 ft. abaft the centre of gravity.
The following equations applicable to the state of steady rotation
can be obtained from the above considerations, neglecting PI
and the small couple due to R :
Q 2 XGM=GBXQ ..... (ii.)
From (i.) it is seen that a small tactical diameter will be obtained
when Q 2 is large compared with Q; from (ii.) it follows that the
point M (fig. 63) should then be near G. These conditions are
realised in a ship whose resistance to leeway is considerable but
concentrated about the middle of the length, such, for example, as
a yacht having a deep web keel, or a boat with centre board
and drop keel. In these instances the vessel may be regarded as
virtually anchored by its keel, and the pivoting point brought to a
position in close proximity to the centre of gravity. Similarly
tactical diameters of vessels of ordinary type are reduced by
diminishing the resistance to lateral motion at the after. end and
by increasing it amidships or forward.
During the turning trials made with H.M.S. " Thunderer,"
observations were made of the heel caused by the transverse forces
brought into play when turning. On first putting the H , h
helm over a small inward heel caused by the pressure "**'
of the rudder was observed; as the rotational speed of turaln S-
the ship increased this inclination was succeeded by a steady out-
ward heel, amounting to about 1 at 7 knots speed. The latter is
caused by the couple formed by the centrifugal force and the lateral
resistance diminished by the (usually) small couple due to the
rudder pressure. During some more recent trials carried out on the
" Yashima " the angle of heel was 8J at full speed. Similar large
inclinations are generally found with modern warships having small
turning circles and high speeds and whose centres of gravity are
also situated high up; at moderate speeds, however, the heel is of
small amount. On putting the helm quickly amidships when turn-
ing, the opposing couple due to the rudder pressure is removed or
reversed and the angle of heel momentarily increased; instances
have occurred of ships with small stability and comparatively large
" rudder couples " capsizing through this cause.
The rudders used in ships are of two types: (l) Unbalanced,
shown in figs. 65, 67, 68; and (2) balanced, shown in figs. 66, 67 (at
bow) and 69 to 74. An unbalanced rudder is in stable equi- _
librium when amidships and force has to be applied to the S f
tiller in order to place it at any angle to the middle line.
It is supported at its forward edge by means of pintles working in
~\
FIG. 65. Cargo Vessel.
FIG. 66. Atlantic Liner.
gudgeons on the sternpost; and owing to its simplicity of con-
struction and to its property of returning quickly to the middle
line when the tiller is released through any cause, this type is pre-
ferred when the force required to put the rudder hard over is
sufficiently moderate to enable steering to be performed by hand
or by an engine and gear of moderate size when steam steering is
admissible.
With high speeds and large manoeuvring powers, the unbalanced
type is generally unsuitable; and balanced rudders are adopted
FIG. 67. H.MS. " Formidable."
H.M.S. ' Duncan " similar.
FIG. 68. H.M.S. " King
Edward VII."
in order to reduce the force required and the work done to obtain
large angles of helm. A balanced rudder is unstable amidships,
and, if left free, comes to rest at a moderate angle on either side
of the middle line. Slightly less than one-third of the area is
usually placed before the axis; in some ships in which a greater
proportion has been put forward, difficulty has been experienced
in bringing back the rudder to amidships. As shown in the figures,
the method of support has varied in different ships; in many cases
a steadying pintle has been placed at the heel or mid-depth, but
in the latest warships the support has necessarily been taken entirely
inboard.
In the merchant service, unbalanced rudders of the form shown
in fig. 65 are generally fitted; the rudder extends up to, or above,
the water-line, and is comparatively narrow longitudinally. Some-
what greater efficiency when using small or moderate angles ol
helm is obtained with rudders of this shape ; as, for a given pressure
956
SHIPBUILDING
[STEERING
on rudder, the turning moment on the rudder head, and the power
required for working the rudder are also less. A type of balanced
rudder devised by Professor Biles and adopted in some large Atlantic
liners is shown in fig. 66.
Broader and shallower rudders are adopted in warships
owing to the necessity of keeping the whole of the steering gear
below the water-line for protection.
(fig. 74), which had, in addition to the usual rudder at the stern, a
double-balanced rudder in the bow, which could be drawn up into
recesses in the hull; the two rudders were about 3 ft. apart and
when in use worked together.
The results of the turning trials of some of the Experimental
principal classes of warships are given in the following result*.
table :
Area of
Immersed
Ship or Class,
i
Displacement
in
Tons.
Length
in
Feet.
Longitudinal
Plane
divided by
Area of
Speed in
Knots at
Commencement
of Turn.
Advance
in
Yards.
Tactical
Diameter
in
Yards.
Tactical
Diameter
divided
by Length.
Rudder.
Dreadnought ....
17,900
490
37-5
19
490
440
2-7
Lord Nelson ....
16,500
410
4-5
17
400
370
2-7
King Edward VII. .
16,350
425
44-8
i6J
450
440
3-1
Formidable
15,000
400
45-2
I4i
440
500
3'7
Majestic
14.900
39
47-8
16
450
500
3'9
Minotaur
14,600
490
48-4
19
480
600
3-7
Monmouth
9,800
440
44-4
23*
590
790
5-4
Drake
14,100
500
46-8
23*
700
810
. 4-9
Diadem
. 11,000
435
44-5
20^
650
920
6-3
Powerful ;
14,200
500
50-3
22
800
II2O
6-7
Minerva
5,600
350
48-3
18
540
770
6-6
Arrogant
5,750
320
33-5
17
350
380
3-6
Helm angle about 35 in all cases.
The unbalanced type was mainly used in British battleships up to
H.M.S. " Formidable " (1901) and " Duncan " (1903) (fig. 67). In
the " King Edward VII." class
(1905) (fig. 68) the rudder was
balanced, about one-fourth of its
area being placed before the axis;
balanced rudders supported at
about mid-depth were fitted in
the " Yashima " (1897) and the
FIG. 69. H.M.S." Lord Nelson." "Lord Nelson" class (1905)
"Yashima" and H.M.Ss. "Swift- (fig. 69). In H.M.S. " Dread-
Q,,r.> "" Warrior" =nH"M,V^,.,, nought " ( I9 o6) and TCCCnt
battleships, twin-balanced
rudders are fitted immediately
behind the inner propellers (fig. 70), to obtain additional steering
effect from the propeller race, and to enable the ship to be steered
from rest in getting under way. Owing to the higher speeds of first-
class cruisers, balanced rudders were used; those fitted in " Diadem "
sure, ""Warrior
similar.
Minotaur"
V
Section at A. P. FIG. 70. H.M.S. " Dreadnought."
and " Powerful " classes (1897-1900) are shown in fig. 71, and for
" Cressy," " Monmouth " and " Devonshire " classes (1001-1905)
in fig. 72. In " Warrior " and
" Minotaur " classes (1907-
1908) the rudders are as shown
in fig. 69. The older second-
class cruisers had rudders and
sterns of the type shown for
H.M.S. " Powerful " in fig.
71, with the exception of the
Arrogant " class (1898), in
which two rudders were fitted
In the last column the tactical diameter is expressed in terms
of the length of the ship; this ratio enables a rough comparison
between the steering capacities of different ships to be expressed.
The improvement in turning in modern warships has been due largely
to the increase of rudder area in relation to the area of the immersed
middle-line plane, which has been made possible by the adoption of
balanced rudders. Considerable improvement has also been effected
by cutting away the after deadwood ; this will be seen on comparing
the performances of H.M.Ss. " Monmouth " and " Diadem, and
" Drake " and " Powerful "; the former ship of each pair has her
after deadwood partially cut away and has a smaller tactical diameter.
In the " Yashima " the whole of the deadwood is removed and a very
large rudder fitted ; her tactical diameter is twice her length.
The rudder area is relatively much less in merchant vessels, where
the necessity for a small tactical diameter does not arise.
Experiments have been made to ascertain separate effects of
angle of helm, time of putting helm over, and draught and trim of
shin.
The effect of variation of helm angle is shown in table below:
L
FIG. 71. H.M.S. " Powerful."
H.M.S. " Diadem " similar.
. wmcn two ruaaers were ntcea
in conjunction with a considerable cut-up at the stern in order to
obtain increased manoeuvring capacity (fig. 73). Recent second-
class cruisers have rudders of the type shown in fig. 69.
FIG. 72. H.M.S. " Devonshire." FIG. 73. H.M.S.
H.M.Ss."Cressy"and" Monmouth" " Arrogant."
similar.
Auxiliary rudders have been fitted in H.M. ships in a few in-
stances. An interesting example was that of H.M.S. " Polyphemus "
FIG. 74. H.M.S. " Polyphemus."
Tactical Diameter in Yards at about 12 knots speed.
Ship.
Battleship.
First-
Class
Cruiser.
Second-
Class
Cruiser.
Torpedo-
Boat
Destroyer.
10 helm
20 helm
35 helm
750
550
450
1400
IOOO
750
1600
IOOO
800
700
500
300
In ships having unbalanced rudders and fitted with hand-steering
gear considerable time is required to put the helm hard over at full
speed; and consequently the tactical diameter and the advance
are greater at high speeds than at low speeds. When steam-steering
gear is provided the helm can usually be put hard over in from 10
to 20 seconds at anv speed; and in modern warships the speed is
found to have little influence on the path described when turning.
In the case of torpedo-boat destroyers marked increases in the tactical
diameter and in the advance occur at high speeds, the cause of
which is not fully known. In such vessels of length 270 ft. and dis-
placement 900 tons, the tactical diameter is about 550 yds. at 30
knots and 300 yds. at 15 knots.
A moderate variation in the mean draught has little effect on the
course, but additional trim by the stern results in a greater space
being required for turning.
By working one propeller ahead and the other astern the space
required for turning may be shortened, but the time of turning is
frequently increased. The character of the path described depends
on the relation between the revolutions of the screws.
In a single-screw ship, with the propeller well immersed, the
upper blades experience greater resistance to rotation than the lower
blades, since the forward velocity of the frictional wake is greatest
at the surface; hence a right-handed screw tends to turn the ship's
head _to starboard, and requires starboard helm. The reverse is
occasionally experienced when the upper portion of the screw is
incompletely immersed.
When a ship is going astern manoeuvring is performed with some
uncertainty, as the rudder is near the pivoting point.
PROCESS OF DESIGN]
SHIPBUILDING
957
PROCESS OP DESIGN
When a shipbuilder is approached for the production of a new
ship, he must be informed of the requirements of the case; the
kind of trade or service in which the vessel will be engaged; her
speed; if she is to be a steam vessel, the distance she must run
on ordinary voyages without recoaling; the weight of cargo to
be taken or the number of passengers to be carried, and the kind
of accommodation required for them. Very frequently these
requirements will include certain limits of size, draught, cost,
or tonnage, which must not be exceeded. In addition it must
be stated in what society, if any, she is to be classed, as this will
determine the details of the scantlings to be employed. The
shipbuilder will usually have, to guide him, the details of some
successful ship or ships previously built to fulfil the same or
similar conditions as in the vessel required, and he will probably
know what measure of success or popularity the respective
features of the vessel or vessels have earned on service. The
dimensions can in this case be at once fixed to provide the
necessary speed, strength, stability and seaworthiness, and the
cost of the vessel determined. If the departures from some
similar ship of known and approved qualities are small, the details
of the new ship can be inferred directly from those of the similar
ship, and modified drawings, specifications, &c., can be rapidly
prepared and the building proceeded with. On the other hand,
the departures from previous vessels or the usual practice may
be very great, in which case much will depend on the ship-
builder's skill and judgment. Outline drawings must first
be prepared to the dimensions which may be considered suit-
able, and the calculations are made on this assumed design.
These will include estimate of the weights of the hull, of the
machinery, equipment, &c. ; and if it is not intended to class
the vessel in some registration or classification society, questions
of strength will have to be considered. If, however, the vessel
is to be so classed, the determination of the structural strength
may be omitted, as the scantlings required by the rules of such
society are arranged to provide sufficient strength. If the
calculations show that the dimensions assumed do not enable the
required conditions to be fulfilled, the dimensions must be
modified in the direction indicated by the calculations, and the
calculations made over again. This process must be continued
until a satisfactory result is obtained. As soon as the dimensions
obtained for the vessel are found to be appropriate, more com-
plete drawings are put in hand, and the final calculations pertain-
ing to the displacement sheet, weights of hull and equipment,
centre of gravity and trim, metacentric diagram and curves of
stability and speed, are made. In the design of yachts the
views of the owner, especially if he is a yachtsman of ex-
perience, must necessarily play an important part.
While the present writer was designing the Royal Yacht
" Alexandra " he was commanded on several occasions to
wait on the late King Edward VII. to take his instructions.
King Edward took a special interest in the design throughout
and sketched in his cwn hand the shapes of the knee of head
and the stern. All leading details were shown to him in model
and settled by him personally. At an important stage the king
consulted the prince of Wales (George V.), whose views as to the
principal dimensions were afterwards adopted.
In the case of the construction of large passenger ships
the design often originates with the owner's or steamship com-
pany's staff, and in some instances naval architects are employed,
completed drawings and specifications being handed over to
the shipbuilder with the order for the vessel. In other cases
shipbuilders work in close connexion with the steamship com-
panies, and the business relations are of a very simple character,
the company being content to send an order, with a note of
the principal dimensions and type of ship required, leaving the
determination of all details of the design in the hands of the
builders. The general practice lies between these two extremes.
In any case, complete design drawings and detailed specifications
are necessary for the shipyard operations, and if not supplied must
be prepared by the shipyard staff. Sometimes outline drawings
of the vessel on a small scale including an elevation or side
view, one or two plans of the main deck and other parts, and a
short description of the vessel are first prepared, and are called
an outline or sketch design; but usually the information which
constitutes a design comprises a sheer, profile and plans of each
deck on a J-in. scale, a midship section on a J-in. scale, and a
complete specification.
The sheer drawing gives the outside form of the ship. It
consists of an elevation showing her longitudinal contour; the
positions of the decks; the water-line or line at which she will
float, and certain other lines parallel to this and equally spaced
below it, which are also called water-lines; a series of vertical
lines equally spaced from stem to stern, called "square stations";
and certain other details: of a body plan showing the sectional
form of the ship at the square stations, supposing her to be cut by
transverse planes at these stations: and of a half-breadth plan
showing the form of the ship at the several water-lines, supposing
her to be cut by horizontal planes at the levels of these lines.
The profile and plans give all the internal arrangements of the
vessel, the holds or spaces set apart for cargo, the passenger
accommodation, the positions of the engines and boilers, the
accommodation provided for the crew, and other principal fittings.
In a warship there are no cargo holds or passenger accommoda-
tion, but the distribution of the armament and magazines, the
armour, and other arrangements for the protection of the vessel
against injury in action are carefully shown, and the appropria-
tion of every portion of the internal capacity of the vessel is
clearly indicated. The midship section shows the structural
arrangements of the vessel, and usually the scantlings of the
most important parts. The specification is a statement of all
the particulars of the vessel, including what is shown on the
drawings as well as what cannot be shown on them; the quality
of the materials to be used is described, and the scantlings of the
same carefully recorded; and it is clearly stated how parts not
manufactured by the shipbuilders are to be obtained.
When first formed the objects of register societies were simply
the maintenance of a register in which was recorded for insurance
purposes the main particulars of each vessel's hull,
machinery, equipment, &c., together with the names Keglstra-
of owner, master and builder, as well as a designation "
or class represented by a symbol, which was in- * ot/e " es -
tended to give to underwriters an indication of the strength,
durability and general seaworthiness of the ship. As a natural
sequence it became necessary for the register societies to formu-
late rules which would indicate to owners and builders the
structural conditions that would entitle vessels to the highest class
and the minimum rates of insurance. The register societies now
provide the shipbuilder not only with a record of all the important
features of the ships which are classed, and thus with much of the
information which he requires for the design of his vessel, but they
also fix the quality and strength of the material to be used, the
scantlings of all the parts of the hull, the riveting of the attachments,
the equipment of pumps, anchors, cables, &c., the dimensions and
details of the principal parts of the machinery, and all the details of
the boilers. Classification societies are thus technical bureaux of the
highest value to the shipping community, whose rules are a reflex
of the most advanced knowledge and whose methods encourage
developments in structural design.
The principal registration and classification societies in 1910, and
the number of vessels (sailing and steam) classed, were as follows:
Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Ship-
ping, having its headquarters in London . 10,302 vessels.
British Corporation for the Survey and
Registry of Shipping, in Glasgow . . 710
Bureau Veritas International Register of Ship-
ping, at Paris ..... 4,626
Germanischer Lloyd, at Berlin . . . 2,672
Norske Veritas, at Christiania . . . 1,560
Registro Nazionale Italiano, at Genoa . . 1,263 i>
Record of American and Foreign Shipping, at
New York . . . . 1,139 >
Veritas Austro-Ungarico, at Trieste . . 1,041
Great Lakes Register ..... 609
Of these societies, Lloyd's Register, as at present constituted, has
existed since 1834; at that date it superseded two rival institutions
having a similar object. The name is traced back to Lloyd's Coffee-
house, once situated in Lombard Street, in which underwriters met
for business purposes, and from which in 1696 they issued their first
publication. The first printed register was issued about 1726, a
copy dated 1764 being still extant. The office of surveyors is referred
95 8
SHIPBUILDING
[PROCESS OF DESIGN
to in a register book of the date 1781, but there are evidences that in
1768 repairs were superintended by officers of the society. In 1799
surveyors were stationed at twenty-four ports in the United Kingdom.
In 1822 the register for the first time recorded a steamship. In 1824
appeared the first " Instructions to Surveyors " as to the carrying
out the rules for classification; and in 1834, on the establishment of
the present society, precise regulations were issued regarding the
survey of steamers. An iron ship was built under survey and re-
ceived a class in 1837, while the first rules for the construction of iron
ships were issued in 1855. In 1851 a composite vessel was classed,
but it was not until 1867 that rules for the construction of such
vessels were issued. Steel was accepted in 1867, experimentally,
steel being then made by the Bessemer process. Steel by the
Siemens-Martin process was first used for two small steamers in
1877. Engineer surveyors were first appointed in 1874. The
society is voluntarily maintained by the shipping community. Its
affairs are managed by a committee of sixty-one members com-
posed of merchants, shipowners and underwriters elected to
represent the important shipping centres of the country, and there
are branch committees at Liverpool and Glasgow. In technical
matters affecting the rules for the construction of ships and machinery
the committee has the advantage of the co-operation of a body of
representatives of prominent shipbuilders, engineers, steelmakers
and forgemasters, who are specially elected by the leading technical
institutions of Great Britain. The society's rules for steel ships
were entirely revised so recently as 1909. The society has a total
staff, at home and abroad, of 310 surveyors, of whom 232 are its
exclusive servants.
In the case of a new vessel intended for classification, the plans
for its construction are in the first place submitted to and approved
by the committee; the building proceeds under the supervision of
the local surveyor, and when completed, a character is assigned to
the vessel by the committee upon that surveyor's report. The
society issues annually to its subscribers a register book containing
particulars of classification of vessels to which classes have been
assigned, together with many other details. All merchant vessels
in the world of 100 tons and upwards, excluding those trading on
the Caspian Sea, and wooden vessels on the Great Lakes of North
America, are included in the work. This register contains particulars
of the age, build, tonnage, dimensions, ownership, &c., of some
30,000 vessels. The society also publishes yearly a register of yachts,
containing full particulars of the yachts of the world and other
interesting information, and a register of American yachts, which
gives similar particulars of all American and Canadian yachts.
All the public proving establishments in the United Kingdom for
the testing of anchors and chain cables are licensed by the Board of
Trade to carry out these tests under the control of the committee
of Lloyd's Register. The assignment of freeboards of vessels, the
survey of refrigerating machinery, electric light installation, &c., all
come within the scope of the society's operations.
The Bureau Veriias was foundea in Antwerp in 1828, one of its
principal aims being to make known to underwriters the qualities
and defects of ships frequenting Dutch and Belgian ports. In
1832 the headquarters were moved to Paris, and in due time its
influence spread to all countries where shipowning or shipbuilding
existed ; it is now represented in over 250 districts comprising about
iSOOports. In 1851 rules were drawn up for the construction of wood
ships, and about 1867 for iron. Rules for steel came later, and
also rules for the construction of machinery, and, as circumstances
arose, provision was made for special types, such as oil-tank vessels,
turret vessels, dredgers, &c., as well as for the testing of materials.
These rules have been revised from time to time and recently have
been remodelled and extended, so as to apply to vessels up to about
900 ft. in length. Special rules have been issued for vessels intended
for navigation in inland waters, for yachts and for motor boats.
A staff of surveyors formed part of the organization from the be-
ginning; and in the earlier days the professional experience of the
surveyors was the only guide as to what was necessary and sufficient.
With the lapse of time, and with increased variety of construction
and complication of interests, something more than individual
judgment and experience became necessary, and with the Bureau
Veritas, as with Lloyd's and other similar societies, definite rules
were introduced, and by their means a greater uniformity of practice
was attempted and secured.
The British Corporation was founded in 1890, and obtained its
charter under the Merchant Shipping Acts for the assignment of
freeboards; its first rules were issued in 1893. Its inception was due
to the enterprise and influence of a number of leading shipowners,
shipbuilders and engineers throughout the country, and more
particularly in Glasgow and the West of Scotland, the first aim of
the founders being to provide an independent society, thoroughly
capable of dealing with the complicated questions which were
likely to arise under the Load Line Act then coming into operation.
The Liverpool Registry, which had once been independent, had
been absorbed into Lloyd's Register some years before, and it was
thought that the enormous shipbuilding interests of the country
demanded the existence of a society whose friendly rivalry with the
great society of Lloyd's Register would have a beneficial influence on
the shipbuilding of the country. Owing to the comparative absence
of small vessels the relatively small number of the vessels on the
register represents 2,331,000 tons. The society is controlled by a
committee of forty members shipowners, shipbuilders and under-
writers and, in addition, there is a branch committee in Italy.
There is a staff of 135 surveyors distributed over the principal home
and foreign ports.
The Norske Veritas was established in 1864 by the various marine
insurance clubs of Norway. Previously each club had its own
separate staff of surveyors, on whose report to their club depended
the class of the vessel and the premium to be paid. As ships rose in
value and reinsurance became the rule, something had to be done for
mutual protection. By the establishment of the Norske Veritas one
uniform system of classing and valuing was substituted for the older
methods. In the matter of rules this society kept pace with the
changes of the mercantile marine; it provided, as the occasion
required, for the introduction of iron and steel in place of wood, and
of steam in place of sails.
The Germanischer Lloyd was established in 1867, and reorganized
as a joint-stock company in 1889. Its functions are carried out
by officers at the central office in Berlin, assisted by a staff of 50
ship and engine surveyors in Germany and 120 at the principal
foreign ports, the latter under control of agents, who are mostly
consuls. " In all foreign parts in which the Germanischer Lloyd has
no representative, the German consuls are required by order of their
government to exercise the functions of an agent of the Germanischer
Lloyd."
The Registro Nazionale Italiano was formed in 1910 to take over
the Registro Italiano, which was founded in 1861. The society has
adopted the rules of the British Corporation Registry, has a staff of
surveyors in Italy, and has an arrangement with the British Corpora-
tion which enables them to utilize the services of the surveyors to
that society in British and foreign ports.
The Record of American and Foreign Shipping was established
in 1867 by the American Shipmasters Association (now called tht
American Bureau of Shipping), and is the standard American
authority. Its rules for the construction and classification of
vessels, as published in 1889 and amended in 1900, received the
approval of the U.S. Navy Department and of the several boards
of American underwriters. It has agents and surveyors in many of
the principal ports of the world.
The present rules and tables of most of the above societies apply
to construction in steel. If iron is to be used in the construction of
vessels, the material must be increased in thickness from 10% to
25%, dependent upon the part for which it is to be used and the
quality of the iron. In some cases separate tables for steel and iron
accompany the rules, and in a few cases the societies provide rules
for construction in wood. The latest rules of Lloyd's Register provide
only for steel ships, but vessels of wood and iron are still classed.
The highest class assigned, upon completion of a ship by the
societies referred to, is as follows :
Lloyd's
Bureau Veritas ....
British Corporation
Norske Veritas ....
Germanischer Lloyd
looA
3/3L
f,L.M.C.
I.I.
)|| lAi i (JiM&K.V.
. fMt i/\ Jtt M.C.
Record of Amer. Shipping Jb Ai M.C.
The star or cross in each case denotes special survey. In Lloyd's
Register looA refers to conformity of scantlings with the tables; the
figure I , to the efficient state of the equipment, including anchors and
cables; L.M.C. denotes Lloyd's Machinery Certificate. In the
Bureau Veriias the large I expresses first division of classification (out
of three) ; [the two rings around the J denote that the ship is divided
into a sufficient number of water-tight compartments to enable her
to float in still water with any two of them in free communication
with the sea. Very few ships in the register have the double ring,
but some have a single ring (^), denoting power to float in still water
with any one compartment in free communication with the sea;
3/3 expresses completeness and efficiency of hull and machinery;
the letter following 3/3 indicates the navigation for which the vessel
is intended; the first I, that the wood portions of the hull are
entirely satisfactory ; while the second I has the same significance in
respect to the equipment of masts, spars, rigging, anchors, chains
and boats. In the British Corporation Register, B.S. signifies con-
formity with all requirements, these letters standing for British
Standard; M.B.8. signifies that the machinery also conforms. In
the Norske Veritas lAi denotes compliance with rule requirements
as regards the hull. M & K.V. signifies that the vessel has a Norske
Veritas certificate for engines and boilers. The third figure I denotes
the efficient state of the equipment. In the Germanischer Lloyd the
mark 100 A signifies that the ship which bears it is, including her
equipment, up to the requirements of the highest class of the society.
The figure 4 signifies that the class is to be regularly renewed after
special surveys held in periods of four years each. M.C. signifies
PROCESS OF DESIGN]
SHIPBUILDING
959
that the machinery also conforms with the requirements of the rules
and has obtained a separate certificate.
Certain steam vessels obtain a T ] which encloses the lift in front
of the class mark. This signifies that the arrangement of the water-
tight bulkheads is such as theoretically to ensure the floatability of
the ship when the sea has access to one or two of her compartments.
The tests for steel material to be used in building the ships, as
required by the same societies, may be tabulated as follows :
appointed by the British government, and one of the questions
considered was that of the load line. In the final report in 1874 the
conclusion was arrived at that a settlement of a load line should,
in the main, be guided by reserve buoyancy as a first consideration.
The commissioners were, however, of opinion that an act of parlia-
ment, framed to enforce any scale of freeboard, would be mischievous,
if not impossible, as would be any universal rule for the safe loading
of merchant ships.
In 1874, in a paper read before the Institution of Naval Architects
Ultimate Tensile Strength.
Elongation in Length of 8 in.
Temperature Test.
Lloyd's Register
British Corporation ....
Registro Nazionale Italiano . .
Norske Veritas
Bureau Veritas
Record of American Shipping .
Germanischer Lloyd ....
Between 28 and 32 tons per
sq. in.
Between 27 and 32 tons per
sq. in.
Between 58,000 and 68,000 Ib
per sq. in.
Between 26 and 31 tons per
sq. in.
Not less than 20% for plates
| in. thick and upwards.
M M
22 % for plates weighing 18 Ib
per sq. ft. and upwards.
20% for plates 10 mm. in
thickness and upwards.
Sample heated to a low cherry
red and cooled in water at
80 F. and doubled over a
radius of I times the thick-
ness of the plate tested.
Board of
Trade
super-
vision.
For plates less than f in. in thickness the first four societies in the
above table allow an elongation of 16%; the Bureau Veritas allows
an elongation varying between 20% and 10% for plates between
JJths and 5 Vhs of an inch in thickness; the Record of American
Shipping allows an elongation of 18% for plates weighing less than
1 8 Ib per square foot; the Germanischer Lloyd allows an elongation
of 16% for plates between 10 mm. and 5 mm. in thickness and 14%
for plates less than 5 mm. in thickness. For steel plates to be
flanged cold Lloyd's Register and the British Corporation require a
minimum tensile strength of 26 tons, and for sectional material such
as angles, bulb angles and channels the tensile strength may be as
high as 33 tons. For rivet steel the tensile strength must be between
25 and 30 tons per square inch, with a minimum elongation of 25%
on a gauge length of eight times the diameter of the bar. Hot and
cold bending and forge tests for angle bars are also prescribed.
The regulation of certain matters connected with the design of
merchant ships falls upon the Marine Department of the Board of
Trade. The authority of the Board is the Merchant
Shipping Act of 1894, which consolidated previous
enactments. These matters include the measurement
of tonnage, and provision for the safety and comfort of
passengers and crew. The former is discussed in a
separate article (see TONNAGE), but it may be mentioned here that
the following countries have at various dates accepted the British
rules for tonnage: United States, Denmark, Austria-Hungary,
Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Sweden, Netherlands, Norway,
Greece, Russia, Finland, Hayti, Belgium and Japan. The amount
of deduction for propelling power varies in Spain, Sweden, Nether-
lands, Greece, Russia and Belgium, but option is granted to owners
to have the engine-room remeasured under the rules of allowance
for engine-room relating to British ships. Special certificates are at
present also issued, on application, to vessels trading to Italian ports,
as the Italian authorities do not at present recognize certain sections
of the Act of 1894 in regard to deductions from tonnage and exemp-
tions from measurement. Special tonnage certificates are also issued
for the Suez Canal, where the measurements of ships and deductions
from tonnage vary from British rules, and are detailed at length by
the Board of Trade in their Instructions to Surveyors.
With regard to safety and comfort the surveyors have to see,
among other matters, that the crews are properly accommodated
and the passengers not too crowded; that the boats and life-saving
appliances are sufficient; that the lights and signals are in order;
that the freeboard is sufficient and ship otherwise seaworthy; that
grain cargoes are properly stowed; and that coal cargoes are ade-
quately ventilated. Any question of doubt as to the strength of
passenger vessels has to be referred to the Board of Trade, and in
future midship sections, with all particulars marked thereon, are
to be submitted in the case of all new steamships building under
survey for which passenger certificates are required. A passenger
certificate is required whenever a steamer carries more than twelve
passengers. In granting it the Board of Trade recognizes five
different services, ranging from foreign-going steamers to excursion
steamers in smooth water. The Board of Trade rules for scantlings
are not published officially.
A Bill, introduced into parliament in 1869, dealing with the load
line question, contained a clause requiring the draught of water to be
. ... recorded at which a vessel is floating when leaving port.
This Bill did not pass; but in the following year the
board Mercnant Shipping Code Bill was brought in, containing
the same provision, and, in addition, requiring a scale
showing the draught of water to be marked on stem and stern post
of every British ship. This became law in 1871. The same Act
empowered the Board of Trade to record the draught of water of all
sea-going ships on leaving port by surveyors duly authorized. In
March 1873 a Royal Commission on " Unseaworthy Ships " was
by Mr B. Martell, who was then the chief surveyor to Lloyd's Register,
tables of freeboard were suggested from data collected at all the
principal ports in the United Kingdom. These tables were based on
the principle of reserve buoyancy, and were intended to apply to the
loading of the various types of sea-going ships then to be dealt with.
As an indication of the form of the vessel, it was suggested that a
tonnage coefficient of fineness should be used, in order that the tables
proposed might be readily adapted to all sea-going ships, whether at
that time at sea or in port. In 1875 a short Act was passed, to remain
in force only until October of the following year, which embodied as
its chief feature the requirement of what was afterwards universally
known as the " Plimsoll mark " (after the late Mr S. Plimsoll, M.P.,
the prime mover in securing legislation for the prevention of over-
loading in British ships). All British ships were to have the position
of the deck shown on the side of the ship, and every foreign-going
British ship was to have a circular disk marked below the deck
line, indicating the maximum draught to which it was intended to
load. The Act in no way fixed the amount of freeboard; this was
left to the shipowner. The provisions of the 1875 Act were con-
firmed by a more comprehensive Act in 1876, which extended the
compulsory marking of the deck line and disk to all British ships,
except those under 80 tons engaged in fishing and the coasting
trades, also excepting yachts or war vessels. Before this Act was
passed the Board of Trade took action, by appointing a committee
to consider the possibility of framing rules for the regulation of
freeboard. The committee was to be composed of representatives
of the Board of Trade, Lloyd's Register, and the Liverpool Under-
writers' Registry. This attempt to establish an authorized scale of
freeboard failed. Meanwhile the subject was not lost sight of; the
collection of data was continued, investigations were carried out,
and six-years later (in 1882) the committee of Lloyd's Register issued
freeboard tables, and undertook to assign freeboard, on the basis
of the tables issued, on owners making application for the same.
In the course of three years 944 vessels had freeboards thus assigned,
to them, and in the case of 775 of this number the owners voluntarily
accepted the freeboards assigned. In December 1883 the Load
Line Committee was appointed by the Board of Trade; and after
two years' careful deliberation and investigation, involving much
labour, the committee presented its report. This report was accom-
panied by tables, which agreed closely with those previously issued
by Lloyd's Register; and they were accepted by the committee
of that society in September 1885. Between 1885 and June 1890
(the latter being the date the Load Line Act was passed) 2850
steam and sailing vessels had freeboards fixed by Lloyd's Register,
and of these 2520 were taken from the tables. After the passing
of the Act in 1890 appointments to assign freeboards were granted
to Lloyd's Register, Bureau Veritas and the British Corporation.
In 1893 the original tables were modified with respect to some of
the ports in the United States on the Atlantic, the sailing from or
to which in the winter was to subject the ship to a 'few inches addi-
tional freeboard. In 1898 they were further modified (a) to exempt
ships over 330 ft. in length from the additional freeboard just men-
tioned, and to limit the additional freeboard in smaller ships ; (fr)
to give some concession to turret-deck steamers; and (c) in some
other minor matters.
In 1906 the Shipping Laws were amended so that all foreign vessels
loading at British ports required to be provided either with a free-
board assigned under the British tables, or under tables of a foreign
country which had been certified by the British Board of Trade as
being equally effective with the British freeboard tables.
In the same year the British tables were revised throughout in
the light of the experiences of previous years of practical adminis-
tration, by a committee whose members were drawn from the
Board of Trade and the three assigning bodies Lloyd's, British
Corporation, and the Bureau Veritas. Important modifications were
960
SHIPBUILDING
[PRACTICAL
made in the freeboards for vessels with complete superstructures
or a considerable extent of strong deck erections, and in those for
large vessels, with the result that a considerable increase was given
to the carrying capacity of British shipping. This was followed by
a conference in Hamburg between eight delegates nominated by the
British government being practically the former committee and
eight German delegates. The conference resulted in an adjustment
of the German freeboard tables previously in force, and Germany
has adopted freeboard tables and regulations which are recognized
by the British government in an Order in Council dated 2 1 stNovember
1908. France and Holland have adopted the British tables, and the
load line certificates issued by those countries are recognized in Orders
in Council dated 22nd November 1900 and nth June 1910 respec-
tively. Denmark, Sweden and Spain have also adopted the British
tables, and as other maritime nations have the subject under con-
sideration it is confidently expected that the load line regulations
will become international. Under the provisions of the Merchant
Snipping Act 1906 the British load line regulations now apply to all
foreign ships while they are within any port in the United Kingdom.
Ships laden with grain have to comply with rules of the Board of
Trade, which provide that for single-decked ships there shall either
be provision for feeding the hold, or there shall not be
Loading of more than three-quarters of the hold occupied by grain in
grain and bulk, the remaining one-fourth being occupied by grain or
other suitable cargo in bags, bales or barrels, supported on
platforms laid on the grain in bulk. For ships with two decks,
grain in bulk in the 'tween-decks is for the most part prohibited ; but
certain grains are allowed, provided there are separate feeders for
hold and 'tween-decks, or else sufficiently large feeders to the 'tween-
decks, and the hatches and other openings there made available for
feeding the holds. In ships with two decks longitudinal grain-tight
shifting-boards must be fitted where grain is carried either in bags
or bulk; these shifting-boards must extend from beam to deck and
from beam to keelson, and in the case of bulk grain must also be
fitted between the beams and carried up to the very top of the space.
The regulations also impose a fine not exceeding five pounds for
every hundred cubic feet of wood carried as deck cargo which
arrives in a ship, British or foreign, in any port of the United Kingdom
between the 3ist October and l6th April, provided no unforeseen
circumstances, as defined by the Act, intervene. By deck cargo in
this section is meant any deals, battens or other wood goods ofany
description to a height exceeding 3 ft. above the deck.
In 1890 a committee was appointed by the Board of Trade to
deal with the spacing and strength of transverse water-tight bulk-
heads and to make recommendations. The first matter submitted
to this committee related to subdivision which should enable a chip to
float in moderate weather with any two compartments in free
connexion with the sea. The committee, while recommending the
above as a standard for sea-going ships of not less than 425 ft. in
length, and for cross-channel steamers irrespective of length, suggested
less stringent conditions for sea-going ships of shorter length. There
was no suggestion of enforcing such subdivision by law; but as a
reward for complying some concession was to be allowed, under the
Life Saying Appliances Act of 1888, as to the boats or life rafts to
be carried. On the presentation of the report the matter was,
however, allowed to drop, and the rules of Lloyd's Register and the
other classification societies are therefore the only rules with practical
influence. The subdivision required by Lloyd's Register for all
steamers comprises a bulkhead at each end of the machinery spaces,
and a bulkhead at a reasonable distance from each end of the ship,
making four in all. In addition for larger steamers other bulkheads
have to be fitted, making the total as follows, namely :
Length of Steamer. Bulkheads.
285 ft. to 335 ft.
335
45
470
540
610
405
470
54
610
680
8
9
10
The positions of these additional bulkheads, and the height to which
they are to be carried, are clearly stated, and the rules are given for
their scantlings. These scantlings are suitable for purposes of
safety in the event of accident ; but it is understood that they have
to be considerably increased when the bulkhead is also used to
withstand frequently the pressure of oil or water ballast ; a deflection
of the plating which would do no harm in an emergency once en-
countered would certainly become serious if often repeated in the
ordinary service of the ship. The foremost bulkhead of the ship
receives the name of collision bulkhead, or sometimes fore-peak
bulkhead ; the aftermost, the after-peak bulkhead. In sailing ships
the collision bulkhead alone requires to be fitted.
PRACTICAL
Practical shipbuilding requires a knowledge of the properties
of the materials used in the construction of ships, and of the
processes by which they are produced or prepared for use, so that
they may be suitably selected for the services for which they are
intended ; also a knowledge of the methods, means and machinery
by which, after deli very in the shipyard, the materials are brought
to the requisite shape, erected in their proper relative positions,
connected together, and completed so as to form a structure
which shall fulfil the intentions of the design, whether large or
small, merchant ship or warship. The varieties of ships are very
great, and are constantly changing, and thus new problems
continually present themselves to the shipbuilder. There is also
an ever-increasing demand for rapid production, which necessi-
tates a rigorous and constant search for simplification of methods
of work, for labour-saving and time-saving machinery, for
improved means of handling material in the shipyard, and for
workshops and factories which will more completely prepare
and finish their various products before despatch to the
shipyard.
Whatever the size of the ship or the type to which she belongs,
the general principles of construction remain very much the same
in all cases. The following account applies to steel and
iron shipbuilding. The exterior parts the bottom,
sides and decks supply the strength required for the
structure as a whole. The bottom and sides are spoken of as the
shell or outside plating, and are, with the decks, kept to the
proper shape by means of frames running across the ship, like
the rafters in a roof or the ribs in the body. These are called
transverse frames or ribs, and beams where they run under the
decks. The parts of the frames at the bottom of the ship, where
they are made deep and strong to support her when she is docked
or grounded, are known as floors, while the spaces between these
floors are spoken of as the bilges. The transverse frames and
floors are held upright in their proper relative positions by other
frames which run lengthwise in the ship; one at the middle line
being called the centre keelson, and others fitted at the sides,
keelsons, bilge keelsons and side stringers. All the fore-and-aft
frames, taken together, are spoken of as the longitudinal framing.
Where tanks for carrying water ballast are built into the bottom
of the ship, the centre keelson is called the centre girder, and the
keelsons or bilge keelsons the side girders. In large merchant
vessels, and in all war vessels, except the smallest classes, an
inner bottom is provided for increasing the security against injury
by grounding, and against ramming and torpedo attack in war
vessels, in addition to forming tanks for carrying water, either as
ballast or for use in the ship. In such cases the centre keelson
is called the vertical keel, and the keelsons and girders are called
longitudinals. When the deep vertical transverse plates forming
the floors only extend between the keelsons, girders or longitu-
dinals, and are attached to them by angle bars, the floors are
called intercostal floors, and the keelsons, girders and longi-
tudinals are said to be continuous; on the other hand, when the
keelsons, girders or longitudinals extend only between the
frames and floors they are called intercostal keelsons, girders
and longitudinals, and the frames and floors are said to be
continuous. In war vessels, except the smallest classes, much of
the longitudinal framing is continuous; and the transverse
framing, for the most part, is built up of angle bars upon the outer
bottom and under the inner bottom, with short plates, called
bracket plates, between them, attached to the longitudinals
by short angle bars. Frames built up in this way are called
bracket frames. In mercantile vessels the transverse frames both
within and without the double bottom are usually continuous.
Besides the transverse and longitudinal framing, there are
partitions used for dividing up the internal spaces of the ship,
which are called bulkheads; they are partial, complete, water-
tight or non- water-tight, as the circumstances of the case require.
In warships the transverse bulkheads are so numerous, in order
to restrict as much as possible the entrance of water from damage
in action, that they go a long way towards providing the necessary
transverse strength, and the transverse frames are consequently
made of thinner materials and fitted at greater distances apart
than they otherwise would be. Transverse frames are from 36
to 48 in. apart in large warships, and from 24 to 33 and some-
times 36 in. in large merchant ships. At the extreme ends of
the ship the shell plating on the two sides is attached to forgings
PRACTICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
961
or castings, which are known as the stem at the fore end, and the
stern-frame or sternpost at the after end. The stem of a warship
is generally made very massive, and projects under the water so
as to form the ram.
The longitudinal framing is carried right forward and aft when
possible, and the ends of the several frames are connected to-
gether across the ship by strong plates and angles, which are
called knees or breasthooks, forward; and knees or crutches, aft.
Additional supports, introduced to enable the vessel to withstand
the heavy blows of the sea in bad weather, are called panting
stringers, panting knees, and panting beams, panting being the
term applied to the movements which occur in the side plating
The sections of the iron and steel bars in common use are shown
in fig. 75, and are named as follows:
A. Angle bar.
B. T (Tee) bar.
C. Channel bar.
D. Z (Zed) bar.
E. I bar.
F. Plain bulb bar.
G and H. Angle bulb.
I. T bulb bar.
j. Half-round
moulding.
K. Hollow
moulding.
The vertical, or central, portion in the I, T and bulb sections is
spoken of as the web, and varies from about 3 in. to 9 in. in depth ;
the horizontal parts are called flanges ; in an angle bar, both parts
of the section are called flanges. The flanges vary in width from
about 2 in. to 7 in. in the angle bar, and from 3 in. to 6 in. in the
others. The thickness varies from about J in. to J in. These
dimensions taken together are called the scantlings of such material.
The thicknesses of the plates in common use generally lie between
if sufficient strength is not provided. Where the ends of the ship
are very full, or bluff, the frames are sometimes inclined, or
canted out of the transverse plane, so as to be more nearly at
right angles to the plating; such are known as cant frames.
At the stern a transverse frame, called a transom, is attached to
the upper part of the sternpost to form a base for cant frames of
the overhanging part of the stern which is known as the counter.
To assist the beams and bulkheads in holding the decks in their
proper positions, vertical pillars are introduced in large numbers;
but to avoid the loss of space and inconvenience in handling
cargo, ordinary pillars are often dispensed with, and special
pillars and deep deck girders are fitted instead.
The steel generally used in shipbuilding is known as mild steel.
It is very tough and ductile, and differs from the hard steel, out of
Materials, which tools are made, in that it will not take a temper,
i.e. if heated and plunged into oil or water, the sudden
cooling has very little effect upon it, whereas with tool steels a
great change takes place, the steel becoming very hard, and usually
brittle. This quality of tempering depends chiefly on the amount
of carbon in the steel, mild steel containing less than -25 %. Steel
of greater strength than mild steel is used occasionally in certain
parts of warships. The extra strength is obtained generally by the
addition of carbon, nickel or chromium, coupled with special treat-
ment. The quality of the plates and bars used is tested by cutting
off strips about 2 in. wide, and bending them double by hammering,
or in a press, until the bend is a semicircle whose diameter is three
times the thickness of the strip. The strips are sometimes heated and
plunged into water to cool them suddenly before bending, and they
may be cut from either side or the end of the plate. Strips are taken
occasionally and hammered into various other shapes while hot and
while cold, so as to ascertain the general quality of the material. To
ensure its tenacity, strips are taken and machined to give a parallel
part about 2 in. in width, of at least 8 in. in length. Two centre-
punch- marks are made 8 in. apart, and the strip is secured in a
testing-machine constructed so that the ends can be gripped by
strong jaws which do not injure the parallel part. The jaws are then
gradually pulled apart, the amount of the pull required to break the
strip being registered, and also the extent to which the strip stretches
in the length of 8 in. before breaking. The tensile strength varies
between 26 and 32 tons per square inch, calculated on the original
sectional area of the parallel part before breaking, and the elongation
in the 8 in. is about 20 %. The standard strength and elongation
required by the principal registration societies have already been
given. The steel used for making rivets is similarly tested ; and
samples of the finished rivets are also taken, and hammered into
various shapes, hot and cold, to ensure that the metal is soft and
ductile and suitable for the work.
The stem, stern-frame, &c., are frequently made of forged iron;
but if of steel, they are cast to the form required. These castings
are tested by being let fall on hard ground and then slung in chains
and hammered all over, when faults of casting are generally dis-
covered by variations in the sounds produced. By this hammering
the general soundness of the casting is ensured. To test the quality
of the steel in the casting, small pieces, which are cast on for the
purpose, are removed and tested in the same manner as just de-
scribed for the strips cut off from the plates; they are required to
give about the same tensile strength, but a little less ductility, say
10% instead of 20% elongation in 8 in.
XXIV. JI
{ in. and I in. Thicker or thinner plates are obtainable, but are not
often used for merchant ships. These plates are of varying sizes as
required, the tendency being to use very large plates where possible,
and widths of 5 ft. to 7 ft. are used in lengths of from 40 to 20 ft.
Angle bars are used in lengths of from 20 to 80 ft. as required, or as
may be limited by the means of transport between the steel works
and the shipyard.
The various plates and bars are connected together by means of
rivets of various forms. Specimens of the common kinds are shown
in fig. 76. The heads and points have distinctive names, as follows :
A) Countersunk head, chipped flush.
B) Ordinary countersunk head,
c) Snap head.
D) Snap head with conical or swelled neck.
(E) Pan head with conical or swelled neck.
(F) Pan head.
(G) Countersunk point.
(H) Rough hammered point,
(l) Snap point, hand work,
(j) Snap point, machine work.
The pan head rivet (E) with conical or swelled neck is the most
commonly used, as it is convenient to handle and gives good sound
work. The rough hammered point (H) is also very commonly used,
is very effective and is readily worked. The pan head (F) and snap
head (c), without cones under the heads, are only used for small
FIG. 76.
rivets; the heads (A), (B), (c), (D), are used where considered de-
sirable for appearance' sake, but (c).and (p) are also adopted when the
riveting is done by hydraulic machinery, in which case the snap point
J is also used. The countersunk point (G) is used on the outside of
the shell, and in other places where flush work is required. The
snap point (i), for internal hand riveting, is used where desired for
appearance, instead of the rough hammered point. The rivets
vary in diameter from about f in. to Ij in., antj the lengths are
as required to go through the holes and give enough material
properly to form the points. The diameter of the rivet is settled
according to the thickness of the plates to be connected, being
generally about \ in. more than the thickness of the separate plates.
The distance from centre to centre of the rivets is spoken of as the
pitch, and is generally expressed in diameters. For connecting
plates and bars in the framing, the pitch of the rivets runs gener-
ally to 7 diameters; for securing edges which must be water-tight,
the pitch is from 4! to 5, and, if they are to be oil-tight, 3 to 35
diameters. In butts and edges of shell-plating the pitch varies
from 31 to 4? diameters.
962
SHIPBUILDING
[PRACTICAL
In some positions rivets like the above cannot be driven into place
and properly hammered up; resort is then made to rivets which
have screwed points, called tap rivets, shaped as shown in fig. 77.
That shown at (B) is used where it is necessary to make the surface
flush, but not
necessary to re-
move the rivet
for examination
of plating; and
when hove right
up, the square
head is chipped
off and the sur-
face hammered
smooth. In other
positions pat-
terns (A) or (c)
FIG. 77. are used as may
be most suitable.
The machines used in the shipyard have been much improved of
recent years. The one most used is the punching and shearing
. . machine, on one side of which plates of alj thicknesses up
, ' to 2 in. may be cut or sheared to any desired form, while
on the other side rivet holes may be punched of any re-
quired size. Special shears are provided with V-shaped cutters for
shearing angle bars, but in some cases the cutters of ordinary shears
may be replaced by V-shaped cutters for this purpose. When the
plates and bars leave the shearing and punching machine their edges
are rough and slightly distorted, to remove which it is necessary in
many cases to plane them. This is usually done by special machines
provided for the purpose. In the most modern types the cutters are
duplicated and the machine arranged to cut both ways. When it is
required to cut a square edge on the flange of an angle bar to facilitate
caulking, a pneumatic chipping machine of recent introduction is
frequently used, but this is more usually done in a planing machine.
In shipbuilding a great deal of drilling must be done by hand, but,
where it is possible, drilling machines are employed. The most
modern forms can drill a number of holes at the same time. For
countersunk work it is necessary to make the hole funnel-shaped, as
will be seen from fig. 77. * This shape is rapidly given to the holes
already punched or drilled by means of a special drilling machine,
which can be very easily and rapidly manipulated. The use of
portable drills, to avoid hand labour, is rapidly increasing, and
several types are in use, operated by electric motors, compressed air
or flexible shafting. They are carried to any position required.
The hole made by a drill is cylindrical, but that made in the process
of punching is conical. On one side of the plate its diameter is
determined by the diameter of the punch, and on the other by the
diameter of the die, which must be greater than that of the punch.
This taper tends to produce close and sound riveting, as the joint is
closed both by the knocking down of the rivet and by the contraction
of the rivet on cooling. On the other hand, the operation of punching
injures the steel in the neighbourhood of the hole, and for work sub-
jected to great stress this deteriorated material -must be removed by
countersinking or by drilling the hole to a larger size, or the quality
of the material may be partially restored by annealing. The pro-
cess of annealing consists in heating the steel to a good red, then
allowing it to cool very slowly; during this process parts of the
material which have been unduly distressed in working regain their
strength by molecular rearrangements in the distressed parts. This
process occurs to some extent when hot rivets are introduced into
the holes and hammered up. The steel immediately adjacent to
the rivet is heated, and afterwards cools gradually as the heat
becomes distributed into the body of the plate. In some experi-
ments carried out by the Admiralty in Pembroke Dockyard in 1905,
it was found that the effect of punching holes close together, as for a
butt-strap, was to diminish the tensile strength of the plates about
IO%; that hot riveting restored about half of this; and that when
holes were drilled and countersunk right through, also when holes
were punched } in. and countersunk right through, so as to enlarge
hole to | in. in diameter, there was no Toss.
In addition to the machines mentioned above, many special
appliances have recently been introduced into shipyards for the
purpose of economically carrying out definite operations rendered
possible by the use of mild steel. Ships built with a bar keel require
the garboard strake plates on each side to be flanged on one edge, so
as to fit against the bar keel. This flanging was formerly carried out
by heating the plates and treating them hot, but now a very powerful
machine, called 'a keel-plate bending machine, and usually worked
by hydraulic power, is employed for the purpose with the plate cold.
Flanging plates cold has also become general for a variety of pur-
poses. In a bulkhead, stiffening is necessary, and for this purpose
angle bars were commonly used; the horizontal stiffeners are now
frequently formed by flanging the lower edges of the plates. Instead
of fitting an angle bar to connect two plates at right angles to one
another, the edge or end of one may be flanged, and half the weight
of the angle bar and the rivet work saved. For all such work some-
what lighter flanging machines than the keel-plate bending machine
are used; they are generally worked by hydraulic power, but there
is no difficulty in driving them by any other means.
Another modern appliance is the scarfing machine, which is used
chiefly in connexion with the lapped butts of shell and other plating.
Before its introduction it was usual to bring the ends of the plates
together and cover the joint with a short plate called a butt-strap,
secured to both plates with a proper arrangement of rivets (see fig.
78). It is now more usual in merchant ships to work overlap butts,
some half of the weight of the butt-strap and riveting and other
work being saved thereby, although the appearance may not be
quite so sightly. The difficulty with this system is that the passing
plates on each side have their edges lapped over the ends of the lap-
butt, and in order that they may be brought close some machining
is necessary; this is called scarfing, i.e. slotting away the corner of
the projecting butt so as to produce smooth surfaces for the side laps
(see section at A B, fig. 78). The machine used for this operation
is a slotting machine with two heads, so as to slot both edges of the
plate at the same time ; it is provided with a table which can be
adjusted to the necessary bevel, so that the slotting tools may reduce
the thickness of the edges operated on in a gradual taper to a knife-
edge. A more recent appliance for reducing weight is the joggling
machine. As already described, the usual method of working the
shell-plating is by alternate inside and outside strakes of plating,
the outside plates overlapping the inside plates, and the space be-
tween them and the frames being filled in by slips or liners. These
liners throughout the ship amount to a considerable weight, and the
object of the joggling is to do away with the necessity for them.
This is effected by shaping the outside plates as shown in section
b. fig. 79. Sometimes the frames are joggled instead of the plates,
as shown in section c, fig. 79; the inside plate lies in the recessed
portion of the frame formed by the joggling process, and the outside
plate on the unrecessed portion, its edge lapping over the edge of
the inside plate the usual width. The angle bar in this case must be
heated, and the hydraulic press is placed so as to be readily accessible
for the handling of the part to be heated. The system of joggling
the frames has not been adopted to nearly so large an extent as that
of joggling the plates.
Frame-bevelling machines appear to be growing in favour. The
machine is placed on rails, near to and across the mouth of the
frame furnace, so that it can be readily placed in position for the
frame bar to be drawn out of the furnace directly through it, and
moved to one side when not required. In the machine a series of
rollers, which can be inclined to suit the varying bevel required,
operate on the bar. The inclination of the roller is varied as the
bar passes along, a dial and pointer giving the angle of bevel at
each instant. As the bar passes through, the workman, with his
eye on the dial, manipulates the machine so as to give it the required
bevel. It is afterwards completed on the slabs, the form being
taken from the scrive-board in the usual way.
The shipyard should be supplied with modern machinery of the
most approved type, in order to produce the best work at economical
rates: rolls for straightening and bending plates, for fairing and
bending beams and angle bars; shaping and slotting machines;
lathes and milling machines; heavy planing machines. It should
also have a blacksmith's shop, saw-mills, joiners' shops, &c., all fully
equipped for completing, as far as possible, the work of the yard.
The workshops and machines should be distributed so that, as far
as possible, the material moves steadily along, as the various opera-
tions are performed upon it, to its place in the ship. Pneumatic
tools are often preferred for light work, such as chipping, drilling,
rimering and caulking; they are also occasionally used for riveting,
but they are not yet much in favour for this class of work. Hydraulic
power is particularly well adapted for heavy presses, such as for
keel-plate flanging, for punching and shearing, and especially for
punching manholes and lightening holes in plates, and for heavy
riveting. It is also very successfully applied for pressing to shape
a great variety of small fittings made of steel or iron. For such
machines as rolls, ordinary shears and punches, winches, &c., separate
steam engines are still frequently fitted, but there is a very marked
tendency to replace all these by electric motors. Electric power
for driving all the machinery has been introduced into many ship-
yards. It has many advantages: all the power required in the
yard may be generated in one building in any position, containing
the boilers, steam engines and electric generators, and the whole
may be designed and worked so as to secure great economy. The
current is supplied either to motors directly driving the heavier or
outlying machines, or to motors driving a line of shafting where the
machines are of a lighter character and are arranged in compact
groups. Fixed machines can be placed where most convenient for
the work, without any reference to the position of the boilers or other
machinery, and a large number of machines can be very readily
made portable for the lighter classes of work. The power may be
transmitted with but little loss, whereas with steam-driven machines
at a distance from the boilers, lines of steam piping must be intro-
duced, and loss of power is entailed. The saving which the system
of electric driving effects over that of steam driving in the con-
sumption of coal in a large shipyard is considerable, and is claimed
by those who have adopted it to be sufficient to justify the large
capital expenditure required to convert a shipyard from the latter
system to the former.
As the plates, beams, angle bars, Z-bars, &c., are delivered, they
must be stored in convenient racks, with marks showing for what
PRACTICAL]
SHIPBUILDING
963
purpose they are intended, so that they can be readily identified
and removed without loss of time. When required, they are taken
from the racks, and the edges, butts and rivet holes carefully
hoisting, except for plates under the bottom and counter, where a
wire rope is used.
At Newport News, in Virginia, the structures are differently
REVERSE FRAME
Enlarged Section through C D.
Enlarged Section through A B. shewing scarfed corner of Plate M.
id'! OOO
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oil
M
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Inside loij Strake.
' t',
:
i
FIG. 78. Details of Shell-plating.
marked upon them before they are taken to the machines where
the shearing, punching, drilling, shaping, &c., are carried out, after
which they are taken to their proper position in the
ship. 5
In many shipyards great attention has been given
to the questions of the economical handling of the
Cf-ngm material, and very costly and novel appliances
are to be found in these yards for the pur-
pose. As an example mention may be made of the
overhead cranes fitted at the Union Ironworks of San
Francisco. A framework of wood is built up over the
entire building berth, the structure being well braced in
all directions for carrying two travelling girder cranes.
There are four building berths fitted in this manner,
and the latest has a length of 408 ft., a clear breadth _
of 80 ft., and clear height of 72 ft. A swing crane of
50 ft. spread at each end of the erection increases its
effective length to 500 ft. Each of the travelling girders
carries a trolley, with motion transverse to the ship; _ ___ _
five tons can be so lifted, and parts of the ship's struc- \?-5 i r""o"~
ture not exceeding this weight can be taken from the \ "~
ground anywhere in the neighbourhood of the structure fc==
and conveyed to any desired spot in the ship. The
driving power is electric. The longitudinal travel of
the girders is 180 ft. per minute; the transverse travel of the trolley
and speed of lift, each 90 ft. per minute. A manila rope is used for
arranged, being on the cantilever travelling-crane principle. There
are five such structures in the yard; three of them are wood, the
r -C
X ,Z
5 Section shewing Ordinary Type of Plating ||5
"ggy^tUa-.--.^ EE^
O Q O O O O O OOOOOOQOO
Section shewing Joggled Plating.
OOOOO
7t
Section shewing Joggled Frames.
FIG. 79. Methods of working Shell-plating.
last two of steel. The largest is 700 ft. long. One trestje structure, or
gantry, serves two building berths, and runs longitudinally between
9 6 4
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
the two. On the gantry is mounted a double cantilever crane,
having an effective reach of 95 ft. on each side of the centre; this
outreach is sufficient for a ship 70 ft. broad on each side of the
trestle. The height of the cantilever above the ground is some 90 ft.,
the load that can be raised is 15 tons, and if necessary a bulkhead up
to that weight can be lifted bodily into place. The speed of lift for
this weight is IOO ft. per minute, and for lighter loads 700 ft. per
minute. The speed of the trolley along the cantilever is 4001080x5 ft.
per minute, and of the whole crane longitudinally is 400 to 700 ft.
per minute. All movements are made by electric power. Similar
gantries and arrangements are used in other American shipyards.
The view shown in fig. 80 (Plate VIII.) represents one of these
structures as fitted in Messrs Cramp's shipyard in Philadelphia.
At the yard of Messrs C. S. Swan & Hunter, on the Tyne, similar
structures have been erected since 1894; besides carrying cranes,
these have standards and stiffening girders, from which ships under
construction are shored for fairing. Roofs and sides are fitted to
protect the ship, and the workmen engaged in building her, from the
weather. The side supports are three in number, and serve for two
berths ; they are formed of steel lattice-work, with standards mostly
20 ft. apart. The clear height of roof is 83 ft., and clear breadth of
berths 68 ft. and 73 ft. ; a roadway on the ground level is left free on
each side of the berths inside the standards. Two revolving 3-ton
electric cranes travel along paths suspended from each roof ; their
jibs have sufficient radius to lift material from the roadways and
deposit it at the centre of the ships building. The longitudinal speed
of these cranes is 300 ft. per minute ; speed of lift, 100 ft. per minute.
A third berth is served by a travelling cantilever crane on top of
the adjoining roof. At Messrs Harland & Wolff's yard at Belfast
another modification was introduced in 1897 (see fig. 81 , Plate VIII.).
In this case the structure takes the form of a travelling gantry or
bridge over the building berth, the legs running on rails at the
ground level. The gantry, which is driven by hydraulic power,
has three traversing cranes and four 4-ton swing cranes. It was
designed to facilitate the lifting of plates and portions of the structure
into position, and also to support the hydraulic riveting machines
and other appliances for the carrying out of the work. The success
of the appliances, first used in the " Oceanic," has led to a further
extension for other ships in hand.
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
The first steps taken on the receipt at the shipyard of the
design drawings and specifications, which have been generally
described on page 957, have for their object the provision of
detailed drawings of the structural arrangements, which will
enable materials for the various parts to be ordered from the
manufacturers, and of information for the guidance of the
workmen in erecting the structure.
A wooden model of half of the exterior surface of the ship,
called the " half-block " model, is immediately prepared from
the sheer drawing, generally to a scale of i in. to the foot for a
large ship and a somewhat larger scale for a small one, and on
its surface are carefully drawn the main frames, the edges and
butts of the outer bottom or shell-plating, together with the
positions of decks, longitudinals and other features which
influence the detailed arrangement of the framing and shell-
plating, the particulars of which are fixed by the specification
and the midship and other sections. The work on this model
is carried out concurrently with the laying off of the ship, which
will be described presently, so as to be complete by the time the
latter is sufficiently far advanced to enable full-sized measure-
ments of the breadth of the plates to be obtained. The lengths
of the plates are then measured from the model and the breadths
from the mould loft floor, a small surplus on the net measure-
ments being allowed to provide for inaccuracies; and the whole
of the outer bottom plating ordered from the manufacturers.
The whole of the framing is also ordered, the lengths of the various
parts being measured from the model.
A similar block model is made to the shape of the inner bottom,
if one is to be provided, or of the top of the ballast tanks, as the
case may be; and in a battle-ship a block model will be made
of the protective deck if it should have much curvature or
sloping sides. All details of plating, framing, beams, carlings,
hatchways, &c., will be shown on these models, and the dimen-
sions of all the parts will be carefully measured off and the
material ordered of the manufacturers; the breadths of the
plating being obtained as in the case of the outside bottom
plating.
For flat or nearly flat surfaces such as flat keel plates, vertical
keel, bulkheads, decks, engine and boiler bearers, &c., the
detailed arrangements of plating and frames are made on draw-
ings, from which the dimensions are taken for ordering the
material from the manufacturers; while the drawings them-
selves constitute working drawings which are issued for general
guidance in building the ship.
Drawings of details of important structural castings or forgings,
such as the stem, sternpost and shaft brackets, are also among
the earliest taken in hand, but the patterns to which these parts
are made, when they are large and complicated castings as in a
warship, cannot generally be completed without information
obtained from the mould loft floor.
Laying off is the name given to the process of drawing the lines of
a ship to full size in plan and elevation in order to determine the
exact dimensions of the most important and funda- L ay i ar
mental parts of the structure. The necessity for drawing of j
to full size arises from the extreme accuracy with which
the dimensions of the various parts must correspond with one
another in order that when assembled there may be no irregularity
or unfairness in the surface of the ship; the methods of ordinary
mechanical drawing to a small scale being inadequate for this
purpose, on account of the analytically indeterminate nature of the
curves which define the form of the ship. The process is carried
out on a specially planed and blackened floor, most conveniently of
rectangular shape, and of such a size as to take in the full depth
of the ship in its width. The building or room in which the floor
is situated is called the " mould loft," and is an important adjunct
to the shipyard drawing office.
The rationale of the methods of projection of points and lines
and rabatment of planes used in laying off is subjected to a de-
tailed examination in the article GEOMETRY, part III., Descriptive,
vol. xi., and therefore will not be referred to in this article, which is
confined to a description of some of the detailed problems which
occur in actual practice, the solutions being often approximations
which are found sufficiently exact for practical purposes.
In different localities and in the construction of different types of
vessel, the extent to which the process of laying off to full size is
employed varies considerably. In some yards laying off on a large
scale on paper is relied on almost entirely, and very little full-sized
work on the floor is considered necessary. This chiefly applies to
ships of stereotyped form, such as ordinary " tramp " steamers, the
lines of which have very little curvature for the greater part of their
length. In the American Lake shipyards for the cargo vessels
employed on the Great Lakes templates are very carefully and
ingeniously made for the framing, one set sufficing to mark off all
the frames on the greater portion of the ship's length. In a similar
way one template is made for each strake of plating and used to
mark off the whole of the plates of that strake, a slip mould being
used when they begin to depart from the parallel midship body.
The types of vessels in which the greatest complication of structure
occurs and in which the highest degree of accuracy in building is
necessary are passenger ships and war vessels; the description of the
process of laying off, which follows, while generally applicable to
all types of vessels, refers more particularly to the practice followed
in building war vessels at the British Government Dockyards and
at the more important shipbuilding centres in the United Kingdom.
The nature of the Sheer Drawing, with a description of the prin-
cipal lines shown on it, has been stated on p. 957. Specimen
sheer drawings of different types of ships are shown on Sfteer
Plate IX. Fig. 83, Plate IX., is a sheer drawing of the Drawing.
Midland Railway steamer " Londonderry," designed by
Professor J. H. Biles, LL.D., of length between perpendiculars
330 ft., breadth moulded 42 ft., depth 25 ft. 6 in., displace-
ment 2200 tons, speed 21-7 knots. Fig. 82, Plate IX., is the
sheer drawing of the battleship " Lord Nelson," whose dimen-
sions and other particulars are set forth in the article on SHIP,
page 898. Her form over the midship portion below the water-
line and above the turn of the bilge is flattened so as to enable
her to be docked in a dock existing at Chatham when she was
built, and at the same time to secure the greatest possible
beam of ship at the water-line; and the bottom of the ship out
to the dotted line in the half-breadth plan is absolutely flat so as
to enable her to be docked on two or more lines of blocks whose
upper surfaces lie in one plane, thereby reducing the docking
strains, a system adopted for the first time in the " Lord Nelson
and in all succeeding vessels of large size in the British Navy since
this vessel. In Plate IX. figs. 85 and 87, the half-breadth and body-
plans of the royal yacht " Alexandra " are given in association with
the profile, fig. 84, in place of the usual outline sheer, which is omitted
to save space. In each of these sheer drawings the names of the
various lines have been added ; whereas in ordinary practice only
the numbers of the stations in the sheer and half-breadth and ol tl
sections in the body are given. In the sheer drawing, fig. 83, very
little more is given in the three plans than the various sections and
the traces of the planes, whose intersections with the surface of the
ship they are; in such a case the sheer drawing is generally spoken
as the lines, and is only used for giving the outside form of the ship,
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE VIII.
4J
I
a?
1
is
I
<*!
1
ffi
O
a
IS
1
a
u
XXIV. 964-
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION]
SHIPBUILDING
9 6 5
other information required for laying the vessel off and making the
necessary moulds being usually given on other drawings. The sheer
drawing of the " Lord Nelson contains the information usually
given concerning the form of the ship and other features of the
design required for laying the vessel off, ordering the material for
her construction and afterwards erecting the same in position.
In these drawings it has been necessary for the sake of clearness
to reduce the number of square stations and water or level lines
commonly shown in drawings of this character. The number of
these lines is fixed in the preparation of the design by the necessity
of accurately defining the surface of the ship so that the intentions
of the designer as regards form, displacement, and what may be called
the geometrical features of the ship may be realised. In a large
warship there are usually 21 square stations shown, including the
forward and after perpendiculars, the distance between which defines
the nominal length of the ship. The water-lines are 3 to 4 ft. apart.
Intermediate square stations and water-lines are frequently intro-
duced where the curvature of the surface of the ship is rapidly
altering; as at the ends and below the bilge. It is usual, and obvi-
ously sufficient in the sheer drawing as well as in the process of
laying off, to show only one-half of the ship on one side of the longi-
tudinal vertical plane of symmetry. Thus, in the half-breadth plan
only the port side of the ship is drawn; and in the body plan, for
greater clearness, the half ship is further divided, the part forward
of the midship section, or square station at the middle of the length
of the ship, being shown on the right of the middle line of that plan,
and the part aft of the midship section on the left of the middle
line.
Other Drawings. The profile and plans and the midship section
have also been described in this article. The profile and plans
of H.M. yacht " Alexandra " are given on plates. Fig. 84,
Plate X., is the profile which shows in sectional elevation all the
decks, bulkheads, machinery, living spaces, store spaces, &c. ; figs.
86, 93, 94, 95 and 96, Plate X., give the plans of the promenade
deck, upper deck, main deck, lower deck and hold respectively with
important fittings shown upon them; figs. 88, 89, 90, 91 and 92,
Plate X., give sections of the ship showing the inboard works at
stations E, D, C, B and A on the profile respectively ; and on fig. 97,
Plate XII., is given the midship section with all the principal
scantlings of the framing and plating. Fig. 98, Plate XIII., also
gives the midship section of H.M. battleship " Lord Nelson."
Any two of the three plans of the sheer drawing may be taken to
represent the " horizontal " and " vertical " planes of Descriptive
Geometry, and are theoretically sufficient to define the shape of the
vessel completely, but the three plans are practically necessary for
the sake of clearness and are always used.
In the design sheer drawing the lines may represent the inter-
sections of planes with the surface of the framing of the ship, or with
an imaginary surface having a mean position between the irregu-
larities of the surface of the ship caused by the system of plating
adopted. The former system is the more usual in the drawings of
steel-built merchant ships, necessitating an allowance on all measured
dimensions used in calculating displacement, &c.; the latter system
is usual in warships, in which the surface represented by the sheer
drawing of a ship plated with raised and sunken plates strakes as
described on p. 962, would be an imaginary surface midway between
the outsides of the raised and the sunken strakes. A sheer drawing
on this latter system is said to show displacement lines in contra-
distinction to the former system which shows " moulded " or frame
lines. In the case of vessels with a plank sheathing over the bottom
the surface shown on the sheer drawing is the outside of the planking.
As the primary object of the laying off of the ship is to ascertain
the shape of the frames, the surface of the outside of the frames
is always that which is laid off on the mould loft floor. If displacement
lines are given in the sheer drawing a preliminary process of deriving
from them the moulded lines is necessary before lay ing off on the floor.
The process, to be strictly accurate, involves setting in the requisite
distance along the normal to the surface shown in the sheer drawing.
This is easily done at the midship section, where the normal to the sur-
face lies in the plane of the section and coincides with the normal to
the curve of the square station in the body plan, or at the practically
vertical parts of the sides of the ship, where the normal to the surface
lies in the water plane and coincides with the normal to the water-
line in the half-breadth plan. In other positions, however, it would
be necessary to rabat a plane containing the normal on one of the
planes of reference, set in the required distance along the rabatted
normal, find the projections of the point in the frame surface so
obtained and of other similar points, and thus obtain the projections
of curves on the frame surface, which by their intersections with
ordinates and water-lines would give a new set of square stations
and water-lines corresponding to the moulded surface of the ship.
Such a process, though simple, is more laborious than is necessary
in view of the degree of accuracy required, and in practice it is
customary to set in normal to each square station a distance slightly
greater than the thickness of the plank and plating, the increased
distance required being roughly estimated from a consideration of
the obliquity of the water-lines, without producing any sensible
error.
The frame lines having been obtained, it is customary at some
shipyards to "fair" the body on paper on a larger scale than that
of the sheer drawing, before laying off on the floor. This saves a
certain amount of labour in fairing the full-sized body on _
the flo9r, the errors in the body as first copied on the floor, V 1 "" g
which it is the object of the fairing process to correct, being
proportional to the increase in scale in first copying. The process is
similar to the full-sized fairing which is described below.
A straight line is drawn on the floor parallel to a fixed straight
batten nailed to the floor a short distance from the wall of the
building to represent the load water-line in the sheer and body
plans and in such a position that the whole depth of the ship can
be drawn with regard to it within the limits^on the floor and clear
of the batten, the inner edge of which becomes the base-line
of the sheer, half-breadth and body plans. The fore and after per-
pendiculars of the sheer and half-breadth plans are drawn at right
angles to this line and the fixed batten in convenient positions
near the ends of the floor, the fore perpendicular on the right
and the after perpendicular on the left as in the sheer drawing,
and so as to allow the extreme outlines of the stem and stern
to be drawn upon the floor together with not less than one-fifth
of the length of the sheer and half-breadth plans at each end of
the ship. A line perpendicular to the water-line and the fixed batten
is drawn, usually near the middle of the floor, to represent the middle
line of the body plan. The middle line of the half-breadth plan is
usually taken as coinciding with the base-line, the inner edge of the
fixed batten. The level or water lines shown on the sheer drawing
are drawn in on the floor parallel to the load water-line so as to serve
for both the sheer and body plans. Ordinates representing those
given in the sheer drawing, which correspond to the sections in the
body plan, are drawn in the sheer and half-breadth plans an'd others
are added where desired, so also are additional water-lines between
those shown on the sheer drawing and above the load water-line, so
that in full-sized drawing on the floor the sections and stations may
be sufficiently near for fairing the whole of the external form of the
ship. If, as is usually the case, the ship is too long to be laid off in
one length on the floor the midship portions of the sheer and half-
breadth plans are drawn superposed over the forward and after
parts, and are usually contracted longitudinally as will be described
presently.
The distances from the middle line along each water-line in the
body plan of the original sheer drawing, or of the enlarged body when
the process of preliminary fairing has been adopted, to the intersection
of the water-line with each section are measured to scale and
tabulated. At the lower parts of the body, in the vicinity of and
below the" bilge," where the water-lines cut the square stations very
obliquely and the points of intersection become somewhat indeter-
minate, diagonal lines as shown by iD, 2D in fig. 99 are drawn
in the sheer drawing in such positions as to intersect as many as
possible of the square stations approximately at right angles, and
the corresponding diagonal lines are drawn on the floor. The
distances from the middle line of the body plan in the sheer drawing
along the diagonal lines to their intersections with the sections are
measured and tabulated. It is usually desirable, especially in ships
with a great extent of practically flat bottom, to draw bow and
buttock lines to include this portion of the surface, such as iB in
the figure, as the diagonals approach more or less closely to bow and
buttock lines and shorter measurements are required in transferring
the lines; the heights of their intersections with the transverse
sections above the base-line being measured and tabulated. The
draught of water of the ship at the forward and after perpendiculars
is given in the specification enabling the underside of keel in the sheer
plan to be drawn in on the floor between the points where the rise
of keel commences at the extremities. The flat part of the keel is
generally uniform in width for the greater part of the length of the
ship, and tapered at the extremities. The line representing its side
must be drawn on the floor in the half-breadth plan. The height of
keel-line above the base-line at each station in the sheer plan and
the corresponding half siding of keel are the co-ordinates of the lower
extremity of the corresponding transverse section in the body plan.
The lower extremities of the sections are at once fixed in the body
plan by the intersections of their horizontal and vertical ordinates
transferred from the half-breadth and sheer plans. For the upper
endings of the transverse sections in the body plan a level line is
generally drawn on the body of the sheer drawing just above the
projection of the upper deck edge and the sections at the square
stations produced to meet it. The intersections of this water-line
with the sections are measured and tabulated.
The whole of this process of measurement and tabulation is
frequently done in the drawing office, and the " loftsman " or person
who conducts the laying off on the floor is not supplied with the
sheer drawing, but only with these tables of " offsets," and similar
tables for the lines in the sheer and half-breadth. The process,
however, is the same in either case.
The tabulated measurements for the sections of the body plan are
then set off full size by means of long measuring staffs on the lines
on the floor, corresponding to those in the sheer drawing on which
the measurements were taken, and thus give points whose co-
ordinates are to those of the corresponding points in the drawing in
the ratio of 48 :i, if the drawing from which they were taken was to a
scale of \ inch to the foot as is usually the case. A suitable wood
batten is then bent or " penned " as nearly as possible through the
9 66
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
series of points on the several water, diagonal and buttock or bow lines
corresponding to each square station, being held in position by nails,
specially adapted for the purpose, lightly driven into the floor, the
batten in each case being adjusted so as to lie in a fair curve. Usually
the batten will not under these conditions pass through all the
points found for the curve on account of irregularities introduced or
magnified in the process of enlarging to full size, and it must be
allowed to take up a mean position passing outside some of the
points and inside others. All of the sections in the body plan are
drawn in with chalk in this way. The section where the greatest
breadth of the ship occurs, usually at or near the middle of the
length, must have the line parallel to and half the moulded breadth
of the ship from the middle line for a tangent, and no section must
project beyond this line.
The intersections of each section thus drawn, with the water and
other lines, are the vertical projections on the body plan of points,
the horizontal projections of which lie in the horizontal trace of the
transverse plane at the corresponding square station or ordinate in
the sheer and half-breadth plans, and are at the same perpendicular
BODY PLAN
intersection of the bow plane iB with square station 2, and fcis
the projection in the sheer of the intersection of water-line 2\VL
with the same bow plane. The water-lines and diagonals in the
half-breadth and the diagonals and bow and buttock lines in the
sheer may thus be drawn as fair lines by the help of battens, and
if the lines do not pass through all the points obtained by projection
from the body plan, the sections in the latter are rubbed out and
new ones obtained from the lines in the half-breadth. This process
should be repeated until the curves in both plans are fair and the
intersections correspond accurately with one another as the pro-
jections of points in space.
No frame of the ship, however, is made to the curves of these water
and diagonal lines, so that their true shapes are not required for any
practical purpose except fairing the body. For the whole rv, n </v, c / e( /
length of the ship, except about three to four twentieths at me u, ol j f
each end, space and labour are therefore saved and greater f a i r i ax
accuracy is ensured by using the contracted method of
fairing. In this method the ordinates of the half-breadth are set only
from Jth to ^th of their true distance apart, while the transverse
PART SHEER AND HALF - BREADTH PLANS
' BftSE UNL OF SHEER AND M.t.OF HALF-BREADTH _. !
CONTRACTED
HALF-BREADTH PLAN
FIG. 99.
distances from the middle line of the half-breadth as the correspond-
ing vertical projections are from the middle line of the body. For
example, in fig. 99/1 and gi are the projections in the half-breadth of
the same points of which p and q are projections in the body plan,
and are found by making the ordinates of pi and gi measured from
the middle line of the half-breadth plan at square station 2 equal to
the perpendicular distances of p and g respectively from the middle
line of the body plan. Thus points in the projections in the half-
breadth of the water and diagonal lines can be found from the body
plan already drawn, and in order that the surface of the ship may be
fair, the series of points corresponding to any water or diagonal line
must lie on a fair curve. In the case of a diagonal line the distance
from the middle line of the body to the intersections of the diagonal
with the square stations may be measured along the diagonal, and
set_off on the corresponding square stations in the half-breadth.
This gives the true or rabatted form of the intersection of the diagonal
plane with the ship's surface, and this, equally with the projected
diagonal, must be a fair curve if the surface is fair. The diagonals
are also projected into the sheer plan by measuring the height above
the base-line at which each diagonal in the body plan cuts each
square station, and setting up this height from the base-line of the
sheer plan at the corresponding square station. The projections of
the bow and buttock lines in the sheer plan are obtained in a similar
manner. Thus in fig. 99 V 2 is projection in the sheer plan of the
measurements are made to full size as before, thus making the curva-
ture of the water and diagonal lines sharper throughput the region
over which it would otherwise be somewhat flat and indefinite. As
the curvature of the contracted level and diagonal lines depends upon
the differences between the lengths of the ordinates of the curves and
not upon their actual length, a further saving of space is effected by
measuring the distances to be set up as ordinates in the half-breadth
not from the middle line of the body but from a point selected
arbitrarily in each water or diagonal line, generally a few inches
outside the midship section. By suitably varying the distances
outside the midship section of these arbitrarily chosen points in the
different water and diagonal lines, it can be arranged that the curves
in the half-breadth do not interfere with one another, an advantage
from the point of view of clearness. With the above modifications
the process of fairing by the contracted method is precisely similar to
that when the ordinates are their full distance apart.
In fig. 88 the diagonals iD and 2D are shown laid off by the con-
tracted method, the spacing of the ordinates in the contracted
half -breadth being Jth of that representing the spacing in the
diagram of the uncontracted sheer and half-breadth. In the con-
tracted half-breadth the ordinates 41-1, 5*>. &c., are equal to the
distances Or, Os, &c., measured to sections 4, 5, &c., in the body,
O being a point arbitrarily selected in the diagonal iD.
The principle of contracted fairing is sometimes extended by the
SHIPBUILDING
FIG 82. SHEER DRAWING
SHE
FIG. 83. SHEER DRAWING o
SHEI
"
..-. , ,- _-i:i.^pgg
l-fc?
BODY PLAN OF "LORD NELSON.
PARTICULARS OF H.M.S. "LORD NELSON."
Length between perpendiculars 410 feet. Displacement In tons
Brea(ltn 79 feet 6 inches. Speed In knots
Depth . 43 feet 8 inches. Bull!
Ui^
XXIV. 966-961.
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE IX.
M.S. "LORD NELSON.'
I -^ L. h
"LONDONDERRY."
*.< XL
,.4^
9 Scale of Feer
OS 10 15 20 25 30 35 4O 4S 5O
BODY PLAN OF
LONDONDERRY.'
95
PARTICULARS OF STEAMSHIP "LONDONDERRY."
Length between perpendiculars 330 feet. Displacement In tons
Breadth, Moulded - - 42 feet. Speed in knots
Depth . 25 feet 6 inches. Built -
2,200
21.7
1904
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION]
SHIPBUILDING
967
provision of a large drawing-board 4 or 5 ft. broad and long enough
to take the whole length of the ship on a scale of 0*4 th full size.
The ordinates of the half-breadth and sheer being set off on the board
to this scale, any line in which the difference between the greatest and
least ordinates does not exceed the breadth of the board can be
faired thereon by this contracted method. This allows considerable
lengths of the midship parts of diagonals and water-lines, and such
lines as decks at middle and side, and any other lines of very flat
curvature, to be faired on the board, resulting in a great saving of
time and labour, owing to the convenient height at which the board
can be placed, and to greater accuracy, as the fairness of the lines
can be better seen and judged.
At the forward and after ends of the ship the correct shapes of the
water-lines are required in order to determine the shapes of the stem
and stern-post, besides which the curvature of these lines is
Fairing too g reat to permit of contraction of the abscissa scale.
the ends. These p ar t s are> therefore, faired by uncontracted water
and other lines as already described, except that bow and buttock
lines are used to less extent than in the flatter portions of the vessel.
Care must be taken that at the junction of parts of the ship faired
Upper Part.
aa. Fore edge of rabbet for sheathing.
66, Fore edge of rabbet for shell and protective
plating.
cc, Webs for attachment of decks , breastholes.&c.
d. Web for attachment of wood keel.
Lower Part
tt, Line of gulleting.
, Scarph for connect-
ing the parts of the
stem.
Mi, Middle of rabbet for
shell plating.
FIG. too.
by separate processes there shall be a considerable overlap through-
out which the water and other lines in the two parts are identical in
order to ensure the continuity of the surface.
The detailed drawings of the stem and stern castings already referred
to must ensure that these castings shall form a fair continua-
tion of the outside surface of the plating or sheathing. They are
perhaps most complicated in the case of sheathed armoured warships
where the surfaces of " rabbets " or recesses for housing the bottom
and armour plating and the wood sheathing must also conform to the
lines of the ship laid off on the floor. A sketch of the stem casting
for an armoured, sheathed ship with a ram bow is given in fig. too, the
sections being shown to a greater scale than the elevations for the
sake of clearness, except the section at the water-line AA, which is
drawn to illustrate the method of ending the water-lines, similar
sections being drawn on the floor at the other water-lines. The fore
edge of the stem is drawn in full size in the sheer plan on the floor in
its correct position relatively to the fore perpendicular and water-
lines by measurements taken from the sheer drawing, and the pro-
jections of the line of the inner angle of the rabbet for the shell
plating, called the " middle of rabbet," marked h in the figure, are
drawn in the sheer and body plans as fair lines. It should be ob-
served that in the figure h, the middle of rabbet and 6, the fore edge
of rabbet of plating are shown in side elevation as coincident lines on
account of the smallness of the scale; they will not be generally
coincident on a full-sized projection on the floor. The middle of
rabbet line is best faired in an expansion drawing. In this method a
batten is bent to the curve of the projection of the line in the sheer
plan, and the position of the water-lines where sections of the stem
have been shown on the drawing are marked on the batten, which
is then allowed to spring straight along a straight line drawn in
a.ny convenient position on the floor, and the positions of the water-
lines are transferred from the batten to the floor. The distances such
as xh in the section at AA are measured from each section given in
the drawing and set up in full size perpendicular to the straight
line on the floor at the positions corresponding to the sections. A
fair line through the ends of these perpendiculars will give the distance
xh at any position in the length of the stem and enable the projections
of the middle of rabbet-line to be drawn accurately in the body and
half-breadth plans.
To end any water-line such as AA in the half-breadth plan
a perpendicular to the middle line of the half-breadth is drawn from
the intersection of the line AA, with the projection of the middle
of rabbet-line in the sheer plan, and the distance xh, taken from
the body plan, or direct from the expansion of the middle of rabbet-
line, is set out from the middle line of the half -breadth ; the
point h is the ending of the water-line AA required. The water-
lines having been drawn and ended in this manner, additional
ordinates coinciding with the transverse frames are drawn in the
half-breadth plan and their projections obtained and faired in the
body plan, in order to define more closely the somewhat twisted
surface of the ship in the neighbourhood of the stem. Fairing these
frame sections may involve correction and adjustment of the
endings of the water-lines, which corrections are made subject to
the condition that the projections and expansion of the middle of
rabbet-line must remain fair curves. With the middle of
rabbet thus fixed in proper relation to the faired surface of the
fore end . of the ship, the sections of the stem by the water-
planes can be reconstructed in the half-breadth plan by the help of
the drawing of the stem and of any additional information con-
tained in the specification as to the nature of the fastenings of the
plank and plating to the casting and the length of the hood ends.
Where the general direction of the stem is considerably out of the
--vertical, sections of the frame surface by planes normal to the fore
edge of the stem are obtained by the help of the closely spaced frame
sections, and rabatted on the sheer plane ; and sections of the stem
casting constructed on them as in the case of the water-lines. In
this way as many points as are required are obtained in the various
lines in the surface of the stem, viz. the after edge of the casting, and
the various angles of the rabbets, and these lines are faired so far
as they are continuous in the three plans. The shell and protective
plating and plank sheathing are also put on outside the various
sections of the frame surface for a short distance in the neigh-
bourhood of the stem, and the surface of the stem forward of
the fore edge of the rabbet is faired in with the outside surface of
the ship.
A plain batten mould is made to the outline of the stem in the
sheer plan, and the projections of the lines of rabbets and of gulleting,
position and shape of webs for connecting to decks and
stringers and to the wood keel, lines of rabbets for con- , rf
necting to keel plates at the lower end and to the tuck mouu.
plate at the upper end (if the casting is not continued right up to
the forecastle deck), the position of the fore perpendicular and load
water-line are marked upon it. Sections of the casting taken from the
floor are painted on the mould, the centre lines of the sections
indicating the position where they are taken, showing more particu-
larly the changes in shape of the casting at such positions as the
upper and lower edges of the protective plating and the upper edge
of the plank sheathing. The stem mould thus gives complete
information for the preparation of the pattern for the casting. The
positions of the fore perpendicular and load water-line marked on
the mould are transferred to the casting when made, and enable
the stem to be erected in its correct position at the ship.
The after end of the ship is faired and the mould for the stern
post and other castings prepared in a similar manner. The process
of preparing the moulds for the stem and stern post is also generally
similar to the above in the case of an unsheathed ship, but the
castings are less complicated owing to the absence of the plank
sheathing.
The whole of the 21 square stations which constitute the original
body plan having been faired as described above, it is usual to
calculate the displacement and position of centre of
buoyancy of the ship from the lines laid off on the floor '
to ensure that in the process of fairing no departure of ""1"^
any consequence has been made from the original design. '
For this purpose the steel plating and wood sheathing, if any there
be, must be put on by a process the inverse of that described as taking
off the plank. If any serious departure from the original design
should be discovered as the result of this calculation, the lines must
be corrected and again faired.
9 68
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
Frame
lines.
The transverse frame lines are the intersections with the frame
surface of transverse vertical planes passing through the lines of
intersection of the two exterior surfaces of the flanges of the frame
angle bars, or of the web and flange of any other type of
rolled section which may be used for the frame.
The distance between two adjacent frame lines, called
the " frame space," is given in the specification, and the positions
of the frames relatively to the ordinates are shown in the sheer
plan of the sheer drawing. The frame space in a warship is commonly
4 ft. within the limits of the double bottom and 3 ft. forward and aft.
In a merchant ship the spacing is usually less. The positions of the
planes of the frames are set off along the middle line of the half-
breadth plan, the proper scale being used in the contracted half-
breadth, and ordinates are drawn to represent their traces in the
half-breadth and sheer plans. The projections of the frame lines
in the body are obtained from the intersections of the ordinates
with the water and diagonal lines in the half-breadth and the bow
and buttock lines in the sheer plan in a manner already described
in the case of the more widely spaced stations used in fairing the
body. These frame lines in the body should require no further
fairing if the ,work has been accurately done when using the
original square stations, and they can be at once rased in on the
floor.
As already stated, it is usual to dispose the transverse framing
of a ship entirely in planes perpendicular to the trace of the load
water-plane with the longitudinal plane of symmetry
of the ship. This practice leads to a large and varying
bevel being given to the frame bars at the ends of a vessel
with a very bluff bow or stern, and it becomes a practical question
whether it would not be better at such parts to dispose the frames
in planes which are more nearly normal to the general surface of
the ship and which need not be perpendicular to either of the three
planes of reference. The disposal of frames in this way, more usually
in planes perpendicular to the half-breadth planes only, when they
Cant
frames.
t^
: I j < in
II 77..
', /! "Vj f'i
FIG. 101.
are called " cants," is in common use in wood shipbuilding, it being
of great economical importance that the timber frames shall be of
square or nearly square section, but it is also adopted in iron and
steel ships of unusual form or having special features, such for
instance as a lifting screw propeller.
To lay off a cant frame or " cant " : Let the traces of the cant be
a'b', ab in fig. 101. Let LL be the projections of a level line in the
three plans intersecting 06 at b in the half-breadth. Then 61 in the
sheer is the vertical projection of b, and a curve through all such
points as fri is the projection in the sheer of the shape of the frame
or, as it is called, of the moulding edge of the frame, fcj in the body,
where aj>t is equal to the perpendicular distance of b from the middle
line of the half-breadth, is a point in the projection in the'body plan ;
and 63 where ajb t is equal to ab is the position of the point, when
the cant plane is hinged about a'b' until it is parallel with the body
plane. Hence a curve drawn through all such points as b, is the
true form of the moulding edge of the cant. To obtain the angle
which the surface of the shrp makes with the plane of the moulding
edge, a plane parallel to that of the moulding edge and distant from
it the width of the bevelling board must be laid off in a suitable
position in the body plan. Let g'c', gc be the traces of such a plane
where a/, the normal distance between it and the plane whose
traces are a'b', ab, is the breadth of the bevelling board. The
verticaj projections of c, viz. Ci and c s , in the sheer and body are
found in the same way as those of b; but in order to obtain the
rabatted curve of the bevelling edge in such a position relatively to
the moulding edge that the perpendicular distance between the two
curves measures the bevelling in the same way that the perpendicular
distance between two frame lines of the square body measures their
bevelling, it is necessary to first project the bevelling edge on
the plane of the moulding edge before rabatting the latter. The
whole operation is effected by making 02 c s in the body equal to fc
in the half-breadth, where af is perpendicular to ab and gc. A curve
through all such points as c 3 is the bevelling edge laid off in the
position relative to the moulding edge required, the bevellings being
taken in a similar manner to those of the ordinary transverse
frames.
Spots on the cant can also be obtained from diagonals as
follows: In fig. 102 let DD be the projections of a diagonal
FIG. 1 02.
line in the three plans cutting the horizontal traces of the moulding
and bevelling edges at d and e in the half-breadth. The pro-
jections di, i in the sheer and dt, ei in the body of the intersections
of the diagonal line with the planes of the moulding and bevelling
edges are obtained in the same way as in the case of the level line,
and the method of obtaining the rabatted positions, when the
plane of the moulding edge, with the bevelling edge projected
upon it, is turned about a'b until it is parallel to the body plane, is
also analogous; but in this case the corresponding points of the
moulding and bevelling edges are in different level planes dtdi e&i.
Points in the rabatted curves of the moulding and bevelling edges of
the cant may also be obtained from the intersections with bow and
buttock lines, as shown in fig. 103, where BB are the projections of the
-L.
FIG. 103.
bow or buttock line in the three plans. The method is analogous to
that described above when using level lines and as shown by the
figure, hi and k> being rabatted positions of points in the moulding
SHIPBUILDING
FIG. 84. \\ H.M.YACHT "ALE
PARTICULARS
LENGTH BETWEEN PERP?..__ 275Fe.E.r
BREADTH 4-O
DRAUGHT (EVEN KEEL)
DISPLACEMENT
FIG. 85
u
FIG. 86. PROMEI
FIG. 87. BODY PLAN.
FIG. 88. SECTION AT E
FIG. 89. SECTION AT D.
n
Di rung
Saloon
I Queen y Hooml
11
XXIV. 968^)69.
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE X.
MDRA
PARTICULARS
SPEED 18 25 KNOTS
SHAFT HORSE POWER . ^.500
SHIP COMPLETED ..APRIL 190B
BREADTH PLAN
FIG. 90. SECTION
AT C.
i Kings
I Srnokirwj
1 Room
FIG. 91. SECTION AT B.
FIG. 92. SECTION AT A.
Scale of Feer
O 5 10 15 2O 25 30 35 4O 4-5 50
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION ]
SHIPBUILDING
969
and bevelling edges respectively ; where ft h> is equal to ah and k t k 3
tofk.
In fig. 104 let AB, A'B' be the traces of the plane of the moulding
edge of the frame in the sheer and half-breadth plans respectively.
When, as in the figure, neither trace is perpendicular to
the base line, the frame is said to be a double canted
frame, or a double cant. Let iL, 2L, 3L be the projec-
tions of level lines in the three plans, P, Q, R in the
sheer plan being their point of intersection with AB. The
3L"
Double
canted
frame.
3L
FIG. I04A.
horizontal projections of these points are found as indicated in
the figure where Q' on the middle line of the half breadth is the
horizontal projection of Q. The line Q'q' parallel to A'B' is the
honzontal projection of the line of intersection of the double cant
plane with the level plane 2L, and q, obtained by the construction
shown, is the vertical projection of the point where this line of
intersection cuts the surface of the ship, q' being the horizontal pro-
jection of the same point. The projections of other points in the
intersection of the double cant plane with the surface of the ship are
found in a similar manner by the help of other level lines; and the
projections s' and s of the ending where the line of half siding of the
flat keel cuts the double cant plane are found by the construction
indicated. The projections of the moulding edge of the double cant
frame spqr in the sheer plan and s'p'q'r' in the half-breadth are thus
determined.
The true form of the moulding edge is laid off in the body plan by
a double process of rabatment of the double cant plane, first about
the trace AB to bring it perpendicular to the sheer plan, and then
about a normal to the sheer plan through A to bring it parallel to the
body plan, in the following manner. Set off P 2 , Q 2 , R 2 on the middle
line of the body so that their distances from A 2 are equal to AP,
AQ, AR measured along the trace AB in the sheer plan. Draw AC
in the sheer plan perpendicular to AB and measure the heights
parallel^ to AB of the points p, q and r above AC. Draw level lines
iL , aL , 3L in the body plan at distances above the base line equal
to these heights, and from the centres P 2 , Q 2 , R 2 describe circles
cutting iL , 2L , 3L' in p 2 , q 2 , r 2 , &c., so that the radius @ 2 g 2 is equal to
Q q , &c. The curve 2 g 2 r 2 is the true form of the moulding edge of
the double cant laid off in the body plan.
The plane of the bevelling edge is parallel to that of the moulding
edge and at a perpendicular distance from it suitable for use as the
base of a bevelling triangle similar to that which is described
for the ordinary frames. The width of the bevelling board is
made equal to this perpendicular distance, corresponding to the
frame space in the case of the ordinary frames, and the bevelling edge
must be laid off so that the normal distance between it and the
moulding edge can be used for marking the bevelling in the same way
as the normal distance between consecutive frames of the square
body is used.
To obtain the traces of the plane of the bevelling edge, in fig.
1043 let AB, AB' be the traces of the moulding edge plane; nm
drawn perpendicular to AB and mm' perpendicular to the axis are
the traces of a plane perpendicular to the plane of the moulding edge
and to the vertical or sheer plane. If mM be drawn perpendicular
to nm and equal to mm', nM is the intersection of the
planes BAB' and nmm' rabatted on to the sheer plane,
and mH perpendicular to nM is the rabatted position of
a line perpendicular to the plane of the moulding edge.
Make HK equal to the chosen distance of the bevelling
edge plane from the moulding edge plane; draw Kfe
parallel to Mn cutting nm in k; through k draw DkE
parallel to AB and through D, where DE meets the base
line, draw DE' parallel to AB'; then DE, DE' are the
traces of the plane of the bevelling edge arranged at the
required perpendicular distance from the plane of the
moulding edge.
In laying off the bevelling edge it is first projected on to
the plane of the moulding edge, and the latter then
rabatted into the body plane. To effect this operation the
horizontal trace Am i, of a plane perpendicular to the
double cant plane and intersecting it in the vertical
trace AB must be drawn, which is done by the construction
shown in fig. 1043, where nm is, as before, perpendicular
to AB through any point n in it other than A, and n'm'i,
drawn through n', the horizontal projection of n, is per-
pendicular to AB'. The projections of the traces with the
several level planes of the plane of the bevelling edge, such
as U'o/ and the projections of the bevelling edge Itwv in the
sheer plan and t't'w'v' in the half-breadth are obtained in
exactly the same way as in the case of the moulding
edge. The projections such as Q'w',, of the traces with
the several level planes of the plane whose traces are AB
and Am',, in fig. 1043 are also drawn parallel to Am',,
through the horizontal projections of P, Q, R, &c. The
vertical projection w, of the point w',, in which QiW 1 ,
meets V'w' produced, is found and A 2 U 2 set up on the
middle line of the body equal to the perpendicular distance
of w, from AC. A level line aL/ in the body plan is
drawn at a distance from the base line equal to the perpen-
dicular distance of w from AC and a point w^ found in it
such that the radius U 2 a/z is equal to w',w' in the half-
breadth. oi 2 is then the rabatted position of the projection
on the plane of the moulding edge of the point in the
bevelling edge whose projections are w and w'. Points
h, ti and i>2 corresponding to the projections / and /', t
and /', v and v' are found in a similar manner and a
curve drawn through / 2 < 2 oi 2 t> 2 is the bevelling edge laid
off in the body plan in the correct relation to the laid
off position of the moulding edge for the bevellings to be
taken.
Additional points in the rabatted shape of the double
canted frame may be obtained by the use of diagonals when
L
FIG. 105.
desired. In fig. 105 AB, A'B' are the traces of the double canted
plane; cd, ctd 3 are the projections of a diagonal line in the body and
970
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
sheer and c<&t its rabatment in the half-breadth plan. Draw ef, e'f,
the traces of a bow plane and through d where it cuts the diagonal in
two planes and to the bow plane. Since this point is common to the
level plane WL and to the bow plane ef, e'f, it lies in the diagonal
plane cd. Hence gg' is a point in the diagonal and double cant
planes. In a similar manner Cic' is a point in the same two planes.
Therefore Cig is the projection of the intersection of these planes,
and m where Cig cuts Cada is a point where the double cant plane meets
the diagonal line. In rabatment of the double cant about AB, m moves
in the line ntitnM perpendicular to AB. If now m be projected on
to cjdj, then M taken in ntitnM so that miM is equal to c'm', will be
a point in the moulding edge of the double-canted frame rabatted on
to sheer plan. Similar points can be obtained for each diagonal. The
plane of the bevelling edge is determined as previously described,
and the bevelling edge laid off similarly to the moulding edge, except
that provision must be made that it shall come in its right relation
to the moulding edge for bevellings to be taken as in the previous case
when laying of? by level lines.
A method of determining and fairing the swell for the propeller
shaft in a twin or multiple screw ship is shown in fig. 106. The pro-
jections of the centre line of shaft, which are given in the
Swell for sheer and half-breadth plans of the sheer drawing, are
'fc drawn in these plans on the floor, and the projection in
the body plan of the trace of centre line of shaft with
the plane of each square station is found as shown by the series
of points on the straight line a 6 in the
figure. The radius from the centre of shaft
required for the shaft tube and fittings at
the boss frame, or frame where the shaft
passes outside the ship, is found _from
the machinery specification. This is in-
creased by the thickness of the plank in
the case of a wood-sheathed ship and of
the plating, and by any allowance neces-
sary for clearance and for the obliquity
of the shaft line, and a frame is selected
for the boss frame such that a circle drawn
with that radius, viz. H in figure, from
the trace of the centre line of shaft with
the frame plane in question would just
touch the frame line on the outside.
The length and amount of projection
beyond the ordinary frame lines of the
shaft swell can be considerably reduced
if the frames abaft the boss frame, viz.
frame No. 14 in the figure are dished
inwards as shown in the figure, thus
allowing the required radius between the
centre of shaft and the frame line to be
obtained further forward than if the
frames were not dished. A similar method
is used for finding the frame where the
distance required round the centre of
shaft will not cause any bossing in the
frame line. Special attention must be
given to the radius required at the
stuffing box bulkhead, where considerable q
space is required for the stuffing box
and fittings, and at the after end of
the double bottom, where the shaft although well clear of
the frame line may not be sufficiently clear of the inner bottom
line to permit a sufficient depth of double bottom to be maintained
without bossing out the frame line as shown by the small diagram
in the figure. The frame, No. 2 in the figure, where the swell is to
end, having been selected, a normal nl to the frame line is drawn
from n, the trace of the centre of shaft line with the plane of the
frame, and parallel lines are drawn through the traces of the centre
of shaft line with the other frame planes, representing projections
of the intersections with the frame planes of a plane through the
centre of shaft. This plane is projected on to a diagonal plane
having its trace with the body plane parallel to the trace of the
plane, and the diagonal plane carrying the projection with it is
rabatted by the following process. A convenient line XY is selected
perpendicular to the parallel traces in the body plan, and a corre-
sponding line XY is drawn in any convenient position on the floor,
having ordinates set up perpendicular to it, the frame-spacing apart.
The distances from XY in the body are measured along all such
lines as nl to the projections of the centre of shaft and to the un-
bossed frame lines, and these distances are set up from XY in the
plan at the corresponding frame ordinates giving the straight centre
of shaft line, and GG the plan of the line of intersection of the plane
through the centre of shaft with the frame surface. The radius
required to house the shaft tube and fittings is set out from the
centre of shaft at the boss frame, as shown by h in plan, and a fair
line, as a rule straight except for a short distance at the forward end,
is drawn from the point so found to break in fair with the line GG
at the frame station where the swell is to end. The distances at
the various ordinates, corresponding to that marked r at No 8, are
used as radii for describing the outer part of the section of ths shaft
swell at the corresponding square stations in the body plan, the
trace of the shaft line being the centre at each frame from which
the circular arc is described^ The outer part of the section of the
swell thus formed, e.g. cc at the boss frame in figure, is joined up to
the general run of the frame line to which it belongs by arcs of
circles c d struck with the same radius as the outer part. The radii
for the hollowed-out frame lines abaft the boss frame are obtained
in a similar manner One or more diagonals cutting the swell
may be drawn and rabatted in the half-breadth plan to test the
fairness of the altered lines, but no further alteration should be
required if the swell has been drawn in the manner described
above.
The sectional shape of the boss frame casting is shown in the plan
in fig. 106, and the outline of the palm which is secured to the floor
plate of the boss frame is shown by the line k.k. in the . .
body plan. This part of the casting is fashioned solely J " f '^ c
with the view of providing sufficient area for a suitable cast i ng
number of fastenings to the floor plate. A drawing is
made of the casting, and for further guidance in preparing
the pattern a plain batten mould is made to the outline dccdkk on
the floor. The line dpd, the position of the centre of shaft and the
outline of the circular web for connecting to the shaft tube are
marked on the mould. The varying angles made by the webs con-
necting the casting to the shell plating forward and aft of the boss
frame, of which the outlines are deed and dpd, and of the circular
web connecting it to the shaft tube, are obtained by the same
iHFT 30ILL >T SECTIONS
111 mwi <x ooueit tor TOM
FLA* Or PLANE rnKOUOH
CIMTNC LlltC Of SHAM
. i
-7 1
.
-T*^
ZTTrrTT
i rr"~
__...
...*-
--"""
- t ""
r
ID'"' S
NC OF SHAI
T
IE:
FIG. 106.
method as that used for obtaining the bevelling of the frame angles,
which will be described later. These bevellings are marked at the
points of the several lines on the mould where they are taken.
The fore and aft position of the shaft struts, or " A " brackets,
as they are sometimes called, is shown on the design drawings, and
the scantlings of the hollow cylindrical boss which carries shaft
the shaft bearing and of the arms which connect the struts
boss to the ship s structure are given in the specifica-
tion. The detailed drawing appears in these pages showing these
particulars together with the shape of the palms worked on the
inner end of the bracket arms to connect them to the ship's
structure, and it is only necessary to obtain from the lines of the
ship laid off on the floor the exact relation of the positions of the
surfaces of the palms to one another and to the centre of the shaft.
Fur this purpose the traces of the line of centre of shaft with
transverse planes at the forward and after ends of the boss are
marked in the body plan, and a batten mould is made in each of
these planes showing the centre of shaft, the direction of the two
arms and the position where they are crossed by the frame line of
the ship, or, if the lower arm connects to a web or palm on the
stern post, as is frequently the case, in a ship with a rising keel line
aft, the position of the edge of this palm and the direction of its
surface. Each mould has marked on it, or indicated by a straight-
edged batten forming part of the mould, a convenient water-line and
vertical line drawn on the floor. When the moulds are held in vertical
planes separated by the length of the shaft boss the corresponding
straight lines on the two moulds are made to lie in the same plane,
or are " looked out of winding," giving the relation between the
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE XI.
*
o>
C3
:fl
II
in
o>
I
o>
d
XXIV. 970.
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION]
SHIPBUILDING
971
Sight
edges In
the body
plan.
position of the palms and the direction of centre of shaft. Guided
by these moulds and the detailed drawing, the pattern for casting
the A brackets is made.
The projections of the plate and longitudinal sight edges are
drawn in the body plan on the floor by measuring their distances
from the middle line along each frame line in the half-
block model, on which they have been already arranged,
enlarging the measurements to full size and setting them
off round the corresponding square stations in the body.
The points so found should lie on fair curves, if the sight
edges have been properly arranged on the model, except of
course where discontinuities in the curves may occur, as where a
plate sight edge crosses a longitudinal sight edge to avoid an acute
intersection. The edges of the sunken strakes of plating are drawn
parallel to and distant the width of the lap from the sight edges,
and as already stated, the breadths of the bottom plates are measured
between the lines of plate edges so found and used in ordering the
material from the manufacturers.
The surface of the inner bottom is denned relatively to the outer
bottom by the depth of the vertical keel and longitudinal frames
given in the specification. The outline of the vertical keel
* is also shown in the sheer drawing, and the general shape
of the inner bottom by the midship section, which is often
supplemented by a section through the engine-room where the
double bottom is locally made deeper. The surface of the longi-
tudinal is arranged so that its trace with the plane of each square
station is approximately normal to the curve of the square station ;
taken in conjunction with the method of drawing the sight edges
so as to cut the frame lines as nearly as possible at right angles,
this is approximately the same thing as generating the surface of
the longitudinal by the normal to the ship's surface as it moves
along the sight edge. The depths given in the specification are
depths measured in the plane of the square stations, and, when the
longitudinals are fitted on a raised strake of outer bottom plating,
are greater by the thickness of that plating than the distance to
be set in from the frame line to find the inside of the frame on the
inner bottom. The latter is usually worked with the strakes of
plating disposed " clinker " fashion, or is sometimes flush with
edge strips fitted on the underside. Points in the sections of the
inner bottom frame surface by the planes of the square stations
are obtained by setting in the depth of the longitudinals, and the
surface of the inner bottom is faired by diagonal and water lines
in the same way as the outer frame surface. In the engine-room
space where the depth of the double bottom is increased, and where
there are usually plane surfaces to take the structure under the
engine bed, and a cylindrical recess to provide clearance for the
engine cranks, these special features must be faired separately, so
also is any bossing of the inner bottom at the after end to allow
clearance for the shaft tube and fittings.
The plate edges already arranged on the model of the inner bottom
must be transferred to the floor and faired in the same way as those
of the outer bottom; and the breadths of the plates measured
from the floor must be used in ordering the material from the
manufacturers.
Before and abaft the double bottom the transverse frames may
consist of zed bars, split at their lower ends for the insertion of a
floor plate. The longitudinals are reduced in depth,
and are intercostal between the frames until they coalesce
with flats or fore and aft bulkheads, or they are con-
tinued as deep zed bars slotted over the narrower trans-
verse frames. The inner surface of the frames therefore
does not require any process of general fairing; but the
upper parts of the floor plates are drawn on the floor, and
are faired locally throughout the lengths of the ship where they
maintain a uniform character.
The freeboard forward and aft and amidships is generally given
in the specification and can be measured from the sheer drawing.
Oeck Guided by these dimensions and by the deck lines shown
in the sheer drawing, the heights of the intersections of the
beam at middle with the square stations are marked on
the corresponding square stations of the contracted sheer plan and
faired, and the intersections with the square stations are then pro-
jected to the middle line of the body plan. The round up or camber
of the midship beam of each deck is shown on the midship section
drawing. The camber line is a circular arc, the round up being the
versed sine of half the arc and the breadth of the ship at the level of
the beam the chord. A mould is readily constructed to these data
and is applied so that the chord is perpendicular to and its middle
point coincident with the middle line of the body plan on the floor.
When the centre of the arc coincides with a point projected from the
beam at middle line the arc cuts the corresponding square station at
a point in the projection of the beam-end line. The points in the
beam-end or beam-at-side line so formed should lie on a fair curve,
which is tested by projection into the contracted sheer plan, and the
line is then rased in in the body plan.
The shape of the lower protective deck in a battleship is shown in
the sheer drawing. Throughout that part of the length of the ship
covered by the main armour belt, which rests on this deck, the deck
edge usually lies in a water plane. The middle part of the deck also
lies in a water plane, except where it is raised up over the engines,
Inner
surface of
frames.
Outside
double
bottom.
and the sloping sides form cylindrical surfaces. The straight lines of
the sides and middle part of the deck section are joined Dy arcs of
circles of uniform radius, and this part of the deck is necessarily fair
from the nature of the method of constructing the sections ol its
surface. At the ends of the ship the beam-at-middle and beam-at-side
lines are copied from the sheer drawing and faired on the floor and
the beam surface between these points may be faired by one or more
bow and buttock lines.
The surface of the friming behind the main armour belt in a war-
ship, arranged as shown by the nrdship section depicted, is parallel
to the surface of the armour and distant from it the thick-
ness of armour and wood backing plus the thickness of , ,"f,
plating behind armour, generally a double thickness of ? ?. plating
plating flush jointed. This distance, less the thickness of
the shell plating already taken off in getting in the frame
jines, is set in normal to the surface shown by the lines on the floor
in wake of the armoured side by approximate methods similar
to those used in taking off the plank and plating, and the pro-
jections of the frame lines behind armour in the body plan are
thus obtained and drawn in. The frames are usually single zed
bars extending vertically from deck to deck and are completely
defined by these lines without the necessity of drawing any inside
surface lines.
Projections of the intersection of the surface of the frames behind
armour with the beam surface of the deck at the top of the frames
and with the plate surface of the deck at their heels are drawn in
the half-breadth plan, and expansion drawings of the frame surface
are prepared in a manner somewhat similar to that which will be
described later in dealing with the expansion of the surface of each
separate armour plate, except that in the present case the whole
length of the surface is expanded in two or three J-in. scale drawings.
The expanded positions of the frame lines, and of any longitudinal
girders which may be fitted behind armour are shown on this
drawing, also the approximate positions of the armour plate butts
and edges and of the armour bolts. The butts and edges of the
plating behind armour are arranged on this drawing and the dimen-
sions of the plates measured therefrom in ordering them from the
manufacturers.
Thin protective plating beyond the ends of the main armour belt
usually projects from the ship's side and is secured without wood
backing direct to the shell plating, which is worked in two thicknesses
flush jointed in wake of the protective plating. I n this case the frame
surface of the ship already laid off is the frame surface behind
armour, and the disposition of the butts and edges of the plating
behind armour and of the armour itself is arranged on the half block
model ; but only the plating behind the armour is ordered to dimen-
sions taken from the model.
It is important that the detailed information giving the shapes
and dimensions of the armour plates should be in the hands of the
manufacturers as early as possible on account of the time
required for the manufacture of this material. As, more-
over, modern armour plate steel is so hard that it is im-
possible to cut it with machine tools, the plates must be
delivered of the exact size required, and the information
sent to the manufacturers must be of a. high degree of accuracy.
For this reason the shapes and sizes of the armour plates are
sometimes obtained by the " mocking up " process, in which the
surface of the armour is represented in three dimensions by making
moulds or batten frames to the sections of the surface in the
body plan on the floor and erecting them in their correct lateral
and fore and aft relative positions. The positions of the butts
and edges of the plates being marked on the frames so erected,
the moulds for each plate, as described below, can be made with
great accuracy, and this process is practically necessary if there
is any considerable twist in the surface of the ship where
covered by the armour.
In general, however, the armoured side is very little twisted and
can be treated for practicable purposes as a developable surface, in
which case the necessary information can be obtained by a process
of laying off as described below, which, though obviously only
approximate, is found by experience to be sufficiently accurate for
practical purposes.
In fig. 107 the portion of the body plan shows sections of the armour
surface by planes of the frames, which are generally 2 ft. apart behind
the armour, and the half breadth shows projections of the upper and
lower boundaries of the armour surface, and of the joint between the
two strakes, which is arranged to lie in a level plane. The armour
belt extends from the main deck above to the armour deck below.
The upper edge of the armour, therefore, follows the beam-at-side line
of the main deck; but is g_enerally allowed to be about f in. below it,
so as to make sure of getting in the armour, in spite of possible small
inaccuracies in building the rest of the structure, which might result
in restriction of the space between the two decks. The lower edge
follows the armour deck edge, which is usually a level line throughout
the length of the belt ; but is kept an inch or two above it to avoid
making the armour plates with a sharp edge to fit the acute angle
between the protective deck and the ship's side; the armour, how-
ever, actually rests on the deck as shown by the midship section
depicted. The butts of the armour are arranged " brick fash ion, "that
is, the butts of one strake at the middle of a plate in the adjacent
972
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
strake, and each butt should be as close as possible to one of the
vertical frames behind armour in order to allow the armour bolts to
be sufficiently near the butt of the plate. At the same time it is
convenient both for manufacturing purposes and for erecting the
plates at the ship, to have the butt surfaces as nearly as possible
normal to the surface of the plates. The butts are therefore arranged
in vertical planes whose traces in the half-breadth plan lie in direction
between the normals to the projections of the upper and lower edges
of the plate. The lengths of the plates are made as great as possible
taking into consideration the capacity of the manufacturer's rolls
and of the appliances for handling them during erection at the
ship.
To lay off any plate such as that of which the projections of the
intersections of the planes of the butts with the surface of the
armour are ab, cd in the body plan and Oi&i, Cidi in the half
breadth, a straight line YY is drawn in the body plan so that its
direction lies between the directions of the normals to ab and cd
at the points where they cut YY, and a straight line XX is drawn
in the half-breadth plan similarly lying between the normals to Oi c\,
and bt di and approximately at the centre of the plate.
Battens are bent to the curves oY6, c\d, aiXci, biXdi and the
points named are marked on the battens so as to give the lengths
aY, 6Y, OiX, &c., measured round the curves. A pair of rectangular
axes OX, OY are then drawn in any convenient position on the
floor and the points 02, lh, Ci, dt found such that the co-ordinates of
02 are Yo, Xai, of 62, Y6 and Xbi, of c t , \c and Xci, of dt, Yd and X<fj.
The figure ajwtdt obtained by joining the points so found by
straight lines is regarded as the expanded shape of the surface of
the plate. A flexible batten mould is made to this figure and is used
by the manufacturer to mark the four corners of the plate and thus
to get its superficial size. A pair of moulds such as N are made, one
to the top and the other to the bottom of the plate in the half-breadth
BMBHi
l
"
"""' I
)
I
h
E
3
i
i
1
1 LOWtR tDtl
C j
FIG. 107.
plan, showing the curvature of the edge and the direction of the
butts; and another pair such as M, one at each butt, showing the
curvature of the edge of the butt plane and the sectional shape of
the top and bottom of the plate. The butt moulds are made to the
section of the surface of the plate by the plane of the frame, which
is' indistinguishable from the section by the very slightly inclined
plane of the butt. Each of the butt moulds serves for the two
plates which join at the butt, but each edge mould refers only to one
plate. Female moulds, the backs of which are straight lines which
lie in one plane, or, as it is technically expressed, are " out of wind-
ing " when the moulds are in their proper position, are also made to
fit on the butt and edge moulds as P, Q in the figure. By means of
these moulds the manufacturer makes each separate plate to its
correct curvature and twist, while the top and bottom " out-of-
winding " moulds for two or more consecutive plates have a
common straight line drawn on them as tt in the figure, to fix
the relative position of the plates when they are temporarily
erected at the manufacturer's works to prove the correctness of
their shape.
A drawing is also made showing superposed expansions of the
back and front surfaces of the armour without any necessity for
extreme accuracy, as these surfaces are fully defined by the moulds.
The butts and edges of the plates with numbers identifying each
plate with its moulds are shown on this drawing.
The specification gives particulars of the dimensions of the bolt
to be used and lays down the general principle of their distribution,
e.g. one bolt to so many square feet of armour. The bolts are
approximately arranged in accordance with this specification on
the expansion of the plating behind armour. For the purposes of
the present drawing their positions must be definitely fixed sufficiently
clear of the frames behind armour to allow space for putting on the
nuts. With vertically arranged frames practically the fore and aft
position only is of importance from this point of view. The pro-
jections of the normals to the plate surface representing the centre
lines of the bolts are drawn in the half-breadth plan, and shifted
if necessary to give the required clearance of the frames. The
positions of the centres on the back of the plates are then measured
along the curved sections of this surface in the body and half-breadth
plans from the nearest edge and butt, and these distances are indi-
cated in figures on the drawing.
The positions of any holes for the fastenings of top and bottom
edge covering plates, or of any fittings to go on the outside surface
of the armour are also shown by figured distances from the edges
and butts of the plates on this drawing. All holes must be drilled
and tapped in the plates by the manufacturer before the final
hardening process which renders the material unworkable.
The drawing also shows the plate in each strake selected as the
" shutter in " or last plate to be fitted in place. This plate is not
finally completed by the manufacturer until all the rest are in place
at the ship and moulds have been made to the space which remains
to be filled up.
The moulds for screen bulkhead armour are prepared in a similar
manner, but the process is usually simpler as the surface of this
armour, when not actually plane, is cylindrical with a vertical
generating line and therefore accurately developable.
For barbette armour nothing more than a drawing is usually
necessary, the barbette being circular in
plan, the surface cylindrical and the top
in a horizontal plane.
The information issued from the Moujd
Loft for the guidance of the workmen in
the shipyard has been generally Order of
passed over in the foregoing work.
description, which has been de-
voted principally to the information pre-
pared for the guidance of manufacturers
of material, but it is not intended to imply
that all the material is ordered before
erection is begun. Much of the informa-
tion for the erection of the frames and
other parts of the structure, including the
keel and transverse and longitudinal
frames amidships, may be given before the
ends of the ship are faired on the floor.
Keel battens are provided giving the
spacing of the transverse frames through-
out the length of the ship, the Keel.
lines defining their positions on
the battens being marked with the dis-
tinguishing numbers by which the frames
are identified on all the drawings, moulds
and information subsequently issued.
The drawing showing the size of each
plate and the position of each butt of the
flat and vertical keel plating and angle
bars, prepared in connection with the
ordering of the material, is completed to
show all details of the keel and its riveting
in accordance with the specification, and
serves as information for its erection.
Section moulds are made in accordance with the frame lines
in the body plan for guidance in shaping the flat keel plates trans-
versely, and on these the edges of the adjacent plates are also
marked.
The practice, at one time quite common, of making batten moulds
to each frame line on the Mould Loft floor for the guidance of the
workmen employed bending the angle or zed bars, and Transverse
shaping and assembling the parts of the frame, is now t ratnes .
almost entirely superseded by the use of the " scrive-
board." Such batten moulds, when issued, showed the outline
of the frame, or of the part of the frame between two longi-
tudinals, the shape of the floor plate or bracket plates, the position
of the plate edges and other bevelling spots, and generally everything
necessary for completing the frame ready to go into its place at the
ship.
The scrive-board is an auxiliary mould loft floor constructed
conveniently near the frame-bending slabs, and having copied on it,
with certain modifications or additions adapting it to the Scrlve-
practical needs of the shipyard work, the whole of the board.
body plan as laid off on the Mpujd Loft floor. For con-
venience in copying the lines it is sometimes made so that it can
be divided into portable parts and taken to the Mould Loft to have
the lines copied on it, and then transported to its proper position
and put together again. Otherwise it is a fixture in its proper
SHIPBUILDING
PLATE XII.
' , lOlbs.
lOlbs,
2k DecV .
lOlbs Stringer
6\ 5*xl4ltj^To round 6" in Full breadrh of ship.
'iV|
Pavilion bulkheaj
aibs
I y5'3"xl3lbs
I
FIG. 97-MiosHip SECTION OF
Anq le Bulb 7x3x16 IbS
Tr : ' " M
<\ Angle Bulb 7<5'xl61bs. To.rpund 6" in Full breads of Ship
HM. YACHT "A
Angle Bulb J . ; 7"X3"xislbs. To round 6" in Full breadth of -ship
XXIV. 971.
PLATE XIII.
SHIPBUILDING
FIG. 98.-MIDSHIP SECTION OF H.M.S. "LORD NELSON."
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION]
SHIPBUILDING
973
position; but the process of copying the frame lines on it is one of
measuring on battens the ordinates of their intersections with water
and diagonal lines, and is the same in either case. All of the frame
lines are shown on the scrive-board, and the complete section of the
frame surface for both sides of the ship is shown at each station. To
avoid confusion of lines, either a separate board is used for the fore
and after bodies, or they are drawn on the same board with their
centre lines parallel and a few feet apart, and one of the two bodies
inverted. All the lines already referred to as having been laid off
in the body plan on the mould loft floor, including the lines of outer
edges of all transverse frames, the inner edges of all in the double
bottom, and the upper edges of all floor plates outside the double
bottom, the projections of plate edges of inner and outer bottom,
and of longitudinal frames and main longitudinal bulkheads, pro-
jections of beam at side lines for all decks, and of the intersection of
the beam surface of the protective deck by the plane of each frame,
are copied on the scrive-board and rased in on its surface. The
scrive-board thus gives complete information of the shape and
dimensions of every part of each transverse frame. To completely
define the frame the " bevelling " is required in addition, that is
the angle between the two flanges of the angle bar on the edge of the
frame connecting it to the outer or inner bottom plating. The
bevelling is usually given at the plate sight edges; but any other
convenient bevelling spots may be chosen and their positions marked
on the frame lines. To obtain the bevelling at any spot a normal is
drawn to the frame line in the body plan at the spot; the distance
from the frame line is measured along this normal to its intersection
with the next frame line towards the midship section, and this
distance is set up as one of the sides containing the right angle in a
right-angled triangle of which the frame space is the base. The angle
of this triangle opposite the base is the supplement of the bevelling
of the frame at the spot considered. When the curvature of the
bottom in the plane normal to the square station at the bevelling
spot considered is sensible in the length of a frame space, the normal
distance measured is that between the two frame lines on either side
of that at which the bevelling is to be obtained, and the base of the
triangle is made equal to twice the frame space. The bevellings for
each frame are marked on a bevelling board, the angles between the
straight lines marked on the side of the board and the straight edge
of the board representing both the bevelling and its supplement.
In the frame bars there is no doubt as to which of these two
angles the workmen are to regard as the true bevelling, since
the flanges of the frames are all turned towards the midship
section, so as to make the true bevelling always greater than
a right angle, or " standing " as it is usually expressed, in con-
tradistinction to " under " bevelling, which is less than a right
angle.
Special bevelling frames are used in marking the bevelling boards,
by which the construction of the triangles is reduced to setting off
the normal measurement between the frame lines and drawing the
hypotenuse directly on the bevelling board. The flanges of the angle
bars on the inside edge of the frame, or the " reverse " frame bars,
usually point the same way (that is towards the midship section) as
the flanges of the frame bars, throughout the double bottom, in
order to facilitate the construction of the bracket frame. Where the
breadth of the longitudinals is constant, therefore, the bevelling of
these angles on the inner bottom is the supplement of that of the
frame angles. But throughout the double bottom neither bevelling
differs much from a right angle. When the longitudinals taper in
breadth separate bevellings must be taken for the inner angles by a
method similar to that already described for the frame angles.
Outside the double bottom the reverse angle, or inner part of the
split zed bar, is either unconnected to anything but the floor plate,
or else connects to a horizontal
flat, and does not require
bevelling.
The bevellings of the short
angle bars which connect the
bracket or floor plates of the
transverse frames to the longi-
tudinals are also obtained by
measuring in the body plan
at the middle of the inter-
section of the longitudinal
surface with the plane of a
frame station the normal dis-
tance to its intersection with
the plane of the next frame
station, and setting it up as
one side of a right-angled
triangle of which the frame
space is the base.
To check the spread of the transverse frames during their
erection, half-breadth staffs and height of breadth staffs are
issued from the mould loft, or their lengths may be taken
off the scrive-board. These give the co-ordinates of the
intersections of the longitudinal sight edges with the frame
lines, referred to the middle line of the body plan and a
level line through the underside of the keel at each station.
The frames are brought to and held in their correct positions
as shown by these staffs by shoring them in the vicinity of the
longitudinals.
Shoring ribbands are not universally employed, the longitudinals
at some shipyards being relied upon to keep the transverse frames
in their correct relative position while framing the ship. SAor/n
When they are used, one is usually placed a few inches ... *
below and parallel to each deck edge and longitudinal sight '
edge. For the ribbands under the deck edges, the beam at side line is
projected into an uncontracted half-brea'dth plan, a flexible batten is
bent to the line, and on it are marked the positions and directions
of the ordinates representing the traces of the planes of the frames.
The ribband batten is then used to mark the positions of the frames
on the ribband itself, generally made of pitch pine about 6 in. square
in section. The position where the upper edge of the ribband is to
come is marked on the scrive-board and the marks transferred to
the frame angles when they are bent. When the frames are erected
at the ship they are brought into their correct positions as shown by
the marks on the ribband, the upper edge of which is kept to the
marks on the frames. The frames ana ribband are temporarily
secured together, until the plating is fitted, and the whole kept in
its proper position by shores. The ribbands under the longitudinals
lie for practical purposes in diagonal planes, which must be rabatted
in order to get the positions and directions of the frames correctly
marked on the ribband battens. The ribbands are marked, secured
to the frames and shored, similarly to those under the deck
edges.
A beam mould is prepared for each deck, the upper edge of the
mould showing the round down or camber of the longest beam in
relation to a level line marked on the mould. The mould
is applied to the body plan on the mould loft floor or on
the scrive-board in its correct position at each frame
station and the ends of each beam are marked on it, the ends being
short of the frame lines by an amount which varies with the nature
of the frame, but sufficient in any case to clear the inside of the
flange of the frame bar. Bevelling-boards are supplied showing the
angle at each frame station between the upper edge of the beam and
the frame line for guidance in forming the beam arm, which is usually
two and a half times the depth of the beam, and the form of which is
shown by a separate mould. When placing the beams in position at
the ship their height is given by the beam end lines shown on the
scrive-board and transferred to the frames when bent to the lines on
the scrive-board.
The beam mould for the armour deck shows the length of the
sloping part and the shape of the knuckle, with only a short length of
the middle horizontal part. On the horizontal arm of the mould
vertical lines are drawn at a given distance from the middle line at
each frame station.
It is essential that the shape of the longitudinal frames should be
obtained with considerable accuracy, especially when half-
breadths and heights measured to their sight edges are f-" g
largely relied upon for keeping the transverse frames to tualnals -
their designed spread during erection.
As already stated, the longitudinal surface does not much
differ from a surface generated by the normal to the ship's
surface as it travels along the curve of the longitudinal sight
edge. The surface generated by the normal is developable
provided the sight edge is a line of curvature, which is approxi-
mately ensured by the method of drawing it, and it is found by
experience that no error of practical importance is involved in
developing the surface of the longitudinal by the following
approximate method.
Fig. 108 shows part of the body plan in which the frame lines are
numbered I to 7, the projection of the longitudinal sight edge is
FIG. 108.
shown by a b c d e /_ g, and the projections of the traces of the
longitudinal surface with the planes of the frames are shown by the
straight lines at 002, hi 662, c\ cci, &c.
The curves Oi 61 c\ di ei fi gi and 02 62 2 di e t / 2 g 2 both cut
all the traces at right angles, so that they are involutes of their
envelope. Their positions are chosen at convenient distances beyond
the inside and outside of the group of frame lines, which defines the
length of longitudinal which is to be developed in one operation.
974
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
Parallel straight lines Aid, A 2 G 2 , the distance between which is
equal to the normal distance between the two involutes in the
body plan, are drawn in any convenient position on the floor
and perpendicular ordinates, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, drawn betweer
them distant the frame space apart. The longitudinal is developec
in this plan on the assumption that when its surface is unrollec
the involutes ai 61 gi and oj 6 2 g 2 will coincide with the straight
lines Aid and A 2 G 2 respectively. Taking g : g 2 in the body, repre-
sented by dG ? in the plan, as the fixed end of the longitudinal from
which the surface is to be unrolled, the lengths gift, gii, &c., are
measured along the curve of the involute and set off along the lines
6, 5, 4, &c., in the plan giving the points Fs, Ej, &c., which represent
with sufficient approximation the true positions of points of the line
Oi 61 Ci di d fi gi in space relatively to a straight line through gi
perpendicular to the body plane. A batten is bent through the points
d FS ES Ds C> BS A.3 thus obtained, and the positions of the points
marked on the batten, which is then allowed to spring straight along
the line GiAi, the points FI Ei DI Ci Bi Ai being marked from the corre-
sponding marks on the batten. The points F 2 E 2 D 2 C 2 B 2 A 2 are ob-
tained from the other involute in a similar manner, and the straight
lines FjFj, EiE 2 , &c., obtained by joining corresponding points are
regarded as the expanded positions of the traces of the longitudinal
surface with the planes of the frames. The distances G 2 G, F 2 F, E 2 E,
&c., are then made equal to gig,fif, e^e, &c., in the body, and the curve
G F E D C B A through the points so found is the expanded sight
edge of the longitudinal. The distances GGo, FFo, EEo, &c., are then
made equal to the depth of the longitudinal in the plane of the cor-
responding frame stations, when Go F Eo Do Co Bo Ao will be the
expanded shape of the inner edge of the longitudinal.
The method described above is sufficiently accurate to lay off a
whole longitudinal in one length, if it is not abnormally twisted.
A modification of this method, in which the involutes <Zi 61 gi and
&i bi gs are replaced by straight lines perpendicular to the trace,
from which the longitudinal is to be unrolled, may be used; but,
without affording any substantial simplification of the work, its
accuracy is so much less than that of the method described above,
that it is not safe to lay off more than two or three plates of the
longitudinal in one length by jt.
When the longitudinal is much twisted, as, for example, when the
longitudinal surface at its end is to be made continuous with a deck
flat, which is not normal to the surface of the ship, it is generally
desirable to use the more laborious but reliable method of " mocking
up."
In fig. 109 the curves numbered i to 6 are projections of frame lines
in the body plan, a b c d e f is the projection of the sight edge
of the longitudinal
breaking into the
projection of the
edge of a deck flat
at a, and <;, 61 i \ <1,
e\ /i is the projection
of the inner edge of
the longitudinal.
The edges of the
longitudinal are
faired so that the
traces of the longi-
tudinal with the
planes of the frames
shall turn uniformly
from_ the horizontal
position of the deck
flat at aa\ to the
position of the main
part of the longi-
tudinal normal to
the frame lines at 6
FIG. 109.
and beyond, the depth of the longitudinal in the planes of the
frames being kept constant.
LL is the trace of a level plane drawn conveniently near to the sight
edge in such a position that it is entirely below all the traces of the
longitudinal with the planes of the frames throughout the length
which is to be mocked up. Trapezoidal frames made of four straight
battens nailed together at the corners, such as X Y E E in the figure,
are_made to show the relative position of the traces of the longi-
tudinal surface and of the level plane with the plane of each frame.
The outer and inner ends of the trace of the longitudinal surface are
marked on the upper batten of each frame as at e, e\, and a point
Oi, fixing the lateral position of each batten frame relatively to a
convenient straight line perpendicular to the planes of the ship's
frames, is marked on the lower batten. A diagonal plane such as
DD can be used instead of the level plane LL for convenience in
allowing smaller and better-shaped batten frames to be used ; and
the process is precisely the same.
The batten frames are then erected on their bases XY in planes
perpendicular to the floor, parallel to one another and distant the
frame space apart, with the points O in all the frames lying in one
straight line perpendicular to the batten frames. The upper edges
of the upper battens then define the true shape of the longitudinal
surface in three dimensions, and a fair curve through the points
e, &c., marked on the battens represents the outer edge, and through
points e\, &c., the inner edge of the longitudinal.
Whether the shape of the longitudinal has been obtained by
development on the floor or by the mocking-up process, batten
moulds are made to the outline of each plate, the butts being arranged
to come in the middle of a frame space allotted to them in the draw-
ing, giving the shift of butts of bottom plating and longitudinals.
Cross battens are fitted to mark the position of each transverse
frame, and diagonal battens in each frame space to stiffen the mould,
and to carry marks or figures indicating the shape and dimensions
of the lightening hole, which occurs between each pair of frames in
non- watertight longitudinals. These moulds are used by the workmen
for marking off the shape of the plates and the positions of the
rivet holes in them, the size and spacing of the rivets being given by
the specification. No moulds giving the twist of the longitudinal
are required, as that is so small that the plane plate can be pressed
down into shape on the ends of the parts of the transverse frames,
which must be already in position when the longitudinal is erected
at the ship.
The external sectional shape of the bilge keel in a sheathed ship
consists of a single steel plate in the middle of the section covered
over by wood trimmed to shape. The plate lies in
a diagonal plane and is readily laid off by rabatting Ba xe keel -
the diagonal plane. This gives the true form of the intersection
of the bilge keel plate with the surface of the frames, and the
outer edge of the plate is obtained by setting out from the inner
edge the specified width of the keel plate plus an allowance for the
thickness of the shell-plating.
In an unsheathed ship the bilge keel is of triangular section, as
shown in the body plan in fig. 99, and is formed by two steel plates
riveted together at their outer edges and connected to the shell-
plating by angle bars at their inner edges, the space between the
plates being filled with wood. In this case the middle plane of the
keel is a diagonal plane, as shown by zD in the figure. The depth of
the bilge keel at each frame plus the allowance for shell-plating is
set out from the frame line along the diagonal, giving the vertex of
the section of the keel at each frame station. A triangular mould is
then made to the section of the bilge keel shown in the midship
section drawing and is applied with its vertex coinciding with the
points on the floor found as described above and with its centre line
coinciding with the diagonal, and the traces of the sides of the keel
are drawn by it at each frame station as ab, dc, in the figure.
The surface of each side of the keel is then developed in the same
way as the surface of a longitudinal except that in this case, since
all the traces are parallel, the involutes used in the case of the
longitudinal become straight lines, and the development is strictly
accurate. A mould to each plate of the bilge keel, similar to the
mould for a longitudinal plate, is prepared from the expansion on
the floor and issued for the guidance of the workmen. A triangular
batten mould, made to show the angle between the diagonal plane,
in which the centre of the bilge keel lies, and the horizontal, and
having marked on it a point to be set at a given distance from the
middle line plane of the ship at the height of the under side of the
keel, is also issued to enable the position of the centre line of the bilge
keel to be sighted-in on the bottom plating of the ship.
The remaining information issued for the erection of the ship is
mostly in the form of drawings, which are largely descriptive rather
than dimensioned, inasmuch as the frames and beams of
the ship being once erected all other principal parts have Dravla &-
to conform to them in shape, even where a slight difference may
occur between their shape as erected and as laid off on the mould
loft floor.
All the drawings of the structure and of the fittings must be
pushed on and issued to the shipyard in good time. Very much
of the success achieved in actual building will depend upon the
efficiency of the drawing office, and the rapidity with which the
various detailed working plans can be supplied for guidance.
These plans must be accurate and complete, and must be ready
as soon as required. The drawing-office staff has the oversight
of weights actually worked into the ship, a careful record of
which should be kept. Each firm has its own system of work
n these departments, but experience shows that the more
thorough and systematic the work in the drawing office and its
adjunct, the mould loft, the better the general result. Another
mportant. record is the cost of materials and labour. In all
shipyards careful account is kept of workmen's time, whether
employed on piece or by the day. Many different systems are
n vogue; but whatever the system, the aim is to record the cost
of the labour in each trade, and the detailed cost of various parts
of the ship.
While the work connected with laying-off and obtaining
naterials, &c., is going on, the shipwrights, assisted by
landy labourers, prepare the ground for the keel blocks,
ay the blocks at the proper height and inclination, and uact
secure them against being floated away by the tide or being
accidentally tripped while the ship is building. The blocks consist
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION]
SHIPBUILDING
975
of several pieces of tough rectangular timber, 4 to 6 ft. in length,
and laid on each other to the height required. The top block is
called the cap-piece, and is of oak or other hard wood. The blocks
are spaced about 4 ft. apart for ships of medium size, and somewhat
less for ships of large size. They are usually placed upon a longi-
tudinal bed of timber, which remains embedded in the ground for
successive ships: the ground should be hard, or very well piled,
otherwise the blocks may sink when weight becomes concentrated
over them during building, and difficulty arises from the keel, or the
propelling shafts, drooping from a straight line. The upper surface
of the blocks must be at such a height from the ground that men,
especially riveters, can do their work with facility under the bottom
of the vessel, that the launch can be fitted; and that when launched
the vessel may move down into the water without striking the ground.
The last-named is a most important consideration; and thus it
comes about that the first thing to be settled, before the blocks are
laid, is how the vessel is to be launched. The tops of all the blocks
are accurately adjusted to a plane surface sloping about f in. in a
foot from bow to stern. The shipwrights at the same time prepare
the uprights for the staging, and erect them around the building
berth in suitable position with the first line of staging, which will
be required at an early period in the ship's construction. The
platers and angle-smiths begin to prepare the keel, framing, bulk-
heads, &c., as soon as the material is delivered and the laying-off
and mould-making are sufficiently advanced for the purpose. The
actual building generally dates from the first work of this
character.
The keels of small vessels usually consist of a stout flat bar
placed vertically and attached to the garboard strakes by through
. rivets. Occasionally the keel consists of a vertical centre
""* through-plate, with side bars at its lower edge. In
frames. i ar g e merchant ships, and in war vessels, the keel usually
consists of a wide horizontal plate running along the centre line
of the bottom, the sides being turned up as necessary to follow the
shape of the bottom (see figs. Il8and 119, PlateXIII.). Theframing
varies very considerably with the size and type of the ship, as
already described. In small vessels a frame usually consists of
an angle bar, called a frame bar, extending from gunwale to gunwale,
to which is riveted a bar, also continuous from gunwale to gunwale,
called a reverse bar, in such a way as to form a built-up Z-bar, and
between these floor-plates are introduced across the bottom, to give
the required strength when resting on the ground or on the blocks.
Sometimes the frame consists of a Z-bar, in which case the reverse
bar is not required in the vicinity of the floor-plate. Sometimes
angle bulbs are used for frames, as in the case of oil steamers, where
internal ceilings are not required. The process of constructing a
complete frame of angle bars and plate is as follows: From the
scrive-boards the shape of the section at the frame is transferred to
the bending blocks or slabs, the outline being drawn in with chalk;
the necessary preparation is made, and the frame bar is drawn from
the furnace, and while hot bent to its shape and given the required
bevel. The reverse bar is prepared in the same way, except that the
inner edge of the frame and floor must be worked to. The floor-
plate has to be cut to shape. In large ships the frame bars, reverse
bars and floor-plates will be in two, or even in three, pieces; in this
case the butts are kept some distance from the middle line, and are
shifted in alternate frames, so as not all to lie in the same fore-and-
aft lines. The butts of both frame and reverse bars, as well as
those of the floor-plate, are butt-strapped, to maintain as much as
possible the strength of the structure. The frame bar, floor-plate
and reverse frame bar all being set, they are placed together in
their respective positions over the outline of the frame on
the slabs or scrive-boards, the final adjustments made and rivet
holes marked and punched, and the work secured together and
riveted up.
When the keel is in place, and as far as possible riveted, the
frames, bulkheads and beams, which have been made ready by
the iron-workers, are brought to the building slip and got into
position by the shipwrights. They are held in place and faired by
means of shores and ribbands. The latter are made from straight-
grained timber of considerable length, sawn out in long straight
pieces of square transverse section. They hold the frames in position
until the outside plating is riveted. Upon them are marked the
lines at which they must be crossed by each frame, and they are
bent round and attached to the frames in a fore-and-aft direction
at certain heights, which are marked on the frames at the scrive-
boards. Some four or more ribbands are used each side of the ship.
As the work proceeds, the positions of the frames and ribbands are
checked continuously, their positions being maintained by shores
from the ground, or some structure prepared for the purpose.
Except in small vessels, the beams are not attached to the frames
before they are erected, but are hoisted into place as soon as possible
afterwards.
The bulkheads are put together on some convenient flat surface,
sometimes on the scrive-board or a similar platform constructed
for the purpose. If of large size, they are transferred piece by
piece and erected at their proper positions in the ship; but when-
ever possible, they are rivited up and hoisted into position complete.
The stem and sternpost are obtained from the forge or foundry and
erected at an early stage of the work. The part of the stern abaft
C
l
the transom is sometimes framed separately on the ground before
being erected in the ship. The centre keelson is generally worked
intercostally between the floors, but it has continuous parts, usually
angle bars, above the floors. Each intercostal plate is secured by
angle bars or flanged edges to the floors and to the flat keel plate.
Sometimes it is continuous, especially in large ships and in war-
ships. The frames are then cut by it, and the floor-plates are attached
to it by short angle bars. After the centre keelsons, the side keelsons
and side and deck stringers are fitted. The steel pillars are substituted
for the shores supporting the deck beams, being riveted at their
heads to the beams and at their heels to the keelson, inner bottom
or tank top.
While the work is proceeding, the shipwrights make the stages,
ut up gangways and ladders for carrying on the work, fit extra
locks and shores, or remove and replace them as may be required.
They line off all plate edges on the frames, the overlap being usually
painted in with white paint, ready for the platers. They also erect
the stem, sternpost, rudder and shaft brackets, or struts in twin-
screw vessels.
In a ship fitted with an inner bottom the procedure is somewhat
more complicated, as the transverse frames cannot be lifted into
place as a whole. There are many varieties in the arrangements in
such cases; one frequently adopted is shown in fig. 113, in which
the inner bottom extends out to the turn of the bilge. This figure
also shows the general construction of the vessel, including the
framing at a bulkhead and elsewhere, the bulkhead itself with all
its stiffening bars and attachments to the sides of the vessel, and the
inner bottom. At the centre line, immediately over the flat keel
plates, there is a vertical girder, the full depth of the double bottom,
connected to the flat keel plate and to the centre plate of the inner
bottom by continuous double-angle bars. This centre girder may
or may not be water-tight, according to the desired tank arrange-
ments. The transverse frames are in four parts: the two lower
extending on either side from the centre girder to the margin
plate of the double bottom, which is a continuous girder of special
construction; and the two upper, from the margin plates to the
top-sides. The lower parts consist of a floor-plate with angle bars
at its edges for attaching it to the outer and inner bottoms, the
centre girder and the margin plate. At the bulkheads these floor-
plates are solid, and the angle bars are united and made water-
tight; elsewhere they are lightened by holes, and the angle bars
at their upper and lower edges and ends are separate pieces. The
two upper parts of the transverse framing consist of a frame and a
reverse bar, each having a deep and a shallow flange, and are riveted
to one another along their deep flanges, with their shallow flanges
standing the reverse way to one another. The shell-plating is
attached to the shallow flange of the frame bar. Between the centre
girder and the margin plate on each side of the ship there are
two intercostal girders, the plates of which are connected by short
angle bars to the floors and to the shell and inner bottom plating;
and between the margin plates and the lower deck on each side
there are three stringers, consisting of intercostal plates attached
by short bars to the outer plating, and three continuous angle bars
riveted to part of the intercostal plates which extend beyond the
reverse bars.
In the course of erection, after the flat keel plate is laid upon the
blocks, and the centre girder placed upon it, the two lower parts of
the frames, which have been constructed alongside, are put into
position, their outer ends being carried by ribbands shored from the
ground. The intercostal girders and margin plates are then fitted.
The lower edge of the margin plate is brought close to the outer edge
of the frames, and is connected by a longitudinal angle bar to the
shell-plating, while its upper edge is flanged for the purpose of being
attached to the inner bottom plating. The ship at this stage gives
the impression that a flat pontoon is being constructed.
When the margin plates are up and faired and, as far as desirable,
riveted, the upper parts of the frames on each side are erected and
the fairing proceeded with as before. The beams are now got into
place, also the side and deck stringers. As will be seen, the margin
plate cuts completely through the transverse frames, and special
brackets are provided to maintain the transverse strength. The
chief advantages derived from cutting the frames by the margin
plate are the cheapness with which water-tight work is secured, and
the rapidity with which this part of the work can be proceeded
with.
As soon as the keelsons and stringers are riveted, and the ship
by their means sufficiently stiffened, the outside or shell plating is
commenced. The plating squad is supplied with a drawing _ .
showing the disposition of the butts in each line of plates;
light wooden moulds or templates are then made, giving
the exact shape of the edges and butts, and the positions
of all the rivet holes in the frames. From these moulds the edges
and butts and the holes are marked off, the holes are punched, and
the edges and butts sheared and planed. The plates are then
rolled to shape, furnacing being resorted to only when the
curvature is too extreme to be obtained with the plate cold. The
usual arrangement of the plating is that of inside and outside
strakes alternately (see a, fig. 79). The inside strakes, which
are worked first, are templated off the ship, and lie directly
on the flanges of the frame bars. The outside or overlapping
976
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
plates are then worked, and are templated from the place they are I in a smith's fire is required. It is usual to defer the painting of
intended to occupy on the ship. They are kept at the proper | certain parts of the steel structure of a ship as long as possible, so
distance from the frames by liners or slips of the same
thickness as the adjacent inside plates. Towards the ends
of the ship the number of strakes of plating must be
reduced, as the girth along the frames is much less than
over the midship portions. Stealers are introduced for
this purpose; they are single plates, which at one end
receive the butts of two plates, and at the other the butt
of only one. By them two strakes are merged into one.
The number of plates requiring to be furnaced is small
in comparison with the whole number, but there are always
some at the after end of the ship, especially in the neigh-
bourhood of the boss (for the stern tube) and the counter,
and a few at the forward end of most ships. As each plate is
got ready, it is taken to the ship, hoisted into position, and
temporarily secured by the platers by means of bolts and
nuts. As the work of plating proceeds, and the weight
of the ship increases, extra shores are put into place, and
bilge blocks erected by theshipwrights, to keepthestructure
to its shape and prevent local and general " unfairness."
The shell-plating in way of the intended bilge blocks is
completed at as early a period as possible, and painted, so
that when once the bilge blocks are in place they need not
be disturbed until immediately before launching. While
the platers are at work on the shell-plating, other squads
of riveters are engaged on the deck-plating and internal
work, such as the bunkers, engine and boiler bearers, the
shaft tunnel, casings and, in the later stages, the hatches,
houses on deck, &c., and as much as possible of the
internal work is done before the shell shuts out the day-
light. As the work is completed by the platers, it is ready
for the riveters and caulkers ; and these trades follow on
without delay, except in some parts of the casings and
decks in way of the machinery, which are left portable,
and taken down after the launch, to allow the machinery
to be put in place.
The platers usually work in squads, composed generally
of three platers, a marker-boy and a number of helpers
or labourers, the number of whom depends on the size and
weight of the plates, and the nature of the work to be done
on them, and also on the facilities of the yard for hand-
ling such material. On the work of a large vessel many
of these squads would be employed. The riveters also
work in squads, a squad consisting of two riveters, one
holder-up and one heater-boy, with sometimes a catcher,
i.e. a boy to pass on the heated rivets when the distance
from the rivet-hearth is great. Pneumatic riveting has
not made great progress in Great Britain. Hydraulic
riveting to a limited extent is adopted, especially in the
case of work that can be taken to the machine, such as
frames, beams and other parts; but in shipbuilding the
large proportion of the riveting is done by hand. In the
Royal dockyards platers' work is done by shipwrights,
and riveting is not considered a trade, though regarded
as skilled labour. Shipwrights also lay the blocks, erect
the ribbands, shore and fair the ship, but labourers con-
struct the stages. Drillers' work consists in drilling by
hand or by portable electric or pneumatic drills holes which
it is not convenient or possible to punch or drill before
erection; they also rimer out and countersink punched
and drilled holes when this is necessary. Portable electric
or pneumatic drills are used when possible in some ship-
yards, and three-cylinder hydraulic engine drills are
employed for some purposes, such as in cutting armour
bolt holes in thick plating behind armour. The caulkers
follow closely upon the riveters, and generally work singly.
A very important part of a caulker s duty is water-test-
ing. In the large oil-tank steamers possibly 8000 tons of
water are used for testing one ship alone, and about the
same amount for a large war vessel. This water is
pumped from the sea or river into the compartment to
be tested. In the case of an oil vessel, each compart-
ment is filled right up, and a pressure put on by means
of a stand pipe, carried for a considerable height above
the highest part of the tank; any leakage found must
be made good by the caulker, and the tank retested
until it is perfectly water-tight. The double bottoms
of merchant ships, and the smaller compartments and
double bottoms of war vessels, are filled up and tested by
a head of water rising a few feet above the load water-line.
It is not usual to fill all the larger compartments, such as
boiler and engine rooms in war vessels, or the machinery
compartments and cargo holds in merchant ships; but
water at a high velocity is played on the bulkheads by
hose, to test the water-tightness and the strength. An
occasional test, however, is made by filling a typical
large compartment with water to a height of some feet
FIG. 1 10. Great Lake Cargo Steamer ; midship portion, in perspective.
10
FIG. in. British Cargo Steamer; midsnip portion, in perspective.
above the load water-line. Angle-smiths form beam knees where I that ordinary red rust may form and dislodge the black mill scale
these are welded, and generally all angle-bar work where heating | which is answerable for a great deal of corrosion in steel ships, as
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION]
SHIPBUILDING
977
in certain circumstances it forms a galvanic couple with the steel
plate. For warships the British Admiralty requires the removal
of this scale from these parts by immersing the plates in a weak
solution of hydrochloric acid. Red and white lead, oxide of iron
and oxide of zinc form the bases of most of the paints used on steel
ships.
Structural Arrangements.
The following are particulars of ships recently built at New
London (Conn., U.S.A.) on the longitudinal system: "The great
centre girder, which in all vessels prior to these has been in the form
of an I girder, is formed of a double II or box; that is, these vessels
FIG. 112. Cunard Liner "Campania"; midship portion, in perspective.
have two vertical keels instead of one. The girder is of the same
depth as the double bottom (6 ft.). On each side of this girder there
are several other vertical longitudinal members, having the plating
on the top, forming the tank top, and the shell-plating below, forming
the bottom of the tank. This tank or double bottom is 6 ft. deep for
the greater part of its length, and is increased at the extremities,
where it merges into the fore-and-aft peaks at the collision bulk-
heads. The whole of this space can be filled with water when desired,
to sink the ship to a suitable draught when making a voyage without
a cargo or with a very light one, at the same time allowing the ship
to keep afloat whenever the outer shell or skin has been pierced by
rocks or by colliding with other vessels. This bottom girder or double
bottom forms the ' backbone ' of the ship, from which the great
frames spring or extend up to the weather deck, about 60 ft. aoove
the keel. The frames are made of channel steel spaced 30 in. apart,
but as they near the extreme ends they are spaced closer, and are
xxiv. 31 a
composed of angle bars riveted together. At certain parts of the
structure, where the heave of the sea will tend to strain the ship,
the frames are double and made very strong. The outer surface
of these frames is covered with a shell of steel plates averaging
about i in. in thickness. These enormous plates are arranged to
give a maximum of strength, and the riveting of them to the frames
and to each other is receiving the utmost care.
" These ships have a continuous longitudinal bulkhead on the
centre, extending from the inner bottom to the main deck. The
side plating of the shell, with this longitudinal bulkhead, form three
vertical members of the entire structure. The upper flanges of the
girder are formed by the upper and main decks, which are laid with
heavy steel plates. This great girder is designed to support
a full cargo when suspended by long sea waves at either
end. The side girders are kept in place by three inter-
mediate decks between the tank and the main deck,
making in all five complete decks, each covered with heavy
steel plate. The beams supporting all these decks are
of channel steel, and fitted to every frame by large bracket
plates. One of the many notable features in the con-
struction of these vessels is the distribution of the water
ballast. Various conditions of trim and safety can be
obtained. The double bottom is divided longitudinally
into three water-tight divisions and transversely into
about twelve, making in all thirty-six separate tanks. In
addition to these there are the fore-and-af ter peak tanks,
and side tanks between the main and 'tween decks, about
one quarter of the vessel's length from either end. The
latter tanks are really fitted for the purpose of controlling
the ship's stability and seaworthiness.
" The vessels are divided transversely into thirteen
water-tight compartments, while the longitudinal bulk-
head is water-tight in the machinery space, which makes
in all fifteen water-tight compartments. The engine-
rooms are completely independent of each other; so are
the boiler-rooms ; but access is had from one to the other
by water-tight doors. The coal can gravitate direct to
the stokehold floor. The method of pillaring is somewhat
novel. . . . Strong girders run under the transverse beams
and are supported at wide intervals by built stanchions.
By this means the least possible trouble is experienced in
stowing the cargo."
Fig. 1 10 shows the construction of a typical American
Lake steamer, a diagram of which is given in the article
SHIP, fig. 16. She is 450 ft. over all, 50 ft. beam and 28 ft.
6 in. moulded depth; and when loaded to a draught of
1 8 ft. 3 in. can carry about 6000 tons weight of ^ mer i caa
cargo on a total displacement of about 9000 tons. Q rea< Lake
For half the length or more the ship is of the steamer.
same transverse section, the frames being made
identical in form. The outside plating is about f in. thick
generally, but it is thicker at the garboards, flat keel and
sheer strake, and becomes thinner generally towards the
ends of the vessel. The frames are 24 in. apart, and consist
of four separate pieces two across the bottom and one
up each side. These across the bottom consist of a 1 5-in.
channel bar, with deep flanged brackets of 17 J Ib plating
connecting their inner ends to the centre keelson and their
outer ends to the bilge and tank top. Extending up each
side the frames consist of 6-in. channel bars of 17 tb per
foot, worked 24 in. apart in the case of ordinary frames;
and 15-in. channel bars of 33 ft per foot, worked 8 ft.
apart, and called belt or special frames. The frames are all
connected to the tank top and to the upper deck-plating
by flanged bracket plates 17^ ft per square foot; and
the belt frames are stiffened by hold beams of I section,
12 in. deep and 35 ft per foot, attached to each by deep
flanged brackets of 17$ ft plating as indicated, and sup-
ported in the middle by stanchions or pillars of similar
section. The stanchions are attached to the tank top by
double clips of 6-in. angle bar, and to the upper deck beams
by direct riveting and by flanged brackets of 15 ft plating.
Each belt frame is thus complete in itself, and very readily
erected after the tank top is completed. The tank top
is of 20 ft plating amidships and under the loading hatches and
1 7 i ft elsewhere. The margin plate is a continuation of the tank top,
is made of 171 ft plating, and flanged against the shell. The centre
keelson is of about 22^ ft plating and about sJ ft. deep; the side
keelsons are of 17$ ft and slightly less depth, so that with a small
rise of floor on the outside, say 3 in. in the half-breadth of the ship,
there is a small fall of the tank top towards the bilges, say 6 in. in
the half-breadth, so as to drain the hold to the water-courses over the
margin plates. The centre keelson extends from the inner to the
outer bottom, being attached to the tank top and the flat keel by
heavy double angle bars, and well stiffened by the flanged floor
brackets, which are connected to it by heavy double angle bars.
The side keelsons are connected to the tank top and the floors by
fore-and-aft angle bars 3 in. by 3 in. of 7! ft per foot, and stiffened
by vertical 6-in. angle bars at every frame. At the lower edge the
keelson plates are connected to fore-and-aft intercostal channel bars
5
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
SECTION OF SHIP AT TRANVERSE
WATERTIGHT BULKHEAD
11 uw
SECTION OF SHIP AT
ORDINARY FRAME Vertical Section
5HHC1M** V
Horizontal Section through C D. WMMMHvm
<TAI ANut BULB v iff tutu'
1 I
/*<t u .
]
1MHI1 K STRINOU
FIG. 113. Details of Framing and Bulkheads.
ftrltlsb
15 in. deep of 33 Ib per foot, riveted to the sheel-plating, which, with
the channel floors, give very great local support to the bottom. This
system of framing extends practically throughout the length of the
vessel ; thus the bottom is very strong, and very large ballast tanks
are formed, having a capacity of nearly 3000 tons. The upper deck
is plated, and the stringers are made specially heavy, to compen-
sate for the strength lost by cutting wide hatchways.
Fig. in represents a modern British cargo steamer of ordinary
construction, of about the same breadth and depth as the American
Lake steamer just described, and it will be interesting to
note the differences between the two vessels. These diner-
ences, so far as the outside form is concerned, are chiefly
that the British cargo steamer has deck erections, top-
sides and a main deck, whereas the Lake steamer has scarcely any
deck erections and no topsides, while her hold extends from the
top of the inner bottom to the upper deck; they are due to the
fact that the latter ship is only required to traverse inland waters,
where heavy weather is not met with, whereas the former is an ocean-
going vessel, and must be prepared to meet all conditions of wind
and sea. As to the differences in the details of construction,
they are chiefly that in' the American Lake steamer the bottom
framing, which is of great depth, consists of deep channel-frame
bars, above which the longitudinals are continuous, instead of the
usual transverse framing in the British ship, extending between
the outer bottom and tank top; and that the margin plate con-
tinues the surface of the tank top out to the side, instead of being
nearly vertical, as in the British ship. The system adopted in the
American steamer conduces to security in case of grounding in
the shallow waters through which she has to pass.
The general construction of a large passenger vessel is shown by
fig. 112, which gives a perspective sectional view of the
framing, &c. of the Cunard liner " Campania." The
transverse frames and the girders or longitudinals extend
in depth from the outer bottom plating to the inner bottom plating.
The centre keelson, the second longitudinal from the middle line, and
Atlantic
liner.
the margin plate on each side, are continuous, the transverse frames
being fitted between them and attached to them by angle bars.
The first and third longitudinals from the middle line are intercostal,
being fitted in short pieces between the frames and attached to the
FIG. 114. Breast-hook and Panting Stringers.
floor-plates by short angle bars. The floor-plates have large holes
cut in them to lighten them, and to give access to the different spaces
for inspection, painting, &c., and smaller holes for watercourses.
From the margin plate the transverse frames consist of stout channel
COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION]
SHIPBUILDING
979
Plan.
FIG. 115. Stern Framing, Shaft Tunnel, &c., of Single-Screw Ship.
bars extending to the upper deck; each tier of beams is securely
riveted to them, and their lower ends are connected to the margin
plate by strong brackets. At intervals the channel-bar frames are
replaced by deep built-up frames, the frequency of which depends on
local requirements. Heavy side stringers of the same depth as the
deep frames run fore and aft, to stiffen the side between the bilges
and the first plated deck. Where the deep frames are cut by these
FIG. 116. Stern Framing of the " Campania."
stringers, the strength of the frames is continued by gusset plates, as
shown.
Some further structural arrangements usually adopted in British
ships are shown in figs. 113 to 115. Fig. 113, to which reference has
already been made, shows in detail the construction of a bulkhead,
with the framing in wake of it, and the same details at an ordinary
frame; also the stringers, beams, pillars, &c. The bulkhead itself
stops at the tank top, being secured to it by double angle bars, and
the floor immediately beneath it is made water-tight. It would
involve very costly work to make the bulkhead water-tight if the
side and bilge stringers were made continuous; these have therefore
been cut, and the continuity of the longitudinal strength is main-
tained, as far as possible, by the large brackets shown in the plan.
Besides bulb stiffeners, the bulkhead is provided with built-up
vertical stiffeners at AB and a built-up horizontal stiffener at CD.
Fig. 114 shows the arrangement for special strengthening at the
extreme fore end of a vessel, between the collision bulkhead and the
stem, and below the main deck, these consisting chiefly of panting
stringers, panting beams and breast hook. Fig. 1 1 5 shows the general
arrangement of stern framing of a single-screw ship, including the
shaft tunnel. A water-tight door, which can be closed when necessary
from above the level of the outside water, shuts off communication
between the engine-room and tunnel; the form of the stern post
and aperture frame casting is shown, with its attachment to the
centre keelson and other details.
Figs. 116 and 117 show the arrangements of the stern and bow
framing of the " Campania," which may be taken as those usually
adopted in large passenger steamers of this class. 1 In both the
transverse framing becomes deeper and stronger as the extremities
are approached, while the decks and side stringers are all continued
to the extremities, finishing in strong breast-hooks, and additional
stringers, breast-hooks and panting beams are introduced. It is
worthy of note that the rudder and steering gear are in this vessel
entirely under water, _ so that she may be used for war purposes
without running the risk of disablement by the rudder or steering
gear being struck by projectiles. Above the water the stern is
finished off so as to have the appearance of being fitted with an
ordinary rudder. This important departure from the usual practice
was first introduced by Professor Biles in the " City of Paris," and
the " Campania " and her sister the " Lucania " were in 1902 the
only British ships so fitted.
Fig. 122 gives in perspective the general structural arrangements of
thejapanesecruiser"ldzumo,"andngs. 118-121 (PlateXIV.)arefrom
photographs of the vessel in course of construction. It
will be seen that the departures from the structural arrange- r 1
ments of a merchant ship are very considerable. As already !e
pointed out, lighter scantlings are used in warships than w '
in ordinary merchant ships. This is effected by more
carefully devised and more costly arrangements of framing ps '
and plating, and by making the structural features necessary in a
warship for protection, &c., serve also for local and general strength.
FIG. 117. Bow Framing of the " Campania."
In warships, frames are placed at greater distances apart, 4 ft. amid-
ships and 3 ft. at the extremities being the usual spacing, as com-
pared with some 2 ft. in a merchant ship. On the other hand, there
are more continuous longitudinals in the framing of a warship, which
extend in depth from the inner bottom to the shell-plating, and give
l We are indebted to the late Dr Elgar, F.R.S., for these and
other plans of the " Campania."
980
SHIPBUILDING
[COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION
local support to the bottom as well as general strength to the vessel.
There are in a warship so many structural features, such as water-
tight bulkheads and flats or platforms, required for the necessary
subdivision, armour decks, plating and framing behind armour, &c.,
which are made to contribute to the strength of the structure as a
whole, that the strength of the shell-plating and the transverse
framing can be proportionately reduced.
In a merchant ship there are many considerations which require
the structure to be stronger and heavier than would be necessary
door or from a deck above water, or from both. Below the
protective deck are the engine and boiler spaces, magazines,
shell-rooms, submerged torpedo rooms, and steering-gear. A
passage is provided on each side of the ship just below the
protective deck, for the supply of ammunition to the secondary
armament.
Fig. 118 shows the " Idzumo " partially in frame, looking forward
from the after extremity : the frames below the armour deck over a
considerable length of the ship are complete, and a number of the
beams which carry the armour deck are in place. Fig. 119 shows
the ram stem, which has just been placed in position. The collision
bulkhead and the framing below the armour deck are for the most
part in place. Fig. 120 gives the top of the armour deck, which is
nearly completed, as seen from the fore end, with the forward citadel
_
FIG. 122. Japanese Cruiser " Idzumo "; midship portion,
in perspective.
to withstand the wind and waves which she may encounter. The
continual change of cargo and of disposition of cargo necessitates
special local strength throughout. The custom, often pursued, of
grounding vessels to discharge cargo, and their liability to touch
the ground in the ports they frequent, make the provision of
great strength in the floors and the shell-plating essential. Other
considerations affect the decks, and call for local strength in them
with corresponding increase of weight.
Most warships, except gunboat, torpedo and other small craft,
have double bottoms, chiefly for protection against damage in
action, but also against accidental grounding. The space between
the bottoms is divided into a large number of compartments by
making some of the frames and longitudinals water-tight.
The inner bottom extends on each side to the turn of the
bilge, and from that point is carried up vertically as a
wing bulkhead, as shown in fig. 122, the wing spaces thus
formed being occasionally utilized for coal-bunkers. The
framing, consisting of frame bars, reverse frame bars and
frame plates or brackets, is usually carried up in a fair
curve to the armour shelf, supposing the vessel to be
an armour-clad, as in fig. 122. From the edge of the
armour, which is generally about 5 ft. below the load water-
line, a change in structure is made, and the framing behind
the armour is set back from the outside of the ship suffi-
ciently to admit of an internal skin of steel plating (often
worked in two thicknesses), teak backing, upon which the
armour is embedded, and the armour itself, to be carried
with the surface of the armour flush with the shell-plating.
The vertical frames behind armour are spaced 2 ft. apart,
and the longitudinals are made intercostal, the whole hav-
ing exceptional strength, to support the armour. Above
the armour another change is made, the frames being
brought again to the outside of the ship, and the topside
plating directly attached to them becoming flush with the
outside of the armour. There is generally a strong deck,
called the protective deck, extending from stem to stern in
the form of a turtle back, the lower edges being at the
armour shelf on each side of the ship, and the top of the
arch forming the first deck above water, as indicated in
fie. 1 20. With a view to maintaining its defensive power
where it has to be perforated for funnels and air shafts, armour
gratings, or armour bars as they are called, are fitted in the open-
ings. As much water-tight subdivision as possible is introduced
throughout the ship, but for communication between the various
compartments openings are provided in the bulkheads, having water-
tight doors which can be closed either from a position close to the
Elevation.
FIG. 123. Steering Gear of Merchant Ship.
bulkhead in course of construction. Fig. 121 shows the after part
of the vessel, which is not so far advanced as the forward portion
shown in fig. 120. In fig. 121 the framing has been carried to a bulk-
head near the after extremity, the rudder post is in place, and the
bearing for the rudder head can be seen in the foreground. The
construction of the armour deck is proceeding, and the after citadel
bulkhead is also well advanced, though no backing is yet upon it, as
in the case of the forward bulkhead, but the base of the redoubt
which carries the after turret is erected.
The fittings in a ship cannot 'be fully described in the present
article, but we shall conclude with some account of the auxiliary
machinery. Two ordinary arrangements of steering-gear
fitted in merchant steamers are shown in fig. 123. In the
first example a three-quarter circular grooved nm, keyed
to the rudder head, carries the steering-chains, which are led forward
one on each side of the hatches to the steam engine, placed in this
case in the engine-room casing, and controlled by shafting from the
bridge. The usual steering-wheel is fitted on the bridge, and actuates
the controlling valve of the steam engine by means of the shafting.
The second example is very similar to the first : a quadrant is keyed
Elevation.
FlG. 124. Steering Gear of Warship.
on the rudder head, and worked by chains led over pulleys one on
each side of the ship to the steam gear, which in this case is placed
on the bridge, close to the wheel. In all such cases gear is also
provided by which in an emergency the ship can be steered by hand,
by steering-wheels placed close to the rudder head, as indicated in
the figures.
SHIPKA PASS
981
In a warship the arrangement is different, as it is necessary to
keep the steering gear below the water-line for protection. The
breadth available at the rudder head is as a rule not sufficient for a
tiller or quadrant to be fitted. Fig. 124 illustrates an arrangement
frequently adopted. A crosshead of sufficient size is keyed on to
the rudder head, and is worked by connecting rods from a similar
crosshead placed a little farther forward, where the breadth of the
ship is sufficient to allow a tiller to be worked. The tiller is worked
by a block or carriage, which is drawn across the ship on a guide,
at the same time sliding upon the tiller, which is machined for the
purpose. The block-and-guide arrangement is known as Rapson's
slide. The block is hauled to and fro across the ship by a chain
which passes round a sprocket wheel upon a shaft, which is driven
in either direction, as required, by the steering-engine. In fig. 125
the arrangement is shown which has been for a considerable period
adopted in large merchant ships and has in recent years been
adopted in ships of the British navy. It is known as screw
steering gear. On the same central shaft there are right- and left-
handed screws as indicated on the plan, by which blocks A and B
are made to travel always in the opposite direction when the shaft is
FIG. 125. Screw Steering Gear.
rotated. These actuate the crosshead on the rudder E by means of
the rods C and D, one of which will communicate a thrust and the
other a pull, and vice versa according to which way the shaft is
made to rotate. The shaft may be actuated either by hand-gear
or by steam by means of the clutch F. In many cases the steam
steering-engine is placed in the engine-room, to avoid heating the
after-compartments by the steam pipes, and for the sake of easier
control by the engineers.
Amongst the auxiliary machinery usually fitted in passenger and
other well-found vessels may be mentioned the windlass for working
the cables and weighing the anchors ; a warping capstan forward in
connexion with the windlass, and another aft with its own engine;
steam winches for handling the cargo and baggage, and for hoisting
coals on board; and occasionally steam cranes, fitted either in
addition to or in place of the winches. Then there are the electric
light, pumping, ventilating and refrigerating installations. Hydraulic
power is employed in many cases, especially for cranes, but here the
source of the power is necessarily a steam engine, which is usually
placed in the main engine-room. Electric power sometimes replaces
steam for operating some of the machines enumerated above; for
instance, ventilating fans are now generally driven by electric motors
in passenger and war ships. A large number of comparatively small
fans are used, each supplying air to a particular part of the ship.
In warships the amount of auxiliary machinery has been
very greatly increased in recent years. On each side of the deck
amidships there is generally a steam winch for raising and lower-
ing the boats, one of the principal functions of the mast in the
modern warship being to carry the derrick used for this purpose.
Electric motors are fitted for working the after-capstans, ash hoists,
sometimes the winches, and the workshop machinery; also to
traverse, elevate and work the guns, and bring the powder and
projectiles up from the magazines to the guns. But for the heavier
guns, the steering-gear, and certain other purposes, hydraulic power
or steam is still preferred.
The writer is indebted to Mr H. G. Williams, Mr Lloyd Wool-
lard and Mr A. W. A. Cluett for valuable assistance in preparing
this article. (P. WA.)
SHIPKA PASS, in Bulgaria, a pass in the Balkans, celebrated
as the scene of fierce fighting in the Russo-Turkish War of
1877-78. The main road from Rumelia to Bulgaria, leading from
Sistova by Tirnova and Eski Zagra to Adrianople, crosses the
Balkans near the village of Shipka, and this passage was of
necessity an important point in the Russian plan of operations.
The road does not pass between high peaks, but crosses the main
ridge at the highest point ; it is therefore not a pass in the ordinary
sense of the word. Near the summit, running parallel, and close
to the road is a series of three ridges, some 200 ft. high, and about
i m. from north to south, which formed the position for a force
holding the pass. It was originally held by a Turkish force of
about 4000 men with 12 guns, prepared to resist the Russian
advance. On the i7th of July they repelled a feeble attack from
the north, and the following day faced round and drove back
an attack by Gurko from the south. These attacks were to
have been simultaneous, but Gurko, having met with
unexpected resistance, was a day late. Though so far
successful, the Turks evacuated their strong position, and
it was occupied by the Russians on the iQth of July.
They were first attacked by Suleiman Pasha towards
the end of August. Having concentrated with Reouf
Pasha and driven Gurko across the Balkans at the end
of July, he moved to the Shipka on the morning of the
aist of August, and attacked. The Russian force there,
''">::, including five battalions of Bulgarians, then numbered
5000, but that day a regiment from Selvi brought their
numbers to 7500, and this force held the position
against 30,000 Turks for three days, when heavy rein-
forcements arrived. The fighting continued till the
morning of the 26th, when Suleiman, his troops being
exhausted, and having lost 10,000 men, entrenched him-
self in the position he then occupied in a semi-circle
round the southern end of the Russian position. Having
called up more battalions from Yeni Zagra, after a four
days' artillery bombardment, he attacked on the i7th of
September, and was repelled with a loss of 3000 men.
There was no more fighting on the Shipka till the
general advance of the Russians after the fall of Plevna.
Radetzky's command of about 60,000 men advanced
from Gabrova on the sth of January, in three columns.
Radetzky, with the central column, moved by the main
road and attacked the Turks, who still faced the position on the
summit, while Skobelev and Mirski, crossing by trails some 3 m.
to the west and east of the Turkish position, attacked their
reserves on the far side, about Shipka and Shenova, where
Vessil Pasha (who had succeeded Suleiman in command) had
formed an entrenched camp. These flank columns made their
way over the mountains, deep in snow. Mirski attacked alone
on the Sth of January, as Skobelev's advance had been delayed,
but the following day both columns attacked, and after fierce
fighting the Turks surrendered. The force on the summit had
that day repulsed, with heavy loss, a frontal attack by Radetzky,
but they were included in the surrender. Their numbers were
36,000, including 6000 sick and wounded, and 93 guns. The
Russian losses were 5500.
Not only were the Turkish attacks on the Shipka unsuccessful,
but they were made without object. At the end of July, when
Suleiman forced Gurko back over the Balkans, the moral equili-
brium and the plan of operations of the Russians had been upset
by the second battle of Plevna, and the Shipka ceased to have
any strategical importance for the time being. Had Suleiman
at that time followed up Gurko and joined Mehemet Ali, or
moving round acted with Osman against the Russian flank, the
evacuation of the Shipka would have been compulsory. Suleiman,
knowing nothing of strategy, preferred to act independently,
and his action was supported by the still more ignorant ministers
at Constantinople. The Shipka was merely a geographical point
until the Russians were prepared to advance, but, fortunately
for them, the Turks chose to waste an army in fighting for it
throughout the critical period of the operations. As with
Osman at Plevna, it was Constantinople that forbade Vessil
982
SHIPLEY SHIPPARD
Pasha to withdraw his forces at the beginning of January,
compelling him to wait to be swallowed up. The Turkish tactics
were equally unsound. Suleiman divided his forces and used
up his troops in costly frontal attacks on Mt. St Nicholas,
the southern and strongest point of the position, whereas
a well-supported flank attack would probably have met with
success. The manner, in which he sacrificed his men earned for
him the name of the " Shipka butcher." (J. H. V. C.)
SHIPLEY, JONATHAN (1714-1788), bishop of St Asaph, was
educated at Reading and Oxford. He was ordained about 1738,
and acted as tutor in the household of the 3rd earl of Peter-
borough. In 1 743 he became rector of Silchester and Sherborne
St John, Hampshire, and prebendary of Winchester. He was
appointed to a canonry of Christ Church, Oxford, in 1748, and
in 1760 to the deanery of Winchester and the living of Chilbolton,
Hampshire, which he held in addition to his earlier preferments.
In 1769 he was consecrated successively bishop of Llandaff and
of St Asaph. He was much concerned with politics, and joined
the Whig party in strong opposition to the policy of George III.
towards the American colonies. In 1779 he was the only bishop
to advocate the abolition of all laws against Protestant dissenters.
He died on the 6th of December 1788. His brother, William
Shipley (1714-1803), originated the Society of Arts; and his son,
William Davies Shipley (1745-1826), became dean of St Asaph.
SHIPLEY, an urban district in the Shipley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the south
bank of the Aire, 3 m. N. by W. of Bradford, on branches of the
Great Northern, Midland, and North Eastern railways. Pop.
(1901) 25,573. The manufacture of worsted is the principal
industry, and there are large stone quarries in the neighbour-
hood. The parish includes Saltaire, so named after Sir Titus Salt,
who established large alpaca manufactories, opened in 1853.
SHIP-HONEY, a tax, the levy of which by Charles I. of
England without the consent of parliament was one of the causes
of the Great Rebellion. The Plantagenet kings of England had
exercised the right of requiring the maritime towns and
counties to furnish ships in time of war; and the liability
was sometimes commuted for a money payment. Notwith-
standing that several statutes of Edward I. and Edward III. had
made it illegal for the crown to exact any taxes without the
consent of parliament, the prerogative of levying ship-money in
time of war had never fallen wholly into abeyance, and in 1619
James I. aroused no popular opposition by levying 40,000 of
ship-money on London and 8550 on other seaport towns. The
fleet of Charles I. during the first three years of his reign was,
says S. R. Gardiner, " largely composed of vessels demanded
from the port towns and maritime counties. The idea of universal
ship-money to be levied in every county in England seemed to
him to be merely a further extension of the old principle."
Accordingly, on the nth of February 1628, Charles issued writs
requiring 173,000 to be returned to the exchequer by the ist of
March for the provision of a fleet to secure the country against
French invasion and for the protection of commerce, and every
county in England was assessed for payment. This was the
first occasion when the demand for ship-money aroused serious
opposition. Lord Northampton, lord-lieutenant of Warwick-
shire, and the earl of Banbury in Berkshire, refused to assist in
collecting the money; and Charles withdrew the writs.
It will be seen, then, that the statement of Hallam that in 1634
William Noy, the attorney-general, unearthed in the Tower of
London musty records of ship-money as a tax disused and
forgotten for centuries has no real foundation. It was, it is true,
the suggestion of Noy that a further resort should be had to this
expedient for raising money when, in 1634, Charles made a
secret treaty with Philip IV. of Spain to assist him against the
Dutch; and Noy set himself to investigate such ancient legal
learning as was in existence in support of the demand. The
king having obtained an opinion in favour of the legality of the
writ from Lord Keeper Coventry and the earl of Manchester,
the writ was issued in October 1634 and directed to the justices
of London and other sea ports, requiring them to provide a
certain number of ships of war of a prescribed tonnage and
equipment, or their equivalent in money, and empowering them
to assess the inhabitants for payment of the tax according to
their substance. The distinctive feature of the writ of 1634
was that it was issued, contrary to all precedent, in time of peace.
Charles desired to conceal the true aim of his policy, which he
knew would be detested by the country, and he accordingly
alleged 'as a pretext for the impost the danger to commerce from
pirates, and the general condition of unrest in Europe. The
citizens of London immediately claimed exemption under their
charter, while other towns demurred to the amount of their
assessment; but no resistance on constitutional grounds appears
to have been offered to the validity of the writ, and a sum of
104,000 was collected. On the 4th of August 1635 a second writ
of ship-money was issued, directed on this occasion, as in the
revoked writ of 1628, to the sheriffs and justices of inland as
well as of maritime counties and towns, demanding the sum of
208,000, which was to be obtained by assessment on personal
as well as real property, payment to be enforced by distress.
This demand excited growing popular discontent, which now
began to see in it a determination on the part of the king to
dispense altogether with parliamentary government. Charles,
therefore, obtained a written opinion, signed by ten out of twelve
judges consulted, to the effect that in time of national danger,
of which the crown was the sole judge, ship-money might legally
be levied on all parts of the country by writ under the great seal.
The issue of a third writ of ship-money on the gth of October
1636 made it evident that the ancient restrictions, which limited
the levying of the impost to the maritime parts of the kingdom
and to times of war or imminent national danger, had been
finally swept away, and that the king intended to convert it into
a permanent and general form of taxation without parliamentary
sanction. The judges again, at Charles's request, gave an opinion
favourable to the prerogative, which was read by Coventry in
the Star Chamber and by the judges on assize. Payment was,
however, refused by Lord Saye and by John Hampden (q.v.),
a. wealthy Buckinghamshire landowner. The case against the
latter (Rex v. Hampden, 3 State Trials, 825) was heard before all
the judges in the Exchequer Chamber, Hampden being defended
by Oliver St John (q.v.) and Robert Holborne, and lasted for
six months. Seven of the twelve judges, headed by Finch, chief
justice of the common pleas, gave judgment for the crown, and
five for Hampden; though two of the latter namely, Bramston,
chief justice of the king's bench, and Davenport, chief baron of
the exchequer based their judgment on technical grounds which
did not touch the constitutional question at issue. The judgment
of the court practically abrogated the right of parliament to
control supply; and the necessity for curbing the royal pre-
rogative in regard to taxation, thus rendered arbitrary by legal
decision, became one of the chief motives in the popular resistance
to Charles I., which after the Hampden trial grew increasingly
formidable. In 1639 Charles ventured again to issue a writ of
ship-money, but for the comparatively small sum of 70,000.
In 1641, by an Act of the. Long Parliament (17 Car. I.
c. 2), introduced by Selden, the illegality of ship-money was
expressly declared, and the Hampden judgment annulled.
See John Rushworth, Historical Collections, vols. i., ii., iii. (7 vols.,
1 659-1 701 ) ; Straff ord's Letters and Despatches, edited by W. Knowler
(2 vols., London, 1739); S. R. Gardiner, History of England from
the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War, vols. iii.,
vi., vii., viii. (10 vols., London, 1883-1884); Henry Hallam, Con-
stitutional History of England (3 vols., London, 1832, &c.); Oliver
St John, Speech to the Lords, Jan. 7, 1640, concerning Ship-money
(London, 1640). (R. J. M.)
SHIPPARD, SIR SIDNEY GODOLPHIN ALEXANDER (1838-
1902), British colonial administrator, was the eldest son of
Captain William Shippard, 29th Regiment. He was educated
at King's College school and Oxford. Taking his degree in 1863,
he was called to the bar as a member of the Inner Temple in
1867. He then entered upon a long career in South Africa. He
was attorney-general of Griqualand West from 1873 until 1877,
when he was made acting recorder of the High Court of Griqua-
land. From 1880 to 1885 he sat as a judge of the Supreme Court
of Cape Colony; and he was British commissioner on the Anglo-
SHIPPING
983
German commission in 1884-1885 for settling the claims of British
subjects at Angra Pequena and other parts of the south-west
coast. Shippard, while at Oxford in 1878, had discussed with
Cecil Rhodes the plan of the projected British advance in south
central Africa. He saw in the German annexation of Damaraland
and Namaqualand the first step in a design to secure for Germany
territory stretching from ocean to ocean a design which if
executed would have been fatal to the British position in South
Africa. Consequently when after the Warren expedition of 1885
he was chosen to organize the newly acquired British possessions
in Bechuanaland he saw in his appointment an opportunity for
forestalling the Germans, and also the Boer adventurers who
likewise sought to be beforehand with Britain in the countries
north of the Limpopo. From his first establishment in Bechuana-
land he kept up a friendly correspondence with the Matabele
king Lobengula with the object of attaching him to the British
cause. At the end of 1887 he went to Graham's Town with the
hope of inducing the high commissioner (Sir Hercules Robinson
afterwards Lord Rosmead) to sanction the conclusion of a treaty
with Lobengula binding that ruler not to cede any part of his
territory to any other power than England. " I used all my
power of persuasion," Sir Sidney writes, " but failed to induce
Lord Rosmead either to act on his own responsibility in the
matter or to approach Her Majesty's government on the subject.
As a last resource I telegraphed to Mr Rhodes, who was then
busily engaged at Kimberley, to come down at once to Graham's
Town and try the effect of his eloquence. He came, and by
taking upon himself all pecuniary responsibility succeeded in ob-
taining the requisite sanction " (see article "Bechuanaland," by
Sir S. Shippard, in British Africa, London, 1899). The treaty was
signed and British interests secured. Shippard was thenceforth
freer to devote himself to the special interests of Bechuana-
land, which he governed with conspicuous success. He held the
chief official position there from 1885 to 1895, being adminis-
trator, chief magistrate and president of the Land Commission
for British Bechuanaland, and resident commissioner for the
Bechuanaland Protectorate and the Kalahari. He was created
K.C.M.G. in 1887. In 1896 he played an unofficial part in the
negotiations between Sir Hercules Robinson and the Johannes-
burg reformers after the Jameson Raid. He then returned to
England, where he died on the 29th of March 1902.
SHIPPING. To the floating log and paddle of the primeval
fisherman must doubtless be attributed the first beginning of the
great industry of merchant shipping. The hollowing
^ a '8 an ^ the addition of a skin sail would before
long serve to convert the embryo craft into a vessel
navigable in the smooth and narrow waters which lapped the
shores of the Mediterranean and the far distant East. The
coastal villages had need of worked stone knives, of beads and of
skins for winter coverings, to be obtained by barter for their fish
and salt. Passing from settlement to settlement dotted on the
shore, the traders found in the local skirls a convenient alterna-
tive to the rough and tedious tracks along the winding or indented
coast. In course of time they established themselves at the
coastal settlements and built or purchased craft for their own use.
As populations and their needs increased, the traders, gaining
confidence by experience, built larger vessels and extended the
area of their barter, sailing in companies, for mutual safety and
defence. Of the early days of this traffic, as developed in the
East, we have but little information, but in the Eastern seas,
apparently, the Chinese usually came no farther than the coast
of Malabar. The Malays seem in all ages to have traded with
India and probably with the coast of Africa. In the Indian
Ocean the Arabians were the principal carriers. Greatest of all
the ancient navigators nearer to the West were the Phoenicians,
the hardy sons of Tyre and Sidon. To the remarkable maritime
ascendancy of Tyre Ezekiel xxvii. bears eloquent testimony.
King Solomon's undertaking for the building of the temple
was largely founded on the support of Phoenician Hiram.
Much later, but still some 2000 years ago, ships had become a
common means of transport and were of no small size, since the
centurion charged with the conveyance of St Paul to Rome
history.
(Acts xxvii.) found at Myra an Alexandrian ship about to sail
with wheat for Italy, which was able to take on board, besides
the cargo, the whole of the company, making a total of 276 souls
in all. Then, as now, ships were but links in a mighty chain of
commerce on the land, a commerce for which the ports are the
centres of collection and distribution. The products of India and
Europe were conveyed from east and west in stages by inland or
coastal routes with which in their entirety India and Europe
alike were unacquainted (Vincent). And, generally, in the
ancient days ocean commerce ceased .with the summer season,
and sea-borne goods from the distant east to the remote west
found their way from entrepot to entrepot. These entrepots
were great trading centres, the advantageous situation of London,
for example, having before the days of the Roman conquest
marked it out as a convenient emporium for the northern trade.
The Phoenicians, especially, for centuries pushed their com-
merce farther and farther afield, establishing factories and
trading ports which in time grew into independent settlements.
Cadiz, the ancient Gadir, was one of such, and from Gadir
or more northern settlements the Phoenicians visited Britain,
bartering merchandise for tin at 'Cornwall or the Scilly Isles.
Amongst the various nations of the south, between whom the
great shipping heritage of the Phoenicians was in course of time
divided, the Rhodians rose to great importance. By these
notable traders was drawn up a code of maritime laws, many of
which were embodied in the Roman law, and eventually, at or
about the time of Richard I., became a foundation for the Law
of Oleron, which is in some part adopted at this day. Emerging
from the constant struggles in the Mediterranean and Adriatic,
the Venetians, Genoese and Pisans attained to great prosperity
and renown, the reputation of the Genoese as shipbuilders creating
from time to time a demand for their ships on the part of the
nations struggling for maritime supremacy in the channel and the
North Sea. The once familiar English word " argosy " dates from
the appreciation of the vessels built at Arguze or Ragusa, a Dal-
matian city on the Adriatic. The proximity of Italy to the Holy
Land tended greatly to the prosperity of the Italian shipping.
In very early days the commerce of northern Europe was
principally carried on by inland routes. With the increase and
civilization of the populations, the cities on the navigable rivers
and on the sea found the advantage of ocean commerce, and
strove for supremacy in trade. In Britain many an ancient
seaboard town, from Bristol to far north Inverness, largely owing
to the enterprise of the Flemish and the German merchants,
became important as a trading centre. The English merchants
were not without ships, but the foreign traders were enterprising
and wealthy, and in their emulation for the renowned English
wool and for English hides were prepared to venture much.
In those days and for several centuries later the history of
shipping was a history of arbitrary restraints, of claims for
exclusive rights of trading and navigation, and of pretexts of
various kinds, resulting in captures and burnings, in embargoes
and confiscations in port and in fierce reprisals. The merchant-
man was a more or less armed vessel prepared alike for aggression
or defence, a condition of affairs to which has probably to be
attributed the occasional construction of vessels of a tonnage
then remarkable. The ships of Spain and Portugal, of England
and the Netherlands of French shipping for a considerable
period there was comparatively little homeward bound from
Indian ports and factories and from the New World's trading
settlements from time to time were preyed on by one another.
The Algerian and Barbary corsairs, with nothing to lose and
everything to gain in merchandise and captives, were the dread
of all who sailed the seas from Lisbon to Gibraltar and indeed
still farther north and within the straits. The insurance of
the voyagers against capture and the payment of head-money
for their ransom was a well-established system of the times.
In England, the Cinque ports, in consideration of valuable
privileges, were specially engaged to hold vessels at the service
of the state, but on need arising the ports at large were called
upon for ships and men. These demands at times became oppres-
sive. Thus we read that in I37r it was complained in parliament
9 8 4
SHIPPING
that owing to the demands of the king the merchants were being
ruined and their mariners driven into other trades. The size or
measurement of ships was assessed on the basis of
English tneir capac j ty to carry tuns of wine, the first step
progress, e
in the present system of tonnage measurement.
Ships sailed in fleets, one or more of their masters being appointed
admirals, to be obeyed by all the company. In times of special
maritime disturbance an armed fleet convoyed the merchantmen,
much, no doubt, to the added cost of transport. The great
source of England's wealth was her wool, of which the abundance
and fineness gave rise to a wide demand. Staples or licensed
entrepots or marts were set up for this and other produce at
certain towns in England and overseas, English merchants
associating themselves at such foreign staples. In like manner
foreign trading societies located themselves under certain privileges
and obligations at English marts, to the great increase of ship-
ping, more especially of foreign bottoms. About the middle of
the isth century a considerable use sprang up for shipping in
the carriage of African slaves to Portugal, their captors being the
Moors. In later years this melancholy trade found large employ-
ment for the ships of Liverpool, Bristol and London, trading
with the distant west. Pilgrimages, too, were bringing profit
to the ships, a constant stream of the devout with their offerings
journeying on the one hand to the shrine of St James of Com-
postela and on the other to that of St Thomas of Canterbury.
From times remote the fishing industry produced a hardy race
of shipmen, the maritime nations being all more or less engaged
in an enterprise rendered doubly lucrative by the want of flesh
meat and the regulations of Holy Church. Thus in very early
days the northern seas were thronged with rival fishing fleets,
which, from about the middle of the isth century, began to find
their way to the banks of Newfoundland. At the close of the
1 6th century the whale was being pursued by rival fishermen
on the Greenland coasts. Queen Elizabeth, for the maintenance
of shipping and the increase of fishermen and mariners, forbade
the eating of flesh on Wednesdays and Saturdays, an order from
time to time subsequently revived. Sir Walter Raleigh, in his
statement to King James, lamenting English commercial supine-
ness as compared with the enterprise of the Dutch, declared that
20,000 vessels of all nations were engaged in fishing off the
British coasts, of which vessels the Dutch owned 3000; and no
doubt they formed a valuable mercantile and naval school.
The great discoveries of the renowned Spanish and Portuguese
navigators in the reign of Henry VII. awoke in the maritime
states a new spirit of commercial enterprise and emulation, in
which Henry and his successors took an active part. A royal
grant of navigation and discovery was given to the Cabots, then
settled at Bristol, and " divers tall ships " of London, South-
ampton and Bristol traded direct with the Mediterranean ports,
though the English merchants generally employed foreign vessels
for this trade. A " tall " ship was apparently a vessel carrying
topmast with yards and square sails, an important development
of the simpler pole-mast rig of earlier times. Henry VIII. and
Ferdinand of Spain entered into a league, primarily aimed at
France, under which it was agreed to police the seas in protection
of their shipping, the English fleet to watch the sea to Gibraltar,
and Spain to guard the Mediterranean. The Corporation of the
Trinity House was now established, in great part for the deepen-
ing of the Thames and to supply shipping with the ballast gained
in the process, though the vessels actually London-owned were
apparently few in number. Most English ships of burthen were
then obtained by purchase at the South Baltic ports, where
the great Hanse town, Liibeck, was the centre of an enormous
trade. The Hanse towns, indeed, practically carried on the
trade of England. In the time of Elizabeth, England began to
achieve commercial independence. Great building of ships took
place, for which bounties were granted by the queen, and Eliza-
beth set herself against the Hanseatic league. At the close of
her reign the Steelyard was shut up, and the Dutch were compet-
ing successfully with the Hanse towns, of which " most of their
teeth were out and the rest but loose." In the early days
of commerce the risks were too considerable to be borne by
individuals, who accordingly associated themselves as companies
of merchant adventurers for the purposes of their particular
trade, exclusive rights and privileges being granted to them by
their own sovereign, and corresponding facilities on the part of
the foreign states or cities traded with. In England certain of
these societies, notably the company of Russian merchants,
the Turkey merchants and, for long, the East India Company,
occupied positions of influence and importance, the last-named
company especially becoming possessed of much shipping,
including large vessels, well armed, for prize-making or defence.
The needs of trade and shipping were for long but little under-
stood and often arbitrarily obstructed, but as a broad general
principle it was recognized by the crown that the national
trading interests required for their protection special privileges
and concessions. Thus the patent granted by Elizabeth to the
African adventurers in 1588 was expressed to be on the ground
that " the adventuring of a new trade cannot be a matter of
small charge and hazard to the adventurers in the beginning."
At the middle of the i6th century Antwerp was at the zenith
of its great prosperity. It was described as the general store-
house of the world, and it was stated that so many as 2500 vessels
might be seen lying in the Scheldt at one time. These, however,
were mainly foreign, Antwerp being a mart or emporium to
which other nations traded. Towards the close of the century
this great city's peaceful population was, in the name of Holy
Church, crushed under the iron heel of Christian Spain. Its
traders fled from cruelty and torture largely to Amsterdam,
about this time the northern entrep6t for Portugal's East India
trade. The Hollanders, profiting by the decline of the Hanse
towns, were now greatly devoting themselves to shipbuilding
and to foreign trade. They, like the English, hampered in their
navigation by hostile and unfriendly occupation of the ports of
refuge and supply at the two great southern capes, were bent on
discovering a north-east or north-west passage to the East.
This enterprise and the desire for gems and precious metals, as
to the existence and abundance of which there were many false
beliefs, added greatly to the knowledge of the distant seas and
shores, on which many settlements were being established. To
such settlements the attention of the French was now directed,
with much encouragement to their shipping by the powerful
Richelieu. The East Indian settlements and shipping of the
Portuguese were being persistently harassed by the advancing
Dutch, while the rich treasure ships of Spain were laid wait for
and captured by English shipping, greatly to the Spanish
loss. But the Dutch especially were prospering. Amsterdam,
a vast trade centre supplied by Dutch shipping, had between
1571 and 1650 trebled itself in size. So far back as 1603 Sir
Walter Raleigh, in his statement to King James, had complained
that the vessels of the Dutch, by reason of their greater capacity
and smaller crews and consequently lower freights, were cutting
out the English ships or driving them into the Newcastle coal
trade. By such enterprise the Hollanders gradually became the
carriers for the English merchants. English bottoms were
neglected and English seamen took service with the Dutch.
Affairs for English shipping had about 1650 reached a crisis.
There existed, moreover, great animosity between the English
and the Hollanders.
In the defence of the national shipping the great Navigation
Act was in 1651 placed upon the British statute-book. Under
this far-reaching act the trade between England and
her colonies and the British coasting trade was strictly
r- TI i f i
confined to English bottoms, English owned and
manned substantially by English seamen. The act
contained further provisions in support of British shipping, the
effect of which was greatly to prejudice foreign shipping in its
competition for the British carrying trade. It is not impossible
that some of the regulations of the act may have proceeded from
the animosity already mentioned (Adam Smith). From the
point of view of the Dutch, indeed, it was a " vile act and order,"
to be resisted at all costs. From the prolonged hostilities which
ensued England finally emerged supreme at sea. For some time
the French, under the powerful encouragement of Richelieu and
,.
ttoa Act
SHIPPING
985
subsequently of Colbert, had been devoting themselves to colonial
enterprises both across the Atlantic and in distant India, to the
eventual important increase of French shipping, whilst on the
other hand Spanish shipping was declining. As the result of
the Navigation Act and its successful maintenance a great
increase had taken place in English tonnage, which in 1688 was
said to be nearly double that of 1666. In the war with France
this increase was greatly in favour of her privateers, which in
two years are stated to have captured 3000 British ships as against
but 67 which were taken from France, a result in part attribut-
able to her employment of Dutch vessels. About this time
Inverness, long devoted to shipbuilding, had obtained a high
reputation for its ships.
In 1701 England's private shipping numbered 3281 vessels,
of a total burthen of 261,222 tons and carrying 5660 guns,
London leading with 560 ships of 84,882 tons, Bristol coming
next with 165 of 17,338 tons, Liverpool being seventh on the
list with 102 ships. Thirty years later London's ships
had increased to 1417, ranging from 15 tons to a great
ship of 750 tons owned by the South Sea Company, but
the majority measured less than 200 tons. In 1765 we read that
the Dutch, Danish and Swedish ships were generally larger than
the English vessels and that they had succeeded in ousting
England as the carrier of Lisbon's Mediterranean trade. In
1714 an act was passed, and at subsequent dates revived, offering
public rewards for improved methods of ascertaining longitude
at sea, and John Harrison (" that heaven taught artist" ) received
in all 20,000 for the invention of a chronometer which was
successful to a degree of accuracy beyond that for which the act
provided. Towards the second half of the i8th century the
foundations were laid of the present great shipping industry on
the Great Lakes. Oak timber of large size was now becoming
scarce in England, and in the interests of the navy restrictions
were placed upon the East India Company as regards its use.
British merchant shipping, too, had apparently outgrown the
supply of seamen, for towards the close of the century it was
permitted to British vessels to carry foreign seamen to the extent
of three-fourths of the crew. The traffic in African negroes gave
much employment to British shipping. The war with America
led to the harrying of British commerce by American privateers
cruising off the English coasts. War premiums were very high
and the insurance obtainable was insufficient. Partly on this
account and partly owing to the fact that about 1000 British
vessels had been taken up for transport and other public services,
whilst many more were sailed as privateers, the Thames was now
full of foreign vessels loading British cargoes. During the
absence from the West Indies of the British fleet under Admiral
Byron, engaged in conveying homewards the West Indian
merchantmen, two valuable British islands were captured by
the French. The hostilities of the rival states were being fought
out at sea, with peaceful commerce as their objective. The seas
swarmed with privateers, armed and equipped as sordid specu-
lative enterprises, occasional rich prizes stimulating the greed
of many citizens, not a few of them, no doubt, the owners of
ships and merchandise which had in like manner fallen to the
enemy. The French privateer " Bordelais," captured by the
English in 1799, is reported to have taken in four years 164
prizes, of the net value of 1,000,000 sterling (Mahan). Between
May 1756 and July 1757 a total of 772 French vessels was
captured by the British, whilst 637 British ships were taken by
the French. It was declared in the House of Lords in February
1778 that the value of the British captures of American vessels
had amounted to 1,808,000, against which that of British
shipping captured by America had been 1,800,000. Towards
the close of the prolonged hostilities which concluded in 1815
Liverpool and Glasgow were holding public meetings and urging
upon the admiralty and the throne that they were being ruined
by the want of protection to their shipping. In 1786 an act was
passed (26 Geo. III. c. 86) for the encouragement of shipping,
in which the personal h'ability of shipowners, till then unlimited,
was in certain cases of their loss of cargo now limited to the value
of the vessel and her freight, the first of progressive acts of the
like nature. Smuggling was for long the cause of serious loss to
the national revenue, and an act was passed declaring forfeited
any British sloops or cutters found within four leagues of the
coast if provided with a bowsprit exceeding two-thirds of the
vessel in length (27 Geo. III. c. 32).
In 1797 the English and Scottish private vessels numbered
together 12,995 of 1,385,252 tons burthen. With respect to
tonnage, in the days of wooden vessels the weight of cargo which
a ship was capable of carrying was about equivalent to her own
displacement or breaking-up weight. Nowadays, owing to steel
construction and the adoption of a fuller cross-section in ship
designing, the carrying capacity of a cargo steamer is reported
to be about double, or even more than double, the ship's own
weight; but types of steamers of course vary. The Board of
Trade ton is 100 cub. ft., purely a measure of permanently
covered-in space, and not to be confounded with the ship's
capacity to carry dead-weight, of which capacity the registered
tonnage is consequently not to be regarded as an index. For
the purpose of a rough and ready calculation, however, the
dead-weight carrying capacity of an average cargo steamer may
be taken to be about twice that of her net registered tonnage
or a little more. The chief object of fixing and registering the
gross and net tonnage is the establishment of a basis of assess-
ment for tonnage dues and for liability for payment of damages
caused by wrongful navigation or otherwise. The present
diversity in the designs of steamships is in no small degree due
to a desire on the part of shipowners to possess vessels which
with a minimum of registered tonnage shall provide a maximum
of cargo space.
The close of the i8th century was marked, especially in
America, by attention to the possibilities of steam navigation.
A new era in shipping had dawned, and year by year
and step by step, from river craft to short-voyage century
vessels, the new motive power gained ground. In
1833 the Canadian vessel " Royal William" steamed throughout
from Quebec to London, making the voyage in seventeen days,
and in 1838 the " Great Western " and the " Sirius " arrived on
the same day at New York, having crossed the Atlantic in
eighteen days and fifteen days respectively (Pollock). In 1840
was founded the celebrated Cunard Steamship Company, the
nucleus of its fleet being four wooden paddle steamers, also
equipped as sailing vessels. Each was about 206 ft. in length
and of about 1145 tons burthen. At the beginning of the igth
century American shipowners had laid themselves out to obtain
command of the Atlantic trade, from which the British Naviga-
tion Act did not debar them. With this aim, ships of great
sailing power and carrying capacity were constructed, being
provided in addition with ingenious labour-saving devices which
materially enhanced their economy in working. Successful in
their attempts on the Atlantic trade, the Americans now set
themselves to gain predominance in the trade with China, for
which they provided vessels of unexampled speed. But British
owners, put upon their mettle, eventually succeeded in designing
a class of sailing ship superior to any yet constructed, while the
advantages of steam navigation were now proving fatal to
American sailing vessels in the Atlantic (Cornewall-Jones).
The use of steam was becoming general, to the gradual displace-
ment of sailing vessels, though the Australian trade for some
considerable time continued to be carried on by sailing ships of
wide renown. The opening of the Suez Canal and the provision
of coaling stations on the long sea routes eventually, however,
placed the bulk of the Australasian carrying trade in the hands
of the steamship owners, the principal employment for large
sailing vessels now being in the Pacific trade. Probably in great
part on account of the cost and difficulty of fuel supplies, the
Californian wheat trade, and the guano and the nitrate trades of
the South Pacific, are thus still competed for by sailing vessels,
some of them of remarkable capacity. For some years the
possibilities of iron in shipbuilding had been slowly gaining
recognition, to the eventual displacement in Great Britain, though
not in the United States, of wooden hulls. Partly as the result
of the war between the Northern and Southern states and partly
9 86
SHIPPING
owing to the superior advantages of iron hulls, not yet constructed
in America, the United States now further lost place as ocean
carriers. In 1908 the chief employment of her ocean shipping
was on the Atlantic coast and in the Gulf of Mexico.
The steady increase in steam-propelled vessels resulted in the
establishment of many coaling stations in distant parts, with
much employment of shipping to supply them. Towards the
middle of the igth century British shipowners were greatly
alarmed at proposals to repeal the navigation acts, and in spite
of their petitions and remonstrances, and of demands that the
bill, eventually introduced, should at least require reciprocity,
in 1849 the proposed measure became an act, the coastal trade
being in 1854 similarly thrown open, this latter measure being
induced by the need for British ships and seamen for the purposes
of the Crimean War (Lindsay). Probably in no small degree
owing to the discovery of gold in California and Australia about
this time, and to the further employment provided for shipping
by the Crimean War and by the necessities of the Indian Mutiny,
the direful forebodings of British owners as to the consequences
of the repeal of the Navigation Act were not verified. In 1856
the Treaty of Paris and its appended Declaration pronounced,
amongst other notable clauses affecting maritime warfare, the
abolition of privateering. To this great treaty most of the
maritime states in course of time gave their adhesion, the United
States and Spain, however, not yet being signatories. The
altered conditions as between warships and merchant vessels,
and the disabilities imposed by neutrality laws have, however, in
themselves done very much to render privateering as formerly
conducted no longer possible. But the Declaration, notwith-
standing, the employment of duly commissioned merchant
vessels may still be resorted to by the state for the destruction
of commerce and for other belligerent purposes.
In 1858, after great difficulty and outlay, Brunei's huge ship
the " Great Eastern" was floated on the Thames. The vessel,
having a length of 679 ft. and a burden of 18,337 tons gross and
13,344 tons net (Lloyd's Register) and being provided with six
sail-carrying masts, was furnished both with a screw propeller
and with paddles. Highly successful as an engineering enterprise,
commercially she was from the first a ruinous failure. Under
the remarkable development of the Atlantic passenger traffic,
however, the size of steamships steadily and continually increased.
In 1873, as the outcome of a prolonged public agitation con-
ducted by Mr Samuel Plimsoll, member for Derby, a royal
commission was appointed to inquire into his allegations that
many lives were lost owing to the unseaworthiness of ships.
In 1876, under pressure of public sympathy with the views of
Mr Plimsoll, an amended Merchant Shipping Act was passed
(39 & 40 Vic. c. 80), making it a penal offence to knowingly
send a ship to sea unseaworthy, and requiring a loadline to be
fixed on British vessels, the line to be indicated on ocean going
vessels by what is now universally known as the Plimsoll mark.
The opening in 1869 of the Suez Canal created a revolution in
th eastern shipping trade. Year by year steamships increased
greatly in number and in burden. With improved conditions of
steam navigation the supplementary use of sails was generally
abandoned, masts being retained only for signalling purposes and
as attachments for cargo hoists. New conditions in ship con-
struction, the commercial demand for expedition and the manu-
facture of new articles of commerce together resulted in an
increased risk of fire on ships both at sea and in port, with great
loss primarily to underwriters, more especially by the flooding
of holds full of valuable cargo. To overcome this danger steam-
ships are being increasingly equipped with an apparatus which
on the outbreak of fire enables the holds to be filled with a fire-
extinguishing gas. The invention and adoption of refrigerating
machinery and insulated holds resulted in the development of
a vast trade in frozen meat and perishable produce.
The triumph of Germany in the Franco-Prussian War awoke
in the Fatherland a spirit of industrial enterprise which greatly
increased the population of her manufacturing areas. The
supplies required by the prosperous industrial populations and
the national demand for raw materials for the manufactories,
together with the great export trade for which these were now
laying themselves out, filled the German and other North Sea
ports with shipping. Germany, able to consume whole shiploads
of various foreign products, now imported these direct instead
of in parcels through London and other ports. Unwilling that
the profit of carrying her great and increasing trade should be
reaped by foreign bottoms, Germany turned herself to shipowning
and shipbuilding, and with remarkable success. So great, indeed,
was this success that important lines of German steamships
rapidly grew up as competitors with British and other lines in
foreign trades. Both in bringing home raw materials and in
enabling German manufacturers to send their products to
foreign consumers at low rates of freight, the German shipping
was now greatly increasing the national prosperity. In return,
the state neglected nothing which would promote the success of
its industrial centres in their competition for foreign markets,
or which would assist the development of the national shipping.
Rates of carriage from inland centres to the shipping ports were,
in the case of goods intended for shipment by German vessels,
considerably reduced by the state railways; and whereas in
Great Britain shipping subsidies or subventions are granted
essentially if not solely for services to be rendered, in Germany
the granting of subsidies has also in view the development of the
national shipping. The notable growth in Germany's trade and
shipping is in fact believed to be in no small degree attributable
to a system of subsidies to shipping in conjunction with prefer-
ential railway rates on German goods despatched for shipment
under " through " bills of lading under the national flag.
In the Far East also, a new and important maritime com-
petitor has sprung up, the industrial and commercial awakening
of Japan having been attended by the creation of a Japanese
merchant fleet and by much enterprise in the national ship-
building. To the name of every Japanese merchant vessel is
added the word " Maru," in ancient times a masculine " humility
title," but in its present use having the approximate signification
of " dearest" or " esteemed."
The following figures, supplied by Lloyd's Register, recording the
number and tonnage of German and Japanese steamers and sailing
vessels of 100 tons and upwards, illustrate severally the recent
maritime progress of the two countries:
Year.
Germany.
Japan.
No.
Sailing Vessels Net,
Steamers Gross.
No.
Sailing Vessels Net,
Steamers Gross.
1890
1900
1908
1908 )
steamers t
only )
1875
1710
2178
1806
Tons.
1,569,3"
2,650,033
4, 2 3 2 -'45
3-839,378
289
1066
865
Tons.
I7L554
574,557
1,140,177
In consequence of an act passed by the French government to
grant bounties on sailing vessels constructed and owned in France,
the owners of such vessels found it to their profit, the bounty
being assessed on distances sailed, to engage in long voyages,
with the earning of freight as a secondary consideration. This
procedure being found to operate prejudicially on the freight
earnings of sailing vessels generally, and more especially in the
Pacific trade, an international meeting of the owners of sailing
vessels was held at Paris in 1903, with the result of the formation
of the Sailing Ship Owners' International Union to maintain
rates of freight, French owners identifying themselves with the
measures decided on by the union in the common interest.
Influenced, no doubt, by German example, certain French
steamship companies about this time decided to grant preferential
combined tariffs on goods sent from inland centres of production
in France for shipment by their vessels, to the great dissatisfac-
tion of the owners of foreign steamers loading for similar destina-
tions at French ports.
Early in 1902 a shipping pool or " combine " was effected in
the case of certain important British steam lines engaged in
the North Atlantic trade. The combine, involving vast capital
SHIPPING
987
values, was engineered by a well-known New York business house
largely interested in American railways. In England it was
variously attributed to a resolve on the part of American traders
to share in the transport of the national trade; to a desire on the
part of the lines concerned to effect economies by a consolidation
of management, and to a scheme intended to benefit certain
great American railways. The transaction gave rise to much
comment in Great Britain, being by not a few regarded as con-
templating the eventual transfer of the lines to American owner-
ship. And indeed, though the steamers continued to be under
the British flag, the extent to which they remain substantially
under British ownership cannot be affirmed. It was stated in
1008 that on completion of its building programme the combined
fleet would consist of 132 vessels of together, 1,159,704 tons.
The general adoption of steamships in place of sailing vessels
was gradually followed by their separation into two classes, one
devoted to a fixed service on regular lines of employment, the
other to promiscuous trade. The former class are now known
somewhat vaguely as " liners," ranging, however, from the
first-class mail and passenger steamer on the one hand, to the
regular cargo steamer on the other. To the second class belong
the " seekers " or " tramps " which come and go wherever
profitable employment offers, and which more especially lay
themselves out to be chartered to carry full cargoes of coal,
timber, wheat, nitrate, jute and such like. These vessels, some
of which are of great capacity, are frequently in competition
with the liners. This competition sometimes results in " cut
rates " of freight, to the serious loss of the great shipowning
firms and companies. With the establishment of regular lines,
moreover, there grew up competition between rival lines, with
similar results. A solution was found by the creation of working
agreements between rival lines at agreed rates of freight, but
the lines thus associated were still exposed to the attacks of
" tramps " upon what the liner owners regarded as their privileged
trade. Fierce conflicts from time to time ensued, with great
disturbance of the freight market and with consequent loss or
inconvenience to the merchants themselves. As the result,
shipping " rings " or " conferences" were created in many
trades, the owners of the liners undertaking to provide the traders
with a regular service accompanied by advantageous conditions,
whilst the traders undertook to ship only by the conference
steamers. In order to ensure this support, the shipowners
instituted the system of deferred rebates, under which each
merchant, at the end of a year or other fixed period, should be
entitled to a discount or rebate on the amount of freight paid by
him during such period, provided that he should have shipped no
goods at all by steamers outside the conference, the discount only
to be paid after a further fixed period of six or nine months,
during which time also he should rigidly support the conference
lines. In the event of failure to comply with the conditions, a
merchant is exposed to forfeiture of the rebate, and in addition
to measures in the nature of a boycott on the part of the con-
ference lines. Notwithstanding, attempts are from time to time
made by steamers outside the ring to gain admittance, with the
consequence of occasional freight wars, and with the incidental
result that goods are sometimes carried, for example, from
America to a British colony at lower rates of freight than similar
goods manufactured in England. Mainly on account of com-
plaints made against the working of the South African ring, a
British royal commission was in 1906 appointed to take evidence
and report upon the subject generally.
With the growth of populations and the development of means
of transport, both by land and sea, a great increase arose both in
production and consumption, and competition became very keen
for markets, both home and foreign. In this competition the cost
of carriage is always an element of great importance, even though
the freight payment may bear but an insignificant relation to the
value of the goods carried. For in modern trade rivalries, every
penny saved in charges counts with the importer, and if goods
of a similar kind can, by reason of lower transport charges, be
obtained a fraction cheaper from one industrial centre than from
another, the tendency is to give the preference to the centre or
country which can deliver most cheaply to the consumer. Trade
follows cheapness, and, with the world's industrial development,
the striving for cheapness took at the outset the form of economies
in production. The day of small trade with large profits was
passed, and producers of all kinds now aimed at a large output
at diminished cost, and contended themselves with a smaller
ratio of profits on a larger business. The utmost economy was
studied with a view to successful competition, especially in over-
seas markets; and in this struggle for the cheapening of supplies
the cost of transport became an important element. The fact
was recognized that the ship is but a link in the chain of con-
nexion between producer and consumer, and the system of
" through " bills of lading was introduced, under which a particu-
lar steamer line or railway service contracted for the through-
carriage of goods in conjunction with other lines, with the object
and effect of cheapening the transport as a whole. Individual
shipowners, in order to obtain cargoes for their ships, were in
turn driven to devise economies in transport, with the result
that rates of freight were continually reduced. In modern
ocean carriage size means cheapness, the transport of a given
weight of cargo being cheaper in a single vessel than in two
vessels each of half the size. For not only does this concentra-
tion of carrying power effect economy of officers and crew, with
their wages, provisions and accommodation space, but in ship-
building also size makes for cheapness. Thus, if, for example,
two steamers each carrying 2000 tons will cost together say
40,000, a single vessel of equal carrying capacity can be supplied
for 35,000. Or, put another way, if for 40,000 two steamers
can be built to carry between them 4000 tons, for the same sum
a single vessel can, it is stated, be provided to carry 4700 tons.
Consequently, the size of vessels is continually on the increase, and
no sooner is a navigable channel at much cost made deep enough
for the great vessels knocking at the door of the port, than still
larger are constructed, and shipowners complain anew that the
harbour depth provided is insufficient. The constant demand
for greater depths resulted in the production of mammoth
dredgers of which, also, the size and power are continually
increasing. At the present time it is the navigable depth of ports
and canals, and the need of adequate dry docks, rather than
the obtaining of cargoes, which are the controlling factors in
the size of great ocean vessels. But the heavy interest on the
capital cost of these vessels and their working expenses call for
the utmost despatch in their loading and discharge, and with
the simultaneous arrival of several vessels of large tonnage, the
question of prompt discharge is one of great and increasing
difficulty. For many modern steamers will carry 10,000 tons of
cargo, and some a great deal more; 'so that, with old-type
railway trucks carrying ordinarily only about 8 tons, it not
infrequently happens that the discharge of the ship, equipped
though she be with remarkable facilities for landing her cargo
and assisted by discharge into barges, is impeded owing to
deficiency of shore clearance. If 8 tons be taken as the capacity
of an ordinary railway truck and 30 trucks be allowed to a'
train, it will be obvious that a single modern cargo ship will require
a vast procession of rolling stock to clear her cargo. A single
cargo of 10,000 tons, for example, will require some 1250 railway
trucks for its removal; or, allowing 6 yards' length to the truck,
7500 yards of rolling stock, without engines and vans. And, in
fact, congestion of shipping owing to delays is frequently the
cause of bitter complaint in the case of certain ports. Trucks
of much increased capacity are no.w being introduced, but for
various reasons their adoption is very slow. In port 'polemics
the argument is sometimes heard that the backwardness of this
or that port will result in the trade being driven elsewhere:
the ships, it is said, will remove it. But the ship is but the blind
instrument of trade, to come and go where and as trade calls
it. The ship will, however, sooner or later .require a higher rate
of freight for ports of slow despatch, and this increased expense
in transport will undoubtedly operate in favour of rival ports.
For the ports themselves are but stepping-stones to or from a
market or industrial centre, and the market will always select
the cheapest route for its trade.
SHIPTON
Number and Tonnage of Steamers and Sailing Vessels registered in the United Kingdom, Isle of Man and
Channel Islands on $ist of December of various Years. (Official Returns of the Board of Trade.)
With the increase of populations in the Old World and the
development of new countries, the transport of emigrants and
of travellers for business and for pleasure became a highly
important and lucrative source of employment for steam ship-
ping. It is now indeed becoming a common practice on the part
of ocean steamship companies to employ a surplus or superseded
vessel of their fleet solely in carrying holiday tourists to a succes-
sion of foreign ports. In regular traffic the demand for increased
speed and greater security and comfort on the part of ocean
travellers resulted in the competitive evolution of passenger
steamers of dimensions and draught which create an increasing
strain on port and dock authorities.
These remarks must not be concluded without mention of the
important part played in the evolution of modern shipping by
the system of marine insurance and by the rules of classification.
For the cost of insurance is a heavy tax on the profits of the
shipowners, and only by providing vessels of the best construction
and maintaining their reputation can owners gain the advantage
of low insurance rates. And not only so, but by the merchants
also, to whom insurance premiums are a no less serious con-
sideration; vessels of the highest class and reputation are insisted
on with a view to cheap cargo insurance, inferior ships being
consequently placed at a serious disadvantage. On the other
hand, the rules of construction and classification of the Society
of Lloyd's Register (a body altogether distinct from the Corpora-
tion of Lloyd's) are most exacting, and any failure to comply
with the rules of the Register or " Book," which,.moreover, are in
a constant state of scientific evolution, may involve withdrawal of
the vessel's class, a result which would be fatal to her cheap in-
surance as well as to her employment in successful competition for
freights. With its skilled surveyors at foreign, colonial and home
ports, the great society offers every facility for the classing of the
whole world's shipping, and
foreign as well as British
owners are fully alive to the
importance of a strict com-
pliance with the Book's re-
quirements. Consequently,
amongst thevarious factors
making for improved con-
struction and the greater
safety of shipping, the
beneficent influence of
Lloyd's Register occupies
a foremost place.
But the various factors
or forces which make "for
the evolution of shipping
may all be summed up
under the word " competition," which is the mainspring
of the machinery both of insurance and classification. These
factors operate, however, in different ways. Thus, while
insurance and classification make most for ships' increased
safety, the desire for profitable freights tends continu-
ally to their greater size. But making also for increased size,
and in addition for the many improvements and inventions
which result in luxury and comfort at sea, the vast influence of
the ocean passenger is conspicuous. For, no longer regarded as
an encumbrance to be made room for on a cargo ship, the modern
age of travel has rendered him a vast source of profit. The
oW position is reversed, and now fast-steaming hotels are built
for ocean travellers, in which cargo occupies a secondary place,
which only merchandise able to pay highly for the costly advan-
tage of a speedy voyage can afford to occupy. The growth of
the passenger traffic and the demand of travellers for routes the
most direct is, in turn, creating or developing ports which have
small regard to cargo considerations, and involving the ports,
both old and new, of the various maritime states in a keen and
costly competition for the great passenger steamers. This
competition is further enhanced by railway lines at rivalry for
the conveyance of the ocean passenger and for the more valuable
merchandise able to pay high rates for speed between ocean port
and inland city, and therefore shipped by the fastest vessels.
Competition for freights and competition for passengers, these
are the great and beneficent forces which are silently but irre-
sistibly developing the ship, while insurance and classification
are the potent handmaids of this competition.
Number and Tonnage of Steamers and Sailing Vessels (of 100 tons
and upwards) belonging to various countries as recorded in the
1908 Edition of Lloyd's Register or Book.
Tonnage.
Country.
Vessels.
(Net for Sailing
Vessels and Gross
for Steamers.)
United Kingdom ....
United Kingdom and Colonies (A)
9,542
",563
17,318,351
18,709,537
United States (B) .
3,48o
4,810,268
Germany .
2,178
4,232,145
Norway .
2,148-
1,982,878
France
i,5i7
1,883,894
Italy .
1,098
1,285,225
Japan (Steamers only)
865
1,140,177
Russia (C)
1,381
974,517
Sweden
L542
904,155
Spain .
551
701,278
Holland .
565
876,620
Denmark .
870
733,790
N.B. The figures of the official or Board of Trade returns, owing
to their inclusion of vessels below 100 tons, differ more or less widely
from the totals as appearing in Lloyd's Register.
(A) Wooden colonial vessels trading on the Great Lakes of North
America are not included. (B) These figures only include sea-
going vessels and iron and steel vessels trading on the Great Lakes.
(C) These figures do not include sailing vessels registered in southern
Russia.
The following table illustrates the growth and progress of British
home shipping:
Year.
Steamers.
Sailing Vessels.
Total.
No.
Tonnage.
No.
Tonnage.
No.
Tonnage.
Net.
Gross.
Net.
Gross.
Net.
Gross.
1830
1840
1850
1870
1880
1890
1900
1907
298
771
1,187
2,000
3>>78
5,247
7,410
9,209
11,394
30.339
87,928
168,474
454,327
1,112,934
2,723,468
5,042,517
7,207,610
10,023,700
8,095,370
11,816,924
16,513,800
18,876
21,883
24,797
25,663
23,189
19,938
14,181
10,773
9,648
2,171,253
2,680,334
3,396,659
4,204,360
4,577,855
3,851,045
2,936,021
2,096,498
1,461,490
3,055.136
2,247,228
1-575-900
19,174
22,654
25.984
27,663
26,367
25,185
21,591
19,982
21,042
2,201,592
2,768,262
3,565,133
4,658,687
5,690,789
6,574,513
7,978,538
9,304,108
11,485,190
11,150,506
14,064,152
18,089,700
(D. O.)
SHIPTON, MOTHER, a witch and prophetess who is supposed
to have lived in early Tudor times. There is no really trust-
worthy evidence as to her ever having existed, but tradition has
it that her maiden-name was Ursula Southill, Sowthiel or Southiel,
and her parents were peasants, living near the Dropping Well,
Knaresborough, Yorkshire. The date of her birth is uncertain,
but it is placed about 1486-1488. Her mother, Agatha Southill,
was a reputed witch, and Ursula from her infancy was regarded
by the neighbours as " the Devil's child." The girl's appearance
seems to have been such as to encourage superstitions. Richard
Head in his Life and Death of Mother Shipton (1684) says, " the
body was of indifferent height, her head was long, with sharp
fiery eyes, her nose of an incredible and unproportionate length,
having many crooks and turnings, adorned with many strange
pimples of divers colours, as red, blue and dirt, which like vapours
of brimstone gave such a lustre to her affrighted spectators in the
dead time of the night, that one of them confessed several times
in my hearing that her nurse needed no other light to assist her
in her duties " Allowing for the absurdity of this account, it
certainly seems (if any reliance is to be placed on the so-called
authorities) that the child was phenomenally plain and deformed.
While still at school she became known as a prophetess. When
about twenty-four she married a builder of York, Tobias Shipton.
SHIRAZ SHIRE
989
Her most sensational prophecies had to do with Cardinal Wolsey,
the duke of Suffolk, Lord Percy and other men prominent at the
court of Henry VIII. There is a tradition that on one occasion
the abbot of Beverley, anxious to investigate the case for himself,
visited Mother Shipton's cottage disguised, and that no sooner
had he knocked than the old woman called out " Come in, Mr
Abbot, for you are not so much disguised but the fox may be
seen through the sheep's skin." She is said to have died at
Clifton, Yorkshire, in 1561, and was buried there or at Shipton.
Her whole history rests on the flimsiest authority, but her
alleged prophecies have had from the I7th century until quite
recently an extraordinary hold on the popular imagination.
In Stuart times all ranks of society believed in her, and
referring to her supposed foretelling of the Great Fire, Pepys
relates that when Prince Rupert heard, while sailing up the
Thames on the zoth of October 1666, of the outbreak of the
fire " all he said was, ' now Shipton's prophecy was out.' "
One of her prophecies was supposed to have menaced Yeovil,
Somerset, with an earthquake and flood in 1879, and so con-
vinced were the peasantry of the truth of her prognostications
that hundreds moved from their cottages on the eve of the
expected disaster, while spectators swarmed in from all quarters
of the county to see the town's destruction. The suggestion
that Mother Shipton had foretold the end of the world in 1881
was the cause of the most poignant alarm throughout rural
England in that year, the people deserting their houses, and
spending the night in prayer in the fields, churches and chapels.
This latter alleged prophecy was one of a series of forgeries to
which Charles Hindley, who reprinted in 1862 a garbled version
of Richard Head's Life, confessed in 1873.
See Richard Head, Life and Death of Mother Shipton (London,
1684); Life, Death and the whole of the Wonderful Prophecies of
Mother Shipton, the Northern Prophetess (Leeds, 1869); W. H.
Harrison, Mother Shipton investigated (London, 1881); Journ. of
Brit. Archaeo. Assoc. xix. 308. Mother Shipton's and Nixon's
Prophecies, with an introduction by S. Baker (London, 1797).
SHIRAZ, the capital of the province of Pars in Persia, situated
in a fertile plain, in 29 36' N., 52 32' E-, at an elevation of
5100 ft., 156 m. by road N.E. by E. from Bushire (112 m. direct).
According to Eastern authorities Shiraz was founded in A.D. 693
by Mahommed b. Yusuf Thakefi, a brother of the famous Hajjaj.
It is approached on the south from the Persian Gulf through lofty
and difficult mountain passes (highest 7400 ft.) and on the north
through chains of hills which separate the plain of Shiraz from
that of Mervdasht, where the ruins of Persepolis are. It is
surrounded by a low mud wall flanked by towers, and a dry
ditch, and measures about 4 m. in circumference. There are
six gates. The town is divided into eleven quarters (mahalleh),
one of which is exclusively inhabited by Jews and called Mahalleh
Yahudi. The population of Shiraz is estimated at 60,000, but
in 1884 it was 53,607, of which 1970 were Jews. The houses of
Shiraz are, in general, small, and the streets narrow. A great
bazaar, built by Kerim Khan Zend, forms an exception to this ;
it is about 500 yds. in length and has a vaulted roof 22 ft. high,
and contains many spacious shops well supplied with goods and
merchandise. There are many mosques, the most notable being
the old Jama, a foundation of the Saffarid ruler Amr b. Leith in
894, now in a state of ruin ; the new Jama, generally called Masjed
i Nau; the New Mosque, built by Atabeg S'ad b. Zengi, c. 1200 ;
and the Jama i Vakil, built by Kerim Khan Zend in 1766.
Shiraz still possesses the title " Dar ul ilm," the " Seat of Know-
ledge," and has many colleges (madresseh), the oldest being the
Mansurieh built in 1478 by Seyed Sadr ed din Mahommed
Dashteki; the Hashimiyeh and Nizamieh date from the middle
of the lyth century, the college called M. i Agha Baba was begun
by Kerim Khan Zend, c. 1760, but finished in 1823 by Agha
Baba Khan Mazanderani. Of the twenty caravanserais, or
more, which Shiraz has, the oldest is that called Car Chiragh Ali,
built in 1678. There are several shrines of Imam-zadehs, the
most venerated and rich being that of Seyed Amir Ahmed,
commonly known as Shah Chiragh, a son of Musa Kazim, the
seventh imam of the Shiites. It was built c. 1240 by Atabeg
Abu Bekr. Two of Shah Chiragh's brothers and a nephew also
have their graves at Shiraz. Within the town and in close
proximity to it are many pleasant gardens (bagh), among them
the B. Jehan Nema (Kerim Khan 1766), where C. J. Rich, British
resident at Bagdad and explorer of Babylon and Kurdistan,
died on the sth of October 1821, and the adjoining B. i Nau
(i8io);B.iTakht i Kajar (built 1087 by Atabeg Karajeh under
the Seijuk Malik Shah; restored 1794 by order of Agha Mahom-
med Khan, the first Kajar ruler); B. i Dilgusha (restored 1785),
&c. Close to the last-mentioned garden is the Sadiyeh, an
enclosure with the tomb of the celebrated poet S'adi, and in a
cemetery near the northern side of the town stands theHafiziyeh,
with the tomb of the likewise celebrated poet Hafiz, a sarcophagus
made of yellow Yezd marble with two of the poet's odes beauti-
fully chiselled in relief in a number of elegant panels upon its lid.
A fine view of the town and environs is obtained from the narrow
pass (tang), which leads into the Shiraz plain a mile or two north
of the city, and " so overwhelmed with astonishment at the
beauty of the panorama is the wayfarer expected to be, that even
the pass takes its name of Tang i Allahu Akbar, the Pass of God
is Most Great, from the expression that is supposed to leap to his
lips as he gazes upon the entrancing spectacle " (Curzon).
The most noted product of Shiraz is its wine made from the
famous grapes of the Khullar vineyards, 30 m. N.W. of Shiraz,
but only a very small quantity of it is exported, and .religious
scruples still prevent its manufacture on a large scale. The
climate of Shiraz is agreeable and healthy in the winter, but
unhealthy in the spring and summer. July is the hottest month
with a mean temperature of 85, February the coldest with 47.
The lowest temperature observed during a number of years
was 21, the highest 113, showing a difference of 92 between
extremes. The mean annual temperature is 65. Earthquakes
are of frequent occurrence; those in modern times which caused
great loss of life and destruction of property happened in 1824
and 1853. Shiraz is the residence of a British consul (since 1903)
and has post and 'telegraph offices. On a hill adjoining the
Dilgusha garden stand the ruins of an old castle known as
Kal'ah i Bender (a corruption of Fahn-dar), with two wells hewn
in the rock to a depth of several hundred feet. (A. H.-S.)
SHIR&, a river of East Central Africa, the only tributary of
the Zambezi navigable from the sea. The Shire (length about
370 m.) issues from the southernmost point of Lake Nyasa and
almost immediately enters a shallow sheet of water called
Malombe or (Pa-Malombe), 18 m. broad and 12 or 13 m. long.
A shifting bar of sand obstructs the end of Malombe nearest
Nyasa, but does not prevent navigation. Below Malombe the
bed of the Shire deepens. The river flows through a mountainous
country, and hi its descent to the Zambezi valley forms rapids
and cataracts, rendering its middle course for a distance of 60 m.
unnavigable. The most southern and the finest of these cataracts
is called the Murchison Cataract or Falls, after Sir Roderick
Murchison, the geologist, who identified himself during the mid-
Victorian epoch with geographical exploration in Africa. In
passing the cataracts the Shire falls 1200 ft. From the station
called Katunga, a short distance below the cataracts, shallow-
draught steamers can navigate the river when in flood (January-
March) to its junction with the Zambezi, and thence proceed to
the Chinde mouth of the main stream. About 130 m. above its
confluence with the Zambezi the Shire is joined from the east
by a smaller stream, the Ruo river, whose headwaters rise in
Mount Mlanje. At the junction of the Ruo and Shire is the town
of Chiromo, and here is an extensive swampy region and game
reserve known as the Elephant Marsh. The scenery of the
lower Shire is very picturesque, the spurs of the plateau forming
bold, rocky crags overhanging the water. The river is studded
with small islands usually covered by thick grass. A little
before the Zambezi is reached the country becomes flat. The
Shire joins the main river in about 35 25' E., 17 50' S., at a
point where the Zambezi is of great width and presents in the
dry season many narrow winding channels, not more than 3 ft.
deep, with intervening sandbanks.
The lower part of the Shire is in Portuguese territory; the
upper part is in the British Nyasaland Protectorate, to which it
99
is the natural highway. At the lowest point in British territory,
on the west bank of the river, is Port Herald, whence a railway
runs past Chiromo to Blantyre. Below Port Herald the Shire
is navigable all the year round.
See ZAMBEZI and BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA.
SHIRE, one of the larger administrative divisions, in Great
Britain, now generally synonymous with " county " (?..), but
the word is still used of smaller districts, such as Richmondshire
and Hallamshire in Yorkshire, Norhamshire and Hexhamshire
in Northumberland. The Anglo-Saxon shire (O. Eng. scir) was an
administrative division next above the hundred and was presided
over by the ealdorman and the sheriff (the shire-reeve). The
word scir, according to Skeat ( Etym. Diet. ,1910), meant originally
office, charge, administration; thus in a vocabulary of the 8th
century ( Wright- Wiilcker, Anglo-Saxon and Old English Vocabu-
laries, 1884, 40-32) is found procuratio, sciir. Skeat compares
O. Eng. scirian, to distribute, appoint, Ger. Schirrmeister, steward.
The usual derivation of the word connects it with " shear " and
" share," and makes the original meaning to have been a part
cut off.
SHIRLEY (or SHERLEY), SIR ANTHONY (1565-*:. 1635),
English traveller, was the second son of Sir Thomas Shirley
(1542-1612), of Wiston, Sussex, who was a member of parlia-
ment during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. and who was
heavily in debt when he died in October 1612. Shirley's im-
prisonment in 1603 was an important event as in consequence
thereof the House of Commons successfully asserted one of its
privileges freedom of its members from arrest. Educated at
Oxford Anthony Shirley gained some military experience with
the English troops in the Netherlands 'and also during an expedi-
tion to Normandy in 1591 under Robert Devereux, earl of Essex,
who was related to his wife, Frances Vernon; about this time
he was knighted by Henry of Navarre (Henry IV. of France),
a proceeding which brought upon him the displeasure of his own
sovereign and a short imprisonment. In 1596 he conducted a
predatory expedition along the western coast of Africa and then
across to Central America, but owing to a mutiny he returned
to London with a single ship in 1597. In 1598 he led a few
English volunteers to Italy to take part in a dispute over the
possession of Ferrara; this, however, had been accommodated
when he reached Venice, and he decided to journey to Persia
with the twofold object of promoting trade between England and
Persia and of stirring up the Persians against the Turks. He
obtained money at Constantinople and at Aleppo, and was very
well received by the shah, Abbas the Great, who made him a
mirza, or prince, and granted certain trading and other rights to
all Christian merchants. Then, as the shah's representative,
he returned to Europe and visited Moscow, Prague, Rome and
other cities, but the English government would not allow him to
return to his own country. For some time he was in prison in
Venice, and in 1605 he went to Prague and was sent by the
emperor Rudolph II. on a mission to Morocco; afterwards he
went to Lisbon and to Madrid, where he was welcomed very
warmly. The king of Spain appointed him the admiral of a fleet
which was to serve in the Levant, but the only result of his
extensive preparations was an unsuccessful expedition against the
island of Mitylene. After this he was deprived of his command.
Shirley, who was a count of the Holy Roman Empire, died at
Madrid some time after 1635.
Sir Anthony's elder brother, Sir Thomas Shirley (1564-^ 1620),
was knighted while serving in Ireland under Sir William Fitz-
william in 1 589. In 1601 he was chosen a member of parliament,
but his time was mainly passed in seeking to restore the shattered
fortunes of his family by piratical expeditions. In January 1603
he was captured by the Turks and he was only released from his
captivity at Constantinople in December 1605. One of his sons
was Henry Shirley (d. 1627 ) the dramatist, who was murdered in
London on the 3ist of October 1627, and one of his grandsons
was Thomas Shirley (1638-1678), the physician and writer.
Sir Anthony's younger brother, Sir Robert Shirley (c. 1581-
1628), went with his brother to Persia in 1598, remaining in that
country when the latter returned to Europe in 1599. Having
SHIRE SHIRLEY, J.
married a Circassian lady he stayed in Persia until 1608 when the
shah sent him on a diplomatic errand to James I. and to other
European princes; after visiting Cracow, Prague, Florence,
Rome and Madrid, he reached England in 1611 and had an
interview with the king. In 1613 he went again to Persia, but
in 1615 he returned to Europe and resided for some years in
Madrid. His third journey to Persia was undertaken in 1627,
but soon after reaching that country he died at Kazvin on the
I3th of July 1628.
Sir Anthony Shirley wrote: Sir Anthony Sherley; his Relation of
his Travels into Persia (1613), the original manuscript of which is in
the Bodleian Library at Oxford. There are in existence five or more
accounts of Shirley s adventures in Persia, and the account of his
expedition in 1596 is published in R. Hakluyt's Voyages and Dis-
coveries (1809-1812). See also The Three Brothers; Travels and
Adventures of Sir Anthony, Sir Robert and Sir Thomas Sherley in
Persia, Russia, Turkey and Spain (London, 1825) ; E. P. Shirley,
The Sherley Brothers (1848), and the same writer's Stemmata Shirleiano
(1841, again 1873).
SHIRLEY (or SHERLEY), JAMES (1596-1666), English
dramatist, was born in London in September 1 596. He belonged
to the great period of English dramatic literature, but, in Lamb's
words, he " claims a place among the worthies of this period,
not so much for any transcendent genius in himself, as that he
was the last of a great race, all of whom spoke nearly the same
language and had a set of moral feelings and notions in common."
His career of play writing extended from 1625 to the suppression
of stage plays by parliament in 1642. He was educated at
Merchant Taylors' school, St John's College, Oxford, and
Catherine Hall, Cambridge, where he took his B.A. degree in or
before 1618. His first poem, Echo, or the Unfortunate Lovers
(of which no copy is known, but which is probably the same as
Narcissus of 1646), was published in 1618. After proceeding
to M.A. he was, Wood says, " a minister of God's word in or near
St Albans." In consequence apparently of his conversion to the
Roman Catholic faith he left his living, and was master of St
Albans grammar school from 1623-1625. His first play, Love
Tricks, seems to have been written while he was teaching at St
Albans. He removed in 1625 to London, where he lived in Gray's
Inn, and for eighteen years from that time he was a prolific
writer for the stage, producing more than thirty regular plays,
tragedies and comedies, and showing no sign of exhaustion when
a stop was put to his occupation by the Puritan edict of 1642.
Shirley's sympathies were with the king in his disputes with
parliament and he received marks of special favour from the
queen. He made a bitter attack on Prynne, who had attacked
the stage in Histriomastix; and, when in 1634 a special masque
was presented at Whitehall by the gentlemen of the Inns of Court
as a practical reply to Prynne, Shirley supplied the text The
Triumph of Peace. Between 1636 and 1640 Shirley went to
Ireland, under the patronage apparently of the earl of Kildare.
Three or four of his plays were produced by his friend John
Ogilby in Dublin in the theatre in Werburgh Street, the first
ever built in Ireland and at the time of Shirley's visit only one
year old. On the outbreak of war he seems to have served with
the earl of Newcastle, but when the king's fortunes began to
decline he returned to London. He owed something to the
kindness of Thomas Stanley, but supported himself chiefly by
teaching, publishing some educational works under the Common-
wealth. Besides these he published during the period of dramatic
eclipse four small volumes of poems and plays, in 1646, 1653,
1655 and 1659. He " was a drudge " for Ogilby in his translations
of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and survived into the reign of
Charles II., but, though some of his comedies were revived, he
did not again attempt to write for the stage. Wood says that he
and his second wife died of fright and exposure after the great
fire, and were buried at St Giles's-in-thc-Fields on the agth of
October 1666.
Shirley was born to great dramatic wealth, and he handled
it freely. He constructed his own plots out of the abundance of
materials that had been accumulated during thirty years of
unexampled dramatic activity. He did not strain after novelty
of situation or character, but worked with confident ease and
buoyant copiousness on the familiar lines, contriving situations
SHIRLEY, W. SHOCK
991
and exhibiting characters after types whose effectiveness on the
stage had been proved by ample experience. He spoke the same
language with the great dramatists, it is true, but this grand style
is sometimes employed for the artificial elevation of commonplace
thought. " Clear as day " becomes in this manner " day is not
more conspicuous than this cunning"; while the proverb " Still
waters run deep " is ennobled into
" The shallow rivers glide away with noise
The deep are silent."
The violence and exaggeration of many of his contemporaries
left him untouched. His scenes are ingeniously conceived, his
characters boldly and clearly drawn; and he never falls beneath a
high level of stage effect.
Shirley's tragedies are: The Maides Revenge (acted, 1626 ; printed,
1639); The Traytor (licensed, 1631; printed, 1635), which Dyce
reckoned as Shirley's best tragedy; Love's Crueltie (1631 ; printed,
1640); The Duke's Mistris (acted, 1636; printed, 1638); The
Polititian (acted, 1639; printed, 1655) ; The Cardinal (acted, 1641 ;
printed, 1652), a good example of Shirley's later style, and char-
acterized by Edmund Gosse as perhaps the last great play produced
by the giants of the Elizabethan age. His comedies are: Love
Tricks, or the School of Complement (licensed, 1625; printed under
the latter title, 1631); The Wedding (licensed, 1626; printed, 1629) ;
The Brothers (acted, 1626; printed, 1652); The Wittie Faire One
(acted, 1628; printed, 1633); The Gratefull Servant (licensed in
1629 as The Faithful Seroant; printed, 1630); Changes: Or Love
in a Maze (acted and printed, 1632); Hide Parke (acted, 1632;
printed, 1637); The Ball (acted, 1632; printed, 1639); The Bird
in a Cage (acted and printed, 1633), ironically dedicated to William
Prynne; The Young Admirall (licensed, 1633; printed, 1637);
The Gamester (played at court, 1634; printed, 1637), executed at
the command of Charles I. who is said to have invented or proposed
the plot; The Example (acted, 1634; printed, 1637); The Oppor-
tunity (licensed, 1634; printed, 1640); The Coronation (licensed,
1635, as his, but printed, 1640, as by Fletcher); The Lady of
Pleasure (licensed, 1635; printed, 1637); The Constant Maid, or
Love will find out the Way, printed in 1640 under the former title
with 5/ Patrick for Ireland; The Royall Master (acted and printed,
'638), an excellent comedy of intrigue, with an epilogue addressed
to Strafford ; The Doubtfull Heir (printed, 1652), licensed as Rosania,
or Love's Victory in 1640; The Gentleman of Venice (licensed, 1639;
printed, 1655); The Imposture (acted, 1640; printed, 1652); The
Sisters (licensed, 1642; printed, 1653); The Humorous Courtier
(perhaps identical with The Duke, licensed, 1631), printed, 1640;
The Court Secret (printed, 1653). Poems (1646), by James Shirley,
contained " Narcissus," and a masque dealing with the Judgment
of Paris, entitled The Triumph of Beautie. A Contention for Honour
and Riches (1633) appeared in an altered and enlarged form in 1659
as Honoria and Mammon. In 1653 a selection of his pieces was
published as Six New Playes. He wrote the magnificent entertain-
ment presented by the members of the Inns of Court to the king
and queen in 1633, entitled The Triumph of Peace, the scenery being
devised by Inigo Jones and the music by W. Lawes and Simon
Ives. In this kind of composition he had no rival but Ben Jonson.
His Contention of Ajax and Ulysses (printed, 1659) closes with the
well-known lyric, " The Glories of our Blood and State."
The standard edition of Shirley's works is The Dramatic Works
and Poems of James Shirley, with Notes by William Gifford, and
Additional Notes, and some Account of Shirley and his Writings, by
Alexander Dyce (6 vols., 1833). A selection of his plays was edited
(1888) for the " Mermaid " series, with an introduction bv Edmund
Gosse.
SHIRLEY, WILLIAM (1694-1771), colonial governor of
Massachusetts, was born at Preston in Sussex, England, on the
2nd of December 1694. He studied law, entered the Middle
Temple, emigrated to Massachusetts in 1731, was appointed
" the King's only advocate-general in America " (i.e. of all New
England except Connecticut) in 1734, and in 1741, while repre-
senting Massachusetts in a boundary dispute with Rhode Island,
was appointed governor. His efforts to secure a permanent
fixed salary for himself (of 1000) were unsuccessful; and his
attempt to prevent the further issue of paper money also involved
him in a controversy with the General Court; but their relations
were not unfriendly after 1743. The most important event of
his administration was the conquest of Louisburg in 1745. The
expedition was undertaken on his suggestion and its success was
largely due to his energy and enthusiasm; in September 1749
183,650 (English) in coin was brought to Boston to cover the
outlay of Massachusetts, and largely through Shirley's influence
this was used for the redemption of outstanding paper money,
thus re-establishing the finances of the province, a subject to
which Shirley had given much attention. Both in the colonies
and in England, whither he returned in 1749 on leave of absence,
Shirley kept up an active agitation for the expulsion of the
French from the whole of Canada. He went back to Massa-
chusetts as governor in 1753; led an unsuccessful expedition
against Fort Niagara in 1755, and alter the death of General
Edward Braddock (1755) until June 1756 was commander-in-
chief of all the British forces in America. In September 1756
he was recalled to England and was succeeded as governor by
Spencer Phips. He was governor of the Bahamas until 1770,
then again returned to Massachusetts and died at Roxbury
on the 24th of March 1771. He published a Journal of the Siege
of Louisbourg (1745), and The Conduct of General William Shirley
Briefly Stated (1758).
SHIRREFF, EMILY ANNE ELIZA (1814-1897), English
pioneer in the higher education for women, was born on the 3rd
of November 1814, the daughter of a rear-admiral. Both she and
her sister Maria (Mrs William Grey) took a keen interest in
bettering women's equipment for educational work, and, in 1858,
she published Intellectual Education and its Influence on the
Character and Happiness of Women. Before that the sisters had
written in collaboration a novel, Passion and Principle (1841),
marked with that serious sense of the deficiencies in women's
education, to remedy which they did so much, and Thoughts
on Self-Culture addressed to Women (1850). In 1869 Emily
Shirreff was for a short time honorary mistress of Girton
College, and she served for many years on the council of that
institution and of the Girls' Public Day School Company. She
took a leading part in establishing and developing the Maria Grey
Training College for teachers and in the work of the Froebel
Society, of which she was the president. She was a firm believer
in Froebel's system and wrote a short memoir of him, and
several books on kindergarten methods. She died in London
on the 2oth of March 1897.
SHIRT, an undergarment of linen, silk, cotton and flannel for
the upper part of the body, usually only applied to such a
garment when worn by men, though the term is becoming
common as used of a plain form of blouse worn by women, the
American " shirt-waist." The word is apparently Scandinavian
in origin and is an adaptation of the Icel. skyrle, Dan. skiorte,
properly a short garment, and is derived from the root skar to
cut off; it is cognate with Ger. Schurz, apron, and the same root
is seen in " short," " shear " and " skirt "; the last word is now
used of that part of a woman's garment which reaches from the
waist to the feet, but properly means the lower part of the shirt,
hence, edge, border of anything.
SHIRVAN, a small district of the great province of Khorasan
in Persia, N.W. of Meshed and W. of Kuchan. It is under the
jurisdiction of Kuchan and comprises the town of the same name
and twelve villages with a population of 12,000. It produces
cotton, wheat and a little silk. SHIRVAN, the capital, is
situated on the river Atrek, in 37 24' N., 57 56' E. at an
elevation of 3500 ft. Its inhabitants are of the Turkish Garai'i
tribe and number about 7000. There are post and telegraph
offices.
SHOA, the southern of the three principal provinces of the
Abyssinian empire. Shoa from about the middle of the loth
century till nearly the close of the i3th century was the residence
of the Abyssinian sovereigns, who had been driven out of Axum,
their former capital. About 1528 Shoa was conquered by
Mahommedan invaders and was for over a century afterwards
a prey to Galla raiders. In 1682 it was reconquered by an
Abyssinian chief, but remained independent of northern Abys-
sinia until 1855 when the emperor Theodore reduced it to sub-
mission. In 1889 Menelek II., king of Shoa, on the death of the
emperor John, made himself master of the whole of Abyssinia.
The capital, Adis Ababa (<?..), is the seat of government for the
whole empire (see ABYSSINIA).
SHOCK, or COLLAPSE, in surgery, the enfeebled condition of
body which comes on after a severe physical injury, such as a
blow upon the head or a kick in the abdomen, or as the result
of grievous mental disturbance, as on seeing a ghastly sight or
992
SHODDY SHOE
hearing sad news. It is the condition which the prize-fighter
desires to inflict upon his adversary by giving what is called the
" knock-out blow " upon the point of the jaw, over the heart or
in the lower part of the chest.
In severe shock the individual falls " all of a heap," as the
saying is, which is exactly expressed by the word " collapse "
(collapse, collabor, fall in ruins). The explanation of the con-
dition is that the heart is suddenly deprived of its power to pump
blood up to the brain which, like the face itself, is left anaemic
and has no power to send out control to the muscles. The blood
at once sinks into, and remains stagnant in, the large veins of
the abdomen. And inasmuch as the condition of collapse is due
to anaemia of the brain, it is met with in those cases in which a
sudden and serious loss of blood has been sustained, as in the
" flooding " of child-bed, the giving way of an aneurism, or the
opening of some large blood-vessel. It may also supervene on
the rupture of a gastric ulcer, and is then the result of the injury
to which the network of nerves in the interior of the abdomen has
been subjected by the sudden escape on to them of the contents
of the stomach.
In severe shock the patient is pale, and bathed in clammy
perspiration; his sensibility is blunted; his pulse is small and
weak, sometimes, indeed, it is imperceptible, and even on laying
the hand over the heart no cardiac impulse may be felt. The
person is unable to make any exertion, but lies indifferent to
external circumstances, and can be roused only with difficulty
or not at all. He complains of a feeling of cold, and he may have
a distinct shivering. These symptoms may continue for some
hours. The first evidence of improvement is that he shifts his
position, becomes restless and complains of the injury. Perhaps
he vomits. The pulse becomes stronger, and he then passes from
the state of shock into that of reaction. If the improvement
continues, recovery takes place; but if it is only transient, he
sinks back again into a drowsy condition, which may end in
death, for it must be clearly understood that shock may end
fatally. Sometimes there is no rallying, death following the
injury immediately. In cases where there is no reaction, the
patient gradually becomes weaker, and his pulse feebler, till
death ensues. Shock is due to an impression conveyed to the
medulla oblongata, by which the nerve-centres are so affected
that a partial paralysis of the voluntary and involuntary muscular
fibres in the body takes place, the patient being, perhaps, unable
to lift his arm or move his leg. The respiratory functions are
performed wearily, and the muscle of the heart contracts feebly.
The walls of the blood-vessels lose their tonicity and the vessels
dilate, the blood collecting in the large venous trunks, more
especially of the abdomen. The vessels of the skin being emptied
of blood, marked pallor ensues. The heart beats feebly because
its nervous energy is loweied, and because it has not a sufficient
quantity of blood upon which to act. An understanding of these
facts gives the general indications for treatment, which comprise
external stimulation over the heart by mustard poultices or
turpentine stupes; elevation of the limbs to cause the blood to
gravitate towards the heart, and so to the brain; manual
pressure on the abdominal cavity from below upwards to
encourage the flow of blood from the overloaded abdominal
veins into the heart. In urgent cases an injection may be given
into the veins of warm water in which table salt (60 grains to a
pint) is dissolved. These different measures may be supple-
mented by the administration of stimulants by the mouth, or,
if the patient cannot swallow, by subcutaneous injection of
brandy, ether or a solution of strychnine. In all probability
many men have been left for dead upon the field of battle who
were only in a state of extreme collapse; in the future many such
cases will be saved by the prompt injection of ether over the
region of the heart.
In syncope from mental emotion the weakened heart cannot
drive a sufficient quantity of blood to the brain; the patient
feels dizzy and faint, and falls down insensible. The condition
is transitory and the recumbent posture, assisted if need be by
elevation of the limbs, causes the blood to gravitate to the heart,
which is thereby stimulated to contract. A sufficient quantity
of blood is then driven to the brain, and the insensibility passes
off. If the patient is in the sitting posture when he feels faint,
the head should be) depressed between the knees, which will
cause the blood to flow to the brain, and the faintness will pass
off. Otherwise he should be laid flat on his back, his head being
kept low. When a collapsed person is put to bed, no pillow should
be allowed, and the foot of the bed should be raised above the
level of the head. (E. O.*)
SHODDY, in origin probably a factory term and first applied
to the waste thrown off or " shed " during the process of wool
manufacture. It is now the name given to a special type of
fabric made from remanufactured materials, i.e. materials which
have already been spun into yarn and woven into cloth but have
been torn up or " ground up " as this operation is termed
technically into a fibrous mass, and respun and rewoven.
The term " shoddy " is sometimes applied to all fabrics made
of such remanufactured materials, of which there are many types,
such as " mungos," " extracts," " flocks," &c., but strictly it
should be confined to a cloth produced from fabrics originally
made from English and the longer cross-bred wools. Mungo is
produced from fabrics originally made from Botany and short
fine wools; extract is the wool fibre obtained from goods origin-
ally composed of wool and cotton from which the cotton has
been " extracted " by sulphuric acid or some other agent;
and flocks mostly come from milling, raising and cropping
machines. There are some few other particular types of minor
importance.
The operations of converting rags, tailors' clippings, &c.,
into these remanufactured materials are as follows: dusting,
to render the subsequent operations as healthy and agreeable as
possible; seaming i.e. taking out every little bit of sewing
thread (unless the rags are for extracting) in order that a good
" spin " may result; sorting into the various qualities and
colours; oiling, to cause the fibres to glide upon one another,
and thus separate so far as possible without breakage; and
finally grinding, i.e. tearing up into a fibrous mass which may be
readily spun into threads. The last-named operation is usually
spoken of as " grinding, " but really it is anything but grinding,
being more of a teasing-out operation, the object being to
preserve the length of the fibre so far as possible. The remanu-
factured materials are necessarily very short in fibre, so that it
is usually necessary to mix, i.e. " blend," some better material
with them to carry the bulk through the machines into the yarn.
With this object in view, sometimes good wool or noils (the short
from combing), but more often cotton, is employed. The yarns
thus spun are in the majority of cases woven into pieces as weft
yarns, the warps usually being cotton; but there are some
exceptions, a really good mungo blend being readily woven as
warp.
Upon the whole the " cheap and nasty " idea usually associated
with the term " shoddy," in reference to these remanufactured
materials, is quite a mistake. Some most excellent cloths are
produced, and when price is taken into consideration it must
be conceded that the development of this industry has benefited
the working classes of Great Britain and other countries to a
remarkable extent. Many are now well clothed, who, without
the advent of the remanufactured materials, would have been
clothed in rags.
SHOE (a word appearing in the Teutonic languages in various
forms, as Ger. Schuh, Swed. and Dan. sko, sometimes supposed
to come from an unknown root ska or sku, cover), a covering
for the foot. The simplest foot-protector is the sandal, which
consists of a sole attached to the foot, usually by leather thongs.
The use of this can be traced back to a very early period; and
the sandal of plaited grass, palm fronds, leather or other material
still continues to be the most common foot-covering among
oriental races. Where climate demanded greater protection
for the foot, the primitive races shaped a rude shoe out of a
single piece of untanned hide; this was laced with a thong,
and so made a complete covering. Out of these two elements
sole without upper and upper without sole arose the perfected
shoe and boot, consisting of a combination of both. The boot
SHOE
993
proper differs from the shoe in reaching up to the knee, as exem-
plified by such forms as jack-boots, top-boots, Hessian boots
and Wellington boots, but the term is in England now commonly
applied to " half-boots " or " ankle-boots " which reach only
above the ankle. A collection illustrating the numerous forms
and varieties of foot-covering, formed by Jules Jacquemart,
is in the Cluny Museum in Paris.
Wooden Shoes. The simplest foot-covering, largely used through-
out Europe, is the wooden shoe (sabot) made from a single piece of
wood roughly cut into shoe form. Analogous to this is the clog of
the midland counties of England. Clogs, known also as pattens,
are wooden soles to which shoe or boot uppers are attached. Sole
and heel are made of one piece from a block of maple or ash 2 in.
thick, and a little longer and broader than the desired size of shoe.
The outer side of the sole and heel is fashioned with a long chisel-
edged implement, called the dogger's knife or stock; a second
implement, called the groover, makes a groove about one-eighth of
an inch deep and wide round the side of the sole; and by means of
a hollower the contour of the inner face of the sole is adapted to the
shape of the foot. The uppers of heavy leather, machine sewed or
riveted, are fitted closely to the groove around the sole, and a thin
piece of leather-binding is nailed on all round the edges, the nails
being placed very close, so as to give a firm durable fastening. These
clogs are of great advantage to all who work in damp sloppy places,
keeping the feet dry and comfortable in a manner impossible with
either leather or india-rubber. They are consequently largely used
on the continent of Europe by agricultural and forest labourers,
and in England and the United States by dyers, bleachers, tanners,
workers in sugar-factories, chemical works, provision packing ware-
houses, &c. There is also a considerable demand for expensive
clogs, with finely trimmed soles and fancy uppers, for use by clog-
dancers on the stage.
Manufacture of Leather Shoes. There are two main divisions of
work comprised in ordinary shoemaking. The minor division
the making of " turn shoes " embraces all work in which there is
only one thin flexible sole, which is sewed to the upper while outside
in and turned over when completed. Slippers and ladies' thin
house boots are examples of this class of work. In the other division
the upper is united to an insole and at least one outsole, with a
raised heel. In this are comprised all classes, shapes and qualities
of goods, from shoes up to long-top or riding boots which reach to
the knee, with all their variations of lacing, buttoning, elastic-web
side gussets, &c. The accompanying
cuts (figs. I and 2) show the parts and
trade names of a boot.
Shoemaking was formerly a pure
handicraft ; but now machinery effects
almost every operation in the art. On
the factory system all human feet are
treated alike; in the handicraft, the
shoemaker deals with the individual
foot, and he should produce a boot
which for fit, comfort, flexibility and
strength cannot be approached by the
product of machinery.
The shoemaker after measuring the
feet, cuts out upper leather according
to the size and pattern. These parts
are fitted and stitched together by the
" boot-closers," but little of this clos-
ing is now done by hand. The sole
" stuff " is next cut out and assembled,
consisting of a pair of inner soles of
soft leather, a pair of outer soles of
firmer texture, a pair of welts or bands
about I in. broad, of flexible leather,
and lifts and top-pieces for the heels.
These the " maker "mellows by steep-
ing in water. He attaches the insoles
to the bottom of a pair of wooden
lasts, which are blocks the form and
size of the boots to be made, fastens
the leather down with lasting tacks,
The quarter or counter, and, when it is dried, draws it out
The rand. with pincers till it takes the exact
The heel the front is form of the last bottom. Then he
the breast, the bottom "rounds the soles," by paring down
the face. the edges close to the last, and forms
The lifts of the heel. round these edges a small channel or
feather cut about one-eighth of an inch
in the leather. Next he pierces the in-
soles all round with a bent awl, which
bites into, but not through, the leather,
and comes out at the channel or feather. The boots are then
" lasted," by placing the uppers on the lasts, drawing their
edges tightly round the edge of the insoles, and fastening
them in position with lasting tacks. Lasting is a crucial opera-
tion, for, unless the upper is drawn smoothly and equally over
XXIV. 32
FIG. i. Parts of a Boot.
aa, The extension.
a, The front.
b, The side seam.
c. The back.
d. The strap.
The instep.
/, The vamp or front.
The shank or waist.
/, The welt.
m. The sole.
the last, leaving neither crease nor wrinkle, the form of the boot
will be bad. The welt, having one edge pared or chamfered, is
put in position round the sides, up to the heel or " seat," and the
maker proceeds to " inseam," by passing his awl through the
holes already made in the insole, catching with it the edge of the
upper and the thin edge of the welt, and sewing all three together
in one flat seam, with a waxed thread. He then pares off inequalities
and " levels the bottoms," by filling up the depressed part in the
centre with a piece of tarred felt; and, that done, the boots are
ready for the outsoles. After the leather for them has been tho-
roughly compressed by hammering on the " lap-stone," they are
fastened through the insole with steel tacks, their sides are pared,
and a narrow channel is cut round their edges; and through this
channel they are stitched to the welt, about twelve stitches of strong
waxed thread being made to the inch.
The soles are now hammered into
shape; the heel lifts are put on and
attached with wooden pegs, then sewed (
through the stitches of the insole;'
and the top-pieces, similar to the out-
soles, are put on and nailed down to
the lifts. The finishing operations
embrace pinning up the edge of the
heel, paring, rasping, scraping, smooth-
ing, blacking and burnishing the edges
of soles and heels, scraping, sand-
papering and burnishing the soles,
withdrawing the lasts, and cleaning
out any pegs which may have pierced
through the inner sole. Of course,
there are numerous minor operations
connected with forwarding and finish-
ing in various materials, such
FIG. 2. Section of Boot.
a,
b,
c,
d,
e,
f,
the
the
The upper.
The insole.
The outsole.
The welt.
The stitching of
sole to the welt.
The stitching of
upper to the welt,
various materials, such as
punching lace-holes, inserting eyelets, applying heel and toe irons,
hob-nailing, &c. To make a pair of common stout lacing boots
occupies an expert workman from fourteen to eighteen hours.
The principal difficulties to be overcome in applying machinery to
shoemaking were encountered in the operation of fastening together
the soles and uppers. The first success in this important operation
was effected when means other than sewing were devised. In 1809
David Meade Randolph obtained a patent for fastening the soles
and heels to the inner soles by means of little nails, brads, sprigs or
tacks. The lasts he used were covered at the bottom with plates
of metal, and the nails, when driven through the inner soles, were
turned and clinched by coming against the metal plates. To fix the
soles to the lasts during the operation the metal plates were each
perforated with three holes, in which wooden plugs were inserted,
and to these the insoles were nailed. This invention may be said
to have laid the foundation of machine boot-making. In 1810
M. I. Brunei patented a range of machinery for fastening soles
to uppers by means of metallic pins or nails, and the use of screws
and staples was patented by Richard Woodman in the same
year.
Apart from sewing by machine or hand, three principal methods
of attaching soles to uppers have been used. The first is " pegging "
with small wooden pins or pegs driven through outsole and insole,
catching between them the edges of the upper. The points of the
pegs which project through the insole are cut away and smoothed
level with the leather either by hand or by a machine pegging rasp.
The second is the system of " riveting or clinching " with iron or
brass nails, the points of the nails being turned or clinched by
coming in contact with the iron last used. The third method,
screwing, has come into extensive use since the standard screwing
machine was introduced in America by the McKay Sewing-Machine
Association, of Boston, Massachusetts, and in Europe by the Blake
and Goodyear Company, of London. The standard screw machine,
which is an American invention, though the idea was anticipated by
a Frenchman named Blanchon in 1856, is provided with a reel of
stout screw-threaded brass wire, which by the revolution of the reel
is inserted into and screwed through outsole, upper edge and insole.
Within the upper a head presses against the insole directly opposite
the point of the screw, and the instant screw and head touch the
wire is cut level with the outsole. The screw, making its own hole,
fits tightly in the leather, and the two soles, being both compressed
and screwed firmly together, make a perfectly water-tight and solid
shoe. The surface of the insole is quite level and even, and as the
work is really screwed, the screws are steady in their position, and
they add materially to the durability of the soles ; The principal
disadvantage in the use of standard screwed soles is the great diffi-
culty met with in removing and levelling down the remains of an old
sole when repairs are necessary.
The various forms of sewing-machine by which uppers are closed,
and their important modifications for uniting soles and uppers, are
also principally of American origin. But the first suggestion of
machine sewing was an English idea. The patent secured by
Thomas Saint in the English Patent Office in 1790, while it fore-
shadowed the most important features of the modern sewing-
machine, indicated more particularly the devices now adopted m
the sewing of leather. After the introduction of the sewing-machine
for cloth work its adaptation to stitching leather both with plain
994
SHOE-BILL
thread and with heated waxed thread was a comparatively simple
task. The first important step in the more difficult problem of
sewing together soles and uppers by a machine was taken in the
United States by Lyman R. Blake in 1858. Blake's machine was
ultimately perfected as the McKay sole-sewing machine one of the
most successful and lucrative inventions of modern times. Blake
secured his first English patent in 1859, his invention being thus
described: "This machine is a chain-stitch sewing-machine. The
hooked needle works through a rest or supporting surface of the
upper part of a long curved arm which projects upwards from the
table of the machine. This arm should have such a form as to be
capable of entering a shoe so as to carry the rest into the toe part
as well as any other part of the interior of it; it carries at its front
end and directly under the rest a looper, which is supported within
the end of the arm so as to be capable of rotating or partially rotating
round the needle, while the said needle may extend into and through
the eye of the looper, such eye being placed in the path of the needle.
The thread is led from a bobbin by suitable guides along in the
curved arm, thence through a tension spring applied to the arm,
and thence upwards through the notch of the looper. The needle
carrier extends upwards with a cylindrical block which can be
turned round concentrically with it by means of a handle. The
feed wheel by which the shoe is moved along the curved arm during
the process of sewing is supported by a slider extending downwards
from the block, and applied thereto so as to be capable of sliding up
and down therein. The shoe is placed on the arm with the sole
upwards. The feed wheel is made to rest on the sole." Blake's
original machine was very imperfect and was incapable of sewing
round the toe of a shoe; hut a principal interest in it coming into
the hands of Gordon McKay (1821-1903), he in conjunction with
Blake effected most important improvements in the mechanism,
and they jointly in 1860 procured United States patents which
secured to them the monopoly of wholly machine-made boots and
shoes for twenty-one years. On the outbreak of the Civil War in
America a great demand arose for boots, and, there being simul-
taneously much labour withdrawn from the market, a profitable
field was opened for the use of the machine, which was now capable
of sewing a sole right round. Machines were leased out to manu-
facturers by the McKay Company at a royalty of from J to 3 cents
on every pair of soles sewed, the machines themselves registering
the work done. The income of the association from royalties in
the United States alone increased from $38,746 in 1863 to $589,973
in 1873, and continued to rise till the main patents expired in 1881,
when there were in use in the United States about 1800 Blake-
McKay machines sewing 50,000,000 pairs of boots and shoes yearly.
The monopoly secured by the McKay Company barred for the
time the progress of invention, but still many other sole-sewing
machines were patented. Among the most important of these is
the Goodyear welt machine the first mechanism adapted for sewing
soles on lasted boots and shoes. This machine originated in a
patent obtained in 1862 in the United States by August Destory for
a curved-needle machine for sewing outsoles to welts, but was not
successful till taken in hand by Charles Goodyear, son of the well-
known inventor in indiarubber fabrics. This device was first applied
in a machine for sewing turn shoes. Later it was used in a machine
which sewed with a chain-stitch from the channel of the insole
through the welt and upper, and a little later still it was followed
by the " rapid outsole lock-stitch machine," which united the
outsple to the welt with lock-stitching. Improvements have been
continually effected in the Goodyear system and numerous accessory
mechanisms have been brought out, until there is now not a single
operation necessary in shoemaking, however insignificant, for which
machinery has not been devised. In consequence the range of
machines employed in a modern shoe factory is very extensive,
the various operations being highly specialized, and there being
minute subdivision of labour. Through the fundamental principles
were not in all cases of American origin, American inventors were
foremost in developing such machinery, and America took the lead
in employing it to the supersession of handwork in shoemaking.
When English makers, in about the seventh or eighth decade of
the igth century, were forced by the pressure of economic necessity
to do the same, they found that the suitable machinery was con-
trolled by American makers, from whom therefore they had to
hire it on the payment of royalties and under stringent conditions
which rendered it difficult for them to use machines of any other
maker, even if available, on pain of the whole plant being stripped
from their factories. The British United Shoe Machinery Company,
the English branch of the United Shoe Machinery Company, of
Boston, Mass., thus maintained a practical monopoly of the supply
of shoemaking machinery in Great Britain. However, by the begin-
ning of the zoth century English makers began to assert them-
selves and to show that they could produce machines able to com-
pete effectively with those from America. The loosening of the
American monopoly thus begun was aided by the Patent Act of
1907, section 27 of which provided that a patent may be revoked if
the article is not manufactured " to an adequate extent " in Great
Britain (most of the shoe machinery in question having been manu-
factured in America), while section 38 prohibits the insertion in a
lease of conditions excluding the lessee from using articles or processes
not supplied or owned by the lessor.
Rubber Shoes. The manufacture of indiarubber galoshes, 1 shoes,
fishing boots, &c., forms an important branch of the indiarubber
industry, especially in America, where rubber overshoes, colloquially
known as " rubbers," are extensively worn, and where fully 1000
different shapes and sizes are said to be produced. So far back as
1833 the Roxbury India Rubber Company was constituted to work
the discovery that indiarubber dissolved in turpentine and mixed
with lampblack formed a varnish which gave a hard waterproof
surface when applied to leather, but the process failed because the
varnish melted with heat and cracked with cold. This defect was
remedied by Charles Goodyear (1800-1860), who found that when
sulphur was combined with the rubber by the aid of heat the product
(" vulcanized rubber ") was not only stronger but retained its
elasticity through a wide range of temperature. His patent, taken
out in 1844, was the foundation of various American rubber indus-
tries including that of rubber boots and shoes. Guttapercha has
also been used instead of leather for the outer soles of boots.
SHOE-BILL, a huge African bird from the White Nile, the
Balaeniceps rex of ornithology, now regarded as a giant heron.
It was first brought to Europe by M. Parkyns and described by
J. Gould in the Zoological Proceedings (1851, pp. i, 2, pi. xxxv.)
After J. Wolf in Tram. tool. Sac.
Shoe-Bill or Whale-headed Heron.
as an abnormal pelican. This view was disputed by Reinhardt
(pp. cil. 1860, p. 377), and wholly dispelled by W. K. Parker in
the Zoological Transactions (iv. pp. 269-351), though these two
authors disagreed as to its affinities, the first placing it with the
storks, the last assigning it to the herons. In singularity of
aspect few birds surpass Balaeniceps, with its gaunt grey figure,
some 5 ft. in height, its large head surmounted by a little curled
tuft, the scowling expression of its eyes and its huge bill in form
1 The galosh or golosh was originally a wooden shoe or clog, but
later came to mean an overshoe (cf. R. Holme, Armoury, 1688:
" Galloshios are false shooes, or covers for shooes "). The word is
adapted from the French galoche, from Low Lat. galopedium, a
wooden shoe, Gr. na\oir6&iov, shoemaker's last, from xaXoi>, wood,
and TroDt, foot.
SHOEBURYNESS SHOOTING
995
not unlike a whale's head this last suggesting its generic name
but tipped with a formidable hook. The shape of the bill has
also prompted the Arabs to call it, according to their idiom, the
" father of a shoe. " It forms large flocks and frequents dense
swamps. The flight is heron-like, and the birds settle on trees.
The food consists of any small animals or carrion. The nest is
a hole in dry ground, roughly limed with herbage, and from
two to twelve chalky white eggs are laid. (A. N.)
SHOEBURYNESS, a promontory on the coast of Essex,
England, the point at which the coast-line trends north-eastward
from the estuary of the Thames. It gives name to a school of
gunnery, where officers are instructed and experiments carried
out. The railway station (39 m. E. from London, the terminus
of the London, Tilbury and Southend railway) bears the same
name, but the parish is South Shoebury; North Shoebury is
a parish situated nearer to Southend-on-Sea. The church of St
Andrew retains some ornate Norman work, but is mainly a
Perpendicular reconstruction. On the seaward side of the Ness
there is a large ancient earthwork which is attributed to the
Norsemen through a reference in the Saxon Chronicle (894)
under the name Sceobrig. The parish is in the S.E. parliamentary
division of the country. Pop. (1901) 4081.
SHOFAR, SCHOFAR or SHOFER, the ancient ram's horn trumpet
of the Hebrews, sometimes also translated cornet in the English
Bible. The shofar consisted of a natural horn turned up at the
bell end, and, having a short conical bore of very large calibre,
it would be capable of producing at most the fundamental
octave and twelfth. The shofar has continued in use in the
Jewish synagogue until the present day, being blown with great
solemnity once every year at the impressive service held on the
Day of Atonement. The shofar was more generally used by the
Israelites than the other horn Keren, and although figuring
largely as a signal instrument in battle, and used for rousing the
people against the foe, it can hardly be regarded as a military
instrument, but rather as the token of God's presence in their
midst, to give them the victory as in the case of Joshua and
Gideon. It was the shofar that was used to call the people
together on a solemn feast day (Ps. Ixxxi. 3). (K. S.)
SHOGUN (Japanese for " generalissimo "), in Japan, originally
merely the style of a general in command in the field, a title
which only gradually came into existence at the beginning of the
8th century, the mikado himself having previously been regarded
as the only authority. The rise of a military class and of shoguns
(generals) was a development coincident with the division of
supremacy between the Minamoto and Taira clans (see JAPAN:
History). In 1192 the emperor Takahira made the Minamoto
leader, Yoritomo, a Sei-i-tai-shogun (" barbarian-subjugating
generalissimo ") or general-in-chief, and this office became
stereotyped in the hands of successive great military leaders,
till in 1603 Lyeyasu Tokugawa became shogun and established
the Tokugawa dynasty in power. The shogunate from that time
till 1867 exercised the de facto sovereignty in Japan, though in
theory subordinate to the mikado. The revolution of 1867
swept away and abolished the shogunate and restored the
mikado's supreme authority.
The term " Tycoon, " which was commonly used by foreigners
in the igth century, is merely a synonym for shogun, being the
English rendering of the Japanese taiko or taikun, " great ilord. "
SHOLAPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Central
division of Bombay. The city is 164 m. S.E. from Poona by
rail. Municipal area, about 8 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 75,288.
Since 1877 it has ceased to be a military cantonment. Its great
fort, of Mahommedan construction, dates from the i4th to i7th
centuries. The large bazaar is divided into seven sections, one
of which is used on each day of the week. There are two
municipal gardens, with fine tanks and temples. It is an import-
ant centre of trade, with three cotton mills.
The DISTRICT OF SHOLAPUR has an area of 4541 sq. m. Except
in Karmala and Barsi subdivisions, in the north and east, where
there is a good deal of hilly ground, the district is generally flat
or undulating; but it is bare of vegetation, and presents every-
where a bleak treeless appearance. The chief rivers are the
Bhima and its tributaries the Man, the Nira and the Sina
all flowing towards the south-east. Lying in a tract of uncertain
rainfall, Sholapur is peculiarly liable to seasons of scarcity;
much, however, has been done by the opening of canals and
tanks, such -as the Ekruk and Ashti tanks, to secure a better
water-supply, the Ekruk tank near Sholapur city is the second
largest irrigation work in the Deccan. In 1901 the population
was 720,977, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The
principal crops are millet, pulse, oil seeds and cotton. There
are manufactures of silk and cotton cloth, and blankets. The
chief trading mart is Barsi. Pandharpur is a popular place of
pilgrirrtage. The Great Indian Peninsula railway runs through
the district, with a junction for the Southern Mahratta railway,
and another junction for the Barsi light railway, recently extended
to Pandharpur.
Sholapur passed from the Bahmani to the Bijapur kings and
from them to the Mahrattas. In 1818, on the fall of the peshwa,
it was ceded to the British, when it formed part of the Poona
collectorate, but in 1838 it was made a separate district.
SHOOTING, as a British field sport, may be said to have
existed for at least two hundred years, though it is only within
the last half century that it has attained its present importance.
In many parts of Great Britain the importance of the sporting
rights of an estate now more than counterbalance its agricultural
value, while enormous sums are annually devoted to the artificial
production of game. Taking all contingent expenses into con-
sideration, the average cost of every head of game killed may be
taken as not less than three shillings. A hand-reared pheasant
can scarcely be brought to the gun for less than seven to eight
shillings; and these birds in particular and partridges and wild
duck to a lesser, but steadily increasing, extent are reared in
tens of thousands every year. So far, the grouse alone among
recognized British game-birds has defied all attempts at artificial
production, but it is probable that in course of time this will
also yield to the modern taste for big bags.
The enormous head of game now preserved, and the corre-
spondent development of the art of gunmaking, has to a great
extent revolutionized the sport of shooting, the modern tendency
being all in favour of " driving, " i. e. bringing the game to the
sportsman, instead of the sportsman to the game. While this
has undoubtedly raised the standard of marksmanship, it has
equally deteriorated the exercise of such minor woodcraft as is
required for small game shooting under present conditions.
In this article it is only possible to touch on the various forms
of the sport of shooting most in vogue. First must be placed
grouse-shooting, admittedly the finest form of sport
with the gun obtainable in the British Islands. It
is customary to speak of this as though it were merely
confined to Scotland, but grouse are found in every English
county north of the Trent, as well as in Shropshire, Wales
and Ireland, while in a good season as many are probably killed
in Yorkshire alone as in any two Scotch counties put together.
Practically all English grouse are killed by driving, the practice
of which is fast extending to Scotland. On the undulating
English and Lowland moors this has undoubtedly resulted in
largely increasing the stock of grouse, but it is questionable
whether it has been equally successful on the more rugged hills
of the Highlands. Save in a few specially favoured localities,
such as the Moy Hall moors in Inverness-shire, grouse-driving in
Scotland has by no means produced the marvellous results
achieved on the English moors, while far too many lessees of
Scottish shootings resort to the suicidal policy of only driving
their birds when the latter have become too wild to lie to dogs.
In laying out a moor for driving care should be taken to avoid
placing a row of butts against a sky line: where possible these
should be placed in a depression of the ground, which not only
serves to conceal them from the birds, but also ensures higher
and more difficult shots. For these reasons, on very flat stretches
of ground the butts are sometimes excavated after the manner
of a rifle pit with a low parapet, but in the writer's experience
these are not to be specially recommended. It is in all cases
advisable to refrain from placing a line of butts on very stony or
99 6
SHOOTING
rocky ground, owing to the possibility of an accident from
glancing or deflected shot-pellets. Much of the success of a day's
grouse-driving depends on the manner in which the drivers are
handled, and especially on the " flankers," whose business it is
to turn in such birds as show a tendency to break away from
the butts.
A few simple rules for the guidance of the shooter may be
mentioned in connexion with grouse-driving. He should remain
motionless in his butt, without attempting to conceal himself
by crouching, until the moment arrives for him to throw up his
gun, when he should refrain from dwelling on his bird, or reserving
his fire until it is close upon him the latter a very common
error among beginners. An excellent method of determining
the range at which to open fire is to mark some conspicuous
object, a tuft of heather or a stone, about 40 yds. in front of one's
butt, before the commencement of a drive. Above all the
shooter should concentrate his attention only on birds coming
at him, and not concern himself with those that have passed his
butt: in nine cases out of ten by the time he has turned to fire
they will be 60 or 70 yds. away, and the only result of his shot
will be to wound, but not kill; apart from the cruelty of such a
proceeding, it should be remembered that these " pricked "
birds are a fruitful source of grouse disease. A good retriever
is essential to enjoyment in grouse-driving, where only a limited
time is available for picking up dead birds. The modern fashion
is in favour of spaniels for this work, but a large wavy-coated
retriever is usually preferable, as being less likely to tire or
" potter." It is customary on some moors to burn the heather
round the butts with a view to facilitating the recovery of dead
birds, but this has also the disadvantage of rendering the butts
more conspicuous to the grouse, which soon come to know the
dangerous zone. In August grouse can be driven without much
difficulty, but later in the season, and especially in a high wind,
pack after pack will go straight back over the beaters' heads
sooner than face the guns. Enormous bags of driven grouse
are occasionally made on the Yorkshire and Durham moors;
over 1300 brace have been killed in a single day at Broomhead
near Sheffield, and there are several other well-known moors
where, in a good season, 1000 brace are obtainable in a
day's shooting. Grouse driving is believed to have been first
practised in a very modified form on the English moors as early
as 1805, but its usage did not become general until fifty or sixty
years later.
Grouse-shooting over dogs, though lacking the excitement
of grouse-driving, and not requiring the same high standard of
skill in shooting, is none the less incomparably the higher form
of sport. Owing to the almost universal wildness of all modern
game-birds, its general practice is now almost entirely confined
to the Highlands, where, especially on the western seaboard,
grouse will lie to dogs practically throughout the season. Except
on very ill-watered moors, where they suffer more than other
breeds of dogs from thirst, large big-boned setters are preferable
to pointers for grouse-shooting, as the latter are more easily
affected by cold and damp, and in the writer's experience are
more easily fatigued. Care should of course be taken always to
work one's dogs up wind when possible, and in hot, still weather
to beat the higher ground thoroughly, with a view to killing
down the old cocks and barren hens which resort there. In
stormy weather grouse naturally seek the lower slopes of the
moors.
Partridge-shooting over dogs is a most delightful form of sport,
popularly supposed to be extinct nowadays, but there are happily
Partrta manv parts of England where it is still practised in
shooting.' suitable localities. None the less, modern agricultural
conditions do not lend themselves to the use of dogs
in partridge-shooting, and the most general custom is to drive
the birds off the pastures and stubbles into the root crops where
they can be walked up in line, a rather uninteresting method of
shooting. Care should of course be taken always to walk across
the drills; and where birds are wild, and time does not press,
it will occasionally be found advantageous to work a field in
a series of gradually diminishing circles. Much valuable time
is often wasted in partridge-shooting in the search for dead and
wounded birds; this can be obviated to a large extent by
observing the golden rule that as soon as a bird is down the line
should halt, and the dogs, whose business it is to retrieve the game,
be allowed to do so, unassisted or more correctly unhampered.
If the bird cannot be found within reasonable time, the line
should proceed, leaving a keeper and a steady dog behind to
search for it. Where game is plentiful it is always advisable
to employ one man with a couple of retrievers for the sole
purpose of remaining behind the line to retrieve lost or running
birds. As with all game, the modern tendency is to drive
partridges: a form of shooting that of all others exacts the
highest test of skill, not only on the part of the shooter, but also
of the keeper who organizes the proceedings. To these require-
ments must be added a suitable tract of country for the purpose,
and a large head of game; given all these essentials, partridge-
driving is a delightful amusement; without them it is usually
a fruitless and wearisome undertaking.
In driving, the birds should be gradually and quietly collected
into one large root-field, and sent from this over the guns, who
should, when possible, always be placed in a grass-field where
dead or wounded birds are more easily retrieved. Another field
of roots should be at a convenient distance behind the guns for
the purpose of gathering the birds, which, unless the wind be
specially unfavourable, can then be brought back over them in
a return drive. Long drives are not advisable; the more
partridges can be kept on the wing, and the coveys broken up,
the better. Where partridge-driving is carried on on a large
scale, it is a good plan to supplement such hedge-rows as are
convenient for the purpose by narrow belts of coniferous trees.
These, if wired in to prevent disturbance by foxes, dogs, &c.,
not only provide admirable nesting-ground for winged-game,
but afford better concealment for the guns, and cause the
partridges to offer higher and more attractive shots. In shooting
driven partridges, the sportsman should stand as far as practic-
able away from the fence, and concentrate his attention on the
bird which first tops it. A driven grouse or rocketing pheasant
will fly straight towards the shooter without swerving when he
raises his gun, but not so the partridge, which can twist in the
air almost like a snipe; it is this peculiarity, coupled with their
startling scream, that proves so disconcerting to the young
sportsman. Especial care should always be taken that the guns
stand in a perfectly straight line within sight of one another:
neglect of this precaution has often led to serious accidents.
Frequent change of blood is beneficial on estates where a
large head of partridges is preserved, and it is advisable to kill off
superfluous cock-birds before the commencement of the breeding-
season, though when partridges are reared artificially a better
plan is to catch them alive, and use them as foster-mothers,
a duty they perform admirably.
The pheasant, once one of the rarest British game-birds, has
now, thanks to artificial production, become almost the com-
monest, and to shoot it over dogs among the hedge-
rows in October, as was formerly the practice, would
be a manifest absurdity. Under modern conditions
it can only be dealt with satisfactorily as a " rocketer," i.e.
a bird flying high and fast towards the shooter. As such, the
pheasant has no superior, provided only it fly high and fast
enough, but otherwise it is a rather uninteresting sporting-bird
which invariably elects to seek safety by running rather than
flight. Like the modern pheasant itself, the rocketer is a more
or less artificial creation, and considerable organization is
necessary to produce it in perfection. It is only of late years
that keepers have recognized that sportsmen place little value
on the mere magnitude of a day's bag, as compared to the
difficult or ''pretty" shots they may obtain. Much, therefore,
depends on the management of covert-shooting, the handling
of the beaters, the disposition of the " stops," and the pains
taken to ensure high-flying pheasants, or the reverse. When
the configuration of the coverts permits of it, pheasants should
always be driven down-hill to the guns; on flat ground the latter
should stand at such a distance from the covert-side as to permit
SHOOTING
997
Black-
game.
Ptarmi-
gan.
Caper-
catty.
the birds to rise high, and get well on the wing. This is some-
times attained by cutting away the undergrowth at the end of
the covert where it is purposed to flush the birds, but this is
also liable to make them break back over the beaters. Where
pheasants exist in large quantities, " false coverts " of spruce or
fir loppings should always be placed at the flushing-point; the
birds should be collected as quietly as possible in these, and then
sent forward over the guns in small quantities at a time.
Of other recognized British game-birds as distinct from
wildfowl it is only necessary to dwell on the most beautiful of
them all, blackgame. These, though far more widely
diffused than the red grouse, are not nearly so numerous.
This is possibly due to altered agricultural conditions,
the laying to pasture of much of the arable land which formerly
fringed the Lowland moors, and the consequent surface-drainage
which is responsible for the destruction of many young birds;
but the chief cause lies in the wholly inefficient close-time
afforded, which should be extended by at least a month. Black-
game- and grouse-shooting differ in no way in their methods,
though the former are far more difficult birds to handle by
driving, while really fascinating sport can be obtained by stalking
the old cocks with a miniature rifle.
Ptarmigan are practically confined to the summits of the
higher Scottish hills, which are usually reserved for deer-forests,
and, therefore, offer no opportunity for sport with the
shot-gun. In mild still weather they give but poor
sport, running persistently in front of the dogs, or
sitting until they can almost be knocked down with a stick, but on
stormy days they rise wild, and afford splendid sport, especially
in conjunction with the wild and romantic scenery in which they
are found. They are of course invariably shot over dogs.
Capercally, once extinct in Great Britain, were reintroduced
into Scotland about 1835, and now exist in tolerable numbers,
chiefly in Perthshire. Being a forest-haunting bird,
they are usually driven to the guns like pheasants, but
apart from their rarity and size, they are not held in
great favour as sporting birds, while owing to the great damage
they do to young coniferous trees, they are not encouraged to
multiply on estates where there is a large acreage of growing
plantations. Capercally are very courageous birds, and the
writer has seen a winged cock attack and hold at bay a dog sent
to retrieve it.
Snipe and woodcock, though properly wild-fowl, are usually
regarded 'as belonging to the category of game-birds. Though
both the full-snipe and the woodcock breed to a limited
extent in the British Isles, they may more correctly
be described as autumn and winter migrants to them. The
varieties then to be shot are the full-snipe, the jack-snipe and
the great or solitary snipe; but the latter is exceedingly rarely
met with, and the jack-snipe is becoming scarcer every year.
Neither of these latter varieties breeds in the United Kingdom.
Snipe are exceedingly erratic in their movements, which are
largely influenced by the weather; like the woodcock they are
here to-day and gone to-morrow. They haunt moist, or marshy
localities, and the finest snipe shooting in the British islands is
to be found on the Irish bogs. In hard frosts they should be
sought near running water. As a general rule a dog is not used
to find snipe, but where this may be considered necessary, a
well broken Irish water-spaniel is to be recommended. These
are the most intelligent of dogs, can be trained to point and
retrieve as well, and are capable of standing wet and cold with
impunity. It is a generally accepted axiom that snipe should be
walked up, down wind, since they offer an easier mark when
rising against it, but in the writer's experience this is more than
counterbalanced by the fact that snipe, which are particularly
susceptible to noise, lie far better when approached up wind.
To kill snipe well is the most difficult knack in shooting, and
one to which few men, however good shots they may be at other
forms of game, rarely attain.
Woodcock are rarer birds than snipe, and even more erratic
in their movements. Large quantities of them usually arrive
in England with the first November combination of an easterly
gale and a full moon, but they cannot be depended on
to stay more than a few hours in the locality where they
alight. In Ireland, however, they are far more constant .
in their habits, and it is here that the largest bags of
woodcock are made in the United Kingdom. Though woodcock
are properly forest, or covert-haunting birds, in many parts of
Ireland and the Western Highlands of Scotland they frequent
the open bogs and moors, where they are shot over pointers or
setters. Otherwise no particular rules can be laid down for
their pursuit, beyond the fact that they are very conservative
in their choice of a haunt, and that year after year cock may
be found in the same spot. Woodcock are usually esteemed
difficult birds to shoot, but more are missed from over-eagerness
on the part of the shooter than from the difficulty of the shot
they present. Still in thick covert they undoubtedly require a
quick hand and eye acting in unison, to kill them neatly.
Of quadrupeds or ground-game, only three varieties, the
roe-deer, the hare and the rabbit, are preserved for sport with
the shot-gun in the United Kingdom. The first-
named, though found in a few widely distant districts
in England and Ireland, is chiefly associated with Scotland
so far as shooting is concerned. It is essentially a forest-loving
animal, and is usually killed by driving it up to a line of guns,
when, if close enough, it will drop to an ordinary charge .of
No. 5 shot; but a heavy load of B.B. or No. i is a far preferable,
and more merciful, gauge to use. Roe-deer are not easy animals
to move in a direction in which they suspect danger, and the
more quietly a drive is conducted, the greater the chance of
success. A few men walking carelessly through a wood, i.e.
as if beating were not their object, will drive roe, and especially
the cunning old bucks, with far greater certainty than an array
of shouting, stick-rapping beaters.
Far finer sport, however, in every sense of the expression,
can be obtained by stalking roe-bucks during the summer
months with a small-bore rifle, carrying a hollow-nosed, and
not a solid bullet. The most suitable opportunity for this is at
sunrise or sunset, when the roe will be found feeding in the more
open spaces in the woods. The same animals will nearly always
be found in the same locality, but they are exceedingly wary
creatures, and the old bucks are quite as difficult to stalk as a
red-deer stag.
The hare no longer exists in the same quantities as formerly;
indeed in many parts of Great Britain it is practically extinct,
the result of the Ground Game Act of 1881. No
special methods are employed for shooting hares, nor
is any great skill requisite for doing so, but sportsmen should
always bear in mind that unless hit in the head or heart hares
are not easily killed dead, and should, therefore, refrain from
firing long shots at them, especially when they do not offer a
broadside shot.
It is to be presumed that the Ground Game Act was specially
directed and with reason against rabbits more than hares,
but the former show little or no evidence of being
affected by it. Yet from every point of view, except
perhaps that of shooting, they are far less valuable, and more
noxious, animals, which ravage alike the young plantations of the
landlord and the crops of the tenant farmer. Where they are
preserved in large numbers, the most usual method of shooting
them is to ferret them out of the burrows as short a time as
possible before the day fixed for shooting, and then fill in the
mouths of the holes with well beaten soil, which should also be
drenched with paraffin or tar to deter the rabbits from digging
their way in again. If this be carefully done, and plenty of
covert coarse grass, bracken or gorse be available, in fine dry
weather the rabbits will lie out for two or three nights, but in
the event of heavy rain or especially snow, nothing will prevent
them going to ground again. Where natural covert is scarce,
it can be supplemented by strewing brushwood and fir-loppings
under which rabbits will readily shelter. In beating for rabbits,
the beaters should not merely tap with their sticks, but should
thrust them into the clumps of grass and underwood; otherwise
many rabbits will be passed over. When rabbits are driven up
99 8
SHOOTING
Wild-
fowl.
to a line of guns in covert, the latter if no winged game is
expected should stand just inside the edge of the wood, with
their backs to the beaters, and take the rabbits after they have
passed. This not only induces the rabbits to face the open, but
precludes the possibility of an accident to the beaters. Capital
sport can be enjoyed in the summer evenings by stalking rabbits
with a pea-rifle in a suitable locality, i.e. where no danger to
human beings or live-stock can be caused by a stray or deflected
bullet. A disused quarry or sand pit is an ideal place for such
sport.
One branch of shooting remains to be touched on, namely,
wild-fowling, which again must be classed under two totally
distinct headings, shore or flight shooting, and shooting
afloat with a swiVel punt gun. In flight shooting, the
sportsman stations himself at a point over which the
birds will probably pass at sundown or daybreak in their passage
from or to the sea, when going to or leaving their inland
feeding places. Success in flight-shooting must, therefore, depend
very largely on chance or luck, but given a fair proportion of the
latter, it is a fine, wild sport. One essential requirement is a
well-trained and thoroughly intelligent dog, and here again no
better can be selected than an Irish water-spaniel. No special
rules of guidance can be laid down for shore-shooting; the
districts are unhappily few and far between where even a
moderate bag of edible wild-fowl can be made nowadays, and
experience alone can give that knowledge of their habits which
is essential to success. Wild stormy weather which drives the
birds off the sea is best for shore-shooting.
Punt-gunning or wild-fowling afloat is a sport confined to an
exceedingly small number of people, professional or amateur,
and is as distinct from ordinary inland shooting as deer-stalking
from pigeon-shooting. It may be briefly described as the art
of shooting wild-fowl on the sea, or in estuaries of rivers, from a.
flat-bottomed punt carrying a heavy, fixed gun, weighing
anything from 70-170 Ib, the muzzle of which rests in a revolving
crutch in the bow of the boat, and firing a charge of 1-2 Ib of
shot. A punt may be either single- or double-handed, i.e. to
contain one or two people, and it is perhaps unnecessary to add
the fowl are shot sitting, or just as they rise from the water.
It is a sport that contains a considerable element of danger,
and requires great powers of endurance and a strong constitution
no less than good nerves, and it has been rightly termed a science
in itself, only to be learnt by a patient apprenticeship under an
experienced teacher.
The art of shooting cannot be learnt theoretically, and can
only be acquired by experience and practice. The beginner
should, however, from the first seek to avoid an ugly
shooting. or cramped style, which, once developed, is very difficult
to get rid of, and should bear in mind that, in firing at
a moving object, his purpose should be not to place his charge
of shot where such object is at the moment he pulls the trigger,
but where it will be by the time the shot reaches it; in other
words the game should run or fly into the circle of pellets. Nor
should he seek to effect this by dwelling on his game with his
gun at his shoulder a practice not only clumsy but exceedingly
dangerous but by firing at an imaginary point in front of it.
Practice alone can teach the knack of doing this properly; to
some men it seems a natural gift, while others do not acquire it
in a life-time. A sound digestion is the surest aid to successful
shooting, for unless the nervous system be in perfect tune, brain,
eye and hand cannot act in that spontaneous sympathy necessary
to quick and pretty marksmanship.
None the less a good deal depends on the gun, as well as the
man who uses it, and in choosing a fowling-piece it will be found
an advantage, no less than an ultimate economy, for the young
shooter to place himself in the hands of a London gunmaker of
repute, and pay a good price for a good article. A i2-bore is
the generally accepted gauge for modern shot guns, and this
should weigh from 6|-6f Ib. Of late years it is gradually becom-
ing customary to reduce the length of the barrels from 30 to
28 in., a most decided improvement, as without diminishing the
killing-power of the gun it improves its balance, and so lessens
the piobability of shooting under game, a very common fault
among sportsmen. Excessive choking is to be deprecated;
a pattern of 140 for the right and of 160 for the left barrel will
be found amply sufficient, and a load of 40-42 grains of nitro-
powder with i or ij oz. No. 55 unchilled shot will meet all
ordinary requirements of the shooting field. A thoroughly
good hammerless ejector gun can be obtained from a first-class
London gunmaker for 35-45 guineas, and a pair for 75 to 100,
but these prices are capable of considerable modification or the
reverse. Single-trigger guns are the latest fashion, but no special
advantage can be claimed for them.
The bibliography of shooting is very extensive, but the following
works may be cited as standard ones on the subject: The " Bad-
minton Library " Shooting Hints to Young Shooters, by Sir Ralph
Payne-Gallwey ; "The Fur and Feather" series of publications;
The Gun and its Developments, by Greener; and for wild-fowling,
Colonel Hawker's evergreen Instructions to Young Sportsmen; The
Art of Wil > fowling, by Abel Chapman; The Fowler in Ireland, by
Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey ; and The Wildfowler, by Folkard.
Big Game.
The pursuit of large game, whether for food or sport, has
ever exercised the greatest fascination for mankind, and with
the rapid opening up of vast continents hitherto unexplored,
and the introduction of breech-loading rifles, it has assumed
an importance within the last few decades that bids fair to
render it a thing of the past before the end of the current century.
The present generation has seen the bison, which formerly
roamed the American prairies in countless millions, wiped off
the face of creation; the veldt of Southern Africa, which teemed
in equal proportions with big game of every description, has
become a pastoral country, where a few of the commoner varieties
of antelope are suffered to exist under much the same conditions
as the semi-wild deer of the Scottish Highlands; and even the
jungles of Hindustan, save where jealously preserved by native
potentates, show signs of exhaustion as regards the larger
fauna. True, wherever the white man holds sway, the danger
of extinction has been recognized; close-times have been
instituted; reserves set apart wherein the animals may breed
unmolested, and the number of each species that may be killed,
restricted; but it is doubtful whether these laws, wholesome and
well-intentioned as they are, can do more than retard the ultimate
destruction of big game outside such reserves as the Yellowstone
Park in North America. Within the pale of this no rifle is ever
fired, and the game has prospered correspondingly, but once let
a single head of it wander outside the restricted area, and its
doom is sealed. Moreover, there are still vast tracts in Africa,
and to a limited extent in other parts of the globe, where big
game forms the staple meat supply of the aboriginal inhabitants,
who, in addition, are no longer dependent on their primitive
weapons of the chase, but are equipped with more or less efficient
firearms. Great regions are however still to be found, of which
sportsmen have as yet barely touched the fringe. The dense
forests of Western Africa are practically unexplored, much less
shot out, and Central and Eastern Asia, the Dutch East Indies,
and Borneo and Sumatra, offer an almost virgin field for sport
with big game. Save for the Barren Grounds of the Arctic
regions and some parts of the extreme north-west though
Alaska now enjoys particularly stringent game laws the North
American continent is fast becoming denuded of big game; but
in Europe, within a week's journey of London, the mountains
of the Caucasus and the forests at their feet are only known to a
handful of intrepid explorers. It will thus be seen that although
good trophies, whether of hide or horn, are yearly becoming
scarcer, fair sport is yet obtainable in those parts of the world
where big game is indigenous, though the days are long past
when a sportsman could shoot at his own discretion over the
whole of Africa or North America, or when the globe-trotter
visiting India could count on big game shooting as forming part
of his programme.
Indeed, in view of the increased, and increasing, facilities for
world travel, and the prevalent fashion for sport, it is probable
that in course of time big game shooting will be universally
SHOOTING
999
conducted on modern European lines; i.e. wild animals will be
carefully preserved by the state and private owners, and where
the latter do not care to exercise the sporting rights they will
be let to the highest bidder, and big game shooting will, as with
Scottish deer-stalking, become exclusively a pastime of the
wealthy or luxurious classes. Already large tracts in the wilder
parts of the Eastern States of America have been acquired by
rich men, over which they jealously preserve the sporting;
and with the opening up of railway communication in the south
of Africa to the Zambezi, and in the north to Khartum, the dawn
of another century may not improbably see shooting-boxes
advertised " to let for the winter months," dotting the very
countries where Oswell, or Baker, found a virgin field for their
rifles within the last few decades. Distasteful as such a state of
things may seem to the present generation of sportsmen, some-
thing more or less approaching it will inevitably come to pass;
and where climatic conditions or inaccessibility forbid its adop-
tion, big game will become extinct at the hands of native races
or white " professional " hunters. Carpe diem must undoubtedly
be the motto of the big game shooter of the present day, who
requires genuine wild sport under the highest possible conditions.
Even at present it is essential that he should obtain the fullest
information as to the existing game laws in the part of the world
in which he proposes to hunt, the whole of North America and
practically three-fourths of Africa being governed by stringent
regulations respecting the preservation of big game. Every
state in the North American Union, and in some cases every
county in a state, has its own close-times and game laws, and
the same is true of Canada. Moreover, heavy fees for licences
to kill big game are now exacted in all parts of the world where
game laws exist. In the United States the cost of this varies
very much, the present highest charge being $50 for a " non-
resident" sportsman, while in addition in some states he is
not permitted to hunt unless accompanied with a qualified guide.
Full information on these points can be obtained gratis on applica-
tion to the Board of Agriculture at Washington, where every
assistance is given with the greatest courtesy, and which further
issues admirably compiled pamphlets dealing with the whole
question of game-preservation. Infringement of the United
States Game Laws entails exceedingly heavy penalties, amount-
ing in the most extreme case to two years' imprisonment plus a
fine of $5000.
In Canada the highest charge is $100 in Manitoba, while
in Africa it varies from 50 in the Sudan and British and German
East Africa to 100 in Bechuanaland. Moreover, it must be
borne in mind that these fees only permit the killing of a limited
number of specified animals. Still, excellent as these laws
undoubtedly are, their value must remain enormously discounted
as long as the sale of game and skins by aboriginal or professional
hunters is permitted; it is they, and not the heavily taxed
foreign sportsman, who are responsible for the threatened
extinction of big game.
So far as Asiatic sport is -concerned, British India, save to
those furnished with credentials to native potentates or high
government officials, offers scant opportunity as regards big
game to the itinerant sportsman, who must now wander farther
afield into Central or North-Eastern Asia, Borneo, Java and the
wilder parts of Assam or Burma; but the greater portion of the
first-named locality is only open to persons duly authorized by
the Russian government.
Although South America and Australia offer little attraction
for sport with the rifle, big game of varying species is thus
indigenous in every part of the world. 1 It is obviously impossible
within our limits to deal at any length with either its habits
or the various methods of hunting it. Brief allusion will be
made, however, to the chief varieties of it found in the various
continents and the necessary equipment for their pursuit.
Europe contains big game in greater variety and quantity
than is generally supposed. The last survivors of the aurochs
or European bison still roam the forests of Lithuania and the
1 Except in New Zealand, where red-deer have, however, been
introduced and afford magnificent sport.
Europe.
Caucasus: elk are found in Scandinavia, Russia and Eastern
Prussia, and red-deer are common to the whole of the continent.
Qf the more Alpine kinds of big game, reindeer exist
in Norway; chamois in the mountainous districts of
Central and Southern Europe; wild sheep in Corsica and Sardinia;
while a few of the European ibex still linger in the royal pre-
serves of the Italian Alps. A variety of ibex is fairly plentiful
in Spain, and wild goats are found in South-Eastern Europe.
Of the carnivora, bears, wolves and lynxes, though not often
met with, still exist in fair numbers in most of the mountainous
countries of Europe, though the first-named animal is practically
the only one affording opportunity for sport with the rifle.
Gluttons or wolverines are found in Scandinavia and Russia,
and so-called wild-boar are plentiful in the carefully preserved
forests of Central Europe. The reason for this continued supply
of big game is that the whole of the European continent has been
for centuries under private, communal or state preservation.
The' Caucasus, Tvhich though geographically in Europe, can
hardly with fairness be held to be so as regards sport, further
contain such purely Asiatic varieties of big game as tigers,
leopards and tahr, and but for the savage character of the
country and its inhabitants, and the obstacles thrown in the way
of foreign travellers, would probably be far more visited by
English sportsmen than is at present the case. In civilized
Europe, Scandinavia, Spain and the Mediterranean islands
probably offer the best field for the big game hunter of moderate
means, though the last named localities still enjoy an unenvfeble
reputation for brigandage.
Among useful works of reference dealing with big game shooting
in Europe the following may be cited: Wild Spain, by Chapman,
and Wild Norway by the same author; Flood, Fell and Forest, by Sir
Henry Pottinger; Savage Svanetia and Sport in the Crimea and.
Caucasus, by Phillips Woolley ; Tyrol and the Tyrolese, by Baillie-
Grohmann; the volumes of the " Badminton Library " dealing with
the subject, and especially Short Stalks, by E. N. Buxton.
i
The physical geography of so vast a continent as Asia, no less
than its varying climatic conditions, naturally produce many
different species of big game, ranging from the Alpine
to the purely tropical. When it is remembered that
the continent includes the frozen tundras of the Arctic Circle,
the steaming plains of Hindustan, the treeless wastes of the
Pamirs and the dense jungles of Burma, together with the highest
mountains in the world, it will be readily seen how varied must
be its fauna. Among the carnivora, the tiger and the leopard or
panther are found practically throughout Asia, save in the
extreme north and north-west; while lions, though exceedingly
rare, still exist in Guzerat and parts of Persia and Mesopotamia.
The usual methods of tiger-shooting in British Asia are, when the
game has been located, either to drive it to the sportsmen by
means of natives acting as beaters, or else to force it into the open
with a long line of elephants, which also serve to carry the
shooters; the choice of methods must, of course, depend on local
conditions. The second practice is not a form of sport within
the reach of men of moderate means, who, indeed, except as the
guests of some native potentate, are not likely to have the
opportunity of indulging in tiger-shooting at all. In localities
where neither of these methods is feasible, it is usual to tie up a
live animal as a bait, and sit up over it during the night in a
machan or platform lashed to the nearest tree; but this is usually
an unsatisfactory and disappointing proceeding. In parts of
Asia other than British possessions, tigers are found as far apart
as the shores of the Caspian Sea and the island of Saghalien.
Europeans recover with difficulty from the bite of a tiger, since
blood-poisoning is the almost inevitable result owing to the
septic condition of the animal's teeth and claws, and a supply of
antiseptic lint and solution should always form part of the
tiger-shooter's equipment. Panthers, though more plentiful
than tigers, are less frequently bagged, as they are exceedingly
difficult animals to beat out of covert; they are usually killed
by sitting up over a bait, or by smoking them out of the caves
they frequently make their homes. A wounded panther has the
reputation of being a more dangerous animal than a tiger. Other
varieties of the felines are the cheetah, the clouded panther,
Asia.
IOOO
SHOOTING
the lynx, and most beautiful and rarest of all, the ounce or snow
leopard only found above the snow line.
Of other Asiatic carnivora the bears are the most important
from the sportsman's point of view. A great variety of them
exists, ranging from the great Kamchatkan bear to the small
blue bear of Thibet, but the methods of their pursuit call for no
special mention.
The Indian elephant is rather smaller than the African variety,
and has other well-marked differences, the chief as regards shoot-
ing being the fact that the cavity at the top of the trunk is not
protected by the roots of the tusk as in the African elephant,
thus enabling a frontal shot to reach the brain. This point, one
at the side of the temple, and another at the back of the ear, are
most usually selected for their aim by Indian sportsmen, who do
not favour the shoulder shot so commonly employed in Africa.
A charging elephant can often be turned by a well-planted,
though not necessarily fatal, bullet, but a really determined
animal, especially a female with a calf, will not cease its attack
until either it or the hunter be killed. Though elephants will
usually fly from the report of a rifle, the sound of a human voice
will often make them charge.
Four varieties of rhinoceros, of which two are one-horned,
and two double-horned, are found in Asia, ranging eastwards
from Assam through Burma and Siam as far as Sumatra. The
rhinoceros is almost invariably found in heavy grass swamps,
and can consequently only be hunted by means of elephants,
It is usually beaten out by means of a long line, but is occasion-
ally tracked to its lair on a single elephant. In common with
many animals of the deer and antelope tribes, the rhinoceros
always deposits its droppings in the same place, a peculiarity
which enables native shikaris to locate it with tolerable ease.
Although a rhinoceros, even when wounded, will rarely charge
home, it has a peculiarly terrifying effect on tame elephants,
and specially trustworthy ones are necessary for this sport.
The Indian rhinoceros differs in many important details from
the African variety.
Of bovines, Asia produces the buffalo, three species of the gaur
miscalled the Indian bison and the yak, the latter a rather
uninteresting beast of the chase only found on the open ground
of the Tibetan plateau. Very different is the pursuit of the gaur
in the dense forests of India and Burma, where it is usually
stalked on foot; and to track a wounded bull through thick
jungle affords one of the most exciting experiences of big game
shooting. Such an animal will almost invariably turn at right
angles to its trail, and watch for its pursuer, whom it will charge
from a distance of perhaps a few yards, even feet. The wild
buffalo, too, is an exceedingly plucky animal, and will on occasion
even attack a European whose smell appears distasteful to it
unmolested, a peculiarity it shares with the tame variety.
The numerous species of deer and antelope scattered over
the continent of Asia are usually obtained by stalking, but
the former being essentially forest-haunting animals, while the
latter are usually found on open ground, the methods of approach-
ing them naturally vary with local conditions. Of deer the best
known are the sambar, the chital and the swamp deer, but the
Hangul or Cashmere stag, the Altai wapiti and the Maral or
Asiatic red-deer afford the finest trophies. Of Asiatic antelope
the handsomest and commonest variety is probably the black-
buck, found practically all over India as far east as Assam.
To many sportsmen the most fascinating form of Asiatic big
game shooting is the pursuit of the many varieties of wild goats
and sheep, common to the various mountain ranges and high-
lying plateaus of the continent. While such sport lacks the risk
of attack from the animal hunted, it exacts remarkable powers
of endurance and perseverance on the part of the hunter, coupled
in most cases with the dangers inseparable from Alpine climbing.
There is scarcely a mountainous or elevated part of Asia which
does not contain some variety of wild goat or sheep, of which the
best known are the ibex and markhor of the Himalayas and
Hindu Rush among the former, and the Ovis Poll and 0. Amman
of Tibet among the latter. As a general rule all wild goats can
only be obtained under conditions which exact the highest
mountaineering qualities on the part of the stalker, but with
regard to the sheep of the vast tablelands of High Asia " the
roof of the world " a good deal of work has to be done on pony
back, as the rarefied atmosphere of these great altitudes precludes
much physical exertion. Exception, however, in this respect
must be made of the burhel Ovis Nahura which haunts the
same inaccessible crags as the ibex or markhor. The sportsman
who essays to bag an Ovis Poll, or O. Amman, will probably
have had ample opportunity of testing his climbing powers on
the march from India to his shooting-ground.
Ibex-shooting begins with the melting of the snows on the
lower slopes, and ends in June, when the flies and the flocks of
native herdsmen, driven to the Alpine pastures, force the wild
animals to seek ground absolutely inaccessible to man. " First
come first served " is a recognized rule in Himalayan shooting,
and once a sportsman has claimed a nullah, or mountain valley,
by priority of possession, it is his alone as long as he chooses to
retain it;, consequently the "race for the nullahs" in early
spring is not the least exciting part of Himalayan big game
shooting. In addition to ibex, markhor and such animals, the
season's bag should also include two varieties of bear, and, with
extreme good fortune, an ounce or snow leopard.
Like the fox in Great Britain, the wild boar is never shot in
any part of British Asia where it can be hunted on horseback.
Thanks to the improvements in modern firearms, and particu-
larly to the adaptation of cordite ammunition to sporting rifles,
the battery necessary for Asiatic big game shooting
has been considerably reduced, both in weight and meat'.
number of weapons required. It is not long since 8-,
or even 4-bore rifles, weighing respectively 18 and 24 Ib, or at
least a -577 Express, were considered indispensable for the
pursuit of the pachyderms and larger bovines, yet nowadays a
450 rifle of ii Ib weight, in conjunction with cordite powder,
is held amply sufficient for the heaviest or most dangerous game,
the penetration or expansion of the bullet being regulated by the
extent of its covering of cupro-nickel or steel. For soft-skinned
animals, deer and mountain game, a -256 or -303 magazine rifle
is the most useful weapon, and it may be confidently said that
the introduction of these and similar small-bore rifles has extended
the killing zone in stalking by at least 100 yds. For forest or
jungle shooting a 10- or i2-bore Paradox gun is an admirable
weapon, capable of use as a rifle against large and dangerous
animals, or as an ordinary shot gun for small game. A double-
barrelled rifle is essential for dangerous game, the saving of time,
short as it is, in merely shifting the finger from one trigger to
another, being an enormous advantage as compared with the
action of ejecting and re-loading from a magazine. Finally it
may be said that a sportsman would be completely equipped for
big game shooting in Asia, or indeed any part of the world, with
a battery consisting of a -450 cordite rifle, a 10- or i2-bore Paradox
gun and a -256 or -303 magazine rifle.
As regards the rest of his outfit, if he propose to shoot in any
part of British Asia, he can procure this on the spot, as well,
and far cheaper, than in England.
Useful works dealing with big game shooting in Asia are:
Baldwin, Large and Small Game of Bengal; Forsyth, Highlands of
Central India; Sanderson, Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts
of India; Kinloch, Large Game Shooting in Thibet, &c.; Maclntyre,
Hindu Koh; Steindale, Natural History; Demidoff, Sport in Central
Asia; Ronaldshay, Sport and Travel 'neath an Eastern Sky; A
Shooting Trip to Kamchatka; and Fife-Cookson, Tiger-Shooting in
the Doon and Ulwar.
The main feature of African big game is the antelopes, which
exist in great variety; such widely different animals as the noble
sable antelope and the tiny dik-dik being classed among Africa
them. African gazelles and antelopes may be roughly
divided into two classes, those found on plains or open ground,
and those frequenting forest or bush, and the methods of hunting
them naturally vary with the locality. Still, as a general rule,
the antelopes of the plains are not only the finer animals, but
afford more enjoyable sport in the stalk, combined with the
advantage of a climate free from malaria. There is practically
no part of Africa where antelopes do not exist in one variety or,
SHOOTING
1001
another, but probably British East Africa or Somaliland offer the
best field for sportsmen. On open ground a good deal of hunting
can be done on horseback except in those districts where the
tsetse fly exists and antelopes are occasionally ridden down,
but a very stout-hearted horse is required to overtake such
animals as sable antelopes, eland or gemsbok. Caution should
always be exercised in approaching the larger varieties of antelope
when at bay, whether wounded or not, as some of them, notably
the roan and sable, and the oryx, are inclined to be very savage,
and will charge desperately home. It is said that even a lion is
chary of attacking the oryx, owing to its long rapier-like horns.
The African carnivora include the lion, leopard, cheetah,
hyena and other smaller varieties, but it is only necessary to
deal with the first named, which, where not exterminated or
driven away by civilization, may be said to be common to the
whole continent. As with all game, big or small, the conditions
of lion-shooting vary with the locality; thus, on the open plains
of Somaliland, lions can be spied from a distance and stalked on
foot, or even ridden to bay on horseback, while in densely bushed
districts, unless chanced on in open ground, the most usual
method is to sit up at night over a bait or kill, inside a zareba of
thorn bushes. This method, however, makes aiming with any
degree of accuracy a matter of difficulty, but a German, Herr
Schillings, has demonstrated the use of a flashlight in such circum-
stances. Lions frequently lie up or shelter in detached patches
of scrub, whence they may be driven by a " bobbery " pack of
dogs, or as a last resource the bush may be set on fire, the sports-
man having previously concealed himself down wind. Lions
when emboldened by hunger will fearlessly attack human beings,
especially at night, and, like tigers that have once developed a
taste for human flesh, become positive scourges of their neigh-
bourhood. Mr F. C. Selous, than whom there are few
better authorities, considers the lion the most dangerous of all
African big game, a distinction that other writers award to the
buffalo.
Of the pachyderms the commonest is the rhinoceros (R. bicornis) ,
usually termed the black rhinoceros to distinguish it from the
so-called "white" variety now almost extinct. Though the
first-named is by no means so widely distributed as formerly,
it is still plentiful in Equatorial Africa, and to a lesser extent in
Somaliland. It bears rather a mixed character for ferocity, but
most hunters agree that while it will charge with little or no
provocation, it does so blindly, and rarely turns to renew the
attack. This is probably due to its exceedingly poor sense of
sight, but its sense of smell is correspondingly extraordinarily
acute, while an additional cause that renders it a difficult beast
to stalk is the presence of the " rhinoceros birds " which are its
almost invariable companions, and which warn it of danger.
Though so huge an animal, the rhinoceros is easily killed by a
bullet in front of the base of the ear, or midway along the neck;
the shoulder shot is only employed when the hunter has stepped
aside to avoid a charge. The hippopotamus is still plentiful
throughout most parts of uncivilized Africa. In narrow rivers
where they can be shot from the bank, they are easily killed by
a brain-shot, the best spot to aim at being the base of the ear.
If the bullet be properly placed the animal will sink to the bottom
of the stream and rise to the surface within a few hours. Hippo-
potami are nocturnal feeders, and can be occasionally shot at
night when at a considerable distance from water; but owing to
the difficulty of placing the bullet accurately, they are apt to
escape wounded. Hippopotamus shooting does not rank high
as a sport, but the meat, when young, is excellent, and the huge
size of the animal enables a hunter to provide a large number
of followers with food ; this [can be the only excuse for killing
these comparatively harmless animals in any number.
Elephants still exist in considerable numbers in parts of Africa,
but, unless more stringent methods of protection are afforded,
their ultimate extermination at the hands of professional ivory-
hunters, white or coloured, is inevitable. What can be done in
the direction of preservation is shown in Cape Colony, where
elephants, which have been rigidly protected for many years,
now exist in considerable, and increasing, quantity. Elephants
xxrv. 32 a
have an extraordinarily keen sense of smell, which, coupled with
their habit of roaming over vast expanses of country, forms their
chief safeguard against the relentless persecution to which they
are subject. They may be hunted either on foot or horseback;
where feasible, the latter is the preferable method, as it not
only enables the hunter to follow up his quarry with greater ease
and when startled, or wounded, elephants will travel enormous
distances but in open country gives him a better chance of
escape from a charge. The heart, or broadside, shot is usually
employed. Incredible as it may seem, these enormous creatures
can be killed by a single pellet of hardened nickel, discharged
from a -303 rifle. A weapon of heavier calibre is, however, to
be recommended, and a -450 rifle, or 10 or 8 bore Paradox gun,
are most suitable; the closer the hunter can safely get to the
animal the better. A charging elephant can usually, but not
invariably, be turned by a shot in the chest; to fire at the head
is useless.
The buffalo (Bos coffer), formerly one of the commonest
of African wild animals, has been practically exterminated in
many parts by the plague of rinderpest, but is still plentiful in
the malarious swamps between the mouths of the Limpopo and
the Zambezi, and even more so in the Beira district of Portuguese
East Africa. Like most wild animals, the buffalo is naturally
disinclined to take the offensive, but when roused to action, it
will pursue a hunter with relentless ferocity, and is held by many
authorities to be the most dangerous of African big game. The
greatest care should therefore be exercised in following up a
wounded animal, or in approaching one that is apparently dead,
for as long as a spark of life lingers in it, it will endeavour to
destroy its destroyer. A wounded buffalo will nearly always
make for the nearest thicket, where it will await its pursuer,
and in such circumstances, it should be left alone for an hour or
two, when it will probably lie down, and be less active in attack
owing to its wound having stiffened. A charging buffalo always
carries its head at such an angle that a frontal shot is useless,
unless the bullet penetrates through the nose into the throat or
chest. A -500 or -450 rifle with a solid bullet, or an 8-bore Para-
dox gun is the best weapon for buffalo-shooting. Other varieties
of the African bovinesare the smaller, Abyssinian, the Senegalian,
and the dwarf, or Congo buffaloes.
The only other species of African big game calling for special
mention is the giraffe, which is usually ridden down and killed
by a raking shot at the root of the tail; but except when required
for food or specimens, the destruction of this inoffensive animal,
which offers no trophy of the chase, is to be deprecated. Great
numbers are annually destroyed by professional skin hunters,
and their carcases left to rot. Bears, though little known,
exist in North- West Africa, and the ubiquitous wild goat, or ibex,
is also found in the north of the continent. A -450 cordite rifle,
a -303 small bore, and a 10 or 8 bore Paradox gun, is an ample
battery for African big game shooting.
Useful books of reference for African shooting are: Selous,
A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa; Travel and Adventure in S.E.
Africa, by the same author; Baker, Wild Beasts and their Ways;
Swayne, Seventeen Trips through Somaliland; Powell Cotton,
Travel and Adventure in the Congo Free State, A Sporting Trip to
Abyssinia; Melliss, Lion Hunting in Somaliland; Willoughby,
East Africa and its Big Game; Neumann, Elephant Hunting in East
Equatorial Africa; Hay, Western Barbary; Bryden, Kloof and
Karroo; Millais, A Breath from the Veldt; Thomson, Through Masai-
Land, and Theodore Roosevelt, African Game Trails (N.Y. 1910).
Big game in North America has been rapidly disappearing for
several decades before the advance of civilization armed with
breech-loading rifles. Among the carnivora, bears and
pumas are the only species that need be taken into
account as far as shooting is concerned. Of the former
three 1 varieties exist, the grizzly, rarely found east of the Reeky
Mountains, the brown bear, and the black bear, common to practi-
l The Polar bear may be claimed as a fourth species, as it is found
on the mainland of the ice-bound north, but it can hardly be in-
cluded as far as big game shooting is concerned. American natura-
lists recognize many sub-varieties of both 'the grizzly and brown
bear.
1002
SHOOTING
cally the whole of the continent, though now rarely killed in the I
Eastern states. The best country for bears is Alaska, where the
grizzly grows to an enormous size, and the Kodiak Island bear
is probably the largest variety of its genus in the world, except
perhaps the Yezo bear of Japan. In Alaska, bears are frequently
shot along the river-banks, to which they resort in autumn to
feed on the salmon which then crowd the rivers. Otherwise
no fixed rule can be laid down for American bear-shooting; the
quarry may be hunted with dogs, which " tree " the black bear,
or bring the grizzly, which is unable to climb, to bay; it may be
killed over a bait ; it may be spied and stalked, or, most common
of all, it may be accidentally " jumped " and shot by the hunter.
The neck or heart is the most vulnerable spot to aim for, but
bears are very tenacious of life, and astonishingly active, despite
their clumsy appearance. Their eyesight is bad, but their sense
of smell and hearing very acute. The biggest of grizzlies will
rarely charge unprovoked, unless it be a female with cubs, but
when molested or wounded it will push its attack home with the
greatest temerity, and caution should always be exercised
in approaching a wounded animal, even when apparently dead.
Of North American Cenidae the finest is the wapiti, invariably
miscalled elk, once as plentiful as the bison, but now extinct east
of the Rockies, where, though still fairly abundant, it is found in
sadly diminished numbers. It is especially common in Van-
couver, but as is almost invariably the case with insular deer,
the heads are small compared to those of the mainland. Wapiti-
hunting is probably the finest sport in America, not only from
the magnificent trophy these splendid deer afford, but also on
account of the beautiful country they frequent in the United
States; open rolling ranges of hills interspersed with patches of
timber. Wapiti are almost invariably killed by stalking during
the rutting-season, when the big bulls betray themselves by their
defiant challenge. The largest deer in the world is the North
American moose, which, except for a difference in size, is precisely
the same animal as the elk 'of Northern and Eastern Europe.
It is essentially a forest-haunting animal, which in the Eastern
States and Canada is frequently killed by " calling " i.e. imitating
the call of the cow , and so attracting the rutting bull to within
shot of the hunter. This is usually effected by means of a species
of trumpet made of birch-bark, and in this art of "calling"
both white men and Indians become exceedingly skilful. In
Alaska, where the finest moose are found, they are usually
stalked or " still-hunted " on foot, and to " still-hunt " these
animals in dense timber successfully is a most delicate piece of
wood craft. Unless struck in a vital part a wounded moose will
travel enormous distances, but a single shot in the heart, or
better still, the neck, is usually fatal. A wounded moose can be
dangerous and should be approached with caution.
The North American caribou, which is practically the same
animal as the European and Asiatic reindeer, may be divided into
two varieties: the Barren Ground caribou, found in the north,
and the Woodland caribou, found all over the forests of Canada,
and in a few localities in the United States. The former is
probably the only wild animal existing on the American continent
in practically the same numbers as formerly, while the latter,
thanks to careful preservation, is still abundant. The Barren
Ground caribou of the northern regions of North America are
frequently hunted by white men. They form the staple food of
the natives of Arctic North America, and huge quantities of
them are killed during the spring and autumn migration, especi-
ally when swimming lakes or rivers. The woodland caribou is
easily stalked in fairly open ground, and a bullet in the heart or
neck will kill the largest bull. Caribou and reindeer are the only
animals of the Cervidae in which the females have horns as
well as the males. The two most widely separated districts of
Canada, Newfoundland and British Columbia, probably afford
the best ground for woodland caribou. Other American deer
are the mule, or black-tailed, and the Virginian, or white-tailed,
both widely distributed throughout the continent, but the
latter, which is essentially a denizen of thick forest, is much the
most difficult beast to stalk. It is occasionally " hounded "
or hunted with dogs, which drive 'it to runways where the hunter
has previously concealed himself. A smaller variety of the
black-tail is found on the Pacific roast.
The prongbuck, invariably, but incorrectly, styled an antelope,
is a sporting little animal only found on open plains. It was
formerly exceedingly plentiful, but is now sadly diminished in
numbers. It can only be obtained by fair stalking, and the shot
has almost invariably to be taken at long range. It affords
excellent sport when coursed with greyhounds. It is the only
hollow horned ruminant which annually sheds its horns.
Now that the bison is extinct as far as shooting is concerned,
the only bovine of North America is the musk ox of the Arctic
Circle, but few sportsmen care to undergo the discomforts
attendant on the pursuit of this animal, which moreover is an
exceedingly uninteresting beast of sport and offers but a poor
trophy. The same may be said of the Rocky Mountain goat,
a curious animal, which zoologically is an antelope, and which,
though its pursuit exacts great powers of endurance and moun-
taineering ability, is so stupid, or self-confident a creature, that
practically no science is required to stalk it. Very different is
the chase of the magnificent big horn or wild sheep, now scarce
in the United States, but fairly plentiful in the Kootenay district
of British Columbia, and which, when killed by fair stalking,
affords a trophy that may be considered the Blue Ribbon of
American big game shooting. It is occasionally hunted with
dogs, which hold it at bay until the hunter can get within range,
or it may be killed by watching the so-called " licks," or beds
of limestone clay, to which these animals are fond of resorting,
and which they lick or gnaw, presumably as a form of corrective.
Big horn, varying according to locality, are found as far north
as the shores of the Bering Sea, and south to Northern Mexico.
The only other wild animal of North America that needs mention
is the puma or panther. This is invariably hunted with dogs,
which " tree " it or hold it at bay until the arrival of the hunter,
while a good pack of staunch hounds will kill it themselves.
To seek it without the aid of dogs is useless, and it is therefore
an uninteresting beast of sport. Certain American writers
have claimed a rather spurious courage for the puma, but the
general consensus of opinion is that it is a skulking, cowardly
beast.
No special battery need be taken to America; a -303 rifle is
sufficient for all the big game of the continent, but a -400 or -450
cordite rifle is probably preferable for dealing with the big
Alaskan grizzlies.
Useful works of reference for American shooting are: Roosevelt,
Hunting Trips of a Ranchman; Van Dyke, The Still-Hunter; Pike,
The Barren Grounds of Northern Canada; Grohmann, Camps in the
Rockies; Caton, The Antelope and Deer of America; American Big
Came Hunting (edited by Roosevelt); Davis, Caribou Shooting in
Newfoundland; Buxton, Short Stalks; Whitehead, Camp Fires of
the Everglades; and the volumes of the " Badminton Library
dealing with the subject.
Although two or three sorts of unimportant deer are found in
South America, as well as the puma and jaguar, it does
not call for special mention in respect of big game
shooting, an extraordinary fact in view of the enormous
size of the continent. The best work of reference is Kennedy,
Sporting Sketches in South America.
Arctic big game shooting appeals to such a small class of
sportsmen, and is so limited in its variety of game,
that it need not be touched on here. Full information
on the subject can be found in the works of Lament,
Nansen, and other Arctic explorers.
Some of the finest deer stalking in the world can be obtained
in New Zealand, by those able to spare the time for so long a
journey.
Big game shooting is not only an exceedingly expensive
amusement, but one of which the cost has been continually
increasing, and no expedition of any length outside
Europe could be enjoyed under an expenditure of from ^
3-soo; but in view of the enormous difference in ti ons .
local conditions, no less than individual requirements,
no hard and fast scale can be laid down. East Africa and
Somaliland are probably the most expensive localities in which
Other
areas.
SHOP SHOREDITCH
1003
to hunt, on account of the numbers of porters, and followers,
with which a sportsman is obliged to encumber himself, while
British India is relatively the cheapest. South of the Zambezi
in Africa, it is usual to transport stores and equipment in an ox-
wagon, and though the initial cost is heavy, great part of this can
be recouped by selling the equipment at the end of the trip. No
matter in what part of Africa it is purposed to hunt, it is advisable
to bring everything/ camp-equipment Weissman tent, mosquito
curtains, camp bedstead, table and chair and all stores from
England. These latter should be packed in strong boxes, each
branded with the nature of its contents, to weigh when full 65 Ib,
the weight an African porter can conveniently carry. Beads
and presents for natives should not be overlooked. In India, on
the other hand, nearly everything can be procured cheaper and
better there than in England, while as regards North America,
as indeed everywhere, the expense of a shooting trip varies
largely with locality; the outfit of wagons, horses and attend-
ants requisite for Wyoming or Montana, being useless in British
Columbia, or Alaska, where everything has to be " packed " on
Indian porters. Of Central or Northern Asia it is difficult to
speak with any degree of accuracy as regards expense; but on
this important point, no matter in what part of the globe an
expedition may be planned, information should be sought from
only the latest and most reliable authorities.
The hunter's personal equipment, rifle, clothing, saddlery, &c.,
should be the best procurable. Where a camp bed is not practicable,
a sleeping-bag of three partitions and waterproof back should be
taken. Clothing must of course be adapted to the climate, but
flannel must always be worn next the skin, and a cholera belt is a
necessity. It should be remembered that clothing should err on the
side of warmth; a chill can be contracted in the tropics just as
easily as in a temperate clime, and is far more dangerous in its
effects. A small medicine-chest should form part of the equipment,
and most medicines can now be obtained in easily portable tabloids.
Warburg's fever tincture, and quinine, are essential in tropical or
malarious districts. Cheap rubber-soled shoes, to be thrown away
when worn out, are excellent for rock work, otherwise no footgear
can equal a well-made English shooting boot. Good field-glasses
are preferable to telescopes, on account of their handiness. Now
that big game shooting has become the " fashion," and facilities for
world travel are increasing every year, people are prone to enter
on the sport with but vague ideas as to its dangers, hardships and
responsibilities. Presumably no one not of sound constitution
would undertake an expedition to, say, Central Africa, or Asia;
but even granted this necessary qualification, he may be naturally
unfitted by temperament to deal with the discomforts and draw-
backs inseparable from big game shooting, even under the most
favourable conditions. He may be able to plant shot after shot on
the bull's-eye of a stationary iron target, yet this is a very different
matter from finding the shoulder of an animal moving through
surroundings which closely assimilate with its own colouring, or
from placing his bullet in exactly the right spot to stop the charge
of an infuriated wild-beast. In such a situation, if eye, hand, or
nerve fail him, the odds are that the creature will kill him instead
of his killing it, for, as has been truly said, dangerous wild animals
when wounded, or provoked beyond endurance, will hunt a human
being as a terrier does a rabbit. In dealing with coloured retainers,
whether Asiatic or African, the hunter should above all remember
that he is a white man, and exact implicit obedience and respect,
by combining firmness with scrupulously fair treatment. Again,
to instance a minor, but none the less important, essential, how
many would-be big-game hunters are there who can trust themselves
to find their direction by a compass, or steer a course at night by
the aid of the best-known constellations? Yet this is merely one
of a hundred other requirements necessary j;o travel in a wild country.
(P. ST.)
SHOP, a term originally for a booth or stall where goods were
sold, and in most cases also made, now used chiefly in the sense
of a room or set of rooms in a building where goods are displayed
for sale and sold by retail, also the building containing the rooms.
Another application of the word is to the building or rooms in
which the making or repairing of articles is carried on, a
carpenter's shop, a repairing-shop, at engineering works and the
like. In America, in the smaller towns and rural districts the
" shop " is usually styled a " store " (O.F. estor, Late Lat.
staurum, instaurare, to build, construct, in later use, to provide
necessaries). While in America in the larger cities the word
" shop " is becoming applied to the retail places of sale, in English
usage " store " has in recent years become the recognized form
for the large retail places for universal supply.
SHORE, JANE (d. 1527), mistress of the English king Edward
IV., is said to have been the daughter of Thomas Wainstead, a
prosperous London mercer. She was well brought up, and
married young to William Shore, a goldsmith. She attracted
the notice of Edward IV., and soon after 1470, leaving her
husband, she became the king's mistress. Edward called her
the merriest of his concubines, and she exercised great influence ;
but, says More, " never abused it to any man's hurt, but to many
a man's comfort and relief." After Edward's death she was
mistress to Thomas Grey, marquess of Dorset, son of Elizabeth
Woodville by her first husband. She also had relations with
William Hastings, and may perhaps have been the intermediary
between him and the Woodvilles. At all events she had political
importance enough to incur the hostility of Richard of Gloucester,
afterwards King Richard III., who accused her of having practised
sorcery against him in collusion with the queen and Hastings.
Richard had her put to public penance, but the people pitied her
for her loveliness and womanly patience;- her husband was dead,
and now in poverty and disgrace she became a prisoner in London.
There Thomas Lynom, the king's solicitor, was smitten with
her, and wished to make her his wife, but was apparently dis-
suaded. Jane Shore survived till 1527; in her last days she had
to " beg a living of many that had begged if she had not been."
More, who knew her in old age when she was " lean, withered
and dried up," says that in youth she was " proper and fair,
nothing in her body that you would have changed, but if you
would have wished her somewhat higher." Her greatest charm
was, however, her pleasant behaviour; for she was " merry in
company, ready and quick of answer." She figured much in
16th-century literature, notably in the Mirrour for Magistrates,
and in Thomas Heywood's Edward IV. The legend which
connected Jane Shore with Shoreditch is quite baseless; the
place-name is very much older.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Most of our information as to Jane Shore comes
from Sir Thomas More's Life of Richard ///..edited by J. R. Lumby
(Cambridge, 1883), supplemented a little^by Edward Hall (Chronicle,
PP- 363-364). See also H. B. Wheatley's edition of Percy's Reliques,
ii. 264 (1876-1877), and J. Gairdner's Life and Reign of Richard III.
(Cambridge, 1898). (C. L. K.)
SHORE, a word meaning (i) the margin or edge of land when
bordering on a large piece of water, whether of an ocean or sea
or lake, " bank " taking its place when applied to the borders on
either side of a river; for the legal aspect of the " shore," i.e.,
the space bordering on tidal waters between high and low water
mark, see FORESHORE; (2) a prop of timber, used as a support,
temporary or permanent, for a building when threatening to fall
or during reconstruction (see SHORING), and more particularly
a timber support placed against a ship's side when building on
the stocks, or when ready for launching on the slips; the props
which are the final supports knocked away at the moment of
launching are called the " dog-shores," one of the very numerous
uses of " dog " for mechanical devices of many kinds (see SHIP-
BUILDING). Both words are to be derived ultimately from the
same source, viz., the root seen in " shear," to cut off; in sense
(i) the word means a part cut or " shorn " off, an edge, and
appears in M.Eng. as schore, from O. Eng. sceran, to cut, shear; in
sense (2) it is of Scandinavian origin and is an adaptation of
the Nor. skora, a piece of timber cut off to serve as a prop or
support.
SHOREDITCH, an eastern metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.W. by Islington, N.E. by Hackney, E. by
Bethnal Green and Stepney, S. by the City of London, and
W. by Finsbury. Pop. (1901), 1 18,637. It is a P oor and crowded
district extending east and west of Kingsland Road, and has a
large artisan population. Chain-making, cabinet work, and other
industries are carried on. An old form of the name is Soersditch,
and the origin is lost, though early tradition connects it with
Jane Shore, mistress of Edward IV. The parliamentary borough
of Shoreditch includes the Hoxton and Haggerston divisions,
each returning one member. In Hoxton is the Shoreditch
technical institute. The borough council consists of a mayor,
7 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 657-6 acres.
SHOREHAM SHORING
SHOREHAM, a seaport in the Lewes parliamentary division
of Sussex, England, near the mouth of the river Adur, 6 m. W.
of Brighton on the London, Brighton & South Coast railway.
Pop. of urban district of New Shoreham (1901), 3837. The town
is sometimes known as New Shoreham, in distinction from the
village of Old Shoreham, a mile up the river, which was the
former port. The church of St Mary the Virgin lacks almost the
entire nave, but the remainder shows fine work ranging from
Norman to Early English. Of no less interest is the church of
St Nicholas, Old Shoreham, a cruciform Norman structure
retaining some remarkable early woodwork. There are public
gardens containing a museum and theatre. The trade of the
small port is chiefly in coal, corn and timber. Shipbuilding is
also carried on. The important public boys' school of St Nicholas,
Lancing, near Shoreham, is part of a wide scheme which within
Sussex includes the middle-class school at Hurstpierpoint, that
for sons of tradesmen, &c., at St Saviour's, Ardingly, and the girls'
school of St Michael's, Bognor. The scheme was originated by
the Rev. N. Woodward in 1849.
It seems probable that soon after the Conquest the increasing
prosperity of New Shoreham (Soresham, Sorham, Schorham)
resulted in the decay of Old Shoreham, and that the borough
grew up within the former. Shoreham owed its early importance
to the natural harbour formed by the river Adur. In the time
of the Confessor it was held by Azor of the king, but in 1066 was
among the lands granted to William de Braose. From here
Charles II. escaped to Fecamp after the battle of Worcester, 1651.
It became a port of great consequence in the i3th and I4th
centuries, but in the isth and following centuries was much
reduced, doubtless owing to the encroachment of the sea. The
port revived during the reign of George III., when acts were
passed for securing and improving the harbour. Shoreham was
called a borough in 1236. In 1308 there was a mayor, and the
" mayor and bailiffs of Shoreham " are mentioned in a Close Roll
of 1346, but no charter of incorporation is known. The town
adopted the Local Government Act of 1858 in 1866. It returned
two members to parliament from 1 295 until it was disfranchised
in 1885. In the reign of Edward I., William de Braose held at
Shoreham by prescriptive right weekly markets on Wednesdays
and Saturdays, and a two-days' fair at the Exaltation of the
Holy Cross. In 1792 the market-day was Saturday and a fair
was held on the 25th of July, but these are not now held. Ship-
building has always been the chief industry, and was largely
carried on in the i3th and i4th centuries.
SHORING (from " shore," a prop), an operation connected
with building. It is often necessary before actual building is
begun to support adjoining premises while the work of excavating
for underground apartments is being carried out. The art of
shoring comprises the temporary support of buildings, and may
become necessary because of the failure or settlement of some
portion of the structure or for the purpose of upholding the upper
portion while alterations are being made in the lower. There are
several different forms of shoring, each adapted to suit peculiar
circumstances. Much of the shoring for ordinary cases is done
with heavy, roughly sawn timbers strongly braced together,
but for especially heavy work steel members may be introduced
and prove of great value. There is the trouble in connexion with
their use, however, that connexions between steel members are
not made with the same facility as between pieces of timber.
The form of shore in most general use is that known as the
raking shore. It consists of one or more timbers sloping from
the face of the structure to be supported and bedded upon the
ground. As the ground is usually of a more or less yielding
nature, a stout timber plate termed a sole-piece, of sufficient area
to withstand being driven into the soil, is placed to receive the
base of the raking timber or timbers. A wall-plate, with the
object of increasing the area of support, is fixed to the face of the
wall by means of hooks driven into the wall. Where space is
available an angle of 60 is the best to adopt for the main shore,
the auxiliary members ranging in their slope from 45 to 75.
In many cases, especially in towns, the angle of slope is governed
by outside influences such as the width of the footway. Raking
FIG. i.
shores are erected in " systems " of two or more members placed
in the same vertical plane at right angles to the face of the wall.
The different members rise fanwise from the sole-plate to support
the wall at different points.
The distance horizontally be-
tween the systems depends on
the condition of the building
being propped up, and also
upon the spacing of its window
and other openings. The usual
spacing is 10 ft. or 15 ft. apart,
but this distance has often to
be varied according to the posi-
tions of the openings in the
wall. The application of the
shores should be carefully made
and support given only where
there is a corresponding thrust
inside, such as from a floor or
roof, as without this the shore
is liable to act more as a de-
structive agent than a support-
ing one, and cause the wall to
cave in at that point, or placed
against a parapet wall it might
have the effect of pushing it
over. The members, therefore,
should be so placed as to meet
the wall at a point somewhat
below the floor or roof, so that
if their length were continued
they would meet and support the end of the floor or roof
inside. Perhaps the best idea of the positions and functions of
the various component parts of a system of raking shores can
be obtained from a description of the various members, coupled
with some little study of the illustrations (fig. i). The names
of the different timbers are therefore set out here, and against
each part is given a short description of its use and position.
Raking Shore, or Raker. This is a piece of timber sloping up from
the sole-plate to the wall-piece. For a detail drawing of the con-
nexion between the raker and wall-plate see fig. 2. The top and
longest shore is often formed in two pieces, in which form it can be
more conveniently handled. The upper piece is termed the riding
shore or rider, and the lower member which supports it is known as
the back shore. At the junction of the rider and back shore a pair
of folding wedges is introduced and driven in to give the head of the
rider a firm bearing against the needle and wall-plate above. The
sole-piece has already been mentioned as the timber base upon
which the shores take their bed or bearing.
It usually consists of a piece of II by 3
plank, but when the ground is soft or the
load supported very great it should be
bedded on a platform of timber to spread
the weight over a large area. The sole
should be placed sloping down towards
the building at something less than a
right angle (say 80) with the inside of the
shore to enable the latter to be gradually
levered to a firm bearing with the aid of a
crowbar. Wedging should not be resorted
to or the already shaky building may
sustain further injury through the vibra-
tion. When in position the foot of the
shore is fixed by dog-irons to the sole-
piece, and for additional security a cleat
is spiked on the sole tight up to the shore
to prevent any slipping.
Braces. When more than one shore
takes a bearing upon the sole-piece the
feet of the several members are stiffened
and braced either by having rough boarding nailed right across them
or by being bound together with a number of rounds of hoop-iron.
For further strength also braces of i-in. boards, 6 to 9 in. wide, are
taken across from the wall-plate to the topmost shore and spiked
to each intervening member, binding the whole together. These
braces should be fixed a little below the junctions of the heads of
the shores with the wall-plate. The wall-plate has already been re-
ferred to. It is usually a deal 9 in. wide by 3 in. thick, secured tightly
against the face of the wall with wrought-iron wall hooks, forming a
good abutment for the shores and serving to spread the support
FIG. 2 (J-in. to foot).
SHORING
1005
afforded by them. Holes are cut through this plate to receive the
needles (or joggles as they are sometimes termed to distinguish them
from the needles used in dead shoring, which are large horizontal
sjoof
FIG. 3. (j*2 in. to foot.)
members usually of balk timber), which are pieces of wood about
I ft. long and 4 in. square in section, cut with a shoulder to butt
against the wall-plate. A portion of a brick or stone is removed
from the wall and the end of the needle is passed through the rect-
angular hole in the wall-plate and fitted into the recess in the wall.
toof
toof.
FIG. 4. (^ in. to foot.)
The head of the neadle projects about 45 in. beyond the face of the
wall-plate and forms an abutment for the head of the shore. The
head of the shore is notched to fit the underside of the needle to
prevent any movement sideways. If this is not done the shore is
liable to be acted upon by the wind and be blown down. A small
FIG. 5. (^ in. to foot.)
block of wood, cut somewhat after the fashion of a wedge and
termed a cleat, is fixed above the needle to keep the latter quite firm.
Cleats are used also in other positions to keep timbers in position.
Wedges are used to obtain a tight bearing for the rider shores and
are used at their base. As little
force as possible must be em-
ployed in driving them as
vibration is liable to injure the
already weakened wall.
Horizontal shores, or flying
shores as they are more often
termed by the workman, may
be employed for spans up to
about 35 ft. They are used
to support the party walls of
the houses adjoining the pre-
mises being rebuilt. They are
erected during the pulling
down operations and removed
as the new building is raised
and there is no further need
for them. A system of flying
shores consists of one or more
horizontal timbers, sometimes
known as dog shores, cut in
tightly between the wall-
plates fixed with hooks to the
faces of the walls of the ad-
joining buildings (fig. 3).
These horizontal members are
supported at each end by
cleats and needles fixed in the
wall-plate as described for
raking shoring. The shores
are supported in their length
by inclined braces springing
from needles fixed near the
lower ends of the wall-plates and serving to strut the shore at a
point about a third of its length from the wall. Corresponding
braces are carried from the upper surface of the shore and abut
against needles at the upper ends of the plates. Straining pieces
are secured to the upper and lower faces of the shore to serve as
abutments for the ends of the braces. The best angle for these braces
is one of 45, but a smaller inclination than this is frequently adopted.
Wedges are inserted, usually at the end of the flyer so as to tighten
this up between the wall-plates, and sometimes between the braces
and the straining piece, and carefully driven to tighten up the
whole and cause each timber to find a close bearing. If the adjoining
premises are of considerable height and especially if it is proposed
to undertake extensive excavations, the systems of flying shores
may need to be somewhat complicated, each consisting of several
horizontal members spaced from 10 to 13 ft. apart and well strutted
one to another and to the wall-plate (fig. 4). In the application of
this form of shoring, as in
raking shores, the same rules
apply as regards placing the
shores on the face of the wall in
a proper position to obtain a
solid abutment on a floor or
roof on the other side. The
members should be securely
dogged and spiked together to
form a homogeneous frame-
work capable of resisting the
attacks of a strong wind, which
in an exposed position will
sometimes destroy a poorly
constructed framework.
Horizontal shores should be
adopted wherever possible in
preference to raking shores.
Besides being more economical,
they are more convenient and
more effectual than rakers
springing from the ground,
especially if the height of the
building is considerable and the
span at the most not much over
30 ft. Apart from the economy
effected, they present a direct
resistance to the thrust and are
VERTICAL 3IORING
FIG. 6. (tV in. to foot.)
well out of the way of any building operations that may be carried
on below them, so that there is no risk of their being accidentally
disturbed, whereas the feet of raking shores are generally in the
way of the workmen, and if not disturbed by accidental blows from
materials or carts will very likely be loosened and rendered useless
by the digging and pumping which is going on around them.
Needle shoring is the next method of temporary support to come
under consideration. It is known also as vertical shoring and dead
shoring, and is the means usually adopted to support temporarily
ioo6
SHORING
the upper portion of the walls of a building w'uen it is found necessary I great consequence. Such methods perhaps work very well for
to reconstruct the foundations or to make large openings in the | ordinary buildings, but in special cases they may very well lead to
shoring being constructed in too fragile
a manner, with serious results. Some
rules which experience has shown to
work satisfactorily for ordinary work are
given below, together with the ap-
proximate scantlings of the timber
required.
Rides and Sizes for Raking Shores.
Walls 15 ft. to 30 ft. high should have
2 shores to each system; if 30 ft. to 40
ft. in height, 3 shores each system; if
40 ft. or more in height, 4 shores, with
an additional shore for each 10 ft. in-
crease. Shoring is rarely seen more than
5 shores high. The angle of the main
shores is usually about 60, and none of
the timbers should exceed an angle of
75. Some of the lower shores will slope
much less than this, at angles between
4Oand6o. The systems should not be
placed at a greater distance apart than
15 ft. It is often found convenient to
place them at the piers between window
openings. As regards the sizes of the
timbers used for walls 15 ft. to 20 ft.
high, the shores may be 4 in. or 5 in.
square in section; for walls 20 ft. to 30
ft. high, 6 in. by 6 in., or q in. by <^J in.;
for walls 30 ft. to 35 ft. high, 12 in. by
6 in., or 8 in. by 8 in. ; for walls 40 ft.
to 50 ft. high, 9 in. by 9 in.; for walls
above this height 12 in. by 9 in.
For Horizontal or Flying Shores. For
spans not exceeding 15 ft. the principal
strut may be 6 in. by 4 in., with raking
struts 4 in. by 4 in.; for spans exceed-
ing 15 ft. but not exceeding 35 ft. the
size of the principal strut should be
From a photograph by W. T. Green.
FIG. 7. Shoring of the Presbytery, Exterior, Winchester Cathedral Restoration.
lower parts of the wall, as, for example, when putting a shop front in
an existing building. This form of shoring consists of horizontal
members of balk timber termed needles (very different from the
needles used in raking and flying shoring), which are passed through
holes in the wall to be supported, at a sufficient height to allow of
the insertion of any arch or lintels that may be necessary above the
opening it is proposed to cut (figs. 5 and 6). The needles are sup-
ported at each end by an upright timber or dead shore, one on each
side of the wall to each needle. These should not be allowed to
rest upon any floor or vault but be carried down to a solid foundation
and set upon and securely dogged to a timber sleeper running
parallel to the wall. If it is not practicable to take the inner dead
shore through intervening floors down to the solid ground in one
piece, and it is necessary for its base to be set upon the floor or upon
sleepers placed on the floor, the strutting must be continued in a
direct line below it until a firm foundation is obtained. Between
the needle and the head of the dead shores folding wedges are in-
serted to force the horizontal supporting balk firmly up to the
underside of the masonry. Connexions between the dead shores and
the needles and sleepers are made with wrought iron dogs. The
spacing; of the systems of dead shoring depends to a large extent
upon the material with which the wall is constructed; for brickwork
they should be placed at intervals not greater than 6 ft. With this
form of shoring especially it is often found necessary to adopt other
methods auxiliary to the main shoring. These take the form of
raking or flying shores from the face of the building. All the openings
in the wall above should be well strutted between their reveals to
prevent any alteration of shape taking place. Inside the building
vertical shores or strutting must be carried up independently in a
direct line between the floors with head and sole plates at floor
level and ceiling. This strutting must start from a firm foundation
at the bottom of the building and be tightly wedged up so as to
relieve the wall of any weight from the floors and roof. To obviate
settlement as much as possible, work done in underpinning should
be built slowly with Portland cement mortar mixed in strong
proportions. Before the shoring is removed at least a week should
elapse to allow the work to set hard and firm. Then the needles
should be carefully loosened and removed and the holes from which
they were withdrawn made good. The remainder of the props can
then be " struck," leaving the raking or flying shores until the last.
If possible this work should be spread over several days, an interval
of a day or two being left between the removal of each portion of
timbering to allow the work gradually to set on its new bearings.
Shoring should be the subject of careful calculations to ascertain
the most miii:ilil<- sizes of timbers and to determine the most appro-
priate points of support. This is not always done, however, and
much work of this character is carried out by rule of thumb methods.
The usual result is that the timber used is of a much greater size
than is really necessary, although as the material is not much
injured and is available on removal for re-use this fact is not of
from 6 in. to 9 in. square, and the raking struts from 6 in. by 4 in.
to 9 in. by 6 in.
Interesting examples of shoring on a large scale may frequently
From a photograph by W. T. Green.
FIG. 8. Shoring of the Presbytery, Interior, Winchester
Cathedral Restoration.
be seen applied to large buildings in the course of repair or restora-
tion. The rebuilding of the foundations of the retro-choir and lady
chapel of Winchester cathedral which was carried out in the autumn
SHORNCLIFFE SHORTHAND
1007
of 1906 necessitated the erection of a very elaborate and complicated
arrangement of shoring to uphold the masonry while the work of
underpinning the walls was being carried on. The foundations of
the eastern portion of the cathedral were found to be dangerously
insecure, being in fact laid upon a bed of soft mart only 10 ft. below
the surface of the ground, in spite of the fact that at a depth of
16 ft. a hard solid stratum of gravel, at least 6 ft. thick, is arrived
at. The medieval builders without doubt entertained suspicions
as to the sustaining power of their proposed foundation, and so to
ensure stability, as they thought, strengthened it by placing below
the masonry horizontal layers of beech trees, filling up the interstices
with hard chalk and flints. These contrivances were not sufficient
to prevent the gradual sinking, through succeeding centuries, of
the heavy mass of masonry. This not only affected the footings of
the building, but caused fissures of an alarming nature in the vaulting
nnd walls. Under the direction of Mr T. G. Jackson a carefully
designed arrangement of shoring was applied, consisting of raking
shores, flying shores and needling, for the purpose of the under-
pinning, with specially designed timbering to support the arches
and vaulting while they were undergoing repair. The foundations
were found to be much undermined by water, which filled the
excavations made for the underpinning in such quantities that it
was necessary to employ a diver to deposit cement concrete in bag-
fuls upon the gravel bed to which the new foundations are taken
down. The illustration (fig. 7) wilt readily explain the external
shoring above described, while fig. 8 shows the interior shoring of
the presbytery.
AUTHORITIES. The principal works of reference on this subject
are: C. H. Stock, Shoring and Underpinning; T. Tredgold, Ele-
mentary Principles of Carpentry; ]. Blagrove, Shoring and its
Application. (J. BT.)
SHORNCLIFFE, a military station in Kent, England, on high
ground immediately north of Sandgate and 3 m. W. of Folkestone.
It was first established in 1803, when Sir John Moore here trained
the troops which afterwards formed the Light Division in the
Peninsular War. Its position was chosen as a strategic position
on the flank of the French invader who was expected at the time
to descend upon the English coast.
SHORT, FRANCIS JOB (1857- ), English engraver, was
born at Stourbridge, Worcestershire, on the igth of June 1857.
He was educated to be a civil engineer, and was engaged on
various works in the Midlands until 1881, when he came to
London as assistant to Mr Baldwin Latham in connexion with
the Parliamentary Inquiry into the pollution of the river Thames.
He was elected an associate member of the Institute of Civil
Engineers in 1883. Having worked at the Stourbridge School
of Art in his early years he joined the National Art Training
School, South Kensington, in 1883. He also worked at the life
class under Professor Fred Brown at the Westminster School of
Art, and for a short time at the Schools of the Royal Institute
of Painters in Water-colours. His real life-work now became
that of an original and translator engraver. He was a keen
student of.the works of J. M. W. Turner; and his etchings and
mezzotints from Turner's Liber Studiorum (1885 seq.), wonder-
ful examples of painstaking devotion and unrivalled skill, were
among his earliest successes, showing the deepest sympathetic
study of the originals combined with a full knowledge of the
resources of engraving and unwearied patience. Short received
the highest praise and constant advice and encouragement from
Ruskin, and the co-operation of students of Turner such as
Mr W. G. Rawlinson and the Rev. Stopford Brooke. After
completing the series from the existing plates of Turner's Liber
Short turned to the subjects which Turner and his assistants had
left incomplete. Several fine plates resulted from this study,
bearing the simple lettering " F. Short, Sculp., after J. M. W.
Turner, R.A.," which told very little of the work expended on
their production even before the copper was touched. Short also
reproduced in fine mezzotints several of the pictures of G. F.
Watts, " Orpheus and Eurydice," " Diana and Endymion,"
" Love and Death," " Hope," and the portrait of Lord Tennyson,
all remarkable as faithful and imaginative renderings. His own
fine quality as a water-colour painter made him also a sym-
pathetic engraver of the landscapes of David Cox and Peter de
Wint. His subtle drawing of the receding lines of the low banks
and shallows of river estuaries and flat shores is seen to perfection
in many of his original etchings, mezzotints, and aquatints,
notably " Low Tide and the Evening Star " and " The Solway
at Mid-day." Other plates that may be mentioned are:
" Gathering the Flock on Maxwell Bank," a soft -ground etching;
" The Ferry over the Blyth," " Walberswick Pier," soft -ground;
" Dutch Greengrocery," " Noon on the Zuider Zee," " De-
venter," " Strolling Players at Lydd," " An April Day in Kent,"
and " Staithes," all etchings; " A Wintry Blast on the Stour-
bridge Canal," " Peveril's Castle," and " Niagara Falls," dry
points; " The Curfew," " A Span of old Battersea Bridge,"
and " Sunrise on Whitby Scaur," aquatints; " Ebbtide, Putney
Bridge," " The Weary Moon was in the Wane," " Solway Fishers,"
" The Lifting Cloud," and " A Slant of Light in Polperro Har-
bour," mezzotints. Short was elected A.R.A. in 1906 when the
rank of associate-engraver was revived. As head of the Engrav-
ing School at the Royal College of Art, South Kensington, he
had great influence on younger engravers. Short was elected to
the Royal Society of Painter-Etchers and Engravers in 1885,
and took a prominent part in conducting its affairs. In 1910 he
succeeded Sir Seymour Haden as president. He received,
amongst other distinctions, the gold medal for engraving at the
Paris International Exhibition, 1889, and another gold medal
(Rap pel) 1900.
The Etched and Engraved Work of Frank Short, by Edward F.
Strange (1908), describes 285 plates by the artist. (C. H.*)
SHORTHAND, a term applied to all systems of brief hand-
writing which are intended to enable a person to write legibly
at the rate of speech. Synonyms in common use are steno-
graphy (from OTTOS, narrow or close), and tachygraphy (from
i*, swift), or occasionally brachygraphy (from /3paxw, short).
Greek and Roman Tachygraphy. The question of the existence
among the ancient Greeks of a system of true tachygraphy, that
is, of a shorthand capable of keeping pace with human speech,
has not yet been solved. From surviving records we know that
there were, both in the 4th century B.C. and in the early centuries
of the Christian era, as well as in the middle ages, systems in
practice whereby words could be expressed in shortened form
by signs or groups of signs occupying less space than the ordinary
method of longhand writing. But such system? appear to have
been systems of brachygraphy or stenography, that is, of
shortened writing, which were not necessarily also systems of
tachygraphy properly so called. If, however, as there is some
reason to believe, the Roman system of tachygraphy, as
exhibited in the Tironian notes (see below) was derived from a
Greek system, it may fairly be inferred that the latter system
was also a developed system of tachygraphy. But, be that as it
may, no very early specimens of Greek shorthand have hitherto
come to light; and the key to the decipherment of the steno-
graphic inscriptions in the waxen book of the 3rd century in the
British Museum (see below) still remains to be discovered. We
are therefore in the dark whether we have in this MS. an example
of true tachygraphic writing. Here it may be noticed that
certain words of Diogenes Laertius have been taken to imply that
Xenophon wrote shorthand notes (vTroarintiuoanevos) of the
lectures of Socrates; yet a similar expression in another passage,
which will not bear this meaning, renders it hardly possible that
tachygraphy is referred to.
The surviving records of Greek shorthand are not very numerous,
although they are scattered through a long period of time, beginning
with the 4th century B.C. and extending to the 1 4th century. They
have been arranged in three groups. At the head of the first group,
which embraces all that has been found dating down to the 3rd
century, is a remarkable inscription, unfortunately fragmentary, on
a marble slab discovered on the Acropolis of Athens in 1884, which is
attributed to the 4th century B.C. ; and it is on this discovery that
the actual claim of tachygraphy to have been practised among the
ancient Greeks chiefly rests. The inscription describes a system,
or rather part of a system, whereby certain vowels and consonants
can be expressed by strokes placed in various positions. But here,
too, it has been urged that we have the explanation of a system of
brachygraphy only, and not one of tachygraphy. To the first group
also belong a few specimens of shorthand writing on papyri of the
2nd and 3rd centuries, and, above all, the most important MS. of
Greek stenographic symbols hitherto discovered. This is the waxen
book already referred to (Brit. Mus., Add. MS. 33,270), consisting of
seven wooden tablets coated with wax on both sides, and two covers
thus coated on the inner sides, which seems to have been the exercise-
book of a shorthand scholar who has covered its pages with symbols,
which in places are repeated again and again as if for practice.
ioo8
SHORTHAND
In these symbols we may have an actual system of tachygraphic
shorthand, and not a mere syllabary; but unfortunately they have
not yet been interpreted.
The second group of examples of Greek shorthand is confined to a
few fragmentary papyri and waxen tablets ranging from the 4th to
the 8th century, chiefly among the Rainer collection at Vienna, to
which Professor Wessely has devoted much labour.
After this there is a long period unrepresented by any remains,
until we come to the period of the third group, which stands quite
apart from the preceding groups, being representative of the medieval
Greek tachygraphy of the loth century. First stands the Paris MS.
of Hermogenes, with some tachygraphic writing of that period,
of which Bernard de Montfaucon (Pal.Gr., p. 351) gives some account,
and accompanies his description with a table of forms which, as he
tells us, he deciphered with incredible labour. Next, the Add.
MS. 18231 in the British Museum contains some marginal notes in
shorthand, of A.D. 972 (Wattenb., "Script. Grace, specim., tab. 19).
But the largest amount of material is found in the Vatican MS.
1809, a volume in which as many as forty-seven pages are covered
with tachygraphic writing of the nth century. Cardinal Angelo
Mai first published a specimen of it in his Scriptorum veterum nova
collectio, vol. vi. (1832); and in his Novae patrum bibliothecae torn,
secundus (1844) he gave a second, which, in the form of a marginal
note, contained a fragment of the book of Enoch. But he did not
quote the number of the MS., and it has only been identified in recent
years. The tachygraphic portion of it has been made the subject of
special study by Dr Gitlbauer for the Vienna Academy. It contains
fragments of the works of St Maximus the Confessor, the confession
of St Cyprian of Antioch, and works of the pseudo-Dionysius Areo-
"pagita. There are also certain MSS. written at Grottaferrata
belonging to the group.
But here again this medieval shorthand is not a tachygraphic
system in the true sense of the word, but a syllabic system having
very little advantage over the ordinary system of contracted long-
hand in respect to rapidity of writing, excepting that the scribecould
pack more of the text into a given space. The medieval system
therefore cannot be regarded as a development of any ancient system
of Greek tachygraphy, but rather as a stunted descendant or petrified
fragment, as it has been called, of an earlier and better system.
Other medieval varieties or phases of Greek shorthand have also
been traced in the I4th and even in the I5th century.
Evidence of the employment of tachygraphy among the Romans
is to be found in the writings of authors under the empire. It
appears to have been taught in schools, and, among others, the
emperor Titus is said to have been skilled in this manner of writing.
According to Suetonius the first introduction of shorthand signs or
notae was due to Ennius; but more generally Cicero's freedman
M. Tullius Tiro is regarded as the author of these symbols, which
commonly bear the title of Notae Tironianae. The Tironian notes
belonged to a system which was actually tachygraphic; that is,
each word was represented by a character, alphabetic in origin,
but having an ideographic value. The notes, as we have them,
have come down to us in a medieval dress, and are probably amplified
from their shapes of early times with various diacritical additions
which attached to them after the practice of the system had died
out, and when the study of them had become an antiquarian pursuit,
demanding a more exact formation of the symbols and their variants
than was possible or necessary to a shorthand writer familiar with
the system and writing at full speed. Such a system of shorthand,
expressing words by comprehensive symbols or word-outlines, could
be the only system possible for rapid reporting of human speech.
But it seems that in instances where a symbol was not forthcoming
to express an unusual word, such as a proper name, it was customary,
at least in the written notes which have survived, to express it by
a group of syllabic signs. A reporter, taking down a speech, could
not have waited to express the unusual word or proper name by
such a slow process; and no doubt in actual practice he would,
in such an emergency, have invented on the spur of the moment
some conventional sign which he would remember how to expand
afterwards. But in the medieval inscriptions written in Tironian
notes a syllabic system was made use of in such cases; and hence
arose variations in different countries in the syllabic method of ex-
pressing words; an Italian system, a French system and a Spanish
system having already been identified. Such a syllabic system is
comparable with the " African " and " Italian " varieties of the
medieval Greek shorthand system noticed above.
There are no ancient documents written in Tironian notes. But
the tradition of their employment survived, especially in the
chanceries of the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties of the
Prankish empire; and a limited use of them was made by the
officials who controlled the royal diplomas. In Merovingian docu-
ments they generally accompany the subscription of the referendary,
the earliest instance being in a diploma' of Chlothar II. A.D. 625.
From the reign of Thierry III. they become fairly frequent. They
give brief indications referring to the composition of the deed, the
name of the person moving for it, that of the official revising it, &c.
Such uses may be regarded as safeguards against forgery. A more
extensive employment of the notes prevailed under the Carolingian
monarchs. Official MSS. were written in these characters as, for
example, the formulary of the chancery of Louis the Pious. They
appear in subscriptions, often attached to the ruches (see DIPLO-
MATIC). Sometimes they accompany the monogrammatic invocation
at the beginning of a deed ; sometimes they themselves contain the
invocation or a pious formula. Such notes continued to appear in
royal deeds down to the end of the 9th century ; and so inveterate
had their employment become in certain positions in the charters,
that the scribes, after having forgotten their meaning, went on
adding mere imitative signs. In the loth century they appear in
ecclesiastical and even private deeds, but in the latter class of docu-
ments their use was probably only suggested by vanity and pre-
tension to learning on the part of the scribes. Even in the nth
century a few notes lingered on, their meaning fast dying out.
In general literature Tironian notes were adopted in the 9th and
loth centuries by the revisers and annotators of texts. Of this
period also are several MSS. of the Psalter written in these characters,
which it has been suggested were drawn up for practice at a time
when a fresh impulse had been given to the employment of shorthand
in the service of literature. The existence also of volumes containing
lexicons or collections of Tironian notes, of the same period, points
to a temporary revival of interest in these symbols of Roman tachy-
graphy. But such revival was short-lived; early in the nth
century it had expired.
AUTHORITIES. J. Gomperz, Uber ein bisher unbekanntes griech.
Schriftsystem (Vienna Academy, 1884) and Neue Bemerkungen (1895) ;
M. Gitlbauer, Die drei Systeme der griech. Tachygraphie (Vienna
Academy, 1896); K. Wessely, Ein System altgriech. Tachygraphie
(Vienna Academy, 1896); T. W. Allen, "Fourteenth Century
Tachygraphy," Journ. Hellen. Studies, xii. (1890); F. W. G. Foat,
" On Old Greek Tachygraphy," J.H.S., xx., giving a full biblio-
graphy (1901); Archiv fur Stenographic (new series, 1901); F. Ruess,
Uber griech. Tachygraphie (1882); J. W. Zeibig, Geschichte und
Literatur der Geschwindschreibekunst (1878); V. Gardthausen,
Griech. Paldographie (1879); P. Carpentier, Alphabetum Tironianum
(1747); U. F. Kopp, Palaeographia critica (1827); J. Tardif, Mem.
sur les notes tironiennes (1854); O. Lehmann, Quaestiones de notis
Tironis, &c. (1869); A. P. Kiihnelt, Uber die Geschwindschrift der
Alien (1872); F. Ruess, Uber die Tachygraphie der Romer (1879);
W. Schmitz, Comment, notarum Tironiarum (1893) and many other
works; Melanges J. Havet (1895); J. Havet, (Euvres (1896); E.
Chatelain, Introduction a la lecture des notes tironiennes (containing a
full bibliography, 1900). (E. M. T.)
In the loth century all practical acquaintance with the
shorthand systems of Greece and Rome faded completely
away, and not till the beginning of the I7th can the art be said
to have revived. But even during that interval systems of
writing seem to have been practised which for speed approxi-
mated to modern shorthand. 1
Shorthand in English-speaking Countries. England was the
birthplace of modern shorthand. The first impulse to its cultiva-
tion may possibly be traced to the Reformation. When the
principles of that movement were being promulgated from the
pulpit, a desire to preserve the discourses of the preacher naturally
suggested the idea of accelerated writing. It is certainly striking
that in the early systems so many brief arbitrary signs are
provided to denote phrases common in the New Testament and
Protestant theology. In the early systems of Dr Timothy Bright 2
and Peter Bales 3 almost every word is provided with an arbitrary
sign. Dr Bright (c. 1551-1615) was a doctor of medicine who
afterwards entered the church. His Characterie. An Arte of
1 For instances, see Zeibig's Geschichte u. Lit. der Geschwindschreibe-
kunst (Dresden, 1878), pp. 67-79. F r John of Tilbury's system
(c. 1175), see especially Shorthand, No. 5, and Hermes, viii. p. 303.
2 The Bodleian Library contains the only known copy of Bright 's
book. For a description of the system, sectPhonelic Journal (1884),
p. 86; Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education (Wash-
ington, 1884), No. 2, p. 8; and Notes and Queries, 2nd ser., vol. ii.
p. 394. A is represented by a straight line, the other letters of the
alphabet by a straight line with a hook, circle, or tick added at the
beginning. Each alphabetic sign placed in various positions, and
having some additional mark at the end, was used to indicate arbi-
trarily chosen words beginning with a, b, c, d, &c. There were four
slopes given to each letter and twelve ways of varying the base, so
that .forty-eight words could be written under each letter of the
alphabet if necessary. Thus the sign for b with different terminal
marks and written in four different directions signified a number of
words commencing with b; 537 such signs had to be learned by heart.
By adding certain external marks these signs were applied to other
words: thus by writing a dot in one of two positions with respect
to a sign the latter was made to represent either a synonym or a
word of opposite meaning. Under air are given as synonyms breath,
exhalation, mist, reek, steam, vapour.
* Bales's method was to group the words in dozens, each dozen
headed by a Roman letter, with certain commas, periods, and other
marks to be placed about each letter in their appropriate situations,
so as to distinguish the words from each other.
SHORTHAND
1009
A, b,C
systems.
Shorte, Surifle and Secrete Writing by Character (1588), which set
forth a system of writing by character or shorthand, was dedicated
to Queen Elizabeth, who rewarded the author with a Yorkshire
living, and granted to him the sole right for fifteen years of
teaching and printing books " in or by Character not before this
tyme commonlye knowne and vsed by anye other cure subjects "
(Patent Roll, 30, Eliz. part 12). Peter Bales (i547?-i6io)
promised his pupils that " you may also learn to write as fast as
a man speaketh, by the arte of Brachigraphie by him devised,
writing but one letter for a word "; his " Arte of Brachigraphie "
is contained in his Writing Schoolemaster (1590). Only with a
gigantic memory and by unremitting labour could one acquire
a practical knowledge of such methods.
The first shorthand system worthy of the name which, so far
as is known, appeared in England is that of John Willis (d. c.
1627), whose Art of Stenographic (London, 14 editions *
winis, from 1602 to 1647) is substantially based on the
common alphabet ; but the clumsiness of his alphabetic
signs, and the confused laborious contrivances by which he
denotes prefixes and terminations, involving the continual
lifting of the pen, would seem to render his method almost as
slow as longhand. Of the numerous systems which intervened
between J. Willis's and Isaac Pitman's phonography (1837)
nearly all were based, like Willis's, on the alphabet, and may be
called, a, b, c systems. But seven were, like phonography,
strictly phonetic, viz. those by Tiffin (1750), Lyle (1762), Holds-
worth and Aldridge (1766), Roe (1802), Phineas Bailey (1819),
Towndrow (1831) and De Stains (1839).
A few general remarks apply largely to all the a, b, c systems.
Each letter is designated by a straight line or curve (vertical,
horizontal, or sloping), sometimes with the addition
of a hook or loop. C and q are rejected, k being
substituted for hard c and q, s for soft c. Signs are
provided for ch, sh, th. G and j are classed under one sign,
because in some words g is pronounced as /, as in giant, gem.
Similarly each of the pairs /, v and s, z has only one sign. A
few authors make the signs fory, , z heavier than those for g,f, s.
Some class p and 6, t and d, each under one sign. The steno-
graphic alphabet is therefore a, b, d, e,f (v) ,g(j), h, i, k, I, m, n, o,
p, r, s (z), t, u, vi, x, y, ch, sh, th. Letters which are not sounded
may be omitted. Gh, ph may be counted as/ in such words as
cough, Philip; but the th in thing is never distinguished from
the th in them. Thus the a, b, c systems are largely phonetic
with respect to consonant-sounds; it is rather with regard to the
vowels that they disregard the phonetic principle. No attempt
is made to provide adequately for the many vowel-sounds of the
language. Thus the signs for like and lick, for rate and rat, &c.,
are the same. In the case of vowel-sounds denoted by two
letters, that vowel is to be written which best represents the
sound. Thus in meat the e is selected, but in great the a. In
some a, b, c systems, including the best of them (Taylor's), a
dot placed anywhere does duty for all the vowels. This practice
is, of course, a fruitful source of error, for pauper, and paper, gas
and goose, and hundreds of other pairs of words would according
to this plan be written alike. In the early systems of Willis
and his imitators the vowels are mostly written either by joined
characters or by lifting the pen and writing the next consonant
in a certain position with respect to the preceding one. Both
these plans are bad; for lifting the pen involves expenditure
of time, and vowels expressed by joined signs and not by marks
external to the word cannot be omitted, as is often necessary in
swift writing, without changing the general appearance of the
word and forcing the eye and the hand to accustom themselves
to two sets of outlines, vocalized and unvocalized. In the better
a,b,c systems the alphabetic signs, besides combining to denote
words, may also stand alone to designate certain short common
1 The first edition, published anonymously, is entitled The Art
of Stenographic, teaching by plaine and certaine rules, to the capacitie
of the meanest, and for the use of all professions, the way to Compendious
writing. Wherevnto is annexed a very easie Direction for Stegano-
graphie, or Secret Writing, printed at London in 1602 for Cuthbert
Burbie. The only known copies are in the Bodleian and British
Museum libraries.
words, prefixes and suffixes. Thus in Harding's edition of
Taylor's system the sign for d, when written alone, denotes do,
did, the prefixes de-, des-, and the terminations -dom, -end, -ened,
-ed. This is a good practice if the words are well chosen and
precautions taken to avoid ambiguities. Numbers of symbolical
signs and rough word-pictures, and even wholly arbitrary marks,
are employed to denote words and entire phrases. Symbolical
or pictorial signs, if sufficiently suggestive and not very numerous,
may be effective; but the use of "arbitraries" is objectionable
because they are so difficult to remember. In many shorthand
books the student is recommended to form additional ones for
himself, and so of course make his writing illegible to others.
The raison d'etre of such signs is not far to seek. The proper
shorthand signs for many common words were . so clumsy or
ambiguous that this method was resorted to in order to provide
them with clearer and easier outlines. For the purpose of
verbatim reporting the student is recommended to omit as a rule
all vowels, and decipher his writing with the aid of the context.
But, when vowels are omitted, hundreds of pairs of words having
the same consonant skeleton (such as minister and monastery,
frontier and furniture, libel and label) are written exactly alike.
This is one of the gravest defects of the a, b, c systems.
John Willis's system was largely imitated but hardly improved
by Edmond Wiilis (1618), T. Shelton (1620), Witt (1630), Dix
(1633), Mawd (1635), and Theophilus Metcalfe (1635). T.
Shelton's system, republished a great many times down to 1687,
was the one which Samuel Pepys used in writing his diary. 1
It was adapted to German, Dutch and Latin. 3 An advertise-
ment of Shelton's work in the Mercurius Politicus of 3rd October
1650 is one of the earliest business advertisements known. The
book of Psalms in metre (206 pages, 25X13 in.) was engraved
according to Shelton's system by Thomas Cross. Metcalfe's
Radio-Stenography, or Short-Writing, was republished again
and again for about a hundred years. The 35th " edition "
is dated 1693, and a S5th is known to exist. The inefficiency of
the early systems seems to have brought the art into some
contempt. Thus Thomas Heywood, a contemporary of Shake-
speare, says in a prologue * that his play of Queen Elizabeth
" Did throng the seats, the boxes and the stage
So much that some by stenography drew
A plot, put it in print, scarce one word true."
Shakespeare critics would in this manner explain the badness of
the text in the earliest editions of Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet,
Taming of the Shrew, Merry Wives of Windsor, and Henry V.
Perhaps a study of J. Willis's system and of E. Willis's (which,
though not published till after Shakespeare's death, was practised
long before) may shed light on corrupt readings of the text of
these plays. 6 Rich's system (1646, 2oth edition 1792) was
reproduced with slight alterations by many other
persons, including W. Addy, Stringer, and Dr Philip
Doddridge (1799 and three times since). The New Testament
and Psalms were engraved in Rich's characters (1659, 596 pages,
25X1^ in., 2 vols.), and Addy brought out the whole Bible
engraved in shorthand 6 (London, 1687, 396 pp.). Locke, in
his Treatise on Education, recommends Rich's system; but it is
encumbered with more than 300 symbolical and arbitrary signs.
In 1847 it was still used by Mr Plowman, a most accomplished
Oxford reporter.
In 1672 William Mason, the best shorthand author of the
1 7th century, published his Pen pluck' d from an Eagle's Wing.
The alphabet was largely taken from Rich's. But Mason
in his Art's Advancement (1682) only six of Rich's
letters are retained, and in his Plume Volante (1707) further
2 See a paper by J. E. Bailey, " On the Cipher of Pepys' Diary," in
Papers of the Manchester Literary Club, vol. ii. (1876). Shelton
(1601-1650) is not to be confounded with the translator of Don
Quixote.
3 See Zeibig's Gesch. u. Lit. d. Geschwindschreibekunst, p. 195.
4 Pleasant Dialogues and Drammas (London, 1637), p. 249.
5 See M. Levy's Shakspere and Shorthand (London), and Phonetic
Journal (1885), p. 34.
6 This curiosity is described in the Phonetic Journal (1885), pp. 158,
196. The Bodleian Library has a copy.
Rich.
IOIO
SHORTHAND
changes are made. Initial vowels are written by their alphabetic
signs, final vowels by dots in certain positions (a, e at the begin-
ning; i, y at the middle; o, u at the end), and medial vowels
by lifting the pen and writing the next consonant in those same
three positions with respect to the preceding one. Mason
employed 423 symbols and arbitraries. He was the first to
discover the value of a small circle for i in addition to its proper
alphabetic sign. Mason's system was republished by Thomas
Gurney in 1740, a circumstance which has perpetuated its use
to the present day, for in 1737 Gurney was appointed shorthand
writer to the Old Bailey, and early in the ipth century W. B.
Gurney was appointed shorthand-writer to both Houses of
Parliament. Gurney reduced Mason's arbitraries to about a
hundred, inventing a few specially suitable for parliamentary
reporting. The Gurneys were excellent writers of a cumbrous
system. Thomas Gurney's Brachygraphy passed through at
least eighteen editions.
In 1767 was published at Manchester a work by John Byrom,
sometime fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, entitled The
Byrom Universal English Shorthand, distinguished for its
precision, elegance, and systematic construction.
Byrom had died in 1763. Having lost his fellowship by failing
to take orders, he made a living by teaching shorthand in London
and Manchester, and among his pupils were Horace Walpole,
Lord Conway, Charles Wesley, Lord Chesterfield, the duke of
Devonshire and Lord Camden. Shorthand, it is said, procured
him admission to the Royal Society. He founded a stenographic
club, to the proceedings of which his journal, 1 written in short-
hand, is largely devoted. In the strangers' gallery of the House
of Commons in 1728 Byrom dared to write shorthand from Sir
R. Walpole and others. In 1731, when called upon to give
evidence before a parliamentary committee, he took shorthand
notes, and, complaints being made, he said that if those attacks
on the liberties of shorthand men went on he " must have a
petition from all counties where our disciples dwell, and Man-
chester must lead the way." Thomas Molyneux popularized
the system by publishing seven cheap editions between 1 793 and
1825. Modifications of Byrom's system were issued by Palmer
(1774), Nightingale (1811), Adams (1814), Longmans (1816),
Gawtress (1819), Kelly (1820), Jones (1832) and Roffe (1833).
Byrom's method received the distinction of a special act of
parliament for its protection (15 Geo. II. c. 23, for twenty-one
years from 24th June 1742). To secure lineality in the writing
and facility in consonantal joinings he provided two forms for
b, h, j, w, x, sh, th, and three for /. A, e, i, o, u, he represented
by a dot in five positions with respect to a consonant. Practically
it is impossible to observe more than three (beginning, middle
and end). With all its merits, the system lacks rapidity, the
continual recurrence of the loop seriously retarding the pen.
In 1 786 was published A n Essay intended to establish a Standard
for a Universal System of Stenography, by Samuel Taylor
(London). 2 This system did more than any of its
predecessors to establish the art in England and
abroad. Equal to Byrom's in brevity, it is simpler in construc-
tion. No letter has more than one sign, except w, which has
two. Considering that five vowel places about a consonant
were too many, Taylor went to the other extreme and expressed
all the vowels alike by a dot placed in any position. He directs
that vowels are not to be expressed except when they sound
strong at the beginning and end of a word. Arbitraries he
discarded altogether; but Harding, who re-edited his system in
1823, introduced a few. Each letter when standing alone
represents two or three common short words, prefixes and
suffixes. But the list was badly chosen: thus m represents my
and many, both of them adjectives, and therefore liable to be
confounded in many sentences. To denote in and on by the
same sign is evidently absurd. Taylor's system was republished
1 Byrom's private journal and literary remains have been published
by the Chetham Society of Manchester. See, too, a paper by J. E.
Bailey in the Phonetic Journal (1875), pp. 109, 121.
2 Taylor, it was only lately discovered, died in 1811; see M.
Levy in The Times (April 10, 1902), and Notes and Queries (May 24,
1902).
Taylor.
again and again. In Harding's edition (1823) the vowels are
written on an improved plan, the dot in three positions repre-
senting a, e, i, and a tick in two positions o, u. Several other
persons brought out Taylor's' system, in particular G. Odell,
whose book was re-edited or reprinted not less than sixty-four
times, the later repubh'cations appearing at New York. The
excellence of Taylor's method was recognized on the Continent:
the system came into use in France, Italy, Holland, Sweden,
Germany, Portugal, Rumania, Hungary, &c.
The Universal Stenography of William Mavor (1780) is a very
neat system, and differs from Taylor's in the alphabet and in
a more definite method of marking the vowels. A,e,i, Mavor
are indicated by commas, o, u, y, by dots, in three
places with respect to a letter, namely beginning, middle and
end. Other systems were introduced by J. H. Lewis (1812) and
Moat (1833).
The vast mass of a, b, c systems are strikingly devoid of
originality, and are mostly imitations of the few that have been
mentioned. Nearly all may be briefly described as consisting
of an alphabet, a list of common words, prefixes and suffixes,,
expressed by single letters, a list of arbitrary and symbolical
signs, a table showing the best way of joining any two
letters, a few general rules for writing and a specimen
plate. 3
Pitman's phonography, on account of its enormous diffusion
in Great Britain and the colonies, and in America, its highly
organized and original construction, and its many
inherent advantages, merits a more extended notice pltmaa ' s
than has been given to the systems already mentioned, gnaby
In 1837 Mr (afterwards Sir) Isaac Pitman (q.v.) com-
posed a short stenographic treatise of his own, which Samuel
Bagster published under the title of Stenographic Sound-Hand.
The price was fixed at fourpence, for the author had determined
to place shorthand within the reach of everybody. In 1840 a
second edition appeared in the form of a penny plate bearing the
title Phonography, the principal feature of the system being that
it was constructed on a purely phonetic basis. In December
1841 the first number of what is now known as Pitman's
Journal appeared at Manchester in a lithographed form. It was
then called the Phonographic Journal, and subsequently in turn
the Phonotypic Journal, the Phonetic News and the Phonetic
Journal. Pitman's system was warmly taken up in America,
where it was republished in more or less altered forms, especially
by the author's brother Benn Pitman, and by Messrs A. J.
Graham, J. E. Munson, E. Longley, and Eliza B. Burns. A
large number of periodicals lithographed in phonography are
published in England and America. The Shorthand Magazine,
monthly, was started in 1864. Of standard English books
printed or lithographed in phonography may be mentioned,
besides the Bible, New Testament, and Prayer Book, The
Pilgrim's Progress, The Vicar of Wakefield, Pickwick Papers,
Tom Brown's School-Days, Macaulay's Essays and Biographies,
Gulliver's Travels, Blackie's Self-culture, Bacon's Essays, and a
long list of tales and selections. Numerous societies have been
formed in all English-speaking countries for the dissemination of
phonography, the largest being the Phonetic Society. Phono-
graphy has been adapted to several foreign languages, but
not so successfully as Gabelsberger's German system. T. A.
Reed's French Phonography (1882) was intended only for English
phonographers who wish to report French speeches. Other
adaptations to French were by A. J. Lawson and J. R. Bruce.
A society for the adaptation of phonography to Italian was
organized at Rome in 1883 by G. Francini, who published his
results (Rome, 1883, 1886). Phonography was adapted to
Spanish by Parody (Buenos Aires, 1864), to Welsh by R. H.
Morgan (Wrexham, 1876), and to German by C. L. Driesslein
(Chicago, 1884).
The main features of Pitman's system must now be described.
The alphabet of consonant-sounds is p, b; t, d; ch (as in chip),
j; k,g (as in gay); /, ; th (as in thing), th (as in them); s, z; sh,
* For early English systems, see especially some careful papers
by Mr A. Paterson in Phonetic Journal (1886).
SHORTHAND
th (as in vision) ; m, n, ng (as in thing) ; I, r ; w, y, h. The sounds
p, t, ch, k are represented respectively by the four straight strokes
\ I/ ; and the corresponding voiced sounds b, d, ]', g by exactly
the same signs respectively written heavy. F, th (as in thing), s,
sh are indicated by^-O^s respectively ; the same signs written
heavy and. tapering to the ends are used for v, dh, z, zh respec-
tively. M, n, I, r are denoted by ^^.-^( ^respectively. R is
also represented by ^" written upwards and in a more slanting
direction than the sign for ch. The signs for sh and / may be written
up or down when in combination, but standing alone sh is written
downwards and I upwards. The signs for w, y, h are t/6 d*" >
all written upwards. H has also / down. Ng, mp (or mb), rch (or
17), Ir, are represented by the signs for n, m, r, I respectively written
heavy. Signs are provided for the Scotch guttural ch (as in loch),
the Welsh //, and the French nasal n. S is generally written by a
small circle. The long-vowel sounds are thus classified d (as in
balm), e (as in bait), ee (as in feet), aw (as in law), d (as in coal),
do (as in boot). The vowels d, e, ee are marked by a heavy dot
placed respectively at the beginning, middle, and end of a consonant-
sign; aw, d, do by a heavy dash in the same three positions, and
generally struck at right angles to the direction of the consonant.
The short vowels are a (as in pat), e (as in pet), i (as in pit), 6 (as
in pot), ii (as in but), and oo (as in put). The signs for these are
the same as for the corresponding long vowels just enumerated,
except that they are written light. Signs similarly placed are
provided for the diphthongs oi (as in boil), da or de, di (as in Boan-
erges, poet, coincide), for the series yd, ye, yee, &c., and for the
series wa, we, wee, &c. The signs for ei (as in bite) and ou (as in
cow) are A , and may be placed in any position with respect to a
consonant. A straight line mav receive four hooks, One at each
side of the beginning and end, but a curve only two, one at each
end in the direction of the curve. Hooks applied to a straight
line indicate the addition of r, I, n, and / or v respectively, thus
'\ pr, \ pl,~\> pf or pv, and^ pn ; e ftr, = kl, s k), ^kn
^ rf or rv, /" rn. Hooks applied to a curve denote the addition
of r, n respectively, thus ^v_ fr, \^> fn ; c~^ mr, / s mn. Vowel-
signs placed after (or, in the case of horizontal strokes, under) a
consonant having the n or f, v hook are read between the consonant
i 3 v ^v
and the n or / / thus cough, \s fun, but c-j crow, N pray.
A large hook at the commencement of a curve signifies the addi-
tion of /, as Q__ fl. The hooks combine easily with the circle s,
thus \ sp N, spr (where the hook r is implied or included in the
\v V
spl, >> pns (the hook n being included), \>pfs,&c. The
halving principle is one of the happiest devices in the whole history
of shorthand. The halving of a light stroke that is, writing it
half length implies the addition of t; the halving of a heavy stroke
that of d, the vowel placed after (or under) the halved stroke being
read between the consonant and the added / or d, thus (. thaw,
thought, I. Dee, |. deed, \ pit, *~ cat, fat, y note, &c. By
this means very brief signs are provided for hosts of syllables ending
in t and d, and for a number of verbal forms ending in ed, thus
^ ended. The halving of a heavy stroke may, if necessary, add
t, and that of a light stroke d, thus \* beautified. By combining
the hook, the circle, and the halving principle, two or three to-
gether, exceedingly brief signs are obtained for a number of con-
sonantal series consisting of the combination of a consonant with
one or more of the sounds s, r, I, n, f, t, thus \sp, i \spr, * sprt,
^ sprts; N pi, \. spl,\ spit, ? splnt, \splnts; Vj fn, Va fns,
Vi fnt, ^s fnts ', o frn, ^ frnd, &c. As a vowel-mark cannot con-
veniently be placed to a hook or circle, we are easily led to a way
of distinguishing in outline between such words as ' cough and
' Vj coffee, .\ pen and \^-. penny, ^ race and ^J racy, &c.
This distinction limits the number of possible readings of an un-
vocalized outline. A large hook at the end of a stroke indicates
the addition of -shon (as in fashion, action, &c.). This hook easily
combines with the circle s, as in actions, TR positions. The
circle s made large indicates ss or sz, as in \}' pieces, C^ losses. The
vowel between s and i (z) may be marked inside the circle, as in
^
-j-f exercise, ^f> subsistence. The circle s lengthened to a loop
o
signifies st, as in X step, ^> post, while a longer loop indicates sir, as
in /<p muster, ^~^> minster. The loop may be continued through
the consonantal stroke and terminate in a circle to denote sts and
sirs, as in ^> boasts, ^-tf2> minsters. The loop written on the left
IOII
or lower side of a straight stroke implies the n hook and so signifies
nst, as in :- against, j danced. A curve (or a straight stroke
with a final hook) written double length implies the addition of tr,
dr, or thr, as in \ father, f' letter, v Under, \. fender,
render. This practice is quite safe in the case of curves, but
a straight stroke should not be lengthened in this way when there
is danger of reading it as a double letter. The lineal consonant-
signs may stand alone to represent certain short and common
words as in many of the old, a, b, c systems, with this difference,
that in the old systems each letter represents several words, but in
phonography, in almost every case, only one. By writing the
horizontal strokes in two positions with respect to the line (above
and on) and the others in three positions (entirely above, resting
on and passing through the line) the number is nearly trebled, and
very brief signs are obtained for some seventy or eighty common
short words (e.g. be, by, in, if, at, it, my, me, &c.). A few very
common monosyllables are represented by their vowel-marks, as
.the, remnant of (. ; N % remnant of X V^_ ; 'on, remnant of ,
A certain number of longer words which occur frequently are con-
tracted, generally by omitting the latter pajt, sometimes a middle
part of the word, as in \ (ksp) expect, h (djr) danger,
(krk sk) characteristic, \~. (nd f t) indefatigable. The connective
phrase of the is intimated by writing the words between which it
occurs near to each other. The is often expressed by a short
slanting stroke or tick joined to the preceding word and generally
struck downwards, thus ^f in the, S f or the.
Three principles which remain to be noticed are of such importance
and advantage that any one of them would go far to place phono-
graphy at the head of all other systems. These are the principles
of positional writing, similar outlines and phraseography. (i) The
first slanting stroke of a word can generally be written so as either
to lie entirely above the line, or rest on the line, or run through the
LI \
, | ] > \ jkZI^V I* 1 the case of words ,
composed wholly of horizontal strokes the last two positions (on and
through the line) coincide, as ** . These three positions
are called first, second and third respectively. The first is specially
connected with first-place vowels (d, a; aw, o; i; oi), the second
with second-place vowels (e, e; d, u), and the third with third-place
vowels (ee, i; do, oo; ou). In a fully vocalized style position is not
employed, but m the reporting style it is of the greatest use. Thus
the outline (tm) written above the line Jca must be read either
time or Tom ; when written resting on the line L s tome or tame ;
when struck through the line .L. teem, team or tomb. By this
method the number of possible readings of an unvocalized outline
is greatly reduced. That word in each positional group which occurs
the most frequently need not be vocalized, but the others should.
In the case of dissyllables it is the accented vowel which decides the
position ; thus methought should be written first position L
method second position '""K (2) Another way of distinguishing
between words having the Same consonants but different vowels
to vary the outline. The possibility of variety of outline arises from
the fact that many consonant sounds have duplicate or even triplicate
signs, as we have seen. For instance, r has two lineal signs and a
hook sign, and so each of the words carter, curator, creature and creator
obtains a distinct outline. A few simple rules direct the student
to a proper choice of outline, but some difference of practice obtains
among phonographers in this respect. Lists of outlines for words
having the same consonants are given in the instruction books;
the Reporter's Assistant contains the outline of every word written
with not more than three strokes, and the Phonographic Dictionary
gives the vocalized outline of every word in the language. Aided
by a true phonetic representation of sounds, by occasional vocaliza-
tion, variety of outline, and the context, the phonographic verbatim
reporter should never misread a word. 1 (3) Lastly, phraseography.
It has been found that in numberless cases two or more words may
be written without lifting the pen. A judicious use of this practice
1 Phonography is so legible that the experiment of handing the
shorthand notes to phonographic compositors has often been tried
with complete success. A speech of Richard Cobden, on the Corn
Laws, delivered at Bath on iyth September 1845, and occupying an
hour and a quarter, was reported almost verbatim, and the notes,
with a few vowels filled in, handed to the compositors of the Bath
Journal, who set them up with the usual accuracy. A notice of the
occurrence appeared the next day in the Bath, Journal, and was
immediately transferred to the columns pf The Times and other
newsptpers. Mr Reed tried the same experiment with equal success,
the notes being handed to the compositors in their original state
(Phonetic Journal, 1884, p. 337).
1012
SHORTHAND
promotes legibility, and the saving of time is very considerable.
Words written thus should be closely connected in sense and awkward
joinings avoided. Such phrases are / am, \~ I have, */you are,
--N you may, I, it would, [^ it would not, <*^ we are, </V_ we have,
we have not, "^-^V * have never been, l^ my dear
^
o P
friends, s as far as possible, >-&. for the most part, and
many thousands of others. For the sake of obtaining a good
phraseogram for a common phrase, it is often advisable to omit
some part of the consonant outline. Thus the phrase you must
recollect that may very well be written ^-^* I (you must recollect
that). Lists of recommended phraseograms are given in the
Phonographic Phrase Book, the Legal Phrase Book and the Railway
Phrase Booh.
Specimens of Phonography.
Corresponding Style.
^ " ' -V V V
/ / <[
^ . \ ^ v \
' I x ^x V. ^ \
\
^A \
. vc. v
-f
J_ \
KEY. If all the feelings of a patriot glow in our bosoms on a
perusal of those eloquent speeches which are delivered in the senate,
or in those public assemblies where the people are frequently con-
vened to exercise the birthright of Britons we owe it to shorthand.
If new fervour be added to our devotion, and an additional stimulus
be imparted to our exertions as Christians, by the eloquent appeals
and encouraging statements made at the anniversaries of our various
religious societies we owe it to shorthand. If we have an oppor-
tunity in interesting judicial cases, of examining the evidence, and
learning the proceedings with as much certainty, and nearly as much
minuteness, as if we had been present on the occasion we owe it to
shorthand.
Reporting Style.
KEY (the phraseograms being indicated by hyphens). CHAR-
ACTERISTICS OF THE AGE. The peculiar and distinguishing char-
acteristics of the present-age are-in every respect remarkable.
Unquestionably an extraordinary and universal-change has com-
menced in-the internal as-well-as-the external-world in-the-mind-
of-man as-well-as-in-the habits of society, the one indeed being-the
necessary-consequence of the other. A rational consideration of
the circumstances in-which-mankind are at-present placed must-
show-us that influences of the most-important and wonderful
character have-been and are operating in-such-a-manner-as-to
bring-about if-not-a reformation, a thorough revolution in-the-
organization of society. Never in-the-history-of-the-world have
benevolent and philanthropic institutions for-the relief of domestic
and public affliction; societies for-the promotion of manufacturing,
commercial and agricultural interests; associations for-the instruc-
tion of the masses, the advancement of literature and science, the
development of-true political-principles, for-the extension in-short
of-every description of knowledge and-the-bringing-about of-every
kind-of reform, been-so numerous, so efficient and so indefatigable
in-their operation as at-the-present-day.
An enumeration made in 1894 showed that 95% of British
newspaper reporters used Pitman's system; but there are still
numerous varieties preferred by individuals. Of the
systems published since the invention of phonography
the principal are A. M. Bell's Stenoplionography
(Edinburgh, 1852), Professor J. D. Everett's (London, 1877),
Pocknell's Legible Shorthand (London, 1881), and J. M. Sloan's
adaptation (the Sloan-Duployan) of the French system of
Duploye (1882). More recent essays in English shorthand are
almost entirely in the direction of script characters with con-
nected vowels, as contrasted with the geometric forms and
disjoined vowels of Pitman's phonography. The majority are
founded on the French system of the brothers Duploye, but
Cursive Shorthand (Cambridge, 1889), by Prof. H. L. Callendar,
and Current Shorthand (Oxford, 1892), by Dr Henry Sweet,
may be noted as original methods, the first having a phonetic,
and the second both an orthographic and a phonetic, basis.
The distinctive features in recent shorthand history have been
the widely-extended employment of the art, the increased atten-
tion paid to instruction and the growth of stenographic societies.
Throughout the civilized world the systems employed are those of
the leading authors of the igth century; earlier systems have
now a numerically small number of practitioners. Shorthand
has become an almost indispensable qualification for the amanu-
ensis, and practical stenographic ability is a necessary equipment
of the typewriter operator. In professional and commercial
offices, and more recently in the services, dictation to shorthand
writers has become general. Shorthand has been included among
examination subjects for the army, navy, civil service and
medicine in the United Kingdom, and to a certain extent in other
countries. Its inclusion in the Technical Instruction Act of
1889 was the first recognition of shorthand by the British parlia-
ment, and it was subsequently comprised in the codes of ele-
mentary day and evening continuation schools. It first became
an examination subject for secondary schools in the Oxford Local
Examination in 1888, but the Society of Arts has examined
students of polytechnics, &c., in shorthand since 1876. Examina-
tions in connexion with the phonographic system of Isaac
Pitman date from 1845.
In 1887 the tercentenary of the origination of modern shorthand
by Timothy Bright and the jubilee of Isaac Pitman's phono-
graphy were celebrated by the holding of the first International
Shorthand Congress in London. Subsequent congresses were
held at Paris (1889), Munich (1890), when a statue of Gabels-
berger was unveiled; Berlin (1891), Chicago (1893), Stockholm
(1897), Paris (1900), &c. These gatherings have promoted the
improved organization of stenographic practitioners in the
respective countries. After the first congress, three national
organizations were established in Great Britain by Pitman
writers, which take the place of the Phonetic Society (established
in 1843 and dissolved in 1895). In America the formation of
national associations for reporters and teachers followed the
fifth congress.
As regards speed in shorthand writing, it may be mentioned
that at the exhibition at Olympia (London) in 1908, the " World's
Shorthand Championship " was awarded for 220 words a minute
for five minutes. But it has been claimed that a rate of 250
words a minute has been accomplished. It may be pointed out,
however, that such a rate cannot be wanted for any practical
purpose, since the fastest public speaker never speaks anything
like 250 words a minute, even though for a demonstration such
a thing could be done. The average rate of public speaking is
from 120 to 150 words a minute.
Foreign Shorthand Systems.
To complete the history of the subject, the following notes on
systems introduced in various European countries may be useful.
German. C. A. Ramsay's Tacheographia (Frankfort, 1679, and
several times afterwards until 1743) was an adaptation of T. Shelton's
English system. Mosengeil (1797) first practically introduced short-
SHORTHOUSE
1013
hand writing into Germany in an adaptation of the Taylor-Bertin
method. Reischl's (1808) is a modification of Mosengeil's. On
Horstig's (1797) are based those of an anonymous writer (Nurem-
berg, 1798), Heim (1820), Thon (1825), an anonymous author
(Tubingen, 1830), Nowack (1830), Ineichen (1831), an anonymous
author (Munich, 1831) and Binder (1855). Mosengeil published
a second system (1819) in which Horstig's alphabet is used. On
the Mosengeil-Horstig system are based Berthold's (1819) and
Stark's (1822). On Danzer's (1800), a close imitation of Taylor's,
is based that of Ellison v. Nidlef (1820). Other systems are those
of Leichtlen (1819); J. Brede (1827) ; Nowack (1834), a system in
which the ellipse is employed as well as the circle; Billharz (1838) ;
Cammerer (1848), a modification of Selwyn's phonography (1847) ;
Schmitt (1850); Fischbiick (1857), a reproduction of Taylor's; and
that of an anonymous author (1872), based on Horstig, Mosengeil
and Heim. Nowack, in his later method of 1834, makes a new
departure in avoiding right or obtuse angles, and in endeavouring to
approximate to ordinary writing. This system Gabelsberger con-
sidered to be the best which had appeared down to that date.
F. X. Gabelsberger's (ij&<)-i&y)) Anleitung zur deutschen Redezeichen-
kunst (Munich, 1834) is the most important of the German systems.
The author, an official attached to the Bavarian ministry, commenced
his system for private purposes, but was induced to perfect it on
account of the summoning of a parliament for Bavaria in 1819.
Submitted to public examination in 1829, it was pronounced satis-
factory, the report stating that pupils taught on this system executed
their trial specimens with the required speed, and read what they
had written, and even what others had written, with ease and
certainty. The method is based on modifications of geometrical
forms, designed to suit the position of the hand in ordinary writing.
The author considered that a system composed of simple geometrical
strokes forming determinate angles with each other was unadapted
to rapid writing. He does not recognize all the varieties of sound,
and makes some distinctions which are merely orthographical.
Soft sounds have small, light and round signs, while the hard sounds
have large, heavy and straight signs. The signs too are derived
from the current alphabet, so that one can find the former contained
in the latter. Vowels standing between consonants are not literally
inserted, but symbolically indicated by either position or shape of
the surrounding consonants, without, however, leaving the straight
writing line. On Gabelsberger's system is based that of W. Stolze
(1840). Faulmann (Vienna, 1875) attempted in his Phonographic to
combine the two methods. While Gabelsberger's system remained
unchanged in principle, Stolze's split into two divisions, the old and
the new. These contain many smaller factions, e.g. Velten's (1876)
and Adler's (1877). Arends s (1860) is copied from the French
system of Fayet. Roller's (1874) and Lehmann's (1875) are offshoots
of Leopold Arends's (1817-1882). Many other methods have
appeared and as rapidly been forgotten. The schools of Gabels-
berger and Stolze can boast of a very extensive shorthand literature.
Gabelsberger's system was adapted to English by A. Geiger (Dresden,
1860 and 1873), who adhered too closely to the German original,
and more successfully by H. Richter (London, 1886), and Stolze's
by G. Michaelis (Berlin, 1863).
French. The earliest French system worthy of notice is that of
Coulon de Thdvenot (1777), in which the vowels are disjoined from
the consonants. Later may be divided into two classes, those derived
from Taylor's English system, translated in 1791 by T. P. Bertin,
and those invented in France. The latter are (a) Coulon de
Thevenot's; (i) systems founded on the principle of the inclination
of the usual writing the best known being those of Fayet (1832)
and S6nocq (1842); and (c) systems derived from the method of
Conen de Prepean (5 editions from 1813 to 1833). Prevost, who till
1870 directed the stenographic service of the senate, produced the
best modification of Taylor. Many authors have copied and spoilt
this system of Prevost. The best known are Plantier (1844) and
Tondeur (1849). On Conen's are based those of Aime-Paris (1822),
Cadres-Marmet (1828), Potel (1842), the Duploy6 brothers (1868),
Guenin, &c. Among amateur writers the Duployan method is best
known.
Spanish. -The father of Spanish stenography was Don Francisco
de Paula Marti, whose system was first published in 1803. The
alphabet is a combination of Taylor's and Coulon's. By decree of
November 21, 1802, a public professorship of shorthand was founded
in Madrid, Marti being the first professor. Founded on Marti's
system are those of Serra y Ginesta (1816) and Xamarillo (1811).
Many Spanish systems are merely imitations or reproductions of
Marti's, and adaptations of Gabelsberger's, Stolze's and Pitman's
systems. That of Garriga y Maril (1863) has attained some popu-
larity in Spain.
Italian. Italian translations and adaptations of Taylor's system
succeeded one another in considerable numbers from Amanti (1809)
to Bianchini (1871). Delpino's (1819) is the best. The Gabels-
berger-Noe system (1863) has gained many followers.
Dutch.}. Reijner's Dutch method (1673) was an adaptation of
Shelton's, and Bussuijt's (1814) of Conen's system. Sommerhausen
and Bossaert (1829) received prizes from the government for their
productions. Cornells Steger (1867) translated Taylor's work.
Gabelsberger's system was transferred to Dutch by Rietstap (1869),
and Stolze's by Reinbold (1881).
Adaptations of Gabelsberger's method have also come into use
in other countries.
Indian. Mirza Habib Hosain, at the Mahommedan Educational
Conference of 1905 in India, introduced a system of Urdu and
Hindi shorthand, called " Habib's Samia," for which he was awarded
a gold medal. The Pitman system has also been adapted for some
Indian languages.
AUTHORITIES. J. W. Zeibig's Geschichte u. Literatur der Geschwind-
schreibekunst (Dresden, 1878) contains a historical sketch of the use
of shorthand in ancient and modern times (especially in Germany),
a full bibliography of shorthand literature in all languages, a number
of lithographed specimens, and a useful index. Circulars of In-
formation of the Bureau of Education, No. 2, 1884 (Washington,
1885), by J. E. Rockwell, contains a very complete and accurate
bibliography of English and American shorthand publications, a
chronological list of 483 English and American shorthand authors,
notices on shorthand in the United States, on the employment of
stenographers in the American courts, on American shorthand
societies and magazines, and a beautifully engraved sheet of 112
shorthand alphabets. Isaac Pitman's History of Shorthand (reprinted
in the Phonetic Journal of 1884) reviews the principal English
systems previous to phonography, and a few foreign ones. The
author draws largely on J. H. Lewis's Historical Account of the Rise
and Progress of Stenography (London, 1816). Other histories of
shorthand are by F. X. Gabelsberger (prefixed to his Anleitung
zur deutschen Redezeichenkunst, Munich, 1834), A. Foss6 (prefixed to
his Cours theorique et pratique de stenographie, Paris, 1849), Scott de
Martinville (Paris, 1849), M. Levy (London, 1862) and T. Anderson
(London, 1882). Here too should be mentioned J. Heger's Bemer-
kenswerthes tiber die Stenographie (Vienna, 1841), mainly historical;
J. Anders's Entwurf einer allgemeinen Cesch. u. Lit. d. Stenographie
(Coeslin, 1855) I R- Fischer's Die Stenographie nach Ceschichte,
Wesen, u. Bedeutung (Leipzig, 1860); Krieg's Katechismus der
Stenographie (Leipzig, 1876); Dr Westby-Gibson's Early Shorthand
Systems (London, 1882); T. Anderson's Shorthand Systems, with a
number of specimens (London, 1884) ; T. A. Reed's Reporter's Guide
(London, 1885), and Leaves from the Notebook of T. A. Reed (London,
1885). Mr C. Walford's Statistical Review of the Literature of Short-
hand (London, 1885) contains valuable information on the circulation
of shorthand books and on shorthand libraries. Among later
publications dealing fully with the history and practice of shorthand
are the Transactions of the London Congress in 1887, and similar
publications in connexion with later congresses; Bibliography of
Shorthand, by J. Westby-Gibson, LL.D. (London, 1887), treating of
English, colonial and American authors; Shorthand Instruction
and Practice, by J. E. Rockwell, of the United States Bureau of
Education (Washington, 1893), dealing with shorthand work
throughout the world; and Examen critique des stenographies
franchises et etrangtres, by Dr Thierry-Mieg (Versailles, 1900).
SHORTHOUSE, JOSEPH HENRY (1834-1903), English
novelist, was born in Great Charles Street, Birmingham, on the
gth of September 1834. He was the eldest son of Joseph Short-
house, chemical manufacturer, and Mary Ann, daughter of John
Hawker, of the same town. He was educated at Grove House,
Tottenham, where he proved a promising and industrious pupil,
and upon leaving school entered his father's business, in which
he was all his life actively engaged. He married, in 1857, Sarah,
daughter of John Scott, of Birmingham. His literary interest
was fostered by a local essay club, to which he contributed many
papers. It was not until he was nearly fifty years old that
Shorthouse made his public appearance as an author, and even
then his remarkable .story, John Inglesant, had undergone
vicissitudes. It was kept for over three years in MS., and the
author eventually printed one hundred copies for private circula-
tion. One of these found its way into the hands of Mrs Humphry
Ward, who recommended it to Messrs Macmillan. Its first
appearance was a quiet one; but Gladstone was at once struck
by its quality, and made its reputation by his praise. It became
the most discussed book of the day, and its author was suddenly
famous. Besides John Inglesant (1881), Shorthouse published
The Little Schoolmaster Mark (1883), Sir Percival (1886), The
Countess Eve and A Teacher of the Violin (1888), and Blanche,
Lady Falaise (1891); but none of these has been so popular
as his first novel. He will always remain known to fame as " the
author of John Inglesant." Shorthouse was originally a Quaker,
but the appeal of the Anglican Church was insistent with him,
and he was baptized into its body before the appearance of his
story. Something of his own stress of religious transition appears
in the character of his hero, who is pictured as living in the time
of the Civil War, a pupil of the Jesuits, a philosopher and a
Platonist, who is yet true to the National Church. The story,
SHOSHONG SHOVELER
which is deeply mystical and imaginative, has for its central idea
the dangers of bigotry and superstition, and the necessity of
intuitive religion to progress and culture. It is a work full of
opulent colour and crowded life, no less than of philosophy
and spiritual beauty. Shorthouse's work was always marked by
high earnestness of purpose, a luxuriant style and a genuinely
spiritual quality. He lacked dramatic faculty and the work-
manlike conduct of narrative, but he had almost every other
quality of the born novelist. He died at Edgbaston on the 4th
of March 1903.
See The Life, Letters and Literary Remains of J. Henry Shorthouse,
edited by his wife (2 vols., 1905).
SHOSHONG, a town in the British protectorate of Bechuana-
land, formerly the chief settlement of the eastern Bamangwato.
It is about 200 m. N.N.E. of Mafeking and 30 m. N. of Shoshong
Road Station on the Cape Town-Bulawayo railway. The town
is situated 3000 ft. above the sea in the valley of the Shoshong,
an intermittent tributary of the Limpopo. The site was origin-
ally chosen as the headquarters of the Bamangwato as being
easily defensible against the Matabele. At the time of the declara-
tion of a British protectorate in 1885 Shoshong had 20,000 to
30,000 inhabitants, including about twenty Europeans. Being
the meeting place of trade routes from south and north it was of
considerable importance to early explorers and traders in
South-Central Africa, and a mission station of the London
Missionary Society (preceded for many years by a station of the
Hermannsburg Lutheran Missionary Society) was founded here
in 1862. Owing, however, to the scarcity of water at Shoshong,
Khama, the chief of the Bamangwato, and most of Ms followers
removed about 1890 to Palapye 50 m. N.E. of Shoshong and
later to Serowe to the north-west of Palapye. Like Shoshong,
these places are built in valleys of tributaries of the Limpopo.
Shoshong was not entirely deserted and has a population of about
800 (see BECHUANALAND).
SHOTTS, a mining and manufacturing parish of Lanarkshire,
Scotland. It comprises eight villages, parts of two others, and
the town of Cleland (including Omoa) and is served by the North
British and Caledonian railways. Pop. (1891) 11,957; (1901)
15,562. The parish contains large ironworks, tile, fire-clay and
brick-works, and quarries, and includes the Lanark district
asylum and a fever hospital. The curious name of Omoa is
supposed to have been given to his property by some soldier or
sailor who had settled here after the wars in Honduras, of which
Omoa is a seaport. Matthew Baillie (1761-1823), famous for
his researches in morbid anatomy, and Janet Hamilton (1795-
1873), the poetess, were born in the parish of Shotts.
SHOULDER (in O.E. sculder, cognate with Ger. Schulter,
Dutch schouder, Swed. skuldra, &c; the root is unknown),
the name of that part of the body of man and animals where
the upper arm or fore-leg articulates with the collar bone and
shoulder-blade (see JOINTS).
SHOVEL, SIR CLOUDESLEY [or CLOWDISLEY SHOVELL as
he seems to have spelt the name himself] (c. 1650-1707), English
admiral, was baptised at Cockthorpe in Norfolk on the 25th of
November 1650, and went to sea under the care of his kinsman
Sir Christopher Mynns. He set himself to study navigation, and,
owing to his able seamanship and brave and open-hearted
disposition, became a general favourite and obtained quick
promotion. In 1674 he served as lieutenant under Sir John
Narborough in the Mediterranean, where he burned four men-of-
war under the castles and walls of Tripoli, belonging to the
pirates of that place. He was present as captain of the " Edgar "
(70) at the first fight at Bantry Bay, and shortly afterwards
was knighted. In 1690 he convoyed William III. across St
George's Channel to Ireland; the same year he was made
rear-admiral of the blue, and was present at the battle of Beachy
Head on loth July. In 1692 he was appointed rear-admiral
of the red, and joined Admiral Russell, under whom he greatly
distinguished himself at La Hogue, by being the first to break
through the enemy's line. Not long after, when Admiral Russell
was superseded, Shovel was put in joint command of the fleet
with Admiral Killigrew and Sir Ralph Delaval. In 1702 he
brought home the spoils of the French and Spanish fleets from
Vigo, after their capture by Sir George Rooke, and in 1 704 he
served under Sir George Rooke in the Mediterranean and co-
operated in the taking of Gibraltar. In January 1704 he was.
named rear-admiral of England, and shortly afterwards com-
mander-in-chief of the British fleets. He co-operated with the
earl of Peterborough in the capture of Barcelona in 1705, and
commanded the naval part of the unsuccessful attempt on
Toulon in October 1707. When returning with the fleet to
England his ship, the " Association," at eight o'clock at night
on the 22nd of October, struck on the rocks near Scilly, and was
seen by those on board the " St George " to go down in three
or four minutes' time, not a soul being saved of 800 men that
were on board. The body of Sir Cloudesley Shovel was cast
ashore next day, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. It is.
said that he was alive when he reached the shore at Porthellick
Cove, but was murdered by a woman for the sake of his rings.
See Life and Glorious Actions of Sir Cloudesley Shovel (1707);
Burnet's Own Times; various discussions in Notes and Queries,
5th series, vols. x. and xi. ; and T. H. Cooke, Shipwreck of Sir
Cloudesley Shovel (1883).
SHOVEL (O.E. scofl, from root of scufan, to shove, push,
cf. Ger. Schaufel, also Schuppe, scoop), an implement or tool,
consisting of a broad flat blade with edges or sides turned up
fixed to a wooden handle terminating in a bow like a spade. It
is used for lifting or removing such loose substances as coal,
gravel and the like.
SHOVELER, formerly spelt SHOVELAR, and more anciently
SHOVELARD, a word by which used to be meant the bird now
almost invariably called Spoonbill (q.v.), but in the latter half
of the i6th century transferred to one hitherto generally, and
in these days locally, known as the Spoon-billed Duck the
Anas clypeala of Linnaeus and Rhynchaspis or Spatula clypeala
of modern writers. All these names refer to the shape of the
bird's bill, which, combined with the remarkably long lamellae
that beset both maxilla and mandible, has been thought sufficient
to remove the species from the Linnaean genus Anas. Except
for the extraordinary formation of this feature, which carries
with it a clumsy look, the male Shoveler would pass for one of
the most beautiful of this generally beautiful group of birds.
As it is, for bright and variegated colouring, there are few of
his kindred to whom he is inferior. His golden eye, his dark
green head, surmounting a breast of pure white and succeeded
by underparts and flanks of rich bay, are conspicuous; while
his deep brown back, white scapulas, lesser wing-coverts (often
miscalled shoulders) of a glaucous blue, and glossy green speculum
bordered with white present a wonderful contrast of the richest
tints, heightened again by his bright orange feet. On the other
hand, the female, excepting the blue wing-coverts she has in
common with her mate, is habited very like the ordinary Wild-
Duck, A. boscas. The Shoveler is not an abundant species, and
in Great Britain its distribution is local; but its numbers have
remarkably increased since the passing of the Wild-Fowl Protec-
tion Act in 1876, so that in certain districts it has regained its
old position as an indigenous member of the Fauna. It has not
ordinarily a very high northern range, but inhabits the greater
part of Europe, Asia and America, passing southwards, like most
of the Analidae towards winter, constantly reaching India,
Ceylon, Abyssinia, the Antilles and Central America, while it
is known to have occurred at that season in Colombia, and,
according to Gould, in Australia. Generally resembling in its
habits the other freshwater ducks, the Shoveler has one peculi-
arity that has been rarely, if ever, mentioned, and one that is
perhaps correlated with the structure of its bill. It seems to be
especially given to feeding on the surface of the water immedi-
ately above the spot where diving ducks (Fuligulinae) are
employing themselves beneath. On such occasions a pair of
Shovelers may be watched, almost for the hour together, swim-
ming in a circle, about a yard in diameter, their heads turned
inwards towards its centre, their bills immersed vertically in the
water, and engaged in sifting, by means of the long lamellae
before mentioned, the floating matters that are disturbed by
SHREVEPORT SHREW
1015
their submerged allies and rise to the top. These gyrations are
executed with the greatest ease, each Shoveler of the pair merely
using the outer leg to impel it on its circular course.
Four other species of the genus Spatula, all possessing the char-
acteristic light blue "shoulders," have been described: one,
S. platalea, from the southern parts of South America, having the
head, neck and upper back of a pale reddish brown, freckled or
closely spotted with dark brown, and a dull bay breast with in-
terrupted bars; a second, 5. capensis, from South Africa, much
lighter in colour than the female of S. clypeala; a rtiird and a fourth,
5. rhynchotis and 5. variegata, from Australia and New Zealand
respectively these last much darker in general coloration, and
the males possessing a white crescentic mark between the bill and
the eye, very like that which is found in the South-American Blue-
winged Teal (Querguedula cyanoptera), but so much resembling
each other that their specific distinctness has been disputed by good
authority. (A. N.)
SHREVEPORT, a city and the capital of Caddo Parish,
Louisiana, U.S.A., on the Red river, in the N.W. part of the
state, near the Texas border. Pop. (1890) 11,979; (19)
16,013, of whom 8532 were negroes; (1910, census) 28,015.
It is the second city of the state in population. It is served by
the Vicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific, the Houston & Shreveport,
the Kansas City Southern, the St Louis & South-Western, the
Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company, the Texas & Pacific
(main line and two branches), the Louisiana & Arkansas, the
Kansas City Southern, and theMissouri, Kansas & Texas rail ways
and by boats on the Red river. In the city are the State Charity
Hospital (1872), theT. E. Schumpert Memorial Hospital (1910),
the Genevieve Orphanage (1899) and the Shreveport Training
School (1908). Owing to its situation and excellent transportation
facilities the city has a large trade. The surrounding country
is a rich agricultural region, mainly devoted to the production
of cotton, for which Shreveport is the principal shipping point.
Live-stock and cattle products are trade items of importance.
The situation of the city (about 170 m. east of Dallas, and some-
what farther from Little Rock, Houston, and New Orleans)
makes it a natural centre of wholesale trade of varied character,
and the development since 1906 of the important Caddo oil
and gas fields north of the city has added greatly to its industrial
prominence. The city contains planing mills, cotton gins,
compresses and cotton-seed oil mills, machine and railway shops,
and ice and molasses factories. In 1905 its factory product
was valued at $2,921,923 (87-8% more than in 1900). Shreve-
port was settled about 1835, incorporated as a town in 1839,
and chartered as a city in 1871. It was named in honour of
Henry Miller Shreve (1785-1854), a native of New Jersey, who
in 1815 ascended the Mississippi and the Ohio rivers to Louisville
in the " Enterprise," the first steam vessel to make this trip,
introduced improvements in the steamboat, and in 1826-1841
had charge of the improvement of western rivers, removing
during this period the great Red river raft. After the capture
of Baton Rouge, the state capital, and New Orleans by the
Unionists in 1862, Shreveport was occupied by the Confederate
officials of the state. In the spring of 1863 and again in that
of 1864 it was the objective of combined naval and land expedi-
tions made by the Union forces up the Red river under command
of Admiral David D. Porter and General N. P. Banks, the
Confederate commander in Louisiana being General Richard
Taylor, with General E. Kirby Smith in charge of the entire
trans-Mississippi department. In 1863 Shreveport was not
seriously threatened. In 1864 when the Federals were within,
two marches of the city they were worsted by Taylor at Mansfield
(on the 8th of April) ; on the next day the Confederates in their
turn met with a demoralizing repulse at Pleasant Hill.
SHREW, 1 a term applied to the species of the family Soricidae
of the mammalian order insectivora (q.v.), but in the British
Isles to the common and lesser shrews (Sorex araneus and
5. minimus).
The common shrew, or, properly, shrew-mouse, which in
England is by far the commoner of the two, is a small animal
1 This word, whence comes the participial adjective " shrewd,"
astute, originally meant malicious, and, as applied to a woman, still
means a vexatious scold. From their supposed venomous character
it was applied to the Soricidae.
about the size of a mouse, which it somewhat resembles in the
shape of its body, tail and feet. But here the resemblance ends,
for, unlike the mouse, it possesses a long and slender muzzle,
with prominent nostrils, which project far beyond the lower
lip; the small eyes are almost concealed by the fur; the ears
are wide, short and provided internally with a pair of deep folds,
capable when laid forwards of closing the entrance; the tail,
which is slightly shorter than the body, is quadrangular in
section and clothed more or less densely with moderately long
hairs, terminating in a short tuft, but in old individuals almost
naked; the feet are five-toed, the toes terminating in slender,
pointed claws. The dentition is very peculiar and characteristic:
there are in all thirty-two teeth, tipped with deep crimson; of
which twelve belong to the lower jaw; of the remaining twenty
ten occupy each side of the upper jaw, and of these the first
three are incisors. The first incisor is large, with a long anterior
canine-like cusp and a small posterior one; then follow two
small single-cusped teeth; which are succeeded by three similar
progressively smaller teeth, the first being a canine and the
other two premolars; the next, a premolar, is large and multi-
cuspid, and this is followed by three molars, of which the third
is small with a triangular crown. In the lower jaw there are
anteriorly three teeth corresponding to the seven anterior teeth
above, of which the first is almost horizontal in direction, with
its upper surface marked by three notches, which receive the
points of the three upper front teeth; then follow two small
The Common Shrew (Sorex araneus).
teeth and three molars. The body is clothed with closely set
fur, soft and dense, varying in colour from light reddish to dark
brown above; the under surface of both body and tail being
greyish; the basal four-fifths of all the hairs above and beneath
are dark bluish grey. On each side of the body, about one-third
of the distance between the elbow and the knee, is a gland covered
by two rows of coarse inbent hairs, which secretes a fluid with an
unpleasant cheesy odour, and which is protective, rendering
the creature secure against the attacks of predaceous animals.
The lesser or pigmy shrew (S. minutus) is not so abundant in
England and Scotland, but common in Ireland, where the other
species is unknown. It appears at first sight to be a diminutive
variant of that species, which it closely resembles in external
form, but the third upper incisor is shorter, or not longer than
the next following tooth, whereas in 5. araneus it is longer, and
the length of the forearm and foot is less in the former species
than in the latter.
Both these shrews live in the neighbourhood of woods, making
their nests under the roots of trees or in any slight depression,
occasionally even in the midst of open fields, inhabiting the
disused burrows of field-mice. Owing to their small size, dark
colour, rapid movements and nocturnal habits, they easily
escape observation. They seek their food, which consists of
insects, grubs, worms and slugs, under dead leaves, fallen trees
and in grassy places. They are pugnacious, and if two or more
are confined together in a limited space they invariably fight
fiercely, the fallen becoming the food of the victorious. They
are also exceedingly voracious, and soon die if deprived of food;
and it is probably to insufficiency of food in the early dry
autumnal season that the mortality among them at that time
is due. The breeding-season extends from the end of April
to the beginning of August, and five to seven, more rarely ten,
ioi6 SHREWSBURY, EARLS OF SHREWSBURY, DUKE OF
young may be found in the nests; they are naked, blind and j
toothless at birth, but soon run about snapping at everything
within reach.
The alpine shrew (5. alpinus) , restricted to the alpine region of
Central Europe, is slightly longer than the common shrew and
differs in its longer tail, which exceeds the length of the head and
body, in the colour of the fur, which is dark on both surfaces,
and in the large size of the upper antepenultimate premolar.
The water-shrew (N edmys fodiens) , the third species inhabiting
England, differs from the common shrew in being larger with a
shorter and broader muzrle, smaller eyes and larger feet adapted
for swimming the sides of the feet and toes being provided with
comb-like fringes of stiff hairs. The tail is longer than the body,
and has a fringe of moderately long regularly ranged hairs, which
extend along the middle of the under surface from the end of the
basal third to the extremity. The fur is long and dense, varying
in colour in different individuals; the prevailing shades are
dark, almost black, brown above, beneath more or less bright
ashy tinged with yellowish ; but occasionally we find individuals
with the under surface dark-coloured. In the number and shape
of the teeth the water-shrew differs from the common shrew:
there is a premolar less on each side above; the bases of the teeth
are more prolonged posteriorly; and their cusps are less stained
brown, so that in old individuals they often appear white. This
species is aquatic in habits, swimming and diving with agility.
It frequents rivers and lakes, making burrows in the banks,
from which when disturbed it escapes into the water. Its food
consists of water insects and their larvae, small crustaceans
and probably the fry of small fishes. It is generally distributed
throughout England, is less common in Scotland and not
recorded in Ireland.
The geographical range of the common shrew is wide, extending
eastwards through Europe and Asia to .Amurland. The lesser
shrew extends through Europe and Asia to Sakhalin Island;
and specimens of the water-shrew have been brought from
different parts of Europe and Asia as far east as the Altai. In
Siberia the common shrew is abundant in the snow-clad wastes
about the Olenek river within the arctic circle. Other species
of red-toothed shrews are restricted chiefly to North America,
where they are found in greater variety than in the Old World,
though Neomys is not represented. Its place is taken by Sorex
paluslris east of the Rocky Mountains, and 5. hydrodromus in
Unalaska Island, which, like the water-shrew, have fringes of
hair on the feet, but the unfringed tail and dentition of the
common shrew. Of the American forms S. bendiri is the largest.
Other red-toothed shrews belonging to the genus Blarina, dis-
tinguished from Sorex by the dentition and the shortness of the
tail, are common in North America. All red-toothed shrews
(except the aquatic forms) closely resemble one another in habits,
but the short-tailed North American shrew supplements its
insectivorous fare by feeding on beech nuts. In destroying
numbers of slugs, insects and larvae, shrews aid the farmer
and merit protection. Although their odour renders them
safe from rapacious animals, they are destroyed in numbers
by owls. (G. E. D.)
SHREWSBURY, EARLS OF. The earldom of Shrewsbury,
one of the most ancient in the English peerage, dates from the
time of William the Conqueror. Roger de Montgomery (c. 1030-
1094), son of another Roger de Montgomery, known as " the
Great," was a councillor of William, duke of Normandy, before
his invasion of England, and was probably entrusted by William
with the government of Normandy during the expedition of
1066. Roger came to England in the following year and received
extensive .grants of land in different parts of the kingdom.
Obtaining thus a large territory in Sussex, including the city of
Chichester and the castle of Arundel, he became earl of Arundel,
or probably and more correctly earl of Sussex. In 1071 the
greater part of the county of Shropshire was granted to him,
carrying with it the title of earl of Shropshire, though, from his
principal residence at the castle of Shrewsbury, he like his suc-
cessors was generally styled earl of Shrewsbury. He probably
exercised palatine authority. He was the founder of Shrewsbury
Abbey in 1083. His first wife was Mabel, daughter of the
seigneur of Belesme and Alencon; hence his son Robert, who,
after the death of another son, Hugh, succeeded to the earldoms
of Shrewsbury and Arundel, was generally known as Robert de
Belesme (<?..), one of the most celebrated of the feudal nobles
in the time of Henry I. Robert having been deprived of all his
English estates and honours in 1102, the earldom of Shrewsbury
was next conferred in 1442 on John, 5th baron Talbot, whose
descendants have borne the title to the present day. (See
TALBOT; and SHREWSBURY, IST EARL OF, below.)
SHREWSBURY, CHARLES TALBOT, DUKE OF (1660-1718),
only son by his second wife of .Francis Talbot, nth earl of
Shrewsbury, was born on the 24th of July 1660. His mother
was a daughter of Robert Brudenell, 2nd ear! of Cardigan, and
the notorious mistress of the 2nd duke of Buckingham, by whom
his father was killed in a duel in 1668. Charles was a godson of
King Charles II., after whom he was named, and he was brought
up as a Roman Catholic, but in 1679 under the influence of
Tillotson he became a member of the Church of England. On his
father's death in 1668 he succeeded to the earldom of Shrewsbury;
he received an appointment in the household of Charles II., and
served in the army under James II. But in 1687 he was in
correspondence with the Prince of Orange, and he was one of the
seven signatories of the letter of invitation to William in the
following year. He contributed towards defraying the expenses
of the projected invasion, and having crossed to Holland to join
William, he landed with him in England in November 1688.
Shrewsbury became a secretary of state in the first administra-
tion of William and Mary, but he resigned office in 1690 when the
tories gained the upper hand in parliament. While in opposition
he brought forward the triennial bill, to which the king refused
assent. In 1694 he again became secretary of state; but there is
some evidence that as early as 1690, when he resigned, he had
gone over to the Jacobites and was in correspondence with
James at St Germains, though it has been stated on the other
hand that these relations were entered upon with William's
connivance for reasons of policy. However this may be, William
appears to have had no suspicion of Shrewsbury's loyalty,
for on the 3oth of April 1694 the latter was created marquess of
Alton and duke of jShrewsbury, and he acted as one of the
regents during the king's absence from England in the two
following years. In 1696 definite accusations of treason were
brought against him by Sir John Fenwick, which William himself
communicated to Shrewsbury; and about this time the secretary
of state took but a small part in public business, again professing
his anxiety to resign. His plea of ill-health was a genuine one,
and in 1700 the king reluctantly consented to his retirement into
private life.
For the next seven years Shrewsbury lived abroad, chiefly at
Rome, whence in 1701 he wrote a celebrated letter to Lord
Somers expressing his abhorrence of public life and declaring
that if he had a son he " would sooner bind him to a cobbler
than a courtier, and a hangman than a statesman." On the
accession of Queen Anne the whig leaders made an ineffectual
attempt to persuade Shrewsbury to return to office. When,
however, at last he did return to England in 1707 he gradually
became alienated from his old political associates, and in 1710
he accepted the post of lord chamberlain in the tory administra-
tion to which the queen appointed him without the knowledge
of Godolphin and Marlborough, while his wife was at the same
time made a lady of the bedchamber. After a diplomatic
mission to France for the purpose of negotiating preliminaries
of peace, Shrewsbury became lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1713;
but he was in London in July 1714 during the memorable crisis
occasioned by the impending death of Queen Anne. On the
27th of July, when the queen was dying, the earl of Oxford
received his long-delayed dismissal from the office of lord
treasurer. On the 3oth Shrewsbury and other ministers
assembled at Kensington Palace, and being admitted to the
queen's bedchamber Bolingbroke recommended the appointment
of Shrewsbury to the vacant treasurership; Anne at once
placed the staff of that high office in the duke's hands. When
SHREWSBURY, COUNTESS OF SHREWSBURY, IST EARL OF 1017
the queen died on the ist of August Shrewsbury was thus in a
position of supreme power with reference to the momentous
question of the succession to the crown. He threw his influence
into the scale in favour of the elector of Hanover, and was
powerfully influential in bringing about the peaceful accession
of George I., and in defeating the design of the Jacobites to
place the son of James II. on the throne. His disinclination
for the highest political offices remained, however, as great as
before; and having resigned the lord-treasurership and the
lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, he was appointed lord chamberlain.
This place he resigned in July 1715, and he died on the ist of
February 1718.
The duke of Shrewsbury was one of the greatest noblemen of
the reign of Queen Anne. Strikingly handsome in person, his
demeanour was dignified and his manners full of grace and
courtesy. Swift described him as " the finest gentleman we
have," and as " the favourite of the nation," while William III.
spoke of him as " the king of hearts." Like most of his con-
temporaries he endeavoured to keep himself in favour both with
the exiled house of Stuart and with the reigning sovereign in
England; but at the two critical junctures of 1688 and 1714
he acted decisively in favour of the Protestant succession.
At other times he appeared weak and vacillating, and he never
whole-heartedly supported either whigs or lories, though he
co-operated with each in turn. His magnanimous disposition
saved him from the vindictiveness of the party politician of the
period; and the weak health from which he suffered through
life probably combined with a congenital lack of ambition to
prevent his grasping the power which his personality and talents
might have placed in his hands.
In 1705 Shrewsbury married Adelaide, daughter of the Marquis
Paleotti of Bologna. This lady, who is said to have had " a
great many engaging qualities " besides many accomplishments,
was the subject of much malicious gossip. She was the widow,
or as some declared, the mistress of a Count Brachiano; and
Lady Cowper reported that the lady's brother had forced
Shrewsbury to marry her " after an intrigue together." After
Shrewsbury's return to England the duchess became conspicuous
in London society, where the caustic wit of Lady Mary Wortley-
Montagu was exercised at her expense. On the accession of
George I. the duchess of Shrewsbury became a lady of the
bedchamber to the princess of Wales, a position which she
retained till her death on the 2gth of June 1726. Shrewsbury
left no children, and at his death the dukedom became extinct,
the earldom of Shrewsbury passing to his cousin Gilbert Talbot
(see TALBOT).
See Correspondence of Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury, with
King William, the Leaders of the Whig Party, &c., edited by W. Coxe
(London, 1821); Gilbert Burnet, History of his own Time (6 vols.,
2nd ed., Oxford, 1833) ; F. W. Wyon, History of Great Britain during
the Reign of Anne (2 vols., London, 1876); Earl Stanhope, History
of England comprising the Reign of Anne until the Peace of Utrecht
(London, 1870), and History of England from the Peace of Utrecht,
vol. i. (7 vols., London, 1836-1854); The Wentworth Papers, edited
by J. J. Cartwright (London, 1883); W. E. H. Lecky, History of
England in the Eighteenth Century, vol. i. (new edition, 7 vols.,
London, 1892); and G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vii. (London,
1896). (R. J. M.)
SHREWSBURY, ELIZABETH TALBOT, COUNTESS OF (1518-
1608), better known by her nickname " Bess of Hardwick,"
was the daughter and co-heiress of John Hardwicke of Hardwicke
in Derbyshire. At the age of fourteen she was married to a
John Barlow, the owner of a large estate, who did not long
survive the marriage, and as his estates had been settled on her
and her heirs, she became a wealthy widow. She remained
single till the 2oth of August 1549, when she married Sir William
Cavendish, who, to please her, sold his lands in the south of
England and purchased the Chatsworth estates in Derbyshire.
Six children were born of the marriage, three sons and three
daughters. One of the sons was the founder of the ducal family
of Devonshire, and another of the ducal family of Newcastle.
Sir William Cavendish having died on the 25th of October 1557,
her third husband was Sir William St Lo (or St Loe or St Lowe) ,
captain of the guard to Queen Elizabeth and owner of an estate
at Tormarton in Gloucestershire. She insisted that his lands
should be settled on her and her heirs, and when Sir William
died without issue, she made good her claim to all his property
to the detriment of his sister and cousins. Bess of Hardwick
was now the wealthiest subject in England. Her income was
calculated to amount to 60,000, which was relatively a far more
important sum then than it is to-day. She still retained much
of her good looks; her charms and her wealth outweighed her
reputation for rapacity, and she was much sought in marriage.
With the approval of Queen Elizabeth, who was not by habit
a matchmaker, she was married in 1568 for the fourth time to
George Talbot, 6th earl of Shrewsbury. Bess made her usual
good bargain as to settlements, and also insisted on arranging
marriages between two of her children by Sir William Cavendish
and two of the earl's by a former marriage. In 1574 the countess
took advantage of a visit of the countess of Lennox to marry
her daughter Elizabeth to Charles Stuart, the younger son of
the Lennoxes and brother of Lord Darnley, the second husband
of the queen of Scots. She acted without the knowledge of her
husband, who declined to accept any responsibility. As the
Lennox family had a claim to the throne this match was con-
sidered as a proof of the ambition of the countess of Shrewsbury,
and she was sent to the Tower by the queen, but was soon
released. The child of the marriage was Arabella Stuart, whom
her grandmother treated at first with favour but later on with
cruelty and neglect.
By this time the earl of Shrewsbury and his wife were on very
bad terms with one another, and the former tried to obtain a
divorce. The countess revenged herself by accusing him of a
love intrigue with the queen of Scots, a charge which she was
forced to letract before the council. In the meantime she had
told some filthy scandal about Queen Elizabeth to Queen Mary,
who made use of it in the extraordinary letter she wrote some
time in 1584. In 1583 the countess of Shrewsbury went to live
apart from her husband, with whom she was afterwards recon-
ciled formally by the queen. After his death in 1590 she lived
mostly at Hardwicke, where she built the noble mansion which
still stands. She was indeed one of the greatest builders of her
time at Hardwicke, Chatsworth and Oldcoates. It is said that
she believed she would not die so long as she was building. Her
death came on the i$th of February 1608 during a frost which
put a stop to her building operations. She was buried in All
Saints' Church, Derby, under a fine monument with a laudatory
inscription which she took care to put up in her lifetime. Two
portraits of her exist at Hardwicke, one taken in her youth,
while the second, by Cornelius Janssen, engraved by Vertue,
represents her as an old woman. She had no children except
by her second husband, and to them she left the vast estates
she accumulated by her successive marriages.
See White Kennett, Memoirs of the Cavendish Family (London,
1708) ; and Mrs Murray Smith (Miss E. T. Bradley), Life of Arabella
Stuart (London, 1889); Mrs Stepney Rawson, Bess of Hardwicke
(1910).
SHREWSBURY, JOHN TALBOT, IST EARL OF (d. 1453), was
second son of Richard, sth baron Talbot, by Ankaret, heiress
of the last Lord Strange of Blackmere. He was married before
1404 to Maud Neville, heiress of the barons Furnivall, and in
her right summoned to parliament from 1409. In 1421 by the
death of his niece he acquired the baronies of Talbot and Strange.
From 1404 to 1413 he served with his elder brother Gilbert in
the Welsh war. Then for five years from February 1414 he was
lieutenant of Ireland, where he held the honour of Wexford.
He did some fighting, and had a sharp quarrel with the earl of
Ormonde. Complaints were made against him both for harsh
government in Ireland and for violence in Herefordshire. From
1420 to 1424 he served in France. In 1425 he was again for a
short time lieutenant in Ireland. So far his career was that of a
turbulent lord of the Marches, employed in posts where a rough
hand was useful. In 1427 he went again to France, where he
fought with distinction in Maine and at the siege of Orleans;
but his exploits were those of a good fighter rather than of
general, and it was his stubborn rashness that was chiefly to
ioi8
SHREWSBURY
blame for the English defeat at Patay in June 1429. After Patay
Talbot was four years a prisoner. On his release he became one
of the foremost of the English captains. In 1434 he recovered
the county of Clermont, next year took part in the siege of St
Denys, and in 1436 by reducing and harrying the revolted Pays
de Caux saved Normandy. He was rewarded with the offices
of captain of Rouen and marshal of France. During five years
as a dashing fighter he was the mainstay of the English cause.
His chief exploits were the defeat of the Burgundians before
Crotoy in 1437 and the recovery of Harfleur in 1440. In 1442
during a visit to England he was created earl of Shrewsbury.
In November he was back in France besieging Dieppe; but
" fared so foul with his men that they would no longer abide with
him " and was forced to break the siege (Chronicles of London,
p. 150). In March 1445 he was once more sent to Ireland, where
he used his old methods, so that the Irish said " there came not
from the time of Herod any one so wicked in evil deeds." In
1449 he served for a short time, in Normandy. When in 1452
the Gascons appealed for English help, Shrewsbury was the
natural leader of the expedition. He landed in Aquitaine on the
1 7th of October. Bordeaux and the surrounding district returned
quickly to their old allegiance, and in the following summer
Shrewsbury captured Fronsac. In July the French besieged
Castillon. Shrewsbury hurried to its relief, and with foolhardy
valour attacked the enemy in their entrenched camp without
waiting for his artillery. The English and Gascon footmen
charged in vain in face of the French cannon, until Shrewsbury
and the flower of his troops had fallen. This happened in July
1453 and was the end of the English rule in Gascony. Shrews-
bury's fighting qualities made him something of a popular hero,
and in the doggerel of the day he was " Talbot our good dog,"
whose valour was brought to nought by the treason of Suffolk.
But in truth though a brave soldier he was no general. He was
twice married, his second wife being Margaret, eldest daughter
of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Warwick. He was alleged to be
eighty years old at his death; probably he was about sixty-five.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For Shrewsbury's French campaigns see especi-
ally the Chronique of E. de Monstrelet, Jehan de Waurin and
Matthieu d'Escouchy (all these are published by the Soci&te de
I'Histoire de France), and the Chronicles of London (ed. C. L. Kings-
ford, London, 1905). Also H. Ribadieu, Conqu&te de Guyenne
(1866) ; J. T. Gilbert, Viceroys of Ireland (1865) ; and J. H. Wylie's
Henry the Fourth (1884-1898) for his early career. (C. L. K.)
SHREWSBURY, a municipal and parliamentary borough,
market town and the county town of Shropshire, England.
Pop. (1901), 28,395. It is situated on both banks of the river
Severn, but mainly on a peninsula formed by the river on the
left bank. It is served by the London & North-Westem and
Great Western railways, being 163 m. N.W. from London.
The companies use a joint station, and jointly work the line S.
to Hereford. There is water communication eastward by the
Shrewsbury .canal, and by the Severn below the town. Eastward
from the peninsula the English bridge crosses the river, westward
the Welsh bridge; southward the Kingsland and Greyfriars
bridges. The joint railway station is on the peninsula, and is
reached from the south by a massive iron bridge. The streets,
many retaining ancient names curiously corrupted, are hilly
and irregular, but strikingly picturesque from their number of
antique timber houses, among which may be mentioned that in
Butcher Row, formerly the town residence of the abbot of
Lilleshall; the council-house overlooking the Severn, erected
in 1620 for the presidents of the council of the Welsh marches;
and the two adjacent mansions of Robert Ireland and Richard
Owen, citizens c. 1590. Of the town ramparts built in the reign
of Henry III. the principal remains are a portion to the south-
west, used as a public walk, on which stands a square embattled
tower. The castle built by Roger de Montgomery was dismantled
in the reign of James II., and is modernized as a residence, but
there remain the archway of the interior gateway, the walls of
the inner court and two large round towers of the time of
Edward I. The rich abbey of St Peter and St Paul was also
founded by Roger, on the site of an earlier church. Of the abbey
church (Holy Cross) the nave of massive Norman work remains,
especially impressive owing to the warm red stone of which it is
built; there are further two Early English arches and the
western tower. Of the monastic buildings little is left, save a
remarkable roofed pulpit of ornate Decorated work. Among
other churches St Mary's, founded in the loth century, is a fine
cruciform structure with a lofty tower and spire, displaying
examples of various styles of architecture from early Norman
to Perpendicular, the base of the tower, the nave and the
doorways being Norman, the transept Early English and the
aisles i5th century, while the interior is specially worthy of
notice for its elaborate details, its early stained glass, including a
Jesse window, and its ancient monuments. Some 50 ft. of the
spire fell in 1894, severely injuring the church and necessitating
extensive restoration. St Julian's was originally built before
the Conquest, but rebuilt in 1748, except the tower, the older
portion of which is Norman and the upper part of the isth
century. St Alkmond's also dated from the loth century, but
was rebuilt towards the close of the i8th century, with the
exception of the tower and spire. It has a beautiful half-timbered
rectory. St Giles's, originally the church of the leper hospital,
dating from the time of Henry I., was altered at various periods.
The hollow base of the old churchyard cross bears the name of
the Pest Basin, because the citizens cast alms into it in the i6th
century during the visitation of the plague, which, according to
tradition, first appeared here. The old church of St Chad,
supposed to have occupied the site of a palace of the princes of
Powis, was destroyed by the fall of the tower in 1788, and of the
ancient building the bishop's chancel alone remains. The new
church of St Chad was built on another site in 1792. Shrewsbury
is not fortunate in its ecclesiastical architecture of the late iSth
century. There are slight remains of a Franciscan Chouse (Grey
Friars) founded in 1291, of an Augustinian friary (1255) and of a
Dominican house (1222). The old buildings completed in 1630
for the grammar school of Edward VI., founded in 1551, are now
occupied by the county museum and free library, the school
having been removed in 1882 to new buildings in the suburb
of Kingsland S. of the river. It takes rank among the first
public schools in England. The ground it occupies in Kingsland
was formerly the scene of the Shrewsbury show, a pageant and
festival held during the festival of Trinity. Among the principal
secular buildings of the town are the fine market house in the
Elizabethan style (completed according to an inscription over the
northern arch in 1595), the shire hall and guildhall (rebuilt in
1837, and again, after a fire, in 1883), the general market and
corn exchange (1869), and the drapers' hall, a timbered structure
dating from the i6th century. The principal benevolent institu-
tions are the county infirmary (1747), Millington's hospital
(1734) and the eye, ear and throat hospital (1881). A monu-
ment to Lord Clive, who was member for the borough 1761-1764,
was erected in the market-place in 1860, and a Doric memorial
pillar to General Lord Hill in 1816 at the top of the Abbey Fore-
gate. The town race-course occupies a portion of the " Soldiers'
Piece," where Charles I. addressed his army in 1642. To the
south-west of the town is a park of 23 acres, known as the
Quarry, with beautiful avenues of lime-trees, descending to the
river. Glass-staining, the spinning of flax and linen yarn,
iron-founding, brewing, malting, the preparation of brawn and
the manufacture of the well-known Shrewsbury cakes are now
the principal industries. Shrewsbury is a suffragan bishopric
in the diocese of Lichfield, and the seat of a Roman Catholic
bishop. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
town is governed by a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area, 3525 acres.
Shrewsbury (Pengwerne, Scrobsbyryg, Salopesberie), then
known as Pengwerne or Pengwyrn, was the capital of the kings
of Powis during the 5th and 6th centuries, but was taken in 779
by Offa king of Mercia, who changed its name to Shrewsbury
(Scrobsbyryg). Owing to its position on the Welsh borders it
became one of the chief cities of the Saxon kings, and a mint
was established here in the reign of King ^)thelstan. After
the Conquest the town was included in the earldom of Shrews-
bury, and the Domesday Survey shows that the Saxon burgesses
SHRIKE SHRIMP
1019
paid the same danegeld as in the reign of Edward the Confessor.
Until Wales was annexed to England in the I3th century,
Shrewsbury was one of the chief border towns, and as such
it was besieged by Owen Gwynedd in 1067, but was relieved
by William the Conqueror. In the reign of Henry I. it was
garrisoned by Robert de Belesme, but surrendered to the king
in 1 102. It was several times burnt by the Welsh and was
taken and held by them from 1215 to 1221. During the Welsh
war in the reign of Edward I., the king made the town his head-
quarters, and in 1283 David, the last native prince of Wales,
was tried and condemned to death by a parliament held here.
In 1403 Henry Percy, son of the earl of Northumberland, was
defeated and killed at Shrewsbury by Henry IV. At the begin-
ning of the Civil War, Charles I. stayed in the town for some time,
but it surrendered to parliament in 1645. The first extant
charter, dated 1199, is a grant by Richard I. to the burgesses of
the town at a fee farm of 40 marks, but Henry II. is known to
have granted an earlier charter which was confirmed by King
John in 1200. The same king granted two other charters, one
in 1 200 giving the right of electing the reeves, and the other in
1 205 providing that their lands and tenements should be governed
by the " laws of Breteuil, the laws of the Barony and the laws
of the Englishry." Henry II. in 1227 granted a gild merchant
with a house. Besides these charters there are numerous con-
firmations before the incorporation charter of Elizabeth of
1586. Charles I. in 1638 altered the corporation to a mayor,
24 aldermen and 48 assistants. Ini684the burgesses surrendered
their charter to the king and received a new one in the following
year which, however, did not change the form of government.
From 1295 to 1885 Shrewsbury returned two members to parlia-
ment, but then the number was reduced to one.
See H. Owen and J. C. Blakeway, A History of Shrewsbury (1825);
Thomas Phillips, The History and Antiquities of Shrewsbury (1837) ;
Victoria County History, Shropshire.
SHRIKE, a bird's name, so given by Turner (1544), but solely
on the authority of Sir Francis Lovell, for Turner had seen the
bird but twice in England, though in Germany often, and could
not find anyone else who so called it. However, the word l
was caught up by succeeding writers; and, though hardly used
xcept in books for butcher-bird is its vernacular synonym
it not only retains its first position in literary English, but has
been largely extended so as to apply in general to all birds of the
family Laniidae and others besides. The name Lanius, in this
sense, originated with C. Gesner 2 (1555), who thought that the
birds to which he gave it had not been mentioned by the ancients.
C. J. Sundevall, however, considers that the Malacocraneus of
Aristotle was one of them, as indeed Turner had before suggested,
though repelling the latter's supposition that Aristotle's Tyrannus
was another, as well as P. Belon's reference of Collyrion.
The species designated shrike by Turner is the Lanius excubitor
of Linnaeus and nearly all succeeding authors, nowadays 3
commonly known as the greater butcher-bird, ash-coloured or
great grey shrike a bird which visits the British Islands pretty
regularly, though not numerously, in autumn or winter, occasion-
ally prolonging its stay into the next summer; but it has never
been ascertained to breed there, though often asserted to have
done so. This is the more remarkable since it breeds more or
less commonly on the continent from the north of France to
within the Arctic Circle. Exceeding a song-thrush in linear
measurements, it is a much less bulky bird, of a pearly grey
above with a well-defined black band passing from the forehead
to the ear-coverts; beneath it is nearly white, or and this is
1 Few birds enjoy such a wealth of local names as the shrikes.
M. Rolland (Faune pop. de la France, ii. 146-151) enumerates up-
wards of ninety applied to them in France and Savoy ; but not one
of these has any affinity to our word " shrike."
* He does not seem, however, to have known that butcher-bird
was an English name ; indeed it may not have been so at the time,
but subsequently introduced.
3 According to Willughby, Rae and Charleton, it was in their day
called in many parts of England " Wierangle " (Ger. Wurgengel and
Wurger, the strangler) ; but it is hard to see how a bird which few
people in England could know by sight should have a popular name,
though Chaucer had used it in his Assemblye of Foules.
particularly observable in Eastern examples barred with dusky
markings. The quill-feathers of the wings, and of the elongated
tail, are variegated with black and white, mostly the former,
though what there is of the latter shows very conspicuously,
especially at the base of the remiges, where it forms either a single
or a double patch. Much smaller than this is the red-backed
shrike, L. collurio, the best-known species in Great Britain, where
it is a summer visitor, and, though its distribution is rather local,
it may be seen in many parts of England and occasionally reaches
Scotland. The cock is a sightly bird with his grey head and neck,
black cheek-band, chestnut back and pale rosy breast, while the
hen is ordinarily of a dull brown, barred on the lower plumage.
A more highly coloured species is called the woodchat, L. auricu-
latus or rutilus, with a bright bay crown and nape, and the rest of
its plumage black, grey and white. This is an accidental visitor
to England, but breeds commonly throughout Europe. All
these birds, with many others included in the genus Lanius,
which there is no room here to specify, have, according to their
respective power, the very remarkable habit (whence they have
earned their opprobrious name) of catching insects, frogs, lizards
or small birds and mammals, and of spitting them on a thorn
or of fixing them in a forked branch, the more conveniently to
tear them in pieces and eat them.
The shrikes belong to the Passerine family Laniidae, the
limits of which are doubtful, but which is divided into five
sub-families: Gymnorhininae, Malaconotinae, Pachycephalinae,
Laniinae and Prionopinae. The Laniinae or true shrikes occur
in the Old and New Worlds, the other sub-families are limited
to the Old World. The shrikes and their immediate allies are
active and powerful birds, with stout bills often strongly hooked.
Their diet is chiefly insects and small frogs, lizards, birds and
mammals, but they also take seeds and fruits. The " greenlets "
of North and South America are active and fearless birds, similar
in general habits to the Laniidae and formerly regarded as
forming a sub-family of that group, but now placed in a separate
family the Vireonidae. (A. N.)
SHRIMP, a name applied in general to the smaller Crustacea
of the order Macrura and in particular to an edible species found
on the coasts of northern Europe (Crangon vulgaris). The
shrimps and their allies are distinguished from the larger Macrura,
such as the lobsters and crayfishes, by greater development of
the paddle-like limbs of the abdomen or tail, which are used
in swimming. The abdomen is usually sharply bent between
the third and fourth segments and has a characteristically
humped appearance when straightened out.
The common shrimp is found abundantly on the coasts of
the British Islands, in shallow water wherever the bottom is
sandy. It is 2 or 3 in. long, slightly flattened and with the
rostrum or beak, in front of the carapace, very short. It is of a
translucent greyish colour, speckled with brown and closely
resembles the sand in which it lives. On many parts of
the coast the shrimp fishery is of considerable importance.
The instrument generally employed is a bag-shaped net attached
to a semicircular hoop, provided with a long handle and pushed
over the surface of the sand by a fisherman wading in the water
at ebb-tide. When boiled, the body becomes of a brownish
colour and on this account the species is sometimes termed the
" brown shrimp." The name of " pink shrimp " is given to
Pandalus montagui or annulicornis, which turns red on boiling
and which resembles in form the larger " prawns," having a
long rostrum or beak, saw-edged above and below. The smaller
species of Leander, especially L. squilla, are sold as " cup-
shrimps " in some places.
The larger shrimp-like Crustacea are generally known as
" prawns," the name being especially applied in Britain to the
species Leander serratus, formerly called Palaemon serratus,
which is highly esteemed for the table. In warmer seas many
other kinds of prawns are caught for food. These are generally
species of the genus Penaeus (like P. caramote of the Mediter-
ranean) which are distinguished from all those already mentioned
by having pincers on the first three, instead of only on the first
two pairs of legs. The large river-prawns of the genus Palaemon
IO2O
SHRINE SHROPSHIRE
(closely allied to Leander) found in most tropical countries are
also often used as food. In the West Indies Palaemon jamaicen-
sis, and in the East Indies Pal. carcinus attain almost the
dimensions of full-grown lobsters.
The name of shrimps is sometimes given to members of the
order Schizopoda, which differ from most of the Macrura in
having swimming branches or exopodites on the thoracic legs.
In particular the Schizopods of the family Mysidae, which are
abundant in the sea round our coasts, are often called " Opossum-
shrimps " from the fact that the female is provided with a
ventral pouch or " marsupium " in which the eggs and young
are carried. (W. T. CA.)
SHRINE (Lat. scrinium, a case or chest for books, hence a
casket; from scribere, to write, Fr. Serin, Ital. scrigno), the
term given to the repository or chest to hold sacred relics.
Sometimes shrines are merely small boxes, generally with raised
tops like roofs; sometimes actual models of churches; some-
times large constructions like that at St Albans, that of Edward
the Confessor at Westminster, of Ste Genevieve at Paris, &c.
Many are covered with jewels in the richest way, such as the
example at St Taurin, at Evreux in Normandy, and that of
San Carlo Borromeo, at Milan, of beaten silver; the largest
series are those which were enriched with enamels. Sometimes
the term is given to the chapel in which the shrine is deposited.
SHROPSHIRE (SALOP), a western county of England on the
Welsh border, bounded N. by Cheshire and a detached portion
of Flint, E. by Staffordshire, S.E. by Worcestershire, S. by
Herefordshire, S.W. by Radnorshire, W. by Montgomeryshire
and N.W. by Denbighshire. The area is 1343 sq. m. The name
of Salop, in common use, comes from an early name of the county
town of Shrewsbury. Towards the west Shropshire partakes
of the hilly scenery of Wales, from which several ranges are
continued into it. South of the river Severn and partly in
Montgomeryshire, the Breidden Hills rise abruptly in three
peaks; and in the south-west there is a broad range of rough
rounded hills known as Clun Forest, extending from Radnor-
shire. South and west of the Severn there are four other princi-
pal chains of hills extending from S.W. to N.E. the Long Mynd
(1674 ft.), west of Church Stretton; the Carodoc Hills, a little
to the north, which are continued across the Severn and terminate
in the isolated sugarloaf hill of the Wrekin (1335 ft.); Wenlock
Edge, east of Church Stretton, a sharp ridge extending for 20 m.,
and at some points rising above 1000 ft.; and the Clee Hills
near the south-eastern border (Brown Clee, 1805 ft.; Titter-
stone Clee, 1749 ft.). The remainder of the county is for the
most part pleasantly undulating and well cultivated. It lies
almost entirely in the basin of the Severn, which enters from
Montgomeryshire and flows eastward to Shrewsbury, after
which it turns south-eastward to Ironbridge, and then continues
in a more southerly direction past Bridgnorth, entering Wor-
cester near Bewdley. The scenery on its banks is striking at
some places, as near the finely situated town of Bridgnorth,
but it is spoilt in one of the most beautiful stretches, that near
Coalbrookdale, by the great factories in the neighbourhood.
Its principal tributaries within Shropshire are: from the right
the Rea, the Cound and the Borle; from the left the Vyrnwy,
a well-known trout-stream forming part of the boundary with
Montgomeryshire, the Perry, the Tern, which receives the
Roden, and the Worf. The Dee and its tributary the Ceiriog
touch the north-western boundary of the county with Denbigh-
shire. In the south the Teme, which receives the Clun, the
Onny and the Corve, flows near the borders of Herefordshire,
which it occasionally touches and intersects. Salmon are taken
in the Severn, and the Teme with its tributaries are frequented
for trout and grayling fishing. There is a cluster of picturesque
meres or small lakes in the north-west near the borders of
Denbighshire, of which the largest is Ellesmere, and there are
a number of others in various parts of the county.
Geolop. The Pre-Cambrian rocks of Shropshire include the
granitoid and gneissic rocks of the Ercall and Primrose Hill (Wrekin),
the schists of Rushton, the lavas and ashes of the Wrekin, Caer
Caradoc and Pontesford, and the purple slates, grits and con-
glomerates of the Longmynd. The Wrekin Quartzite, Comley
Sandstone and Shineton Shales are the local representatives of the
Cambrian system. These are followed by the Ordovician formations
which occupy three areas: the Breidden Hills, the Shelve district
and the Caer Caradoc district, and include strata referable to the
Arenig, Llandeilo and Bala series ; the rocks are fossiliferous shales,
grits and volcanic ashes, with dolerite intrusions. The Silurian
rocks which follow unconformably are represented in the Long
Mountain and Clun Forest regions by sandstones and shales, and
along Wenlock Edge by highly fossiliferous mudstones and lime-
stones; they include the Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow series,
and the limestones are famed for their rich marine fauna. The
Old Red Sandstone, a great series of red marls, sandstones and thin
impure limestones (cornstones), conformably succeeds the Silurian
rocks, and occupies the south-eastern area (whence it extends into
Herefordshire); it also makes extensive out-liers at Clun and
Bettws-y-Crwyn ; the rocks have yielded fish and Crustacea. The
highest beds are conglomeratic and are seen only round the Titter-
stone Clee Hill. The Carboniferous Limestone and Millstone Grit
of the Denbighshire coalfield enter the county near Oswestry ; they
appear also at Lilleshall and Coalbrookdale on the western border of
the Coalbrookdale coalfield, and underlie the little coalfield of the
Titterstone Clee Hill. The Coal Measures with their coal-seams and
bands of ironstone are present at Oswestry (extending south from
Denbighshire) and form also the coalfields of Shrewsbury, Leebot-
wood, Coalbrookdale, Wyre Forest and the Clee Hills. In the last
two districts basalt (dhustone) has been intruded into the Measures,
and at Clee Hill is extensively quarried for roadstone and paving-
cubes. The so-called Permian rocks (red sandstones and marls)
are now grouped with the Coal Measures. The succeeding Triassic
rocks red sandstones, marls and conglomerates (Bunter and
Keuper) occupy the north-eastern part of the county, and are
capped near Market Drayton by Rhaetic and Lias. Glacial deposits
boulder-clay, gravel and sand, often shell-bearing overspread
much of the Triassic plain in the north and east of the county; they
were laid down by ice-sheets which moved in from the Irish Sea
and from the Aran and Arenig mountains in Merioneth. Some
peat-bogs in the drift-covered regions appear to occupy the sites of
lakes. Coal and ironstone, silver-lead and zinc from the Ordovician
rocks of Shelve, with limestone, building-stone and roadstone, are
the chief mineral products.
Industries. More than four-fifths of the total area is under
cultivation. The principal grain crops are barley and oats, the
acreage under each of which is nearly double that under wheat.
Some five-eighths of the total acreage cultivated is in permanent
pasture, and there are besides considerable tracts of hill pasture.
Turnips and swedes form the bulk of the green crops, as cattle art-
largely kept for the dairy. The cattle are chiefly Herefords and the
sheep Shropshires. Cheshire cheese is made in the northern districts.
A small acreage is under hops.
Apart from agriculture there are several important branches of
industry. Coalbrookdale and the neighbourhood is the principal
coal-mining centre, and was an early home of the ironfounding
trade, under ^he famous family of Darby, and this industry is pro-
secuted here and at Ironbridge, Shifnal and elsewhere. There are
also considerable manufactures of machinery, tools and agricultural
implements, as at Ludlow, Oswestry, Shrewsbury and Wellington.
There are great encaustic tile and brick works in the Broseley
district, where also is an old-established manufacture of tobacco-
pipes; while at Coalport there are china works. Some woollen
goods are made. In the Minsterley and Stiperstones district
in the west, lead and barytes are obtained.
Communications. The railways, for which Shrewsbury is the most
important centre, belong mainly to the Great Western and London
& North-Western companies. Of the first the main route to the
north-west runs from Wolverhampton by Wellington, Shrewsbury
and Gobowen to Chester, with a branch from Wellington to Crewe.
Another line comes from Worcester and Bewdley, following the
Severn valley by Bridgnorth and Ironbridge to Shrewsbury, with
several branches through the Coalbrookdale and Wenlock districts.
The two companies jointly work the line from Stafford by Newport,
Wellington and Shrewsbury to Welshpool, and the Crewe-Hereford
line by Whitchurch, Shrewsbury and Craven Arms. From Craven
Arms a branch of the North-Western system runs into South Wales
and the short Bishops Castle railway serves that town. The Cam-
brian line starts from Whitchurch and runs by Oswestry into Wales.
The chief canals are the Shropshire Union, Shrewsbury and Elles-
mere in the northern part of the county. The Severn is to some
extent used for navigation up to Shrewsbury.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 859,516 acres, with a population in 1891 of 236,339,
and in 1901 of 239,324. The area of the administrative county
is 861,802 acres. The county contains 14 hundreds. The
municipal boroughs are Bishops Castle (pop. 1378), Bridgnorth
(6052), Ludlow (4552), Oswestry (9579), Shrewsbury (28,395),
Wenlock (15,866). The urban districts are Church Stretton
(816), Dawley (7522), Ellesmere (1954), Newport (3241), Oaken-
gates (10,906), a mining town, Wellington (6283), Wem (2149),
SHROPSHIRE
IO2I
Whitchurch (5221). The more important towns not mentioned
above are Broseley, Coalbrookdale, Madeley (this parish including
Ironbridge and Coalport) andMuch Wenlock, which are embraced
wholly or in part by the borough of Wenlock; Market Dray ton
(5167) and Shifnal (3321). Lesser towns are Clun (1915) which
gives name to Clun Forest, and Cleobury Mortimer (1810) in
the south. The county is in the Oxford circuit, and assizes
are held at Shrewsbury. It has one court of quarter sessions,
and is divided into 18 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs
of Bridgnorth, Ludlow, Oswestry, Shrewsbury and Wenlock
have separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter
sessions. There are 267 civil parishes. Shrewsbury is divided
between the dioceses of Lichfield and Hereford, with a small
part in the diocese of St Asaph, and contains 284 ecclesiastical
parishes or districts, wholly or in part. There are four parlia-
mentary divisions Mid or Wellington, North or Newport,
South or Ludlow, and West or Oswestry, each returning one
member, while Shrewsbury returns one member.
History. The district which is now Shropshire was annexed
to the kingdom of Mercia by Offa, who in 765 constructed
Watt's Dike to defend his territory against the Welsh, and in
779, having pushed across the Severn, drove the king of Powys
from Shrewsbury, then known as Pengwerne, and secured his
conquests by a second defensive earthwork known as Offa's
Dike, which, entering Shropshire at Knighton, traverses moor
and mountain by Llanymynech and Oswestry, in many places
forming the boundary line of the county, and finally leaves it
at Bron y Garth and enters Denbighshire. In the gth and loth
centuries the district was frequently overrun by the Danes,
who in 874 destroyed the famous priory of Wenlock, said to
have been founded by St Milburg, granddaughter of Penda of
Mercia, and in 896 wintered at Quatford. In 912 ^thelflead, the
lady of Mercia, erected a fortress at Bridgnorth against the
Danish invaders, and in the next year at Chirbury. Mercia
was mapped out into shires in the loth century after its recovery
from the Danes by Edward the Elder, and Shropshire stands
out as the sole Mercian shire which did not derive its name from
its chief town. The first mention of it in the Saxon Chronicle
occurs under 1006, when the king crossed the Thames and
wintered there. In 1016 Edmund ^theling plundered Shrews-
bury and the neighbourhood.
After the Conquest the principal estates in Shropshire were
all bestowed on Norman proprietors, pre-eminent among whom is
Roger de Montgomery, the ist earl of Shrewsbury, whose son
Robert de Belesme forfeited his possessions for rebelling against
Henry I., when the latter bestowed the earldom on his queen
for life. At this period a very large portion of Shropshire was
covered by its vast forests, the largest of which, Worf Forest,
at its origin extended at least 8 m. in length and 6 m. in width,
and became a favourite hunting-ground of the English kings.
The forest of Wrekin, or Mount Gilbert as it was then called,
covered the whole of that hill and extended eastward as far as
Sheriff Hales. Other forests were Stiperstones, the jurisdiction
of which was from time immemorial annexed to the barony of
Caus, Wyre, Shirlot, Clee, Long Forest and Brewood. The
constant necessity of defending their territories against the
Welsh prompted the Norman lords of Shropshire to such activity
in castle-building that out of 186 castles in England no less than
32 are in this county. Of these the most famous are Ludlow,
founded by Roger de Montgomery; Bishop's Castle, which
belonged to the bishops of Hereford; Clun Castle, built by
the Fitz- Alans; Cleobury Castle, built by Hugh de Mortimer;
Caus Castle, once the barony of Peter Corbett, from whom it
came to the Barons Strafford; Rowton Castle, also a seat of the
Corbetts; Red Castle, a seat of the Audleys. Other castles
were Bridgnorth, Corfham, Holgate, Pulverbatch, Quatford,
Shrewsbury and Wem.
Among the Norman religious foundations were the Cluniac
Priory at Wenlock, re-established on the Saxon foundation by
Roger Montgomery in 1080; the Augustinian abbey of Haugh-
mond founded by William Fitz- Alan; the Cistercian abbey of
Buildwas, now a magnificent ruin, founded in 1135 by Roger,
bishop of Chester; Shrewsbury Abbey, founded in 1083 by
Roger de Montgomery; the Augustinian abbey of Lilleshall,
founded in the reign of Stephen; the Augustinian priory of
Wombridge, founded before the reign of Henry I.; the Bene-
dictine priory of Alberbury founded by Fulk Fitz-Warin in the
i3th century; and Chirbury Priory founded in the i3th century.
The fifteen Shropshire hundreds mentioned in the Domesday
Survey were entirely rearranged in the reign of Henry I., and
only Overs and Condover retained their original names. The
Domesday hundred of Ruesset was replaced by Ford, and the
hundred court transferred from Alberbury to Ford. Hodnet
was the meeting-place of the Domesday hundred of Odenet,
which was combined with Recordin, the largest of the Domesday
hundreds, to form the modern hundred of Bradford, the latter
also including part of the Domesday hundred of Pinholle in
Staffordshire. The hundred of Baschurch had its meeting-place
at Baschurch in the time of Edward the Confessor; in the
reign of Henry I. it was represented mainly by the hundred
of Pimhill, the meeting-place of which was at Pimhill. Oswestry
represents the Domesday hundred of Mercete, the hundred
court of which was transferred from Maesbury to Oswestry.
Munslow hundred was formed in the reign of Henry I., but in
the reign of Richard I. a large portion was taken out of it to
form a new liberty for the priory of Wenlock, the limits of which
correspond very nearly with the modern franchise of Wenlock.
The Domesday hundred of Alnodestreu, abolished in the reign
of Henry I., had its meeting-place at Membrefeld (Morville).
The hundreds at the present day number fourteen.
Shropshire was administered by a sheriff, at least from the
time of the Conquest, the first Norman sheriff being Warin the
Bald, whose successor was Rainald, and in 1156 the office was
held by William Fitz-Alan, whose account of the fee-farm of
the county is entered in the pipe roll for that year. The shire
court was held at Shrewsbury. A considerable portion of
Shropshire was included in the Welsh marches, the court for the
administration of which was held at Ludlow. In 1397 the castle
of Oswestry with the hundred and eleven towns pertaining
thereto, the castle of Isabel with the lordship pertaining thereto,
and the castle of Dalaley, were annexed to the principality
of Chester. By the statute of 1535 for the abolition of the
marches, the lordships of Oswestry, Whittington, Masbroke and
Knockin were formed into the hundred of Oswestry; the
lordship of Ellesmere was joined to the hundred of Pimhill;
and the lordship of Down to the hundred of Chirbury. The
boundaries of Shropshire have otherwise varied but slightly
since the Domesday Survey. Richard's Castle, Ludford, and
Ludlow, however, were then included in the Herefordshire
hundred of Cutestornes, while several manors now in Hereford-
shire were assessed under Shropshire. The Shropshire manors
of Kings Nordley, Aveley, Claverley and Worfield were assessed
in the Domesday hundred of Saisdon in Staffordshire; and
Quatt, Romsley, Rudge and Shipley in the Warwickshire
hundred of Stanlei. By statute 34 and 35 Henry VIII. the town
and hundred of Aberton, till then part of Merionethshire, were
annexed to this county.
Shropshire in the i3th century was situated almost entirely
in the dioceses of Hereford and of Coventry and Lichfield ;
and formed an archdeaconry called the archdeaconry of Salop.
That portion of the archdeaconry in the Hereford diocese
included the deaneries of Burford, Stottesdon, Ludlow, Pontes-
bury, Clun and Wenlock; and that portion in the Coventry and
Lichfield diocese the deaneries of Salop and Newport. In 1535
the Hereford portion included the additional deanery of Bridg-
north; it now forms the archdeaconry of Ludlow, with the
additional deaneries of Montgomery, Bishops Castle and Church
Stretton. The archdeaconry of Salop, now entirely in the
Hereford diocese, includes the deaneries of Condover, Edgmond,
Ellesmere, Hodnet, Shifnal, Shrewsbury, Wem, Whitchurch
and Wrockwardin. Part of Welsh Shropshire is included in
the diocese of St Asaph, .comprising the deanery of Oswestry
in the archdeaconry of Montgomery, and two parishes in the
deanery of Llangollen and the archdeaconry of Mexham.
IO22
SHROUD
The early political history of Shropshire is largely concerned
with the constant incursions and depredations of the Welsh
from across the border. The Saxon Chronicle relates that in
1053 the Welshmen slew a great many of the English wardens at
Westbury, and in that year Harold ordered that any Welshman
found beyond Offa's Dike within the English pale should have
his right hand cut off. Various statutory measures to keep the
Welsh in check were enforced in the i4th and ijth centuries.
In 1379 Welshmen were forbidden to purchase land in the county
save on certain conditions, and this enactment was reinforced
in 1400. In 1379 the men of Shropshire forwarded to parliament
a complaint of the felonies committed by the men of Cheshire
and of the Welsh marches, and declared the gaol of Shrewsbury
Castle to be in such a ruinous condition that they had no place
of imprisonment for the offenders when captured. In 1442 and
again as late as 1535 acts were passed for the protection of
Shropshire against the Welsh. But apart from the border
warfare in which they were constantly engaged, the great
Shropshire lords were actively concerned in the more national
struggles. Shrewsbury Castle was garrisoned for the empress
Maud by William Fitz-Alan in 1138, but was captured by
Stephen in the same year. Holgate Castle was taken by King
John from Thomas Mauduit, one of the rebellious barons.
Ludlow and Shrewsbury were both held for a time by Simon
de Montfort. At Acton Burnell in 1 283 was held the parliament
which passed the famous Acton Burnell statute, and a parliament
was summoned to meet at Shrewsbury in 1398. During the
Percy rebellion Shrewsbury was in 1403 the scene of the battle
of King's Croft, in which Hotspur was slain. On the outbreak of
the Civil War of the i;th century the Shropshire gentry for the
most part declared for the king, who visited Shrewsbury in
1642 and received valuable contributions in plate and money
from the inhabitants. A mint and printing-press were set up
at Shrewsbury, which became a refuge for the neighbouring
royalist gentry. Wem, the first place to declare for the parlia-
ment, was garrisoned in 1645 by Richard Baxter. Shrewsbury
was forced to surrender in 1644, and the royalist strongholds of
Ludlow and Bridgnorth were captured in 1646., the latter after
a four weeks' siege, during which the governor burnt part of
the town for defence against the parliamentary troops.
Shropshire is noted for the number and lustre of the great
families connected with it. Earl Godwin, Sweyn, Harold,
Queen Edith, Edward the Confessor and Edwin and Morcar are
all mentioned in the Domesday Survey as having held lands
in the county before the Conquest. The principal landholders at
the time of the survey were the bishop of Chester, the bishop
of Hereford, the church of St Remigius, Earl Roger, Osbern
Fitz-Richard, Ralph de Mortimer, Roger de Laci, Hugh Lasne
and Nicholas Medicus. Earl Roger had the whole profits of
Condover hundred and also owned Alnodestreu hundred. The
family of Fitz-Alan, ancestors of the royal family of Stuart,
had supreme jurisdiction in Oswestry hundred, which was
exempt from English law. Richard Fitz-Scrob, father of Osbern
Fitz-Richard and founder cf Richard's Castle, was lord of the
hundred of Overs at the time of the Conquest. Gatacre was
the seat of the Gatacres. The barony of Pulverbatch passed
from the Pulverbatches, and was purchased in 1193 by John
de Kilpeck for 100. The family of Cornwall were barons of
Burford and of Harley for many centuries. The family of
Lestrange owned large estates in Shropshire after the Conquest,
and Fulk Lestrange claimed the right of holding pleas of the
crown in Wrockworthyn in 1292. Among others claiming
rights of jurisdiction in their Shropshire states in the same year
were Edmund de Mortimer, the abbot of Cumbermere, the prior
of Lanthony, the prior of Great Malvern, the bishop of Lichfield,
Peter Corbett, Nicholas of Audley, the abbot of Lilleshall, John
of Mortayn, Richard Fitz-Alan, the bishop of Hereford and the
prior of Wenlock.
The earliest industries of Shropshire took their rise from its
abundant natural resources; the rivers supplying valuable fisheries;
the vast forest areas abundance of timber; while the mineral pro-
ducts of the county had been exploited from remote times. The
lead mines of Shelve and Stiperstones were worked by the Romans,
and in 1220 Robert Corbett conferred on Shrewsbury Abbey a tithe
of his lead from the mine at Shelve. In 1260 licence was granted to
dig coal in the Clee Hills, and in 1291 the abbot of Wigmore received
the profits of a coal-mine at Caynham. Iron was dug in the Clei-
Hills and at Wombridge in the i6th century. Wenlock had a famous
copper-mine in the reign of Richard II., and in the l6th century was
noted for its limestone. The Domesday Survey mentions salt-works
at Ditton Priors, Caynham and Donnington. As the forest areas
were gradually cleared and brought under cultivation, the county
became more exclusively agricultural. In 1343 Shropshire wool
was rated at a higher value than that of almost any other English
county, and in the I3th and I4th centuries Buildwas monastery
exported wool to the Italian markets. Shropshire has never been
distinguished for any characteristic manufactures, but a prosperous
clothing trade arose about Shrewsbury and Bridgnorth, and Oswestry
was lamous in the l6th century for its fine Welsh cottons.
Antiquities The ecclesiastical ruins and buildings of Shropshire
are numerous and beautiful. Among the numerous monastic
buildings the finest remains are those of Shrewsbury Abbey, Lilleshall
near Newport, White Ladies nunnery near Shifnal, Much Wenlock
priory and Bromfield priory near Ludlow (see the towns named).
Besides these, Haughmond, 5 m. N.E. of Shrewsbury, an Augustinian
foundation of the 1 2th century, has left extensive remains including
a chapter-house, hall, monks' well and other domestic buildings.
Of Buildwas Abbey, on the Severn above Coalbrobkdale, a Cistercian
foundation of 1135, there are fine Norman and Early English remains
of the church and chapter-house, together with the abbot's house
and a series of passages below ground. Among the churches of the
larger towns, those of Bridgnorth and Ludlow are conspicuous.
Among village churches, those of Stottesdon and Stanton Lacy in
the south of the county, show considerable traces of pre-Conquest
construction. Of Norman date those of Wroxeter, in which frag-
ments from Uriconium are incorporated, Claverley E. of Bridgnorth,
Holdgate or Holgate in Corvedate and Clun, are good examples, but
there is a remarkable number of Norman doors and fonts throughout
the county. The church of Cleobury Mortimeris good Early English,
and that of Tong near Shifnal fine Perpendicular with a splendid
series of tombs, while the churchyard cross at Bitterley, near Titter-
stone Clee, is a beautiful specimen of the work of the same period.
The solitary church of Battlefield, N. of Shrewsbury, marks the
scene of the_fight between Henry IV. and the Percies in 1403.
The remains of castles are generally slight, but the noble ruins at
Ludlow are a noteworthy exception. The powerful fortress of Clun
and the castle at Holdgate are Norman. Of the I3th century are
those at Hopton near Clun and Acton Burnell, S.E. of Shrewsbury,
where Edward I. held parliament in 1283. Middle Castle between
Shrewsbury and Wem shows small ruins of the I4th century. At
Moreton Corbet on the Roden, N.E. of Shrewsbury, there is an old
castellated mansion, but by far the finest example of this type in
the county, and one of the best in England, is Stokesay Castle near
Craven Arms. This beautiful relic dates from the I3th century, and
is almost perfect, having a large hall and massive southern tower,
and a remarkable half-timbered gatehouse. Shropshire is also rich
in medieval domestic buildings, and in the streets of Ludlow and
Shrewsbury are many beautiful examples of half-timbered archi-
tecture. Amonjj old country mansions may be specially noted the
half-timbered Pitchford Hall, near Shrewsbury and Benthall Hall,
near Broseley, dating from 1535.
See Victoria County History, Shropshire; W. Pearson, Antiquities
of Shropshire (London, 1807); R. W. Eyton, Antiquities of Shrop-
shire (12 vols., London, 1853-1860); J. C. Anderson, Shropshire:
Its Early History and Antiquities (London, 1864) ; C. H. Hartshorne,
Salopia Antiqua (London, 1841); Walcott, Introduction to Sources
of Salopian Topography (Shrewsbury, 1879); La Touche, Handbook
to the Geology of Shropshire (1886); Borderer, Hunting and Sporting
Notes in Shropshire (London, 1885-1886); Hughes, Sheriffs of
Shropshire, 1831-1886 (Shrewsbury, 1886); Waiter, An Old Shrop-
shire Oak (4 vols., London, 1886-1891); Fletcher, Religious Census
of Shropshire in 1676 (London, 1891); Cranage, Architectural
Account of the Churches of Shropshire (Wellington, 1894-1899);
Timmins, Nooks and Corners of Shropshire (London, 1899); Shrop-
shire Notes and Queries (1885, &c.) ; Shropshire Archaeological and
Natural History Society (1877, &c.); Salopian Shreds and Patches
(1874-1891).
SHROUD (O. Eng. scrud, garment; cf. Icel. skrudh, in the
secondary sense of rigging, allied with " shred," O. Eng. screade,
a piece, strip), originally a word meaning garment, clothing
or covering, but now particularly applied to the garment in
which a dead body is wrapped preparatory to burial, a winding
sheet. The shroud is usually a long linen sheet wrapping the
entire body. This was formerly dipped in melted wax (Lat.
cera), whence the name " cerecloth," often wrongly writtep
serecloth or searcloth and " cerements." In nautical usage tht
Icelandic meaning of skrudh, tackle, rigging of a ship, has been
adopted in English; the "shrouds" of a ship are the set of
SHROVE TUESDAY SHUSHTER
1023
ropes which stretch from the heads of a ship's masts to the
sides as supports (see RIGGING).
SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash Wednesday, the
first day of Lent, so called as the day on which " shrift " or
confession was made in preparation for the great fast. Skeat
(Etym. Diet.) derives the word " shrive," of which " shrove "
is the past tense, ultimately from the Lat. scribere, to write,
to draw up a law, and hence to prescribe (cf. Ger. schreiberi),
through the Anglo-Saxon scrifan, to shrive, impose a penance,
to judge. Shrove Tuesday is called the French Mardi gras,
" Fat Tuesday," in allusion to the fat ox which is ceremoniously
paraded through the streets. The Germans know it as Fasten-
dienstag. It is celebrated in Catholic countries, as the last day
of the carnival, with feasting and merrymaking, of which, in
England, the eating of pancakes alone survives as a social
custom, the day having been called at one time " Pancake
Tuesday." The association of pancakes with the day was
probably due to the necessity for using up all the eggs, grease,
lard and dripping in stock preparatory to Lent, during which
all these were forbidden.
SHRUB, (i) A bushy plant whose stem is woody and
branches out tHickly from the ground, not attaining sufficient
height to be called a tree; this smallness of vertical growth
is natural or is effected by cutting and lopping at an early stage
or at stated seasons. The term is loose in application and the
line between shrubs, trees and certain woody herbaceous plants
is not easy to draw. The holly, the yew, the laurel, if allowed
to grow from a single stem, become trees, other plants such as
rhododendron, syringa, the euonymous are properly shrubs.
The word is the same as "scrub," low, stunted undergrowth,
in O. Eng. scrob] the root, which is also seen in "shrimp" and
" shrivel," means to contract. Many English place-names
contain the word, the most familiar being Shrewsbury (Scrob-
besbyrig) and Wormwood Scrubs. (2) The name of a drink
or cordial, now rarely found except in country districts. It
is made of currant juice boiled with water and sugar to which
some spirit, usually rum, is added. Another form of the drink
is made of rum, orange and lemon juice, peel, sugar and water.
The word is an adaptation of the Arabic sharb or sharab, beverage,
drink, shariba, he drank, and is thus directly related to " sher-
bet " and " syrup " (q.v.).
SHUFFLE-BOARD, or SHOVEL-BOARD (originally "shove-
board "), a game in which wood or metal disks are " shoved "
by the hand or with an implement so that they shall come to a
stop on or within certain lines or compartments marked on the
" board " a table or a floor. It was formerly very popular
in England, especially with the aristocracy, under the names
shove-groat, slide-groat and shovel-penny, being mentioned as
early as the isth century. It was a favourite pastime at the
great country houses, some of the boards having been of ex-
quisite workmanship. That at Chartley Hall in Staffordshire
was over 30 ft. long and was made up of 260 pieces. Shuffle-
board enjoys considerable vogue in the United States, the board
being from 28 to 30 ft. long and from 18 to 20 in. wide, of pine,
poplar or white wood, with a gutter 4.5 in. wide extending entirely
round the board. The surface is slightly sanded and sometimes
oiled. About 5 in. from each end of the board is drawn a line
called the deuce line. Each side, whether composed of two or
four persons, used four disks of polished brass or iron, generally
about 2 in. in diameter and % in. thick. When two persons play
they shove first from one end of the board and then from the
other; but when four play one of each side remains permanently
at each end. The disks, four of which are marked A and four
B, are shoved alternately by each side. A disk resting between
the deuce line and the end of the board is in and scores two.
One protruding over the end sufficiently to be lifted by the
finger is called a ship and counts three. A disk resting on the
board but not crossing the line counts one. In scoring only the
best of the eight disks counts, unless one side has two that are
better than any of their opponents', in which case both count.
The side first scoring 21 points wins.
A variety of shuffle-board is very popular as a deck game on
board steamers and yachts. It is played by pushing wooden
disks by means of crutch-shaped cues, or shovels, into which the
disks fit, so that they come to a stop within the lines of a large
rectangle drawn with chalk on the deck and divided into squares
numbered from i to 10 with an extra square nearest the player,
numbered -10. The game is usually 21 points.
SHUKRIA, a large tribe of African nomads living in the
" Island of Meroe," i.e. the country between the Atbara and
the Blue Nile. The family name of the principal branch of this
tribe is Abu Sin, and Gedaref, an important town in the centre
of the Shukria country, was formerly called Suk Abu Sin.
SHUMLA (Bulgarian Shumen, Turkish Shumna), a fortified
town of Bulgaria, 50 m. W. of Varna, on the railway from
Trnovo to Shumla Road (a name given to a station on the
Varna-Rustchuk railway by the English builders of the line).
Pop. (1906) 22,290, about one-third being Moslems. The town
is built within a cluster of hills, northern outliers of the eastern
Balkans, which curve round it on the west and north in the
shape of a horse-shoe. A rugged ravine intersects the ground
longitudinally within the horse-shoe ridge. From Shumla roads
radiate northwards to the Danubian fortresses of Rustchuk and
Silistria and to the Dobrudja, southwards to the passes of the
Balkans, and eastwards to Varna and Baltchik. Shumla has,
therefore, been one of the most important military positions
in the Balkan Peninsula. A broad street and rivulet divide the
upper quarter, Gorni-Mahle, from the lower, Dolni-Mahle. In
the upper quarter is the magnificent mausoleum of Jezairli Hassan
Pasha, who in the i8th century enlarged the fortifications of
Shumla. The principal mosque, with a cupola of very interest-
ing architecture, forms the centre of the Moslem quarter. The
town has an important trade in grain and wine, besides manu-
factures of silk, red and yellow slippers, ready-made clothes,
richly embroidered dresses for women, and copper and tin wares.
In 811 Shumla was burned by the emperor Nicephorus, and
in 1087 it was besieged by Alexius I. In 1388 the sultan Murad I.
forced it to surrender to the Turks. In the i8th century it was
enlarged and fortified. Three times, in 1774, 1810 and 1828,
it was unsuccessfully attacked by Russian armies. The Turks
consequently gave it the name of Gazi (" Victorious "). In 1854
it was the headquarters of Omar Pasha and the point at which
the Turkish army concentrated (see CRIMEAN WAR). On the
22nd of June 1878 Shumla capitulated to the Russians.
SHUSH A, a town, formerly a fortress, of Russian Transcaucasia ,
in the government of Elisavetpol, in 39 46' N. and 46 25' E.,
170 m. S.E. of Tiflis, on an isolated rocky eminence, 3865 ft.
above sea-level and accessible only from one side. Pop. about
25,000, consisting of Armenians and Tatars. Shusha was formerly
the capital of the khanate of Kara-bagh. The town is locally
renowned for its carpets, and the district for its excellent breed
of Kara-bagh horses. Leather and silk are also made.
The fortress, constructed in 1789, successfully withstood a
siege by Aga Mahommed of Persia in 1795, but was constrained
to surrender two years afterwards. In 1805 Ibrahim Khan of
Kara-bagh invoked the protection of Russia, but the annexation
was not completed until 1822.
SHUSHTER, a district and town of the province of Arabistan
(former Khuzistan) in Persia, S. of Dizful, and N. of Ahvaz.
The district contains the town of the same name and 22 villages,
and, including about 3700 nomad families of the Kunduzlu, Saad,
Anafijeh and Al i Kethir tribes, has a population of about 40,000
and pays a yearly revenue of 6000. The district produces grain,
opium, cotton, wool, limes (their juice, made into green extract,
is exported in little earthenware jars), and manufactures gilims
(woollen carpets without pile).
The town of SHUSHTER, with a population of 1 5,000, is situated
at the point where the river Karun, after breaking through the
Fedelek hills, bifurcates into the Gerger canal, flowing E., and
the Shutait river flowing W. of it, in 32 3' N. and 48 53' E.,
and built on slightly elevated ground which rises gradually from
the south-west to the citadel, Kalah Salasil, 1 standing in the
1 Considered to represent the Sele of Ammianus Marcellinus
(xxiii. c. 6, 26), a city in Susiana, and of Ptolemy (Tab. v. ).
1024
SH UTER SH UTTLE
north-eastern corner on a sandstone hill ending with a precipice
about 80 ft. in height towards the river on the north. The ground
covered by the citadel measures nearly 350 by 150 yds., and the
town occupies a space of a square mile.
At the point of the divergence of the Gerger from the Karun,
600 yds. above the town, an artificial dike constructed of large
blocks of hewn stone is thrown across the opening of the former.
It was known as the Band i Kaisar (the Caesar's Dike), but after
having been repaired by Mahommed Ah' Mirza, a son of Fath Ali
Shah, in the early part of the ipth century, it was called Band i
Shahzadeh, or Prince's Dike. A little distance below this dike
begins the artificial cutting in the sandstone rock and at half a
mile from it is a second band, 60 yds. long, 65 ft. high, which
completely blocks the progress of the stream. It has a roadway
on the top, and, as it connected the town with the village Bulaiti
(now deserted) on the other side, was called Pul i Bulaiti, i.e.
Bridge of Bulaiti. At a short distance above it some tunnels
have been pierced in the rock below the canal level on either side
of the Gerger. From the point where the principal river parts
with the Gerger down to a point 500 yds. below the citadel the
river bed was paved with great flags of stone, the pavement
being called Shadurvan. At the end of the pavement stand the
band and bridge ascribed to the Roman emperor Valerian. The
band is called Band i Mizan, the bridge Pul i Kaisar. The bridge
has been built and rebuilt several times and its forty-one arches
differ in material, style and size. Its length is 560 yds., and its
roadway is 7 yds. wide. Seventy yards of band and bridge were
swept away in 1885. Between the bridge and the Gerger opening
and cut into the rock on which the western part of the citadel
stands is a tunnel leading to a canal formerly called Darian, now
Minab, i.e. Mian-do-ab, " between two rivers," because it waters
the district south of the town lying between Gerger and Shutait.
With the break of the band in 1885 the level of the main river
has fallen and the Minab canal is not properly filled, causing much
damage to cultivation in the district.
Persian tradition has it .hat Ardashir (either Artaxerxes of
the old Persian kings or Ardashir of the Sassanians) built the first
dike across the river in order to raise the water of the river to
the level of the Darian canal. The dike became destroyed and
was renewed under the Sassanian Shapur I. by Roman workmen
sent for by Valerian who had been captured by the Persian king
in 260. That Valerian had a part in constructing these remark-
able works does not rest upon any historical basis; we may,
however, believe that the Sassanian Ardashir, or his son Shapur I,
finding that the river, having its bed in friable soil, was daily
getting lower and finally threatened to leave the town and the
Mian-do-ab district dry by not filling the Darian canal, engaged
Roman workmen. The Gerger canal was cut and the river
diverted from west to east of the town. The old river then
became emptied and its bed was raised and, to prevent further
erosion and washing away of the soil and a consequent fall of
the river, was paved with huge flags. Then the Band i Mizan
and the great bridge were erected across the river and finally a
dam was constructed across the Gerger canal, where is now the
Pul i Bulaiti, so as to turn back the Karun into its original
channel, buflater, by means of sluices and tunnels, the flow of
water was regulated in such a manner that two-sixths of the
water flowed east and four-sixths west of the town. This gave
rise to the later appellations Do-Dank and Chahar Dank. i.e.
two-sixths and four-sixths for the Gerger and Shutait re-
spectively. (A. H.-S.)
SHUTER, EDWARD (c. 1728-1776), English actor, was born
in London of poor parents. He made his first appearance on the
London stage in 1745 in Gibber's Schoolboy. He made a great
reputation in old men's parts. He was the original Hardcastle
in She Stoops to Conquer (1773), and Sir Anthony Absolute in
The Rivals (1775).
SHUTTLE (O. Eng. shitel, &c. ; from the same word as " shoot "),
a boat-shaped implement used in weaving to pass a thread of
weft to and fro between two lines of warp. The origin of this
implement is lost in the mists of a remote antiquity, and yet it
was long preceded by the loom. Several wall paintings at Thebes
depict looms that are apparently provided with a hooked rod
for drawing weft through the warp, but with such a device either
two weft threads would be simultaneously placed in one division
of the warp, or the selvages would be imperfect. Since neither
of these conditions obtain in the ancient Egyptian fabrics that
have been recovered, it may be concluded that some other plan
was also adopted. Netting needles have been found in Egyptian
tombs, and as these would be more suitable for weaving than a
hooked rod, it is conceivable they were so employed. Or a
spinning spindle charged with weft might be conveyed through
the ,'warp, as was customary, at a much later period, with
Greek, Roman and other weavers. So long as a shuttle was
thrown from hand to hand, the breadth of cloth which one
weaver could produce was limited to his ability to reach from
selvage to selvage of the piece. But from 1733, when John Kay
invented the " fly shuttle," these implements have been made
straight, and propelled mechanically, also, to secure light
running, they have been mounted upon rollers which project
slightly on the under side. Shuttles are now made in various
forms and sizes from box, and other hard-grained, smooth
woods, as well as from vulcanized fibre and metals. For silk
weaving by hand, they are approximately 12 in. long by i in.
square in section, and weigh about 3 oz.; those for calico
weaving by power, are about 125 in. long, ij in. wide, ij in.
deep, and weigh about 95 oz. ; they are also provided with
conical steel tips which abut upon short coiled springs let into the
shuttle. The construction, fixing and control of shuttle tongues
that hold the weft, together with numerous devices for putting
the thread under an elastic tension, have formed the subjects for
many patents. The tongues intended to hold cops are split to
form a spring whose strength suffices to fix the cop in position
while the thread is drawn from the outer end through a porcelain
eye in the shuttle front, the tension being regulated by deflection.
The small shuttles employed to weave ribbons, and other
narrow goods, are bowed in front, recessed to hold a spool of
weft, and have an eye fixed at the centre of the bow for the
thread to pass through as it unrolls. These shuttles are formed
into sets, which correspond with the number of fabrics to be
manufactured simultaneously and may be placed on one level,
or in tiers; in either event, all in one horizontal plane are moved
to and fro together across different webs, by means of racks and
pinions; for a rack is inserted lengthwise in each shuttle, and
by engaging the racks with intermittently driven pinions, the
shuttles receive their requisite movements.
For further information regarding weaving and looms, see WEAV-
ING and WEAVING MACHINERY. (T. W. F.)
END OF TWENTY-FOURTH VOLUME
Printed by R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY, Chicago
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LIBRARY
ST. PAUL
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